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= Hi @-@ Level =
The Hi @-@ Level is a type of bilevel intercity railroad passenger car built by the Budd Company for the Atchison , Topeka and Santa Fe Railway ( " Santa Fe " ) in the 1950s and 1960s . The first two coaches entered service on the El Capitan in 1954 and found immediate success . Budd built sufficient coaches , dining cars , and lounge cars to fully reequip the El Capitan , with additional coaches seeing use on the San Francisco Chief . Amtrak inherited the entire fleet in 1971 and continued to use the equipment on its western routes . In 1979 , the first Superliners , based on the Hi @-@ Level concept , although built by Pullman @-@ Standard , began entering service . As of 2013 Amtrak continues to operate five Hi @-@ Level lounges , which it calls the " Pacific Parlour Cars " , on the Coast Starlight .
= = Background = =
The Santa Fe introduced the El Capitan in 1938 . The train ran on the Santa Fe 's main line between Chicago and Los Angeles . Unusually for streamliners of the period , the El Capitan carried coaches only , and had no sleeping cars . Passengers flocked to the new train , and the Santa Fe added cars to meet the demand . The train grew from five cars in 1938 to fourteen in 1952 . Sometimes demand was high enough to justify running a second instance ( " section " ) of the train on the same day . The Santa Fe sought a solution to increase the capacity of the train without lengthening it further . Two popular innovations by the Chicago , Burlington and Quincy Railroad ( CB & Q ) suggested a solution . First , in 1945 , the CB & Q introduced the first dome car , in which passengers rode on a second level high above the tracks , affording better views . Second , in 1950 , it placed bilevel rail cars in commuter service in the Chicago area . Taken together , these innovations suggested a new possibility : a long @-@ distance bilevel coach , with greater capacity than single @-@ level cars , and the panoramic views of a dome .
= = Design = =
The Hi @-@ Levels stood 15 @.@ 5 feet ( 4 @.@ 7 m ) high , 2 feet ( 0 @.@ 61 m ) taller than most conventional equipment . Seating occupied the entire upper level , with restrooms , baggage , and other non @-@ revenue areas on the lower level . In most cars , vestibules connected the upper levels only . A central staircase linked the two levels . Hi @-@ Levels featured a row of windows across the upper level ; on the prototype coaches , this row slanted inwards . The two @-@ level design offered several advantages over conventional single @-@ level equipment . Budd and the Santa Fe expected the upper level , located 8 feet 7 inches ( 2 @.@ 62 m ) above the rails , to provide a smoother , quieter ride for passengers . With the lower level free of passengers , designers could provide larger restrooms and baggage areas . Finally , the lower level contained all the electrical equipment , away from the passengers , and with easy access for maintenance . The cars cost US $ 275 @,@ 000 apiece .
Originally , Budd built the Hi @-@ Levels with steam heating . When Amtrak began converting its inherited fleet to head @-@ end power in 1970s , the Santa Fe handled the conversion of the Hi @-@ Levels in its Topeka , Kansas , shops . Of the 73 Hi @-@ Levels , all but three underwent the conversion .
= = = Coaches = = =
The 61 coaches could carry either 68 or 72 passengers , half again more than the 44 of comparable single @-@ level long @-@ distance coaches . This increased capacity permitted the Santa Fe to run the El Capitan with fewer cars , while increasing the total number of passengers carried . The 68 @-@ seat coaches featured " step down " stairs at one end to permit access to standard @-@ height equipment ; that space was given over to four additional seats on the 72 @-@ seat coaches . The prototypes also featured step @-@ down stairs , but carried one fewer passenger . In the prototypes the upper level had no restrooms ; in response to passenger feedback , Budd added a restroom to the upper level in the production models . The prototypes also included a " step up " from the aisle to the coach seats ; in the production cars , the seats rested flush with the aisle . Each coach weighed 80 short tons ( 73 t ) .
= = = Lounges = = =
Each of the six lounges could seat 60 on the upper level , with additional seating on the lower level . Nicknames for these cars included " Top of the Cap " and " Sky Lounges " . A glass top across two @-@ thirds of the car distinguished it from the rest of the Hi @-@ Levels . The lower level featured the " Kachina Coffee Shop " and a lounge area with seating for 26 . The lounge cars weighed 83 short tons ( 75 t ) .
= = = Dining cars = = =
Six dining cars were built . Each dining car seated 80 ( all on the upper level ) , compared to 36 in a single @-@ level diner . The lower level housed the kitchen ; dumbwaiters carried food to the upper level . The dining cars , the largest single @-@ unit dining cars ever built , weighed 97 short tons ( 88 t ) and rode on six @-@ wheel trucks .
= = History = =
= = = Santa Fe = = =
The Budd Company delivered the Hi @-@ Levels to the Santa Fe in three batches . The original two prototype coaches ( Nos. 526 – 527 ) entered service on the El Capitan in 1954 . Following a positive customer response , the Santa Fe ordered 47 more cars , sufficient to completely re @-@ equip the El Capitan :
10 68 @-@ seat " step down " coaches ( Nos. 528 – 537 )
25 72 @-@ seat coaches ( Nos. 700 – 724 )
6 lounges ( Nos. 575 – 580 )
6 dining cars ( Nos. 650 – 655 )
These constituted five equipment sets ( " consists " ) , sufficient for daily service on the El Capitan beginning on July 8 , 1956 . A typical train comprised two step @-@ down coaches , five standard coaches , a lounge and a dining car . The Hi @-@ Level cars continued in service after the Santa Fe combined the El Capitan and Super Chief in 1958 . The Santa Fe also converted six single @-@ level baggage cars to baggage @-@ dormitories ( 3477 – 3482 ) , with a spoiler at one end to create a visual transition .
By the 1960s , the Santa Fe encountered capacity problems on the San Francisco Chief , which ran between Chicago and San Francisco . Unlike the El Capitan , the Chief carried a mix of sleeping cars and coaches . To augment capacity , the Santa Fe ordered an additional 24 coaches in 1963 – 1964 ; 12 step @-@ down ( 538 – 549 ) and 12 standard ( 725 – 736 ) . Each San Francisco Chief carried four Hi @-@ Level coaches , displacing six single @-@ level coaches .
= = = Amtrak = = =
Amtrak took over operation of most intercity passenger service in the United States in 1971 , including the Santa Fe 's remaining trains . It acquired the entire Hi @-@ Level fleet and continued to operate them . Amtrak used the Hi @-@ Levels as the basis for the design of the Superliners it ordered from Pullman @-@ Standard , which began arriving in 1978 . In the 1980s , Amtrak rebuilt many of the coaches as dormitory @-@ coaches , with half of the car given over to crew space . Several Hi @-@ Level coaches remained in service into the 2000s on the Heartland Flyer . Amtrak refurbished five of the six lounges for use on the Coast Starlight as sleeping car passenger @-@ only lounges , branded as the " Pacific Parlour Car . " As of 2016 , they are the last Hi @-@ Levels in regular service .
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= Cory Schneider =
Cory Franklin Schneider ( born March 18 , 1986 ) is a Swiss @-@ American professional ice hockey goaltender currently playing for the New Jersey Devils in the National Hockey League ( NHL ) .
Schneider was selected in the first round , 26th overall , by the Canucks in the 2004 NHL Entry Draft . Following his draft , he began a three @-@ year tenure with the Boston College Eagles , winning two Lamoriello Trophies as Hockey East champions and making two NCAA Final appearances during his college career . Schneider turned professional with Vancouver 's American Hockey League ( AHL ) affiliate , the Manitoba Moose , in 2007 and was named the league 's Goaltender of the Year following his second season . After three seasons with the Moose , he became the Canucks ' full @-@ time backup in 2010 – 11 . In his first full season with the Canucks , he won the William M. Jennings Trophy with Roberto Luongo for establishing the best team goals against average ( GAA ) in the NHL . The following campaign , he set Canucks records for best GAA and save percentage in a single season with 1 @.@ 96 and .937 marks , respectively . At the 2013 NHL Entry Draft , Schneider was traded to the New Jersey Devils for the 9th overall selection .
Internationally , Schneider has represented the United States at various junior levels . Early in his career , he won gold and silver medals at the 2003 U @-@ 18 Junior World Cup and 2004 IIHF World U18 Championships , respectively . He later competed in the 2005 and 2006 World Junior Championships , finishing in fourth with the United States each time . Due to his Swiss ancestry , Schneider also holds a Swiss citizenship .
= = Early life = =
Schneider was born to Susan and Richard Schneider in Marblehead , Massachusetts , a suburb of Boston . Schneider started training with his goalie coach , Brian Daccord , at age 15 , who now owns Stop It Goaltending , a company of which currently Schneider owns a small percentage . He began playing hockey around the age of six , trying out for the same team as his older brother , Geoff . He did not become a regular goaltender until the age of 11 , as the Marblehead Youth Hockey teams he played with at earlier ages rotated the position . Growing up , Schneider looked up to Mike Richter of the New York Rangers for being a successful American goaltender . Paying homage to Richter , he chose to wear the jersey number 35 .
Schneider earned his secondary education at Marblehead High School in his hometown and Phillips Academy , a prep school in Andover , Massachusetts , where he graduated . In addition to hockey , he was also a varsity baseball player for two years during his time at Phillips Academy . While excelling in sports , Schneider also maintained proficiency in academics . Following his senior year , he received the school 's Yale Bowl and the Boston Bruins ' John Carlton Memorial Trophy , both for achievement in scholarship and athletics . While enrolled at Boston College , Schneider majored in finance in the institution 's Carroll School of Management . He continued to be recognized for academic achievement , being named to two Hockey East All @-@ Academic Teams and earning Paul Patrick Daley Student @-@ Athlete Scholarship in 2006 .
He is a member of his hometown Friends of Marblehead Hockey Hall of Fame . Inducted on August 18 , 2008 , he is the only born @-@ and @-@ raised native to be drafted into the NHL .
He holds both American and Swiss citizenship .
= = Playing career = =
= = = High school and USNTDP ( 2000 – 04 ) = = =
Schneider played with Marblehead High School in his freshman year before moving to Phillips Academy because of their more prestigious hockey team . In his senior year with the school , he was named the team captain . He posted 17 wins and 4 losses with a .960 save percentage , while leading Phillips Academy to the New England Prep School semifinals . Schneider was a two @-@ time All @-@ New England selection in his high school career with Phillips Academy . During his senior year , Schneider also joined the United States National Team Development Program . He appeared in 10 games with the under @-@ 18 club and two games in North American Hockey League play .
Going into the 2004 NHL Entry Draft , Schneider was the second @-@ ranked American goaltender behind Al Montoya and seventh North American goaltender overall by the NHL Central Scouting Bureau . He was selected in the first round , 26th overall , by the Vancouver Canucks .
= = = Boston College ( 2004 – 07 ) = = =
With the option of joining the major junior ranks in Canada or staying in the United States to play college hockey , Schneider prioritized getting an education and committed to the Boston College Eagles . He had also considered Harvard and Cornell . Boston College head coach Jerry York had considered delaying Schneider 's debut for another season and have him play Junior A in the United States Hockey League . However , when forward Adam Pineault left Boston College to play in the Quebec Major Junior Hockey League , a scholarship was made available and York decided to keep Schneider on the roster .
Schneider made 23 saves in his college debut , a 3 – 2 win against the University of Massachusetts Lowell River Hawks . He was then chosen as the Hockey East Defensive Player of the Week on October 19 , 2004 . He later notched his first college shutout against the Yale Bulldogs on January 11 , 2005 . The following month , he was sidelined for three weeks after tearing the medial collateral ligament of his left knee during a game against the Harvard Crimson on February 14 , 2005 . Splitting the goaltending duties with senior Matti Kaltiainen , he appeared in 18 games with a 1 @.@ 90 goals against average ( GAA ) and a .916 save percentage while finishing with a record of 13 wins , 1 loss and 4 ties . He was named to the Hockey East All @-@ Rookie Team and received Boston College 's Bernie Burke Outstanding Freshman Award .
By the playoffs , York made Schneider his starting goaltender over Kaltiainen . He went on to backstop Boston College to a record @-@ setting sixth Lamoriello Trophy in team history as Hockey East champions . He made 39 saves in a double @-@ overtime semifinal win against the Maine Black Bears , before a 26 @-@ save performance in Boston 's 3 – 1 final win against the New Hampshire Wildcats . He gained Hockey East Rookie of the Week accolades on March 21 , 2005 , for his semifinal and final wins and was named to the All @-@ Tournament Team for his efforts . Advancing to the 2005 NCAA Tournament , Boston College lost their regional final by a 6 – 3 score to the North Dakota Fighting Sioux .
In Schneider 's sophomore season , he posted a college career @-@ high .929 save percentage and two team records of eight shutouts and 1 @,@ 088 saves . He posted 242 : 19 consecutive shutout minutes in the month of January , not allowing a goal for more than 11 periods . His streak was broken on January 27 , 2006 , in a game against Boston University . His 1 @.@ 96 GAA was first among goaltenders in conference play , earning him the Hockey East Goaltending Award ( his overall GAA including inter @-@ conference play was 2 @.@ 11 ) . He was named to the Hockey East Second All @-@ Conference Team and was a co @-@ recipient with teammate Chris Collins for both the Hockey East Three Stars Award and Boston College MVP . At the 2006 Beanpot , he received the Eberly Trophy as the tournament 's best goaltender with a .924 save percentage . His 24 wins in 39 regular season appearances helped Boston College to a successful regular season . In the playoffs , they failed to defend their Hockey East championship , losing to the Boston University Terriers in the final . Qualifying for the 2006 NCAA Tournament , Boston College met Boston University again in the regional final . Shutting the Terriers out to advance to the Frozen Four , Schneider was named the Northeastern Regional Tournament MVP . Boston College then defeated North Dakota in the semifinal before losing the national championship to the Wisconsin Badgers 2 – 1 .
In his third season with Boston College , Schneider recorded a college career @-@ high 29 wins in 42 games , along with a 2 @.@ 15 GAA and .925 save percentage . He led the Eagles to their second Lamoirello Trophy in three years , defeating New Hampshire by a 5 – 2 score in the final . He made his second consecutive appearance in the NCAA final , but lost to the Michigan State Spartans . Following his third college season , Schneider chose to forgo his senior year to turn professional . He left Boston College with a career record of 65 wins , 25 losses and 7 ties in 97 games , as well as a college career mark of 15 shutouts .
= = = Manitoba Moose ( 2007 – 10 ) = = =
Schneider signed an entry @-@ level contract with the Vancouver Canucks on July 3 , 2007 . He was regarded as the Canucks ' third @-@ string goalie behind Roberto Luongo and the newly acquired backup Curtis Sanford . Following his first NHL training camp , he was assigned to the Canucks ' minor league affiliate , the Manitoba Moose of the American Hockey League ( AHL ) . After a shaky start to the 2007 – 08 season ( 3 @-@ 7 @-@ 0 record , 3 @.@ 69 GAA and .872 save percentage in 11 games ) , he was privately called out by head coach Scott Arniel in mid @-@ December after being pulled the previous game . In recalling the meeting , Schneider has commented that " [ Arniel ] was one of the first guys to ... tell me I wasn 't good enough , something that I hadn 't really heard a lot growing up . Sometimes it 's something you need to hear . " From that point on , he emerged as Manitoba 's starting goalie over fellow Canucks prospect Drew MacIntyre , and was named the AHL Rookie of the Month for March . He finished the season with a 21 @-@ 12 @-@ 2 record , 2 @.@ 28 GAA and .916 save percentage . Although the Moose were eliminated in the first round by the Syracuse Crunch , Schneider had an impressive playoffs , recording a 1 @.@ 92 GAA and .938 save percentage over six games .
Going into training camp for the 2008 – 09 season , Schneider was expected to compete for the Canucks ' backup position with Sanford , who had been re @-@ signed in the off @-@ season . He was assigned to the Moose for a second consecutive season where he continued as the minor league team 's starting goalie . He received his first NHL call @-@ up from Manitoba on November 22 , 2008 , following an injury to Luongo . At the time of his call @-@ up , he was leading the AHL in both wins and GAA in addition to establishing a team record with 10 straight wins . After sitting on the bench as Sanford 's backup for two games , Schneider made his first NHL appearance and start on November 29 against the Calgary Flames , making 28 saves in a 3 – 1 loss . He subsequently recorded his first NHL win in a 16 @-@ save , 2 – 1 victory against the Minnesota Wild on December 5 . After appearing in eight games for the Canucks , goaltender Jason LaBarbera was acquired in a trade from the Los Angeles Kings and Schneider was sent back to the Moose on January 5 , 2009 .
During his time in Vancouver , Schneider had been named AHL Goalie of the Month for November . Upon returning to Manitoba , he extended his record @-@ setting win streak to 13 games . He was also chosen as the starting goalie for PlanetUSA for the 2009 AHL All @-@ Star Classic . He was named Top Goaltender in the Skills Competition , then helped PlanetUSA to a 15 – 11 win over the Canadian All @-@ Stars . Near the end of the season , he was chosen as AHL Player of the Week on March 30 , 2009 , after allowing five goals in three starts . He completed the campaign with team records of 28 wins , 2 @.@ 04 GAA and .928 save percentage . Additionally the league @-@ leader in GAA and save percentage , Schneider was awarded the Aldege " Baz " Bastien Memorial Award as AHL goaltender of the year . He also received the Harry " Hap " Holmes Memorial Award as the goaltender on the team with the lowest goals against . His award @-@ winning campaign helped the Moose to the best regular season record in the league . In the proceeding 2009 playoffs , Schneider backstopped the Moose to the Calder Cup Finals , losing the championship in six games to the Hershey Bears . He finished the playoffs with a 2 @.@ 15 GAA and .922 save percentage in 22 games .
In September 2009 , Vancouver re @-@ signed Luongo to a 12 @-@ year extension . As such , it was widely speculated that Schneider would inevitably be traded . Despite his success in the AHL , his chances of competing for a starting position with the Canucks were seen as unlikely by the media due to Luongo 's prominence on the team . Regardless , he publicly maintained he was unfazed by his position on the Canucks ' depth chart and that he was focused on competing with the newly acquired Andrew Raycroft for the Canucks ' backup position in 2009 – 10 . Schneider was , however , sent back to the Moose out of training camp .
Less than a month into the season , Schneider received his second NHL call @-@ up with the Canucks to back up Raycroft after Luongo was sidelined with a rib fracture on October 28 , 2009 . He remained with the Canucks for nearly two weeks , earning one start against the Dallas Stars on November 6 , stopping 45 shots in a 2 – 1 loss . He was returned to the Moose on November 10 .
Despite being the reigning goaltender of the year in the AHL and having a comparable season in 2009 – 10 , Schneider was not named to PlanetUSA for the 2010 AHL All @-@ Star Game . The non @-@ selection drew public criticism from Moose head coach Arniel . Amidst a mediocre season as a team , Schneider posted a 2 @.@ 51 GAA and .919 save percentage and topped his previous team record of wins in a season with 35 in 60 games . During the campaign , he also surpassed Alex Auld on the franchise 's all @-@ time wins and games played list , finishing with 84 and 136 , respectively . Manitoba qualified for the 2010 playoffs with the final and eighth seed in the Western Conference . Matching up against the Hamilton Bulldogs in the opening round , they were eliminated in six games . Schneider recorded a 3 @.@ 12 GAA and .905 save percentage in the losing effort .
= = = Vancouver Canucks ( 2010 – 13 ) = = =
On June 2 , 2010 , Schneider signed a two @-@ year , $ 1 @.@ 8 million contract extension with the Vancouver Canucks . Assistant general manager Lawrence Gilman asserted that the new deal should establish him as Luongo 's backup and garner more exposure to potentially facilitate a trade to another NHL team . He made his first start of the 2010 – 11 season on October 18 , 2010 , against the Carolina Hurricanes . He stopped 32 shots in a 5 – 1 win , marking his first NHL victory since December 14 , 2008 . Later in the season , he recorded his first NHL shutout , stopping 26 shots in a 3 – 0 win against the Anaheim Ducks on March 6 , 2011 . Nearing the end of the regular season , the Canucks were leading the league in team GAA , putting Luongo and Schneider in contention for the William M. Jennings Trophy . However , with a week remaining in the regular season , Schneider was two appearances short of the 25 @-@ game minimum to qualify for the Jennings ( had he not reached the requirement , Luongo would have been awarded the trophy by himself ) . While head coach Alain Vigneault initially dismissed the notion of playing Schneider for the sole purpose of sharing the award with Luongo , he sent Schneider in relief of Luongo with 28 seconds remaining in the third @-@ last game of the season , a 2 – 0 loss to the Edmonton Oilers for Schneider 's 24th appearance . Two games later – the Canucks ' last contest of the regular season – Schneider was given the start against the Calgary Flames . Needing to allow seven goals or fewer to secure the Jennings , he helped Vancouver to a 3 – 2 overtime win . It marked the first time in the trophy 's history that it was awarded to Canucks goaltenders . Luongo and Schneider 's combined GAA of 2 @.@ 20 was 0 @.@ 10 better than the Boston Bruins 's second @-@ place goaltending tandem of Tim Thomas and Tuukka Rask . Schneider completed his NHL rookie season with a 2 @.@ 23 GAA and .929 save percentage in 25 games ( 22 starts ) , as well as a 16 @-@ 4 @-@ 2 record . His GAA tied for fourth in the league , while his save percentage ranked third and set a single @-@ season Canucks record .
Schneider made his NHL playoff debut in Game 4 of the opening round against the Chicago Blackhawks . With the Canucks down 6 – 1 , Luongo was pulled in favour of Schneider in the third period . Schneider allowed one goal on seven shots , as the Blackhawks went on to win the game 7 – 2 . After Luongo was pulled again in Game 5 , Schneider was chosen to start for Game 6 . Schneider allowed three goals on 20 shots ; he left the game in the third period after suffering cramps during a failed attempt to stop a penalty shot from Michael Frolik . The Canucks went on to lose the contest 4 – 3 in overtime , but won the following Game 7 with Luongo in net to advance to the second round . The Canucks would advance to the Stanley Cup Finals against the Boston Bruins . Schneider made an appearance in Game 6 , replacing Luongo in the first period after he gave up three goals . Schneider allowed two goals in relief for the remainder of the game as the Canucks went on to lose the contest . With Schneider on the bench , Vancouver then lost Game 7 at home .
Remaining as Luongo 's backup for the start of the 2011 – 12 season , Schneider 's playing time was expanded when Luongo suffered an injury in mid @-@ November 2011 . Despite Luongo 's return to the lineup after missing two games , Schneider continued to earn starts due to his performance . On November 28 , he was named the NHL 's Second Star of the Week after recording three wins in as many contests , a span that included back @-@ to @-@ back shutouts ( on November 23 against the Colorado Avalanche and November 25 against the Phoenix Coyotes ) . Schneider finished his second full NHL season with improved numbers . Of the 33 games he played , he started 28 and compiled 20 wins and 9 losses . His 1 @.@ 96 GAA and .937 save percentage over 33 games ranked third and second in the league , respectively , while also setting Canucks team records . His GAA topped the 2 @.@ 11 mark Luongo had set in 2010 – 11 , while his save percentage bettered the .929 he had achieved , also in the previous season . The latter team record also ranked as the fourth @-@ best ever recorded in the NHL .
During the 2012 Stanley Cup playoffs , Schneider supplanted Luongo as the team 's playoff goalie . After Vancouver lost their first two games against the eighth @-@ seeded Los Angeles Kings in the opening round , Vigneault started Schneider . Despite losing game three , Schneider started for the remainder of the series , which Los Angeles won four @-@ games @-@ to @-@ one . In three games , he recorded a 1 @.@ 31 GAA and .960 save percentage . Vigneault 's decision led many in the media to believe that Schneider would retain the role the following season , while Luongo would be traded . Although Luongo 's contract included a no @-@ trade clause , he told reporters following the Canucks ' defeat to the Kings that he would waive it if the team asked him to . During the off season , Schneider and the Canucks agreed to a three @-@ year contract worth $ 12 million .
During the 2012 – 13 NHL lockout , Schneider played with Swiss team HC Ambrì @-@ Piotta of National League A. He played in eight games and recorded a .914 save percentage . Returning to Vancouver as NHL play resumed , Schneider appeared in 30 games for the Canucks and posted a 17 – 9 – 4 record and was one of five goaltenders to tie for the league lead with five shutouts . He appeared in two playoff games , both losses , as the Canucks were swept out of the first round by the San Jose Sharks .
= = = New Jersey Devils ( 2013 – present ) = = =
The Canucks spent a full year attempting to trade Luongo and his contract before conceding that no team was willing to meet their demands . Instead they agreed to trade Schneider to the New Jersey Devils . The deal , completed on June 30 at the 2013 NHL Entry Draft , saw the ninth overall selection ( Bo Horvat ) sent to Vancouver . Schneider described the trade as " shocking " , adding that after several seasons of expecting to be traded , he had finally begun to believe he would stay in Vancouver . He played his first game against the Pittsburgh Penguins , a 3 @-@ 0 loss .
Schneider had spent his first season with the Devils as a backup to veteran Martin Brodeur , earning a few extra starts due to the 42 @-@ year old Brodeur 's poor performance , but after Brodeur 's departure from New Jersey , Schneider became the Devils starting goaltender .
On July 9 , 2014 , Schneider signed a seven @-@ year , $ 42 million contract extension with the Devils .
In 2014 – 15 , Schneider posted a .925 save percentage ( the sixth best in the league ) and a 2 @.@ 26 GAA . Despite Schneider 's success , the Devils missed the playoffs for the third consecutive season , finishing 32 @-@ 36 @-@ 14 .
Schneider continued to put up reasonable numbers for the Devils in the 2015 – 16 season , including a 2 @.@ 15 GAA and a .924 save percentage . The Devils missed the playoffs for a fourth consecutive season .
= = International play = =
Schneider competed for the United States at the 2003 U @-@ 18 Junior World Cup , held in Břeclav , Czech Republic and Piešťany , Slovakia . He helped the club go undefeated in five games , en route to the country 's first gold medal in the history of the tournament . Sharing goaltending duties with Ian Keserich over the course of the tournament , Schneider was given the start for the gold medal game against Russia , turning aside 32 shots for the 3 – 2 win .
Schneider next appeared for the United States at the 2004 IIHF World U18 Championships in Minsk , Belarus . He recorded the third @-@ best GAA ( 1 @.@ 71 ) and second @-@ best save percentage ( .929 ) of the tournament en route to a silver medal . The United States were defeated in the gold medal game by Russia 3 – 2 . He was later named the David Peterson Goalie of the Year by USA Hockey , having led them to two medals in the 2003 – 04 season .
In August 2004 , Schneider participated in the U.S. National Junior Team Evaluation Camp in Grand Forks , North Dakota . Several months later , he debuted at the under @-@ 20 level at the 2005 World Junior Championships , hosted by the United States in Grand Forks and Thief River Falls , Minnesota . Playing backup to Al Montoya , he was given the start for a preliminary game against Belarus . After just over a period of play , he was pulled for allowing three goals on eight shots . The United States lost the game 5 – 3 in Schneider 's only tournament appearance . After losing to Russia 7 – 2 in the semifinal , the United States lost the bronze medal game 3 – 2 to the Czech Republic in overtime .
After attending the U.S. ' s summer evaluation camp for a second straight year in Lake Placid , New York , Schneider was given the starting position for the 2006 World Junior Championships in British Columbia , Canada . He was named the United States ' player of the game in their third match of the preliminary round , a 2 – 2 tie against Switzerland ; Schneider made 22 saves . He earned his second player of the game selection in the quarterfinal , stopping 30 shots in a 2 – 1 win against the Czech Republic . The United States were then eliminated in the semifinal by Russia before losing the bronze medal game to Finland . He appeared in six games total with a 2 @.@ 67 GAA and .912 save percentage , fifth among tournament goaltenders .
Schneider 's first experience with the men 's senior team came in 2007 when he was among the first eighteen players named to the United States ' team for the 2007 IIHF World Championship in Russia . Despite being named to the team , Schneider did not play in any games , instead serving as the team 's third goaltender behind John Grahame and Jason Bacashihua .
= = Playing style = =
Schneider plays in the butterfly style of goaltending , dropping to his knees with his skates pointing outwards and his pads meeting in the middle in order to cover the bottom portion of the net . He honed the style with goaltending consultant Brian Daccord , beginning at the age of 15 . After joining the Canucks as a backup in 2010 – 11 , Schneider began working with the team goaltending coach Roland Melanson , who encouraged him to play shallower in his crease . Schneider adopted the style which required him to be more athletic on first shots , but better prepared him for rebounds and cross @-@ crease plays . Schneider 's strengths are his size and athleticism . His coach with the Moose , Scott Arniel , has also heralded his ability to get into position ahead of time , anticipating plays .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Regular season = = =
= = = Playoffs = = =
= = = International = = =
= = Awards and achievements = =
= = = High school = = =
= = = Collegiate = = =
= = = AHL = = =
= = = International = = =
= = = NHL = = =
= = Records = =
= = = Boston College = = =
Single @-@ season shutouts : 8 ( 2005 – 06 )
Single @-@ season saves : 1 @,@ 088 ( 2005 – 06 )
All @-@ time shutouts : 15 ( 2004 – 07 )
= = = Manitoba Moose = = =
Consecutive wins : 13 ( 2008 – 09 )
Single @-@ season GAA : 2 @.@ 04 ( 2008 – 09 )
Single @-@ season save percentage : .928 ( 2008 – 09 )
Single @-@ season wins : 35 ( 2009 – 10 )
Career wins : 84 ( 2007 – 10 )
Career games played : 136 ( 2007 – 10 )
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= British people =
British people , or Britons , are the citizens of the United Kingdom , British Overseas Territories , and Crown dependencies , and their descendants . British nationality law governs modern British citizenship and nationality , which can be acquired , for instance , by descent from British nationals . When used in a historical context , " British " or " Britons " can refer to the ancient Britons , the indigenous Celtic inhabitants of Great Britain , south of the River Forth .
Although early assertions of being British date from the Late Middle Ages , the creation of the united Kingdom of Great Britain in 1707 triggered a sense of British national identity . The notion of Britishness was forged during the Napoleonic Wars between Britain and the First French Empire , and developed further during the Victorian era . The complex history of the formation of the United Kingdom created a " particular sense of nationhood and belonging " in Great Britain and Ireland ; Britishness became " superimposed on much older identities " , of English , Scots , Welsh and Irish cultures , whose distinctiveness still resists notions of a homogenised British identity . Because of longstanding ethno @-@ sectarian divisions , British identity in Northern Ireland is controversial , but it is held with strong conviction by unionists .
Modern Britons are descended mainly from the varied ethnic groups that settled in the British Isles in and before the 11th century : Prehistoric , Celtic , Roman , Anglo @-@ Saxon , Norse and Normans . Union facilitated migration , cultural and linguistic exchange , and intermarriage between the peoples of England , Scotland and Wales during the late Middle Ages , Early Modern period and beyond . Since 1922 and earlier , there has been immigration to the United Kingdom by people from what is now the Republic of Ireland , the Commonwealth , mainland Europe and elsewhere ; they and their descendants are mostly British citizens , with some assuming a British , dual or hyphenated identity .
The British are a diverse , multi @-@ national and multicultural society , with " strong regional accents , expressions and identities " . The social structure of the United Kingdom has changed radically since the 19th century , with a decline in religious observance , enlargement of the middle class , and increased ethnic diversity . The population of the UK stands at around 62 @.@ 5 million , with a British diaspora of around 140 million concentrated in Australia , Canada , South Africa , Hong Kong , New Zealand , and the United States .
= = History of the term = =
Greek and Roman writers , in the 1st century BC and the 1st century AD , name the inhabitants of Great Britain and Ireland as the Priteni , the origin of the Latin word Britannic . Parthenius , a 1st @-@ century Ancient Greek grammarian , and the Etymologicum Genuinum , a 9th @-@ century lexical encyclopaedia , describe Bretannus ( the Latinised form of the Ancient Greek Βρεττανός ) as the Celtic national forefather of the Britons . It has been suggested that this name derives from a Gaulish description translated as " people of the forms " , referring to the custom of tattooing or painting their bodies with blue woad .
By 50 BC Greek geographers were using equivalents of Prettanikē as a collective name for the British Isles . However , with the Roman conquest of Britain the Latin term Britannia was used for the island of Great Britain , and later Roman @-@ occupied Britain south of Caledonia . Following the Roman departure from Britain , the island of Great Britain was left open to invasion by pagan , seafaring warriors such as Saxons and Jutes , who gained control in areas around the south east .
In this post @-@ Roman period , as the Anglo @-@ Saxons advanced , the Britons became confined to what would later be called Wales , Cornwall , North West England and Strathclyde . However , the term Britannia persisted as the Latin name for the island . The Historia Brittonum claimed legendary origins as a prestigious genealogy for Brittonic kings , followed by the Historia Regum Britanniae which popularised this pseudo @-@ history to support the claims of the Kings of England .
During the Middle Ages , and particularly in the Tudor period , the term " British " was used to refer to the Welsh people . At that time , it was " the long held belief that the Welsh were descendants of the ancient Britons and that they spoke ' the British tongue ' " . This notion was supported by texts such as the Historia Regum Britanniae , a pseudohistorical account of ancient British history , written in the mid @-@ 12th century by Geoffrey of Monmouth . The Historia Regum Britanniae chronicled the lives of legendary kings of the Britons in a narrative spanning 2000 years , beginning with the Trojans founding the ancient British nation and continuing until the Anglo @-@ Saxon invasion of Britain in the 7th century forced the Celtic Britons to the west , i.e. Wales and Cornwall . This legendary Celtic history of Great Britain is known as the Matter of Britain . The Matter of Britain , a national myth , was retold or reinterpreted in works by Gerald of Wales , a Cambro @-@ Norman chronicler who in the 12th and 13th centuries used the term British to refer to the people later known as the Welsh .
= = History = =
= = = Ancestral roots = = =
The indigenous people of the British Isles have a combination of Celtic , Norse , Anglo @-@ Saxon and Norman ancestry . Modern studies using DNA analysis , popularised by the geneticist Stephen Oppenheimer and others , increasingly suggest that three @-@ quarters of Britons share a common ancestry with the hunter @-@ gatherers who settled in Atlantic Europe during the Paleolithic era , " after the melting of the ice caps but before the land broke away from the mainland and divided into islands " .
Despite the separation of the British Isles from continental Europe following the last glacial period , the genetic record indicates that the British and Irish broadly share their closest common ancestry with the Basque people , who live in the Basque Country near the Pyrenees . Oppenheimer continues that the majority of the people of the British Isles share genetic commonalities with the Basques , ranging from highs of 90 % in Wales to lows of 66 % in East Anglia .
The genetic difference between western Britain and the East of England is thought to originate from two divergent prehistoric routes of immigration – one up the Atlantic coast , the other from continental Europe . Major immigrant settlement of the British Isles occurred during the Neolithic period , interpreted by Bryan Sykes — professor of human genetics at the University of Oxford — as the arrival of the Celts from the Iberian Peninsula , and the origin of Britain 's and Ireland 's Celtic tribes .
Oppenheimer 's opinion is that " .. by far the majority of male gene types in the British Isles derive from Iberia ( modern Spain and Portugal ) , ranging from a low of 59 % in Fakenham , Norfolk to highs of 96 % in Llangefni , north Wales " . The National Museum Wales states that " it is possible that future genetic studies of ancient and modern human DNA may help to inform our understanding of the subject " but " early studies have , so far , tended to produce implausible conclusions from very small numbers of people and using outdated assumptions about linguistics and archaeology . "
Between the 8th and 11th centuries , " three major cultural divisions " had emerged in Great Britain : the English , the Scots and the Welsh . The English had been unified under a single nation state in 937 by King Athelstan of Wessex after the Battle of Brunanburh . Before then , the English ( known then in Old English as the Anglecynn ) were under the governance of independent Anglo @-@ Saxon petty kingdoms which gradually coalesced into a Heptarchy of seven powerful states , the most powerful of which were Mercia and Wessex . Scottish historian and archaeologist Neil Oliver said that the Battle of Brunanburh would " define the shape of Britain into the modern era " , it was a " showdown for two very different ethnic identities – a Norse Celtic alliance versus Anglo Saxon . It aimed to settle once and for all whether Britain would be controlled by a single imperial power or remain several separate independent kingdoms , a split in perceptions which is still very much with us today " . However , historian Simon Schama suggested that it was Edward I of England who was solely " responsible for provoking the peoples of Britain into an awareness of their nationhood " in the 13th century . Scottish national identity , " a complex amalgam " of Gael , Pict , Norsemen and Anglo @-@ Norman , was not finally forged until the Wars of Scottish Independence against the Kingdom of England in the late 13th and early 14th centuries .
Though Wales was conquered by England , and its legal system replaced by that of the Kingdom of England under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 – 1542 , the Welsh endured as a nation distinct from the English . Later , with both an English Reformation and a Scottish Reformation , Edward VI of England , under the counsel of Edward Seymour , 1st Duke of Somerset , advocated a union with the Kingdom of Scotland , joining England , Wales , and Scotland in a united Protestant Great Britain . The Duke of Somerset supported the unification of the English , Welsh and Scots under the " indifferent old name of Britons " on the basis that their monarchies " both derived from a Pre @-@ Roman British monarchy " .
Following the death of Elizabeth I of England in 1603 , the throne of England was inherited by James VI , King of Scots , so that the Kingdom of England and the Kingdom of Scotland were united in a personal union under James VI of Scotland and I of England , an event referred to as the Union of the Crowns . King James advocated full political union between England and Scotland , and on 20 October 1604 proclaimed his assumption of the style " King of Great Britain " , though this title was rejected by both the Parliament of England and the Parliament of Scotland , and so had no basis in either English law or Scots law .
= = = Union and the development of Britishness = = =
Despite centuries of military and religious conflict , the Kingdoms of England and Scotland had been " drawing increasingly together " since the Protestant Reformation of the 16th century and the Union of the Crowns in 1603 . A broadly shared language , island , monarch , religion and Bible ( the Authorized King James Version ) further contributed to a growing cultural alliance between the two sovereign realms and their peoples . The Glorious Revolution of 1688 resulted in a pair of Acts of the English and Scottish legislatures — the Bill of Rights 1689 and Claim of Right Act 1689 respectively — which ensured that the shared constitutional monarchy of England and Scotland was held only by Protestants . Despite this , although popular with the monarchy and much of the aristocracy , attempts to unite the two states by Acts of Parliament in 1606 , 1667 , and 1689 were unsuccessful ; increased political management of Scottish affairs from England had led to " criticism " , and strained Anglo @-@ Scottish relations .
While English maritime explorations during the Age of Discovery gave new @-@ found imperial power and wealth to the English and Welsh at the end of the 17th century , Scotland suffered from a long @-@ standing weak economy . In response , the Scottish kingdom , in opposition to William II of Scotland ( III of England ) , commenced the Darien Scheme , an attempt to establish a Scottish imperial outlet — the colony of New Caledonia — on the isthmus of Panama . However , through a combination of disease , Spanish hostility , Scottish mismanagement and opposition to the scheme by the East India Company and the English government ( who did not want to provoke the Spanish into war ) this imperial venture ended in " catastrophic failure " with an estimated " 25 % of Scotland 's total liquid capital " lost .
The events of the Darien Scheme , and the passing by the English Parliament of the Act of Settlement 1701 asserting the right to choose the order of succession for English , Scottish and Irish thrones , escalated political hostilities between England and Scotland , and neutralised calls for a united British people . The Parliament of Scotland responded by passing the Act of Security 1704 , allowing it to appoint a different monarch to succeed to the Scottish crown from that of England , if it so wished . The English political perspective was that the appointment of a Jacobite monarchy in Scotland opened up the possibility of a Franco @-@ Scottish military conquest of England during the Second Hundred Years ' War and War of the Spanish Succession . The Parliament of England passed the Alien Act 1705 , which provided that Scottish nationals in England were to be treated as aliens and estates held by Scots would be treated as alien property , whilst also restricting the import of Scottish products into England and its colonies ( about half of Scotland 's trade ) . However , the Act contained a provision that it would be suspended if the Parliament of Scotland entered into negotiations regarding the creation of a unified Parliament of Great Britain , which in turn would refund Scottish financial losses on the Darien Scheme .
= = = Union of Scotland and England = = =
Despite opposition from much of the Scottish and English populations , a Treaty of Union was agreed in 1706 and was then ratified by the parliaments of both countries with the passing of the Acts of Union 1707 . With effect from 1 May 1707 , this created a new sovereign state called the " Kingdom of Great Britain " . This kingdom " began as a hostile merger " , but led to a " full partnership in the most powerful going concern in the world " ; historian Simon Schama stated that " it was one of the most astonishing transformations in European history " .
After 1707 , a British national identity began to develop , though it was initially resisted , particularly by the English . The peoples of Great Britain had by the 1750s begun to assume a " layered identity " : to think of themselves as simultaneously British and also Scottish , English , or Welsh .
The terms North Briton and South Briton were devised for the Scots and the English respectively , with the former gaining some preference in Scotland , particularly by the economists and philosophers of the Scottish Enlightenment . Indeed , it was the " Scots [ who ] played key roles in shaping the contours of British identity " ; " their scepticism about the Union allowed the Scots the space and time in which to dominate the construction of Britishness in its early crucial years " , drawing upon the notion of a shared " spirit of liberty common to both Saxon and Celt ... against the usurpation of the Church of Rome " . James Thomson was a poet and playwright born to a Church of Scotland minister in the Scottish Lowlands in 1700 who was interested in forging a common British culture and national identity in this way . In collaboration with Thomas Arne , they wrote Alfred , an opera about Alfred the Great 's victory against the Vikings performed to Frederick , Prince of Wales in 1740 to commemorate the accession of George I and the birthday of Princess Augusta . " Rule , Britannia ! " was the climactic piece of the opera and quickly became a " jingoistic " British patriotic song celebrating " Britain 's supremacy offshore " . An island country with a series of victories for the Royal Navy associated empire and naval warfare " inextricably with ideals of Britishness and Britain 's place in the world " .
Britannia , the new national personification of Great Britain , was established in the 1750s as a representation of " nation and empire rather than any single national hero " . On Britannia and British identity , historian Peter Borsay wrote :
Up until 1797 Britannia was conventionally depicted holding a spear , but as a consequence of the increasingly prominent role of the Royal Navy in the war against the French , and of several spectacular victories , the spear was replaced by a trident ... The navy had come to be seen ... as the very bulwark of British liberty and the essence of what it was to be British .
From the Union of 1707 through to the Battle of Waterloo in 1815 , Great Britain was " involved in successive , very dangerous wars with Catholic France " , but which " all brought enough military and naval victories ... to flatter British pride " . As the Napoleonic Wars with the First French Empire advanced , " the English and Scottish learned to define themselves as similar primarily by virtue of not being French or Catholic " . In combination with sea power and empire , the notion of Britishness became more " closely bound up with Protestantism " , a cultural commonality through which the English , Scots and Welsh became " fused together , and remain [ ed ] so , despite their many cultural divergences " .
The neo @-@ classical monuments that proliferated at the end of the 18th century and the start of the 19th , such as The Kymin at Monmouth , were attempts to meld the concepts of Britishness with the Greco @-@ Roman empires of classical antiquity . The new and expanding British Empire provided " unprecedented opportunities for upward mobility and the accumulations of wealth " , and so the " Scottish , Welsh and Irish populations were prepared to suppress nationalist issues on pragmatic grounds " . The British Empire was " crucial to the idea of a British identity and to the self @-@ image of Britishness " . Indeed , the Scottish welcomed Britishness during the 19th century " for it offered a context within which they could hold on to their own identity whilst participating in , and benefiting from , the expansion of the [ British ] Empire " . Similarly , the " new emphasis of Britishness was broadly welcomed by the Welsh who considered themselves to be the lineal descendants of the ancient Britons – a word that was still used to refer exclusively to the Welsh " . For the English , however , by the Victorian era their enthusiastic adoption of Britishness had meant that , for them , Britishness " meant the same as ' Englishness ' " , so much so that " Englishness and Britishness " and " ' England ' and ' Britain ' were used interchangeably in a variety of contexts " . Britishness came to borrow heavily from English political history because England had " always been the dominant component of the British Isles in terms of size , population and power " ; Magna Carta , common law and hostility to continental Europe were English factors that influenced British sensibilities .
= = = Union with Ireland = = =
The political union of the predominantly Catholic Kingdom of Ireland with Great Britain in 1800 , coupled with the outbreak of peace with France in the early 19th century , challenged the previous century 's concept of militant Protestant Britishness . The new , expanded United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland meant that the state had to re @-@ evaluate its position on the civil rights of Catholics , and extend its definition of Britishness to the Irish people . Like the terms that had been invented at the time of the Acts of Union 1707 , " West Briton " was introduced for the Irish after 1800 . In 1832 Daniel O 'Connell , an Irish politician who campaigned for Catholic Emancipation , stated in Britain 's House of Commons :
The people of Ireland are ready to become a portion of the British Empire , provided they be made so in reality and not in name alone ; they are ready to become a kind of West Briton if made so in benefits and justice ; but if not , we are Irishmen again .
Ireland , from 1801 to 1923 , was marked by a succession of economic and political mismanagement and neglect , which marginalised the Irish , and advanced Irish nationalism . In the forty years that followed the Union , successive British governments grappled with the problems of governing a country which had , as Benjamin Disraeli put it in 1844 , " a starving population , an absentee aristocracy , and an alien Church , and in addition the weakest executive in the world " . Although the vast majority of Unionists in Ireland proclaimed themselves " simultaneously Irish and British " , even for them there was a strain upon the adoption of Britishness after the Great Famine .
War continued to be a unifying factor for the people of Great Britain : British jingoism re @-@ emerged during the Boer Wars in southern Africa . The experience of military , political and economic power from the rise of the British Empire led to a very specific drive in artistic technique , taste and sensibility for Britishness . In 1887 , Frederic Harrison wrote :
Morally , we Britons plant the British flag on every peak and pass ; and wherever the Union Jack floats there we place the cardinal British institutions — tea , tubs , sanitary appliances , lawn tennis , and churches .
The Catholic Relief Act 1829 reflected a " marked change in attitudes " in Great Britain towards Catholics and Catholicism . A " significant " example of this was the collaboration between Augustus Welby Pugin , an " ardent Roman Catholic " and son of a Frenchman , and Sir Charles Barry , " a confirmed Protestant " , in redesigning the Palace of Westminster — " the building that most enshrines ... Britain 's national and imperial pre @-@ tensions " . Protestantism gave way to imperialism as the leading element of British national identity during the Victorian and Edwardian eras , and as such , a series of royal , imperial and national celebrations were introduced to the British people to assert imperial British culture and give themselves a sense of uniqueness , superiority and national consciousness . Empire Day and jubilees of Queen Victoria were introduced to the British middle class , but quickly " merged into a national ' tradition ' " .
= = = Modern period = = =
The First World War " reinforced the sense of Britishness " and patriotism in the early 20th century . Through war service ( including conscription in Great Britain ) , " the English , Welsh , Scots and Irish fought as British " . The aftermath of the war institutionalised British national commemoration through Remembrance Sunday and the Poppy Appeal . The Second World War had a similar unifying effect upon the British people , however , its outcome was to recondition Britishness on a basis of democratic values and its marked contrast to Europeanism . Notions that the British " constituted an Island race , and that it stood for democracy were reinforced during the war and they were circulated in the country through Winston Churchill 's speeches , history books and newspapers " .
At its international zenith , " Britishness joined peoples around the world in shared traditions and common loyalties that were strenuously maintained " . But following the two world wars , the British Empire experienced rapid decolonisation . The secession of the Irish Free State from the United Kingdom meant that Britishness had lost " its Irish dimension " in 1922 , and the shrinking empire supplanted by independence movements dwindled the appeal of British identity in the Commonwealth of Nations during the mid @-@ 20th century .
Since the British Nationality Act 1948 and the subsequent mass immigration to the United Kingdom from the Commonwealth and elsewhere in the world , " the expression and experience of cultural life in Britain has become fragmented and reshaped by the influences of gender , ethnicity , class and region " . Furthermore , the United Kingdom 's membership of the European Economic Community in 1973 eroded the concept of Britishness as distinct from continental Europe . As such , since the 1970s " there has been a sense of crisis about what it has meant to be British " , exacerbated by growing demands for greater political autonomy for Northern Ireland , Scotland , and Wales .
The late 20th century saw major changes to the politics of the United Kingdom with the establishment of devolved national administrations for Northern Ireland , Scotland , and Wales following pre @-@ legislative referendums . Calls for greater autonomy for the four countries of the United Kingdom had existed since their original union with each other , but gathered pace in the 1960s and 1970s . Devolution has led to " increasingly assertive Scottish , Welsh and Irish national identities " , resulting in more diverse cultural expressions of Britishness , or else its outright rejection : Gwynfor Evans , a Welsh nationalist politician active in the late 20th century , rebuffed Britishness as " a political synonym for Englishness which extends English culture over the Scots , Welsh and the Irish " .
In 2004 Sir Bernard Crick , political theorist and democratic socialist tasked with developing the life in the United Kingdom test said :
Britishness , to me , is an overarching political and legal concept : it signifies allegiance to the laws , government and broad moral and political concepts — like tolerance and freedom of expression — that hold the United Kingdom together .
Gordon Brown , Prime Minister of the United Kingdom , initiated a debate on British identity in 2006 . Brown 's speech to the Fabian Society 's Britishness Conference proposed that British values demand a new constitutional settlement and symbols to represent a modern patriotism , including a new youth community service scheme and a British Day to celebrate . One of the central issues identified at the Fabian Society conference was how the English identity fits within the framework of a devolved United Kingdom . An expression of Her Majesty 's Government 's initiative to promote Britishness was the inaugural Veterans ' Day which was first held on 27 June 2006 . As well as celebrating the achievements of armed forces veterans , Brown 's speech at the first event for the celebration said :
Scots and people from the rest of the UK share the purpose — that Britain has something to say to the rest of the world about the values of freedom , democracy and the dignity of the people that you stand up for . So at a time when people can talk about football and devolution and money , it is important that we also remember the values that we share in common .
= = Geographic distribution = =
Britons - people with British citizenship or of British descent - have a significant presence in a number of countries other than the United Kingdom , and in particular in those with historic connections to the British Empire . After the Age of Discovery the British were one of the earliest and largest communities to emigrate out of Europe , and the British Empire 's expansion during the first half of the 19th century triggered an " extraordinary dispersion of the British people " , resulting in particular concentrations " in Australasia and North America " .
The British Empire was " built on waves of migration overseas by British people " , who left the United Kingdom and " reached across the globe and permanently affected population structures in three continents " . As a result of the British colonisation of the Americas , what became the United States was " easily the greatest single destination of emigrant British " , but in Australia the British experienced a birth rate higher than " anything seen before " resulting in the displacement of indigenous Australians .
In colonies such as Southern Rhodesia , British East Africa and Cape Colony , permanently resident British communities were established and whilst never more than a numerical minority these Britons " exercised a dominant influence " upon the culture and politics of those lands . In Australia , Canada and New Zealand " people of British origin came to constitute the majority of the population " contributing to these states becoming integral to the Anglosphere .
The United Kingdom Census 1861 estimated the size of the overseas British to be around 2 @.@ 5 million , but concluded that most of these were " not conventional settlers " but rather " travellers , merchants , professionals , and military personnel " . By 1890 , there were over 1 @.@ 5 million further UK @-@ born people living in Australia , Canada , New Zealand and South Africa . A 2006 publication from the Institute for Public Policy Research estimated 5 @.@ 6 million Britons lived outside of the United Kingdom .
= = = Australia = = =
From the beginning of Australia 's colonial period until after the Second World War , people from the United Kingdom made up a large majority of people coming to Australia , meaning that many people born in Australia can trace their origins to Britain . The colony of New South Wales , founded on 26 January 1788 , was part of the eastern half of Australia claimed by the Kingdom of Great Britain in 1770 , and initially settled by Britons through penal transportation . Together with another five largely self @-@ governing Crown Colonies , the federation of Australia was achieved on 1 January 1901 .
Its history of British dominance meant that Australia was " grounded in British culture and political traditions that had been transported to the Australian colonies in the nineteenth century and become part of colonial culture and politics " . Australia maintains the Westminster system of Parliamentary Government and Elizabeth II as Queen of Australia . Until 1987 , the national status of Australian citizens was formally described as " British Subject : Citizen of Australia " . Britons continue to make up a substantial proportion of immigrants .
= = = British overseas territories = = =
The people of the British overseas territories are British by citizenship , via origins or naturalisation . Along with aspects of common British identity , each of them has their own distinct identity shaped in the respective particular circumstances of political , economic , ethnic , social and cultural history . For instance , in the case of the Falkland Islanders , Lewis Clifton the Speaker of the Legislative Council of the Falkland Islands , explains :
British cultural , economic , social , political and educational values create a unique British @-@ like , Falkland Islands . Yet Islanders feel distinctly different from their fellow citizens who reside in the United Kingdom . This might have something to do with geographical isolation or with living on a smaller island — perhaps akin to those Britons not feeling European .
In contrast , for the majority of the Gibraltarians , who live in Gibraltar , there is an " insistence on their Britishness " which " carries excessive loyalty " to Britain . The sovereignty of Gibraltar has been a point of contention in Spain – United Kingdom relations , but an overwhelming number of Gibraltarians embrace Britishness with strong conviction , in direct opposition to Spanish territorial claims .
= = = Canada = = =
Canada traces its statehood to the French , English and Scottish expeditions of North America from the late @-@ 15th century . France ceded nearly all of New France in 1763 after the Seven Years ' War , and so after the United States Declaration of Independence in 1776 , Quebec and Nova Scotia formed " the nucleus of the colonies that constituted Britain 's remaining stake on the North American continent " . British North America attracted the United Empire Loyalists , Britons who migrated out of what they considered the " rebellious " United States , increasing the size of British communities in what was to become Canada .
In 1867 there was a union of three colonies with British North America which together formed the Canadian Confederation , a federal dominion . This began an accretion of additional provinces and territories and a process of increasing autonomy from the United Kingdom , highlighted by the Statute of Westminster 1931 and culminating in the Canada Act 1982 , which severed the vestiges of legal dependence on the parliament of the United Kingdom . Nevertheless , it is recognised that there is a " continuing importance of Canada 's long and close relationship with Britain " ; large parts of Canada 's modern population claim " British origins " and the cultural impact of the British upon Canada 's institutions is profound .
It was not until 1977 that the phrase " A Canadian citizen is a British subject " ceased to be used in Canadian passports . The politics of Canada are strongly influenced by British political culture . Although significant modifications have been made , Canada is governed by a democratic parliamentary framework comparable to the Westminster system , and retains Elizabeth II as The Queen of Canada and Head of State . English is an official language used in Canada .
= = = Chile = = =
Chile , facing the Pacific Ocean , has a large British presence . Over 50 @,@ 000 British immigrants settled in Chile from 1840 to 1914 . A significant number of them settled in Magallanes Province , especially in the city of Punta Arenas when it flourished as a major global seaport for ships crossing between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans through the Strait of Magellan . Around 32 @,@ 000 English settled in Valparaíso , influencing the port city to the extent of making it virtually a British colony during the last decades of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century . However , the opening of the Panama Canal in 1914 and the outbreak of the First World War drove many of them away from the city or back to Europe .
In Valparaíso , they created their largest and most important colony , bringing with them neighbourhoods of British character , schools , social clubs , sports clubs , business organisations and periodicals . Even today their influence is apparent in specific areas , such as the banks and the navy , as well as in certain social activities , such as football , horse racing , and the custom of drinking tea .
During the movement for independence ( 1818 ) , it was mainly the British who formed the Chilean Navy , under the command of Lord Cochrane .
British investment helped Chile become prosperous and British seamen helped the Chilean navy become a strong force in the South Pacific . Chile won two wars , the first against the Peru @-@ Bolivian Confederation and the second , the War of the Pacific , in 1878 – 79 , against an alliance between Peru and Bolivia . The liberal @-@ socialist " Revolution of 1891 " introduced political reforms modelled on British parliamentary practice and lawmaking .
British immigrants were also important in the northern zone of the country during the saltpetre boom , in the ports of Iquique and Pisagua . The " King of Saltpetre " , John Thomas North , was the principal tycoon of nitrate mining . The British legacy is reflected in the streets of the historic district of the city of Iquique , with the foundation of various institutions , such as the Club Hípico ( Racing Club ) . Nevertheless , the British active presence came to an end with the saltpetre crisis during the 1930s .
Some Scots settled in the country 's more temperate regions , where the climate and the forested landscape with glaciers and islands may have reminded them of their homeland ( the Highlands and Northern Scotland ) while English and Welsh made up the rest . The Irish immigrants , who were frequently confused with the British , arrived as merchants , tradesmen and sailors , settling along with the British in the main trading cities and ports .
An important contingent of British ( principally Welsh ) immigrants arrived between 1914 and 1950 , settling in the present @-@ day region of Magallanes . British families were established in other areas of the country , such as Santiago , Coquimbo , the Araucanía , and Chiloé .
The cultural legacy of the British in Chile is notable and has spread beyond the British Chilean community into society at large . Customs taken from the British include afternoon tea ( called onces by Chileans ) , football , rugby union and horse racing . Another legacy is the widespread use of British personal names by Chileans .
Chile has the largest population of descendants of British settlers in Latin America . Over 700 @,@ 000 Chileans may have British ( English , Scottish and Welsh ) origin , amounting to 4 @.@ 5 % of Chile 's population .
= = = New Zealand = = =
A long @-@ term result of James Cook 's voyage of 1768 – 71 , a significant number of New Zealanders are of British descent , for whom a sense of Britishness has contributed to their identity . As late as the 1950s , it was common for British New Zealanders to refer to themselves as British , such as when Prime Minister Keith Holyoake described Sir Edmund Hillary 's successful ascent of Mount Everest as putting " the British race and New Zealand on top of the world " . New Zealand passports described nationals as " British Subject : Citizen of New Zealand " until 1974 , when this was changed to " New Zealand citizen " .
In an interview with the New Zealand Listener in 2006 , Don Brash , the then Leader of the Opposition , said :
British immigrants fit in here very well . My own ancestry is all British . New Zealand values are British values , derived from centuries of struggle since Magna Carta . Those things make New Zealand the society it is .
The politics of New Zealand are strongly influenced by British political culture . Although significant modifications have been made , New Zealand is governed by a democratic parliamentary framework comparable to the Westminster system , and retains Elizabeth II as the head of the monarchy of New Zealand . English is the dominant official language used in New Zealand .
= = = Hong Kong = = =
British nationality law as it pertains to Hong Kong has been unusual ever since Hong Kong became a British colony in 1842 . From its beginning as a sparsely populated trading port to its modern role as a cosmopolitan international financial centre of over seven million people , the territory has attracted refugees , immigrants and expatriates alike searching for a new life . Citizenship matters were complicated by the fact that British nationality law treated those born in Hong Kong as British subjects ( although they did not enjoy full rights and citizenship ) , while the People 's Republic of China ( PRC ) did not recognise Hong Kong Chinese as such . The main reason for this was that recognising these people as British was seen as a tacit acceptance of a series of historical treaties that the PRC labelled as " unequal " , including the ones which ceded Hong Kong Island , the Kowloon Peninsula and the New Territories to Britain . The British government , however , recognising the unique political situation of Hong Kong , granted 3 @.@ 4 million Hong Kongers a new type of nationality known as British National ( Overseas ) , which is established in accordance with the Hong Kong Act 1985 . Among those 3 @.@ 4 million people , there are many British Nationals ( Overseas ) who are eligible for full British citizenship . Both British Nationals ( Overseas ) and British citizens are British nationals and Commonwealth citizens according to the British Nationality Law , which enables them to various rights in the United Kingdom and the European Union .
= = = South Africa = = =
The British arrived in the area which would become the modern @-@ day South Africa during the early 18th century , yet substantial settlement only started end of the 18th century , in the Cape of Good Hope ; the British first explored the area for conquests for or related to the Slave Trade . In the late 19th century , the discovery of gold and diamonds further encouraged colonisation of South Africa by the British , and the population of the British @-@ South Africans rose substantially , although there was fierce rivalry between the British and Afrikaners ( descendants of Dutch colonists ) in the period known as the Boer Wars . When apartheid first started most British @-@ South Africans were mostly keen on keeping and even strengthening its ties with the United Kingdom . The latest census in South Africa showed that there are almost 2 million British @-@ South Africans ; they make up about 40 % of the total White South African demographic , and the greatest white British ancestry populations in South Africa are in the KwaZulu @-@ Natal province and in cities such as Johannesburg and Cape Town .
= = = Ireland = = =
Plantations of Ireland introduced large numbers of people from Great Britain to Ireland throughout the Middle Ages and early modern period . The resulting Protestant Ascendancy , the aristocratic class of the Lordship of Ireland , broadly identified themselves as Anglo @-@ Irish . In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries , Protestant British settlers subjugated Catholic , Gaelic inhabitants in the north of Ireland during the Plantation of Ulster and the Williamite War in Ireland ; it was " an explicit attempt to control Ireland strategically by introducing ethnic and religious elements loyal to the British interest in Ireland " .
The Ulster Scots people are an ethnic group of British origin in Ireland , broadly descended from Lowland Scots who settled in large numbers in the Province of Ulster during the planned process of colonisations of Ireland which took place in the reign of James VI of Scotland and I of England . Together with English and Welsh settlers , these Scots introduced Protestantism ( particularly the Presbyterianism of the Church of Scotland ) and the Ulster Scots and English languages to , mainly , northeastern Ireland . With the partition of Ireland and independence for what is now the Republic of Ireland some of these people found themselves no longer living within the United Kingdom .
Northern Ireland itself was , for many years , the site of a violent and bitter ethno @-@ sectarian conflict — The Troubles — between those claiming to represent Irish nationalism , who are predominantly Roman Catholic , and those claiming to represent British unionism , who are predominantly Protestant . Unionists want Northern Ireland to remain part of the United Kingdom , while nationalists desire a united Ireland .
Since the signing of the Good Friday Agreement in 1998 , most of the paramilitary groups involved in the Troubles have ceased their armed campaigns , and constitutionally , the people of Northern Ireland have been recognised as " all persons born in Northern Ireland and having , at the time of their birth , at least one parent who is a British citizen , an Irish citizen or is otherwise entitled to reside in Northern Ireland without any restriction on their period of residence " . The Good Friday Agreement guarantees the " recognition of the birthright of all the people of Northern Ireland to identify themselves and be accepted as Irish or British , or both , as they may so choose " .
= = = United States = = =
An English presence in North America began with the Roanoke Colony and Colony of Virginia in the late @-@ 16th century , but the first successful English settlement was established in 1607 , on the James River at Jamestown . By the 1610s an estimated 1 @,@ 300 English people had travelled to North America , the " first of many millions from the British Isles " . In 1620 the Pilgrims established the English imperial venture of Plymouth Colony , beginning " a remarkable acceleration of permanent emigration from England " with over 60 % of trans @-@ Atlantic English migrants settling in the New England Colonies . During the 17th century an estimated 350 @,@ 000 English and Welsh migrants arrived in North America , which in the century after the Acts of Union 1707 was surpassed in rate and number by Scottish and Irish migrants .
The British policy of salutary neglect for its North American colonies intended to minimise trade restrictions as a way of ensuring they stayed loyal to British interests . This permitted the development of the American Dream , a cultural spirit distinct from that of its European founders . The Thirteen Colonies of British America began an armed rebellion against British rule in 1775 when they rejected the right of the Parliament of Great Britain to govern them without representation ; they proclaimed their independence in 1776 , and constituted the first thirteen states of the United States of America , which became a sovereign state in 1781 with the ratification of the Articles of Confederation . The 1783 Treaty of Paris represented Great Britain 's formal acknowledgement of the United States ' sovereignty at the end of the American Revolutionary War .
Nevertheless , longstanding cultural and historical ties have , in more modern times , resulted in the Special Relationship , the historically close political , diplomatic , and military co @-@ operation between the United Kingdom and United States . Linda Colley , a professor of history at Princeton University and specialist in Britishness , suggested that because of their colonial influence on the United States , the British find Americans a " mysterious and paradoxical people , physically distant but culturally close , engagingly similar yet irritatingly different " .
Today , 838 @,@ 000 people in the United States identified themselves as born in Britain ..
= = Culture = =
Result from the expansion of the British Empire , British cultural influence can be observed in the language and culture of a geographically wide assortment of countries such as Canada , Australia , New Zealand , South Africa , India , Pakistan , the United States , and the British overseas territories . These states are sometimes collectively known as the Anglosphere . As well as the British influence on its empire , the empire also influenced British culture , particularly British cuisine . Innovations and movements within the wider @-@ culture of Europe have also changed the United Kingdom ; Humanism , Protestantism , and representative democracy have developed from broader Western culture .
As a result of the history of the formation of the United Kingdom , the cultures of England , Scotland , Wales , and Northern Ireland are diverse and have varying degrees of overlap and distinctiveness .
= = = Cuisine = = =
Historically , British cuisine has meant " unfussy dishes made with quality local ingredients , matched with simple sauces to accentuate flavour , rather than disguise it " . It has been " vilified as unimaginative and heavy " , and traditionally been limited in its international recognition to the full breakfast and the Christmas dinner . This is despite British cuisine having absorbed the culinary influences of those who have settled in Britain , resulting in hybrid dishes such as the British Asian Chicken tikka masala , hailed by some as " Britain 's true national dish " .
Celtic agriculture and animal breeding produced a wide variety of foodstuffs for Celts and Britons . The Anglo @-@ Saxons developed meat and savoury herb stewing techniques before the practice became common in Europe . The Norman conquest of England introduced exotic spices into Britain in the Middle Ages . The British Empire facilitated a knowledge of India 's food tradition of " strong , penetrating spices and herbs " . Food rationing policies , imposed by the British government during wartime periods of the 20th century , are said to have been the stimulus for British cuisine 's poor international reputation .
British dishes include fish and chips , the Sunday roast , and bangers and mash . British cuisine has several national and regional varieties , including English , Scottish and Welsh cuisine , each of which has developed its own regional or local dishes , many of which are geographically indicated foods such as Cheddar cheese , Cheshire cheese , the Yorkshire pudding , Arbroath Smokie , Cornish pasty and Welsh cakes .
The British are the second largest per capita tea consumers in the world , consuming an average of 2 @.@ 1 kilograms ( 4 @.@ 6 lb ) per person each year . British tea culture dates back to the 19th century , when India was part of the British Empire and British interests controlled tea production in the subcontinent .
= = = Languages = = =
There is no single British language , though English is by far the main language spoken by British citizens , being spoken monolingually by more than 70 % of the UK population . English is therefore the de facto official language of the United Kingdom . However , under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages , the Welsh , Scottish Gaelic , Cornish , Irish , Ulster Scots and Scots ( or Lowland Scots ) languages are officially recognised as Regional or Minority languages by the UK Government . As indigenous languages which continue to be spoken as a first language by native inhabitants , Welsh and Scottish Gaelic have a different legal status from other minority languages . In some parts of the UK , some of these languages are commonly spoken as a first language ; in wider areas , their use in a bilingual context is sometimes supported and / or promoted by central and / or local government policy . For naturalisation purposes , a competence standard of English , Scottish Gaelic or Welsh is required to pass the life in the United Kingdom test . However , English is used routinely , and although considered culturally important , Scottish Gaelic and Welsh are much less used .
Throughout the United Kingdom there are distinctive spoken expressions and regional accents of English , which are seen to be symptomatic of a locality 's culture and identity . An awareness and knowledge of accents in the United Kingdom can " place , within a few miles , the locality in which a man or woman has grown up " .
= = = Literature = = =
British literature is " one of the leading literatures in the world " . The overwhelming part is written in the English language , but there are also pieces of literature written in Scots , Scottish Gaelic and Welsh .
Britain has a long history of famous and influential authors . It boasts some of the oldest pieces of literature in the Western world , such as the epic poem Beowulf , one of the oldest surviving written work in the English language .
Famous authors include some of the world 's most studied and praised writers . William Shakespeare and Christopher Marlowe defined England 's Elizabethan period . The British Romantic movement was one of the strongest and most recognisable in Europe . The poets William Blake , Wordsworth and Coleridge were amongst the pioneers of Romanticism in literature . Other Romantic writers that followed these figure further enhanced the profile of Romanticism in Europe , such as John Keats , Percy Bysshe Shelley and Lord Byron . Later periods like the Victorian Era saw a further flourishing of British writing , including Charles Dickens and William Thackeray .
Women 's literature in Britain has had a long and often troubled history , with many female writers producing work under a pen name , such as George Eliot . Other great female novelists that contributed to world literature were the Brontë sisters , Emily , Charlotte and Anne .
Non @-@ fiction has also played an important role in the history of British letters , with the first dictionary of the English language being produced and compiled by Samuel Johnson , a graduate of Oxford University and a London resident .
= = = Media and music = = =
Although cinema , theatre , dance and live music are popular , the favourite pastime of the British is watching television . Public broadcast television in the United Kingdom began in 1936 , with the launch of the BBC Television Service ( now BBC One ) . In the United Kingdom and the Crown dependencies , one must have a television licence to legally receive any broadcast television service , from any source . This includes the commercial channels , cable and satellite transmissions , and the Internet . Revenue generated from the television licence is used to provide radio , television and Internet content for the British Broadcasting Corporation , and Welsh language television programmes for S4C . The BBC , the common abbreviation of the British Broadcasting Corporation , is the world 's largest broadcaster . Unlike other broadcasters in the UK , it is a public service based , quasi @-@ autonomous , statutory corporation run by the BBC Trust . Free @-@ to @-@ air terrestrial television channels available on a national basis are BBC One , BBC Two , ITV , Channel 4 ( S4C in Wales ) , and Five .
100 Greatest British Television Programmes was a list compiled by the British Film Institute in 2000 , chosen by a poll of industry professionals , to determine what were the greatest British television programmes of any genre ever to have been screened . Topping the list was Fawlty Towers , a British sitcom set in a fictional Torquay hotel starring John Cleese .
" British musical tradition is essentially vocal " , dominated by the music of England and Germanic culture , most greatly influenced by hymns and Anglican church music . However , the specific , traditional music of Wales and music of Scotland is distinct , and of the Celtic musical tradition . In the United Kingdom , more people attend live music performances than football matches . British rock was born in the mid @-@ 20th century out of the influence of rock and roll and rhythm and blues from the United States . Major early exports were The Beatles , The Rolling Stones , The Who and The Kinks . Together with other bands from the United Kingdom , these constituted the British Invasion , a popularisation of British pop and rock music in the United States . Into the 1970s heavy metal , new wave , and 2 tone . Britpop is a subgenre of alternative rock that emerged from the British independent music scene of the early 1990s and was characterised by bands reviving British guitar pop music of the 1960s and 1970s . Leading exponents of Britpop were Blur , Oasis and Pulp . Also popularised in the United Kingdom during the 1990s were several domestically produced varieties of electronic dance music ; acid house , UK hard house , jungle , UK garage which in turn have influenced grime and British hip hop in the 2000s . The BRIT Awards are the British Phonographic Industry 's annual awards for both international and British popular music .
= = = Religion = = =
Historically , Christianity " has been the most influential and important religion in Britain " , and it remains the declared faith of the majority of the British people . The influence of Christianity on British culture has been " widespread , extending beyond the spheres of prayer and worship . Churches and cathedrals make a significant contribution to the architectural landscape of the nation 's cities and towns " whilst " many schools and hospitals were founded by men and women who were strongly influenced by Christian motives " . Throughout the United Kingdom , Easter and Christmas , the " two most important events in the Christian calendar " , are recognised as public holidays .
Christianity remains the major religion of the population of the United Kingdom in the 21st century , followed by Islam , Hinduism , Sikhism and then Judaism in terms of numbers of adherents . The 2007 Tearfund Survey revealed 53 % identified themselves as Christian , which was similar to the 2004 British Social Attitudes Survey , and to the United Kingdom Census 2001 in which 71 @.@ 6 % said that Christianity was their religion , However , the Tearfund Survey showed only one in ten Britons attend church weekly . Secularism was advanced in Britain during the Age of Enlightenment , and modern British organisations such as the British Humanist Association and the National Secular Society offer the opportunity for their members to " debate and explore the moral and philosophical issues in a non @-@ religious setting " .
The Treaty of Union that led to the formation of the Kingdom of Great Britain ensured that there would be a Protestant succession as well as a link between church and state that still remains . The Church of England ( Anglican ) is legally recognised as the established church , and so retains representation in the Parliament of the United Kingdom through the Lords Spiritual , whilst the British monarch is a member of the church as well as its Supreme Governor . The Church of England also retains the right to draft legislative measures ( related to religious administration ) through the General Synod that can then be passed into law by Parliament . The Roman Catholic Church in England and Wales is the second largest Christian church with around five million members , mainly in England . There are also growing Orthodox , Evangelical and Pentecostal churches , with Pentecostal churches in England now third after the Church of England and the Roman Catholic Church in terms of church attendance . Other large Christian groups include Methodists and Baptists .
The Presbyterian Church of Scotland ( known informally as The Kirk ) , is recognised as the national church of Scotland and not subject to state control . The British monarch is an ordinary member and is required to swear an oath to " defend the security " of the church upon his or her accession . The Roman Catholic Church in Scotland is Scotland 's second largest Christian church , with followers representing a sixth of the population of Scotland . The Scottish Episcopal Church , which is part of the Anglican Communion , dates from the final establishment of Presbyterianism in Scotland in 1690 , when it split from the Church of Scotland over matters of theology and ritual . Further splits in the Church of Scotland , especially in the 19th century , led to the creation of other Presbyterian churches in Scotland , including the Free Church of Scotland . In the 1920s , the Church in Wales became independent from the Church of England and became ' disestablished ' but remains in the Anglican Communion . Methodism and other Protestant churches have had a major presence in Wales . The main religious groups in Northern Ireland are organised on an all @-@ Ireland basis . Though collectively Protestants constitute the overall majority , the Roman Catholic Church of Ireland is the largest single church . The Presbyterian Church in Ireland , closely linked to the Church of Scotland in terms of theology and history , is the second largest church followed by the Church of Ireland ( Anglican ) which was disestablished in the 19th century .
= = = Sport = = =
Sport is an important element of British culture , and is one of the most popular leisure activities of Britons . Within the United Kingdom , nearly half of all adults partake in one or more sporting activity each week . Some of the major sports in the United Kingdom " were invented by the British " , including football , rugby union , rugby league and cricket , and " exported various other games " including tennis , badminton , boxing , golf , snooker and squash .
In most sports , separate organisations , teams and clubs represent the individual countries of the United Kingdom at international level , though in some sports , like rugby union , an all @-@ Ireland team represents both Northern Ireland and the Republic , and the British and Irish Lions represent the isles as a whole . The UK is represented by a single team at the Olympic Games and at the 2012 Summer Olympics , the Great Britain team won 65 medals : 29 gold ( the most since the 1908 Summer Olympics ) , 17 silver and 19 bronze , ranking them 3rd . In total , sportsmen and women from the UK " hold over 50 world titles in a variety of sports , such as professional boxing , rowing , snooker , squash and motorcycle sports " .
A 2006 poll found that association football was the most popular sport in the UK . In England 320 football clubs are affiliated to The Football Association ( FA ) and more than 42 @,@ 000 clubs to regional or district associations . The FA , founded in 1863 , and the Football League , founded in 1888 , were both the first of their kind in the world . In Scotland there are 78 full and associate clubs and nearly 6 @,@ 000 registered clubs under the jurisdiction of the Scottish Football Association . Two Welsh clubs play in England 's Football League , one in the Premier league , and others at non @-@ league level , whilst the Welsh Football League contains 20 semi @-@ professional clubs . In Northern Ireland , 12 semi @-@ professional clubs play in the IFA Premiership , the second oldest league in the world .
Recreational fishing , particularly angling , is one of the most popular participation activities in the United Kingdom , with an estimated 3 — 4 million anglers in the country . The most widely practised form of angling in England and Wales is for coarse fish while in Scotland angling is usually for salmon and trout .
= = = Visual art and architecture = = =
For centuries , artists and architects in Britain were overwhelmingly influenced by Western art history . Amongst the first visual artists credited for developing a distinctly British aesthetic and artistic style is William Hogarth . The experience of military , political and economic power from the rise of the British Empire , led to a very specific drive in artistic technique , taste and sensibility in the United Kingdom . Britons used their art " to illustrate their knowledge and command of the natural world " , whilst the permanent settlers in British North America , Australasia , and South Africa " embarked upon a search for distinctive artistic expression appropriate to their sense of national identity " . The empire has been " at the centre , rather than in the margins , of the history of British art " , and imperial British visual arts have been fundamental to the construction , celebration and expression of Britishness .
British attitudes to modern art were " polarised " at the end of the 19th century . Modernist movements were both cherished and vilified by artists and critics ; Impressionism was initially regarded by " many conservative critics " as a " subversive foreign influence " , but became " fully assimilated " into British art during the early @-@ 20th century . Representational art was described by Herbert Read during the interwar period as " necessarily ... revolutionary " , and was studied and produced to such an extent that by the 1950s , Classicism was effectively void in British visual art . Post @-@ modern , contemporary British art , particularly that of the Young British Artists , has been pre @-@ occupied with postcolonialism , and " characterised by a fundamental concern with material culture ... perceived as a post @-@ imperial cultural anxiety " .
Architecture of the United Kingdom is diverse ; most influential developments have usually taken place in England , but Ireland , Scotland , and Wales have at various times played leading roles in architectural history . Although there are prehistoric and classical structures in the British Isles , British architecture effectively begins with the first Anglo @-@ Saxon Christian churches , built soon after Augustine of Canterbury arrived in Great Britain in 597 . Norman architecture was built on a vast scale from the 11th century onwards in the form of castles and churches to help impose Norman authority upon their dominion . English Gothic architecture , which flourished between 1180 until around 1520 , was initially imported from France , but quickly developed its own unique qualities . Secular medieval architecture throughout Britain has left a legacy of large stone castles , with the " finest examples " being found lining both sides of the Anglo @-@ Scottish border , dating from the Wars of Scottish Independence of the 14th century . The invention of gunpowder and canons made castles redundant , and the English Renaissance which followed facilitiated the development of new artistic styles for domestic architecture : Tudor style , English Baroque , The Queen Anne Style and Palladian . Georgian and Neoclassical architecture advanced after the Scottish Enlightenment . Outwith the United Kingdom , the influence of British architecture is particularly strong in South India , the result of British rule in India in the 19th century . The Indian cities of Bangalore , Chennai , and Mumbai each have courts , hotels and train stations designed in British architectural styles of Gothic Revivalism and neoclassicism .
= = = Political culture = = =
British political culture is tied closely with its institutions and civics , and a " subtle fusion of new and old values " . The principle of constitutional monarchy , with its notions of stable parliamentary government and political liberalism , " have come to dominate British culture " . These views have been reinforced by Sir Bernard Crick who said :
To be British seems to us to mean that we respect the laws , the elected parliamentary and democratic political structures , traditional values of mutual tolerance , respect for equal rights and mutual concern ; that we give our allegiance to the state ( as commonly symbolised by the Crown ) in return for its protection .
British political institutions include the Westminster system , the Commonwealth of Nations and Privy Council of the United Kingdom . Although the Privy Council is primarily a British institution , officials from other Commonwealth realms are also appointed to the body . The most notable continuing instance is the Prime Minister of New Zealand , its senior politicians , Chief Justice and Court of Appeal judges are conventionally made Privy Counsellors , as the prime ministers and chief justices of Canada and Australia used to be . Prime Ministers of Commonwealth countries which retain the British monarch as their sovereign continue to be sworn as Privy Counsellors .
Universal suffrage for all males over 21 was granted in 1918 and for adult women in 1928 after the Suffragette movement . Politics in the United Kingdom is multi @-@ party , with three dominant political parties : the Conservative Party , the Labour Party and the Scottish National Party . The social structure of Britain , specifically social class , has " long been pre @-@ eminent among the factors used to explain party allegiance " , and still persists as " the dominant basis " of party political allegiance for Britons . The Conservative Party is descended from the historic Tory Party ( founded in England in 1678 ) , and is a centre @-@ right conservative political party , which traditionally draws support from the middle classes . The Labour Party ( founded by Scotsman Keir Hardie ) grew out of the trade union movement and socialist political parties of the 19th century , and continues to describe itself as a " democratic socialist party " . Labour states that it stands for the representation of the low @-@ paid working class , who have traditionally been its members and voters . The Scottish National Party is the third largest political party in the UK in terms of both party membership and representation in parliament , having won 56 out of 59 Scottish seats at the 2015 General Election . The Liberal Democrats are a liberal political party , and third largest in England in terms of membership and MPs elected . It is descended from the Liberal Party , a major ruling party of 19th century Britain through to the First World War , when it was supplanted by the Labour Party . The Liberal Democrats have historically drawn support from wide and " differing social backgrounds " . There are over 300 other , smaller political parties in the United Kingdom registered to the Electoral Commission .
= = Classification = =
According to the British Social Attitudes Survey , there are broadly two interpretations of British identity , with ethnic and civic dimensions :
The first group , which we term the ethnic dimension , contained the items about birthplace , ancestry , living in Britain , and sharing British customs and traditions . The second , or civic group , contained the items about feeling British , respecting laws and institutions , speaking English , and having British citizenship .
Of the two perspectives of British identity , the civic definition has become " the dominant idea ... by far " , and in this capacity , Britishness is sometimes considered an institutional or overarching state identity . This has been used to explain why first- , second- and third @-@ generation immigrants are more likely to describe themselves as British , rather than English , Scottish or Welsh , because it is an " institutional , inclusive " identity , that can be acquired through naturalisation and British nationality law ; the vast majority of people in the United Kingdom who are from an ethnic minority feel British .
However , this attitude is more common in England than in Scotland or Wales ; " white English people perceived themselves as English first and as British second , and most people from ethnic minority backgrounds perceived themselves as British , but none identified as English , a label they associated exclusively with white people " . Contrawise , in Scotland and Wales , White British and ethnic minority people both identified more strongly with Scotland and Wales than with Britain .
Studies and surveys have " reported that the majority of the Scots and Welsh see themselves as both Scottish / Welsh and British though with some differences in emphasis " . The Commission for Racial Equality found that with respect to notions of nationality in Britain , " the most basic , objective and uncontroversial conception of the British people is one that includes the English , the Scots and the Welsh " . However , " English participants tended to think of themselves as indistinguishably English or British , while both Scottish and Welsh participants identified themselves much more readily as Scottish or Welsh than as British " .
Some persons opted " to combine both identities " as " they felt Scottish or Welsh , but held a British passport and were therefore British " , whereas others saw themselves as exclusively Scottish or exclusively Welsh and " felt quite divorced from the British , whom they saw as the English " . Commentators have described this latter phenomenon as " nationalism " , a rejection of British identity because some Scots and Welsh interpret it as " cultural imperialism imposed " upon the United Kingdom by " English ruling elites " , or else a response to a historical misappropriation of equating the word " English " with " British " , which has " brought about a desire among Scots , Welsh and Irish to learn more about their heritage and distinguish themselves from the broader British identity " .
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= The King of Limbs =
The King of Limbs is the eighth studio album by the English rock band Radiohead , produced by Nigel Godrich . It was self @-@ released on 18 February 2011 as a download in MP3 and WAV formats , followed by physical CD and 12 " vinyl releases on 28 March and a special " newspaper " edition on 9 May 2011 . The physical editions were released through the band 's Ticker Tape imprint on XL in the United Kingdom , TBD in the United States , and Hostess Entertainment in Japan .
Following the protracted recording and more conventional rock instrumentation of In Rainbows ( 2007 ) , Radiohead developed The King of Limbs by sampling and looping their recordings . Singer Thom Yorke described the album as an expression of " wildness " and " mutation " . Radiohead released no singles from the album , but released a music video for " Lotus Flower " that spawned an internet meme .
The King of Limbs was named one of the best albums of 2011 by publications including the Wire , the NME , and PopMatters , and was nominated for five categories in the 54th Grammy Awards , including Best Alternative Music Album . It sold an estimated 300 @,@ 000 to 400 @,@ 000 download copies in the first two months of release and became a bestseller on vinyl . The album was followed in the same year by a remix album , TKOL RMX 1234567 , and a live video , The King of Limbs : Live from the Basement .
= = Recording = =
Radiohead worked on The King of Limbs with longtime producer Nigel Godrich intermittently from May 2009 to January 2011 . Like their sixth album , Hail to the Thief ( 2003 ) , it was recorded in Los Angeles , possibly at the home of actress Drew Barrymore , who is thanked in the album 's liner notes .
The band wanted to avoid repeating the protracted recording process of their previous album In Rainbows ( 2007 ) . Cover artist Stanley Donwood said : " In Rainbows was very much a definitive statement , and that isn 't where the band are at the moment . Where they are now is more transitory ... this album shows where Radiohead are at the moment the record was released . The music is a continuing thing . And we wanted to make the album representative of that . " Singer Thom Yorke said the band had felt that " if we are gonna carry on , we need to do it for a new set of reasons . " Multi @-@ instrumentalist Jonny Greenwood told Rolling Stone that the band had not wanted to " pick up guitars and write chord sequences . We didn 't want to sit in front of a computer either . We wanted a third thing , which involved playing and programming . "
Whereas Radiohead developed In Rainbows from their live performances , they developed The King of Limbs from studio experimentation . Much of the album is constructed from samples of drum , bass and guitar parts individually played by the band members , then looped , manipulated and edited with turntables , vinyl emulation software and sampling software written by Greenwood . Yorke likened the process to editing a film . Guitarist Ed O 'Brien said : " Music came first , then the lyrics , and the melody came after . So we had blocks of music and then Thom would write a lead vocal line melody and lyrics to it . " He told Rolling Stone : " The brick walls we tended to hit were when we knew something was great , like ' Bloom ' , but not finished . We knew the song was nearly something . Then [ bassist Colin Greenwood ] had that bassline , and Thom started singing . Those things suddenly made it a hundred times better . "
= = Music and lyrics = =
The King of Limbs emphasises drummer Phil Selway and bassist Colin Greenwood 's rhythm section . According to O 'Brien : " Rhythm is the king of limbs ! The rhythm dictates the record . It 's very important . " The album makes prominent use of sampling , looping , and ambient sounds , including samples of natural sounds such as birdsong and wind . Pitchfork described its music as " aggressive rhythms made out of dainty bits of digital detritus , robotically repetitive yet humanly off @-@ kilter , parched thickets of drumming graced with fleeting moments of melodic relief . " Several critics noted dubstep influences .
The first track , " Bloom " , opens with a repeating piano loop and features complex rhythms and a flugelhorn arrangement by Jonny Greenwood . " Morning Mr Magpie " , debuted as a solo acoustic performance by Yorke in a webcast in 2002 , appears with a repeating electric guitar riff and a looping hi @-@ hat pattern . " Little by Little " features intricate guitar playing over busy , syncopated percussion . " Feral " is an instrumental with wordless , processed vocals , cut @-@ up drum loops , and a distorted synth bassline . " Lotus Flower " features a driving synth bassline and Yorke 's falsetto vocals . " Codex " is a downtempo piano ballad with flugelhorns and strings . " Give Up the Ghost " is an acoustic guitar ballad with call @-@ and @-@ response vocal harmonies . The final track , " Separator " , features a looped drum pattern and a " Neil Young @-@ inspired " electric guitar riff .
Yorke told NPR that he felt The King of Limbs was a " visual " album , with lyrics and artwork about " wildness " and " mutating " inspired by his environmental concerns . The album title is thought to refer to the King of Limbs , an ancient oak tree in Wiltshire 's Savernake Forest , close to Tottenham House , where Radiohead recorded In Rainbows .
At eight tracks and 37 minutes in length , The King of Limbs is Radiohead 's shortest album . Appearing on a BBC radio show in April 2011 , O 'Brien explained that Radiohead felt the ideal album was around 40 minutes long , and cited Marvin Gaye 's What 's Going On ( 1971 ) as a classic record shorter than The King of Limbs .
= = Packaging and artwork = =
The King of Limbs artwork was created by Yorke and Stanley Donwood , who has worked with Radiohead since their second album , The Bends ( 1995 ) . Donwood originally intended to paint oil portraits of the Radiohead members in the style of Gerhard Richter , but abandoned the idea as " I 'd never painted with oils before and I 'm not Gerhard Richter so it was just a series of painted disasters . " The final artwork was influenced by Northern European fairy tales and their association with nature and woods . As with previous Radiohead albums , Donwood worked on the artwork as the band recorded nearby ; the music made Donwood think of " immense multicoloured cathedrals of trees , with music echoing from the branches whilst strange fauna lurked in the fog . " He and Yorke drew trees with eyes , limbs , mouths and familiars , creating " strange , multi @-@ limbed creatures that are neither malevolent or benevolent , they 're simply there , part of the living spirit of the forest . "
For the special " newspaper " edition of The King of Limbs , Donwood wanted to create something " in a state of flux . " He chose newspaper for " its ephemeral nature " , admiring how paper fades in sunlight ; this reflected the album 's nature themes , mirroring the natural decay of living things . Donwood took inspiration from real publications , including weekend broadsheets and a stack of radical 1960s newspapers and magazines left at bassist Colin Greenwood 's house by an unknown person . The " newspaper " edition of The King of Limbs was nominated for the Best Boxed or Special Limited Edition Package in the 54th Grammy Awards .
= = Release = =
Radiohead announced The King of Limbs on their website on 14 February 2011 with a release date of 19 February . It was released one day earlier , on 18 February . The download of The King of Limbs is DRM @-@ free . The MP3 download costs £ 6 , US $ 9 , or € 7 ; the WAV download costs £ 9 , US $ 14 , or € 11 . Customers could also order a special " newspaper edition " of the album , released 9 May 2011 , for £ 30 , US $ 48 or € 36 with the MP3 download , and £ 33 , US $ 53 or € 39 with the WAV download ( shipping included ) . The " newspaper " edition contains " two 10 @-@ inch vinyl records in a special record sleeve , many large sheets of artwork , 625 tiny pieces of artwork , a compact disc , and a colour piece of oxo @-@ degradable plastic package " . The retail CD and vinyl editions of The King of Limbs were released through the band 's Ticker Tape imprint on XL in the United Kingdom , TBD in the United States , and Hostess Entertainment in Japan .
On 16 April 2011 , Radiohead released two tracks not included on The King of Limbs but worked on during the same sessions , " Supercollider " and " The Butcher " , as a double single for Record Store Day . They later released the tracks as free downloads to those who had purchased The King of Limbs from the Radiohead website .
In June 2011 , Radiohead announced a series of King of Limbs remix singles by various artists . These remixes and others are compiled on the remix album TKOL RMX 1234567 , released in September 2011 . Radiohead performed The King of Limbs in its entirety for The King of Limbs : Live from the Basement , broadcast in July 2011 and released on DVD and Blu @-@ ray in December 2011 . On February 11 , 2014 , Radiohead released the Polyfauna app for Android and iOS ; it is an " experimental collaboration " between the band and the British digital arts studio Universal Everything , and uses musical elements and imagery from The King of Limbs .
= = Promotion and tour = =
Radiohead released a music video for " Lotus Flower " on their YouTube channel on February 16 , 2011 , featuring black @-@ and @-@ white footage of Yorke dancing . It was directed by Hammer & Tongs member Garth Jennings and choreographed by Wayne McGregor . The video sparked the " Dancing Thom Yorke " internet meme , whereby fans replaced the video 's audio or edited the visuals , and " # thomdance " became a trending hashtag on Twitter .
To promote the retail release of The King of Limbs , Radiohead distributed a free single @-@ issue newspaper , the Universal Sigh , at independent record shops across the world on 28 March 2011 . Influenced by free newspapers such as LA Weekly or London Lite , the Universal Sigh is a 12 @-@ page tabloid printed using web @-@ offset lithography on newsprint paper and features artwork , poetry , and lyrics along with short stories by Donwood , Jay Griffiths and Robert Macfarlane . Donwood and Yorke distributed copies of the Universal Sigh in person at a record shop in east London .
Radiohead did not support The King of Limbs with a tour until 2012 , as Yorke wanted to continue studio work , and as it took the band some time to arrange the album for live performance . They enlisted drummer Clive Deamer , best known for his work with Portishead and Get the Blessing , to help perform the complex rhythms . Selway said of the two @-@ drummer setup : " That was fascinating . One played in the traditional way , the other almost mimicked a drum machine . It was push @-@ and @-@ pull , like kids at play , really interesting . " On 24 June 2011 , Radiohead played a surprise performance on the Park stage at the 2011 Glastonbury Festival , performing songs from The King of Limbs before an audience for the first time . [ 106 ] In September , they played two dates at New York City 's Roseland Ballroom and made American TV appearances including a one @-@ hour special episode of The Colbert Report and the season première of Saturday Night Live . In February 2012 , Radiohead began their first extended North American tour in four years , including dates in the United States , Canada and Mexico .
= = Commercial performance = =
The retail edition of The King of Limbs debuted at number six on the Billboard 200 in the United States , with first @-@ week sales of 69 @,@ 000 copies . The following week , it peaked at number three , selling 67 @,@ 000 copies . In the United Kingdom , it debuted at number seven on the UK Albums Chart , selling 33 @,@ 469 copies in its first week . By April 2012 , The King of Limbs had sold 307 @,@ 000 retail copies in the US , making it Radiohead 's first album to fail to achieve gold certification there . The retail vinyl edition , excluding " newspaper album " sales , sold more than 20 @,@ 000 copies in the UK in the first half of 2011 , 12 % of all vinyl sold in that period , and became the best @-@ selling vinyl album of 2011 ; as of April 2015 , it was the UK 's second best @-@ selling vinyl of the decade thus far .
These figures describe retail sales after 28 March 2011 and do not include " newspaper album " or download sales through Radiohead 's website , where The King of Limbs was exclusively available for nearly two months prior to retail release , selling an estimated 300 @,@ 000 to 400 @,@ 000 copies . Radiohead 's co @-@ manager Chris Hufford estimated that Radiohead made more money from The King of Limbs than any of their previous albums , as most sales were made through the band 's website without a record company .
= = Critical reception = =
At Metacritic , which assigns a normalised rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , The King of Limbs has an average score of 80 based on 40 reviews , indicating " generally favorable reviews " . BBC Music 's Mike Diver described the album as " a fans @-@ pleasing eighth album from Britain 's most consistently brilliant band . " Michael Brodeur of The Boston Globe praised " the tense calm these eight songs maintain — a composure that feels constantly ready to crack " , commenting that " where In Rainbows was mellow but brisk — an album that felt on its way somewhere — these songs are eerie and insidious , creeping like shadows — and , often because of the haunting voice of Thom Yorke , the occasional chill . " PopMatters wrote : " The King of Limbs is a beautiful record , one that begs more of a conscious listen than its predecessor , but one that provides equal – if different – thrills in doing so . "
François Marchand of The Vancouver Sun said that the album " bridges Radiohead 's many different styles " and is " worth embracing " . Mark Pytlik of Pitchfork Media called the album " well @-@ worn terrain for Radiohead , and while it continues to yield rewarding results , the band 's signature game @-@ changing ambition is missed . " Pitchfork later named " Give Up the Ghost " as " Best New Music " , describing it as " a highlight " and " life @-@ affirming . " Robert Christgau awarded the album a two @-@ star " honourable mention " and recommended the songs " Little by Little " and " Bloom " . Los Angeles Times writer Ann Powers wrote that the album " can be heard from several different angles ... fans and critics have already been registering wildly divergent reactions : some think it 's one of the band 's best efforts ; others find it too low @-@ key or similar to previous work ; a few consider it awfully doomy , and a few others wish it were less abstract . " In a retrospective 2015 article for Stereogum , Ryan Leas wrote that The King of Limbs is " very good , occasionally great music by a pivotal band that nevertheless felt like something of a letdown because it wasn 't , ultimately , some genius stroke none of us expected . "
The album was named one of the best of 2011 by several publications : The Wire and the Guardian both named it the 27th best of the year , Mojo the 47th , NME the 20th , PopMatters the 10th , Uncut the 7th and Rolling Stone the 5th , the latter describing it as " a record that grew all year – in your room , and onstage " . The King of Limbs was nominated for five categories in the 54th Grammy Awards : Best Alternative Music Album , Best Boxed or Special Limited Edition Package , Best Short Form Music Video ( for " Lotus Flower " ) , Best Rock Performance ( " Lotus Flower " ) and Best Rock Song ( " Lotus Flower " ) .
= = Track listing = =
All tracks written by Radiohead and produced by Radiohead and Nigel Godrich .
" Bloom " – 5 : 15
" Morning Mr Magpie " – 4 : 41
" Little by Little " – 4 : 27
" Feral " – 3 : 13
" Lotus Flower " – 5 : 01
" Codex " – 4 : 47
" Give Up the Ghost " – 4 : 50
" Separator " – 5 : 20
= = Personnel = =
Radiohead
Colin Greenwood
Jonny Greenwood
Ed O 'Brien
Phil Selway
Thom Yorke ( also credited as " Zachariah Wildwood " for cover art and packaging )
Additional personnel
Yazz Ahmed – flugelhorn on " Bloom " and " Codex "
Drew Brown – additional engineering
Bryan Cooke – additional assistance
Stanley Donwood – cover art and packaging ( credited as " Donald Twain " )
Nigel Godrich – production , engineering
Noel Langley – flugelhorn on " Bloom " and " Codex "
Bob Ludwig – mastering
Darrell Thorp – additional assistance
The London Telefilmonic Orchestra , led by Levine Andrade and conducted by Robert Ziegler – strings on " Codex "
= = Charts = =
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= Precipice ( Battlestar Galactica ) =
" Precipice " is the second part of the third season premiere and 35th episode of the re @-@ imagined American science fiction drama television series Battlestar Galactica . The episode was written by re @-@ imagined creator Ronald D. Moore , and directed by Sergio Mimica @-@ Gezzan . It first aired on October 6 , 2006 on the Sci @-@ Fi Channel along with the preceding episode " Occupation " . In " Precipice " , the Cylons respond to the suicide attack in the previous episode by rounding up several civilians believed to be affiliated with the resistance , and later decide to have them executed . Meanwhile , Galactica is to send a squadron to meet with the resistance on New Caprica . Unlike most episodes , it does not include a survivor count .
Since " Occupation " revolved around the resistance , " Precipice " focused more on the New Caprica Police and Jammer 's role in it . The producers also decided to release the Sharon model imprisoned on Galactica . During the writing process , Moore included references to Seinfeld and The Great Escape . The episode was seen by 2 @.@ 2 million viewers and received universal acclaim from critics . In addition , Moore 's writing of the episode was nominated for an Emmy and Writers Guild of America awards .
= = Plot = =
In response to the suicide bombing of a New Caprica Police ( NCP ) ceremony , the Cylons order a crackdown against the insurgency . Many resistance members start to disagree about the legitimacy of the suicide bombings , but leader Colonel Saul Tigh ( Michael Hogan ) continues to orchestrate them . Meanwhile , in an attempt to get Kara " Starbuck " Thrace ( Katee Sackhoff ) to love him , Leoben Conoy ( Callum Keith Rennie ) presents her with a toddler named Kacey ( Madeline Parker ) , of whom Leoben claims Starbuck is the mother , as a result of her time on Caprica in " The Farm " . Leoben leaves her alone with the toddler , but Starbuck refuses to play with her . When she leaves Kacey unattended , however , Kacey injures herself falling down the stairs . As Kacey is recovering , Starbuck has a change of heart and prays to the Lords of Kobol not to let her die .
In a move against the insurgency , the Cylons decide to have the NCP arrest 200 civilians they believe to be affiliated with the resistance . Headed by Jammer ( Dominic Zamprogna ) , most of the arrests take place during the night . Those being arrested include Laura Roslin ( Mary McDonnell ) , Tom Zarek ( Richard Hatch ) and Cally Henderson Tyrol ( Nicki Clyne ) . After another suicide bombing at a power station , the Cylons decide to have the prisoners executed , but require President Gaius Baltar 's ( James Callis ) signature . When he refuses to sign , an Aaron Doral ( Matthew Bennett ) copy forces him to at gunpoint . Caprica @-@ Six ( Tricia Helfer ) attempts to stop him , but Doral shoots her in the head . Baltar signs the document . Meanwhile , Ellen Tigh ( Kate Vernon ) learns from Cavil ( Dean Stockwell ) that he only released her husband Saul ( Michael Hogan ) because the Cylons know he is leading the resistance . He informs Ellen that unless she tells the Cylons where the resistance leaders will be meeting next , he will imprison Saul once more . Reluctantly , Ellen discovers where the resistance plans to meet with members from the colonial fleet .
On board Galactica , Admiral William Adama ( Edward James Olmos ) appoints their Cylon prisoner Sharon Agathon ( Grace Park ) a Colonial officer and sends her to the planet to liaise with the resistance . When she arrives to meet with resistance members , Centurions attack , having learned of the meeting place from the intelligence Ellen provided . Simultaneously , the 200 human prisoners are being transported to a location by the Cylons and NCP . A masked Jammer , realizing they are to be executed , saves Cally by releasing her in secret and telling her to run . As she runs away , the sound of gunfire is heard .
= = Production = =
Since the previous episode " Occupation " focused on the resistance , writer Ronald D. Moore wanted the second part to focus more on Jammer 's role within the NCP , as he wanted to personalize somebody working for the police force . He also wanted to make Tigh know he 's wrong with launching suicide bombers , but has to do so if he believes doing so will defeat the Cylons . This is also Tigh 's principal trait and role in the series . Moore stated " why is Colonel Tigh on Galactica ? Why does Adama keep him around ? Because when the chips are down , and they are way down , baby , in this situation , when you are in a foxhole , who do you want next to you ? You want Colonel Tigh ' cause he is gonna get your ass out of there . " The scene where Baltar speaks to an imprisoned Roslin about the suicide bombings was one of Moore 's favourite scenes , as he wanted the audience to be unsure who to " root for , " since Baltar is the biggest Cylon collaborator among the humans , but Roslin seemingly supports the bombings .
After a Number Eight ( Sharon ) Cylon model was imprisoned onboard Galactica for the majority of the second season , the producers decided they needed to have her released , as they believed the storyline ran its course , and make her worthy for Adama 's trust . " The swirl " , a sex position Ellen Tigh uses , was a reference to Seinfeld , a comedy series Moore was a fan of . The sequence leading up to the Cylon Centurions lining up to execute the prisoners was an homage to The Great Escape , particularly the scene featuring the death of Richard Attenborough 's character from the Nazis after stopping the truck he was in , and telling him to take a break , at which point he was executed .
Madeline Parker was cast as Kacey Brynn . Parker 's performance impressed the producers , as they believed she was " one of the better child actors " they ever worked with , since casting them , especially at a younger age , was not easy . The one problem they had with Parker however , was filming her lying injured on the stairs . In the scene where the NCP arrest civilians at night , the idea of using night vision , which did not come from the original script , came from director Sergio Mimica @-@ Gezzan . Real night scopes were used to ensure the authenticity of the effect . One of the main visual effects of the episode was another suicide bombing which was caught on camera . Moore stated to have " tortured the visual effects guys about [ it ] quite a bit , " because the camera footage was in black and white and the visual quality of the explosion had to be degraded to match the footage .
Much like " Occupation " , " Precipice " also features scenes filmed on the Colonial One set featuring several copies of the same Cylon models . Furthermore Mimica Gezzan decided to shoot a 360 degree angle around the set , requiring additional digital duplication . The actors had to change their clothes between every take , which normally took as long as 30 minutes , after including time for touch ups on hair and makeup . The countryside of New Caprica was featured more towards the end of the episode . The producers found it a challenge to differentiate New Caprica from Caprica , the name of the planet New Caprica was named after following the holocaust from the miniseries , and featured extensively again during the first season , and both planets were filmed on location in temperate British Columbia forests .
= = Reception = =
" Occupation " and " Precipice " were originally meant to be released as two separate episodes , however the producers decided to merge them together to be released as a two @-@ hour broadcast . The reasoning was partly due to the third episode " Exodus " , which became too long and split to a two @-@ part episode , and the producers did not wish to stretch the New Caprica storyline to several weeks . The two @-@ hour season @-@ three premiere was first broadcast on the Sci Fi Channel in the United States on Friday , October 6 , 2006 between 9 pm and 11 pm . After its original broadcast , the two @-@ hour episode attracted a household rating of 1 @.@ 8 , equaling a total of 2 @.@ 2 million viewers . Ratings were an increase of two per cent in total viewing from the average of the second half of the second season .
" Precipice " received positive reviews from critics . Keith McDuffee of TV Squad felt that Sharon Agathon coming to the fleet was a " surprising development " and the cliffhanger was " unbelievable " , adding " are the writers actually crazy enough to mass kill so many main characters to the series ? Is it possible at all that they can actually get out of this ? " Eric Goldman of IGN rated the episode a " masterful " 10 out of 10 , stating " watching the season premiere of Battlestar Galactica is a great reminder that this is truly still the best show on television . " Ian Berriman of SFX reacted positively towards the episode , stating " Although there are a couple of great surprises in this episode – Casey , the Great Escape @-@ homaging finale – the highlights are a fistful of fabulous face @-@ offs : Baltar discussing the bombing with Roslin ; Roslin questioning Tigh 's methods ; Apollo telling Adama that his plan is madness . James Callis 's performance as the haggard , tortured Baltar is outstanding . " Berriman rated the episode five stars out of five . Patrick Sauriol of UGO felt that although it was set a year since " Lay Down Your Burdens " , it " hasn 't lost a thing by jumping ahead , " and that the episode , along with " Occupation " , " confirm that it 's still the best show on television . " Sauriol graded both episodes an A- . Television Without Pity gave the episode an A + , a higher grade than the previous episode .
In 2007 , the episode was nominated for a 59th Primetime Emmy Awards for " Outstanding Writing in a Drama Series " , but lost to HBO 's The Sopranos series finale " Made in America " . " Precipice " was also nominated for a Writers Guild of America Award for best Episodic Drama . However , the episode lost out to the pilot episode of Big Love .
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= Rihanna ( book ) =
Rihanna ( originally titled and alternatively known as Rihanna : The Last Girl on Earth ) is a coffee table photo @-@ book by Barbadian recording artist Rihanna and British artist Simon Henwood . Henwood envisioned the project as the depiction of a " journey " , as it includes professional and candid photos by him , that show the singer 's fourth studio album , Rated R 's ( 2009 ) promotional campaign , alongside pictures from other live appearances . The publication features a preface written by French designer Alexandre Vauthier .
It was first issued in the United States as a hardcover edition including a CD , on October 15 , 2010 ; also being released in paperback formats and a deluxe hardcover edition including a crystal monogrammed clamshell and a signed image print . To promote the book , Rihanna appeared at a Barnes & Noble store where she signed copies of it . Editors commented on the book positively , favoring Rihanna 's looks and Henwood 's photography .
= = Background and concept = =
In November 2009 , Rihanna released her fourth studio album Rated R through Def Jam Recordings , to critical and commercial success . Following was a year @-@ long world tour , titled Last Girl On Earth . On January 2010 , details about a Rihanna photo book were revealed , including its initial title — Rihanna : The Last Girl On Earth — and a tentative date , on June 29 of that year .
During an interview with website MuuMuse , the book 's photographer and British artist Simon Henwood , who also served as the creative director during the promotional campaign for Rated R , spoke on the concept and purpose of the publication . He revealed that the book was created in order to show the events of that promotional era , and while he did not envision the project as a " diary " , he described it as a " picture book of everything that happens when you 're building [ something ] like this , so things people had not seen of her . " Having spent a long period of time with Rihanna on diverse locations , such as " fashion shows , on set , hotel rooms " amongst others , Henwood told MuuMuse that it depicted the " journey from the initial design of the logo and concept of the album to the singer embarking on the Last Girl on Earth Tour .
As a result , Rihanna includes photos of the singer taken during the Paris Fashion Week ; during the Rated R photoshoot done by Ellen von Unwerth in Berlin ; candid pictures and pictures of her American Music Awards live performance . The last photos of the publication were taken by Henwood during the European leg of the Last Girl on Earth Tour in April 2010 . Aside from the pictures , the book also includes a preface written by French designer Alexandre Vauthier , in which he praises the singer and describes their encounter .
The date was then rescheduled from June 2010 to September of that year , and Rihanna revealed to Daily Mail some details about the book : " It 's gonna be a book with all of these images that people have never seen before . It 's like a backstage pass , like a fashion book . " To MTV , she reiterated those comments :
I think it was really special to have behind @-@ the @-@ scenes photos , you know , pictures that the fans haven 't seen before , all together of a very specific moment of my life , an album of my life . They just get to see all the things that they hadn 't seen that were going on behind the scenes ; really cool stuff , not typical . They 're really fun photos . And even for me , when I look at them , they say so much . Photos really tell a thousand words .
= = Release and reception = =
A 144 @-@ page book , Rihanna was released on October 15 , 2010 in the United States under Rizzoli Publications , on hardcover format , including a CD with a song from Rated R ; four days later , the paperback format was issued in the United States , Germany , and France . Both editions were released in the United Kingdom on October 20 , 2010 , under the original title Rihanna : The Last Girl on Earth . Four days later , the paperback format was issued in the United States . On October 26 , 2010 , a deluxe edition of the photo @-@ book was released , including the hardcover edition " encased in a Swarovski crystal monogrammed clamshell " alongside a print with an image from " Rude Boy " ' s music video shoot , signed by Rihanna . Imported versions of the book were sold in Portugal starting February 2012 .
Rihanna appeared at the Fifth Avenue store of Barnes & Noble , in which she signed copies of the photo @-@ book , dressed in a " floral @-@ print " dress . Editors who commented on the book were positive about it . At E ! , Marc Malkin praised Henwood 's professional photography , which he deemed " absolutely gorgeous " . At Rap @-@ Up , editors favored Rihanna 's looks , writing that in the pictures , she was " at the height of her beauty and ferocity " . Rebecca Thomas of MTV had a similar opinion , stating : " The 22 @-@ year @-@ old stunner [ Rihanna ] shines in front of the camera and perhaps never more so than in the images that capture [ her ] " .
= = Release history = =
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= Fraser Mansion =
The Fraser Mansion is a building at 1701 20th Street NW , at the intersection of Connecticut Avenue , 20th Street , and R Street in the Dupont Circle neighborhood of Washington , D.C. Since its construction in 1890 , the mansion has served as a private residence , a restaurant , a boarding house , and most recently as home to the Founding Church of Scientology . The building is currently the location of Scientology 's National Affairs office .
The mansion was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1975 .
= = Design , construction , and early use = =
The mansion was designed by the architectural firm of Hornblower and Marshall in an early eclectic beaux arts style to serve as the home of New York merchant George S. Fraser . The building is three stories tall with two basement levels and an attic . It is constructed of red brick and pink granite with a colonnaded entrance porch with balustraded deck , and a tiled , hipped roof . The interior was planned around a central open stair , with large , central halls on each floor . It was constructed in 1890 at a cost of $ 75 @,@ 000 , more than ten times the cost of a typical Washington home at that time .
The building served as Fraser 's residence until his death in 1896 . In 1901 , Fraser 's widow sold the mansion to Pennsylvania Congressman Joseph Earlston Thropp , where he took up residence beginning on March 3 , 1901 . The Thropps made exterior alterations , enlarging dormer windows and adding an oriel window in 1901 . In 1905 , architects Totten and Rogers designed a terrace with an entrance to the house near the oriel window , and also redesigned the garden wall .
The mansion remained in the ownership of Thropp and his wife , Miriam Scott @-@ Thropp , until Scott @-@ Thropp 's death in 1930 .
= = Restaurant = =
In 1932 , the lower floor of the mansion began operation as the Parrot Tea Room , a tea house , with a boarding house located on the upper levels . In 1950 , upon leasing to John Goldstein , the facility was converted to a restaurant and renamed the Golden Parrot . The mansion was sold in 1974 , and the restaurant was renamed the Golden Booeymonger . Later , the mansion became home to nightclubs Larry Brown 's and Sagittarius .
The mansion was again sold in 1981 to Walter Sommer for $ 2 million . In 1982 , following a $ 3 million restoration / renovation , the Fourways fine dining restaurant on the first floor and the Bermuda Bar and Grill below it were opened . The Fourways served Continental European and American dishes under the leadership of chef Jacques Barre .
By 1988 , Sommer opened the Bermuda Bar and Grill patio @-@ cafe alongside the Fourways . According to the Nation 's Restaurant News , the restaurant seated 40 people inside and 60 outside , and was modeled after the Fourways Restaurant and Inn of Bermuda . Among other things , the restaurant featured an all @-@ you @-@ can @-@ eat salad bar , an unlimited Sunday brunch , and " traditional Bermuda drink , Dark & Stormy , made with Bermuda 's Goslings Black Seal rum and Ginger Beer . Another Bermudian tradition , Bermuda Fish Chowder with Outerbridge 's Sherry Peppers Sauce was always on the menu .
= = Proposed apartment building = =
In 1987 , Sommer proposed to construct a seven @-@ story , 29 @-@ unit apartment building in its parking lot behind the mansion . At the time , the property was zoned residential , with variances permitting a restaurant on the property . Then @-@ owner Walter Sommer claimed that the variances restricted him unfairly , requiring him to go to the zoning board multiple times for changes to his business , in a process that he considered costly and time consuming . Additionally , Sommer claimed that without commercial zoning , he was unable to obtain a " realistic commercial loan " to fund maintenance costs . Between 1982 and 1987 , the D.C. Board of Zoning Appeals granted Sommer variances to expand the commercial use of the building above the first floor permitting a private business club on the second floor . The club never opened . The third floor was an apartment for the General Manager .
While the proposed design for the building was approved by the D.C. Office of Planning and the Historic Preservation Review Board , and the Department of Public Works had determined that the plans , which would have included underground parking for both the apartments and the restaurant , would not cause an increase in parking or traffic problems in the area , the community opposed the building 's construction . Nearby resident Duff Gilfont described the proposed apartment building as " such a blight to this area , " and that " there would have been so many people inconvenienced by it . " Several neighborhood associations opposed rezoning the building , expressing concern that the new building would be used as a hotel . Sommer denied that there were plans to use the building as a hotel or an office building .
Several covenants were proposed . One would require that the new building only be used for residential purposes . A second would have required that any future owners of the Fraser Mansion would be required to submit their plans for the building for review by the D.C. Historic Preservation Review Board . A third proposed covenant would have split the zoning of the property , allowing only residential use of the building , but requiring variances for any changes in the parking for the restaurant or the apartment building .
Despite the proposed covenants , however , community groups vowed to continue to fight the proposal .
= = Bankruptcy and attempted sale = =
During the fight over the building 's zoning , Sommer claimed that he would go bankrupt if he was unable to develop the property . Fourways filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy in 1989 , and by October 1989 , the Fourways restaurant had closed .
Trying to pay creditors , Sommer attempted to sell the mansion . Sommer 's initial asking price was $ 7 million , which he later reduced to $ 3 million . A number of embassies and chanceries looked at the mansion , but none purchased . According to real estate broker Stanley Holland , Sommer " thought it was worth more than it was . "
= = Church of Scientology = =
In 1994 , the Church of Scientology purchased the property with the intention of using the building as a church facility . In purchasing the building , Scientology first purchased mortgages on the building in 1993 from the FDIC , which had assumed the loans after the 1990 failure of the National Bank of Washington . Following the purchase of the loans , Scientology foreclosed on the building . In the subsequent foreclosure auction , Scientology purchased the building for $ 2 @.@ 7 million .
Following $ 1 million in renovations , the building was dedicated as the new Founding Church of Scientology on October 21 , 1995 by Religious Technology Center chairman David Miscavige .
The Founding Church of Scientology relocated from the Fraser Mansion to the nearby Embassy Building on 16th Street NW on October 31 , 2009 . Fraser Mansion now serves as the National Affairs office for the Church of Scientology .
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= Unbreakable ( Fireflight song ) =
" Unbreakable " is a song by Christian rock band Fireflight from their second album , Unbreakable . It was released in November 2007 as the album 's lead single , receiving television promotion on the NBC network that month . The song soon became popular on Christian rock radio , charting at number one in February 2008 . It was 2008 's 14th most played song of the year on Christian contemporary hit radio .
The song is about having triumph and victory over past circumstances and has been described as " anthemic " . The theme of " Unbreakable " was partially inspired by a fan 's question asked on MySpace . It received generally positive reviews from critics and was GMA Dove Award @-@ nominated in 2009 for Rock / Contemporary Song of the Year .
= = Background = =
The band 's style and theme changed between their debut album , The Healing of Harms ( 2006 ) , and Unbreakable . The first album was thematically based on " trying to fight your way through circumstances " , while Fireflight 's second project has a theme of triumph and being " [ victorious ] over the things that used to control you " . According to the band members , the song " Unbreakable " represents that change between the two albums : " now it 's about finding power in your life " , said bassist Wendy Drennen .
= = Music and lyrics = =
The song is carried by an " anthemic " sound and the " riveting vocals " of lead vocalist Dawn Michele . Bassist Wendy Drennen said that " Unbreakable " was about " overcoming a defeated mentality and finding the power to remain strong amid the landscape , not allowing fear to hold us back from having victory over the things that used to control us " . It is also lyrically based on the Biblical account of Jesus and the woman taken in adultery ; the song 's first line states , " Where are the people that accused me ? " Richardson said , " The people in charge were ready to kill her , and Jesus speaks up for her , changes their minds and makes them feel ashamed for accusing her ... She knows she ’ s guilty , and yet she ’ s suddenly free and given a second chance . "
= = Release and promotion = =
" Unbreakable " was featured on the promotional soundtrack for NBC 's television show Bionic Woman during November 2007 . On November 6 , the song was officially released as the lead single from Fireflight 's second album , Unbreakable . In the beginning of February 2008 , it placed at number one on R & R 's Christian rock format , becoming the band 's third number one single on Christian rock radio . It held the position for at least three weeks , and also charted at number 14 on R & R 's Christian contemporary hit radio ( CHR ) chart ; it was the most @-@ added song of the week on the CHR format in mid February . It reached a peak position on the Billboard Hot Christian Songs chart of number 20 in early April .
At the end of 2008 " Unbreakable " was the 14th most @-@ played song of the year on Christian contemporary hit radio . In February 2009 , it received a GMA Dove Award nomination for Rock / Contemporary Song of the Year .
= = = Reception = = =
The song was generally received well by critics . Jesus Freak Hideout editor John DiBiase called it a " powerful anthem " and said that the opening track was " merely the tip of the iceberg " for the album 's quality among the other tracks . Bob Felberg of The Phantom Tollbooth was favorable towards the song , saying , " ' Unbreakable ' ... is one of the strongest Christian rock songs in a long time , both in music and lyrics " , and that it featured " a slinky @-@ like guitar and strings interacting before slamming rhythms blow your hair straight back " . In response to " Unbreakable " being featured on NBC 's Bionic Woman , The Phantom Tollbooth 's second reviewer Bert Saraco said , " Mainstream attention is a wonderful thing , of course , but often signals a necessarily generic element to a project that sometimes sends out danger signals as to its artistic or creative potential . " Tony Cummings of Cross Rhythms magazine said that the song was " excellent " .
= = Music video = =
The song 's music video premiered on the Gospel Music Channel on March 29 , 2008 . The video primarily shows the band performing in a building with dark lighting , but also depicts three people in their separate difficulties . The first is a man who was involved in a car wreck . Next shown is a woman who has suffered hair loss from chemotherapy cancer treatment , and the third individual is a teenage girl who struggles with bulimia nervosa . At the end of the song , all three have a more relaxed countenance .
= = Charts = =
= = Awards = =
The song was nominated for a Dove Award for Rock / Contemporary Recorded Song of the Year at the 40th GMA Dove Awards .
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= Mustafizur Rahman =
Mustafizur Rahman ( born 6 September 1995 ) is a Bangladeshi international cricketer . He is specialized as a left @-@ arm Fast bowler . He has taken the most wickets ( 13 ) in a debut One Day International series . He is the first player to win the ‘ Man of the Match ’ award on both Test as well as ODI debuts . He trained at the prestigious MRF PACE ACADEMY
Rahman made his international cricket debut against Pakistan in the Twenty20 format in April 2015 . Later that year , he played his first One Day International and Test matches against India and South Africa , respectively .
Before his international career , Rahman played in the 2014 Under @-@ 19 Cricket World Cup . He also represented Dhaka Dynamites in the 2015 Bangladesh Premier League and representing Sunrisers Hyderabad in 2016 Indian Premier League , taking the award of Emerging Player for his debut season .
= = Early life = =
Mustafizur Rahman grew up in the small town of Shatkhira in Khulna Division , Bangladesh . He is the youngest of Abul Qasem Gazi and Mahmuda Khatun 's six children . His father is an enthusiastic fan of cricket . Rahman 's interest in cricket rose when he started practicing the game 40 kilometers away from home every morning , with his brother Mokhlesur Rahman . This affected his education as he occasionally skipped study to play cricket .
Prior to discovering his bowling talents , Rahman played as a batsman with a tennis ball . According to him , he took inspiration from Pakistani pacer Mohammad Amir , who is his idol .
= = Youth career = =
In 2012 , Rahman came to the capital Dhaka to try out for a fast @-@ bowlers camp . Prior to that , scouters first encountered him in an Under @-@ 17 tournament in his hometown . He was admitted to the Bangladesh Cricket Board 's foundation of fast bowling . Soon he was selected to the Bangladesh Under @-@ 19 side for the 2014 Under @-@ 19 Cricket World Cup in UAE , where he took a total of eight wickets .
Rahman started both his First @-@ class cricket and List @-@ A cricket from 2014 , representing Khulna Division and Abahani Limited , respectively . He was picked for Bangladesh A 's tour of West Indies .
= = Domestic career = =
= = = Indian Premier League = = =
In the Indian Premier League auction of the 2016 season , Rahman was drafted by Sunrisers Hyderabad . He took 17 wickets in 16 matches in that tournament where Sunrisers Hyderabad won the title . He was named as " Emerging Player of the Tournament " , being the first overseas player to receive this award .
= = = Bangladesh Premier League = = =
Rahman 's professional Twenty20 career outside international cricket was the Bangladesh Premier League , where he played for Dhaka Dynamites in its 2015 season . He took 14 wickets in 10 matches in that tournament .
= = = NatWest T20 Blast = = =
In March 2016 , English side Sussex announced that they had signed Rahman as their second overseas player for the T20 Blast competition . He picked up 4 wickets while giving away only 23 runs in his debut match against Essex County Cricket Club . He bowled a brilliant 4 overs with 15 dot balls out of 24 balls in the match which helped Sussex County Cricket Club to win by 24 runs .
= = = Pakistan Super League = = =
Mustafizur was selected by Lahore Qalandars in the Pakistan Super League . The BCB was reluctant to let him play there . However , the issue was resolved when Rahman got a shoulder injury in early 2016 , thus preventing him from playing in the PSL .
= = International career = =
= = = Emergence = = =
Mustafizur began his international career in a twenty overs match against Pakistan on 24 April 2015 , where he took the wickets of Shahid Afridi and Mohammad Hafeez , two veteran Pakistani batsmen .
In June , India toured Bangladesh for one Test and three One Day Internationals . Rahman was picked in the ODI squad . In his first match of the series , Rahman gave signs of his potential against the strong Indian batting line @-@ up by taking a five @-@ wicket haul off 9 @.@ 2 overs in the first match . Bangladesh won the match and Rahman became the tenth bowler in the history of ODIs to take five wickets on debut . In the second ODI , Rahman took another six wickets . This helped him to earn the record of most wickets of any bowler after two ODIs , surpassing the record previously held by Zimbabwe 's Brian Vitori . He completed the last ODI with 2 wickets and made history by taking 13 wickets in a three @-@ match ODI series .
The following month , Rahman took 5 wickets in three ODIs to help Bangladesh win the series against South Africa by 2 – 1 . He made his Test debut in the same series versus South Africa where he picked up 4 wickets .
In the month of November , Bangladesh hosted Zimbabwe for three ODIs and two T20s . Rahman played a salient role in the ODI matches , taking a total of 8 wickets . He captured his third five @-@ wicket haul in the last game . He could not contribute much in the T20 series , though he bowled economically , which resulted both sides sharing a win . The next year in January , Bangladesh again played with Zimbabwe in four T20s . Rahman played in the first two matches , which they won . Shoulder injury prevented him playing the entire series .
Mustafizur made his return in the 2016 Asia Cup held in Bangladesh . In the first match against India , he conceded forty runs in four overs without taking a wicket . He took three wickets in the next two games against UAE and Sri Lanka , which resulted in his team winning both the games . Then he was ruled out from rest of the series due to side strain . During the 2016 World Twenty20 held in India in March , he missed the Group Stage matches and the match against Pakistan in main round . In the three matches he played , he took nine wickets including a five wicket haul against New Zealand .
= = = Injury problems = = =
While bowling in the second T20I against Zimbabwe in January 2016 , Mustafizur injured his shoulder . Following that , he was dropped from the squad for the first time since debut . During the Asia Cup held in the next month , he was again sidelined from the team due to his side strain .
= = Playing style = =
Rahman achieved success in the beginning of his international career by bowling off cutters , a type of bowling which swings the ball away . Rahman stated that he first discovered the technique after his fellow cricketer , Anamul Haque insisted him to bowl a slower delivery.This is very useful to right handed batsmen but he has a difficulty to do the same thing to the left handed batsman .
= = Personal and disciplinary issues = =
Rahman was assisted by captain Mashrafe Mortaza to talk on post @-@ match interview twice , and on a press conference once . Normally , he struggles to speak to the media and public .
In his first ODI match , Rahman collided with the Indian batsman MS Dhoni on two occasions while Dhoni was taking runs . The incident cost both men to be fined post @-@ match .
= = Records and milestones = =
Mustafizur Rahman became the tenth bowler to take a five @-@ wicket haul on ODI debut . He achieved the records of taking the most wickets ( 11 ) as well as the fourth player to be awarded Man of the match in the first two starting ODI matches .
Rahman took 13 wickets in a three @-@ match bilateral ODI series , which is the highest as of 2016 . He is the first player to win Man of the Match awards on both Test and ODI debuts .
The governing body of cricket , the International Cricket Council , included Rahman on the ICC ODI Team of the Year in 2015 , recognizing him as one of the top cricketers of that year . He is the first Bangladeshi cricketer to achieve this and the second to be selected for any ICC team after Shakib Al Hasan .
= = International performances = =
= = = One Day International five @-@ wicket hauls = = =
= = = Twenty20 International five @-@ wicket hauls = = =
= = International awards = =
= = = Test cricket = = =
= = = = Man of the match awards = = = =
= = = One @-@ Day International cricket = = =
= = = = Man of the match awards = = = =
= = = = Man of the series awards = = = =
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= My Gym Partner 's a Monkey =
My Gym Partner 's a Monkey is an American animated television series that was created by Tim Cahill and Julie McNally Cahill and produced by Cartoon Network Studios . It premiered on Cartoon Network on December 26 , 2005 . The story revolves around Adam Lyon , a human who , after a clerical error listed his surname as " Lion , " is forced to transfer to Charles Darwin Middle School , a school for local anthropomorphic zoo animals , where he is partnered with Jake Spidermonkey in gym , and quickly becomes best friends with him .
The series aired 96 episodes , a special , and a feature film during its run . The series ended its 4 @-@ season run on November 27 , 2008 . On April 27 , 2012 , this series returned to Cartoon Network to show reruns on the revived block , Cartoon Planet . Two DVD volumes have been released in 2007 and 2008 . The first season was recently put on Netflix , along with other Cartoon Network shows , where it is in its original widescreen format , while the second season is cropped to full screen format .
My Gym Partner 's a Monkey was a ratings success for Cartoon Network , gaining millions of viewers . The series was met with generally positive reviews from critics . It was nominated for four Annie Awards and won an Emmy Award .
= = Overview = =
A boy named Adam is transferred to a middle school established for anthropomorphic zoo animals due to a spelling error making his surname " Lion " . There , he is befriended by a mischievous , eccentric spider monkey named Jake , hence the title of the series , along with a sassy toucan named Lupe , a giraffe named Ingrid , who is infatuated with Adam , the intelligent , wise gorilla Windsor , and Slips the easygoing python . In spite of his usual kindness and fondness for his friends , Adam despises being banished to Charles Darwin Middle School because of something beyond his control and longs for his previous human middle school .
Usually , the episodes are focused on Adam 's experiences at Charles Darwin Middle School due to his inability to fit in with his anthropomorphic schoolmates , the challenges that he must face ( such as the presumed stupidity of his peers , being schooled in subjects of use only to animals , the introductions of new students of odd , dangerous , or fictional species to the school or the misadventures that Adam stumbles into with them , or the common effects of adolescence as they are experienced by zoo animals ) .
= = Characters = =
Adam Lyon ( voiced by Nika Futterman ) is a 12 @-@ year @-@ old human boy who was transferred from Chester Arthur Middle School to Charles Darwin Middle School ( CDMS ) by an accidental misspelling of his last name from " Lyon " to " Lion " . As the series title suggests , in gym class , Adam was paired up with Jake Spidermonkey and the two become best friends . Jake 's plans have them getting involved in situations which end up with him and Adam in trouble . Adam , being physically weak , is often preyed upon by the other animal students . His personality is downtrodden , due to being in an animal school and he also has a reputation of complaining about his daily experiences at the school . Adam can be arrogant and strong @-@ willed at times . Outside of school , he is often seen with a human girl named Kerry , with whom he has a secret crush . His efforts to impress her end up with Adam 's embarrassment . Towards the middle of the series , Adam seems to be on the borderline of sanity . Throughout the series , he is a big fan of his favorite superhero , Captain Clowny , despite the time he didn 't get a Captain Clowny action figure for his birthday after making a wish on a star that he would when he was little . He eagerly hopes to attend a clown @-@ based summer day @-@ camp and his college of choice is Clown College , as seen on his resume in the episode " My Feral Lyon " .
Jacob P. " Jake " Spidermonkey ( voiced by Tom Kenny ) , as his last name implies , is a spider monkey who quickly became Adam 's best friend . He is often very possessive of Adam and hates not having him around regularly . Jake is emotional and goofy , who takes to heart some of Adam 's comments and actions , leading to some overly @-@ dramatic and exaggerated reactions . He can be lazy and selfish , but at the same time , he is also fairly sensible . A running gag in the series is his obsession with the well @-@ being of his butt , which he made grow so large that it blocked out the sun in one episode . Along with the majority of the other animal students , Jake lives close enough to the school that he can see it from where he lives . Jake is often depicted as unintelligent . Jake has an older brother who looks like a taller , more stretched @-@ out version of Jake .
Windsor Gorilla ( voiced by Rick Gomez ) is a highly intelligent Western lowland gorilla , who serves as the anti @-@ bully at the school and often gives confusing wisdom to people . He speaks in a soft @-@ spoken and nearly monotonous manner , often stringing together technical words as a matter of his normal speech . When he talks , only the side of his mouth closest to the camera moves and the rest of his mouth remains closed . He is usually seen with Slips and is generally shown to be the leader of the two . Windsor tends to relate with Adam 's troubles better than the rest of the school , having a good grasp of both human and animal worlds , although he occasionally gives in to his animal instincts as well . Windsor has an older brother in high school who plays for his school 's football team .
Slips Python ( voiced by Rick Gomez ) is an easy @-@ going , street @-@ talking green tree python . He is an underachiever and excessive daydreamer whose gullibility allows him to believe anything he hears , which makes him a constant source of misinformation . As a snake , he has no limbs , yet wears a T @-@ shirt ( why is never explained ) . Slips has an older sister in high school who , despite being a girl , looks like an older version of Slips with a deep voice . He is usually seen with his best friend Windsor .
Guadalupe " Lupe " Toucan ( voiced by Grey DeLisle ) is a female Keel @-@ billed toucan , who is loud @-@ mouthed , acerbic , dominating and materialistic , although she considers herself to be mild @-@ tempered and low maintenance . Her best friend is Ingrid , who she dominates more than anyone else . Lupe loves popular culture , such as celebrities and fashion , though not being fond of clumsy toucan celebrity Kiki BonBeaky ( despite this , she said later on that she was one of Kiki 's biggest fans ) . She does not like milk . She speaks with a somewhat exaggerated , but fake , Chicano dialect and is known to have some issues involving what she sees as her overly large beak . Lupe has an elder sister who is in high school . She has a boyfriend named Corey Vulture , who is seen in the episode " Lupe in Love " .
Ingrid Giraffe ( voiced by Grey DeLisle ) is a female Masai giraffe and the tallest student in CDMS . Her towering height only adds to her feelings of insecurity , as she tries desperately to blend into the background . She is often seen with her neck going up then heading down on the screen in an exaggerated hunch , since it is very long and is often seen from the neck down . Lupe , Ingrid 's best friend , often hushes her when she gives advice and basically runs the whole " friendship " . Ingrid has a crush on Adam Lyon , of which he is mostly unaware , or is actively frightened by her advances . She is also considered to be the weakest in the group .
Principal Poncherello Pegone Pixiefrog ( voiced by Maurice LaMarche ) , as his last name implies , is a Pixie Frog and the CDMS principal . As a strict , but fair , administrator , he runs a tight ship , which is somewhat remarkable , considering he could easily be squashed underfoot by most of his students and the rest of the faculty ; for instance , when he was forced to watch the cheerleading practice , he ended up being crushed under LaTanya Hippo 's foot with the weight of the entire team . Principal Pixiefrog always dodges lawsuits , is terrified of lawyers and is scared when anyone in the school could get sued ( he is shown to have Liticaphobia ) . He talks similarly to Windsor , only moving part of his mouth , but his voice is much louder . Adam always asks him if anything bothers him , this frog principal will always help him to see . It is also revealed that Principal Pixiefrog has a mother , who bothers him .
Mrs. Geraldine Sharon Warthog ( voiced by Grey DeLisle ) is Principal Pixiefrog 's assistant ; she does all of the filing and is a warthog . Ironically , she never works . Completely fed up with her job and her employer , she always has an air of complete exasperation about her . Her voice is identical to that of Nurse Gazelle .
Nurse Gazelle ( voiced by Grey DeLisle ) is a female gazelle who serves as the school nurse of CDMS . She has blond hair and blue eyes . She also claims to have a brain the size of a soy nut , and that it 's really tiny and dry . An interesting note is that she can 't tell between a mirror 's reflection and the animal looking into the mirror or the difference between two slightly similar but not identical animals . Surprisingly , when Adam and Jake created nasty clones of themselves , she was able to differentiate them just before Principal Pixiefrog , who was with her , did . She is a nurse who specializes in injection . She 's also a cosmetologist .
Virgil " Bull " Sharkowski ( voiced by Phil LaMarr ) is a bull shark who enjoys beating up smaller kids and stealing their lunches . His intimidating presence , however , is offset by a high @-@ pitched , squeaky voice that sometimes lessens the impact of his verbal threats . Despite being a bully , he also has a soft humane side that he does not usually realize he is revealing . Due to Bull being a water creature , he wears water @-@ filled headphones over his gills to help him breathe ; when he talks , he will stop as his gills suck up the water with a loud noise . Bull has a big sister , Euripedes , who graduated CDMS prior to the beginning of the show and left a lasting impression in the school , a fact that has caused Bull to develop an inferiority complex at the mere mention of her name ( despite the fact she is not only half Bull 's size , but bullies via feminine taunts instead of physical abuse ) .
Henry Armadillo ( voiced by Tom Kenny ) is an armadillo who speaks in a thick southern drawl .
Coach Tiffany Gills ( voiced by Brian Doyle @-@ Murray ) is a female goldfish . Coach Gills is the school 's tiny , deep @-@ voiced PE and health teacher who instructs her students from inside her fishbowl . She often pesters Adam when he does not perform as well as his fellow students . In " Le Switcheroo " , she and Adam trade roles for a day . After experiencing some trouble , they later reconciled . She has mentioned several times in the series that she has no friends . She once had a crush on Mr. Cheetah , an athletic individual who plans to succeed her and Principal Pixiefrog in their careers . Ironically , though she is a fish , she apparently cannot swim .
Miss Chameleon ( voiced by Nika Futterman ) is a female chameleon who is the drama instructor and art teacher . As expected from a drama teacher , she is a drama queen , who speaks overly melodramatically and will often have stereotypical horror music playing when on @-@ scene . She can blend into her surroundings and turn invisible , although in reality , that is a popular misconception about chameleons . She holds class while perched on a twig located under a warming lamp .
Dickie Sugarjumper ( voiced by Tom Kenny ) is an Australian @-@ American sugar glider . He made a successful career as a writer for the school 's greatest class clowns . His catch phrase is " Hello ! How 's your trousers ? "
Endugu Elephant ( voiced by Phil LaMarr ) is a Jamaican @-@ American African elephant .
Kerry ( voiced by Cree Summer ) An African @-@ American girl attending Chester Arthur Middle School who Adam has a secret crush on .
= = Broadcast history = =
After a pilot airing on December 26 , 2005 , the series began its regular run with a two @-@ episode premiere on Cartoon Network 's " Fridays " block on February 24 , 2006 . The My Gym Partner 's a Monkey @-@ based television film The Big Field Trip aired on January 14 , 2007 , as part of season 3 . A special episode , " That Darn Platypus " , aired on Cartoon Network on May 18 , 2007 , as part of Cartoon Network Invaded , a mini @-@ series that aired 5 specials of different series from May 4 to May 28 , 2007 . The series ended its 4 season @-@ run on November 27 , 2008 , with the episode " A Thanksgiving Carol " . Reruns of the series are shown on the revived block Cartoon Planet since April 27 , 2012 . In Latin America currently airs on Tooncast since 2013 .
= = Reception = =
My Gym Partner 's a Monkey was a ratings success for Cartoon Network . On the series ' Cartoon Network " Fridays " block two @-@ episode premiere at 9 : 00 and 9 : 30 P.M. EST , the first episode was seen by 1 @.@ 2 million and the second by 1 @.@ 3 million children ages 2 – 11 , according to preliminary data from Nielsen Media Research . The 9 : 30 P.M. telecast ranked as the # 1 telecast on all television , broadcast and cable , with both boys 6 – 11 and boys 2 – 11 in the time period . The series went on top the Fridays block ratings , gaining millions of viewers .
My Gym Partner 's a Monkey received generally positive reviews from critics . William Barker of Web Wombat gave the King of the Jungle DVD a positive review , awarding it with a score of 70 % , saying : " With an original – dare I say unique ? – premise , My Gym Partner 's a Monkey makes for a somewhat refreshing change from super heroes and mutants , and the cut @-@ out animation style is captivating , though far from novel . It 's not the most impressive cartoon show I 've ever seen , but it 's quite cute and fairly amusing – even for the older primates among us . " Larisa Wiseman of Common Sense Media awarded the series three out of five stars , saying : " It 's difficult to tell what age group the show 's producers were aiming at – the animation style and slapstick by themselves would seem to appeal mainly to grade @-@ schoolers , while the jokes and life lessons are definitely aimed at the tween set . The sly humor may even give some adults the occasional laugh @-@ out @-@ loud moment . Overall , My Gym Partner 's a Monkey is commendable for its effort to include a subtle message in each episode . Younger viewers will probably find Jake 's sometimes @-@ annoying goofiness amusing , and will definitely find the story lines entertaining . "
= = = Awards and nominations = = =
= = DVD releases = =
Two DVD volumes of the series have been released in Region 4 . The first , My Gym Partner 's a Monkey – King of the Jungle ( featuring 6 episodes , a total of 150 minutes ) , was released on April 4 , 2007 , and the second , My Gym Partner 's a Monkey – Monkey Business ( featuring 7 episodes , a total of 154 minutes ) , on January 23 , 2008 . Both are available for purchase on Amazon.com. There have been no further volumes released . All the seasons are available for purchase on the iTunes Store .
= = Rerun = =
The show reruns in India on channel Cartoon Network by the name " Samsher Sikandar Chuddie Buddie " .
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= Walter Peeler =
Walter " Wally " Peeler , VC , BEM ( 9 August 1887 – 23 May 1968 ) was an Australian recipient of the Victoria Cross , the highest award for gallantry " in the face of the enemy " that can be awarded to members of the British and Commonwealth armed forces . He was decorated following his actions during the Battle of Broodseinde in October 1917 . Then a lance corporal in the Australian Imperial Force , he repeatedly took the lead in the 37th Battalion 's advance on well @-@ defended German positions , destroying four machine gun posts and killing more than 30 German soldiers during the battle .
Born in Castlemaine , Victoria , Peeler worked at various jobs in his home town and in the Melbourne area before enlisting in the Australian Imperial Force in February 1916 . Posted to the 3rd Pioneer Battalion , he arrived on the Western Front during November . In June 1917 , his battalion participated in the assault on Messines ridge , where he was lightly wounded . Eight days after his Victoria Cross action , Peeler was severely wounded in his right arm and spent the next seven months recuperating in the United Kingdom . Following the armistice with Germany , he was discharged from service with the rank of sergeant in December 1918 .
Peeler re @-@ settled with his family in Victoria , and was appointed the inaugural custodian of Melbourne 's Shrine of Remembrance in 1934 . In May 1940 , Peeler enlisted for service in the Second World War , understating his age by fourteen years to avoid the upper age limit imposed on volunteers . He was posted to the 2 / 2nd Pioneer Battalion and initially saw action in the Syria @-@ Lebanon Campaign . However , with the entry of Japan into the war , his unit was one of the first sent to the Netherlands East Indies in early 1942 . Originally destined for Sumatra it was diverted to Java and after disembarking assisted in the Dutch defence of the island . When Dutch resistance collapsed in March , allied forces in Java signed a formal surrender with British , Australian and American troops becoming prisoners of war . After three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half years as prisoner of war , Peeler was freed in August 1945 and returned to Australia in October , resuming his duties at the Shrine of Remembrance . He retired in 1964 and , aged 80 , died at his home in South Caulfield on 23 May 1968 .
= = Early life = =
Walter " Wally " Peeler was born at Barker 's Creek , near Castlemaine , Victoria , on 9 August 1887 . He was the eighth child of William Peeler , a farmer and miner , and his English @-@ born wife Mary Ellen ( née Scott ) . As a youth Peeler worked in his parent 's orchard , before gaining employment with Thompson 's Foundry in Castlemaine . On 10 July 1907 , he wed Kathleen Emma Hewitt ; the couple were to have five children . An active sportsman , Peeler was a member of the Castlemaine Cricket Club and , briefly , secretary of the Wesley Hill Football Club .
= = First World War = =
By 1916 , Peeler was living in the Melbourne suburb of Richmond with his wife and three daughters . On 17 February , he enlisted in the Australian Imperial Force for service in the First World War . Posted as a private soldier to the machine gun section of the 3rd Pioneer Battalion , Peeler underwent his initial training in Victoria , before departing from Melbourne headed for England aboard HMAT Wandilla on 6 June . The battalion arrived in Plymouth seven weeks later . During the three months Peeler 's unit spent in England undergoing additional training , he was charged with being absent without leave for six hours on 3 July , and fined a day 's pay . He was nevertheless promoted to lance corporal on 6 November .
Two weeks later , the 3rd Pioneer Battalion was posted to the Western Front . Sent to the Armentières sector , the battalion spent several months working on trench and railway construction . In mid @-@ December , Peeler attended a week @-@ long course at the Machine Gun School in Le Touquet , and in early 1917 , accompanied the battalion north in preparation for the upcoming Messines offensive . However , on 8 May 1917 , one month before the offensive , Peeler found himself the subject of a court @-@ martial in the field . Following an incident that occurred during a training session on 26 April , he was charged with " careless and negligent handling of a Lewis Gun whilst instructing " that led to " grievous bodily injury " to Private John Martin Fife . Found guilty of the charge , Peeler was stripped of his lance corporal stripe .
On 7 June 1917 , Peeler participated in the initial assault on Messines Ridge . Manning a Lewis Gun during the action , he was injured twice , suffering shrapnel wounds to his face and eye from an artillery shell , and a gunshot wound to his right cheek . He spent three days in hospital before returning to his battalion . On 22 June , he was once again promoted to lance corporal . The 3rd Pioneer Battalion spent the next four months in a quieter section of the front .
= = = Victoria Cross = = =
As part of the third stage of General Sir Herbert Plumer 's Passchendaele offensive , an attack against Broodseinde was scheduled for 4 October 1917 . The 3rd Australian Division 's 10th Australian Infantry Brigade was one of the assault formations charged with delivering the main blow , and ultimately with seizing the heavily defended Broodseinde Ridge . To provide defence against low @-@ flying German aircraft during the attack , a group of 24 men , including Peeler , from the 3rd Pioneer Battalion 's machine gun section were attached to the 10th Brigade 's 37th Battalion .
The attack on Broodseinde began at 06 : 00 under the cover of an artillery barrage . Armed with a Lewis Gun , Peeler advanced with the initial wave . The Australians rapidly crossed the first 100 metres ( 110 yd ) before becoming pinned down by a party of nine German soldiers , who were situated in a shellhole and sniping at the advancing troops . Firing his machine gun from the hip , Peeler dashed forward across the exposed ground and shot the group of Germans , " clearing the way for the advance " . He performed similar feats on two subsequent occasions , killing several German soldiers and emerging unscathed .
The Australian force continued to press their assault , encountering pillboxes and machine gun positions as they pushed forward . One such machine gun position , situated in the open , held up the advance . Firing a single burst from his Lewis Gun , Peeler killed the gunner and caused the remainder of the gun 's defenders to seek cover in a nearby dugout . One of the Australians then lobbed a " well aimed " grenade into the dugout , driving out ten soldiers whom Peeler then shot . Described as being " particularly prominent in the advance " by historian Charles Bean , Peeler " almost single @-@ handedly " destroyed four German posts in an hour , accounting for more than 30 soldiers .
By 07 : 15 the following morning , the 37th Battalion had captured its objective , having seized eight pillboxes , several concrete dugouts , 20 machine guns and 420 prisoners . Two hours later , the Australians were in possession of Broodseinde Ridge . For his actions during the battle , Peeler was awarded the Victoria Cross ; one of two Australians to be so decorated that day . On 12 October , eight days after Peeler 's actions , the men of the 10th Brigade returned to the front line in an effort to exploit the success of the previous week . The ground in front of their position was dominated by a series of German pillboxes and had been turned into a quagmire by heavy rain . The brigade 's attack was soon subject to a " torrent of machine gun fire " , and Peeler was severely wounded in his right arm . Initially evacuated to the 11th Australian Field Ambulance casualty station , it was decided that his wound necessitated treatment in England so he embarked for the Northampton War Hospital on 15 October , arriving the following day .
While recuperating in England , the announcement and accompanying citation for Peeler 's Victoria Cross was promulgated in a supplement to the London Gazette on 26 November 1917 , reading :
War Office , 26th November , 1917 .
His Majesty the KING has been graciously pleased to approve of the award of the Victoria Cross to the undermentioned Officer , Non @-@ commissioned Officers and Men : —
No. 114 L. / Cpl. Walter Peeler , Aus . Imp . Force .
For most conspicuous bravery when with a Lewis gun accompanying the first wave of the assault he encountered an enemy party sniping the advancing troops from a shell @-@ hole .
L. / Cpl. Peeler immediately rushed the position and accounted for nine of the enemy , and cleared the way for the advance . On two subsequent occasions he performed similar acts of valour , and each time accounted for a number of the enemy .
During operations he was directed to a position from which an enemy machine gun was being fired on our troops . He located and killed the gunner , and the remainder of the enemy party ran into a dugout close by . From this shelter they were dislodged by a bomb , and ten of the enemy ran out . These he disposed of .
This non @-@ commissioned officer actually accounted for over thirty of the enemy .
He displayed an absolute fearlessness in making his way ahead of the first wave of the assault , and the fine example which he set ensured the success of the attack against most determined opposition .
= = = Recuperation and repatriation = = =
As news of Peeler 's decoration spread , it prompted a " wave of celebrations " in his hometown of Castlemaine ; flags flew in his honour , and one of his daughters was cheered by fellow pupils at her school . On 8 January 1918 , Peeler was formally conferred with his Victoria Cross by King George V in an investiture ceremony at Buckingham Palace . Having sufficiently recovered from his wound , Peeler rejoined the 3rd Pioneer Battalion in France on 17 May ; he was promoted to temporary corporal two weeks later .
On 22 June 1918 , Peeler was posted to the Corps Gas School for eight days . He was promoted to sergeant on 30 July . Around this time , Australian Prime Minister Billy Hughes invited Australia 's Victoria Cross recipients of the war to return to Australia and assist in a recruiting drive . Among the group who accepted the offer , Peeler was one of ten who embarked for Melbourne aboard HMAT Medic on 24 August , arriving in Melbourne seven weeks later . He would not return to France ; on 11 November 1918 an armistice with Germany was declared , effectively ending the war . Peeler was discharged from the Australian Imperial Force on 10 December .
= = Inter @-@ war years = =
Following his discharge , Peeler gained employment with the soldier @-@ settler branch of the Victorian Department of Lands . He remained with the department for six years , before acquiring an orchard in the Castlemaine district . However , this venture proved short @-@ lived and he soon returned with his family to Melbourne , joining the H.V. McKay Sunshine Harvester Works at Sunshine . Also on the company 's staff was a fellow Victoria Cross recipient , Dominic McCarthy . When Melbourne 's Shrine of Remembrance was completed in 1934 , Peeler was appointed as the memorial 's first custodian . He occupied this post for next 30 years , coming to regard the Shrine as " his second home " .
= = Second World War = =
= = = Enlistment and Syrian Campaign = = =
On 27 May 1940 , Peeler enlisted in the Second Australian Imperial Force for service in the Second World War , giving his date of birth on his enlistment forms as 9 August 1901 , thus understating his age by fourteen years . At 52 , Peeler was twelve years over the maximum age limit , although he later claimed he was not the " oldest fellow in my unit " . Granted the acting rank of sergeant , he was allotted to the newly raised 2 / 2nd Pioneer Battalion . The battalion completed its initial training at Puckapunyal , during which time Peeler was made acting staff sergeant and Company Quartermaster Sergeant of D Company on 1 August .
On 7 April 1941 , the 2 / 2nd Pioneer Battalion embarked aboard HMT Queen Mary at Sydney , bound for the Middle East ; Peeler 's rank of staff sergeant was confirmed as substantive on the same day . After just under four weeks at sea , the troopship disembarked at Port Tewfik in Suez , where the battalion entrained for Palestine . There it was attached to the 7th Division in support of the Syrian campaign against Vichy French forces .
The 2 / 2nd Pioneer Battalion was initially divided up , with each company attached to a different brigade of the 7th Division . Peeler 's D Company — assigned to the 25th Brigade — was originally tasked with the maintenance and general repair of the road network in its locality . However , when the Vichy French launched a counter @-@ attack on 15 June , the battalion was concentrated in the Merdjayoun area in an effort to prevent any further French gains . On the night of 27 June , after a costly assault against the Vichy French at Merdjayoun earlier that day , Peeler led out a patrol to recover the wounded . Four soldiers were discovered and brought back to the Australian lines . Despite suffering heavy casualties in Syria , the 2 / 2nd Pioneer Battalion served throughout the campaign , including participation in the decisive Battle of Damour in July .
After the Vichy French defeat in Syria , the 2 / 2nd Pioneer Battalion was relocated to Tripoli , Lebanon where it headquartered itself in an olive grove while carrying out training and garrison duties over the next four months . During November , the battalion was moved to Qatana in Syria , but with the entry of Japan into the war in late 1941 , the 1st Australian Corps including the 6th and 7th Divisions were directed to move to the Netherlands East Indies for service in the Pacific theatre . In January 1942 , Peeler was among the men of the 2 / 2nd Pioneer Battalion who embarked aboard HMT Orcades for Sumatra but later diverted to Java . He was promoted to Warrant Officer Class II during this time .
= = = Defence of Java and prisoner of war = = =
With the rapid Japanese advance through the Pacific and the fall of Singapore in February 1942 , the 3 @,@ 400 troops aboard Orcades were diverted from Sumatra to Java in the Dutch East Indies . Disembarking at Batavia on 18 February , Peeler 's battalion was combined with the other units aboard Orcades to form Blackforce . This ad hoc grouping , under the command of fellow Victoria Cross holder Brigadier Arthur Blackburn , was tasked with defending a series of airfields and supporting the Dutch . Blackburn organised his men into a brigade formation , consisting of a headquarters and three infantry battalions — the men of the 2 / 2nd Pioneers made up the bulk of Blackforce 's 2nd Battalion .
On 28 February 1942 , elements of the Imperial Japanese Army landed on Java . Blackforce was stationed at Buitenzorg , poised to advance west to confront the invaders . However , rapid Japanese progress pushed the defending Dutch forces in the opposite direction , and Blackforce was assigned the defence of Buitenzorg and Leuwiliang . As the situation deteriorated further , Blackburn was forced to withdraw his men east on the night of 4 / 5 March , and again on 7 / 8 March . On 8 March , the Dutch surrendered , ordering all men to lay down their arms . With supplies running low and unable to contact the Australian Government , Brigadier Blackburn announced the surrender of Blackforce four days later . Peeler and his fellow soldiers thus became prisoners of war . At the time , he was one of three Australian Victoria Cross recipients of the First World War serving overseas , all of whom were " swept up in the Japanese advance " ; Blackburn surrendered with Peeler at Java , while Walter Brown was caught up in the fall of Singapore , where he is believed to have been killed attempting to evade capture .
Peeler was among a contingent of Australian captives transported to work on the Burma Railway . Despite the " harsh treatment " meted out by the Japanese , he later played down his ordeal , stating : " I wasn 't treated too badly , apart from nearly starving ... But what the Japs did to the others on the railway was pretty horrifying " . After three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half years incarceration , he was freed following the Japanese capitulation in August 1945 and the subsequent liberation of prisoner @-@ of @-@ war camps in the Pacific . On 6 October , Peeler embarked for Australia aboard HMS Highland Brigade ; he arrived in Melbourne fifteen days later . Back in Australia , he learned that his son , Donald , had been killed in action on the island of Bougainville on 31 December 1944 , while serving with the 15th Battalion . Donald Peeler was posthumously Mentioned in Despatches for his " distinguished service in the South @-@ West Pacific Area " . Warrant Officer Class II Walter Peeler was discharged from the Second Australian Imperial Force on 12 December 1945 .
= = Later life and legacy = =
Peeler resumed his duties as custodian of the Shrine of Remembrance on his discharge , guiding visitors around the memorial . In the 1961 Queen 's Birthday Honours , his " long and dedicated service " at the Shrine was recognised with the award of the British Empire Medal . He retired three years later at the age of 76 , stating : " It 's time I had a rest . " In 1966 , Peeler was interviewed for a newspaper article ; when queried on his Victoria Cross exploit , he recalled :
My wartime experiences are nothing to make a splash about ... I 'm just an ex @-@ soldier who did his job . I never saw the faces of those I killed . They were just men in an enemy uniform . It was simply them or me . I don 't think I was brave — not any more than the other Aussies who were with me . I simply had a job to do and I did it ... Only afterwards did I realise how lucky I 'd been not to get killed myself .
On 23 May 1968 , Peeler died at his home in South Caulfield , Victoria . Survived by his wife , Kathleen , and their four remaining children , he was buried in Brighton Cemetery . Kathleen died the following year . Peeler is commemorated in the Victorian Garden of Remembrance , and a soldiers ' club in Casula , New South Wales , bears his name . His Victoria Cross and other medals are on display in the Hall of Valour at the Australian War Memorial in Canberra .
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= Astatine =
Astatine is a radioactive chemical element with the chemical symbol At and atomic number 85 , and is the rarest naturally occurring element on the Earth 's crust . It occurs on Earth as the decay product of various heavier elements . All its isotopes are short @-@ lived ; the most stable is astatine @-@ 210 , with a half @-@ life of 8 @.@ 1 hours . Elemental astatine has never been viewed because any macroscopic sample would be immediately vaporized by its radioactive heating . It has yet to be determined if this obstacle could be overcome with sufficient cooling .
The bulk properties of astatine are not known with any certainty . Many of these have been estimated based on its periodic table position as a heavier analog of iodine , and a member of the halogens – the group of elements including fluorine , chlorine and bromine . It is likely to have a dark or lustrous appearance and may be a semiconductor or possibly a metal ; it probably has a higher melting point than that of iodine . Chemically , several anionic species of astatine are known and most of its compounds resemble those of iodine . It also shows some metallic behavior , including being able to form a stable monatomic cation in aqueous solution ( unlike the lighter halogens ) .
Dale R. Corson , Kenneth Ross MacKenzie , and Emilio G. Segrè synthesized the element at the University of California , Berkeley in 1940 , naming it after the Greek astatos ( ἄστατος ) , " unstable " . Four isotopes of astatine were subsequently found in nature , although it is the least abundant of all the naturally occurring elements , with much less than one gram being present at any given time in the Earth 's crust . Neither the most stable isotope astatine @-@ 210 nor the medically useful astatine @-@ 211 occurs naturally . They can only be produced synthetically , usually by bombarding bismuth @-@ 209 with alpha particles .
= = Characteristics = =
Astatine is an extremely radioactive element ; all its isotopes have short half @-@ lives of 8 @.@ 1 hours or less , decaying into bismuth , polonium , radon , or other astatine isotopes . Most of its isotopes are very unstable with half @-@ lives of one second or less . Of the first 101 elements in the periodic table , only francium is less stable .
The bulk properties of astatine are not known with any certainty . Research is limited by its short half @-@ life , which prevents the creation of weighable quantities . A visible piece of astatine would immediately vaporize itself because of the heat generated by its intense radioactivity . It remains to be seen if , with sufficient cooling , a macroscopic quantity of astatine could be deposited as a thin film . Astatine is usually classified as either a nonmetal or a metalloid ; metal formation has also been predicted .
= = = Physical = = =
Most of the physical properties of astatine have been estimated ( by interpolation or extrapolation ) , using theoretically or empirically derived methods . For example , halogens get darker with increasing atomic weight – fluorine is nearly colorless , chlorine is yellow @-@ green , bromine is red @-@ brown , and iodine is dark gray / violet . Astatine is sometimes described as probably being a black solid ( assuming it follows this trend ) , or as having a metallic appearance ( if it is a metalloid or a metal ) . The melting and boiling points of astatine are also expected to follow the trend seen in the halogen series , increasing with atomic number . On this basis they are estimated to be 575 and 610 K ( 302 and 337 ° C ; 575 and 638 ° F ) , respectively . Some experimental evidence suggests astatine may have lower melting and boiling points than those implied by the halogen trend . Astatine sublimes less readily than does iodine , having a lower vapor pressure . Even so , half of a given quantity of astatine will vaporize in approximately an hour if put on a clean glass surface at room temperature . The absorption spectrum of astatine in the middle ultraviolet region has lines at 224 @.@ 401 and 216 @.@ 225 nm , suggestive of 6p to 7s transitions .
The structure of solid astatine is unknown . As an analogue of iodine it may have an orthorhombic crystalline structure composed of diatomic astatine molecules , and be a semiconductor ( with a band gap of 0 @.@ 7 eV ) . Alternatively , if condensed astatine forms a metallic phase , as has been predicted , it may have a monatomic face @-@ centered cubic structure . Evidence for ( or against ) the existence of diatomic astatine ( At2 ) is sparse and inconclusive . Some sources state that it does not exist , or at least has never been observed , while other sources assert or imply its existence . Despite this controversy , many properties of diatomic astatine have been predicted ; for example , its bond length would be 300 ± 10 pm , dissociation energy 83 @.@ 7 ± 12 @.@ 5 kJ · mol − 1 , and heat of vaporization ( ∆ Hvap ) 54 @.@ 39 kJ · mol − 1 . The latter figure means that astatine may ( at least ) be metallic in the liquid state on the basis that elements with a heat of vaporization greater than ~ 42 kJ · mol − 1 are metallic when liquid ; diatomic iodine , with a value of 41 @.@ 71 kJ · mol − 1 , falls just short of the threshold figure .
= = = Chemical = = =
The chemistry of astatine is " clouded by the extremely low concentrations at which astatine experiments have been conducted , and the possibility of reactions with impurities , walls and filters , or radioactivity by @-@ products , and other unwanted nano @-@ scale interactions . " Many of its apparent chemical properties have been observed using tracer studies on extremely dilute astatine solutions , typically less than 10 − 10 mol · L − 1 . Some properties – such as anion formation – align with other halogens . Astatine has some metallic characteristics as well , such as plating onto a cathode , coprecipitating with metal sulfides in hydrochloric acid , and forming a stable monatomic cation in aqueous solution . It forms complexes with EDTA , a metal chelating agent , and is capable of acting as a metal in antibody radiolabeling ; in some respects astatine in the + 1 state is akin to silver in the same state . Most of the organic chemistry of astatine is , however , analogous to that of iodine .
Astatine has an electronegativity of 2 @.@ 2 on the revised Pauling scale – lower than that of iodine ( 2 @.@ 66 ) and the same as hydrogen . In hydrogen astatide ( HAt ) the negative charge is predicted to be on the hydrogen atom , implying that this compound should instead be referred to as astatine hydride . That would be consistent with the electronegativity of astatine on the Allred – Rochow scale ( 1 @.@ 9 ) being less than that of hydrogen ( 2 @.@ 2 ) . The electron affinity of astatine is predicted to be reduced by one @-@ third because of spin @-@ orbit interactions .
= = Compounds = =
Less reactive than iodine , astatine is the least reactive of the halogens , although its compounds have been synthesized in microscopic amounts and studied as intensively as possible before their radioactive disintegration . The reactions involved have been typically tested with dilute solutions of astatine mixed with larger amounts of iodine . Acting as a carrier , the iodine ensures there is sufficient material for laboratory techniques ( such as filtration and precipitation ) to work . Like iodine , astatine has been shown to adopt odd @-@ numbered oxidation states ranging from − 1 to + 7 .
Only a few compounds with metals have been reported , in the form of astatides of sodium , palladium , silver , thallium , and lead . Some characteristic properties of silver and sodium astatide , and the other hypothetical alkali and alkaline earth astatides , have been estimated by extrapolation from other metal halides .
The formation of an astatine compound with hydrogen – usually referred to as hydrogen astatide – was noted by the pioneers of astatine chemistry . As mentioned , there are grounds for instead referring to this compound as astatine hydride . It is easily oxidized ; acidification by dilute nitric acid gives the At0 or At + forms , and the subsequent addition of silver ( I ) may only partially , at best , precipitate astatine as silver ( I ) astatide ( AgAt ) . Iodine , in contrast , is not oxidized , and precipitates readily as silver ( I ) iodide .
Astatine is known to bind to boron , carbon , and nitrogen . Various boron cage compounds have been prepared with At – B bonds , these being more stable than At – C bonds . Carbon tetraastatide ( CAt4 ) has been synthesized . Astatine can replace a hydrogen atom in benzene to form astatobenzene C6H5At ; this may be oxidized to C6H5AtCl2 by chlorine . By treating this compound with an alkaline solution of hypochlorite , C6H5AtO2 can be produced . In the molecules dipyridine @-@ astatine ( I ) perchlorate [ At ( C5H5N ) 2 ] [ ClO4 ] and the analogous nitrate , the astatine atom is bonded to each nitrogen atom in the two pyridine rings .
With oxygen , there is evidence of the species AtO − , AtO −
2 , and AtO + in aqueous solution , formed by the reaction of astatine with an oxidant such as elemental bromine or ( in the last case ) by sodium persulfate in a solution of perchloric acid . The well characterized AtO −
3 anion can be obtained by , for example , the oxidation of astatine with potassium hypochlorite in a solution of potassium hydroxide . Preparation of lanthanum triastatinate La ( AtO3 ) 3 , following the oxidation of astatine by a hot Na2S2O8 solution , has been reported . Further oxidation of AtO −
3 , such as by xenon difluoride ( in a hot alkaline solution ) or periodate ( in a neutral or alkaline solution ) , yields the perastatate ion AtO −
4 ; this is only stable in neutral or alkaline solutions . Astatine is also thought to be capable of forming cations in salts with oxyanions such as iodate or dichromate ; this is based on the observation that , in acidic solutions , monovalent or intermediate positive states of astatine coprecipitate with the insoluble salts of metal cations such as silver ( I ) iodate or thallium ( I ) dichromate .
Astatine may form bonds to the other chalcogens ; these include S7At + and At ( CSN ) −
2 with sulfur , a coordination selenourea compound with selenium , and an astatine – tellurium colloid with tellurium .
Astatine is known to react with its lighter homologs iodine , bromine , and chlorine in the vapor state ; these reactions produce diatomic interhalogen compounds with formulas AtI , AtBr , and AtCl . The first two compounds may also be produced in water – astatine reacts with iodine / iodide solution to form AtI , whereas AtBr requires ( aside from astatine ) an iodine / iodine monobromide / bromide solution . The excess of iodides or bromides may lead to AtBr −
2 and AtI −
2 ions , or in a chloride solution , they may produce species like AtCl −
2 or AtBrCl − via equilibrium reactions with the chlorides . Oxidation of the element with dichromate ( in nitric acid solution ) showed that adding chloride turned the astatine into a molecule likely to be either AtCl or AtOCl . Similarly , AtOCl −
2 or AtCl −
2 may be produced . Polyhalides PdAtI2 , CsAtI2 , TlAtI2 , and PbAtI are known or presumed to have been precipitated . In a plasma ion source mass spectrometer , the ions [ AtI ] + , [ AtBr ] + , and [ AtCl ] + have been formed by introducing lighter halogen vapors into a helium @-@ filled cell containing astatine , supporting the existence of stable neutral molecules in the plasma ion state . No astatine fluorides have been discovered yet . Their absence has been speculatively attributed to the extreme reactivity of such compounds , including the reaction of an initially formed fluoride with the walls of the glass container to form a non @-@ volatile product . Thus , although the synthesis of an astatine fluoride is thought to be possible , it may require a liquid halogen fluoride solvent , as has already been used for the characterization of radon fluoride .
= = History = =
In 1869 , when Dmitri Mendeleev published his periodic table , the space under iodine was empty ; after Niels Bohr established the physical basis of the classification of chemical elements , it was suggested that the fifth halogen belonged there . Before its officially recognized discovery , it was called " eka @-@ iodine " ( from Sanskrit eka – " one " ) to imply it was one space under iodine ( in the same manner as eka @-@ silicon , eka @-@ boron , and others ) . Scientists tried to find it in nature ; given its rarity , these attempts resulted in several false discoveries .
The first claimed discovery of eka @-@ iodine was made by Fred Allison and his associates at the Alabama Polytechnic Institute ( now Auburn University ) in 1931 . The discoverers named element 85 " alabamine " , and assigned it the symbol Ab , designations that were used for a few years . In 1934 , H. G. MacPherson of University of California , Berkeley disproved Allison 's method and the validity of his discovery . There was another claim in 1937 , by the chemist Rajendralal De . Working in Dacca in British India ( now Dhaka in Bangladesh ) , he chose the name " dakin " for element 85 , which he claimed to have isolated as the thorium series equivalent of radium F ( polonium @-@ 210 ) in the radium series . The properties he reported for dakin do not correspond to those of astatine ; moreover , astatine is not found in the thorium series , and the true identity of dakin is not known .
In 1936 , a team of Romanian physicist Horia Hulubei and French physicist Yvette Cauchois claimed to have discovered element 85 via X @-@ ray analysis . In 1939 they published another paper which supported and extended previous data . In 1944 , Hulubei published a summary of data he had obtained up to that time , claiming it was supported by the work of other researchers . He chose the name " dor " , presumably from the Romanian for " longing " [ for peace ] , as World War II had started five years earlier . As Hulubei was writing in French , a language which does not accommodate the " ine " suffix , dor would likely have been rendered in English as " dorine " , had it been adopted . In 1947 , Hulubei 's claim was effectively rejected by the Austrian chemist Friedrich Paneth , who would later chair the IUPAC committee responsible for recognition of new elements . Even though Hulubei 's samples did contain astatine , his means to detect it were too weak , by current standards , to enable correct identification . He had also been involved in an earlier false claim as to the discovery of element 87 ( francium ) and this is thought to have caused other researchers to downplay his work .
In 1940 , the Swiss chemist Walter Minder announced the discovery of element 85 as the beta decay product of radium A ( polonium @-@ 218 ) , choosing the name " helvetium " ( from Helvetia , " Switzerland " ) . Karlik and Bernert were unsuccessful in reproducing his experiments , and subsequently attributed Minder 's results to contamination of his radon stream ( radon @-@ 222 is the parent isotope of polonium @-@ 218 ) . In 1942 , Minder , in collaboration with the English scientist Alice Leigh @-@ Smith , announced the discovery of another isotope of element 85 , presumed to be the product of thorium A ( polonium @-@ 216 ) beta decay . They named this substance " anglo @-@ helvetium " , but Karlik and Bernert were again unable to reproduce these results .
Later in 1940 , Dale R. Corson , Kenneth Ross MacKenzie , and Emilio Segrè isolated the element at the University of California , Berkeley . Instead of searching for the element in nature , the scientists created it by bombarding bismuth @-@ 209 with alpha particles in a cyclotron ( particle accelerator ) to produce , after emission of two neutrons , astatine @-@ 211 . The name " astatine " comes from the Greek astatos ( αστατος ) meaning " unstable " , because of its propensity for radioactive decay , with the ending " -ine " , found in the names of the four previously discovered halogens . Three years later , astatine was found as a product of two naturally occurring decay chains by Berta Karlik and Traude Bernert , first in the so @-@ called uranium series , and then in the actinium series . Since then , astatine has been determined in a third decay chain , the neptunium series .
Corson and his colleagues classified astatine as a metal on the basis of its analytical chemistry . Subsequent investigators reported iodine @-@ like , cationic , or amphoteric behavior . In a 2003 retrospective , Corson wrote that " some of the properties [ of astatine ] are similar to iodine … it also exhibits metallic properties , more like its metallic neighbors Po and Bi . "
= = Isotopes = =
There are 39 known isotopes of astatine , with atomic masses ( mass numbers ) of 191 – 229 . Theoretical modeling suggests that 37 more isotopes could exist . No stable or long @-@ lived astatine isotope has been observed nor is one expected to exist .
Astatine 's alpha decay energies follow the same trend as for other heavy elements . Lighter astatine isotopes have quite high energies of alpha decay , which become lower as the nuclei become heavier . Astatine @-@ 211 has a significantly higher energy than the previous isotope , because it has a nucleus with 126 neutrons , and 126 is a magic number corresponding to a filled neutron shell . Despite having a similar half @-@ life to the previous isotope ( 8 @.@ 1 hours for astatine @-@ 210 and 7 @.@ 2 hours for astatine @-@ 211 ) , the alpha decay probability is much higher for the latter : 41 @.@ 81 % against only 0 @.@ 18 % . The two following isotopes release even more energy , with astatine @-@ 213 releasing the most energy . For this reason , it is the shortest @-@ lived astatine isotope . Even though heavier astatine isotopes release less energy , no long @-@ lived astatine isotope exists , because of the increasing role of beta decay ( electron emission ) . This decay mode is especially important for astatine ; as early as 1950 it was postulated that all isotopes of the element undergo beta decay . Beta decay modes have been found for all astatine isotopes except astatine @-@ 213 , -214 , -215 , and -216m . Astatine @-@ 210 and lighter isotopes exhibit beta plus decay ( positron emission ) , astatine @-@ 216 and heavier isotopes exhibit beta ( minus ) decay , and astatine @-@ 212 decays via both modes , while astatine @-@ 211 undergoes electron capture .
The most stable isotope is astatine @-@ 210 , which has a half @-@ life of 8 @.@ 1 hours . The primary decay mode is beta plus , to the relatively long @-@ lived ( in comparison to astatine isotopes ) alpha emitter polonium @-@ 210 . In total , only five isotopes have half @-@ lives exceeding one hour ( astatine @-@ 207 to -211 ) . The least stable ground state isotope is astatine @-@ 213 , with a half @-@ life of 125 nanoseconds . It undergoes alpha decay to the extremely long @-@ lived bismuth @-@ 209 .
Astatine has 24 known nuclear isomers , which are nuclei with one or more nucleons ( protons or neutrons ) in an excited state . A nuclear isomer may also be called a " meta @-@ state " , meaning the system has more internal energy than the " ground state " ( the state with the lowest possible internal energy ) , making the former likely to decay into the latter . There may be more than one isomer for each isotope . The most stable of these nuclear isomers is astatine @-@ 202m1 , which has a half @-@ life of about 3 minutes , longer than those of all the ground states bar those of isotopes 203 – 211 and 220 . The least stable is astatine @-@ 214m1 ; its half @-@ life of 265 nanoseconds is shorter than those of all ground states except that of astatine @-@ 213 .
= = Natural occurrence = =
Astatine is the rarest naturally occurring element . The total amount of astatine in the Earth 's crust ( quoted mass 2 @.@ 36 × 1025 grams ) is estimated to be less than one gram at any given time .
Any astatine present at the formation of the Earth has long since disappeared ; the four naturally occurring isotopes ( astatine @-@ 215 , -217 , -218 and -219 ) are instead continuously produced as a result of the decay of radioactive thorium and uranium ores , and trace quantities of neptunium @-@ 237 . The landmass of North and South America combined , to a depth of 16 kilometers ( 10 miles ) , contains only about one trillion astatine @-@ 215 atoms at any given time ( around 3 @.@ 5 × 10 − 10 grams ) . Astatine @-@ 217 is produced via the radioactive decay of neptunium @-@ 237 . Primordial remnants of the latter isotope — due to its relatively short half @-@ life of 2 @.@ 14 million years — are no longer present on Earth . However trace amounts occur naturally as a product of transmutation reactions in uranium ores . Astatine @-@ 218 was the first astatine isotope discovered in nature . Astatine @-@ 219 , with a half @-@ life of 56 seconds , is the longest lived of the naturally occurring isotopes .
Isotopes of astatine are sometimes not listed as naturally occurring because of misconceptions that there are no such isotopes , or discrepancies in the literature . Astatine @-@ 216 has been counted as a naturally occurring isotope but reports of its observation ( which were described as doubtful ) have not been confirmed .
= = Synthesis = =
= = = Formation = = =
Astatine was first produced by bombarding bismuth @-@ 209 with energetic alpha particles , and this is still the major route used to create the relatively long @-@ lived isotopes astatine @-@ 209 through astatine @-@ 211 . Astatine is only produced in minuscule quantities , with modern techniques allowing production runs of up to 6 @.@ 6 gigabecquerels ( about 86 nanograms or 2 @.@ 47 × 1014 atoms ) . Synthesis of greater quantities of astatine using this method is constrained by the limited availability of suitable cyclotrons and the prospect of melting the target . Solvent radiolysis due to the cumulative effect of astatine decay is a related problem . With cryogenic technology , microgram quantities of astatine might be able to be generated via proton irradiation of thorium or uranium to yield radon @-@ 211 , in turn decaying to astatine @-@ 211 . Contamination with astatine @-@ 210 is expected to be a drawback of this method .
The most important isotope is astatine @-@ 211 , the only one in commercial use . To produce the bismuth target , the metal is sputtered onto a gold , copper , or aluminium surface at 50 to 100 milligrams per square centimeter . Bismuth oxide can be used instead ; this is forcibly fused with a copper plate . The target is kept under a chemically neutral nitrogen atmosphere , and is cooled with water to prevent premature astatine vaporization . In a particle accelerator , such as a cyclotron , alpha particles are collided with the bismuth . Even though only one bismuth isotope is used ( bismuth @-@ 209 ) , the reaction may occur in three possible ways , producing astatine @-@ 209 , astatine @-@ 210 , or astatine @-@ 211 . In order to eliminate undesired nuclides , the maximum energy of the particle accelerator is set to a value ( optimally 29 @.@ 17 MeV ) above that for the reaction producing astatine @-@ 211 ( to produce the desired isotope ) and below the one producing astatine @-@ 210 ( to avoid producing other astatine isotopes ) .
= = = Separation methods = = =
Since astatine is the main product of the synthesis , after its formation it must only be separated from the target and any significant contaminants . Several methods are available , " but they generally follow one of two approaches — dry distillation or [ wet ] acid treatment of the target followed by solvent extraction . " The methods summarized below are modern adaptations of older procedures , as reviewed by Kugler and Keller . Pre @-@ 1985 techniques more often addressed the elimination of co @-@ produced toxic polonium ; this requirement is now mitigated by capping the energy of the cyclotron irradiation beam .
= = = = Dry = = = =
The astatine @-@ containing cyclotron target is heated to a temperature of around 650 ° C. The astatine volatilizes and is condensed in ( typically ) a cold trap . Higher temperatures of up to around 850 ° C may increase the yield , at the risk of bismuth contamination from concurrent volatilization . Redistilling the condensate may be required to minimize the presence of bismuth ( as bismuth can interfere with astatine labeling reactions ) . The astatine is recovered from the trap using one or more low concentration solvents such as sodium hydroxide , methanol or chloroform . Astatine yields of up to around 80 % may be achieved . Dry separation is the method most commonly used to produce a chemically useful form of astatine .
= = = = Wet = = = =
The bismuth ( or sometimes bismuth trioxide ) target is dissolved in , for example , concentrated nitric or perchloric acid . Astatine is extracted using an organic solvent such as butyl or isopropyl ether , or thiosemicarbazide . A separation yield of 93 % using nitric acid has been reported , falling to 72 % by the time purification procedures were completed ( distillation of nitric acid , purging residual nitrogen oxides , and redissolving bismuth nitrate to enable liquid @-@ liquid extraction ) . Wet methods involve " multiple radioactivity handling steps " and are not well suited for isolating larger quantities of astatine . They can enable the production of astatine in a specific oxidation state and may have greater applicability in experimental radiochemistry .
= = Uses and precautions = =
Newly formed astatine @-@ 211 is the subject of ongoing research in nuclear medicine . It must be used quickly as it decays with a half @-@ life of 7 @.@ 2 hours ; this is long enough to permit multistep labeling strategies . Astatine @-@ 211 has potential for targeted alpha particle radiotherapy , since it decays either via emission of an alpha particle ( to bismuth @-@ 207 ) , or via electron capture ( to an extremely short @-@ lived nuclide , polonium @-@ 211 , which undergoes further alpha decay ) . Polonium X @-@ rays emitted as a result of the electron capture branch , in the range of 77 – 92 keV , enable the tracking of astatine in animals and patients .
The principal medicinal difference between astatine @-@ 211 and iodine @-@ 131 ( a radioactive iodine isotope also used in medicine ) is that iodine @-@ 131 emits high energy beta particles , and astatine does not . Beta particles have much greater penetrating power through tissues than do the much heavier alpha particles . An average alpha particle released by astatine @-@ 211 can travel up to 70 µm through surrounding tissues ; an average energy beta particle emitted by iodine @-@ 131 can travel nearly 30 times as far , to about 2 mm . The short half @-@ life and limited penetrating power of alpha radiation through tissues offers advantages in situations where the " tumor burden is low and / or malignant cell populations are located in close proximity to essential normal tissues . " Significant morbidity in cell culture models of human cancers has been achieved with from one to ten astatine @-@ 211 atoms bound per cell .
Several obstacles have been encountered in the development of astatine @-@ based radiopharmaceuticals for cancer treatment . World War II delayed research for close to a decade . Results of early experiments indicated that a cancer @-@ selective carrier would need to be developed and it was not until the 1970s that monoclonal antibodies became available for this purpose . Unlike iodine , astatine shows a tendency to dehalogenate from molecular carriers such as these , particularly at sp3 carbon sites ( less so from sp2 sites ) . Given the toxicity of astatine accumulated and retained in the body , this emphasized the need to ensure it remained attached to its host molecule . While astatine carriers that are slowly metabolized can be assessed for their efficacy , more rapidly metabolized carriers remain a significant obstacle to the evaluation of astatine in nuclear medicine . Mitigating the effects of astatine induced radiolysis of labeling chemistry and carrier molecules is another area requiring further development . A practical application for astatine as a cancer treatment would potentially be suitable for a " staggering " number of patients ; production of astatine in the quantities that would be required remains an issue .
Animal studies show that astatine , similarly to iodine , although to a lesser extent , is preferentially concentrated in the thyroid gland . Unlike iodine , astatine also shows a tendency to be taken up by the lungs and spleen , possibly because of in body oxidation of At – to At + . If administered in the form of a radiocolloid it tends to concentrate in the liver . Experiments in rats and monkeys suggest that astatine @-@ 211 causes much greater damage to the thyroid gland than does iodine @-@ 131 , with repetitive injection of the nuclide resulting in necrosis and cell dysplasia within the gland . Early research suggested that injection of astatine into female rodents caused morphological changes in breast tissue ; this conclusion remained controversial for many years . General agreement was later reached that this was likely caused by the effect of breast tissue irradiation combined with hormonal changes due to irradiation of the ovaries .
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= Osborne Reef =
Osborne Reef is an artificial reef off the coast of Fort Lauderdale , Florida , constructed of concrete jacks in a 50 feet ( 15 m ) diameter circle .
In the 1970s , the reef was the subject of an ambitious expansion project utilizing old and discarded tires . The project ultimately failed , and the " reef " has come to be considered an environmental disaster — ultimately doing more harm than good in the coastal Florida waters .
In 2007 , after several false starts , cleanup efforts began when the United States military took on the project . This cleanup exercise provides the military with a real @-@ world training environment for their diving and recovery personnel , coupled with the benefit of helping the Florida coast without incurring significant costs to the state .
= = Construction = =
In 1972 , Broward Artificial Reef Inc . ( BARINC ) proposed the construction of an enlarged artificial reef to Broward County as a way to both dispose of old tires as well as lure more game fish to the area . Similarly designed reefs had already been constructed in the Northeastern United States , the neighboring Gulf of Mexico , Indonesia , Malaysia , Australia , and Africa . Gregory McIntosh , an employee of BARINC , lauded the project to the attendees of a 1974 conference on artificial reefs : " Tires , which were an esthetic pollutant ashore , could be recycled , so to speak , to build a fishing reef at sea . "
With endorsement of the project by the US Army Corps of Engineers , the Broward County government approved the project : that spring more than 100 privately owned boats enthusiastically volunteered to assist with the project ; accompanied by the USS Thrush thousands of tire bundles were simultaneously dropped onto the reef . The Goodyear Tire and Rubber Company provided equipment for the auspicious undertaking ; even supporting the project so far as to drop a gold @-@ painted tire from a Goodyear Blimp to christen the site . The culmination of the project was the deposit of over two million tires bound with steel clips over 36 acres ( 150 @,@ 000 m2 ) of the ocean floor , approximately 7 @,@ 000 feet ( 2 @,@ 100 m ) offshore and at a depth of 65 feet ( 20 m ) . Multiple concrete jacks were spread in a circle of 50 feet ( 15 m ) diameter .
= = Failure = =
Ultimately , little marine life has been successful in latching onto the man @-@ made reef and the majority never even had the opportunity to do so . When deposited , while a few tires were individual loose entities , the majority were bound together with nylon or steel clips ( or bands ) . As there were no exceptional efforts made to ensure the non @-@ corrosivity of the steel restraints , they summarily failed — resulting in the loosing of over two million individual , lightweight tires . This newfound mobility destroyed any marine life that had thus far grown on the tires , and effectively prevented the growth of any new organisms . Furthermore , the tires were now easily subject to the tropical winds and storms that frequent the east coast of Florida and continue to collide ( at times with tremendous force ) with other natural coral reefs only 70 feet ( 21 m ) away : compounding their uselessness with environmentally damaging side @-@ effects .
Lastly , the concern of adjacent coastal areas is that the tires are not remaining within the boundaries of Osborne Reef . In 1995 , Hurricane Opal managed to spread over 1 @,@ 000 tires onto the Florida Panhandle , west of Pensacola ; and in 1998 , Hurricane Bonnie deposited thousands of the tires onto North Carolina beaches .
This project is not the only one of its nature to fail ; Indonesia and Malaysia mounted enormous tire @-@ reef programs in the 1980s and are now seeing the ramifications of the failure of tire reefs , from littered beaches to reef destruction . Jack Sobel , The Ocean Conservancy 's director of strategic conservation said in a 2002 interview that " I don 't know of any cases where there 's been a success with tire reefs . " That year , The Ocean Conservancy 's International Coastal Cleanup removed 11 @,@ 956 tires from beaches all over the world .
= = Cleanup = =
In 2001 , Dr. Robin Sherman of Nova Southeastern University was awarded a US $ 30 @,@ 000 grant by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) to begin a tire removal program . She was able to coordinate the removal of only 1 @,@ 600 tires from the reef , and at a cost estimated at $ 17 a tire .
In 2002 , Florida and Broward County environmental officials began the long and arduous process of setting into motion a plan to remove the tires . An original estimate of between $ 40 and $ 100 million led the Florida Department of Environmental Protection ( DEP ) to plan to arrange a deal with those companies whose construction damages the seabed and reefs . Where they would previously mitigate their destructive construction with replacement constructs for reefs , the state would require them to make their amends by removing tires from the Osborne Reef . This plan faced criticism by environmental groups who felt that this would only hasten the destruction of more marine habitats . Florida did not follow through on these plans .
In May 2015 , a two @-@ year project to clear 90 @,@ 000 tires from the site was commenced by the Florida Department of Environmental Protection .
= = = US military involvement = = =
In 2007 , Broward County contacted the United States Assistant Secretary of Defense for Reserve Affairs about their Innovative Readiness Training ( IRT ) program , which looks for civil @-@ military projects that improve military readiness and address the needs of the American public . CWO Donovan Motley said that the cleanup of Osborne Reef easily met those requirements : " This project allows these military divers and Army LCU crew members ' real @-@ world training in ' wartime ' salvage ops . And perhaps , more importantly , it exercises interoperability with federal , state and county agencies and these skill sets could have the most significance in the aftermath of a Katrina @-@ type natural disaster . " Beginning in June 2007 , the United States military and Coast Guard began “ DiveExEast 07 " to ascertain the best and most efficient processes for the cleanup effort . Barring unforeseen operational commitments and engagements , military divers hope to use this project as a training platform for several years and " recover the maximum number of tires possible from day one . " Coastal America , an office of the United States federal government was tasked with coordinating the cleanup of the reef ; they were instrumental in finalizing the deal wherein the Florida government would allocate $ 2 million to cover transport and recycling of the tires . Ken Banks with the Florida DEP estimated the project to take three to five years , and while that timeline won 't allow for the removal of all two million tires , it should mitigate the majority of the damage they 're causing to the corals and coastline , though Banks predicted it could take decades for the reefs to rebuild .
Summer 2007 saw US Navy , Army , and Coast Guard divers based out of a Coast Guard base in Dania Beach , Florida working to clean the reef . The joint team first worked to remove the tires from where they were doing the most damage , abutting against natural reefs in the area . In 2007 , the recovery effort brought approximately 10 @,@ 000 tires ashore .
In 2008 , recovery stopped after 26 days on May 24 after retrieving 43 @,@ 900 tires . That year , Florida spent approximately $ 140 @,@ 000 on the cleanup , some of which constituted transport for the tires to a shredding facility in neighboring Georgia whereafter they were burnt as fuel at a paper mill .
Key members of the 2008 cleanup effort were US Army Captain Russell Destremps and his 86th Engineer Dive Team ; on August 10 , 2009 , they were presented with the 2008 Coastal America Partnership Award and a letter from President Obama for their participation in the reef cleanup effort . The award recognizes " outstanding partnerships that make a significant contribution toward the restoration and protection of our Nation 's coastal and marine environment " and is the only environmental award of its kind given by the White House . Two days later in Hollywood , California , Coastal America and Principal Deputy Assistant Secretary of Defense for Reserve Affairs David L. McGinnis awarded the partner cleanup team from the Florida Department of Environmental Protection the same award . The 86th Engineer Dive Team deployed to the AOR in March 2009 for a one @-@ year stint , and was unable to participate in that year 's cleanup term .
I am particularly proud of the many Sailors and Soldiers who have found a way to enhance their training on skills important to our Nation 's readiness for war while also making a significant contribution to the health of our living ocean resources , [ ... ] Just as you protect our Nation when serving overseas , at home you have found another way to protect our Nation 's wellbeing .
In 2009 , recovery began on July 24 with thirty Army and Navy divers at Hugh Taylor Birch State Park , where it was thought about 300 @,@ 000 tires were caught against a natural reef . Loading the caught tires onto the Army craft Brandy Station , the first day 's haul brought approximately 1 @,@ 400 tires ashore . Wrapping up for the year in mid @-@ August , Coastal America 's William Nuckols told the Associated Press that cleanup efforts have thus far recovered approximately 73 @,@ 000 tires from the reef .
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= Prehistoric art in Scotland =
Prehistoric art in Scotland is visual art created or found within the modern borders of Scotland , before the departure of the Romans from southern and central Britain in the early fifth century CE , which is usually seen as the beginning of the early historic or Medieval era . There is no clear definition of prehistoric art among scholars and objects that may involve creativity often lack a context that would allow them to be understood .
The earliest examples of portable art from what is now Scotland are highly decorated carved stone balls from the Neolithic period , which share patterns with Irish and Scottish stone carvings . Other items from this period include elaborate carved maceheads and figurines from Links of Noltland , including the Westray Wife , which is the earliest known depiction of a human face from Scotland .
From the Bronze Age there are examples of carvings , including the first representations of objects , and cup and ring marks . Representations of an axe and a boat at the Ri Cruin Cairn in Kilmartin , and a boat pecked into Wemyss Cave , are probably the oldest two @-@ dimensional representations of real objects that survive in Scotland . Elaborate carved stone battle @-@ axes may be symbolic representations of power . Surviving metalwork includes gold lunula or neckplates , jet beaded necklaces and elaborate weaponry , such as leaf swords and ceremonial shields of sheet bronze .
From the Iron Age there are more extensive examples of patterned objects and gold work . Evidence of the wider La Tène culture includes the Torrs Pony @-@ cap and Horns . The Stirling torcs demonstrate common styles found in Scotland and Ireland and continental workmanship . One of the most impressive items from this period is the boar 's head fragment of the Deskford carnyx . From the first century CE , as Rome carried out a series of occupations , there are Roman artifacts like the Cramond Lioness and Roman influence on material culture can be seen in local stone carvings .
= = Definitions and meanings = =
The ability to study prehistoric art is dependent on surviving artifacts . Art created in mediums such as sand , bark , hides and textiles has not normally endured , while less @-@ perishable materials , such as rock , stone , bone , ivory ( and to a lesser extent wood ) , later pottery and metal , are more likely to be extant . Whether all these artifacts can be defined as works of art is contested between scholars . Alexander Marshack argued that the earliest , non @-@ representational incisions on rock mark the beginnings of human art . More cautiously , Paul Mellars suggests that the relative rarity of these works means they cannot be seen as integral to early human society and evidence of an artistic culture .
Colin Renfrew has pointed out the dangers of applying modern values of art to past societies and cultures . Günter Berghaus argues that these works have often been approached with a set of post @-@ Renaissance aesthetic values that distinguish between artists and craftsman and art and artifact , although these categories are not universal and may be inappropriate for understanding prehistoric society . Duncan Garrow has pointed to the difficulties of the modern distinction drawn between form and decoration . The emphasis in studies of prehistoric art tend to be placed on decoration in objects such as ceramics and ignores the importance of form , found in objects such as weapons .
Many meanings have been suggested for the advent and nature of prehistoric art . It may have helped develop human solidarity in its early stages . Open air rock art may have acted as signposts for the route of animal migrations . Cave art may have had a ritual role in rites of initiation , vision quests or totemic ceremonies . Portable objects may have acted as notation systems and anthropomorphic figures may have had a role in religious rituals . However , most artifacts can only be understood in their context , which is often lost or poorly understood .
= = Stone Age = =
Scotland was occupied by Mesolithic hunter @-@ gatherers from around 8500 BCE , who were highly mobile boat @-@ using people making tools from bone , stone and antlers . Neolithic farming brought permanent settlements , like the stone house at Knap of Howar on Papa Westray , dating from around 3500 BCE . The settlers also introduced chambered cairn tombs , as at Maeshowe , and the many standing stones and circles such as those at Stenness on the mainland of Orkney , which dates from about 3100 BCE , and similar stones to which are found across Europe from about the same time .
There is no surviving art from the Mesolithic period in Scotland , probably because the mobile peoples of the period would have made this on perishable organic items . Probably the oldest surviving portable visual art from Scotland are carved stone balls , or petrospheres , that date from the late Neolithic era . They are a uniquely Scottish phenomenon , with over 425 known examples . Most are from modern Aberdeenshire , but a handful of examples are known from Iona , Skye , Harris , Uist , Lewis , Arran , Hawick , Wigtownshire and fifteen from Orkney , five of which were found at the Neolithic village of Skara Brae . Many functions have been suggested for these objects , most indicating that they were prestigious and powerful possessions . Their production may have continued into the Iron Age . The complex carved circles and spirals on these balls can be seen mirrored in the carving on what was probably a lintel from a chambered cairn at Pierowall on Westray , Orkney , which seem to be part of the same culture that produced carvings at Newgrange in Ireland . Similarly , elaborately carved maceheads are often found in burial sites , like that found at Airdens in Sutherland , which has a pattern of interlocking diamond @-@ shaped facets , similar to those found across Neolithic Britain and Europe .
Pottery appeared in the Neolithic period once hunters and gatherers transitioned to a sedentary lifestyle , until then they needed to use lightweight , mobile containers . Finely made and decorated Unstan ware , survives from the fourth and third millennia BCE and is named after the Unstan Chambered Cairn on the Mainland of the Orkney Islands . Typical are elegant and distinctive shallow bowls with a band of grooved patterning below the rim , using a technique known as " stab @-@ and @-@ drag " . A second variation consists of undecorated , round @-@ bottomed bowls . Unstan ware is mostly found in tombs , specifically tombs of the Orkney @-@ Cromarty type , that include the so @-@ called Tomb of the Eagles at Isbister on South Ronaldsay , and Taversoe Tuick and Midhowe on Rousay , but has occasionally been found outside of tombs , as at the farmstead of Knap of Howar on Papa Westray . There are scattered occurrences of Unstan ware on the Scottish Mainland , as at Balbridie , and in the Western Isles , as at Eilean Domhnuill . Unstan ware may have evolved into the later grooved ware style , associated with the builders of the Maeshowe class of chambered tomb , which began on Orkney early in the third millennium BCE , and was soon adopted throughout Britain and Ireland . Grooved ware vessels are often highly decorated and flat bottomed , often with patterns similar to those on petrospheres and carved maceheads .
In 2009 the Westray Wife , a lozenge @-@ shaped figurine that is believed to be the earliest representation of a human face found in Scotland , was discovered at the site of a Neolithic village at Links of Noltland near Grobust Bay on the north coast of Westray . The figurine 's face has two dots for eyes , heavy brows and an oblong nose and a pattern of hatches on the body could represent clothing . Two figurines were subsequently found at the site in 2010 and 2012 .
= = Bronze Age = =
The Bronze Age began in Scotland about 2000 BCE as new techniques of metalworking began to reach northern Britain . The creation of cairns and Megalithic monuments continued . There was probably a fall in population in this period . There is evidence of cellular round houses of stone on Shetland and wooden crannogs , roundhouses partially or entirely built on artificial islands . As elsewhere in Europe , hill forts were first introduced in this period .
From this period there are extensive examples of rock art . These include cup and ring marks , a central depression carved into stone , surrounded by rings , sometimes not completed . These are common elsewhere in Atlantic Europe and have been found on natural rocks and isolated stones across Scotland . The most elaborate sets of markings are in western Scotland , particularly in the Kilmartin district . The representations of an axe and a boat at the Ri Cruin Cairn in Kilmartin , and a boat pecked into Wemyss Cave , are probably the oldest two @-@ dimensional representations of real objects that survive in Scotland . Similar carved spirals have also been found on the cover stones of burial cists in Lanarkshire and Kincardine .
There are also elaborate carved stone battle @-@ axes found in East Lothian , Aberdenshire and Lanarkshire . These show little sign of use or wear , and so , rather than being practical objects , may be symbolic representations of power . Similarly , the site at Forteviot , in Perthshire , produced a unique warrior burial under a giant sandstone slab . The slab is engraved with a spiral and has an axehead pecked into the underside , and underneath there are grave goods of a copper dagger with leather scabbard and a carved wooden bowl .
Surviving metalwork includes personal items like the gold lunula or neckplates found at Auchentaggart in Dumfriesshire and Southside , Lanarkshire , which date from about 2000 BCE and are similar to those found in relatively large numbers in Ireland , but also with examples across Great Britain and in Portugal . Jet beaded necklaces strung in a crescent shape have been found at sites including Poltalloch and Melfort in Argyll and Aberlemno in Angus .
Sophisticated pottery with impressed designs was found in Scotland during the Bronze Age . One example is a decorated grave food vessel dated from about 1000 BCE that was found at a Kincardineshire grave group . Two bronze armlets were also found at the site .
Elaborate weaponry includes bronze leaf swords and ceremonial shields of sheet bronze made in Scotland between 900 and 600 BCE . The Migdale Hoard is an early Bronze Age find at Skibo Castle that includes two bronze axes ; several pairs of armlets and anklets , a necklace of forty bronze beads , ear pendants and bosses of bronze and jet buttons . The " Ballachulish Goddess " is a life @-@ sized female figure from 700 – 500 BCE in oak with quartz pebbles for eyes , found at Ballachulish , Argyll .
= = Iron Age = =
The Iron Age began in Scotland from about the seventh century BCE . From this point there are the first finds of iron artifacts in hoards that are consistent containing other items that are consistent with Bronze Age practice. there is also evidence of smithing and smelting on some settlement sites . Iron Age society in Scotland shared many traits with Southern Britain , Ireland and in some cases continental Europe . These included roundhouses and enclosed and fortified settlements , but it also contained elements of independent development .
From the early part of the period there is relatively little metalwork and a larger amount of ceramics . The assemblage of early Iron Age ceramics from Atlantic Scotland is large compared with the rest of Britain . There are a wide variety of forms and styles , some which resemble those of southern Britain , particularly those with incised geometric ornament .
By this period Scotland had been penetrated by the wider La Tène culture , which is named after the archaeological site of La Tène on the north side of Lake Neuchâtel in Switzerland . The Torrs Pony @-@ cap and Horns are perhaps the most impressive of the relatively few finds of La Tène decoration from Scotland , and indicate links with Ireland and southern Britain . The Stirling torcs , found in 2009 , are a group of four gold torcs in different styles , dating from 300 BCE and 100 BCE . Two demonstrate common styles found in Scotland and Ireland , but the other two indicate workmanship from what is now southern France , and the Greek and Roman worlds .
There are surviving ring @-@ headed pins , which were probably made locally and not imported , and appear to be part of a British and Irish type that was not part of the La Tène culture . There are also spiral finger rings , glass beads and long @-@ handled combs , which are found across Britain , but have local characteristics . The bronze Stichill collar is a large engraved necklace , fastened at the back with a pin . The Mortonhall scabbard , probably from the first century CE , is elaborately decorated with trumpet curves and " S " -scrolls . Further north there are finds of massive bronze armlets , often with enamelled decoration , like the ones found at Culbin Sands , Moray . One of the most impressive items from this period is the boars head fragment of the Deskford carnyx , a war @-@ trumpet from Deskford in Banffshire , probably dating from the first century CE . Similar instruments are mentioned in Roman sources and depicted on the Gundestrup Cauldron found in Denmark .
In stone carving there are a number of simple stone heads from Scotland , like that found at Coupar Angus in Perthshire , that may date from the Iron Age . They are similar to those found across Great Britain and Ireland , although they are difficult to date and may have been made much later .
= = Roman influence = =
The Romans began military expeditions into what is now Scotland from about 71 CE , building a series of forts , but by 87 the occupation was limited to the Southern Uplands and by the end of the first century the northern limit of Roman expansion was a line drawn between the Tyne and Solway Firth . The Romans eventually withdrew to a line in what is now northern England , building the fortification known as Hadrian 's Wall from coast to coast . Around 141 CE they undertook a reoccupation of southern Scotland , moving up to construct a new limes between the Firth of Forth and the Firth of Clyde , where they built the fortification known as the Antonine Wall . The wall was overrun and abandoned soon after 160 and the Romans withdrew back to the line of Hadrian 's Wall , until Roman authority collapsed in the early fifth century .
The Antonine Wall and its associated forts left a direct sculptural legacy in Scotland . There are 19 distance slabs along the wall that depict graphically the victories and marches of the legions involved in its construction . There are also surviving sculptures , including an altar to Diana and Apollo . There is a fountainhead from a bath @-@ house in the shape of a man 's head with a gaping mouth , and the head from a bust or statue , perhaps the goddess Fortuna , both found at Bearsden Roman Fort , East Dunbartonshire , both showing a local Celtic influence in their style .
Away from the wall , Roman sculptures include the marble head of a Roman emperor or general , broken from a larger statue , which was found at Hawkshaw , Peebleshire in the late eighteenth century . It dates to the second century CE and may have been looted from a Roman monument further to the south . The Cramond Lioness is a sculpture , probably imported , of a lioness devouring a bound prisoner , found near the Roman base of Cramond Roman Fort near Edinburgh . A relief of the goddess Brigantia found near Birrens in Dumfriesshire , combines elements of native and classical art .
The Newstead Helmet , found at the Roman fort in Newstead , near Melrose in Roxburghshire , is one of the most impressive of many finds of Roman arms and armour . The Staffordshire Moorlands Pan is a second @-@ century Romano @-@ British trulla apparently decorated as a souvenir for a soldier who had served on Hadrian 's Wall , and probably made locally . A number of items were also found in the Sculptor 's Cave , Coversea in Morayshire , including Roman pottery , rings , bracelets , needles and coins , some of which had been re @-@ used for ornaments .
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= 1970 North Indian Ocean cyclone season =
The 1970 North Indian Ocean cyclone season had no bounds , but tropical cyclones in the North Indian Ocean tend to form between April and December , with peaks in May and November . The 1970 season saw a total of seven cyclonic storms , of which three developed into severe cyclonic storms . The Bay of Bengal was more active than the Arabian Sea during 1970 , with all of the three severe cyclonic storms in the season forming there . Unusually , none of the storms in the Arabian Sea made landfall this year . The most significant storm of the season was the Bhola cyclone , which formed in the Bay of Bengal and hit Bangladesh on November 12 . The storm killed at least 300 @,@ 000 and possibly even over half a million people , making it the deadliest tropical cyclone in recorded history .
= = Storms = =
= = = Very Severe Cyclonic Storm One = = =
A low pressure area that developed over the southern Andaman Sea late in April moved north into the Bay of Bengal becoming the first depression of the year on May 2 . The depression intensified under the influence of a high @-@ level anticyclone and became a cyclonic storm the next day . The storm then turned to the northeast and strengthened into a severe cyclonic storm on May 4 . Soon after this , it peaked with winds of 150 km / h ( 90 mph ) and a well @-@ defined eye formed . The storm made its landfall near Cox 's Bazar in easternmost East Pakistan ( now Bangladesh ) early in the morning of May 7 and dissipated over western Burma that evening .
The cyclone brought widespread rain to the Andaman and Nicobar Islands before it moved clear of them on May 3 . Effects in East Pakistan are unknown , but Akyab in western Burma reported winds of 55 km / h ( 35 mph ) as the cyclone approached land .
= = = Depression Two = = =
A depression formed in the northeast of the Bay of Bengal on during the morning of May 23 near the East Pakistan coast . It moved towards the coast and made landfall to the south of Cox 's Bazar that night , before dissipating over southern Assam the next day . Any effects on land are unknown .
= = = Severe Cyclonic Storm Three = = =
A low pressure area developed off the Karnataka @-@ Goa coastline in the Arabian Sea on May 27 and developed into a depression the next day . The system developed further into a cyclonic storm on May 29 as it moved to the north . The storm reached its peak with 95 km / h ( 60 mph ) soon after this as it turned to the west , but soon degenerated into a deep depression over the northern Arabian Sea on May 31 . The depression continued to move west , weakening to a remnant low shortly as it made landfall on the Arabian Peninsula on June 2 . The remnant low dissipated over southern Saudi Arabia the next day .
The cyclone itself had minimal effects on land , but the monsoon advanced into western India in late May in association with the system . As the cyclone moved to the west away from the subcontinent , the incursion of moist air from the Arabian Sea persisted over northwestern India for the first three days of June . This brought moderate rainfall to regions of Gujarat , Rajasthan and western Madhya Pradesh .
= = = Cyclonic Storm Four = = =
A low pressure area developed in the northern Bay of Bengal on June 6 and developed into a depression the next day as it drifted to the north , moving over south of the Ganges Delta . The depression reversed its course overland , reemerging into the Bay of Bengal on June 8 . Once over water , the depression intensified into a cyclonic storm on the morning of June 9 . The cyclone 's motion shifted to the northwest and it made a second landfall near Balasore in northern Orissa that night . The cyclone quickly weakened to a deep depression overland and tracked to the west over central India , where it degenerated into a broad area of low pressure on June 11 .
Sustained winds of 65 km / h ( 40 mph ) were recorded at Sandheads on June 9 , while the cyclone was at its peak offshore . High levels of rain affected much of Orissa and West Bengal , with over 100 mm ( 4 inches ) falling over large areas of both states . As the storm dissipated overland , it brought severe rain to Vidarbha and southern Madhya Pradesh . The highest recorded rainfall was at Khandwa were 280 mm ( 11 inches ) fell on June 13 alone . The rains led to localised flooding in parts of Vidarbha and disrupted road transport in the region .
= = = Deep Depression Five = = =
A low pressure area that had developed over the northern Bay of Bengal the previous day concentrated into a depression early on June 29 . The depression intensified as it moved to the northwest , becoming a deep depression shortly before it crossed the Orissa coast . After landfall the storm continued to move to the northwest , weakening to a depression again on July 2 over northeast Madhya Pradesh . It degenerated into a remnant low over central Uttar Pradesh during the evening on July 3 .
The depression brought intense monsoon conditions to Orissa , Madhya Pradesh and Vidarbha during its life . Over 210 mm ( 8 inches ) of rain and winds of 85 km / h ( 50 mph ) were recorded in Paradip as the depression made landfall on June 30 . Inland , the heavy rains caused some rivers in Orissa to overflow and flooded rice paddies in Cuttack District . Further west , the Wainganga River overflowed its banks in places . Road transport in Madhya Pradesh was disrupted and there was damage to crops in the Raipur area . Raipur recorded the highest 24 @-@ hour rains associated with the depression , with 230 mm ( 9 inches ) falling there on July 2 .
= = = Deep Depression Six = = =
A low pressure area moved to the west off the Burmese coast on July 5 and developed into a depression the next day in the north central Bay of Bengal . The depression intensified as it moved to the northwest , becoming a deep depression on July 7 . The system made landfall on the Orissa coast during the morning of July 8 and rapidly degenerated into a broad area of low pressure overland . The remnant low moved north over western Bihar and it persisted there until July 12 when it was absorbed by the monsoon trough .
Winds of 55 km / h ( 30 mph ) were recorded offshore at Sandheads when the system was at its peak . The depression brought isolated heavy rains to many places throughout East India , with rains in excess of 100 mm ( 4 inches ) falling every day from the depression 's landfall until the absorption of the remnant low .
= = = Depression Seven = = =
A low pressure area that lay over Burma on August 15 , moved to the west across the Bay of Bengal and developed into a depression on the evening of August 17 when it was 100 km ( 62 mi ) southeast of Gopalpur @-@ on @-@ Sea . The depression moved to the northwest and made landfall near Gopalpur @-@ on @-@ Sea and turned to the west overland . The depression had weakened into a remnant low by August 20 , when it was over western Madhya Pradesh .
The depression and associated weather brought widespread rain to much of south and central India , with heavy rain falling in some locations . The heavy rain in Maharashtra disrupted road transport in many areas , especially in the east of the state . The Godavari River inundated parts of Bhadrachalam and many villages in regions of Andhra Pradesh . The rains also damaged rice paddies and disrupted transport in Telangana . Rains associated with the depression reached as far west as Bombay with 200 mm ( 8 inches ) falling there on August 19 .
= = = Cyclonic Storm Eight = = =
A low pressure area that was centred over West Bengal on August 31 concentrated into a depression on September 2 when it was 50 km ( 31 mi ) to the east of Midnapore . It intensified as it moved to the west , becoming a deep depression the next day , about 50 km ( 31 mi ) east of Ranchi . The system continued move west across India , before weakening into a depression on September 7 near Ahmedabad , Gujarat . The depression then turned north and entered southwest Rajasthan . On September 8 , the system turned to the southwest and emerged into the Arabian Sea the following evening . Over water it intensified again , becoming a cyclonic storm by the evening of September 10 . The cyclone developed a short @-@ lived eye on September 11 as it drifted slowly to the west , before degenerating into a broad area of low pressure as it neared the Oman coast on September 14 .
This system brought widespread rains to a wide swathe of India during its existence . Some heavy rains in West Bengal flooded vast areas of many districts and resulted in some fatalities , whilst in parts of neighbouring Orissa the floodwaters damaged fields . 390 mm ( 15 inches ) of rain fell on Bardhaman over two days as the depression passed overhead . Several thousand people were made homeless in West Bengal . Both the Narmada and Tapti Rivers inundated parts of Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat . The floods in Gujarat took many lives and caused severe damage to crops and other properties . Between 300 and 400 people were washed away in two villages in Bharuch district . 260 mm ( 10 inches ) of rain fell on Surat on July 7 and a further 80 mm ( 3 inches ) on Kutch District as the cyclone moved out to sea .
= = = Deep Depression Nine = = =
A low pressure area moved from Burma to the Bay of Bengal on September 8 where it developed into a depression . The depression strengthened as it moved to the northwest and became a deep depression the next day , when it was 150 km ( 93 mi ) southeast of Calcutta . The system crossed the West Bengal coast later and moved to the northwest across the Chota Nagpur Plateau . The depression stalled over Uttar Pradesh on September 12 and remained near Lucknow until September 14 . The depression then turned to the east and weakened to a remnant low over northern Bihar on September 18 .
The depression brought widespread rain to West Bengal , Orissa , Bihar , Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh during its lifespan , with rains of 140 mm ( 5 @.@ 5 inches ) as far west as Lucknow . The rains in Uttar Pradesh caused severe property damage and flooding , with some 150 people losing their lives in the state . The Ganges flooded in northern Bihar , inundating parts of Munger District , whilst the Gandaki River flooded parts of Motihari . The rains worsened floods in south Bengal , increasing the death toll from the floods there to 80 and affecting 8 million people , with considerable damage done to crops and housing . Jaleswar in Orissa was entirely flooded .
= = = Depression Ten = = =
A well @-@ defined low pressure area formed over the west central Bay of Bengal on September 20 and developed into a depression the next morning about 100 km ( 62 mi ) south @-@ east of Visakhapatnam . The depression then moved overland and after crossing Vidarbha weakened into a remnant low over Gujarat on September 23 .
The depression brought widespread rain to northern South India as it passed over the country and its remnants brought scattered rain to Gujarat over the following week . Over a period of four hours , heavy rain fell on Hyderabad and Secunderabad , destroying many houses in the two cities . About 130 mm ( 5 inches ) of rain fell on Bombay as the system dissipated . The heavy rains claimed about 75 lives .
= = = Depression Eleven = = =
A low pressure area that developed in the Bay of Bengal passed over the southern Indian subcontinent and developed into a depression in the Arabian Sea off the southern Maharashtra coast on October 11 . The depression did not develop as it drifted west , and it degenerated into an area of low pressure as it was approaching the Arabian Peninsula . The depression brought widespread rains to southern Maharashtra and Karnataka states , with 40 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) of rain recorded in Karwar . Scattered heavy rain was also reported in the Laccadives .
= = = Very Severe Cyclonic Storm Twelve = = =
A depression formed on October 18 in the central Bay of Bengal and moved to the north . It gradually intensified and turned to the northeast , becoming a cyclonic storm on October 20 . The storm became the second severe cyclonic storm of the season the following day , and turned onto a more northerly track towards the Ganges Delta . The storm peaked with winds of 130 km / h ( 80 mph ) before it made landfall near the West Bengal @-@ East Pakistan border during the morning of October 23 . The storm then crossed over East Pakistan , before dissipating over southern Assam on October 24 .
This cyclone brought widespread rain to Tamil Nadu as it formed and to the Andaman and Nicobar Islands as it moved over the Bay of Bengal . After its landfall it brought severe rains to West Bengal , Assam and East Pakistan . The highest recorded rainfall in India was at Shillong where 220 mm ( 8 @.@ 6 inches ) fell on October 24 . A gust of 105 km / h ( 65 mph ) was recorded in Calcutta as the storm passed by to the east , where it caused the failure of the power supply .
The cyclone claimed between 200 and 300 lives in East Pakistan , with the worst of the damage occurring in Khulna District . Over 200 villages were destroyed in the district leaving several thousand people homeless , and there was extensive damage to crops .
= = = Extremely Severe Cyclonic Storm Thirteen = = =
On the morning of November 8 a depression formed in the south @-@ central Bay of Bengal . It moved very slowly to the north , becoming a cyclonic storm the next day . It continued to intensify as it approached the head of the Bay , becoming the third severe cyclonic storm of the season on November 11 . That evening it reached its peak with winds of 185 km / h ( 115 mph ) with a well @-@ developed eye and became the strongest storm of the season . It then made landfall on the coast of East Pakistan during the night of November 12 . The cyclone weakened rapidly as it moved inland and dissipated the next day over south Assam .
This cyclone brought a devastating storm surge of up to 10 metres ( 33 ft ) high to the Ganges Delta . Largely as a result of this surge somewhere between 300 @,@ 000 and 500 @,@ 000 people lost their lives , making this storm the deadliest tropical cyclone ever recorded and one of the deadliest natural disasters of modern times . The total damage from the storm exceeded $ 85 million ( 1970 USD , $ 480 million 2008 USD ) and much of the agricultural and fishing capacity of the region was wiped out . In total some 3 @.@ 6 million people suffered direct effects from this cyclone .
The Pakistani government was severely criticised for its handling of the relief operations following the storm , both by local political leaders in East Pakistan and in the international media . In the December national elections , the opposition Awami League gained a landslide victory , gaining 160 of the 162 East Pakistani seats . Continuing unrest between East Pakistanis and the central government trigged the Bangladesh Liberation War , which concluded with the creation of the state of Bangladesh . This is one of the first times that a natural event helped to trigger a civil war .
= = = Deep Depression Fourteen = = =
A low pressure that had developed over the south Andaman Sea moved west across the southern Bay of Bengal and concentrated into a depression on the morning of November 19 , when it was about 600 km ( 370 mi ) southeast of Madras . The system intensified further into a deep depression as it moved west @-@ northwest and hit the Tamil Nadu the following day . The depression weakened into a remnant low over Tamil Nadu .
The depression brought widespread rain to much of Tamil Nadu , with heavy rain hitting the coastal regions . Low @-@ lying coastal regions from Pondicherry to Atirampattinam . There was damage to crops and housing in Thanjavur District and the rains left thousands homeless in Madras . Cuddalore experienced exceptionally heavy rains with over 440 mm ( 17 inches ) falling there , of which 310 mm ( 12 inches ) fell on November 20 alone .
= = = Cyclonic Storm Fifteen = = =
The remnant low of a depression emerged into the Arabian Sea off Kerala late on November 21 and developed into a new depression the next day as it moved west . The depression moved further west , and gradually turned toward the southwest , intensifying as it did so . It became a cyclonic storm on November 28 to the southeast of Socotra and reached its peak with 75 km / h ( 25 mph ) winds soon after . The cyclone continued to move west @-@ southwestwards and rapidly weakened into a remnant low pressure area off the Somalia coast the next day , ending the season .
The cyclone brought widespread rain to the Laccadives from November 22 to November 24 , with 60 mm ( 2 @.@ 4 inches ) recorded on Amini on November 23 .
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= Upper West Side Story =
" Upper West Side Story " is the 12th episode of the third season of the American comedy @-@ drama television series White Collar , and the 42nd episode overall . It was first broadcast on USA Network in the United States on January 24 , 2012 . The episode was directed by Russell Lee Fine and written by Alexandra McNally and Jim Campolongo .
The episode features many themes of Shakespeare 's Romeo and Juliet , and contains various allusions to Shakespearean and Victorian @-@ era literature . After a student ( Graham Phillips ) at a prestigious prep school approaches Peter Burke and Neal Caffrey about missing scholarship funds , they begin investigating the father ( Dylan Baker ) of the boy 's crush ( Elizabeth Gillies ) .
According to the Nielsen ratings system , an estimated 3 @.@ 472 million household viewers watched the original broadcast of the episode , with 1 @.@ 1 million in the 18 – 49 demographic . " Upper West Side Story " received mostly positive reviews .
= = Plot = =
Neal ( Matt Bomer ) and Peter ( Tim DeKay ) are approached by Evan Leary ( Graham Phillips ) , a student at the prestigious Manhattan Preparatory Academy . Evan explains that he believes the money from his scholarship fund was embezzled by a rich investor by the name of Andy Woods ( Dylan Baker ) . Peter quickly takes the case , realizing that Woods is already believed to be associated with a major cartel .
Peter visits the school under the guise of the parent of a potential student . Neal is to pose as his assistant , but he instead takes on the role of a substitute English teacher after learning that both Evan and Woods ' daughter , Chloe ( Elizabeth Gillies ) , are in the class . Woods soon discovers that Peter may not be who he says he is after learning that he lied about his hotel arrangements ; Peter covers for this by admitting that he spent the night with his mistress . Later , Neal tells Mozzie ( Willie Garson ) about Evan 's silent attraction to Chloe , and that he plans to set them up using a sonnet .
Peter discovers that Woods may be working with Graham Slater ( John Rothman ) , the school 's headmaster , in order to embezzle the funds . The following day , at the school , Neal sees Slater drop an envelope into Chloe 's locker . In order to check the contents of the envelope , Peter pulls the fire alarm . Neal finds the school 's quarterly finance report inside .
Chloe later asks Neal to tutor her at home ; he accepts and invites Evan to come as well . Woods invites Peter to dinner the same night , and asks that he bring his mistress along as well . Diana ( Marsha Thomason ) , posing as Peter 's mistress , accompanies Peter , and , while there , stages a quarrel . Peter , feigning frustration , opens a door to exit , setting off an alarm in the process . Woods turns the alarm off ; this allows Neal to easily break into his office and clone Woods ' hard drive . Chloe follows Neal into her father 's office and accidentally pocket dials Woods . Realizing something is wrong , Woods goes downstairs to his office and discovers Neal with Chloe . Evan quickly enters , taking the blame for the mistake .
The next day , Evan lets Neal know that Woods suspects something . Peter is taken hostage by Woods and held in the shop classroom , where Woods quickly discovers that Peter is with the FBI . Neal takes Chloe 's phone and calls Woods , forcing him to step out of the room . Neal and Mozzie create a smokescreen out of lab chemicals and free Peter ; Diana meanwhile arrests Woods . Neal explains to Chloe that her life will not be easy , and she begins a relationship with Evan after discovering roses and the sonnet left by Neal and Mozzie .
Later , Peter must give a statement to the commutation committee about Neal 's involvement with the Keller case . Although Neal 's actions had caused the kidnapping of Elizabeth ( Tiffani Thiessen ) , Peter opts to omit the details surrounding Neal 's theft of the art .
= = Production = =
The episode was written by Alexandra McNally and Jim Campolongo . It was McNally 's fifth episode since joining the series during the second season , and Campolongo 's sixth overall . It was their first time to collaborate on an episode . " Upper West Side Story " was directed by Russell Lee Fine , his third directing credit for the series after the episodes " Payback " and " On Guard " . Working titles for the episode included " Well Endowed " and " Hangin ' with Mr. Cooper " . It was first reported on July 11 , 2011 that Dylan Baker and Elizabeth Gillies would appear in an episode of White Collar as Andy Woods and his daughter . Other guest stars to appear in the episode include Graham Phillips .
Series star Tim DeKay stated that he enjoyed working on the episode , in part because it was primarily a standalone . Bomer said , speaking of " Upper West Side Story " , that he enjoys portraying different aspects of Neal 's undercover roles . Bomer stated that he received a phone call from Campolongo requesting that he memorize a Byron poem by the next morning . The poem was ultimately included in a scene in which Neal is teaching an English class . Kenny Herzog of The A.V. Club pointed out that the episode contained various references to Shakespearian and Victorian @-@ era literature , specifically mentioning Romeo and Juliet . He stated that these metaphors helped move the plot forward .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
The initial broadcast of the episode drew 3 @.@ 472 million viewers , and earned a 1 @.@ 1 rating in the 18 – 49 demographic . " Upper West Side Story " ranked seventh place among cable series for the night in the 18 – 49 demographic and fourth in its timeslot , surpassed by Teen Mom 2 , Storage Wars , and The Game . The original broadcast of the episode overlapped with the 2012 State of the Union Address for the first 17 minutes ; however , viewership for the episode increased slightly from the previous week .
= = = Reviews = = =
" Upper West Side Story " received mostly positive reviews from critics , with many praising the mostly standalone format and the rebuilding of Neal and Peter 's relationship . Morgan Glennon of the Huffington Post called the episode " a really fun undercover romp that still deals with the fallout between Neal and Peter . " Michelle Carlbert stated that she " felt like it put Neal and Peter back on track " and that she enjoyed the standalone case . Brittany Frederick of Starpulse.com said that " this is an episode that reminds me why I fell in love with White Collar . " Frederick compared the episode to " Mr. Monk Goes Back to School " , an episode of USA Network 's Monk ; she likened Baker 's character to that of Andrew McCarthy 's in Monk , stating that as a villain , McCarthy was evil yet endearing , while Baker appeared genuinely evil . She also praised the series for utilizing comedy rather than drama . Kenny Herzog of The A.V. Club gave the episode a more mixed review , stating that while the series was " at its caper @-@ hatching best , " it was " also its most excessively ludicrous . " Like Frederick , Herzog praised the use of comedy , though he felt that Baker appeared to be more like " a cartoon bully . " He ultimately gave the episode a B- .
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= Southeast Asia Treaty Organization =
The Southeast Asia Treaty Organization ( SEATO ) was an international organization for collective defense in Southeast Asia created by the Southeast Asia Collective Defense Treaty , or Manila Pact , signed in September 1954 in Manila , Philippines . The formal institution of SEATO was established on 19 February 1955 at a meeting of treaty partners in Bangkok , Thailand The organization 's headquarters were also in Bangkok . Eight members joined the organization .
Primarily created to block further communist gains in Southeast Asia , SEATO is generally considered a failure because internal conflict and dispute hindered general use of the SEATO military ; however , SEATO @-@ funded cultural and educational programs left long @-@ standing effects in Southeast Asia . SEATO was dissolved on 30 June 1977 after many members lost interest and withdrew .
The United States still considers the mutual defense aspects of its treaty active for Australia , France , New Zealand , Philippines , Thailand , and the United Kingdom .
= = Origins and structure = =
The Southeast Asia Collective Defense Treaty , or Manila Pact , was signed on 8 September 1954 in Manila , as part of the American Truman Doctrine of creating anti @-@ communist bilateral and collective defense treaties . These treaties and agreements were intended to create alliances that would contain communist powers ( Communist China , in SEATO 's case ) . This policy was considered to have been largely developed by American diplomat and Soviet expert George F. Kennan . President Dwight D. Eisenhower 's Secretary of State John Foster Dulles ( 1953 – 1959 ) is considered to be the primary force behind the creation of SEATO , which expanded the concept of anti @-@ communist collective defense to Southeast Asia , and then @-@ Vice President Richard Nixon advocated an Asian equivalent of NATO upon returning from his late @-@ 1953 Asia trip . The organization , headquartered in Bangkok , was created in 1955 at the first meeting of the Council of Ministers set up by the treaty , contrary to Dulles 's preference to call the organization " ManPac " .
SEATO was intended to be a Southeast Asian version of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization ( NATO ) , in which the military forces of each member would be coordinated to provide for the collective defense of the members ' country . Organizationally , SEATO was headed by the Secretary General , whose office was created in 1957 at a meeting in Canberra , with a council of representatives from member nations and an international staff . Also present were committees for economics , security , and information . SEATO 's first Secretary General was Pote Sarasin , a Thai diplomat and politician who had served as Thailand 's ambassador to the U.S. between 1952 and 1957 , and as Prime Minister of Thailand from September 1957 to 1 January 1958 .
Unlike the NATO alliance , SEATO had no joint commands with standing forces . In addition , SEATO 's response protocol in the event of communism presenting a " common danger " to the member nations was vague and ineffective , though membership in the SEATO alliance did provide a rationale for a large @-@ scale U.S. military intervention in the region during the Vietnam War ( 1955 – 1975 ) .
= = Membership = =
Despite its name , SEATO mostly included countries located outside of the region but with an interest either in the region or the organization itself . They were Australia , France , New Zealand , Pakistan ( including East Pakistan , now Bangladesh ) , the Philippines , Thailand , the United Kingdom and the United States .
The Philippines and Thailand were the only Southeast Asian countries that actually participated in the organization . Both shared close ties with the United States , particularly the Philippines , and both faced incipient communist insurgencies against their own governments . Thailand became a member upon the discovery of the newly founded " Thai Autonomous Region " ( the Xishuangbanna Dai Autonomous Prefecture ) in Yunnan ( in South West China ) - apparently feeling threatened by potential Chinese communist subversion on its land . Other regional countries like Burma and Indonesia were far more minded with domestic internal stability rather than concern of communist threat , and thus rejected joining it . Malaya ( including Singapore ) also chose to not participate formally , though it was kept updated with key developments due to its close relationship with the United Kingdom . The rest of Southeast Asian countries : Vietnam , Cambodia and Laos were prevented from taking part in any international military alliance as a result of the Geneva Agreements signed 20 July of the same year concluding the end of the First Indochina War . However , with the lingering threat coming from communist North Vietnam and the possibility of the domino theory with Indochina turning into a communist frontier , SEATO got these countries under its protection - an act that would be considered to be one of the main justifications for the U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War . Cambodia , however rejected the protection in 1956 .
The majority of SEATO members were not located in Southeast Asia . To Australia and New Zealand , SEATO was seen as a more satisfying organization than ANZUS – a collective defense organization with the U.S. Great Britain and France joined partly due to having long maintained colonies in the region , and partly due to concerns over developments in Indochina . Pakistan , however , was simply interested in joining over the appeal of potential support for its long struggle against India . Last but not least , the U.S. upon perceiving Southeast Asia to be a pivotal frontier for Cold War geopolitics saw the establishment of SEATO as essential to its Cold War containment policy .
All in all , the membership reflected a mid @-@ 1950s combination of anti @-@ communist Western nations and such nations in Southeast Asia . The United Kingdom , France and the United States , the latter of which joined after the U.S. Senate ratified the treaty by an 82 – 1 vote , represented the strongest Western powers . Canada also considered joining , but decided against it in order to concentrate on its NATO responsibilities .
= = = Secretaries @-@ General = = =
Secretaries @-@ General of SEATO :
= = Military aspects = =
After its creation , SEATO quickly became insignificant militarily , as most of its member nations contributed very little to the alliance . While SEATO military forces held joint military training , they were never employed because of internal disagreements . SEATO was unable to intervene in conflicts in Laos because France and Britain rejected use of military action . As a result , the U.S. provided unilateral support for Laos after 1962 . Though sought by the U.S. , involvement of SEATO in the Vietnam War was denied because of lack of British and French cooperation .
Both the United States and Australia cited the alliance as justification for involvement in Vietnam . American membership in SEATO provided the United States with a rationale for a large @-@ scale U.S. military intervention in Southeast Asia . Other countries , such as Great Britain and key nations in Asia , accepted the rationale . In 1962 , as part of its commitment to SEATO , the Royal Australian Air Force deployed CAC Sabres of its No. 79 Squadron to Ubon Royal Thai Air Force Base , Thailand . The Sabres began to play a role in the Vietnam War in 1965 , when their air defence responsibilities expanded to include protection of USAF aircraft using Ubon as a base for strikes against North Vietnam .
= = Cultural effects = =
In addition to joint military training , SEATO member states worked on improving mutual social and economic issues . Such activities were overseen by SEATO 's Committee of Information , Culture , Education , and Labor Activities , and proved to be some of SEATO 's greatest successes . In 1959 , SEATO 's first Secretary General , Pote Sarasin , created the SEATO Graduate School of Engineering ( currently the Asian Institute of Technology ) in Thailand to train engineers . SEATO also sponsored the creation of the Teacher Development Center in Bangkok , as well as the Thai Military Technical Training School , which offered technical programs for supervisors and workmen . SEATO 's Skilled Labor Project ( SLP ) created artisan training facilities , especially in Thailand , where ninety @-@ one training workshops were established .
SEATO also provided research funding and grants in agriculture and medical fields . In 1959 , SEATO set up the Cholera Research Laboratory in Bangkok , later establishing a second Cholera Research Laboratory in Dhaka , Bangladesh . The Dhaka laboratory soon became the world 's leading cholera research facility and was later renamed the International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research , Bangladesh . SEATO was also interested in literature , and a SEATO Literature Award was created and given to writers from member states .
= = Criticism and dissolution = =
Though Secretary of State Dulles considered SEATO an essential element in American foreign policy in Asia , historians have considered the Manila Pact a failure and the pact is rarely mentioned in history books . In The Geneva Conference of 1954 on Indochina , Sir James Cable , a diplomat and naval strategist , described SEATO as " a fig leaf for the nakedness of American policy " , citing the Manila Pact as a " zoo of paper tigers " .
Consequently , questions of dissolving the organization arose . Pakistan withdrew in 1972 after East Pakistan seceded and became Bangladesh in 26th March 1971 . France withdrew financial support in 1975 , and the SEATO council agreed to the phasing out of the organization . After a final exercise on 20 February 1976 , the organization was formally dissolved on 30 June 1977 .
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= Hurricane Iris ( 1995 ) =
Hurricane Iris was the ninth named storm and fifth hurricane of the 1995 Atlantic hurricane season . Iris was the first of three tropical cyclones to affect the Lesser Antilles in a three @-@ week period , preceding the more destructive hurricanes Luis and Marilyn . It developed from a tropical wave to the east of the Lesser Antilles on August 22 and attained hurricane status within 30 hours . The hurricane weakened to a tropical storm before crossing the islands of the eastern Caribbean from August 26 through August 28 . During that time , Iris became one of four active tropical storms in the Atlantic basin . Earlier it had interacted with Hurricane Humberto , and beginning on August 30 , Iris interacted with Tropical Storm Karen . Iris re @-@ intensified into a hurricane and attained peak sustained winds of 110 mph ( 175 km / h ) while moving slowly across the central Atlantic . The hurricane accelerated to the north and absorbed a dissipating Tropical Depression Karen on September 3 . Iris weakened to a tropical storm and became extratropical on September 4 , though its remnants reattained hurricane @-@ force winds before affecting western Europe on September 7 .
As a tropical storm , Iris produced heavy rainfall across much of the Leeward Islands . In the southern Lesser Antilles , high waves caused coastal flooding in Trinidad , while in Martinique further north , significant amounts of precipitation led to flooding and landslides . The threat from the hurricane halted airplane evacuations on Montserrat , which was being threatened by the eruption of the Soufrière Hills volcano . There were five deaths in association with Iris — four in Martinique , and one in Guadeloupe .
= = Meteorological history = =
A tropical wave exited western Africa on August 16 , with a circulation emerging just south of Dakar , Senegal . It was the first of four consecutive waves that would later develop into tropical cyclones . As the system moved westward , thunderstorms diminished on August 18 , before they gradually redeveloped . At around 1200 UTC , the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) classified the system as Tropical Depression Ten about 690 mi ( 1 @,@ 110 km ) east of the Lesser Antilles . Around that time , the depression had a well @-@ organized area of convection and evident circulation , as confirmed by a nearby ship . Within six hours of developing , the depression had intensified into a tropical storm . Initially , tropical cyclone forecast models had difficulty predicting the future of the storm , due to uncertain interaction between it and Tropical Storm Humberto to its northeast . In real @-@ time , the NHC upgraded the depression to Tropical Storm Iris at 1500 UTC on August 23 , or about 21 hours later than assessed in post @-@ analysis . The intensity was based on satellite intensity estimates . At that time , the storm had a ragged central dense overcast — a uniformly circular area of thunderstorms — as well as rainbands to the north and south . A hurricane hunters flight late on August 23 indicated that Iris was significantly stronger , reporting 10 – second sustained winds of 106 mph ( 170 km / h ) at flight @-@ level . Based on the reading , it is estimated Iris attained hurricane status around 1800 UTC that day , or about three hours after it was named .
After Iris strengthened into a hurricane , it turned to the west @-@ southwest due to interaction with Hurricane Humberto . An upper @-@ level low north of Puerto Rico increased wind shear over the hurricane , which dislocated the center from the deep convection . As a result , Iris weakened to tropical storm status on August 24 after being a hurricane for about 24 hours . As the storm approached the Lesser Antilles , the thunderstorms decreased markedly and the cloud pattern became disorganized . As late as August 25 , there was uncertainty whether Iris would continue toward the islands or turn to the north . A new circulation became the dominant center as the storm continued westward , and Iris brushed Saint Lucia early on August 26 . An approaching trough turned the storm to the northwest , bringing it near most of the Lesser Antilles . Early on August 27 , Iris weakened to an intensity of 40 mph ( 64 km / h ) , although it immediately began restrengthening . Later that day , the center made landfall on Montserrat , Anguilla , and Barbuda with winds of over 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) . By that time , an eye began reforming , and the structure became better organized as wind shear decreased .
On August 28 , Iris moved away from the Lesser Antilles , and at 1800 UTC re @-@ attained hurricane status as it began a steady motion to the north @-@ northwest . By that time , there was uncertainty in its future track due to the possible interactions among Iris , Humberto to the northeast , Tropical Storm Karen to the southeast , and the remnants of Tropical Storm Jerry to the west . In addition , after Tropical Storm Luis formed on August 27 , there were four active tropical cyclones in the Atlantic . A few days later , there were three simultaneous hurricanes , which is a rare event , when Luis attained hurricane status . On August 30 , Iris turned to the northeast while it began interacting directly with Tropical Storm Karen . Over the next few days , the smaller tropical storm moved around the larger circulation of Iris , potentially causing the hurricane to move erratically . Iris ' intensity did not change significantly during that time , and it maintained strong outflow but a weak eyewall . An eastward @-@ moving trough bypassed the storm to the north , causing the motion to become nearly stationary . A building ridge to the northeast caused Iris to turn to a northwest drift on September 1 . By that time , the eye had become distinct and well @-@ organized , and at 0600 UTC that day , Iris attained peak winds of 110 mph ( 175 km / h ) to the southeast of Bermuda .
After reaching peak intensity , the hurricane began weakening due to increasing shear and cooler waters . An approaching trough turned Iris to the north , and early on September 3 the hurricane passed about 350 mi ( 560 km ) east of Bermuda . That day , Iris absorbed the dissipating Tropical Depression Karen . It accelerated to the northeast as it lost tropical characteristics , and after weakening to a tropical storm , Iris transitioned into an extratropical cyclone on September 4 to the southeast of Newfoundland . The remnants turned to the east , moving in tandem with an extratropical storm to its north . On September 5 , the barometric pressure dropped by more than 24 millibars ( 0 @.@ 71 inHg ) , which qualified as being classified as a meteorological bomb . The next day , the winds strengthened to hurricane @-@ status , and the storm maintained a track to the east due to a ridge weakening to the north . The pressure reached a minimum of 957 mb ( 28 @.@ 3 inHg ) early on September 7 , lower than while Iris was tropical . That day , the storm weakened as it entered the English Channel , and the extratropical remnants continued across western Europe .
= = Preparations and impact = =
Before Iris moved through the Lesser Antilles , tropical storm watches , and later warnings , were issued from Barbados through the British Virgin Islands . The storm produced tropical storm force winds across the eastern Caribbean , although the primary meteorological event occurred from heavy rainfall . Flooding prompted evacuations in communities in Saint Lucia , Dominica , and Saint Vincent and the Grenadines . Iris was the first of three storms in a three @-@ week period to affect the region , preceding the more destructive hurricanes Luis and Marilyn .
In western Trinidad , a feeder produced winds of 37 mph ( 60 km / h ) along the Gulf of Paria . The winds increased waves that caused coastal flooding and some damage to boats . On Martinique , Iris produced gusts of 56 mph ( 90 km / h ) , with torrential rainfall occurring on the island . A station in Les Trois @-@ Îlets recorded 1 @.@ 89 in ( 48 mm ) in a 30 minute period , and the highest total on the island was 17 @.@ 72 in ( 450 mm ) at Ducos . The rains caused mudslides that killed four people , including two after a house was swept off a cliff in Le Vauclin . Flooding was reported across coastal areas of Martinique , and heavy damage was reported in the southern city of Le Vauclin . To the north of Martinique , winds reached 43 mph ( 69 km / h ) on Dominica . While the storm passed Guadeloupe , it produced sustained winds of 45 mph ( 72 km / h ) , with gusts to 65 mph ( 105 km / h ) on La Désirade . There was one death on the island after a person drowned in a storm @-@ flooded river . To the northwest , the hurricane moved over Montserrat , causing additional problems on the island just weeks after the Soufrière Hills volcano began erupting . Officials on the island closed the primary airport due to the storm , which prevented residents from evacuating from the island from the volcano threat . Further north , Iris dropped 6 in ( 150 mm ) of rain on Antigua , which destroyed banana trees and caused flooding in low @-@ lying areas .
Due to uncertainties in Iris ' track , the government of Bermuda issued a tropical storm watch on September 1 . This was downgraded on September 3 after the hurricane bypassed the island . Later , after Iris became extratropical , the storm produced winds of 45 mph ( 72 km / h ) at La Rochelle on the Atlantic coast of France .
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= Further Instructions =
" Further Instructions " is the third episode of the third season of the American science fiction television series Lost . It first aired on October 18 , 2006 , on the American Broadcasting Company ( ABC ) , making it the 52nd episode of the series . The episode was written by showrunner Carlton Cuse and supervising producer Elizabeth Sarnoff and was directed by Stephen Williams .
The series follows the survivors of the crash of a commercial passenger jet flying between Sydney and Los Angeles , on a mysterious tropical island somewhere in the South Pacific Ocean . In this episode , John Locke ( Terry O 'Quinn ) recovers from the Hatch implosion and rescues Mr. Eko ( Adewale Akinnuoye @-@ Agbaje ) from a polar bear . Locke is featured in the episode 's flashbacks .
The episode featured the return of previous main cast member Ian Somerhalder . It also introduced the characters of Nikki and Paulo ( Kiele Sanchez and Rodrigo Santoro ) , who were added in the wake of some criticism that the series focused too much on the same fifteen survivors . An estimated 16 @.@ 31 million Americans watched the episode upon its original broadcast . " Further Instructions " received mixed to positive reviews from television critics .
= = Plot = =
= = = Flashbacks = = =
Locke is a member of a commune in Humboldt County , California . He considers its members his new family . One day Locke picks up a young hitchhiker , named Eddie Colburn ( Justin Chatwin ) , who tells him he is leaving home . Eddie joins the commune , but after six weeks , he asks Locke why he is never allowed to know what is going on in a greenhouse ( into which he sees an exceptional amount of fertilizer going ) . Eddie expresses his discontent with being kept out of the secret and affirms to Locke his desire to be in on " whatever you guys are trying to blow up " . Locke laughs and says he will talk to the commune leaders , Mike ( Chris Mulkey ) and Jan ( Virginia Morris ) .
Upon entering the greenhouse some time later , in which marijuana is grown , Locke finds Mike and Jan in the midst of a frantic preparation to flee . They blame Locke for bringing Eddie , who they have discovered is an undercover police officer . Locke promises to fix the situation . He takes Eddie hunting and holds Eddie at gunpoint . Eddie says that Locke was chosen because his psych profile said he would be " amenable for coercion " . Eddie walks away , stating that Locke will not shoot him because he is " a good man , " though Locke insists that he is a hunter , not a farmer .
= = = On the Island = = =
John Locke , calling himself Marvin Candle , wakes up in the jungle and sees a naked Desmond Hume ( Henry Ian Cusick ) run by , but Locke cannot speak . Mr. Eko 's ( Adewale Akinnuoye @-@ Agbaje ) stick falls from above nearly hitting him . In the frame of Eko 's church , he builds a sweat lodge and convinces Charlie Pace ( Dominic Monaghan ) to stand guard . Locke takes a hallucinogenic drug and enters the lodge in order to " speak with the Island " . There , Boone Carlyle ( Ian Somerhalder ) appears to help him " find [ his ] way again , so that [ he ] can bring the family back together " . Locke ( mutely ) apologizes for the day Boone died , and he accepts the apology , however , in a taunting and seemingly sarcastic manner . Locke 's hallucination takes him to Sydney airport . Boone wheels Locke through the airport where he tells him someone is " in serious danger " . Locke sees his fellow survivors , and is told by Boone that he must " clean up [ his ] own mess " . Locke finds Eko 's stick covered in blood and Boone tells him " they have him , you don 't have much time " . Upon exiting the sweat lodge he sees a flash of a polar bear . He recovers his ability to speak and tells Charlie that he is going to save Eko .
Locke and Charlie track Eko , who Locke believes has been captured by a polar bear . They pause at a large pit in the ground where the hatch imploded . They encounter Hugo " Hurley " Reyes ( Jorge Garcia ) , who tells them that Jack , Kate , and Sawyer were kidnapped by the Others , and that " Henry Gale " is their leader . While continuing back to the camp alone , Hurley finds Desmond naked and lends him a tie @-@ dyed t @-@ shirt . Desmond says the electromagnetic anomaly may have been destroyed , and Hurley questions why Desmond was not destroyed . Desmond mentions Locke 's speech and his plan to save Jack Shephard , Kate Austen , and James " Sawyer " Ford . However , Hurley responds , " What speech ? " , as Locke has yet to give any such speech . Desmond seems confused , and drops the whole matter .
Locke finds the polar bear 's cave and rescues Eko from the polar bear . While Charlie fetches water from a stream , Locke apologizes to an unconscious Eko for his lack of faith . Eko appears to briefly awaken and tells Locke that he must rescue Jack , Kate and Sawyer . Upon arriving at camp , Hurley informs the camp that Jack and the others have been captured . As an explanation , Locke announces to the survivors that he plans to rescue Jack , Kate , and Sawyer , as Desmond indicated to Hurley earlier . Hurley mentions to Charlie a sense of déjà vu .
= = Production = =
" Further Instructions " was written by showrunner Carlton Cuse and supervising producer Elizabeth Sarnoff ; Stephen Williams served as the director . As the third episode of the season , " Further Instructions " was the first episode to feature the fate of the main cast camped on the beach , as well as the first to begin resolving the Hatch storyline from the season two finale . Leading up to the third season 's broadcast , ABC attempted to reveal as few details as possible to the public . Ian Somerhalder 's return was one piece of information that press releases included . Somerhalder , a former series regular , was credited as a guest actor to play his character Boone Carlyle in Locke 's hallucinations , as his character died during the first season . Guest star Justin Chatwin made his first and only appearance in the episode . Other guest stars included Virginia Morris and Chris Mulkey as the commune leaders Jan and Milke , and Dion Donahue as Kim . The polar bear was mostly depicted by having stuntman Jonathan Arthur inside a bear suit .
Kiele Sanchez and Rodrigo Santoro make their first appearances as Nikki and Paulo in this episode . Prior to the third season , the producers of the show were often asked what the rest of the plane @-@ crash survivors were doing because the show only focused on approximately fifteen of the survivors , and the characters of Nikki and Paulo were created in response . Reaction to the characters was generally negative because of their abrupt introduction onto the show . Nikki and Paulo 's original introduction onto the show was deleted for time from the final cut of the episode . They were supposed to be accidentally found by Claire Littleton in Jack 's tent having sex in the middle of the episode . They were instead introduced at the end of the episode when Locke makes a speech . The deleted scene was included on the third season DVD . The DVD also contained another deleted scene of Locke returning to the commune and seeing Mike and Jan getting arrested .
= = Cultural references = =
Hurley worries that the Hatch implosion turned Desmond into the Hulk , a Marvel Comics character who turned large and green upon being exposed to Gamma rays . The Bible verses seen on Mr. Eko 's stick include Romans 6 : 12 , which says " Do not obey the lusts of sin " and John 3 : 5 , which says " Jesus answered , ' I tell you the truth , no one can enter the kingdom of God unless he is born of water and the Spirit ' . " Hurley 's numbers are also visible . Dominic Monaghan as his character Charlie , says , while trying to figure out who Locke needs to speak to : " Trees ? Yea I heard they are wonderful conversationalists " , a reference to Monaghan 's work in The Lord of the Rings , in which he talks to trees .
= = Reception = =
" Further Instructions " was originally scheduled to air October 11 , 2006 as the second episode of the show 's third season , but swapped with another Lost episode , " The Glass Ballerina " . Upon its original broadcast on October 18 , 2006 in the United States on the American Broadcasting Company ( ABC ) , " Further Instructions " was watched live by an estimated 16 @.@ 31 million viewers . In the 18 @-@ 49 demographic , Lost received a 6 @.@ 5 / 16 ratings share , helping ABC place first for the night when compared to the other major networks .
The episode has received mixed to positive reviews from television critics . Chris Carabott of IGN wrote that " Further Instructions " was " an entertaining hour of television . The episode certainly offers its fair share of excitement , but as with any typical Lost episode we are presented with more questions than answers " . Carabott also called it an improvement over the preceding episode , " The Glass Ballerina . " Andrew Dignan of Slant Magazine expressed relief in having Locke " back to the way we fondly remember him--as a wide @-@ eyed , knife @-@ wielding , face @-@ smeared madman " , but disliked his flashbacks , calling them a " largely under @-@ developed affair " . Dignan was also pleased to have Hurley back at the camp and referred to him as " someone [ who ] will keep the show grounded " , but concluded his review by unhappily noting the sudden emergence of Nikki and Paulo as " a colossal misjudgment on the producers ' part " and " a dangerous precedent that bears keeping an eye on . "
Writing for Entertainment Weekly , Christine Fenno believed the episode had " false starts " but still " enjoyed the trippy places the writers took us . " While disliking the initial scenes with Charlie and Locke , Fenno thought the episode " found its groove " after Locke entered into the trance , and called the final scene between Eddie and Locke the episode 's " strongest moment . " The Record gave a negative review , noting that " Unfortunately , ' Instructions ' seemed devoid of everything that made ' The Glass Ballerina ' hum . It was disjointed , it was graceless , and it seemed filled with gaping holes and not terribly helpful information . " In a 2008 review , Ryan McGee of Zap2It gave the episode another negative review and considered it the weakest of the season 's first three episodes . He explained that after watching it for a second time , it " just feels off to me in hindsight . Maybe it 's the lack of forward movement , maybe it 's the lackluster flashback , maybe because the central plot is rendered moot in just two more episodes ... I can 't quite say . "
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= Death ( South Park ) =
" Death " is the sixth episode in the first season of the American animated television series South Park . It originally aired on Comedy Central in the United States on September 17 , 1997 . In the episode , Grandpa Marvin tries to convince Stan to kill him , while the parents of South Park protest the foul @-@ mouthed cartoon Terrance and Phillip . Death himself arrives to kill Kenny , and presents a warning to Grandpa Marvin against forcing others to help him commit suicide .
" Death " was written and directed by series co @-@ creators Trey Parker and Matt Stone . The episode , along with the Terrance and Phillip show , were inspired by early criticism that South Park was little more than flatulence jokes and primitive animation . The script portrays the parents as so invested in protesting television programs , they fail to pay any attention to what is actually going on in their children 's lives . They seem to want to make television clean and wholesome so the entertainment industry can raise their kids so they themselves don 't have to make the time and effort to be full @-@ time parents . The episode also advocates against censorship and addresses the morality and ethics of euthanasia .
" Death " was the last of the original six South Park episodes ordered by Comedy Central before the network committed to a full season . The episode 's plot heavily influenced the screenplay of the 1999 film South Park : Bigger , Longer & Uncut , which also involves South Park parents protesting Terrance and Phillip . In addition to Terrance and Phillip , the episode introduced recurring characters Grandpa Marsh and Sheila ( then known as Carol ) , Kyle 's mother .
= = Plot = =
The Marsh family celebrates Grandpa Marvin Marsh 's 102nd birthday , but he is tired of living and tries unsuccessfully to commit suicide . He tries to convince Stan to kill him , but Stan refuses because he fears he might get in trouble . Meanwhile , Kyle watches the cartoon Terrance and Phillip , which revolves largely around fart jokes . Kyle 's mother gets outraged by the foul language and crude humor , and contacts other South Park parents to organize a boycott at the Cartoon Central headquarters in New York City . Later at school , Stan asks Mr. Garrison , Chef and Jesus whether he should help his grandpa kill himself , but they avoid discussing the issue as they can 't put it in terms that Stan might understand , much to Stan 's anger .
Meanwhile , Kenny suffers from a bout of " explosive diarrhea " , which spreads to others in the town , including the adults protesting Terrance and Phillip . Despite objecting to the show , the adults themselves laugh and make jokes at their own real @-@ life toilet humor . Carol proclaims that if Cartoon Central does not take the show off the air , the protesters will kill themselves , and they start using a slingshot to send themselves flying into the building . With the adults out of town for the protest , the boys are free to watch Terrance and Phillip at their leisure . Grandpa Marvin continues asking Stan to kill him , and demonstrates how terrible his life is by locking Stan in a room and forcing him to listen to a song in the style of Enya 's " Orinoco Flow " . Now convinced that his life is excruciating , Stan finally agrees to kill his grandpa , and tries to do so by rigging a cow on a pulley and dropping it on him . Just as the boys are about to do it , Death himself arrives , but starts chasing after the boys instead of Grandpa Marvin .
While fleeing , Stan calls his mother , who is too busy protesting Terrance and Phillip to listen to his problems . More than a dozen people have killed themselves against the headquarters building . Eventually , the network agrees to take the show off the air , not because of the deaths but because of the stench of the protesters ' explosive diarrhea . Meanwhile , Death continues chasing the boys , but stops in front of a television playing Terrance and Phillip . Death and the boys start laughing together , but after it is taken off the air , Death angrily touches and kills Kenny . Angered , Grandpa Marvin demands that Death kill him , but Death refuses . Death then brings in the spirit of Stan 's great great grandfather ( Marvin 's grandfather ) , who was killed by Marvin when he was Stan 's age ; the ghost warns Marvin that he must die of natural causes and not place the burden of his suicide on anybody else 's shoulders or else he will spend his eternity after death in limbo .
Terrence and Phillip is replaced by the Suzanne Sommers show She 's the Sheriff which also contains obscenities . Furious about all this , the parents go back to the Cartoon Central network building to protest again . Grandpa Marvin decides to visit Africa , where over 400 people are " naturally " eaten by lions every year . The episode ends with the boys laughing , and then laughing harder when Kyle farts .
= = Production = =
" Death " was written and directed by series co @-@ creators Trey Parker and Matt Stone . It was the last of the original six South Park episodes ordered by Comedy Central before the network committed to a full season of 13 episodes . Parker long wanted to feature a Grim Reaper @-@ like death character in South Park because since his childhood , Parker enjoyed drawing cartoon images of Death riding on a tricycle . This was the inspiration behind a scene in which Death inexplicably rides a tricycle while chasing the South Park boys through the streets .
The subplot of Kenny 's diarrhea problems came from a real @-@ life high school experience from Stone , who said students used to offer each other $ 20 if they would pass a note to the teacher explaining they had " explosive diarrhea " , like Kenny did in the episode . The image of Kenny sitting on a toilet in " Death " became a popular South Park poster . " Death " included a consistency error in that Mr. Garrison 's classroom had its own separate bathroom , which was never again seen in future South Park episodes . During one scene , Cartman moons Kyle while making fun of Kyle 's mother . Comedy Central censors forced Parker and Stone to remove the image of Cartman 's bare bottom , although such images would be allowed in future episodes . A man named Mr. McCormick was killed in " Death " after he was flung via slingshot into the Cartoon Central building . The character 's name led many to mistakenly believe it was Kenny 's father , Stuart McCormick , but Parker denied this and said the similar character names were just a coincidence .
= = Themes = =
During the first few weeks of South Park 's run , Parker and Stone received criticism from some commentators and media outlets that the series was little more than flatulence jokes and primitive animation , and thus must be a simple show to produce . " Death " was written in response to that criticism . The episode introduced Terrance and Phillip , a comedy duo with a popular cartoon series within the South Park universe , whose show is literally nothing but a series of flatulence jokes , with even cruder animation than South Park itself .
The episode 's script parodied parents who voiced strong opposition to South Park , portraying them as so invested in fighting the television program that they fail to pay attention to what is actually going on in their children 's lives . This is illustrated in the episode when Stan calls his mother seeking help because Death is chasing him , only for his mother to ignore him because she is too busy protesting the Terrance and Phillip show . This is also demonstrated by the line Kyle says , " I think that parents only get so offended by television because they rely on it as a babysitter and the sole educator of their kids . "
" Death " warns against such misplaced values and condemns the practice of censorship , as well as demonstrating there can be value in a show often dismissed as juvenile and immature , like South Park or Terrance and Phillip . The episode also takes the position that parents who blame their children 's behavior entirely on television are evading true responsibility for problems that likely have roots elsewhere . The plot of " Death " heavily influenced the screenplay Parker and Stone wrote for their 1999 film , South Park : Bigger , Longer & Uncut . The plot and theme of both scripts revolves heavily around the parents of South Park protesting Terrance and Phillip due to the perceived negative influence it has over their children . Parker said , " After about the first year of South Park , Paramount already wanted to make a South Park movie , and we sort of thought this episode would make the best model just because we liked the sort of pointing at ourselves kind of thing . "
" Death " also touches upon the issue of euthanasia , and whether it is morally or ethically wrong to commit suicide . The episode 's script indicates it is wrong for someone wishing to kill oneself to place the burden of that decision on a loved one : in this case , Grandpa Marvin demanding that Stan kill him , without considering how traumatizing an experience it would be for Stan . This is most strongly illustrated at the end of the episode , in which the ghost of Marvin 's grandfather ( who had Marvin kill him long ago ) tells Marvin he must not force Stan to commit such a traumatizing act . Although the ghost tells Grandpa Marvin he must die of " natural causes " , Marvin nevertheless continues seeking ways to kill himself , but without involving other people . Parker said this reflects his opinion that , " Basically , it is OK to kill yourself , but you shouldn 't ask someone else to do it and put someone else through the trip . "
= = Cultural references and impact = =
" Death " introduced several characters who would maintain important recurring roles throughout the rest of the series . Among them were Sheila Broflovski and Grandpa Marvin Marsh . Sheila and Gerald Broflovski , Kyle 's parents , were named after Stone 's parents , although he insists the characters are nothing like his real parents . Marvin Marsh was not based on any real @-@ life person , but Parker and Stone wanted to create a rude and unlikeable grandfather character because they felt most elderly people were portrayed as sweet and lovable on television . Originally , they wanted Marvin Marsh to be known as the " molesting grandpa " who kept making sexual comments to Stan and attempting to play inappropriate games with him , but Comedy Central refused to allow it , which Parker said was " probably the right call " . Terrance and Phillip are loosely based on Parker and Stone themselves , and were also inspired by the Itchy & Scratchy characters from The Simpsons , as well as the protagonists from the MTV cartoon Beavis and Butt @-@ Head . Although " Death " marked the first appearance of Terrance and Phillip , Parker said the duo " took on a life of their own " . They made frequent appearances throughout the rest of the series , and played a major role in South Park : Bigger , Longer & Uncut .
The episode refers to Jack Kevorkian , the right @-@ to @-@ die activist best known for his advocacy of physician @-@ assisted suicide , although Kyle mistakenly refers to him as " Jack Leborkian " . When Terrance and Phillip is cancelled in " Death " , it is replaced by She 's the Sheriff , a sitcom starring actress Suzanne Somers . The Cartoon Central network in " Death " is based on Comedy Central , the real @-@ life television network that broadcasts South Park . John Warsog , the man who runs Cartoon Central in " Death " , is based on Doug Herzog , the Comedy Central executive who was responsible for bringing South Park to the network . Herzog was excited to be featured in the episode and enjoyed the portrayal . During one scene , Stan 's grandfather locks him in a room and plays music by the Irish vocalist Enya as a form of torture to show Stan what it 's like to be his age , and convince Stan to kill him . The parody of Enya 's Orinoco Flow used in " Death " was sung by Toddy Walters , who played protagonist Polly Pry in Trey Parker 's 1996 film , Cannibal ! The Musical . " Death " marked the first appearance of Snacky Cakes , one of Cartman 's favorite snack foods .
= = Reception = =
In the book Leaving Springfield , author William J. Savage , Jr. said the episode " reveals a fine edged attack on censors and a thoughtful and subtle consideration of issues regarding assisted suicide . " In the book The Deep End of South Park , Anne Gossage complimented the ambition of episode 's themes of censorship and the morality of assisted suicide , which she called " a great deal of ground to cover in 20 minutes " . Gossage also said the episode shared many of the same characteristics of William Shakespeare 's play Hamlet , comparing Stan 's contemplation of killing his grandfather to Hamlet 's dilemmas after encountering his father 's ghost .
= = Home video release = =
" Death " was released alongside five other episodes in a three @-@ VHS set on May 5 , 1998 , marking the first time South Park was made available on video . The episode was released on the " Volume III " video along with " An Elephant Makes Love to a Pig " ; other featured episodes included " Cartman Gets an Anal Probe " , " Volcano " , " Weight Gain 4000 " , and " Big Gay Al 's Big Gay Boat Ride " . " Death " , along with the other twelve episodes from the first season , was also included in the DVD release " South Park : The Complete First Season " , which was released on November 12 , 2002 . Parker and Stone recorded commentary tracks for each episode , but they were not included with the DVDs due to " standards " issues with some of the statements ; Parker and Stone refused to allow the tracks to be edited and censored , so they were released in a CD separate from the DVDs . In 2008 , Parker and Stone made " Death " and all South Park episodes available to watch for free on the show 's official website , " South Park Studios " .
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= Raging Bully =
" Raging Bully " is the sixth broadcast episode of the animated television series Phineas and Ferb . In the episode , Phineas Flynn is challenged to a thumb wrestling competition at the mall with the local bully , Buford , after he accidentally embarrasses him in the food court . Meanwhile , the evil Dr. Heinz Doofenshmirtz tries using a hypnotic contraption to force everyone to celebrate his birthday and clean up their mess after the party .
" Raging Bully " was written by series co @-@ founders Dan Povenmire and Jeff " Swampy " Marsh and directed by Povenmire . Heavyweight boxing champion Evander Holyfield guest starred as himself , training Phineas for the big thumb @-@ wrestling match . The episode originally broadcast on Disney Channel on February 6 , 2008 , as part of the month @-@ long special event , " Phineas and Ferb @-@ urary . " It received generally positive reviews from television critics and the featured musical number , " He 's a Bully , " became available on the official Phineas and Ferb soundtrack in 2009 .
= = Plot summary = =
While at the food court in the mall , Phineas accidentally drops his ice cream cone on bully Buford 's pants , causing the whole food court to laugh at Buford . Enraged , he challenges Phineas to a fight right there , but boxing champion Evander Holyfield arrives and convinces them to instead fight in an organized thumb wrestling match later that day , which Buford accepts . Despite being cautioned by Phineas 's friends Baljeet and Isabella , Holyfield trains Phineas through simple tasks , including punching a chain of sausages and playing Dance Dance Revolution .
Meanwhile , Perry the Platypus arrives at an abandoned cake factory , where he is trapped in a vat of cake mix . His nemesis , Dr. Heinz Doofenshmirtz , appears and explains that today is his birthday . All throughout his life , his parents never showed up to his birthday parties ( even his own birth ) ; now , he plans on using a hypnotic device to force everyone to celebrate his birthday . He then rides off with the invention on a flying machine . Perry escapes from the mix and follows after him . In the air , Perry and Doofenshmirtz fight and the machine is activated , but while trying to get Perry to let go of the wall of the flying machine he accidentally makes the machine malfunction , causing the people below to still not want to celebrate his birthday . Doofenshmirtz , defeated , drops the ice cream cone he is eating in the fight and it falls to the ground below .
Finally , the big match commences and Phineas is vigorously beaten by Buford in each round . When the final round begins , Buford overpowers Phineas and pulls him up through the air . Just then , Doofenshmirtz 's ice cream cone falls and lands on Phineas 's head . Buford is satisfied now that Phineas is embarrassed and calls off the match . The audience who was watching cleans up the mess ( due to Doofenshmirtz 's machine accidentally telling them to ) . At the parking lot a few minutes later , Phineas thanks Holyfield for his help and Holyfield walks off . Ferb makes a comment which accidentally offends Buford and he is about to be beaten up , but he knocks Buford out with a Vulcan nerve pinch , to Phineas 's surprise . When Phineas asks him why he did it he responds , " Well , he was all up in my face . "
= = Production = =
" Raging Bully " was written by Phineas and Ferb co @-@ founders Dan Povenmire and Jeff " Swampy " Marsh . It was storyboarded by artists Wendy Grieb and Kent Osbourne and was directed by Povenmire , who manages the bulk of animation direction in the series along with Zac Moncrief . It was originally broadcast in the United States on February 4 , 2008 , on Disney Channel with a TV @-@ G parental rating . It was part of the network 's marathon event " Phineas and Ferb @-@ urary , " which debuted new episodes of the series every night for the entire month .
Heavyweight boxing champion Evander Holyfield guest starred in the episode as himself , appearing at the mall to help train Phineas for the big thumb wrestling match against Buford . Holyfield 's guest performance was heavily expected since the original announcement of guest stars lined up for the series released in September 2007 . Cast members response to working with Holyfield was highly positive ; Vincent Martella and Alyson Stoner , who portray Phineas and Isabella respectively , cited working along guest stars like him as a benefit of working on the show .
In 2008 , " Raging Bully " became available on the DVD compilation Phineas and Ferb : The Fast and the Phineas , along with fellow first season episodes of the series " One Good Scare Ought to Do It ! " " Lawn Gnome Beach Party of Terror , " " The Fast and the Phineas , " " Are You My Mummy ? " " Flop Starz , " " Lights , Candace , Action ! " and " It 's About Time ! " In 2009 , the episode 's song , " He 's a Bully , " became available on the official Phineas and Ferb soundtrack .
= = Reception = =
" Raging Bully " received generally positive reviews from television critics . DVD Talk 's David Cornelius stated that he enjoyed Holyfield 's guest appearance . Ed Liu , of Toon Zone , wrote that the episode and others included on the DVD The Fast and the Phineas were " way too manic for their own good , never giving a gag enough time to develop a proper laugh before ripping off to the next one , " but considered Phineas 's " He 's a Bully " training montage to be one of the series ' " amusing video sequences . " A Wired magazine review for the soundtrack said that the " He 's a Bully " was " butt @-@ rock , " but blended nicely with other melodies of completely different genres .
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= Hygrocybe appalachianensis =
Hygrocybe appalachianensis , commonly known as the Appalachian waxy cap , is a gilled fungus of the waxcap family . It is found in the eastern United States , where it fruits singly , in groups , or clusters on the ground in deciduous and mixed forests . The species , described in 1963 from collections made in the Appalachian Mountains , was originally classified in the related genus Hygrophorus . It was transferred to Hygrocybe in 1998 , in which it has been proposed as the type species of section Pseudofirmae .
Fruit bodies of the Appalachian waxy cap are bright purplish @-@ red to reddish @-@ orange . They have convex to somewhat funnel @-@ shaped caps that are 3 – 7 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 – 2 @.@ 8 in ) in diameter , held up by a cylindrical stipe up to 7 cm ( 2 @.@ 8 in ) long . The gills are thick and widely spaced , with a color similar to that of the cap or paler , and a whitish @-@ yellow edge . Microscopically , the spores and spore @-@ bearing cells are dimorphic — of two different sizes .
= = Systematics = =
The fungus was described as new to science in 1963 by mycologists Lexemuel Ray Hesler and Alexander H. Smith in their monograph on North American species of Hygrophorus . Hesler collected the type on July 28 , 1958 in Cades Cove , Great Smoky Mountains National Park ( Tennessee ) . The fungus was recorded from the same location in a fungal survey conducted about 50 years later . It was transferred to the genus Hygrocybe in a 1998 paper by Ingeborg Kronawitter and Andreas Bresinsky . In this publication , the basionym was given as " appalachiensis " instead of the original spelling appalachianensis , and so Hygrocybe appalachiensis is an orthographic variant spelling . A reference to the type locality – the Appalachian Mountains – appears in both the specific epithet and in the common name , Appalachian waxy cap .
Because of its color and habit , Hesler and Smith originally thought the unknown agaric was H. coccinea or perhaps a large form of H. miniata , but study of its microscopic characteristics revealed that it was distinct from these . They noted that the fibrillose @-@ squamulose texture of the cap ( i.e. that it appears to be made of thin fibers , or covered with small scales ) and the large spores suggested a relationship with H. turundus . The type of Hygrocybe appalachianensis is of an immature specimen , and the description of the basidia only accounted for microbasidia ( i.e. , the smaller of the two forms of basidia in the hymenium ) . The immature macrobasidia were described as pleurocystidia ( i.e. , cystidia arising from the side , or face , of the gill ) , which Hesler and Smith described as " more or less embedded in the hymenium " . Microspores ( the smaller of the two spore types produced by the fungus ) were not accounted for in their original description , although they are present in the type .
Deborah Jean Lodge and colleagues , in a reorganization of the family Hygrophoraceae based on molecular phylogenetics , proposed that H. appalachianensis should be the type species of the new section Pseudofirmae in genus Hygrocybe . Species in this section , which include Hygrocybe chloochlora , H. rosea , and H. trinitensis , have sticky or glutinous caps that often have perforations in the center . Their spores and basidia are dimorphic ( of two sizes ) , and the development of the microbasidia and macrobasidia is often staggered . The macrobasidia are club shaped and appear as if they have a stalk .
= = Description = =
Fruitbodies of H. appalachianensis have convex caps that are 2 – 7 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 – 2 @.@ 8 in ) in diameter . As the mushroom matures , the cap margins curl upward , and the central depression in the cap deepens , becoming more or less funnel shaped . Its color is bright red to purplish @-@ red , which fades in age . The cap margin is often whitish . The well @-@ spaced gills are initially adnate @-@ decurrent , becoming more decurrent in age . Their color is that of the cap or paler ; the gill edges are sometimes whitish @-@ yellow . The cylindrical stipe , which measures 3 – 7 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 – 2 @.@ 8 in ) long by 0 @.@ 4 – 1 @.@ 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 2 – 0 @.@ 5 in ) , is more or less the same width throughout its length . Its surface texture is smooth to slightly scurfy , and it is often whitish at its base . The flesh of the mushroom lacks any distinctive taste or odor . It is yellowish with orange tinges , with reddish color near the cap cuticle . Alan Bessette and colleagues , in their 2012 monograph on eastern North American waxcap mushrooms , note that the mushroom is " reported to be edible " .
Hygrocybe appalachianensis mushrooms produce a white spore print . Both the spores and the basidia are dimorphic . The larger spores ( macrospores ) are smooth , ellipsoid , and measure 11 – 17 @.@ 5 by 7 – 10 µm . They are hyaline ( translucent ) , and inamyloid . The macrobasidia are club shaped , measuring 38 – 57 by 8 – 14 µm , and can be one- two- , three- or four @-@ spored . The ratio of macrobasidia length to macrospore length is usually less than five to one . Clamp connections are present on the hyphae of several tissues of the mushroom . The hyphae of the gills ( the lamellar trama ) are arranged in a parallel fashion .
The colors of Hygrocybe mushrooms originate from betalains , a class of red and yellow indole @-@ derived pigments . Specific betalains found in H. appalachianensis include muscaflavin , and a group of compounds called hygroaurins , which are derived from muscaflavin by conjugation with amino acids .
= = = Similar species = = =
There are several lookalike species found in North American with which the Appalachian waxy cap might be confused . Hygrocybe cantharellus is a bright red mushroom that has smaller fruit bodies and a more slender stipe than H. appalachianensis . It also has smaller spores , measuring 7 – 12 by 4 – 8 µm . Hygrocybe reidii , found in Europe and northeastern North America , has flesh with a sweet odor that reminiscent of honey . This smell is sometimes weak and only noticeable when the tissue is rubbed , or when it is drying . Its scarlet cap initially has a narrow yellow @-@ orange margin .
Widespread and common in the Northern Hemisphere , the scarlet waxcap ( Hygrocybe coccinea ) is most reliably distinguished from H. appalachianensis by its smaller spores , measuring 7 – 11 by 4 – 5 µm . The sphagnum waxcap , H. coccineocrenata , also has colors that are similar to H. appalachianensis . In addition to its smaller spores ( 8 – 12 by 5 @.@ 5 – 8 µm ) , its fruit bodies have smaller caps , measuring 0 @.@ 6 – 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 2 – 0 @.@ 8 in ) in diameter , and it is typically found fruiting in mosses .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
Fruit bodies of Hygrocybe appalachianensis grow singly , in groups , or clusters on the ground . Like all Hygrocybe species , the fungus is believed to be saprophytic , meaning it obtains nutrients by breaking down organic matter . It fruits in deciduous or mixed forest , typically appearing between the months of July and December . Its range covers a region extending from the states Ohio and West Virginia south to South Carolina and Tennessee . Its occurrence is occasional to locally common .
= = = Cited literature = = =
Bessette AE , Roody WC , Sturgeon WE , Bessette AR ( 2012 ) . Waxcap Mushrooms of Eastern North America . Syracuse , New York : Syracuse University Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 8156 @-@ 3268 @-@ 9 .
Lodge DJ , Padamsee M , Matheny PB , Aime MC , Cantrell SA , Boertmann D , Kovalenko A , Vizzini A , Dentinger BT , Kirk PM , Ainsworth AM , Moncalvo JM , Vilgalys R , Larsson E , Lücking R , Griffith GW , Smith ME , Norvell LL , Desjardin DE , Redhead SA , Ovrebo CL , Lickey EB , Ercole E , Hughes KW , Courtecuisse R , Young A , Binder M , Minnis AM , Lindner DL , Ortiz @-@ Santana B , Haight J , Læssøe T , Baroni TJ , Geml J , Hattori T ( 2014 ) . " Molecular phylogeny , morphology , pigment chemistry and ecology in Hygrophoraceae ( Agaricales ) " . Fungal Diversity 64 ( 1 ) : 1 – 99 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1007 / s13225 @-@ 013 @-@ 0259 @-@ 0 .
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= Estuary stingray =
The estuary stingray ( Dasyatis fluviorum ) , also called the estuary stingaree or brown stingray , is a species of stingray in the family Dasyatidae . Endemic to eastern Australia , it typically inhabits shallow , mangrove @-@ lined tidal rivers , estuaries , and bays in southern Queensland and New South Wales . This yellow @-@ brown to olive ray grows to at least 93 cm ( 37 in ) across . It has a diamond @-@ shaped pectoral fin disc and a mostly smooth , whip @-@ like tail bearing both dorsal and ventral fin folds . It can additionally be identified by its long , narrow nostrils and the row of thorns along the midline of its back .
While the estuary stingray has gained infamy for consuming farmed shellfish such as oysters , it mainly feeds on crustaceans and polychaete worms . It is aplacental viviparous , with the unborn young sustained to term by maternal histotroph ( " uterine milk " ) . Once common , this species has apparently declined across much of its range , likely from a combination of habitat degradation , mortality from commercial and recreational fishing , and persecution by shellfish farmers . As a result , the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) has assessed it as Vulnerable .
= = Taxonomy = =
The first reference to the estuary stingray in scientific literature was probably a record by 19th @-@ century English naturalist William Saville @-@ Kent of a " Trygon pastinaca " feeding on oysters in a Queensland estuary . This species was formally described by Australian ichthyologist James Douglas Ogilby in a 1908 volume of Proceedings of the Royal Society of Queensland , based on a specimen collected from the Brisbane River . The specific epithet fluviorum means " of the rivers " in Latin .
= = Description = =
The estuary stingray has a diamond @-@ shaped pectoral fin disc about as wide as long , with gently convex anterior margins and broadly rounded outer corners . The snout is wide and triangular , and tapers to a point . The small , widely spaced eyes are immediately followed by the spiracles . Between the long and narrow nostrils , there is a short and broad " skirt " of skin with a weakly fringed posterior margin . The small , bow @-@ shaped mouth is surrounded by deep furrows and contains a row of five papillae across the floor , with the outermost pair tiny and set apart from the others . The teeth are small and arranged into pavement @-@ like surfaces . There are five pairs of gill slits beneath the disc . The pelvic fins are relatively large .
The tail measures twice as long as the disc , and is broad and flattened at the base . On its upper surface is at least one , often two serrated stinging spines . Past the spines , the tail quickly tapers to become whip @-@ like and bears a well @-@ developed keel above and a long , low fin fold beneath . There are wide patches of small dermal denticles with flattened crowns between the eyes and over the middle of the back , along with a midline row of enlarged thorns that become progressively longer until they reach the base of the sting . Aside from the thorns at the base , the tail is smooth . This species is yellowish to greenish brown above , lightening towards the disc margins and darkening past the tail spine , and white below . It grows to at least 93 cm ( 37 in ) across , and possibly reaches a width of 1 @.@ 2 m ( 3 @.@ 9 ft ) . Its maximum recorded weight is 6 @.@ 1 kg ( 13 lb ) .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The range of the estuary stingray spans approximately 1 @,@ 700 km ( 1 @,@ 100 mi ) along Australia 's eastern coast , from Repulse Bay in Queensland to the Hacking River in New South Wales . It is most common in southern Queensland , including in Hervey Bay and Moreton Bay . This species was formerly suspected to have disappeared from Botany Bay and Port Jackson in the 1880s , but recent observations have shown this is not the case . Additional species records from the Cape York Peninsula , Northern Territory , New Guinea , and the South China Sea probably represent misidentifications of other stingrays , primarily the freshwater whipray ( Himantura dalyensis ) and the Merauke stingray ( D. longicauda ) .
The habitat requirements of the estuary stingray appear to be rather stringent , as significant numbers are only found at particular locations . It prefers tidal rivers and the intertidal flats of estuaries and bays , which are lined with mangroves and have sandy to muddy bottoms . This species is rarely found outside these sheltered areas , though it has been recorded to a depth of 28 m ( 92 ft ) in offshore waters . It inhabits marine and brackish waters , and may be able to tolerate fresh water as well as it has been known to swim upriver beyond the limit of high tide . Surface water temperatures within its range vary from 24 – 29 ° C ( 75 – 84 ° F ) in the north to 17 – 23 ° C ( 63 – 73 ° F ) in the south . This species seems to segregate by size and sex .
= = Biology and ecology = =
Despite its reputation for preying voraciously on oysters and other farmed shellfish , the estuary stingray 's diet in fact consists mainly of crustaceans and polychaete worms . In Moreton Bay , an important prey species is the soldier crab ( Mictyris longicarpus ) . This ray has been observed entering mudflats with the rising tide to forage for food . Known parasites of the estuary stingray include the tapeworm Shirleyrhynchus aetobatidis , the nematode Echinocephalus overstreeti and the monogeneans Heterocotyle chin , Empruthotrema dasyatidis and Neoentobdella cribbi .
Like other stingrays , the estuary stingray exhibits aplacental viviparity , with the developing embryos sustained initially by yolk and later by histotroph ( " uterine milk " ) produced by the mother . Females probably produce offspring every year . Courtship , in which the male follows the female and bites her disc , has been observed at night in water approximately 80 cm ( 31 in ) deep in Hays Inlet from July to October . The newborns measure around 11 cm ( 4 @.@ 3 in ) across and 35 cm ( 14 in ) long . Young rays have been caught in the Nerang and Macleay Rivers and in Hays Inlet ; such fresh or brackish environments may serve as nurseries . Males mature at around 41 cm ( 16 in ) across and seven years of age , and females mature at around 63 cm ( 25 in ) across and 13 years of age . This disparity in maturation size between the sexes is among the widest known for stingrays . The maximum lifespan is estimated to be 16 years for males and 23 years for females .
= = Human interactions = =
Historical and anecdotal evidence strongly suggest that the once @-@ abundant estuary stingray has declined substantially across its range . Although it is not commercially utilized , it faces a number of other threats . This species is captured incidentally by commercial bottom trawl and gillnet fisheries ; bycatch mortality is exacerbated by the practice of " spiking " , in which the ray 's cranium is pierced with a metal bar or sharpened stick so as to move it . It is also readily caught , and often killed , by recreational anglers . Surveys in Moreton Bay have found fishing @-@ related effects , such as embedded hooks and mutilated tails , in over 10 % of the population . Habitat degradation is another major threat to the estuary stingray , especially given its habitat specificity . Its range encompasses some of the most urbanized areas in Australia , where there is extensive land reclamation , water pollution , and construction of flood mitigation barriers on rivers . Finally , this ray 's reputation for damaging shellfish has led to persecution by commercial shellfish farmers .
The estuary stingray 's diminished population and susceptibility to multiple threats have led the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) to assess it as Vulnerable . Demographic modelling has shown that it is likely to become Endangered without intervention . Several Marine Protected Areas ( MPAs ) are located within its range , but at present they lack adequate protection from fishing . As this ray remains locally abundant in Hervey Bay and parts of Moreton Bay , these areas may become important centers for preserving the species . The Queensland government has listed the estuary stingray on the Back on Track species prioritisation framework , to facilitate the development of conservation measures .
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= Bonded by Blood ( band ) =
Bonded by Blood is an American thrash metal band , named after Exodus ' debut album Bonded by Blood . Like its labelmates Evile , Gama Bomb , and Municipal Waste , Bonded by Blood is part of the thrash metal revival movement . The band was formed in mid @-@ 2005 by vocalist Jose Barrales , who with the help of friends completed the band 's original lineup with guitarist Alex Lee , drummer Carlos Regalado , and bassist Ruben Dominguez .
In 2006 Bonded by Blood won a battle of bands that featured over 250 musical groups . With the contest prize , the band recorded the demo Four Pints of Blood and a year later they self @-@ financed the recording of the EP Extinguish the Weak , releasing the songs through their MySpace page . The band attracted the attention of Earache Records , which signed them in late 2007 . The band released its first full length Feed the Beast in 2008 . While on tour Dominguez left the band and was replaced by bassist Jerry Garcia , who had his debut on Bonded by Blood 's second full length Exiled to Earth , released in 2010 .
= = History = =
= = = Formation and win at battle of bands = = =
Hailing from Pomona , California , the members of Bonded by Blood met through mutual friends . The idea of creating a band was conceived by lead vocalist Jose Barrales , a singer with hardcore punk and crossover thrash backgrounds , influenced by groups like The Blackheads , Cryptic Slaughter , D.R.I. and Black Flag . He always had an appreciation for heavy metal music , but it was not until a friend recommended him to listen to Exodus that Barrales got into the thrash metal subgenre . Exodus ' debut album Bonded by Blood had a profound impact on Barrales , and it was inspiring to the point he idealized the creation of a thrash metal band , as he had noticed that there were few or even no groups in this genre in the music scene .
In mid @-@ 2005 Barrales began looking for musicians for the band , asking friends of his to see if they could recommend anyone , which is how he heard of guitarist Alex Lee . When Barrales saw Lee play , he dropped the thought of trying to play rhythm guitar himself because he had a fear of not being able to keep up . There were a few years that Lee was playing guitar , but he was already playing along to music by Steve Vai , John Petrucci , Rusty Cooley , Paul Gilbert and Michael Angelo Batio . Lee decided to join Barrales , and together , they went on searching until they found themselves the drummer Carlos Regalado , who was known locally by playing covers of Megadeth and Metallica . With Regalado in the band , he helped to find bassist Ruben Dominguez . The band was impressed with the skills of Dominguez , who soon joined the band completing its line @-@ up . The band then decided to name themselves after Exodus ' Bonded by Blood , an album they had in common in their collection , even though their music tastes differed .
A year later , the band decided to enter into a battle of bands contest , which included over 250 musical ensembles . The music competition 's prize was $ 3 @,@ 000 and two days in a recording studio . The band then decided it was time for another guitarist , to fill in some of that empty sounds during guitar solo 's and to add to the band for a more full sound live . Through friends , Barrales contacted guitarist Juan Juarez and asked him to join Bonded by Blood . Juarez accepted and he then met the rest of the members and they all liked him as well . After winning round after round , Bonded by Blood finally won first place . The band then recorded the demo Four Pints of Blood at Love Juice Labs in the Californian city of Riverside . With this demo , Bonded by Blood gave people something to listen to and it gave the band an audience .
= = = Internet exposure and recording contract = = =
At that time , the band was courted by some independent record labels , but they refused any offer because they felt they were not ready to sign a recording contract . After playing plenty more shows and making a few more songs , they recorded the Extinguish the Weak EP in August 2007 . Just as many of its contemporaries , Bonded by Blood self @-@ released the EP through MySpace , and it garner the attention of Earache Records , which signed the band in September 2007 . In late October , Bonded by Blood was one of the support acts for Exodus on a three @-@ date Mexican tour .
Bonded by Blood commenced the recording of its first full @-@ length , Feed the Beast , in January 2008 at J Street studios in Sacramento , California with producer Michael Rosen . At first , the recording sessions were going well , but when the band finish off Rosen began to manipulate the songs in ways that musicians were not enjoying it . The band then decided to re @-@ record the album in the same studio where they recorded the Extinguish the Weak EP . Earache released Feed the Beast on May 9 in the United Kingdom and June 24 in the United States . Bonded by Blood supported the album with the Thrashing Like a Maniac tour . They toured the United States between June and July along with Fueled by Fire and Merciless Death , and in Europe between September and October with Gama Bomb headlining .
The band continued the tour returning to the UK in May 2009 for a short string of dates with support from labelmates Cauldron . In November 2009 they announced the departure of Dominguez , who was replaced by bassist Jerry Garcia from San Bernardino thrash metal band Taking Over . Meanwhile , the band was finishing the writing process of their second album , and in January 2010 they entered the Highland Recorders studio in Phoenix , Arizona to begin recording with producer Ralph Patlan . Bonded by Blood 's second full @-@ length , Exiled to Earth , was released through Earache on August 10 in North America and August 16 in Europe .
Just a month after the release of Exiled to Earth , Bonded by Blood have parted ways with Barrales , who decided to leave the band due to personal and financial reasons . The band 's founding member was replaced by Mauro Gonzales from local band Mutants of War . The new lineup have been rehearsing for the upcoming tour dates . In early 2011 Jerry left the band for personal and financial reasons and Alex Lee left the band to join Holy Grail . On October 8 , 2011 they welcomed Jessie Sanchez ( ex Holy Grail ) into the group as their new bassist .
= = Style , influences and reception = =
According to Barrales , beyond the name , Bonded by Blood borrowed from Exodus for inspiration everything . " From the guitars being razor @-@ sharp to the drums , the speed . We wanted to do something that resemble that . Something that is gonna be fast and in @-@ your @-@ face . And what better band than Exodus to be inspired by ? " Exodus ' lead guitarist Gary Holt says that is a compliment that the band has named themselves after Bonded by Blood . " Could I have imagined that all these years later a band was going to name themselves after our first album ? Probably not . It is not like that convention — naming bands after songs — is something new , but I think it is great . "
Bonded by Blood along with its labelmates Evile , Gama Bomb , and Municipal Waste are part of the thrash metal revival movement . These young bands are bringing the classism of the new wave of British heavy metal and the aggressiveness of hardcore punk to a new generation of fans . Even though the members of Bonded by Blood were not born when their favorite 1980s thrash metal bands released their debut albums , the music and fashion of that era had a profound impact on them .
Aside from being aficionados by the 1980s thrash metal , the band has expressed their love of skateboarding , comic books , and cartoons ( most notably the Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles ) . At the time of recordings of the Extinguish the Weak EP — while the band were rehearsing — Barrales was listening to the Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles theme song online and suggested the band to create a cover version . Initially , Bonded by Blood played the song in live performances , but after receiving positive feedback from the audience the band decided to record it . " Theme from Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles " was originally included on the Extinguish the Weak EP and later on Feed the Beast .
Bonded By Blood have recently announced that they are going to begin the works on a new album that plans to be released in early 2012 . On October 8 , 2011 they officially announced their new bass player Jessie Sanchez ( ex Holy Grail ) into the band .
= = Members = =
= = Discography = =
Four Pints of Blood ( Demo , 2006 )
Extinguish the Weak ( self @-@ released EP , 2007 )
Feed the Beast ( Earache , 2008 )
Exiled to Earth ( Earache , 2010 )
The Aftermath ( Earache , 2012 )
= = = Appears on = = =
Thrashing Like a Maniac ( Compilation , 2007 )
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= Asthma =
Asthma is a common long term inflammatory disease of the airways of the lungs . It is characterized by variable and recurring symptoms , reversible airflow obstruction , and bronchospasm . Symptoms include episodes of wheezing , coughing , chest tightness , and shortness of breath . These episodes may occur a few times a day or a few times per week . Depending on the person they may become worse at night or with exercise .
Asthma is thought to be caused by a combination of genetic and environmental factors . Environmental factors include exposure to air pollution and allergens . Other potential triggers include medications such as aspirin and beta blockers . Diagnosis is usually based on the pattern of symptoms , response to therapy over time , and spirometry . Asthma is classified according to the frequency of symptoms , forced expiratory volume in one second ( FEV1 ) , and peak expiratory flow rate . It may also be classified as atopic or non @-@ atopic where atopy refers to a predisposition toward developing a type 1 hypersensitivity reaction .
There is no cure for asthma . Symptoms can be prevented by avoiding triggers , such as allergens and irritants , and by the use of inhaled corticosteroids . Long @-@ acting beta agonists ( LABA ) or antileukotriene agents may be used in addition to inhaled corticosteroids if asthma symptoms remain uncontrolled . Treatment of rapidly worsening symptoms is usually with an inhaled short @-@ acting beta @-@ 2 agonist such as salbutamol and corticosteroids taken by mouth . In very severe cases , intravenous corticosteroids , magnesium sulfate , and hospitalization may be required .
In 2013 , 242 million people globally had asthma up from 183 million in 1990 . It caused about 489 @,@ 000 deaths in 2013 , most of which occurred in the developing world . It often begins in childhood . The rates of asthma have increased significantly since the 1960s . Asthma was recognized as early as Ancient Egypt . The word asthma is from the Greek ἅσθμα , ásthma which means " panting " .
= = Signs and symptoms = =
Asthma is characterized by recurrent episodes of wheezing , shortness of breath , chest tightness , and coughing . Sputum may be produced from the lung by coughing but is often hard to bring up . During recovery from an attack , it may appear pus @-@ like due to high levels of white blood cells called eosinophils . Symptoms are usually worse at night and in the early morning or in response to exercise or cold air . Some people with asthma rarely experience symptoms , usually in response to triggers , whereas others may have marked and persistent symptoms .
= = = Associated conditions = = =
A number of other health conditions occur more frequently in those with asthma , including gastro @-@ esophageal reflux disease ( GERD ) , rhinosinusitis , and obstructive sleep apnea . Psychological disorders are also more common , with anxiety disorders occurring in between 16 – 52 % and mood disorders in 14 – 41 % . However , it is not known if asthma causes psychological problems or if psychological problems lead to asthma . Those with asthma , especially if it is poorly controlled , are at high risk for radiocontrast reactions .
= = Causes = =
Asthma is caused by a combination of complex and incompletely understood environmental and genetic interactions . These factors influence both its severity and its responsiveness to treatment . It is believed that the recent increased rates of asthma are due to changing epigenetics ( heritable factors other than those related to the DNA sequence ) and a changing living environment . Onset before age 12 is more likely due to genetic influence , while onset after 12 is more likely due to environmental influence .
= = = Environmental = = =
Many environmental factors have been associated with asthma 's development and exacerbation including allergens , air pollution , and other environmental chemicals . Smoking during pregnancy and after delivery is associated with a greater risk of asthma @-@ like symptoms . Low air quality from factors such as traffic pollution or high ozone levels , has been associated with both asthma development and increased asthma severity . Over half of cases in children in the United States occur in areas with air quality below EPA standards . Exposure to indoor volatile organic compounds may be a trigger for asthma ; formaldehyde exposure , for example , has a positive association . Also , phthalates in certain types of PVC are associated with asthma in children and adults .
There is an association between acetaminophen ( paracetamol ) use and asthma . The majority of the evidence does not , however , support a causal role . A 2014 review found that the association disappeared when respiratory infections were taken into account . Use by a mother during pregnancy is also associated with an increased risk as is psychological stress during pregnancy .
Asthma is associated with exposure to indoor allergens . Common indoor allergens include dust mites , cockroaches , animal dander , and mold . Efforts to decrease dust mites have been found to be ineffective on symptoms in sensitized subjects . Certain viral respiratory infections , such as respiratory syncytial virus and rhinovirus , may increase the risk of developing asthma when acquired as young children . Certain other infections , however , may decrease the risk .
= = = = Hygiene hypothesis = = = =
The hygiene hypothesis attempts to explain the increased rates of asthma worldwide as a direct and unintended result of reduced exposure , during childhood , to non @-@ pathogenic bacteria and viruses . It has been proposed that the reduced exposure to bacteria and viruses is due , in part , to increased cleanliness and decreased family size in modern societies . Exposure to bacterial endotoxin in early childhood may prevent the development of asthma , but exposure at an older age may provoke bronchoconstriction . Evidence supporting the hygiene hypothesis includes lower rates of asthma on farms and in households with pets .
Use of antibiotics in early life has been linked to the development of asthma . Also , delivery via caesarean section is associated with an increased risk ( estimated at 20 – 80 % ) of asthma — this increased risk is attributed to the lack of healthy bacterial colonization that the newborn would have acquired from passage through the birth canal . There is a link between asthma and the degree of affluence .
= = = Genetic = = =
Family history is a risk factor for asthma , with many different genes being implicated . If one identical twin is affected , the probability of the other having the disease is approximately 25 % . By the end of 2005 , 25 genes had been associated with asthma in six or more separate populations , including GSTM1 , IL10 , CTLA @-@ 4 , SPINK5 , LTC4S , IL4R and ADAM33 , among others . Many of these genes are related to the immune system or modulating inflammation . Even among this list of genes supported by highly replicated studies , results have not been consistent among all populations tested . In 2006 over 100 genes were associated with asthma in one genetic association study alone ; more continue to be found .
Some genetic variants may only cause asthma when they are combined with specific environmental exposures . An example is a specific single nucleotide polymorphism in the CD14 region and exposure to endotoxin ( a bacterial product ) . Endotoxin exposure can come from several environmental sources including tobacco smoke , dogs , and farms . Risk for asthma , then , is determined by both a person 's genetics and the level of endotoxin exposure .
= = = Medical conditions = = =
A triad of atopic eczema , allergic rhinitis and asthma is called atopy . The strongest risk factor for developing asthma is a history of atopic disease ; with asthma occurring at a much greater rate in those who have either eczema or hay fever . Asthma has been associated with eosinophilic granulomatosis with polyangiitis ( formerly known as Churg – Strauss syndrome ) , an autoimmune disease and vasculitis . Individuals with certain types of urticaria may also experience symptoms of asthma .
There is a correlation between obesity and the risk of asthma with both having increased in recent years . Several factors may be at play including decreased respiratory function due to a buildup of fat and the fact that adipose tissue leads to a pro @-@ inflammatory state .
Beta blocker medications such as propranolol can trigger asthma in those who are susceptible . Cardioselective beta @-@ blockers , however , appear safe in those with mild or moderate disease . Other medications that can cause problems in asthmatics are angiotensin @-@ converting enzyme inhibitors , aspirin , and NSAIDs .
= = = Exacerbation = = =
Some individuals will have stable asthma for weeks or months and then suddenly develop an episode of acute asthma . Different individuals react to various factors in different ways . Most individuals can develop severe exacerbation from a number of triggering agents .
Home factors that can lead to exacerbation of asthma include dust , animal dander ( especially cat and dog hair ) , cockroach allergens and mold . Perfumes are a common cause of acute attacks in women and children . Both viral and bacterial infections of the upper respiratory tract can worsen the disease . Psychological stress may worsen symptoms — it is thought that stress alters the immune system and thus increases the airway inflammatory response to allergens and irritants .
= = Pathophysiology = =
Asthma is the result of chronic inflammation of the conducting zone of the airways ( most especially the bronchi and bronchioles ) , which subsequently results in increased contractability of the surrounding smooth muscles . This among other factors leads to bouts of narrowing of the airway and the classic symptoms of wheezing . The narrowing is typically reversible with or without treatment . Occasionally the airways themselves change . Typical changes in the airways include an increase in eosinophils and thickening of the lamina reticularis . Chronically the airways ' smooth muscle may increase in size along with an increase in the numbers of mucous glands . Other cell types involved include : T lymphocytes , macrophages , and neutrophils . There may also be involvement of other components of the immune system including : cytokines , chemokines , histamine , and leukotrienes among others .
= = Diagnosis = =
While asthma is a well @-@ recognized condition , there is not one universal agreed upon definition . It is defined by the Global Initiative for Asthma as " a chronic inflammatory disorder of the airways in which many cells and cellular elements play a role . The chronic inflammation is associated with airway hyper @-@ responsiveness that leads to recurrent episodes of wheezing , breathlessness , chest tightness and coughing particularly at night or in the early morning . These episodes are usually associated with widespread but variable airflow obstruction within the lung that is often reversible either spontaneously or with treatment " .
There is currently no precise test for the diagnosis , which is typically based on the pattern of symptoms and response to therapy over time . A diagnosis of asthma should be suspected if there is a history of recurrent wheezing , coughing or difficulty breathing and these symptoms occur or worsen due to exercise , viral infections , allergens or air pollution . Spirometry is then used to confirm the diagnosis . In children under the age of six the diagnosis is more difficult as they are too young for spirometry .
= = = Spirometry = = =
Spirometry is recommended to aid in diagnosis and management . It is the single best test for asthma . If the FEV1 measured by this technique improves more than 12 % following administration of a bronchodilator such as salbutamol , this is supportive of the diagnosis . It however may be normal in those with a history of mild asthma , not currently acting up . As caffeine is a bronchodilator in people with asthma , the use of caffeine before a lung function test may interfere with the results . Single @-@ breath diffusing capacity can help differentiate asthma from COPD . It is reasonable to perform spirometry every one or two years to follow how well a person 's asthma is controlled .
= = = Others = = =
The methacholine challenge involves the inhalation of increasing concentrations of a substance that causes airway narrowing in those predisposed . If negative it means that a person does not have asthma ; if positive , however , it is not specific for the disease .
Other supportive evidence includes : a ≥ 20 % difference in peak expiratory flow rate on at least three days in a week for at least two weeks , a ≥ 20 % improvement of peak flow following treatment with either salbutamol , inhaled corticosteroids or prednisone , or a ≥ 20 % decrease in peak flow following exposure to a trigger . Testing peak expiratory flow is more variable than spirometry , however , and thus not recommended for routine diagnosis . It may be useful for daily self @-@ monitoring in those with moderate to severe disease and for checking the effectiveness of new medications . It may also be helpful in guiding treatment in those with acute exacerbations .
= = = Classification = = =
Asthma is clinically classified according to the frequency of symptoms , forced expiratory volume in one second ( FEV1 ) , and peak expiratory flow rate . Asthma may also be classified as atopic ( extrinsic ) or non @-@ atopic ( intrinsic ) , based on whether symptoms are precipitated by allergens ( atopic ) or not ( non @-@ atopic ) . While asthma is classified based on severity , at the moment there is no clear method for classifying different subgroups of asthma beyond this system . Finding ways to identify subgroups that respond well to different types of treatments is a current critical goal of asthma research .
Although asthma is a chronic obstructive condition , it is not considered as a part of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease as this term refers specifically to combinations of disease that are irreversible such as bronchiectasis , chronic bronchitis , and emphysema . Unlike these diseases , the airway obstruction in asthma is usually reversible ; however , if left untreated , the chronic inflammation from asthma can lead the lungs to become irreversibly obstructed due to airway remodeling . In contrast to emphysema , asthma affects the bronchi , not the alveoli .
= = = = Asthma exacerbation = = = =
An acute asthma exacerbation is commonly referred to as an asthma attack . The classic symptoms are shortness of breath , wheezing , and chest tightness . The wheezing is most often when breathing out . While these are the primary symptoms of asthma , some people present primarily with coughing , and in severe cases , air motion may be significantly impaired such that no wheezing is heard . In children , chest pain is often present .
Signs which occur during an asthma attack include the use of accessory muscles of respiration ( sternocleidomastoid and scalene muscles of the neck ) , there may be a paradoxical pulse ( a pulse that is weaker during inhalation and stronger during exhalation ) , and over @-@ inflation of the chest . A blue color of the skin and nails may occur from lack of oxygen .
In a mild exacerbation the peak expiratory flow rate ( PEFR ) is ≥ 200 L / min or ≥ 50 % of the predicted best . Moderate is defined as between 80 and 200 L / min or 25 % and 50 % of the predicted best while severe is defined as ≤ 80 L / min or ≤ 25 % of the predicted best .
Acute severe asthma , previously known as status asthmaticus , is an acute exacerbation of asthma that does not respond to standard treatments of bronchodilators and corticosteroids . Half of cases are due to infections with others caused by allergen , air pollution , or insufficient or inappropriate medication use .
Brittle asthma is a kind of asthma distinguishable by recurrent , severe attacks . Type 1 brittle asthma is a disease with wide peak flow variability , despite intense medication . Type 2 brittle asthma is background well @-@ controlled asthma with sudden severe exacerbations .
= = = = Exercise @-@ induced = = = =
Exercise can trigger bronchoconstriction both in people with or without asthma . It occurs in most people with asthma and up to 20 % of people without asthma . Exercise @-@ induced bronchoconstriction is common in professional athletes . The highest rates are among cyclists ( up to 45 % ) , swimmers , and cross @-@ country skiers . While it may occur with any weather conditions it is more common when it is dry and cold . Inhaled beta2 @-@ agonists do not appear to improve athletic performance among those without asthma however oral doses may improve endurance and strength .
= = = = Occupational = = = =
Asthma as a result of ( or worsened by ) workplace exposures , is a commonly reported occupational disease . Many cases however are not reported or recognized as such . It is estimated that 5 – 25 % of asthma cases in adults are work – related . A few hundred different agents have been implicated with the most common being : isocyanates , grain and wood dust , colophony , soldering flux , latex , animals , and aldehydes . The employment associated with the highest risk of problems include : those who spray paint , bakers and those who process food , nurses , chemical workers , those who work with animals , welders , hairdressers and timber workers .
= = = = Aspirin @-@ induced asthma = = = =
Aspirin @-@ exacerbated respiratory disease , also known as aspirin @-@ induced asthma , affects up to 9 % of asthmatics . Reactions may also occur to other NSAIDs . People affected often also have trouble with nasal polyps . In people who are affected low doses paracetamol or COX @-@ 2 inhibitors are generally safe .
= = = = Alcohol @-@ induced asthma = = = =
Alcohol may worsen asthmatic symptoms in up to a third of people . This may be even more common in some ethnic groups such as the Japanese and those with aspirin @-@ induced asthma . Other studies have found improvement in asthmatic symptoms from alcohol .
= = = = Nonallergic asthma = = = =
Nonallergic asthma , also known as intrinsic or nonatopic asthma makes up between 10 and 33 % of cases . There is negative skin test to common inhalant allergens and normal serum concentrations of IgE . Often it starts latter and life and women are more commonly affect than men . Usual treatments may not work as well .
= = = Differential diagnosis = = =
Many other conditions can cause symptoms similar to those of asthma . In children , other upper airway diseases such as allergic rhinitis and sinusitis should be considered as well as other causes of airway obstruction including : foreign body aspiration , tracheal stenosis or laryngotracheomalacia , vascular rings , enlarged lymph nodes or neck masses . Bronchiolitis and other viral infections may also produce wheezing . In adults , COPD , congestive heart failure , airway masses , as well as drug @-@ induced coughing due to ACE inhibitors should be considered . In both populations vocal cord dysfunction may present similarly .
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease can coexist with asthma and can occur as a complication of chronic asthma . After the age of 65 , most people with obstructive airway disease will have asthma and COPD . In this setting , COPD can be differentiated by increased airway neutrophils , abnormally increased wall thickness , and increased smooth muscle in the bronchi . However , this level of investigation is not performed due to COPD and asthma sharing similar principles of management : corticosteroids , long @-@ acting beta @-@ agonists , and smoking cessation . It closely resembles asthma in symptoms , is correlated with more exposure to cigarette smoke , an older age , less symptom reversibility after bronchodilator administration , and decreased likelihood of family history of atopy .
= = Prevention = =
The evidence for the effectiveness of measures to prevent the development of asthma is weak . Some show promise including : limiting smoke exposure both in utero and after delivery , breastfeeding , and increased exposure to daycare or large families but none are well supported enough to be recommended for this indication . Early pet exposure may be useful . Results from exposure to pets at other times are inconclusive and it is only recommended that pets be removed from the home if a person has allergic symptoms to said pet . Dietary restrictions during pregnancy or when breast feeding have not been found to be effective and thus are not recommended . Reducing or eliminating compounds known to sensitive people from the work place may be effective . It is not clear if annual influenza vaccinations effects the risk of exacerbations . Immunization ; however , is recommended by the World Health Organization . Smoking bans are effective in decreasing exacerbations of asthma .
= = Management = =
While there is no cure for asthma , symptoms can typically be improved . A specific , customized plan for proactively monitoring and managing symptoms should be created . This plan should include the reduction of exposure to allergens , testing to assess the severity of symptoms , and the usage of medications . The treatment plan should be written down and advise adjustments to treatment according to changes in symptoms .
The most effective treatment for asthma is identifying triggers , such as cigarette smoke , pets , or aspirin , and eliminating exposure to them . If trigger avoidance is insufficient , the use of medication is recommended . Pharmaceutical drugs are selected based on , among other things , the severity of illness and the frequency of symptoms . Specific medications for asthma are broadly classified into fast @-@ acting and long @-@ acting categories .
Bronchodilators are recommended for short @-@ term relief of symptoms . In those with occasional attacks , no other medication is needed . If mild persistent disease is present ( more than two attacks a week ) , low @-@ dose inhaled corticosteroids or alternatively , an oral leukotriene antagonist or a mast cell stabilizer is recommended . For those who have daily attacks , a higher dose of inhaled corticosteroids is used . In a moderate or severe exacerbation , oral corticosteroids are added to these treatments .
= = = Lifestyle modification = = =
Avoidance of triggers is a key component of improving control and preventing attacks . The most common triggers include allergens , smoke ( tobacco and other ) , air pollution , non selective beta @-@ blockers , and sulfite @-@ containing foods . Cigarette smoking and second @-@ hand smoke ( passive smoke ) may reduce the effectiveness of medications such as corticosteroids . Laws that limit smoking decrease the number of people hospitalized for asthma . Dust mite control measures , including air filtration , chemicals to kill mites , vacuuming , mattress covers and others methods had no effect on asthma symptoms . Overall , exercise is beneficial in people with stable asthma . Yoga could provide small improvements in quality of life and symptoms in people with asthma .
= = = Medications = = =
Medications used to treat asthma are divided into two general classes : quick @-@ relief medications used to treat acute symptoms ; and long @-@ term control medications used to prevent further exacerbation .
= = = = Fast – acting = = = =
Short @-@ acting beta2 @-@ adrenoceptor agonists ( SABA ) , such as salbutamol ( albuterol USAN ) are the first line treatment for asthma symptoms . They are recommended before exercise in those with exercise induced symptoms .
Anticholinergic medications , such as ipratropium bromide , provide additional benefit when used in combination with SABA in those with moderate or severe symptoms . Anticholinergic bronchodilators can also be used if a person cannot tolerate a SABA . If a child requires admission to hospital additional ipratropium does not appear to help over a SABA .
Older , less selective adrenergic agonists , such as inhaled epinephrine , have similar efficacy to SABAs . They are however not recommended due to concerns regarding excessive cardiac stimulation .
= = = = Long – term control = = = =
Corticosteroids are generally considered the most effective treatment available for long @-@ term control . Inhaled forms such as beclomethasone are usually used except in the case of severe persistent disease , in which oral corticosteroids may be needed . It is usually recommended that inhaled formulations be used once or twice daily , depending on the severity of symptoms .
Long @-@ acting beta @-@ adrenoceptor agonists ( LABA ) such as salmeterol and formoterol can improve asthma control , at least in adults , when given in combination with inhaled corticosteroids . In children this benefit is uncertain . When used without steroids they increase the risk of severe side @-@ effects and even with corticosteroids they may slightly increase the risk .
Leukotriene receptor antagonists ( such as montelukast and zafirlukast ) may be used in addition to inhaled corticosteroids , typically also in conjunction with a LABA . Evidence is insufficient to support use in acute exacerbations . In children they appear to be of little benefit when added to inhaled steroids , and the same applies in adolescents and adults . They are useful by themselves . In those under five years of age , they were the preferred add @-@ on therapy after inhaled corticosteroids by the British Thoracic Society in 2009 . A similar class of drugs , 5 @-@ LOX inhibitors , may be used as an alternative in the chronic treatment of mild to moderate asthma among older children and adults . As of 2013 there is one medication in this family known as zileuton .
Mast cell stabilizers ( such as cromolyn sodium ) are another non @-@ preferred alternative to corticosteroids .
= = = = Delivery methods = = = =
Medications are typically provided as metered @-@ dose inhalers ( MDIs ) in combination with an asthma spacer or as a dry powder inhaler . The spacer is a plastic cylinder that mixes the medication with air , making it easier to receive a full dose of the drug . A nebulizer may also be used . Nebulizers and spacers are equally effective in those with mild to moderate symptoms . However , insufficient evidence is available to determine whether a difference exists in those with severe disease .
= = = = Adverse effects = = = =
Long @-@ term use of inhaled corticosteroids at conventional doses carries a minor risk of adverse effects . Risks include the development of cataracts and a mild regression in stature .
= = = Others = = =
When asthma is unresponsive to usual medications , other options are available for both emergency management and prevention of flareups . For emergency management other options include :
Oxygen to alleviate hypoxia if saturations fall below 92 % .
Oral corticosteroid are recommended with five days of prednisone being the same 2 days of dexamethasone .
Magnesium sulfate intravenous treatment increases bronchodilation when used in addition to other treatment in moderate severe acute asthma attacks . In adults it results in a reduction of hospital admissions .
Heliox , a mixture of helium and oxygen , may also be considered in severe unresponsive cases .
Intravenous salbutamol is not supported by available evidence and is thus used only in extreme cases .
Methylxanthines ( such as theophylline ) were once widely used , but do not add significantly to the effects of inhaled beta @-@ agonists . Their use in acute exacerbations is controversial .
The dissociative anesthetic ketamine is theoretically useful if intubation and mechanical ventilation is needed in people who are approaching respiratory arrest ; however , there is no evidence from clinical trials to support this .
For those with severe persistent asthma not controlled by inhaled corticosteroids and LABAs , bronchial thermoplasty may be an option . It involves the delivery of controlled thermal energy to the airway wall during a series of bronchoscopies . While it may increase exacerbation frequency in the first few months it appears to decrease the subsequent rate . Effects beyond one year are unknown . Evidence suggests that sublingual immunotherapy in those with both allergic rhinitis and asthma improve outcomes .
= = = Alternative medicine = = =
Many people with asthma , like those with other chronic disorders , use alternative treatments ; surveys show that roughly 50 % use some form of unconventional therapy . There is little data to support the effectiveness of most of these therapies . Evidence is insufficient to support the usage of Vitamin C. There is tentative support for its use in exercise induced brochospasm .
Acupuncture is not recommended for the treatment as there is insufficient evidence to support its use . Air ionisers show no evidence that they improve asthma symptoms or benefit lung function ; this applied equally to positive and negative ion generators .
Manual therapies , including osteopathic , chiropractic , physiotherapeutic and respiratory therapeutic maneuvers , have insufficient evidence to support their use in treating asthma . The Buteyko breathing technique for controlling hyperventilation may result in a reduction in medication use ; however , the technique does not have any effect on lung function . Thus an expert panel felt that evidence was insufficient to support its use .
= = Prognosis = =
The prognosis for asthma is generally good , especially for children with mild disease . Mortality has decreased over the last few decades due to better recognition and improvement in care . In 2010 the death rate was 170 per million for males and 90 per million for females . Rates very between countries by 100 fold .
Globally it causes moderate or severe disability in 19 @.@ 4 million people as of 2004 ( 16 million of which are in low and middle income countries ) . Of asthma diagnosed during childhood , half of cases will no longer carry the diagnosis after a decade . Airway remodeling is observed , but it is unknown whether these represent harmful or beneficial changes . Early treatment with corticosteroids seems to prevent or ameliorates a decline in lung function . Asthma in children also has negative effects on quality of life of their parents .
= = Epidemiology = =
As of 2011 , 235 – 330 million people worldwide are affected by asthma , and approximately 250 @,@ 000 – 345 @,@ 000 people die per year from the disease . Rates vary between countries with prevalences between 1 and 18 % . It is more common in developed than developing countries . One thus sees lower rates in Asia , Eastern Europe and Africa . Within developed countries it is more common in those who are economically disadvantaged while in contrast in developing countries it is more common in the affluent . The reason for these differences is not well known . Low and middle income countries make up more than 80 % of the mortality .
While asthma is twice as common in boys as girls , severe asthma occurs at equal rates . In contrast adult women have a higher rate of asthma than men and it is more common in the young than the old . In children , asthma was the most common reason for admission to the hospital following an emergency department visit in the US in 2011 .
Global rates of asthma have increased significantly between the 1960s and 2008 with it being recognized as a major public health problem since the 1970s . Rates of asthma have plateaued in the developed world since the mid @-@ 1990s with recent increases primarily in the developing world . Asthma affects approximately 7 % of the population of the United States and 5 % of people in the United Kingdom . Canada , Australia and New Zealand have rates of about 14 – 15 % .
= = Economics = =
From 2000 to 2010 , the average cost per asthma @-@ related hospital stay in the United States for children remained relatively stable at about $ 3 @,@ 600 , whereas the average cost per asthma @-@ related hospital stay for adults increased from $ 5 @,@ 200 to $ 6 @,@ 600 . In 2010 , Medicaid was the most frequent primary payer among children and adults aged 18 – 44 years in the United States ; private insurance was the second most frequent payer . Among both children and adults in the lowest income communities in the United States there is a higher rate of hospital stays for asthma in 2010 than those in the highest income communities .
= = History = =
Asthma was recognized in Ancient Egypt and was treated by drinking an incense mixture known as kyphi . It was officially named as a specific respiratory problem by Hippocrates circa 450 BC , with the Greek word for " panting " forming the basis of our modern name . In 200 BC it was believed to be at least partly related to the emotions .
In 1873 , one of the first papers in modern medicine on the subject tried to explain the pathophysiology of the disease while one in 1872 , concluded that asthma can be cured by rubbing the chest with chloroform liniment . Medical treatment in 1880 , included the use of intravenous doses of a drug called pilocarpin . In 1886 , F.H. Bosworth theorized a connection between asthma and hay fever . Epinephrine was first referred to in the treatment of asthma in 1905 . Oral corticosteroids began to be used for this condition in the 1950s while inhaled corticosteroids and selective short acting beta agonist came into wide use in the 1960s .
A notable and well @-@ documented case in the 19th century was that of young Theodore Roosevelt ( 1858 – 1919 ) . At that time there was no effective treatment . Roosevelt 's youth was in large part shaped by his poor health partly related to his asthma . He experienced recurring nighttime asthma attacks that caused the experience of being smothered to death , terrifying the boy and his parents .
During the 1930s – 1950s , asthma was known as one of the " holy seven " psychosomatic illnesses . Its cause was considered to be psychological , with treatment often based on psychoanalysis and other talking cures . As these psychoanalysts interpreted the asthmatic wheeze as the suppressed cry of the child for its mother , they considered the treatment of depression to be especially important for individuals with asthma .
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= Tropical Storm Odile ( 2008 ) =
Tropical Storm Odile was a late season tropical storm that formed during the 2008 Pacific hurricane season and affected parts of southern Mexico . A tropical depression formed on October 8 , and became Tropical Storm Odile 18 hours later . The storm paralleled the south coast of Mexico , with the center located only several miles offshore . After peaking in intensity , increasing southeasterly vertical wind shear induced a trend of rapid weakening on the storm . Correspondingly , Odile was downgraded to a tropical depression early on 12 October , subsequently degenerating into a remnant low about 55 mi ( 85 km ) south of Manzanillo , Colima . From thereon , the low proceeded slowly south @-@ southwestward before dissipating on October 13 . Since Odile stayed at sea , its effects along coastlines were limited . The most notable damages were caused by flooding along the southern coast of Mexico , mostly in Chiapas , Oaxaca , Guerrero and Michoacán . The exact amount of damage , however , remains unknown , and no fatalities were reported as a result of the storm .
= = Meteorological history = =
A tropical wave emerged off the west coast of Africa on September 23 , and merged with the southern end of a decaying frontal system over the Caribbean Sea . The combined disturbance gradually split , with the northernmost section eventually becoming Tropical Storm Marco . The southernmost end moved into the eastern Pacific , which then immediately showed signs of organization . The system stalled just south of El Salvador throughout October 5 , where it came under the influence of strong vertical wind shear . The circulation slowly drifted east @-@ northeastward and became absorbed by a neighboring tropical wave , with the broad resultant low re @-@ curving to the west @-@ northwest . In response to relaxing shear aloft , convection redeveloped around the newly formed center of circulation . It subsequently acquired a sufficiently organized structure and post @-@ analysis found that a tropical depression formed at around 1200 UTC on October 8 . Upon developing , the depression was designated as Sixteen @-@ E about 120 mi ( 195 km ) south @-@ southwest of San Salvador , El Salvador , and operationally , advisories were initiated at 2100 UTC — 9 hours after post @-@ analytic estimates of formation .
Despite being in an area with favorable conditions , lack of inner core organization proved difficult for rapid deepening to occur , and initially , model guidance did not forecast any significant strengthening . Contrary to expectations , satellite imagery showed a gradual increase in organization later that evening . Bands of convection deepened in the southern quadrant , indicating that the storm was steadily strengthening . Located just to the south of a large mid @-@ level ridge over Mexico , the system was steered toward the west @-@ northwest , proceeding within a favorable environment . Based on the improved appearance on satellite imagery , it is estimated the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Odile at 0600 UTC on October 9 about 330 mi ( 530 km ) southeast of Puerto Ángel , Mexico . Shortly after attaining tropical storm status , Odile began to develop a small area of central dense overcast , and upper @-@ level cirrus outflow became well @-@ defined within the western semicircle of the storm . Convective banding organized to the south and southwest of the circulation , leading Dvorak T @-@ numbers to estimate an intensity of at least 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) . Based on this estimate , the NHC noted a high chance of further intensification into a minimal hurricane . Odile maintained its intensity , as upper @-@ level outflow of the circulation was reduced to the northeast . Although wind shear initially dislocated the circulation from the main convection , a large burst of convection allowed Odile to intensify slightly further to peak winds of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) at around 0600 UTC on October 10 .
Odile closely paralleled the Mexican coastline . The intensification did not last long , in fact , the convection associated with Odile diminished in the afternoon and its rainbands became rather distorted . Another cluster of convection sprung up that evening , this time with cloud tops colder than − 80 ° C ( − 112 ° F ) . The circulation center was well embedded within the convection . As a consequence of the slightly improved organization , Odile had a stronger interaction with the easterlies aloft , therefore increasing forward movement speed . Later that day , an reconnaissance aircraft passed through Odile and observed a rather weak and disorganized tropical cyclone , resulting in meteorologists at the NHC to change its forecasts . Early on October 12 , Odile made its closest approach to coastline of Mexico , only about 50 mi ( 80 km ) offshore of Guerrero , Mexico . Increasing southeasterly vertical wind shear took toll on the system . Furthermore , around 0600 UTC , NHC confirmed that Odile weakened into a tropical depression . The last advisory regarding Odile was issued later that day stating that it has subsequently degenerated into a remnant low @-@ pressure area , a swirl of low @-@ level clouds . The remnants of Odile meandered slowly south @-@ southwestward before completely dissipating on October 13 .
= = Preparations and impact = =
Throughout Odile 's existence , the National Weather Service of Mexico declared several tropical storm watches and warnings for the Pacific coast of Mexico spanning from Jalisco to Oaxaca . They were extended and discontinued as Odile progressed westward . On October 11 at around 2 AM PDT , a hurricane watch was declared for the Pacific coast of Mexico from Tecpán de Galeana to Punta San Telmo . Six hours later , the hurricane watch was adjusted and in effect for the coast from Zihuatanejo to Manzanillo . They were all discontinued later that day as the chance of Odile becoming a hurricane diminished .
On October 8 , blue alerts were declared for 118 municipalities in Chiapas following the minimal threat of tropical storm @-@ force impact . The civil defense system in the state of Chiapas warned that the storm could leave up to 5 @.@ 9 in ( 150 mm ) of rainfall . Shippings were closed in the Port of Chiapas , leaving over 3 @,@ 000 boats stranded ashore on October 9 . Flooding in Acapulco forced officials to close schools on October 10 . Meanwhile , the state government reported that 232 police were ready to provide assistance to citizens in advance of Odile . Civil defense officials in the state of Guerrero ordered about 10 @,@ 000 people to evacuate their homes . On October 11 , a yellow alert were declared for the state of Michoacán , where the civil defense committee also announced that the shelters were opened for schools in the municipality of Lázaro Cárdenas and the towns of Playa Azul and Guacamayas . Ports in Lázaro Cárdenas were also closed later that day .
On October 10 , about 4 @.@ 8 in ( 120 mm ) of rainfall were accumulated in the city of Acapulco . The torrential rainfall caused flooding which damaged more than 100 houses , with two of them completely destroyed . Excess floodwater collapsed walls and covered roads with mud that reached as much as 2 @.@ 3 ft ( 0 @.@ 70 m ) . Nearly 150 homes were inundated with 13 ft ( 4 @.@ 0 m ) of water . The flooding is also responsible for causing strong current that had swept away parked vehicles , downing of at least 16 trees and carrying debris to the main streets of the port . Odile also managed to cause damage toward the plumbing and sewage supplies of Acapulco , resulting no clean water access in about fifty communities of the suburban areas of Acapulco for several days . The water levels of Papagayo River reached its maximum capacity , damaging electrical supplies . In Michoacán , strong winds resulted 30 downed trees and the collapse of 5 power poles , leaving 10 minutes without electricity for a large part of the city .
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= Duncan Edwards =
Duncan Edwards ( 1 October 1936 – 21 February 1958 ) was an English footballer who played for Manchester United and the England national team . He was one of the Busby Babes , the young United team formed under manager Matt Busby in the mid @-@ 1950s , and one of eight players who died as a result of the Munich air disaster .
Born in Woodside , Dudley , Worcestershire , Edwards signed for Manchester United as a teenager and went on to become the youngest player to play in the Football League First Division and the then youngest England player since the Second World War . In a professional career of less than five years he helped United to win two Football League championships and reach the semi @-@ finals of the European Cup .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early years = = =
Edwards was born on 1 October 1936 at 23 Malvern Crescent in the Woodside district of Dudley , which at the time was part of the county of Worcestershire . He was the first child of Gladstone and Sarah Anne Edwards and their only child to survive to adulthood , his younger sister Carol Anne dying in 1947 at the age of 14 weeks . His cousin , three years his elder , was Dennis Stevens , who also went on to become a professional footballer .
The Edwards family later moved to 31 Elm Road on the Priory Estate , also in Dudley . Edwards attended Priory Primary School from 1941 to 1948 , and Wolverhampton Street Secondary School from 1948 to 1952 . He played football for his school as well as for Dudley Schools , Worcestershire and Birmingham and District teams , and also represented his school at morris dancing . He was selected to compete in the National Morris and Sword Dancing Festival , but was also offered a trial for the English Schools Football Association 's under @-@ 14 team , which fell on the same day , and opted to attend the latter .
Edwards impressed the selectors and was chosen to play for the English Schools XI , making his debut against the equivalent team from Wales at Wembley Stadium on 1 April 1950 . He was soon appointed captain of the team , a position he held for two seasons . By this stage , he had already attracted the attention of major clubs , with Manchester United scout Jack O 'Brien reporting back to manager Matt Busby in 1948 that he had " today seen a 12 @-@ year @-@ old schoolboy who merits special watching . His name is Duncan Edwards , of Dudley " .
Joe Mercer , who was then coaching the England schools team , urged Busby to sign Edwards , who was also attracting interest from Wolverhampton Wanderers and Aston Villa . Edwards signed for United as an amateur on 2 June 1952 , but accounts of when he signed his first professional contract vary . Some reports state that it occurred on his 17th birthday in October 1953 , but others contend that it took place a year earlier . Those accounts that favour the earlier date usually state that a club official , either Busby himself or coach Bert Whalley , arrived at the Edwards family home soon after midnight to secure the youngster 's signature as early as possible , but other reports claim that this occurred when he signed his amateur contract . Wolves manager Stan Cullis was indignant at missing out on a highly touted local youngster and accused United of improperly offering financial inducements to Edwards or his family , but Edwards maintained that he had always wanted to play for the Lancashire team . To guard against the possibility that he might not make a success of his football career , he also began an apprenticeship as a carpenter .
= = = Football career = = =
Edwards began his Manchester United career in the youth team and made several appearances for the team that won the first ever FA Youth Cup in 1953 , but by the time of the final had already made his debut for the first team . On 4 April 1953 , he played in a Football League First Division match against Cardiff City , which United lost 4 – 1 , aged just 16 years and 185 days , making him the youngest player ever to play in the top division . Mindful of the fact that his team contained a large number of relatively old players , Busby was keen to bring new young players through the ranks , and Edwards , along with the likes of Dennis Viollet and Jackie Blanchflower , was among a number of youngsters introduced to the team during 1953 , who came to be known collectively as the Busby Babes . Reviewing his performance on his first team debut the Manchester Guardian newspaper commented that " he showed promise of fine ability in passing and shooting , but will have to move faster as a wing half " .
The 1953 – 54 season saw Edwards emerge as a regular in the United first team . After impressing in a friendly against Kilmarnock he replaced the injured Henry Cockburn for the away match against Huddersfield Town on 31 October 1953 , and went on to appear in 24 league matches as well as United 's FA Cup defeat to Burnley . Nonetheless he was also still an active part of the youth team and played in the team which won the Youth Cup for the second consecutive season . He made his first appearance for the national under @-@ 23 team on 20 January 1954 in Italy , and was considered for inclusion in the full England team , but on the day when the selection committee watched him in action , against Arsenal on 27 March , he gave a poor performance and was not called up .
The following season he made 36 first team appearances and scored his first senior goals , finishing the season with six to his name . His performances revived calls for him to be selected for the senior England team , and a member of the selection committee was despatched to watch him play against Huddersfield Town on 18 September 1954 , but nothing came of it in the short term , although he was selected for a Football League XI which played an exhibition match against a Scottish League team . In March , he played for England B against an equivalent team from Germany and , despite being criticised in the press for his " poor showing " , was called up for the full national team a week later . He made his debut in a match against Scotland on 2 April 1955 in the British Home Championship aged 18 years and 183 days , making him England 's youngest debutant since the Second World War , a record which stood , until Michael Owen made his England debut in 1998 . Three weeks later , United took advantage of the fact that he was still eligible for the youth team to select him for the club 's third consecutive FA Youth Cup final . The decision to field an England international player in the youth team was heavily criticised , and Matt Busby was forced to pen a newspaper article defending Edwards ' selection , which paid off for United as the player was instrumental in a third Youth Cup win .
In May 1955 , Edwards was selected for the England squad which travelled to mainland Europe for matches against France , Portugal and Spain , starting all three matches . Upon returning from the tour , he began a two @-@ year stint in the British Army with the Royal Army Ordnance Corps . Army service was compulsory at the time for all men of his age under the National Service scheme . He was stationed at Nesscliffe near Shrewsbury along with team @-@ mate Bobby Charlton , but was allowed leave to play for United . He also took part in army matches , and in one season played nearly one hundred matches in total . In the 1955 – 56 season , despite missing nearly two months of action due to a severe bout of influenza , Edwards played 33 times as United won the championship of the Football League by a margin of 11 points from Blackpool . The following season he made 34 league appearances , taking his total past the 100 mark , as United won a second consecutive league title , and was also in the team that contested the 1957 FA Cup Final , in which United missed out on the Double after a 2 – 1 defeat to Aston Villa . He also made seven appearances during United 's first ever foray into the European Cup , including a 10 – 0 win over Anderlecht which remains the club 's biggest ever margin of victory . By now he was also a regular in the England team , featuring in all four of England 's qualifying matches for the 1958 World Cup and scoring two goals in the 5 – 2 win over Denmark on 5 December 1956 . He was expected to be a key player for England in the World Cup finals , and was seen as a likely candidate to replace the veteran Billy Wright as national team captain .
Edwards began the 1957 – 58 season in good form and rumours abounded that top Italian clubs were seeking to sign him . His final match in England took place on 1 February 1958 , when he scored the opening goal to help United defeat Arsenal 5 – 4 . The press were critical of his performance , with the Sunday Pictorial 's correspondent writing that he did not " think [ Edwards ' ] display in this thrilling game would impress England team manager Walter Winterbottom , who was watching . He was clearly at fault for Arsenal 's fourth goal when , instead of clearing , he dallied on the ball " . Five days later , he played his last ever match as United drew 3 – 3 away to Red Star Belgrade to progress to the semi @-@ finals of the European Cup by an aggregate score of 5 – 4 .
= = = Death = = =
Returning home from Belgrade , the aeroplane carrying Edwards and his team mates crashed on takeoff after a refuelling stop in Munich , Germany . Seven players and 14 other passengers died at the scene , and Edwards was taken to the Rechts der Isar Hospital with multiple leg fractures , fractured ribs and severely damaged kidneys . The doctors treating him were confident that he stood some chance of recovery , but were doubtful that he would ever be able to play football again .
Doctors had an artificial kidney rushed to the hospital for him , but the artificial organ reduced his blood 's ability to clot and he began to bleed internally . Despite this it is said that he asked assistant manager Jimmy Murphy " What time is the kick off against Wolves , Jimmy ? I mustn 't miss that match " . By 14 February , his condition was reported to have " dramatically improved " . However , on 19 February it was reported that he was " sinking rapidly " , with use of the artificial kidney machine developing into a " vicious circle , gradually sapping his strength " . Doctors were " amazed " at his fight for life , and the next day a " very slight improvement " in his condition was reported , but he died at 2 : 15 a.m. on 21 February 1958 . Hours before his death , by coincidence , a new issue of Charles Buchan 's Football Monthly was published in the United Kingdom , with a photograph of a smiling Edwards on the cover .
Edwards was buried at Dudley Cemetery five days later , alongside his sister Carol Anne . More than 5 @,@ 000 people lined the streets of Dudley for his funeral . His tombstone reads : " A day of memory , Sad to recall , Without farewell , He left us all " , and his grave is regularly visited by fans .
= = = Legacy = = =
Edwards is commemorated in a number of ways in his home town of Dudley . A stained @-@ glass window depicting the player , designed by Francis Skeat , was unveiled in St Francis 's Church , the parish church for the Priory Estate , by Matt Busby in 1961 , and a statue in the town centre was dedicated by his mother and Bobby Charlton in 1999 . In 1993 , a cul @-@ de @-@ sac of housing association homes near to the cemetery in which he is buried was named " Duncan Edwards Close " . The Wren 's Nest pub on the Priory Estate , near where he grew up , was renamed " The Duncan Edwards " in honour of him in 2001 , but it closed within five years and was subsequently destroyed by arsonists . In 2006 , a £ 100 @,@ 000 games facility was opened in Priory Park , where Edwards often played as a boy , in his memory . In 2008 , Dudley 's southern bypass was renamed ' Duncan Edwards Way ' in his memory . Dudley Museum and Art Gallery hosts an exhibition of memorabilia devoted to his career , including his England caps . A housing complex called Duncan Edwards Court exists in Manchester , among a network of streets , named after his fellow Munich victims , including Eddie Colman , Roger Byrne and Tommy Taylor . On 8 July 2011 a Blue Plaque was unveiled by Bobby Charlton at the site of Edwards ' former digs in Stretford , and in 2016 local dignitaries in Dudley launched a fundraising drive with the aim of placing a similar plaque in the town .
In 1996 , Edwards was one of five players chosen to appear on British stamps issued as part of a " Football Legends " set issued to commemorate the UEFA Euro 1996 tournament . He was portrayed by Sam Claflin in the 2011 British TV film United based on the Munich disaster .
Contemporaries of Edwards have been unstinting in their praise of his abilities . Bobby Charlton described him as " the only player that made me feel inferior " and said his death was " the biggest single tragedy ever to happen to Manchester United and English football " . Terry Venables claimed that , had he lived , it would have been Edwards , not Bobby Moore , who lifted the World Cup trophy as England captain in 1966 . Tommy Docherty stated that " there is no doubt in my mind that Duncan would have become the greatest player ever . Not just in British football , with United and England , but the best in the world . George Best was something special , as was Pelé and Maradona , but in my mind Duncan was much better in terms of all @-@ round ability and skill . " In recognition of his talents Edwards was made an inaugural inductee to the English Football Hall of Fame in 2002 .
= = Style of play = =
Although he is primarily remembered as a defensive midfielder , Edwards is said to have been able to operate in any outfield position on the field of play . His versatility was such that on one occasion he started the match playing as an emergency striker in place of one injured player before being switched to central defence in place of another . His greatest assets were his physical strength and his level of authority on the pitch , which was said to be remarkable for such a young player , and he was particularly noted for his high level of stamina . Stanley Matthews described him as being " like a rock in a raging sea " , and Bobby Moore likened him to the Rock of Gibraltar when defending but also noted that he was " dynamic coming forward " . His imposing physique earned him the nicknames " Big Dunc " and " The Tank " , and he has been ranked amongst the toughest players of all time .
Edwards was noted for the power and timing of his tackles and for his ability to pass and shoot equally well with both feet . He was known for his surging runs up the pitch and was equally skilled at heading the ball and at striking fierce long @-@ range shots . After scoring a goal on 26 May 1956 , in a 3 – 1 friendly win against West Germany , he was given the nickname " Boom Boom " by the local press because of " the Big Bertha shot in his boots " .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = International goals = = =
Scores and results list England 's goal tally first .
= = Honours = =
= = = Club = = =
Manchester United
First Division : 1955 – 56 , 1956 – 57
= = = Individual = = =
Football League 100 Legends : 1958
Inducted into the inaugural English Football Hall of Fame in 2002
PFA Team of the Century ( 1907 @-@ 1976 ) : 2007
= = Outside football = =
Edwards was a teetotaller and outside football was known as a very private individual , whose interests included fishing , playing cards and visiting the cinema . Although he attended dances with his team @-@ mates he was never confident in social surroundings . He was described by Jimmy Murphy as an " unspoilt boy " and retained a strong Black Country accent which his team @-@ mates would impersonate . He was once stopped by the police for riding his bicycle without lights and fined five shillings by the authorities and two weeks ' wages by his club .
At the time of his death Edwards was living in lodgings in Gorse Avenue , Stretford . He was engaged to be married to Molly Leech , who was 22 years old and worked in the offices of a textile machine manufacturer in Altrincham . The couple met at a function at a hotel at Manchester Airport , dated for a year before becoming engaged , and were godparents to the daughter of Leech 's friend Josephine Stott .
Edwards appeared in advertisements for Dextrosol glucose tablets and had written a book entitled " Tackle Soccer This Way " , commercial endeavours which supplemented his wage of £ 15 per week during the season and £ 12 per week during the summer . The book was published shortly after his death with the approval of his family and , after being out of print for many years , was re @-@ published in November 2009 .
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= Education in Iceland =
The system of education in Iceland is divided in four levels : playschool , compulsory , upper secondary and higher , and is similar to that of other Nordic countries . Education is mandatory for children aged 6 – 16 . Most institutions are funded by the state ; there are very few private schools in the country . Iceland is a country with gymnasia .
= = Background = =
The first national education law was the 1907 education law , and the first national curriculum was published in 1926 . Although the curriculum was periodically revised , the overall education system was not significantly modernized until the Compulsory Education Act of 1974 , which mandated special education services for all students with disabilities .
According to the Ministry of Education , Science and Culture :
The Ministry of Education , Science and Culture has the jurisdiction of educational responsibility . Traditionally , education in Iceland has been run in the public sector ; there is a small , although growing , number of private education institutions in the country . Over the years , the educational system has been decentralised , and responsibility for primary and lower secondary schools lies with the local authorities . The state runs upper secondary schools and higher education institutions .
The Ministry issues the National Curriculum Guidelines . The National Centre for Educational Materials publishes educational materials for education institutions , and issues them free of charge . The Educational Testing Institute is the country ’ s sole examination board ; responsible for issuing and grading national assessments .
There are 192 institutions catering for compulsory education , 42 schools for upper secondary education and 9 higher education institutions .
= = History = =
The oldest gymnasiums in the country are Menntaskólinn í Reykjavík and Menntaskólinn á Akureyri . Menntaskólinn í Reykjavík traces its origin to 1056 , when a school was established in Skálholt . The school was moved to Reykjavík in 1786 , but poor housing conditions forced it to move again in 1805 to Bessastaðir near Reykjavík . In 1846 the school was moved to its current location , and a new building was erected for it in Reykjavík .
The University of Iceland was the first higher education institution in the country , and was established on 17 June 1911 , uniting three former Icelandic schools : Prestaskólinn , Læknaskólinn and Lagaskólinn , which taught theology , medicine and law , respectively . The university originally had only faculties for these three fields , in addition to a faculty of humanities . The first rector of the university was Björn M. Ólsen , a professor in the faculty of humanities .
= = Levels = =
The Icelandic education system comprises four levels : playschool , compulsory , upper secondary and higher .
= = = Playschool = = =
Playschool or leikskóli , is non @-@ compulsory education for those under the age of six , and is the first step in the education system . The current legislation concerning playschools was passed in 2007 . The Ministry of Education , Science and Culture is responsible for the policies and methods that playschools must use , and they issue the National Curriculum Guidelines . They are also responsible for ensuring that the curriculum is suitable so as to make the transition into compulsory education as easy as possible . However , the Ministry does not implement the regulations and guidelines ; instead this is the responsibility of the local authority , who fund and administer playschools . In addition , the local authority employs representatives who supervise the playschools ’ operation .
Parents must pay for their children to attend playschools . Around 30 % of the costs of running the institutions are covered by these fees . Private playschools ’ fees can be around 10 – 20 % higher than those of public institutions . Almost all private schools receive some municipal funding .
The buildings are often purpose @-@ built on a site where around 30 @-@ 40m2 of playing space is available for each child in the playground . Around 6 m2 per child is allocated indoors . The institutions are intended to be mixed sex . Playschools are intended for children under the age of six ; the youngest children to attend are at least two years old . Children of single parents and students are given priority , and in some cases children with a handicap are also given priority . In the majority of cases , the children are divided into age groups , but in some smaller communities these may be grouped together .
Children attend playschool for a minimum of four and a maximum of nine hours per day .
= = = Compulsory = = =
Compulsory education or grunnskóli ( lit . “ basic school ” ) , is the period of education which is compulsory for all . The legislation concerning compulsory education was passed in 2007 , and in 1996 municipalities took over the running of compulsory education . It comprises primary and lower secondary education , which often takes place at the same institution . The law states that education is mandatory for children and adolescents between the ages of 6 and 16 . The school year lasts nine months , and begins between August 21 and September 1 , ending between May 31 and June 10 . The minimum number of school days is 170 , but after a new teachers ’ wage contract , this will increase to 180 . Lessons take place five days a week .
Responsibility lies with parents for making sure that their children attend and register at school . The law states that it is the responsibility of the municipality to give instruction and fund institutions ( this includes teaching , substitute teaching , administration and specialist services ) , and provide special education if required . There are no entry requirements for pupils , and the acceptance rate is 100 % at six years of age .
Pupils have the right to attend a school in the area in which they live . The state requires that the school integrates handicapped pupils into mainstream education .
The state is responsible for assessing institutions to make sure that they are operating within the law and the National Curriculum Guidelines . They also produce educational materials , and implement educational law and regulations .
Compulsory education is divided into ten years . Schools which have all ten years , year one to seven , and years eight to ten are common . Those schools which teach from years eight to ten often have a wider catchment area . The size of institutions is widely varied . In the Reykjavík urban area , schools can be up to 1200 pupils in size . In rural areas , schools can have fewer than 10 pupils , and around 50 % of schools have fewer than 100 pupils . All compulsory education institutions are mixed sex . Many counselling services are available , including help with studies and specific subjects ; psychological counselling is also available .
Each school must follow the National Curriculum Guidelines , but exceptions are made for schools with special characteristics . The school is required to create a school working plan and an annual calendar , organise teaching and pupil assessment and to provide extracurricular activities . The number of lessons for each year is as follows :
Nowadays , the National Curriculum Guidelines have provisions for those learning Icelandic whose mother tongue is a foreign language and deaf and hearing @-@ impaired pupils . Pupils are expected to keep up with the pace of teaching ; however those students who are struggling receive remedial teaching without being moved from most of their classes . An emphasis is made on providing a variety of teaching methods .
= = = = Assessment = = = =
In Iceland , assessment and evaluation of pupils is conducted internally , and is not standardised between different institutions . Pupils are given regular reports to year their progress ; however the way in which this is done varies between schools . For example , a numerical year could be given , or an oral and written assessment may be given .
Their principal purpose is to help ease the transition into upper secondary education and help the pupil to choose a course of study . Pupils are awarded a certificate with their marks at the end of the compulsory schooling period .
In addition to pupil assessment , the law requires that schools implement some form of self @-@ evaluation on the quality of their services and to make sure that institutions are operating inside the law and within guidelines . Schools are assessed externally every five years by the Ministry of Education , Science and Culture .
= = = = Teachers = = = =
Similar to primary education in other countries , from years one to seven , the same teacher teaches the pupils all of their subjects . From year eight upwards , pupils receive teaching from a number of different teachers ( this marks the boundary between primary education and lower secondary education ) . Groups may be mixed around year by year .
Primary school teachers are general teachers who have received their training at either the University of Iceland or the University of Akureyri . The typical course lasts three years . Lower secondary teachers may also be trained at the University of Iceland . A BA or BS degree is required in this situation . The courses are designed to be both academic and practical . Municipalities are responsible for the employment of teachers . Optional in @-@ service teacher training courses are offered on an annual basis .
= = = Upper secondary = = =
Upper secondary education or framhaldsskóli ( lit . “ continued school ” ) , follows lower secondary education . These schools are also known as gymnasia in English . It is not compulsory , but everyone who has had their compulsory education has the right to upper secondary education . The typical course length is four years , for students aged between 16 and 20 . The length of the course can vary , especially in vocational courses . This stage of education is governed by the Upper Secondary School Act of 2007 . Like all other schools in Iceland , upper secondary schools are mixed sex .
Students do not have to pay tuition fees , but they must pay an enrolment fee and are expected to buy their own textbooks . Students who enrol in vocational courses pay a portion of the costs of the materials that they use .
All students have the right to enter upper secondary education when they turn sixteen . Around 97 % of students leaving lower secondary education enter into upper secondary education ; however there is a notable drop @-@ out rate . There are specific entry requirements for different courses , but as all students have the right to this sort of education , a general program of study is available for those students who may fail to meet requirements . Some schools enjoy more prestige and popularity than others , especially in Reykjavík , and those may need to turn away hundreds of students every year .
The school year lasts for nine months , and is divided into two terms : autumn and spring . Students attend around 32 – 40 lessons a week , each lasting 40 – 80 minutes . This can vary drastically between institutions .
There are around forty gymnasia in the country ; sizes vary as much as the primary schools . The largest gymnasia have over 3 @,@ 000 students — the smallest , less than fifty . The gymnasia can be divided thus :
grammar schools — offering four @-@ year @-@ long programmes of study , ending with matriculation exams ;
industrial @-@ vocational schools — theoretical and practical courses in various trades ;
comprehensive schools — offering a mixture of courses , has qualities of both a grammar school and an industrial @-@ vocational institution , in addition to specialised vocational programmes ;
specialised vocational schools — programmes of study for specific trades and careers .
The law requires that there are academic , vocational , artistic and general programmes of study , all of which lead to higher education . Any gymnasium can therefore offer the matriculation examination , called the Stúdentspróf , providing it complies with Ministry of Education regulations .
The gymnasia have forms which operate on a unit @-@ credit system , that is to say a term is divided into course units , each of which is worth a certain number of credits . Students are consequently able to regulate the speed of their education based on their personal circumstances . This system is used in most upper secondary institutions in Iceland .
Many institutions also offer evening classes targeted at adults , some of which are on @-@ a @-@ par with their daytime courses . Distance learning is also offered at most schools .
Counselling services are also offered , like those of the compulsory education institutions .
= = = = Assessment = = = =
Examinations are taken at the end of every term as opposed to at the end of the year . Final years are often based on continuous assessments and assignments ; however some courses do have final exams . There were no nationally co @-@ ordinated exams in upper secondary education until school year 2003 – 4 , when certain subjects were introduced . Institutions are also required to self @-@ assess , like compulsory education institutions they are assessed externally every five years .
= = = = Teachers = = = =
Upper secondary teachers are required to have completed four years at university , of which at least two years must have been devoted to a major subject , and at least one to teaching methodology and skills . Vocational teachers must be qualified in their particular discipline , or must be a master craftsman in their trade , and have at least two years of experience .
In @-@ service training courses are also offered . Teachers are paid by the state but hired by the individual school .
= = = Higher education = = =
The final level is higher education , or háskóli ( lit . “ high school ” ) . There are eight such institutions in the country , most of which are run by the state . The first institution , the University of Iceland , opened in 1911 , and is still the principal higher education institution in the country . In recent years , however , more universities have opened across the country , widening the range of choices available . Legislation concerning higher education institutions was passed in 1997 , which includes a definition of the term háskóli ( to include universities which do not carry out research ) . There is also separate legislation in place for each public institution , defining their role in research and general organisation . Private and public universities both receive funding from the state .
The administration of each university is divided into the Senate , the rector , faculty meetings , faculty councils and deans ( however , some universities are not divided into faculties ) . The Senate ultimately makes decisions on the running and organisation of the institution , and formulates policy . The state will formulate a contract with the university , defining the institution ’ s objectives and the amount of funding that the state will give to the institution .
Despite the growing number of higher education institutions in the country , many students decide to pursue their university education abroad ( around 16 % , mostly in postgraduate studies ) .
The academic year lasts from September to May , and is divided into two terms : autumn and spring .
= = = = Admission = = = =
Most undergraduates will have to pass some form of matriculation exam to get into university ; however those with sufficient work experience may be admitted in some cases . Vocational and technical courses have looser requirements , only stating that the applicant have some sort of experience in their chosen field of study . Institutions are free to set their own admission criteria . Registration for potential students takes place from May to June each year ; however the application deadline for foreign students is earlier : March 15 .
= = = = Student finance = = = =
In state @-@ run institutions , students only need pay registration fees ; there are no tuition fees . Private institutions , however , charge fees . All students are eligible to some financial support from the Icelandic Student Loan Fund ; the exact amount depends on their financial and personal situation . The student must begin to repay this money two years after completing their study programme . In addition to Icelandic students , students from the European Union or EEA @-@ EFTA member states are also eligible to apply for loans , if they have been working in their trade in the country for at least one year .
Annually there are a limited number of scholarships available for foreign students to study the Icelandic language and literature at the University of Iceland , offered by the Ministry of Education , Science and Culture .
Grants are available for post @-@ graduates in research universities , which are awarded on the basis of joint submission from student and professor , and approval from the respective faculty .
= = Special education = =
Before the Compulsory Education Act of 1974 , only selected groups of students with disabilities , such as deaf and blind students , received any formal special education , although students with mild disabilities had been accommodated at rural schools since 1907 . With the changes in the law , a special school was opened in Reykjavik for students with mental retardation , and similar programs followed . Students with physical disabilities were mainstreamed into regular classrooms . The Iceland University of Education developed programs to train teachers and other specialists to provide appropriate services .
Reflecting Icelandic cultural values of tolerance , equity , and celebrating differences rather than individualism , current government policy emphasizes inclusion , or " one school for all " , although segregated classrooms and schools are still permitted and supported .
The Education Law on Upper Secondary Education of 1992 entitles students to attend schools and university , and to receive appropriate supports for doing so , but does not exempt them from the normal entrance requirements , such as demonstrating a given level of reading or mathematics achievement . Consequently , after reaching the end of compulsory school age , it is difficult for students with significant cognitive impairments to find further education .
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= Arthur Adams ( comics ) =
For other people named Arthur Adams , see the Arthur Adams disambiguation page
Arthur " Art " Adams ( born April 5 , 1963 ) is an American comic book artist and writer . He first broke into the American comic book industry with the 1985 Marvel Comics miniseries Longshot . His subsequent interior comics work includes a number of Marvel 's major books , including The Uncanny X @-@ Men , Excalibur , X @-@ Factor , Fantastic Four , Hulk and Ultimate X , as well books by various other publishers , such as Action Comics , Vampirella , The Rocketeer and The Authority . Adams has also illustrated books featuring characters for which he has a personal love , such as Godzilla , The Creature from the Black Lagoon and Gumby , the latter of which garnered him a 1988 Eisner Award for Best Single Issue .
In 1994 , Adams joined a group of creators that included Frank Miller , John Byrne and Mike Mignola to form Legend , an imprint of creator @-@ owned comics published by Dark Horse Comics , through which Adams published Monkeyman and O 'Brien , a science fiction adventure series featuring archetypal sci @-@ fi monsters that Adams wrote and illustrated . Although the Legend imprint ceased in 1998 , Monkeyman and O 'Brien continued to appear in print , sometimes in crossover stories with other comics characters , such as Gen ¹ ³ / Monkeyman and O 'Brien ( 1998 ) , and Savage Dragon # 41 ( September 1997 ) .
Because of his reputedly tight , labor @-@ intensive penciling style , which was initially influenced by Michael Golden and Walter Simonson , and his admittedly slow pace , Adams does not work as the regular artist on long @-@ running monthly series , but usually provides artwork for short storylines , one @-@ shots , miniseries or contributions to anthologies , such as his 2002 – 2004 work on " Jonni Future " , a pulp science fiction series he co @-@ created with Steve Moore for the Wildstorm Productions anthology Tom Strong 's Terrific Tales , and his 2008 work on Hulk # 7 - 9 . His other published work consists of cover work for books such as Avengers Classic , Wonder Woman and JLA , as well as pinups and other spot illustrations for books such as Sin City , The Official Handbook of the Marvel Universe and his own published sketchbook series , Arthur Adams Sketchbook . He has also done design work for toys and video games . He is one of the most popular and widely imitated artists in the comics industry , whose drawing style has been credited as an influence upon the artists associated with the founding and early days of Image Comics such as J. Scott Campbell .
= = Early life = =
Arthur Adams was born on April 5 , 1963 in Holyoke , Massachusetts . His father was a loadmaster in the United States Air Force , and as a result , Adams frequently moved with his parents and four younger brothers to places that included West Virginia . When Adams was five years old , the family settled in Vacaville , California , near Travis Air Force Base . Adams ' first exposure to superhero and monster comics came through the ones his mother would buy for him once a month at a thrift store . His enthusiasm for superhero stories by particular creators began when his father returned from an overseas trip with the first Marvel Treasury Grab @-@ Bag , which included stories by Ross Andru , Wally Wood , and Gene Colan . He particularly liked Marvel Comics for their stories with monster @-@ like characters like the Thing , the Hulk and Man @-@ Thing . He became interested in dinosaurs and monsters like King Kong after watching Creature Features on TV every Saturday , and Universal Monster movies such as Frankenstein and Creature from the Black Lagoon . He also enjoyed superhero and science fiction programming , such as Super Friends , the 1967 Spider @-@ Man cartoon and Star Trek . Adams enjoyed drawing frequently in his youth , as far back as he could remember . He discovered the work of Frank Frazetta when he was 13 or 14 , which was a " huge " early influence on him , and attempted to mimic his style using watercolor . Adams did not consider illustration as a profession , however , as he aspired to be a paleontologist . His interest in professional paleontology waned , however , when he realized that the extreme climates of the environments in which he would be required to work were not appealing to him .
Adams first thought about drawing comics professionally while in high school , when he bought Marvel Comics ' Micronauts # 1 , which was illustrated by Michael Golden , the first artist Adams noticed significantly . Adams would subsequently seek out work by other artists , and names as influences Barry Windsor @-@ Smith , Mike Kaluta , Bernie Wrightson and Terry Austin . Adams also cites Bill Sienkiewicz 's " Moon Knight " work in Hulk magazine and in particular Walter Simonson 's work on The Uncanny X @-@ Men and The New Teen Titans , which Adams saw as " the bible of how to draw comics " , and " the perfect example of how to do a team book . " Simonson and his wife , Louise Simonson , became close friends and collaborators with Adams , and Louise would later edit Adams ' breakthrough project , Longshot . Adams names Simonson and Golden as his two largest artistic influences . Adams also says he was influenced by Jack Kirby after he became a professional artist . In a 1997 interview , Adams responded to the observation that fans had noticed a manga influence in his work by stating that he had likely been influenced by Masamune Shirou . Aside from books on drawing human anatomy , Adams ' only formal education in illustration was learning newspaper strip @-@ type drawing in his freshman year of high school from Mr. Vandenberg , a teacher who stressed the importance of clear storytelling and perspective . After a female classmate Adams was attracted to talked him into joining the acting club , Adams also considered becoming an actor , eventually doing community theater for two years . He quit acting when he turned 19 , in order to concentrate on drawing .
= = Career = =
= = = Early work = = =
Adams ' first published work was a Farrah Foxette pinup that he copied from Farrah Fawcett 's iconic 1976 swimsuit poster , which he submitted to the letters page of the DC Comics series Captain Carrot and His Amazing Zoo Crew ! That series ' editor , Roy Thomas , paid Adams $ 10 to publish the piece as a fan pinup .
Adams initially created a portfolio of pinups and monster splash pages , and added story sequences when he began attending comic book conventions at age 17 , including a Creation Convention in San Francisco , where he received career advice from Steve Leialoha and Chris Claremont , and also met another aspiring illustrator , Mike Mignola ( with whom he became friends , and later , business partners ) . Because of the popularity of the X @-@ Men , he included a Wolverine story in his portfolio , although he was only a casual fan of the X @-@ Men himself . He would later become closely associated with the X @-@ Men in his early career . After showing his portfolio to editor Bob Schreck at a Creation Convention , he gained permission to set up a table , doing drawings for fans for $ 5 – $ 10 . His early convention appearances led to a meeting with a collaborator who asked him to illustrate some horror material for a comic book magazine , but the work , which Adams deems as poor , was never published . He began submitting samples to Marvel Comics when he was 18 , taking a job at a pizzeria after graduating high school .
In 1982 he was given an unpaid job illustrating " One @-@ Eyed Jack " , a story that was self @-@ published in High Energy # 1 .
Adams ' first professional job came about after he met Joe Rubinstein at a Creation Convention . Rubinstein took Adams ' samples to Marvel editors Dennis O 'Neil and Linda Grant , who in 1983 offered Adams the chance to write and draw " The Return of Richard Buzznick " , a short story for the black and white anthology Bizarre Adventures . Though Adams completed the story , the series was canceled before his story was published , and Adams returned to submitting samples while working at the pizzeria . Adams later dismissed the story as poorly drawn . He also drew " Away Off There Amid The Softly Winking Lights " , a story in the 1984 Pacific Comics anthology Three Dimensional Alien Worlds .
= = = Longshot and X @-@ Men = = =
Al Milgrom , who was ending his career as a Marvel editor to go freelance , found Adams ' samples as he was cleaning out his office for its future occupant , editor Carl Potts . Potts and his assistant editor , Ann Nocenti , sent Adams a Defenders script , from which Adams did layouts of 10 to 15 pages . Adams stated that while his action scenes were not rendered very well , the editors praised his casual , character @-@ based scenes . Nocenti described to Adams the concept for a miniseries she was writing , Longshot , which had been turned down by every other artist she offered it to . Adams , now a couple of months before his twentieth birthday , did a series of preliminary design drawings , basing the main character 's appearance and hairstyle on that of singer Limahl , and the female lead , Ricochet Rita , on Nocenti herself . The series was freelance @-@ edited by Louise Simonson , and without a firm schedule , which provided Adams the time he needed to complete it . This was due in part to his problems with perspective and other things he was not accustomed to drawing , such as windmills , babies and people smiling , and in part because he had to redraw the first half of it , as Ann Nocenti 's story was so dense that the pages featured up to 20 panels . As a result , Adams took eight months to draw the first issue . This problem was addressed by editor Elliot Brown , who showed Adams how to compose panels depicting multiple actions . Simonson would later introduce Adams to Marvel editor @-@ in @-@ chief Jim Shooter , who furthered Adams ' understanding of storytelling clarity by sitting down with him and showing him the panel @-@ to @-@ panel structure in an old Marvel book . He would take two years to draw all six issues of the miniseries . Longshot # 1 was published with a cover date of September 1985 . Reviewing the first issue for Amazing Heroes , R.A. Jones , who criticized the writing , stating :
" Longshot does have one major saving grace , and that is the penciling of Arthur Adams . I 'm going to once again go out on my prophetic limb and predict that Art will soon become a fan favorite . He has a dynamic style that grabs your attention and won 't let go . To be sure , he exhibits some of the weaknesses of any young artist , the occasional awkward pose or crude drawing--but as a first effort this is incredibly impressive . In fact , this limited series should be worth buying simply to watch the progress Adams makes from issue to issue .
Nocenti 's position as editor on the X @-@ Men books led to Uncanny X @-@ Men writer Chris Claremont 's discovery of Adams ' work , and in turn to Adams ' frequent association with that franchise during the 1980s , which began with New Mutants Special Edition # 1 and Uncanny X @-@ Men Annual # 9 , which were part of the " Asgardian Wars " storyline , and which Adams illustrated before Longshot # 1 was published . Nocenti also asked Adams to produce a cover for Heroes for Hope , a 1985 book intended to benefit famine relief in Africa , which was written and illustrated by dozens of creators , including writers Harlan Ellison and Stephen King , and artists John Byrne , Charles Vess and Bernie Wrightson . Nocenti asked Adams to pattern the cover after Paul Smith 's 1983 cover of Uncanny X @-@ Men # 173 , whose focus was Wolverine charging the viewer . This in turn led to Bob Budiansky , who was in charge of producing Marvel 's posters , asking Adams to produce a Wolverine poster with the same type of pose . The image , inked by Terry Austin , became not only a bestselling poster , but an iconic life @-@ size standee for comics shops , and led to two other posters by Adams , a 1987 X @-@ Men poster featuring most of the characters that had ever been a member of that team , and " Mutants " , a modification of Adams ' 1988 Marvel Age Annual # 4 cover that featured most of the characters appearing in all the X @-@ Men @-@ related books at the time , also with a charging Wolverine in the center . By 1986 , Adams ' professional career had been cemented , and he moved out of his parents ' home and into an Oakland , California apartment that he shared with Mike Mignola and Steve Purcell . Adams and Nocenti reunited for a story in Web of Spider @-@ Man Annual # 2 ( 1986 ) in which Warlock of the New Mutants encountered Spider @-@ Man .
His work on the X @-@ Men franchise would continue with a number of covers for The New Mutants and The Uncanny X @-@ Men in 1986 and 1987 , respectively . He also drew all but three of the first 23 covers and interior frontispieces to Classic X @-@ Men from 1986 to 1988 . His interior X @-@ Men @-@ related work included a two @-@ issue run on X @-@ Factor and the one @-@ shot Excalibur : Mojo Mayhem , both in 1989 , and three Uncanny X @-@ Men Annuals , in 1986 , 1988 and 1990 . It was in drawing the 1988 annual that Adams says he felt like a professional comic book artist for the first time , as he first felt confident that he knew what he was doing .
= = = Diversification and experimentation = = =
Adams did work for publishers other than Marvel during the 1980s , as when he drew several pages of Batman # 400 in 1986 and Action Comics Annual # 1 in 1987 . The latter is viewed as a turning point in Adam 's drawing style , characterized by bulkier figures of Batman and Superman , though Adams explains that this was in part due to the influence of The Dark Knight Returns , and that the overall change in art was style partly due to deliberate experimentation on his part , and partly to Dick Giordano 's inking , which exhibited a different line weight . That same year , he illustrated Gumby Summer Fun Special # 1 by Comico Comics , a job he obtained through Comico editor Diana Schutz , an old friend who noticed the incidental images of Gumby that Adams had included in the pages of Longshot . Adams , who did not harbor fond memories of that cartoon as a child , and who feared he would be typecast as a Gumby artist if he took the job , told Schultz he would only do it if she could get Bob Burden to write it , on the assumption that Schultz would decline this condition . Schultz , who initially wanted Mark Evanier for the job , considered this , and eventually agreed to it after contacting Burden , who was enthusiastic about the idea . That book , which demonstrated Adams ' versatility in handling comedy as well as superheroics , garnered him and Burden a 1988 Eisner Award for Best Single Issue . Adams would later illustrate a second Gumby book , Gumby 's Winter Fun Special , which was written by Steve Purcell .
Adams was one of 54 artists profiled in Ron Goulart 's 1989 book , The Great Comic Book Artists , Volume 2 , whose front and back covers Adams himself illustrated .
= = = 1990s monster and creator @-@ owned work = = =
Adams ' 1990s Marvel work included a 1990 three @-@ issue run on Fantastic Four , in which the Hulk , Spider @-@ Man , Wolverine and Ghost Rider formed a replacement Fantastic Four after being falsely informed that three of the original Fantastic Four had been murdered . The story allowed Adams the opportunity to draw a number of various monsters and other characters , such as the classic FF foe , Mole Man , the Moloids and the Skrulls , and is cited by Adams as one of his favorite works . It was later referenced by late night talk show host Conan O 'Brien in a " Fan Corrections " segment in a 2012 episode of Conan . Adams did more work for the X @-@ Men franchise , such as the 1997 intercompany crossover one @-@ shot Gen ¹ ³ / Generation X. His 1990s Marvel work also included providing designs for a line of Hulk action figures .
Adams became acquainted with Randy Stradley and other staff members of Dark Horse Comics , after which he illustrated a number of their books featuring the classic Universal Monsters he loved in his youth . His first Godzilla work was Godzilla Color Special # 1 in 1992 . For that story Adams created an organization called G @-@ Force , which he designed to be a Japanese version of the Fantastic Four , and in the story , had that group mention that they had fought the Shrewmanoid , a villain Adams later created for Monkeyman & O 'Brien . Toho , the production company that produces the Godzilla films , would later introduce a version of that team in the 1993 film Godzilla vs. Mechagodzilla II . A book on the making of that film features a cover illustration of Godzilla that was copied from the Color Special , which amused Adams . Adams would follow these with other Godzilla works , such as " King Kong vs. Godzilla " , a story that appeared in the anthology Urban Legends # 1 that is notable for being the only work of his to date that he wrote , penciled , inked and lettered , and " Tramplin ' Tokyo " , an Alan Moore story he drew for Negative Burn # 18 ( December 1994 ) . In 1995 he drew Godzilla vs. Hero Zero , and wrote issues 5 - 8 of Target : Godzilla ! When Adams learned that Dark Horse would acquire the rights to the Universal Monsters , Adams lobbied to them to illustrate a comics sequel to the 1954 film Creature from the Black Lagoon , but Dark Horse wanted to produce an adaptation of the film first , and told Adams that if he illustrated that , that he would be able to illustrate a future sequel . The 50 @-@ page adaptation was published in 1993 , but the line 's low sales cost Dark Horse money , and it was cancelled after four books , precluding the sequel that Adams wanted to draw .
In the early 1990s , Adams and Mignola were contacted by Erik Larsen , who invited them to produce books of their own creation for Image Comics , which Larsen and a group of other artists formed to publish creator @-@ owned books . Adams had never before considered producing his own original material , as he preferred to illustrate the properties he enjoyed as a child . However , his talks with Larsen convinced him to create Monkeyman and O 'Brien , a duo similar in concept to Angel and the Ape . The stories star San Francisco native Ann Darrow O 'Brien , whose name is a tribute to Fay Wray 's character from King Kong and that film 's special effects creator Willis O 'Brien , and Axewell Tiberius , a super @-@ intelligent gorilla man from another dimension . The duo finds itself embroiled in a variety of adventures typical of classic B @-@ movies , often featuring the type of movie monsters Adams is fond of , such as the subterranean Shrewmanoid and the extraterrestrial Froglodytes . Despite the offer from Image , Adams and Mignola ( the latter of whom created Hellboy , which had been rejected by DC Comics ) , took their ideas to Dark Horse , for whom Adams had already done work , as it would allow them to collaborate with creators they admired , such as Frank Miller and John Byrne . Together with Paul Chadwick , Mike Allred , Dave Gibbons , and Geof Darrow , the creators formed Legend , a creator @-@ owned imprint of Dark Horse . After an initial 1993 appearance in San Diego Comic Con Comics # 2 , Monkeyman and O 'Brien appeared in installments in Dark Horse Presents # 80 in 1993 and Dark Horse Insider # 27 in 1994 . The duo 's first appearance under the Legend imprint was an ongoing backup story in Mike Mignola 's 1994 Hellboy : Seed of Destruction miniseries . They would eventually graduate to their own self @-@ titled miniseries in 1996 . When first producing the series , Adams had on hand the Marvel Monsterworks reprint of the Atlas Comics monster stories " Where Monsters Dwell " and " Creatures on the Loose " for inspiration . Although the Legend imprint ceased in 1998 , Monkeyman and O 'Brien continued to appear in print , sometimes in crossover stories with other comics characters , as in Savage Dragon # 41 ( September 1997 ) by Erik Larsen , and Gen ¹ ³ / MonkeyMan and O 'Brien ( 1998 ) , both published by Image Comics , the latter of which Adams wrote and drew for Wildstorm Productions .
In 1996 Dark Horse Comics published Art Adams ' Creature Features , a collection of Adams ' previously published stories that paid tribute to various B @-@ movie monsters , some of which had originally been published in black and white , but which were colored for the collection . They included Adams ' Creature from the Black Lagoon , two of his Godzilla stories , and the " Trapped In The Lair of the Shrewmanoid " story from Dark Horse Insider # 27 . The collection featured an introduction by Geoff Darrow .
= = = 1999 – present = = =
In 1999 , Adams returned to Wildstorm to draw an eight @-@ page flashback sequence in issue # 4 of Alan Moore 's series , Tom Strong , which was published under Moore 's brand for Wildstorm , America 's Best Comics . His subsequent Wildstorm work would include Danger Girl Special # 1 ( 2000 ) and two issues of The Authority in 2002 , significant portions of which Adams was asked by DC Comics to redraw in order to de @-@ emphasize the violence , in light of the September 11 attacks , much to Adams ' frustration . That same year , Adams and writer Steve Moore co @-@ created " Jonni Future " , a pastiche of a pulp science fiction series such as Adam Strange and Barbarella , which was published in eight @-@ page installments in the America 's Best Comics anthology Tom Strong 's Terrific Tales , the first ten issues of which Adams penciled from 2002 to 2004 . Adams work on " Jonni Future " has been characterized as exhibiting a romantic influence , with greater amounts realism and fine hatching , which Adams refers to as " noodling " . Adams says he was inspired by sources such as Paolo Eleuteri Serpieri , Warren Publishing 's Vampirella , and the character designs in Capcom video game character books when he drew " Jonni Future " , and refrained from using straight edges or templates in order to achieve a more elegant , hand @-@ drawn appearance . He regards " Jonni Future " as his best work .
Throughout the 2000s , Adams provided cover images for various DC Comics , such as Superman , Batman and JLA : Scary Monsters , as well as for books by various other publishers , such as Vampirella , Red Sonja , Jurassic Park , Madman Adventures , Thundercats , Xena : Warrior Princess and Buffy the Vampire Slayer . Adams ' 2000s Marvel cover work include Generation X # 67 - 72 in 2000 and 2001 , and Incredible Hercules # 113 - 115 in 2008 , as well for three of its collected editions . His 2000s interior comics work includes Superman / Batman # 26 ( 2006 ) , an issue dedicated to writer Jeph Loeb 's late son , Sam , to which dozens of writers and artists contributed . In 2008 he illustrated a Red Hulk story in King @-@ Size Hulk # 1 , and later illustrated a Hulk / Wendigo story that appeared in 11 @-@ page installments Hulk # 7 - 9 , as well as those issues ' covers . In 2010 he illustrated Ultimate X # 1 @-@ 5 , his first work for the Ultimate Marvel line of comic books .
On November 30 , 2011 , Gumby Comics / Wildcard Ink published a single volume collecting Adams ' previous two specials featuring Gumby . The book was initially called Gumby 's Arthur Adams Specials , but was eventually published with a sticker covering Adams ' name on the cover , effectively renaming the book Gumby 's Spring Specials . According to Rich Johnston of Bleeding Cool , this was done on Adams ' request , who wanted nothing to do with the publisher , and took action to keep his name off the book 's cover . The book is nonetheless sold by merchants such as Mile High Comics under its originally intended name .
Outside the field of comics , Adams has also provided illustrations for various magazines , such as PlayStation Magazine , as well as toy designs , video games , and X @-@ Men @-@ themed cans of Chef Boyardee pasta . In 2016 he provided the illustration for a satirical piece in GQ magazine that imagined a number of controversial public figures as comic book supervillains , including Donald Trump , Vladimir Putin , Sepp Blatter , Martin Shkreli and Kris Jenner .
Though his work for Marvel takes priority for him , he also makes a significant amount of his income from private commissions , which he produces when time permits .
= = Technique and materials = =
Adams ' art style is noted for its high level of detail , and he has a reputation of being a " tight " penciller . He states that he works at a slow pace , which limits the amount of work he does . When he penciled Fantastic Four # 347 - 349 in 1990 for regular writer / illustrator Walter Simonson , who needed a break in order to catch up on his own work on that title , Adams managed to pencil the first two issues in five weeks and four weeks , respectively , but was considerably late on the third . In 1997 Adams stated that he could produce a page of either pencils or inks in a day . In a 2007 interview , he stated he tends to produce 2 / 3 to 3 / 4 of a page a day , and can also ink at that rate , but can do up to two pages in a day if he is under pressure , as when he produced Cloak and Dagger # 9 ( 1986 ) in 22 days , for example . Another example is the 1989 one @-@ shot Excalibur : Mojo Mayhem , which due to changing deadlines , he completed at a quicker pace . Adams singles out one page of that book that he drew a half @-@ hour as his personal record for speed , but decries its poor quality . Adams is also noted for the humor in his work , as with , for example , the extraneous characters he places in cameo appearances in the backgrounds of his comics , as when he drew Gumby in the panels of Longshot , or the forms in which he depicted the shapeshifting alien Warlock in his The New Mutants work .
Adams prefers to work from a plot rather than from a full script , a result of Ann Nocenti 's dense Longshot scripts , though he has worked from a full script , as with his work on Three Dimensional Alien Worlds for Pacific Comics and The Authority . Though he says he prefers group books because they more easily allow him to hide his " bad layout skills " , he is nonetheless comfortable with solo character books . He begins drawing thumbnail layouts from the story he is given , either at home or in a public place . The thumbnails range in size from 2 inches x 3 inches to half the size of the printed comic book . He or an assistant will then enlarge the thumbnails and trace them onto illustration board with a non @-@ photo blue pencil , sometimes using a Prismacolor light blue pencil , because it is not too waxy , and erases easily . When working on the final illustration board , he does so on a large drawing board when in his basement studio , and a lapboard when sitting on his living room couch . After tracing the thumbnails , he will then clarify details with another light blue pencil , and finalize the details with a Number 2 pencil . He drew the first three chapters of " Jonni Future " at twice the printed comic size , and also drew the fifth chapter , " The Garden of the Sklin " , at a size larger than standard , in order to render more detail than usual in those stories . For a large poster image with a multitude of characters , he will go over the figure outlines with a marker in order to emphasize them . He will use photographic reference when appropriate , as when he draws things that he is not accustomed to .
In the early part of his career , Adams ' pencils were embellished by inkers such as Whilce Portacio , Dick Giordano and Terry Austin . When Adams attempted to ink his own work before becoming a professional , he initially used a Croquille pen , but after meeting Mike Mignola , he was spurred to switch to a brush , which he used for approximately a year before returning to a Croquille . He eventually began to ink his own work , which he prefers to do . Beginning in the late 1990s , he began using the Staedtler Pigment Liner , a felt @-@ tip pen . He prefers pens to brushes because pens feel " looser " , and cited this as his reason for using felt @-@ tip pens when he inked " Jonni Future " .
Although Adams has experimented with painting with watercolor and oil paints ( his 1989 covers for Appleseed were rendered with a combination of ink , watercolor and color pencil ) , his color work is so sporadic that he says he has to relearn what he has forgotten in the interim each time , and is usually dissatisfied with the results . Because a significant portion of his income is derived from selling his original artwork , he is reluctant to learn how to produce his work digitally .
= = Influence = =
Adams is one of the most popular and widely imitated artists in the American comics industry . Adams ' style is attributed as a direct influence on the artists who would go on to found Image Comics , and the other popular artists of the 1990s associated with that era , such a Jim Lee and Rob Liefeld . Timothy Callahan of Comic Book Resources points to the use of dynamic action poses , idealized figures , costume designs featuring numerous accessories , a preference for copious crosshatching over brushwork in rendering , and the depiction of cybernetic limbs and other reflective surfaces seen in those artists ' styles as being derived from Adams work , in particular his run on Longshot . Callahan also points out that the detailed webbing for which Todd McFarlane became known during his run on Spider @-@ Man had previously been used by Adams on the cover of Longshot # 4 . Though Callahan notes that Adams did not necessarily originate these elements , but was influenced himself by Michael Golden and Micronauts , he states that Adams popularized them . Noting also that Adams ' Longshot pencils were inked by Whilce Portacio and an uncredited Scott Williams , Callahan refers to that book as " early Image , in primal form " . Artists who have named Adams as an influence include J. Scott Campbell , Aaron Kuder and Shelby Robertson .
= = Personal life = =
Adams is married to Joyce Chin , a comics artist who has inked a number of his cover pencils . Adams has also inked Chin 's pencils , as on Xena : Warrior Princess # 4 ( January 2000 ) . As of 1997 they lived in Portland , Oregon , but as of 2001 they and their children live in San Francisco , California . Regarding religion , Adams has stated that he does not believe in " any particular god " . His favorite Godzilla film is Godzilla vs. The Thing , and his other favorites include Ghidorah , the Three @-@ Headed Monster and Monster Zero .
= = Awards = =
1986 Russ Manning Most Promising Newcomer Award
1988 Eisner Award for Best Single Issue ( with Bob Burden for Gumby Summer Fun Special # 1 )
= = = Interior work = = =
Three Dimensional Alien Worlds : " Away Off There Amid the Softly Winking Lights " ( with Bruce Jones , one @-@ shot , Pacific Comics , 1984 )
Longshot # 1 @-@ 6 ( with Ann Nocenti , Marvel , 1985 )
New Mutants Special Edition # 1 : " Home is Where the Heart is " ( with Chris Claremont , Marvel , 1985 )
Uncanny X @-@ Men Annual # 9 @-@ 10 , 12 , 14 ( with Chris Claremont , Marvel , 1985 – 1990 )
Batman # 400 : " Resurrection Night ! " ( with Doug Moench , among other artists , DC Comics , 1986 )
Cloak and Dagger # 9 : " The Lady and the Unicorn " ( with Bill Mantlo , Marvel , 1986 )
Web of Spider @-@ Man Annual # 2 : " Wake Me Up I Gotta Be Dreaming " ( with Ann Nocenti , Marvel , 1986 )
Action Comics Annual # 1 : " Skeeter " ( with John Byrne , DC Comics , 1987 )
Gumby 's Summer Fun Special : " Summer Fun Adventure " ( with Bob Burden , one @-@ shot , Comico , 1987 )
Gumby 's Winter Fun Special : " Winter Fun Adventure " ( with Steve Purcell , one @-@ shot , Comico , 1988 )
Wonder Woman Annual # 1 : " Chapter 1 : The Diving Bird " ( with George Pérez , DC Comics , 1988 )
X @-@ Factor # 41 @-@ 42 ( with Louise Simonson , Marvel , 1989 )
Excalibur : Mojo Mayhem ( with Chris Claremont , one @-@ shot , Marvel , 1989 )
Fantastic Four # 347 @-@ 349 ( with Walter Simonson , Marvel , 1990 – 1991 )
Marvel Holiday Special # 1 ( Marvel , 1991 )
Armageddon : Inferno # 1 , 3 @-@ 4 ( with John Ostrander , DC Comics , 1992 )
Godzilla Color Special : " Godzilla : King of the Monsters " ( with Randy Stradley , one @-@ shot , Dark Horse , 1992 )
Creepy 1993 Fearbook : " Bugs " ( with Kurt Busiek , Harris Comics , 1993 )
Urban Legends : " King Kong vs. Godzilla " ( one @-@ shot , Dark Horse , 1993 )
Universal Monsters : Creature from the Black Lagoon ( with Steve Moncuse , one @-@ shot , Dark Horse , 1993 )
Monkeyman and O 'Brien ( Dark Horse , 1993 – 1999 ) :
Dark Horse Presents # 80 , 100 , 118 @-@ 119 ( 1993 – 1997 )
Hellboy : Seed of Destruction # 1 @-@ 4 ( co @-@ feature , 1994 )
Monkeyman and O 'Brien # 1 @-@ 3 ( 1996 )
Dark Horse Extra # 1 @-@ 7 ( 1998 – 1999 )
The Big Book of Urban Legends : " The Spider in the Hairdo " ( with Robert Boyd , Jan Harold Brunvald and Robert Loren Fleming , Paradox Press , 1994 )
Negative Burn # 18 : " Alan Moore 's Songbook : Trampling Tokyo " ( with Alan Moore , Caliber Press , 1994 )
Asylum # 1 : " Warchild " ( with Eric Stephenson , Extreme Comics , 1995 )
Aliens : Havoc # 1 ( with Mark Schultz , among other artists , Dark Horse , 1997 )
Gen ¹ ³ ( Wildstorm , 1997 – 1998 ) :
Gen ¹ ³ / Generation X : " Generation Gap " ( with Brandon Choi , one @-@ shot , 1997 )
Gen ¹ ³ 3D Special : " Mauling " ( one @-@ shot , 1997 )
Gen ¹ ³ / Monkeyman and O 'Brien # 1 @-@ 2 ( 1998 )
Gen ¹ ³ # 34 : " I Want My Mommaaaaa ! ! " ( with John Arcudi , 1998 )
Starship Troopers # 1 @-@ 2 ( with Bruce Jones and Mitch Byrd , Dark Horse , 1997 )
Legends of the DC Universe 80 @-@ Page Giant # 2 : " The Great Unknown ! " ( with Karl Kesel , DC Comics , 1998 )
Danger Girl Special : " Delusions of Grandeur " ( with J. Scott Campbell and Andy Hartnell , Cliffhanger , 2000 )
Superman # 165 : " Help ! " ( with Jeph Loeb , DC Comics , 2001 )
Orion # 10 , 12 : " Legends of Apokolips " ( with Walter Simonson , DC Comics , 2001 )
The Authority # 27 @-@ 28 : " Brave New World , Parts Two and Three " ( with Mark Millar and Grant Morrison ( uncredited ) , Wildstorm , 2002 )
Tom Strong 's Terrific Tales # 1 @-@ 4 , 6 @-@ 10 : " Jonni Future " ( with Steve Moore , America 's Best Comics , 2002 – 2004 )
The Many Worlds of Tesla Strong ( with Alan Moore and Peter K. Hogan , among other artists , one @-@ shot , Wildstorm , 2003 )
Action Comics Annual # 10 : " The Many Deaths of Superman " ( DC Comics , 2007 )
Countdown to Final Crisis # 14 : " The Origin of Gorilla Grodd " ( with Scott Beatty , co @-@ feature , DC Comics , 2008 )
King @-@ Size Hulk : " Where Monsters Dwell " ( with Jeph Loeb , Marvel , 2008 )
Hulk # 7 @-@ 9 ( with Jeph Loeb , Marvel , 2008 )
Ultimate Comics : X # 1 @-@ 5 ( with Jeph Loeb , Marvel , 2010 – 2011 )
AvX : VS # 6 ( with Jeph Loeb , Marvel , 2012 , pg 18 )
All @-@ New X @-@ Men # 25 ( Marvel , 2014 )
= = = Cover work = = =
Marvel Fanfare # 13 ( Marvel Comics , 1984 )
Marvel Team @-@ Up # 141 ( Marvel , 1984 )
Micronauts : The New Voyages # 2 ( Marvel , 1984 )
The Defenders # 142 ( Marvel , 1985 )
The New Mutants # 38 @-@ 39 ( Marvel , 1986 )
Firestar # 3 ( Marvel , 1986 )
Classic X @-@ Men # 1 @-@ 23 ( Marvel , 1986 – 1988 )
Daredevil # 238 @-@ 239 ( Marvel , 1987 )
Uncanny X @-@ Men # 214 , 218 ( Marvel , 1987 )
The Spectre Annual # 1 ( DC Comics , 1988 )
Marvel Age Annual # 4 ( Marvel , 1988 )
The Last of the Viking Heroes # 7 ( Genesis West Comics ] , 1989 )
Tommy and the Monsters # 1 ( New Comics Group , 1989 )
Appleseed Book Two # 1 @-@ 5 ( Eclipse Comics , 1989 )
The Impossible Man Summer Vacation Spectacular ( Marvel , 1990 )
Marvel Super @-@ Heroes # 6 ( 1991 )
Conan the Barbarian # 247 @-@ 249 ( Marvel , 1991 )
Animal Confidential ] ' ( Dark Horse Comics , 1992 )
Vampirella : Summer Nights # 1 ( Harris Comics , 1992 )
Marvel Holiday Special ' 92 ( Marvel , 1993 )
Showcase ' 93 # 1 ( DC Comics , 1993 )
Superman : Legacy of Superman # 1 ( DC Comics , 1993 )
Dark Horse Comics # 11 ( Dark Horse , 1993 )
Comics ' Greatest World : Vortex # 2 ( Comics ' Greatest World , 1993 )
Out of the Vortex # 7 ( Dark Horse , 1994 )
Classic Star Wars : A New Hope # 1 ( Dark Horse , 1994 )
Division 13 # 1 ( Comics ' Greatest World , 1994 )
Medal of Honor # 2 ( Dark Horse , 1994 )
Gen ¹ ³ # 1 ( Wildstorm , 1995 )
New Men # 12 ( Extreme Studios , 1995 )
Godzilla # 1 @-@ 7 ( Dark Horse , 1995 )
Avengelyne # 3 ( Maximum Press , 1995 )
Badrock Annual # 1 ( Image , 1995 )
Godzilla vs. Hero Zero # 1 ( Dark Horse , 1995 )
Leonard Nimoy 's Primortals : Origins # 1 @-@ 2 ( Tekno Comix , 1995 )
Oblivion # 1 ( Comico , 1995 )
Leonard Nimoy 's Primortals # 13 @-@ 14 ( Tekno Comix , 1996 )
Untold Tales of Spider @-@ Man # 17 ( Marvel , 1996 )
The Real Adventures of Jonny Quest # 9 ( Dark Horse , 1997 )
Star Kid # 1 ( Dark Horse , 1998 )
Crimson # 2 ( Cliffhanger , 1998 )
Buffy the Vampire Slayer # 1 , 6 ( Dark Horse , 1998 – 1999 )
Daring Escapes # 1 ( Image , 1998 )
Clerks : Holiday Special # 1 ( Oni Press , 1998 )
Darkchylde : The Legacy # 2 @-@ 3 ( Image , 1998 )
Nathan Never # 1 @-@ 4 ( Dark Horse , 1999 )
Wildcats # 1 ( Wildstorm , 1999 )
Lady Death : The Rapture # 1 ( Chaos ! , 1999 )
Purgatori : Goddess Rising # 1 ( Chaos ! , 1999 )
JLA Annual # 3 ( DC Comics , 1999 )
Batman Annual # 23 ( DC Comics , 1999 )
Aquaman Annual # 5 ( DC Comics , 1999 )
Wonder Woman Annual # 8 ( DC Comics , 1999 )
The Flash Annual # 12 ( DC Comics , 1999 )
Superman Annual # 11 ( DC Comics , 1999 )
Green Lantern Annual # 8 ( DC Comics , 1999 )
Martian Manhunter Annual # 2 ( DC Comics , 1999 )
Tellos # 4 ( Image , 1999 )
Tom Strong # 4 ( America 's Best Comics , 1999 )
Lionheart # 2 ( Awesome , 1999 )
X @-@ Men # 100 ( Marvel , 2000 )
X @-@ Men : The Movie Special Edition # 1 ( Marvel , 2000 )
Generation X # 67 @-@ 72 ( Marvel , 2000 – 2001 )
Kin # 6 ( Top Cow , 2000 )
Gatecrasher # 5 ( Black Bull , 2000 )
X @-@ Men Annual ' 00 ( Marvel , 2000 )
Deadpool # 50 ( Marvel , 2001 )
Defenders # 2 ( Marvel , 2001 )
Cavewoman : Pangaean Sea # 0 ( Basement , 2001 )
Angel and the Ape # 1 @-@ 4 ( Vertigo , 2001 – 2002 )
The Authority # 29 ( Wildstorm , 2002 )
Thundercats # 1 ( Wildstorm , 2002 )
Tom Strong 's Terrific Tales # 5 , 12 ( America 's Best Comics , 2003 – 2005 )
JLA : Scary Monsters # 1 @-@ 6 ( DC Comics , 2003 )
Magdalena / Vampirella # 1 ( Top Cow , 2003 )
Wildguard : Casting Call # 3 ( Image , 2003 )
Witchblade / Magdalena / Vampirella # 1 ( Top Cow , 2004 )
Alter Nation # 1 ( Image , 2004 )
Action Comics # 814 @-@ 821 ( DC Comics , 2004 – 2005 )
Red Sonja # 1 @-@ 2 , 25 , 50 ( Dynamite , 2005 – 2010 )
Worldstorm # 1 ( Wildstorm , 2006 )
The Authority # 1 ( Wildstorm , 2006 )
Justice League of America # 5 ( DC Comics , 2007 )
Manhunter # 26 ( DC Comics , 2007 )
Midnighter # 2 ( Wildstorm , 2007 )
Tales of the Unexpected # 7 ( DC Comics , 2007 )
Avengers Classic # 1 @-@ 12 ( Marvel , 2007 – 2008 )
Booster Gold # 1 @-@ 2 ( DC Comics , 2007 )
Countdown Presents : The Search for Ray Palmer — Wildstorm # 1 ( DC Comics , 2007 )
Fantastic Four # 551 , 583 @-@ 584 , 600 ( Marvel , 2008 – 2011 )
The Incredible Hulk # 112 ( Marvel , 2008 )
The Incredible Hercules # 113 @-@ 115 ( Marvel , 2008 )
Thor # 6 ( Marvel , 2008 )
The Perhapanauts # 1 ( Image , 2008 )
Invincible # 50 ( Image , 2008 )
Brit # 7 ( Image , 2008 )
Marvel Apes # 0 , 4 ( 2008 – 2009 )
Agents of Atlas # 1 ( Marvel , 2009 )
Hulk # 10 @-@ 12 ( Marvel , 2009 )
Jurassic Park # 2 ( IDW Publishing , 2010 )
New Mutants # 15 , 25 ( Marvel , 2010 – 2011 )
New Mutants Forever # 2 , 4 ( Marvel , 2010 – 2011 )
Wolverine # 2 ( Marvel , 2010 )
Carnage # 1 @-@ 2 ( Marvel , 2010 – 2011 )
Warlord of Mars : Dejah Thoris # 1 @-@ 5 ( Dynamite , 2011 )
Avengers : The Children 's Crusade # 3 ( Marvel , 2011 )
Captain America : Man Out of Time # 1 ( Marvel , 2011 )
Young Allies # 6 ( Marvel , 2011 )
Avengers Prime # 5 ( Marvel , 2011 )
Thunderbolts # 154 ( Marvel , 2011 )
Journey into Mystery # 622 ( Marvel , 2011 )
Astonishing X @-@ Men # 43 ( Marvel , 2011 )
Godzilla : Legends # 1 @-@ 5 ( IDW Publishing , 2011 )
The Fearless # 1 @-@ 12 ( Marvel , 2011 – 2012 )
Godzilla # 1 ( IDW Publishing , 2012 )
Secret Avengers # 22 @-@ 25 , 29 @-@ 37 ( Marvel , 2012 @-@ 2013 )
Battle of the Atom # 1 @-@ 5 ( Marvel , 2013 )
Uncanny Avengers Annual # 1 ( Marvel , 2014 )
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= National Football League playoffs =
The National Football League ( NFL ) playoffs are a single @-@ elimination tournament held after the end of the regular season to determine the NFL champion . Six teams from each of the league 's two conferences qualify for the playoffs based on regular season records , and a tie @-@ breaking procedure exists in the case of equal records . The tournament ends with the Super Bowl , the league 's championship game , which matches the two conference champions .
NFL postseason history can be traced to the first NFL Championship Game in 1933 , though in the early years , qualification for the game was based solely on regular season records . From 1933 to 1966 , the NFL postseason generally only consisted of the NFL Championship Game , pitting the league 's two division winners ( pending any one @-@ game playoff matches that needed to be held to break ties in the division standings ) . The NFL playoffs then expanded in 1967 , when four teams qualified for the tournament . When the league merged with the American Football League ( AFL ) in 1970 , the playoffs expanded to eight teams . The playoffs were expanded to 10 teams in 1978 and 12 teams since 1990 .
The NFL is the only one out of the four major professional sports leagues in the United States to use a single @-@ elimination tournament in all four rounds of its playoffs ; Major League Baseball ( MLB ) ( not including their wild @-@ card postseason round ) , the National Basketball Association ( NBA ) , and the National Hockey League ( NHL ) all use a " best @-@ of " format instead .
= = Current playoff system = =
The 32 @-@ team league is divided into two conferences : the American Football Conference ( AFC ) and the National Football Conference ( NFC ) , each of which has 16 teams . Since 2002 , each conference has been further divided into four divisions of four teams each . The tournament brackets are made up of six teams from each of the league 's two conferences , following the end of the regular season . Qualification into the playoffs works as follows :
The 4 division champions from each conference ( the team in each division with the best overall record ) , which are seeded 1 through 4 based on their overall won @-@ lost @-@ tied record .
Two wild @-@ card qualifiers from each conference ( the two teams with the best overall records of all remaining teams in the conference ) , which are seeded 5 and 6 .
The names of the first three playoff rounds date back to the postseason format that was first used in 1978 , when the league began using wild @-@ card teams . The first round of the playoffs is dubbed the wild @-@ card playoffs ( or wild @-@ card weekend ) . In this round , the third @-@ seeded division winner hosts the sixth seed wild card , and the fourth seed hosts the fifth . There are no restrictions regarding teams from the same division matching up in any round . The 1 and 2 seeds from each conference receive a bye in the first round , which entitles these teams to automatic advancement to the second round , the divisional playoffs , where they face the wild @-@ card weekend survivors . The NFL does not use a fixed bracket playoff system . The number 1 seed will host the worst surviving seed from the first round ( seed 4 , 5 or 6 ) , while the number 2 seed will play the other team ( seed 3 , 4 or 5 ) . The two surviving teams from each conference 's divisional playoff games then meet in the respective AFC and NFC Conference Championship games ( hosted by the higher seed ) , with the winners of those contests going on to face one another in the Super Bowl . Only twice since 1990 has neither a number one @-@ seeded team nor a number two @-@ seeded team hosted a conference championship game ( in the 2006 AFC Championship the # 3 seeded Indianapolis Colts hosted the # 4 seeded New England Patriots with the Colts winning 38 – 34 and the 2008 NFC Championship the # 4 seeded Arizona Cardinals hosting the # 6 seeded Philadelphia Eagles with the Cardinals winning 32 – 25 ) .
If teams are tied ( having the same regular season won @-@ lost @-@ tied record ) , the playoff seeding is determined by a set of tie @-@ breaking rules .
One potential disadvantage is that the two teams with the best records in a conference could play each other before the conference championship if they are in the same division . The better team would be seeded # 1 , while the lesser team would be seeded # 5 as the top wild @-@ card team , and as shown in the diagram , it is possible for the # 1 division winner to play the top wild @-@ card team in the divisional round . ( See also the " Modification proposals " section below . )
The New York Giants and New York Jets have shared the same home stadium since 1984 ( first Giants Stadium from 1984 to 2009 , and MetLife Stadium since 2010 ) . Thus , if both teams need to host playoff games on the same weekend , they are always required to play on separate days , even during the Conference Championship round . The only time such a scheduling conflict has occurred was during wild @-@ card weekend in 1985 , when only 10 teams qualified for the postseason and there were only two wild @-@ card games ( See the " History " section below ) : Instead of playing both wild @-@ card games on the same day , as was the case when the 10 @-@ team system was used from 1978 to 1989 , the New England Patriots defeated the Jets , 26 – 14 , on Saturday , December 28 , before the Giants beat the San Francisco 49ers , 17 – 3 , on the following day .
= = Breaking ties = =
Often , teams will finish a season with identical records . It becomes necessary , therefore , to devise means to break these ties , either to determine which teams will qualify for the playoffs , or to determine seeding in the playoff tournament . The rules below are applied in order until the tie is broken . If three teams are tied for one playoff spot and the third team is eliminated at any step , the tie breaker reverts to step one for the remaining two teams . If multiple playoff spots are at stake , the rules are applied in order until the first team qualifies , then the process is started again for the remaining teams .
The tie @-@ breaking rules have changed over the years , with the most recent changes being made in 2002 to accommodate the league 's realignment into eight four @-@ team divisions ; record vs. common opponents and most of the other criteria involving wins and losses were moved up higher in the tie @-@ breaking list , while those involving compiled stats such as points for and against were moved to the bottom .
The current tiebreakers are as follows :
= = Overtime rules = =
The NFL introduced overtime for any divisional tiebreak games beginning in 1940 , and for championship games beginning in 1946 . The first postseason game to be played under these rules was the 1958 NFL Championship Game between the Baltimore Colts and New York Giants ( the so @-@ called " Greatest Game Ever Played " ) . Overtime under the original format was sudden death , the first team to score would be declared the winner .
In March 2010 , the NFL amended its rules for postseason overtime , with the rule being extended into the regular season in March 2012 . If a team scores a touchdown ; or if the defense scores a safety on its first possession , it is declared the winner . If it scores a field goal on its first possession , however , it then kicks off to the opposing team , which has an opportunity to score ; if the score is tied again after that possession , true sudden death rules apply and whoever scores next will win .
Since postseason games cannot end in a tie unlike the preseason or regular season , additional overtime periods are played as necessary until a winner is determined . Furthermore , all clock rules apply as if a game had started over . Therefore , if the first overtime period ends with the score still tied , the teams switch ends of the field prior to double overtime . If a game was still tied with two minutes to go in double overtime , there would be a two @-@ minute warning ( but not during the first overtime period as in the regular season ) . And if it were still tied at the end of double overtime , there would be a kickoff to start triple overtime . Although a contest could theoretically last indefinitely , or last multiple overtime periods like several National Hockey League postseason games , no NFL playoff game has ever gone into triple @-@ overtime . The longest NFL game played to date is 82 minutes , 40 seconds : Miami Dolphins kicker Garo Yepremian made the winning 37 @-@ yard field goal after 7 : 40 of double @-@ overtime to defeat the Kansas City Chiefs , 27 – 24 , in the 1971 – 72 NFL playoffs on December 25 , 1971 .
= = Playoff and championship history = =
The NFL 's method for determining its champions has changed over the years .
= = = Early years = = =
From the league 's founding in 1920 until 1932 , there was no scheduled championship game . From 1920 – 1923 , the championship was awarded to a team by a vote of team owners at the annual owners ' meeting . From 1924 – 1932 , the team having the best winning percentage was awarded the championship . As each team played a different number of games , simply counting wins and losses would have been insufficient . Additionally , tie games were not counted in the standings in figuring winning percentage ( under modern rules , ties count as ½ win and ½ loss ) .
= = = 1932 playoff game = = =
In 1932 , the Chicago Bears ( 6 – 1 – 6 ) and the Portsmouth Spartans ( 6 – 1 – 4 ) were tied at the end of the season with the identical winning percentage of .857 ( the Green Bay Packers ( 10 – 3 – 1 ) had more wins , but a lower winning percentage ( .769 ) as calculated under the rules of the day , which omitted ties ) . An additional game was therefore needed to determine a champion . It was agreed that the game would be played in Chicago at Wrigley Field , but severe winter weather and fear of a low turnout forced the game to be moved indoors to Chicago Stadium . The game was played under modified rules on a shortened 80 @-@ yard dirt field , and the Bears won with a final score of 9 – 0 . As a result of the game , the Bears had the better winning percentage ( .875 ) and won the league title . The loss gave the Spartans a final winning percentage of .750 , and moved them to third place behind the Packers . While there is no consensus that this game was a real " championship " game ( or even a playoff game ) , it generated considerable interest and led to the creation of the official NFL Championship Game in 1933 .
= = = Before the Super Bowl = = =
Given the interest of the impromptu " championship game " , and the desire of the league to create a more equitable means of determining a champion , the league divided into two conferences beginning in 1933 . The winners of each conference ( the first place teams in the conferences ) will play in the NFL Championship Game after the season . There was no tie @-@ breaker system in place ; any ties in the final standings of either conference resulted in a playoff game being played in 1941 , 1943 , 1947 , two games in 1950 , and one each in 1952 , 1957 , 1958 , and 1965 . Since the venue and date of the championship game were often not known until the last game of the season had been played , these playoff games sometimes resulted in delaying the end of the season by one week .
The playoff structure used from 1933 to 1966 was considered inequitable by some because of the number of times it failed to match the teams with the two best records in the championship game , as only the conference winners would qualify for playoff contention . Four times between 1950 and 1966 ( in 1951 , 1956 , 1960 , and 1963 ) the team with the second @-@ best win @-@ loss record did not qualify for the playoffs while the team with the best record in the other conference , but only the third @-@ best in the league , would advance to the championship game .
For the 1967 NFL season , the NFL expanded to 16 teams , and split its two conferences into two divisions each , with four teams in each division . The four division champions would advance to the NFL playoffs , and to remain on schedule , a tie @-@ breaker system was introduced . The first round of playoffs determined the conference 's champion and its representative in the NFL Championship Game , played the following week . Thus , 1967 was the first season there was a scheduled playoff tournament to determine the teams to play for the NFL Championship .
During the three years ( 1967 – 69 ) that this playoff structure was in effect , there was one use of the tie @-@ breaker system . In 1967 , the Los Angeles Rams and Baltimore Colts ended the season tied at 11 – 1 – 2 for the lead in the Coastal Division . The Colts came into the last game of the season undefeated , but were beaten by the Rams . Though the Colts shared the best win / loss record in the NFL that year , they failed to advance to the playoffs while three other teams with worse records won their divisions . This event figured into the decision in 1970 to include a wild @-@ card team in the playoff tournament after the AFL @-@ NFL merger .
During the 1960s , a third @-@ place playoff game was played in Miami , called the Playoff Bowl . It was contested in early January following the 1960 – 69 seasons . Though official playoff games at the time they were played , the NFL now officially classifies these ten games ( and statistics ) as exhibitions , not as playoff games .
= = = = AFL and AAFC playoffs = = = =
Since it would eventually merge with the NFL , the history of the AFL 's playoff system merits some explanation . For the 1960 – 68 seasons , the AFL used the two @-@ divisional format identical to the NFL to determine its champion . There was no tie @-@ breaker system in place , so ties atop the Eastern Division final standings in 1963 and Western Division in 1968 necessitated playoff games to determine each division 's representative in the championship .
For the 1969 season , a first round was added whereby each division winner played the second @-@ place team from the other division . The winners of these games met in the AFL Championship Game . In the only year of this format , the AFL Champion Kansas City Chiefs were the second @-@ place team in the Western division . The Chiefs went on to win Super Bowl IV that season , thus becoming the first non @-@ division winner to win a Super Bowl .
During its brief history , the AAFC , who would merge into the NFL for the 1950 season , used an identical playoff format to the NFL from 1946 to 1948 . In 1949 ( its last year ) , the AAFC would merge its two conferences when one of its teams folded , and use a four @-@ team playoff system . In 1948 , the aforementioned issue of playoff inequity came into play when the San Francisco 49ers would miss the playoffs with a 12 – 2 record ; they were in the same conference as the 14 – 0 Cleveland Browns , who would go on to win the Western Conference and then the AAFC 's championship game against the 7 – 7 Buffalo Bills ( AAFC ) .
= = = Super Bowl and merger = = =
The Super Bowl began as an inter @-@ league championship game between the AFL and NFL , an idea first proposed by Kansas City Chiefs owner Lamar Hunt . This compromise was the result of pressures the upstart AFL was placing on the older NFL . The success of the rival league would eventually lead to a full merger of the two leagues .
From the 1966 season to the 1969 season ( Super Bowls I – IV ) the game featured the champions of the AFL and NFL . Since the 1970 season , the game has featured the champions of the National Football Conference ( NFC ) and the American Football Conference ( AFC ) .
When the leagues merged in 1970 , the new NFL ( with 26 teams ) reorganized into two conferences of three divisions each . From the 1970 season to the 1977 season , four teams from each conference ( for a total of eight teams ) qualified for the playoffs each year . These four teams included the three division champions , and a fourth wild @-@ card team .
Originally , the home teams in the playoffs were decided based on a yearly rotation . From 1970 to 1974 , the divisional playoff round rotated which of the three division champions would not have home field advantage , with the wild @-@ card teams and the teams they would face in the divisional playoff game would never have home field advantage throughout the playoffs . Starting in 1970 , the divisional playoff games consisted of the AFC Central champions and the NFC West champions playing their games on the road . Then in 1971 it rotated to the AFC East champions and the NFC East champions playing their games on the road . In the 1972 divisional playoff games , the AFC West champions and the NFC Central champions were the visiting teams . And 1973 it would start all over with the AFC Central and NFC West again , and so on . If the " road " division winners advanced to the conference championship games they would be visiting teams again , unless they played a wild @-@ card winner .
The rotation system led to several playoff inequities , such as :
In 1971 , the top two seeds in each conference met in the divisional round . The teams with the best records in their respective conferences , the Kansas City Chiefs ( AFC ) and Minnesota Vikings ( NFC ) , were ousted by the eventual Super Bowl participants , the Miami Dolphins and Dallas Cowboys .
In 1972 , the Dolphins had to take their perfect record to Three Rivers Stadium to face the Pittsburgh Steelers , who went 10 @-@ 3 @-@ 1 , in the AFC championship game .
In 1973 , the Cowboys finished 10 @-@ 4 but hosted two 12 @-@ 2 teams , the Los Angeles Rams and Minnesota .
The league did not institute a seeding system for the playoffs until 1975 , where the surviving clubs with the higher seeds were made the home teams for each playoff round . Thus , the top seeded division winner played the wild @-@ card team , and the remaining two division winners played at the home stadium of the better seed ( which meant that the lowest @-@ seeded division winner had to open the postseason on the road ) . However , two teams from the same division could not meet prior to the conference championship game . Thus , there would be times when the pairing in the divisional playoff round would be the 1 seed vs. the 3 seed and 2 vs. 4 .
= = = Expansion = = =
Following an expansion of the regular season from 14 to 16 games in the 1978 season , the league added one more wild @-@ card team for each conference . The two wild @-@ card teams played the week before the division winners . The winner of this game played the top seeded division winner as was done from 1970 – 1977 . The league continued to prohibit intra @-@ divisional games in the divisional playoffs , but allowed such contests in the wild @-@ card round . This ten @-@ team playoff format was used through the 1989 season . Under this system , the Oakland Raiders became the first wild @-@ card team to win a Super Bowl following the 1980 season .
During the strike @-@ shortened 1982 season , only nine regular season games were played , and a modified playoff format was instituted . Divisional play was ignored ( there were some cases where division rivals had both games wiped out by the strike , although each division ultimately sent at least one team to the playoffs ) , and the top eight teams from each conference ( based on W @-@ L @-@ T record ) were advanced to the playoffs . As a result , this became the first time that teams with losing records qualified for the playoffs : the 4 – 5 Cleveland Browns and the 4 – 5 Detroit Lions .
Several times between 1978 – 89 , the two wild @-@ card games had to be played on different days . Normally they both would be held on Sunday . In 1983 and 1988 , the games were split between Saturday and Monday because Sunday was Christmas , and the NFL had avoided playing on that day at the time . In 1984 , both games were played in the Pacific Time Zone , so they had to be played on Saturday and Sunday to accommodate for time differences . In 1985 , both the New York Giants and Jets hosted wild @-@ card games . As they have shared a home stadium since 1984 , the games had to be played on different days .
Since the 1990 season , a third wild @-@ card team for each conference was added , expanding the playoffs to the current twelve teams . The lowest @-@ seeded division winner was then " demoted " to the wild @-@ card weekend . Also , the restrictions on intra @-@ divisional games during the divisional playoffs were removed .
The 1990 format continued until the 2002 expansion and reorganization into eight divisions . In this current format , as explained above , the 4 division winners and 2 wild cards are seeded 1 – 6 , with the top 2 seeds receiving byes , and the highest seed in each round guaranteed to play the lowest seed . Also , seeds determine the home @-@ field advantage .
= = Modification proposals = =
There are some limitations that exist in the current 12 @-@ team playoff system . Since being a division winner is a guaranteed playoff berth , there have been many cases in which a team that wins a " weak " division either barely has a winning record ( as with the 2013 Green Bay Packers ) , or has a .500 or losing record altogether ( such as the 2010 Seattle Seahawks ) . At the same time , since a division winner is seeded higher than the wild cards , non @-@ division winners may end up playing a road game during Wild Card Weekend against a team with an inferior record , or may end up outright missing the playoffs . And going on the road during the first postseason round does not guarantee success : the first time that all four road teams won during Wild Card Weekend occurred during the 2015 – 16 season .
This issue has become more prevalent since the aforementioned 2002 realignment . There are three notable examples in which a division winner with a .500 or sub-.500 record ended up winning a playoff game against a team with a superior record :
In the 2008 – 09 season , the San Diego Chargers clinched the AFC West with only an 8 – 8 record , and hosted the 12 – 4 Indianapolis Colts in the wild @-@ card round , while the New England Patriots failed to even secure a wild @-@ card spot at 11 – 5 . The Chargers then went on to defeat the Colts in that playoff game .
In the 2010 – 11 season , the aforementioned 2010 Seahawks won the NFC West with a 7 – 9 record , hosting and defeating the 11 – 5 New Orleans Saints . Failing to make the playoffs were the New York Giants and Tampa Bay Buccaneers , both with 10 – 6 records . The 2010 Seahawks were the first team in NFL history to win both a division championship and a playoff game with a losing regular season record . They currently have the lowest win percentage of any team to ever make the playoffs .
In the 2014 – 15 season , the Carolina Panthers won the NFC South with a 7 – 8 – 1 record . By week 16 , no team in that division could finish with more than seven wins . The Panthers then defeated the Atlanta Falcons , who were 6 – 9 and undefeated within the division entering the game , for the division title . They hosted and defeated the 11 – 5 Arizona Cardinals in the wild card round . The best team to miss the playoffs that year was the Philadelphia Eagles , who finished 10 – 6 . To date , the 2014 Panthers and 2010 Seahawks are the only two teams to win a division , and a playoff game , with a losing record .
As a result of this seeding issue , frequent calls have been made to modify the playoff format even further . One proposal has been to expand the playoffs to 14 teams . Proponents of expansion note the increased revenue that could be gained from an additional two playoff games . They also note that the 12 @-@ team playoff system was implemented when the league only had 28 teams and six divisions ( of 4 to 5 teams each ) . The opposition to such a move notes that an expansion of the playoffs would " water down " the field by giving access to lower @-@ caliber teams . Opponents to expansion further point to the NBA playoffs and the NHL playoffs where 16 of 30 teams qualify for the postseason , and there is often a decreased emphasis on regular season performance as a result .
After the 2007 playoffs saw two wild @-@ card teams with better records ( Jacksonville Jaguars and eventual Super Bowl XLII champions New York Giants ) go on the road to defeat division winners ( Pittsburgh Steelers and Tampa Bay Buccaneers , respectively ) during wild @-@ card weekend , the NFL explored another proposal to change the playoffs so that the team with the better record would host the game , even if that meant a division winner went on the road . The NFL 's Competition Committee withdrew the request later that offseason , with Atlanta Falcons president Rich McKay mentioning that they wanted the idea to simply get a discussion going . New England Patriots owner Robert Kraft was a strong opponent of the rule change , believing that " if you win a division , it 's good for your fans to know you will have a home game . "
Just before the 2010 – 11 Seahawks @-@ Saints playoff game , McKay wanted to revisit the previous proposal to reseed teams during wild @-@ card weekend . However , sportswriter Peter King wrote that he believed league owners were still hesitant on implementing any such changes at this time due to the then @-@ pending 2011 work stoppage , the proposals to extend the regular season from 16 to 18 games and how it will impact the postseason , and the simple fact that not enough teams have been seriously disadvantaged by the current format .
In October 2013 , NFL commissioner Roger Goodell announced plans to revisit the idea to expand the playoffs to 14 teams , with the increased revenue gained from the two additional postseason games being used to offset plans to shorten the preseason . The two extra Wild Card games could also be scheduled on the weekend , creating triple @-@ headers on both Saturday and Sunday . Goodell then suggested that they might instead be played on Friday and / or Monday , which may eventually cause scheduling conflicts with games of the new College Football Playoff .
The 14 @-@ team playoff proposal remained tabled until December 2014 , when no team in the NFC South could finish better than .500 ; Goodell stated that the league would vote on it at the March 2015 Owners ' Meetings . One proposed 14 @-@ club system includes giving first @-@ round byes for the teams with the best record in each conference , two division champions in each conference receiving home games , and the remaining eight teams would be seeded by win @-@ loss record . However , by the following February 2015 , the Washington Post reported that support among team owners has eroded , and league leaders expressed reluctance to make a change until the one @-@ year extension with CBS to televise Thursday Night Football expires at the end of the 2015 season .
= = NFL playoff appearances = =
Correct as of 2015 – 16 NFL playoffs
* Tiebreaker playoff appearances based on the team with the more recent playoff appearance .
= = = Appearances by active teams = = =
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= Moog for Love =
Moog for Love is the seventh extended play recorded by British electronic music duo Disclosure , consisting of brothers Howard and Guy Lawrence . The three @-@ track record was released on 15 June 2016 by the labels Island and PMR Records . 2016 was a year where the duo were developing their skills of writing material while on the road . Its title is named after the 1952 Eddie Jefferson song " Moody 's Mood for Love " . They did not have enough material to produce a full @-@ length album , but wanted to have a record released for the summer of that year regardless . Featuring collaborations with Eats Everything and Al Green , the album garnered generally mixed to positive reviews from music critics , some calling it a significant improvement over the duo 's second studio LP Caracal ( 2015 ) . Upon its release , the album landed at number 80 on the Australian Singles Chart .
= = Production = =
In 2016 , Disclosure had developed their skills of writing songs while on tour , but did not have time to produce enough material for a full @-@ length album . Regardless , the duo wanted to release a record for the summer , reasoning that they felt " strange " not issuing any material to the public in that season . Therefore , they created and distributed a three @-@ track " clubby " extended play that went " back to the start . " Moog for Love was Disclosure 's first record not to feature writing contributions from Jimmy Napes , which Howard said also " feels quite strange . " With the EP , Disclosure wanted to use more different track development formulas from what they used for making their previous records , Settle ( 2013 ) and Caracal ( 2015 ) , reasoning that they would be making the same music over and over again if they kept making tracks the same way . However , they still had made songs in one similar way they did for Settle , in that there was some material only one of the members would work on , and after the song was finished , both members of the duo would decide if the track was ready for release and inclusion on the album .
= = Composition = =
Moog for Love 's opening cut , " Boss " , written and arranged in a Los Angeles hotel room for a few days while on the road before being mixed and mastered at home , was the only song on the EP where Disclosure worked on a track together . Driven by a harsh drum loop , the song features singing from Howard Lawrence , his vocal track pitch @-@ shifted down and filtered with EQing effects . The second track on the EP , " Feel Like I Do " , is a remix of Al Green 's 1972 song " I 'm Still in Love with You " . Guy found the song while listening to a batch of vinyl records , and when Disclosure asked Green and the track 's label permission for use of samples of his recording , Green and the label enjoyed the track the duo had worked on and gave them multitrack stems of the original song for a much cleaner sound of the samples in the track . While the vocals are sped up in " Feel Like I Do , " the strings , horns and electric guitar from Green 's recording remain , with the addition electronic drums and " hazy effects " as Rolling Stone described . " Feel Like I Do " is the only track to not resemble the sound that was on Settle due to its slow tempo and feel .
The closing tropical house title track of Moog for Love was analyzed by a NME reviewer to borrow the rich sound that dominated Caracal while having the same tempo that was used for most tracks on Settle . He also noted that the elements of UK garage and house in " Boss " and the title song are similar to those present on tracks from Settle such as " When a Fire Starts to Burn " . Instrumented with " warbled " synthesizers and a pounding bass drum , the song ends with a " hypnotising " sample of the track " Moody 's Mood " , sung and recorded by Brian McKnight . " Moody 's Mood " is a cover of what the EP and its title track is named after , " Moody 's Mood for Love " . A song by Eddie Jefferson , its melody is derived from an improvised solo by jazz saxophonist James Moody . An a cappella group had written lyrics for the melody , and in the recording being sampled by the track , McKnight sings the melody and lyrics . The bassline in the track is also generated by a moog synthesizer .
= = Release and promotion = =
On 11 June 2016 , Disclosure premiered " Boss " at the United Kingdom Wildlife Festival , leading to an estatic reception from the audience according to NME . On 14 June 2016 , " Moog for Love " had a " World Record " premiere on Zane Lowe 's Apple Music show Beats 1 . Both songs became Annie Mac 's " Hottest Record In The World " for 15 June . First available for streaming 14 June 2016 , PMR and Island Records released Moog for Love for digital download the next day . The EP garnered generally positive reviews upon its distribution , some reviewers calling it significantly better than Caracal . Praising it as a less " grown @-@ up " dance release than Caracal , Lary Bartleet of NME wrote that with Moog for Love , " Disclosure are back in the club , where they belong , but … better . "
Wired magazine called Moog for Love one of the " 6 New Albums We Demand You Listen to Immediately " only for " Feel Like I Do " , calling the song " the best Avalanches song the Avalanches didn ’ t make — and the top @-@ down , sun @-@ kissed track you need in your life right now . " Rebecca Haithcoat , who wrote a review for Pitchfork Media , had a more mixed opinion , writing that while the release garners much of the same excitements as the " expert blend of sleek pop and those big , warm and happy belted house hooks of the ‘ 90s " that was on Settle , it was , much like Caracal , not as good as Disclosure 's debut given that it was " uninspired " and that none of the songs on the EP were " immediate or necessary . " Kyle Forward of DIY magazine was also disappointed with the EP , writing that the songs were only " reminders " of their old sound rather than being something much more than " indistinct nothingness " in addition to their previous sound .
= = Track listing and credits = =
All tracks written , mixed , and produced by Guy Lawrence , and mastered by Lewis Hopkin ; additional writing and production credits are noted .
Additional credits
Gus Pirelli – engineer on " Boss "
= = Charts = =
= = Release history = =
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= See No Evil ( Homicide : Life on the Street ) =
" See No Evil " is the second episode of the second season of the American police drama television series Homicide : Life on the Street , and the eleventh overall episode of the series . It originally aired on NBC in the United States on January 13 , 1994 . In the episode , Felton 's friend kills his father in an assisted suicide , and Felton tries to convince Lewis to look the other way . In a subplot , Pembleton investigates what appears to be the police shooting of an unarmed suspect .
The episode was directed by Chris Menaul and written by series creator Paul Attanasio . Wilford Brimley made a guest appearance as Harry Prentice , an ill and bed @-@ ridden man who convinces his son to help him kill himself . Attanasio deliberately wrote the script so it would be morally questionable whether police handling of both the suicide and the police shooting were done in an ethically correct way . Pembleton 's investigation was based on a real @-@ life investigation into a suspicious shooting featured in David Simon 's non @-@ fiction book Homicide : A Year on the Killing Streets , on which the Homicide series was based .
Detectives from the Baltimore Police Department wrote a letter of formal protest to executive producer Barry Levinson over the negative portrayal of police in the episode . According to Nielsen Media Research , " See No Evil " was seen by 12 @.@ 53 million household viewers . Although a drop from the previous episode " Bop Gun " , it was nevertheless considered a strong rating for Homicide , which NBC was still considering whether to renew . The episode received generally positive reviews .
= = Plot = =
Felton ( Daniel Baldwin ) visits Harry Prentice ( Wilford Brimley ) , the elderly and bed @-@ ridden father of his friend Chuckie ( Michael Chaban ) . Ill and miserable , the hard @-@ bitten Harry has decided he wants to die and has hired a suicide doctor . Felton believes this is wrong and convinces Chuckie to call it off , much to Harry 's anger . A few days later , however , Harry wears Chuckie down and convinces his son to shoot him to death with a handgun . When Lewis ( Clark Johnson ) and Crosetti ( Jon Polito ) investigate , Chuckie claims Harry shot himself , which Lewis does not believe . Felton talks to Chuckie at the police station and Chuckie admits to the assisted suicide , but Felton tells him to stick to the original suicide story . Lewis realizes what happened and confronts Felton , who admits what Chuckie did and suggests it was the right thing to do , but Lewis adamantly disagrees . Since the bullet evidence is inconclusive , Felton asks Lewis to let Chuckie secretly wash his hands so no gunpowder residue will be found in tests . Lewis initially refuses , but he eventually reluctantly agrees , allowing Chuckie to get away with the shooting .
Meanwhile , the homicide department is requiring all the detectives to take sensitivity training with therapist Carry Westin ( Jennifer Mendenhall ) . While most of them have positive experiences with her , Bolander ( Ned Beatty ) flatly refuses to participate and repeatedly avoids their scheduled sessions . When Gee ( Yaphet Kotto ) tells Bolander he will be suspended without pay if he does not meet with her , Bolander chooses the suspension , but later reconsiders after his partner Munch ( Richard Belzer ) harasses him at the bar until he changes his mind . When they finally meet , Bolander explains he does not trust therapists because when going through marriage counseling with his ex @-@ wife , the therapist actively encouraged her to leave Bolander . He feels he was cheated out of $ 7 @,@ 000 in therapy bills , but Westin explains his anger is not from the money , but from feelings of betrayal by his ex @-@ wife . Bolander is ultimately impressed by Westin and even decides to ask her on a date , but she strongly hints she is a lesbian .
Pembleton ( Andre Braugher ) and Bayliss ( Kyle Secor ) are called to investigate the shooting death of Charles Courtland Cox , a small @-@ time drug peddler shot in the back shortly after a police raid of a crackhouse . When Pembleton suspects a police shooting , Lt. Tyron ( Michael S. Kennedy ) explains Officer Hellriegel ( Jeffrey Mandon ) accidentally shot Cox after falling down and discharging his weapon . However , Hellriegel does not recall details and appears nervous by questioning from Pembleton . Gee is angry with Pembleton 's inquiries into the police , and becomes even angrier when Colonel Granger ( Gerald F. Gough ) and Captain Barnfather ( Clayton LeBouef ) say they will make Hellriegel a scapegoat if the media start suggesting racism or police brutality . Hellriegel is cleared when tests reveal the bullet does not match his gun , but Pembleton requests the firearms of the other officers be tested . Gee refuses to approve the tests , but Pembleton gets Barnfather to order them .
= = Production = =
" See No Evil " was directed by Chris Menaul and written by series creator Paul Attanasio , who had not penned a Homicide script since series premiere " Gone for Goode " . The episode was originally meant to be the second season premiere , but NBC decided to air " Bop Gun " first because it featured a guest appearance by Robin Williams , which the network hoped would lead to increased Nielsen ratings . Like the other three second season episodes , the script for " See No Evil " was already finished by the time the first season ended , but due to poor ratings throughout the duration of the show , NBC executives asked for several refinements – including fewer episode subplots and less camera movements and jump cuts – before approving a second season . Attanasio deliberately wrote the " See No Evil " script so that it would be morally questionable whether the police handling of both main subplots — the assisted suicide and the suspected police shooting — were handled in an ethically correct way . Ultimately , Attanasio wanted it to be up to the audience to interpret for themselves .
Pembleton 's investigation of fellow police officers for a suspicious shooting was based on a real @-@ life investigation chronicled in David Simon 's 1991 non @-@ fiction book Homicide : A Year on the Killing Streets , from which the Homicide series was adapted . Baltimore Police Department Detective Donald Worden , on whom the Bolander character is based , handled the actual real @-@ life investigation in 1988 . Lewis ' agreement to help Felton would later be referenced in the third season episode " Crosetti " , when Lewis reminded Felton of the favor while seeking help in stopping Bolander 's investigation into the death of Crosetti . Several members of the Baltimore Police Department publicly criticized Homicide for its negative portrayal of the police in the episode , and 22 detectives wrote a formal letter of protest to executive producer Barry Levinson over the matter .
" See No Evil " featured a guest performance by Wilford Brimley as the bed @-@ ridden and suicidal Harry Prentice , as well as Michael Chaban as his son Chuckie Prentice and Jennifer Mendenhall as sensitivity training therapist Carry Westin . The Harry Prentice story line includes his service aboard the SS John W. Brown , with the final scene of the episode filmed in front of that Liberty ship in Baltimore harbor . Mendenhall , predominately a stage actress , was a regular performer with the Woolly Mammoth Theatre Company in Washington , D.C. at the time she appeared in this episode . Michael S. Kennedy , an actor from Richmond , Texas , played Lt. Jimmy Tyron , a part he would reprise in the subsequent episode , " Black and Blue " . A struggling actor , Kennedy received a call in the middle of an all @-@ night shoot in Virginia Beach from a casting director he knew , informing him about the audition for Homicide one day in advance . He so enjoyed working on the show that he wrote a Homicide script himself , with Tyron playing a major part in the story , although it was ultimately never used . The songs " Rhythm and Blues " by Benjamin Antin , and " Barkeep " by Lee Currerri " , were featured in " See No Evil " .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
In its original American broadcast on January 13 , 1994 , the episode was watched by 12 @.@ 53 million households , according to Nielsen Media Research , earning the episode a 13 @.@ 3 rating . It was a drop from the previous episode , " Bop Gun " , which drew 16 @.@ 3 million household viewers , and Homicide dropped from the 10th highest @-@ rated show of the week to the 31st highest @-@ rated . But the ratings dip was expected due to the absence of Robin Williams and the " See No Evil " rating was nevertheless considered a strong one for the show , better than past Homicide episodes and the average rating for L.A. Law , the legal drama which previously occupied that NBC timeslot . " See No Evil " was outperformed in its timeslot by the ABC news series Primetime Live , which was the 11th highest @-@ rated show of the week . Fontana said of the rating , " I hope the numbers level off now . This Thursday night is do @-@ or @-@ die . It will tell the tale , " referring to the subsequent week 's episode , " Black and Blue " .
= = = Reviews = = =
" See No Evil " received generally positive reviews . David Bianculli of The Baltimore Sun said he was surprised and impressed that the writers placed their characters in ethical dilemmas that led them to making illegal decisions . He added of the series , " Please watch this series ; it 's so good , I don 't mind pleading . " Matt Roush of USA Today called it a powerful episode and praised Andre Braugher 's " terrific " performance . Gannett News Service writer Tim Kiska praised the episode and called Yaphet Kotto 's performance a " tour @-@ de @-@ force " . The Miami Herald television critic Hal Boedeker called " See No Evil " equally as strong as " Bop Gun " , of which he was also extremely complimentary . Tom Shales of The Washington Post said both " See No Evil " and " Black and Blue " were better than the critically acclaimed " Bop Gun " , in part because they showcased Andre Braugher , who he called the finest actor in the ensemble cast : " Braugher manages to be utterly compelling whether slamming doors and throwing chairs , reducing a murder suspect to quivering tears , having furious arguments with Lt. Giardello ( rock @-@ solid Yaphet Kotto ) or simply lurking about . "
= = DVD release = =
" See No Evil " and the rest of the first and second season episodes were included in the four @-@ DVD box @-@ set " Homicide : Life on the Street : The Complete Seasons 1 & 2 " , which was released by A & E Home Video on May 27 , 2003 for $ 69 @.@ 95 .
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= Vocabulary development =
Vocabulary development is a process by which people acquire words . Babbling shifts towards meaningful speech as infants grow and produce their first words around the age of one year . In early word learning , infants build their vocabulary slowly . By the age of 18 months , infants can typically produce about 50 words and begin to make word combinations .
In order to build their vocabularies , infants must learn about the meanings that words carry . The mapping problem asks how infants correctly learn to attach words to referents . Constraints theories , domain @-@ general views , social @-@ pragmatic accounts , and an emergentist coalition model have been proposed to account for the mapping problem ...
From an early age , infants use language to communicate . Caregivers and other family members use language to teach children how to act in society . In their interactions with peers , children have the opportunity to learn about unique conversational roles . Through pragmatic directions , adults often offer children cues for understanding the meaning of words .
Throughout their school years , children continue to build their vocabulary . In particular , children begin to learn abstract words . Beginning around age 3 – 5 , word learning takes place both in conversation and through reading . Word learning often involves physical context , builds on prior knowledge , takes place in social context , and includes semantic support . The phonological loop and serial order short @-@ term memory may both play an important role in vocabulary development .
= = Early word learning = =
Children begin to produce their first words when they are approximately one year old . Infants ' first words are normally used in reference to things that are of importance to them , such as objects , people , and relevant actions . Also , the first words that infants produce are mostly single @-@ syllabic or repeated single syllables , such as " no " and " dada " . By 12 to 18 months of age , children 's vocabularies often contain words such as " kitty " , " bottle " , " doll " , " car " and " eye " . Children 's understanding of names for objects and people usually precedes their understanding of words that describe actions and relationships . " One " and " two " are the first number words that children learn between the ages of one and two . Infants must be able to hear and play with sounds in their environment , and to break up various phonetic units to discover words and their related meanings .
= = = Phonological development = = =
Studies related to vocabulary development show that children 's language competence depends upon their ability to hear sounds during infancy . Infants ' perception of speech is distinct . Between six and ten months of age , infants can discriminate sounds used in the languages of the world . By 10 to 12 months , infants can no longer discriminate between speech sounds that are not used in the language ( s ) to which they are exposed . Among six @-@ month @-@ old infants , seen articulations ( i.e. the mouth movements they observe others make while talking ) actually enhance their ability to discriminate sounds , and may also contribute to infants ' ability to learn phonemic boundaries . Infants ' phonological register is completed between the ages of 18 months and 7 years .
Children 's phonological development normally proceeds as follows :
6 – 8 weeks : Cooing appears
16 weeks : Laughter and vocal play appear
6 – 9 months : Reduplicated ( canonical ) babbling appears
12 months : First words use a limited sound repertoire
18 months : Phonological processes ( deformations of target sounds ) become systematic
18 months – 7 years : Phonological inventory completion
At each stage mentioned above , children play with sounds and learn methods to help them learn words . There is a relationship between children 's prelinguistic phonetic skills and their lexical progress at age two : failure to develop the required phonetic skills in their prelinguistic period results in children 's delay in producing words . Environmental influences may affect children 's phonological development , such as hearing loss as a result of ear infections . Deaf infants and children with hearing problems due to infections are usually delayed in the beginning of vocal babbling .
= = = Babbling = = =
Babbling is an important aspect of vocabulary development in infants , since it appears to help practice producing speech sounds . Babbling begins between five and seven months of age . At this stage , babies start to play with sounds that are not used to express their emotional or physical states , such as sounds of consonants and vowels . Babies begin to babble in real syllables such as " ba @-@ ba @-@ ba , neh @-@ neh @-@ neh , and dee @-@ dee @-@ dee , " between the ages of seven and eight months ; this is known as canonical babbling . Jargon babbling includes strings of such sounds ; this type of babbling uses intonation but doesn 't convey meaning . The phonemes and syllabic patterns produced by infants begin to be distinctive to particular languages during this period ( e.g. , increased nasal sounds in French and Japanese babies ) though most of their sounds are similar . There is a shift from babbling to the use of words as the infant grows .
= = = Vocabulary spurt = = =
As children get older their rate of vocabulary growth increases . Children probably understand their first 50 words before they produce them . By the age of eighteen months , children typically attain a vocabulary of 50 words in production , and between two and three times greater in comprehension . A switch from an early stage of slow vocabulary growth to a later stage of faster growth is referred to as the vocabulary spurt . Young toddlers acquire one to three words per month . A vocabulary spurt often occurs overtime as the number of words learned accelerates . It is believed that most children add about 10 to 20 new words a week . Between the ages of 18 to 24 months , children learn how to combine two words such as no bye @-@ bye and more please . Three @-@ word and four @-@ word combinations appear when most of the child 's utterances are two @-@ word productions . In addition , children are able to form conjoined sentences , using and . This suggests that there is a vocabulary spurt between the time that the child 's first word appears , and when the child is able to form more than two words , and eventually , sentences . However , there have been arguments as to whether or not there is a spurt in acquisition of words . Only about one in five children do have a spurt . This suggests that most children do not have a vocabulary spurt .
= = Mapping problem = =
In word learning , the mapping problem refers to the question of how infants attach the forms of language to the things that they experience in the world . There are infinite objects , concepts , and actions in the world that words could be mapped onto . Many theories have been proposed to account for the way in which the language learner successfully maps words onto the correct objects , concepts , and actions .
While domain @-@ specific accounts of word learning argue for innate constraints that limit infants ' hypotheses about word meanings , domain @-@ general perspectives argue that word learning can be accounted for by general cognitive processes , such as learning and memory , which are not specific to language . Yet other theorists have proposed social pragmatic accounts , which stress the role of caregivers in guiding infants through the word learning process . According to some research , however , children are active participants in their own word learning , although caregivers may still play an important role in this process . Recently , an emergentist coalition model has also been proposed to suggest that word learning cannot be fully attributed to a single factor . Instead , a variety of cues , including salient and social cues , may be utilized by infants at different points in their vocabulary development .
= = = Theories of constraints = = =
Theories of constraints argue for biases or default assumptions that guide the infant through the word learning process . Constraints are outside of the infant 's control and are believed to help the infant limit their hypotheses about the meaning of words that they encounter daily . Constraints can be considered domain @-@ specific ( unique to language ) .
Critics argue that theories of constraints focus on how children learn nouns , but ignore other aspects of their word learning . Although constraints are useful in explaining how children limit possible meanings when learning novel words , the same constraints would eventually need to be overridden because they are not utilized in adult language . For instance , adult speakers often use several terms , each term meaning something slightly different , when referring to one entity , such as a family pet . This practice would violate the mutual exclusivity constraint .
Below , the most prominent constraints in the literature are detailed :
Reference is the notion that a word symbolizes or stands in for an object , action , or event . Words consistently stand for their referents , even if referents are not physically present in context .
Mutual Exclusivity is the assumption that each object in the world can only be referred to by a single label .
Shape has been considered to be one of the most critical properties for identifying members of an object category . Infants assume that objects that have the same shape also share a name . Shape plays an important role in both appropriate and inappropriate extensions .
The Whole Object Assumption is the belief that labels refer to whole objects instead of parts or properties of those objects . Children are believed to hold this assumption because they typically label whole objects first , and parts of properties of objects later in development .
The Taxonomic Assumption reflects the belief that speakers use words to refer to categories that are internally consistent . Labels to pick out coherent categories of objects , rather than those objects and the things that are related to them . For example , children assume that the word " dog " refers to the category of " dogs " , not to " dogs with bones " , or " dogs chasing cats " .
= = = Domain @-@ general views = = =
Domain @-@ general views of vocabulary development argue that children do not need principles or constraints in order to successfully develop word @-@ world mappings . Instead , word learning can be accounted for through general learning mechanisms such as salience , association , and frequency . Children are thought to notice the objects , actions , or events that are most salient in context , and then to associate them with the words that are most frequently used in their presence . Additionally , research on word learning suggests that fast mapping , the rapid learning that children display after a single exposure to new information , is not specific to word learning . Children can also successfully fast map when exposed to a novel fact , remembering both words and facts after a time delay .
Domain @-@ general views have been criticized for not fully explaining how children manage to avoid mapping errors when there are numerous possible referents to which objects , actions , or events might point . For instance , if biases are not present from birth , why do infants assume that labels refer to whole objects , instead of salient parts of these objects ? However , domain @-@ general perspectives do not dismiss the notion of biases . Rather , they suggest biases develop through learning strategies instead of existing as built @-@ in constraints . For instance , the whole object bias could be explained as a strategy that humans use to reason about the world ; perhaps we are prone to thinking about our environment in terms of whole objects , and this strategy is not specific to the language domain . Additionally , children may be exposed to cues associated with categorization by shape early in the word learning process , which would draw their attention to shape when presented with novel objects and labels . Ordinary learning could , then , lead to a shape bias .
= = = Social pragmatic theories = = =
Social pragmatic theories , also in contrast to the constraints view , focus on the social context in which the infant is embedded . According to this approach , environmental input removes the ambiguity of the word learning situation . Cues such as the caregiver 's gaze , body language , gesture , and smile help infants to understand the meanings of words . Social pragmatic theories stress the role of the caregiver in talking about objects , actions , or events that the infant is already focused @-@ in upon .
Joint attention is an important mechanism through which children learn to map words @-@ to @-@ world , and vice versa . Adults commonly make an attempt to establish joint attention with a child before they convey something to the child . Joint attention is often accompanied by physical co @-@ presence , since children are often focused on what is in their immediate environment . As well , conversational co @-@ presence is likely to occur ; the caregiver and child typically talk together about whatever is taking place at their locus of joint attention . Social pragmatic perspectives often present children as covariation detectors , who simply associate the words that they hear with whatever they are attending to in the world at the same time . The co @-@ variation detection model of joint attention seems problematic when we consider that many caregiver utterances do not refer to things that occupy the immediate attentional focus of infants . For instance , caregivers among the Kaluli , a group of indigenous peoples living in New Guinea , rarely provide labels in the context of their referents . While the covariation detection model emphasizes the caregiver 's role in the meaning @-@ making process , some theorists argue that infants also play an important role in their own word learning , actively avoiding mapping errors . When infants are in situations where their own attentional focus differs from that of a speaker , they seek out information about the speaker 's focus , and then use that information to establish correct word @-@ referent mappings . Joint attention can be created through infant agency , in an attempt to gather information about a speaker 's intent .
From early on , children also assume that language is designed for communication . Infants treat communication as a cooperative process . Specifically , infants observe the principles of conventionality and contrast . According to conventionality , infants believe that for a particular meaning that they wish to convey , there is a term that everyone in the community would expect to be used . According to contrast , infants act according to the notion that differences in form mark differences in meaning . Children 's attention to conventionality and contrast is demonstrated in their language use , even before the age of 2 years ; they direct their early words towards adult targets , repair mispronunciations quickly if possible , ask for words to relate to the world around them , and maintain contrast in their own word use .
= = = Emergentist coalition model = = =
The emergentist coalition model suggests that children make use of multiple cues to successfully attach a novel label to a novel object . The word learning situation may offer an infant combinations of social , perceptual , cognitive , and linguistic cues . While a range of cues are available from the start of word learning , it may be the case that not all cues are utilized by the infant when they begin the word learning process . While younger children may only be able to detect a limited number of cues , older , more experienced word learners may be able to make use of a range of cues . For instance , young children seem to focus primarily on perceptual salience , but older children attend to the gaze of caregivers and use the focus of caregivers to direct their word mapping . Therefore , this model argues that principles or cues may be present from the onset of word learning , but the use of a wide range of cues develops over time .
Supporters of the emergentist coalition model argue that , as a hybrid , this model moves towards a more holistic explanation of word learning that is not captured by models with a singular focus . For instance , constraints theories typically argue that constraints / principles are available to children from the onset of word learning , but do not explain how children develop into expert speakers who are not limited by constraints . Additionally , some argue that domain @-@ general perspectives do not fully address the question of how children sort through numerous potential referents in order to correctly sort out meaning . Lastly , social pragmatic theories claim that social encounters guide word learning . Although these theories describe how children become more advanced word learners , they seem to tell us little about children 's capacities at the start of word learning . According to its proponents , the emergentist coalion model incorporates constraints / principles , but argues for the development and change in these principles over time , while simultaneously taking into consideration social aspects of word learning alongside other cues , such as salience .
= = Pragmatic development = =
Both linguistic and socio @-@ cultural factors affect the rate at which vocabulary develops . Children must learn to use their words appropriately and strategically in social situations . They have flexible and powerful social @-@ cognitive skills that allow them to understand the communicative intentions of others in a wide variety of interactive situations . Children learn new words in communicative situations . Children rely on pragmatic skills to build more extensive vocabularies . Some aspects of pragmatic behaviour can predict later literacy and mathematical achievement , as children who are pragmatically skilled often function better in school . These children are also generally better liked .
Children use words differently for objects , spatial relations and actions . Children ages one to three often rely on general purpose deictic words such as " here " , " that " or " look " accompanied by a gesture , which is most often pointing , to pick out specific objects . Children also stretch already known or partly known words to cover other objects that appear similar to the original . This can result in word overextension or misuses of words . Word overextension is governed by the perceptual similarities children notice among the different referents . Misuses of words indirectly provide ways of finding out which meanings children have attached to particular words . When children come into contact with spatial relations , they talk about the location of one object with respect to another . They name the object located and use a deictic term , such as here or " there " for location , or they name both the object located and its location . They can also use a general purpose locative marker , which is a preposition , postposition or suffix depending on the language that is linked in some way to the word for location . Children 's earliest words for actions usually encode both the action and its result . Children use a small number of general purpose verbs , such as " do " and " make " for a large variety of actions because their resources are limited . Children acquiring a second language seem to use the same production strategies for talking about actions . Sometimes children use a highly specific verb instead of a general purpose verb . In both cases children stretch their resources to communicate what they want to say .
Infants use words to communicate early in life and their communication skills develop as they grow older . Communication skills aid in word learning . Infants learn to take turns while communicating with adults . While preschoolers lack precise timing and rely on obvious speaker cues , older children are more precise in their timing and take fewer long pauses . Children get better at initiating and sustaining coherent conversations as they age . Toddlers and preschoolers use strategies such as repeating and recasting their partners ' utterances to keep the conversation going . Older children add new relevant information to conversations . Connectives such as then , so , and because are more frequently used as children get older . When giving and responding to feedback , preschoolers are inconsistent , but around the age of six , children can mark corrections with phrases and head nods to indicate their continued attention . As children continue to age they provide more constructive interpretations back to listeners , which helps prompt conversations .
= = = Pragmatic influences = = =
Caregivers use language to help children become competent members of society and culture . From birth , infants receive pragmatic information . They learn structure of conversations from early interactions with caregivers . Actions and speech are organized in games , such as peekaboo to provide children with information about words and phrases . Caregivers find many ways to help infants interact and respond . As children advance and participate more actively in interactions , caregivers adapt their interactions accordingly . Caregivers also prompt children to produce correct pragmatic behaviours . They provide input about what children are expected to say , how to speak , when they should speak , and how they can stay on topic . Caregivers may model the appropriate behaviour , using verbal reinforcement , posing a hypothetical situation , addressing children 's comments , or evaluating another person .
Family members contribute to pragmatic development in different ways . Fathers often act as secondary caregivers , and may know the child less intimately . Older siblings may lack the capacity to acknowledge the child 's needs . As a result , both fathers and siblings may pressure children to communicate more clearly . They often challenge children to improve their communication skills , therefore preparing them to communicate with strangers about unfamiliar topics . Fathers have more breakdowns when communicating with infants , and spend less time focused on the same objects or actions as infants . Siblings are more directive and less responsive to infants , which motivates infants to participate in conversations with their older siblings . There are limitations to studies that focus on the influences of fathers and siblings , as most research is descriptive and correlational . In reality , there are many variations of family configurations , and context influences parent behaviour more than parent gender does . The majority of research in this field is conducted with mother / child pairs .
Peers help expose children to multi @-@ party conversations . This allows children to hear a greater variety of speech , and to observe different conversational roles . Peers may be uncooperative conversation partners , which pressures the children to communicate more effectively . Speaking to peers is different from speaking to adults , but children may still correct their peers . Peer interaction provides children with a different experience filled with special humour , disagreements and conversational topics .
Culture and context in infants ’ linguistic environment shape their vocabulary development . English learners have been found to map novel labels to objects more reliably than to actions compared to Mandarin learners . This early noun bias in English learners is caused by the culturally reinforced tendency for English speaking caregivers to engage in a significant amount of ostensive labelling as well as noun @-@ friendly activities such as picture book reading . Adult speech provides children with grammatical input . Both Mandarin and Cantonese languages have a category of grammatical function word called a noun classifier , which is also common across many genetically unrelated East Asian languages . In Cantonese , classifiers are obligatory and specific in more situations than in Mandarin . This accounts for the research found on Mandarin @-@ speaking children outperforming Cantonese @-@ speaking children in relation to the size of their vocabulary .
= = = Pragmatic directions = = =
Pragmatic directions provide children with additional information about the speaker 's intended meaning . Children 's learning of new word meanings is guided by the pragmatic directions that adults offer , such as explicit links to word meanings . Adults present young children with information about how words are related to each other through connections , such as " is a part of " , " is a kind of " , " belongs to " , or " is used for " . These pragmatic directions provide children with essential information about language , allowing them to make inferences about possible meanings for unfamiliar words . This is also called inclusion . When children are provided with two words related by inclusion , they hold on to that information . When children hear an adult say an incorrect word , and then repair their mistake by stating the correct word , children take into account the repair when assigning meanings to the two words .
= = Vocabulary development in school @-@ age children = =
Vocabulary development during the school years builds upon what the child already knows , and the child uses this knowledge to broaden his or her vocabulary . Once children have gained a level of vocabulary knowledge , new words are learned through explanations using familiar , or " old " words . This is done either explicitly , when a new word is defined using old words , or implicitly , when the word is set in the context of old words so that the meaning of the new word is constrained . When children reach school @-@ age , context and implicit learning are the most common ways in which their vocabularies continue to develop . By this time , children learn new vocabulary mostly through conversation and reading . Throughout schooling and adulthood , conversation and reading are the main methods in which vocabulary develops . This growth tends to slow once a person finishes schooling , as they have already acquired the vocabulary used in everyday conversation and reading material and generally are not engaging in activities that require additional vocabulary development .
During the first few years of life , children are mastering concrete words such as " car " , " bottle " , " dog " , " cat " . By age 3 , children are likely able to learn these concrete words without the need for a visual reference , so word learning tends to accelerate around this age . Once children reach school @-@ age , they learn abstract words ( e.g. " love " , " freedom " , " success " ) . This broadens the vocabulary available for children to learn , which helps to account for the increase in word learning evident at school age . By age 5 , children tend to have an expressive vocabulary of 2 @,@ 100 – 2 @,@ 200 words . By age 6 , they have approximately 2 @,@ 600 words of expressive vocabulary and 20 @,@ 000 – 24 @,@ 000 words of receptive vocabulary . Some claim that children experience a sudden acceleration in word learning , upwards of 20 words per day , but it tends to be much more gradual than this . From age 6 to 8 , the average child in school is learning 6 – 7 words per day , and from age 8 to 12 , approximately 12 words per day .
= = = Means for vocabulary development = = =
Exposure to conversations and engaging in conversation with others help school @-@ age children develop vocabulary . Fast mapping is the process of learning a new concept upon a single exposure and is used in word learning not only by infants and toddlers , but by preschool children and adults as well . This principle is very useful for word learning in conversational settings , as words tend not to be explained explicitly in conversation , but may be referred to frequently throughout the span of a conversation .
Reading is considered to be a key element of vocabulary development in school @-@ age children . Before children are able to read on their own , children can learn from others reading to them . Learning vocabulary from these experiences includes using context , as well as explicit explanations of words and / or events in the story . This may be done using illustrations in the book to guide explanation and provide a visual reference or comparisons , usually to prior knowledge and past experiences . Interactions between the adult and the child often include the child 's repetition of the new word back to the adult . When a child begins to learn to read , their print vocabulary and oral vocabulary tend to be the same , as children use their vocabulary knowledge to match verbal forms of words with written forms . These two forms of vocabulary are usually equal up until grade 3 . Because written language is much more diverse than spoken language , print vocabulary begins to expand beyond oral vocabulary . By age 10 , children 's vocabulary development through reading moves away from learning concrete words to learning abstract words .
Generally , both conversation and reading involve at least one of the four principles of context that are used in word learning and vocabulary development : physical context , prior knowledge , social context and semantic support .
= = = = Physical context = = = =
Physical context involves the presence of an object or action that is also the topic of conversation . With the use of physical context , the child is exposed to both the words and a visual reference of the word . This is frequently used with infants and toddlers , but can be very beneficial for school @-@ age children , especially when learning rare or infrequently used words . Physical context may include props such as in toy play . When engaging in play with an adult , a child 's vocabulary is developed through discussion of the toys , such as naming the object ( e.g. " dinosaur " ) or labeling it with the use of a rare word ( e.g. , stegosaurus ) . These sorts of interactions expose the child to words they may not otherwise encounter in day @-@ to @-@ day conversation .
= = = = Prior knowledge = = = =
Past experiences or general knowledge is often called upon in conversation , so it is a useful context for children to learn words . Recalling past experiences allows the child to call upon their own visual , tactical , oral , and / or auditory references . For example , if a child once went to a zoo and saw an elephant , but did not know the word elephant , an adult could later help the child recall this event , describing the size and color of the animal , how big its ears were , its trunk , and the sound it made , then using the word elephant to refer to the animal . Calling upon prior knowledge is used not only in conversation , but often in book reading as well to help explain what is happening in a story by relating it back to the child 's own experiences .
= = = = Social context = = = =
Social context involves pointing out social norms and violations of these norms . This form of context is most commonly found in conversation , as opposed to reading or other word learning environments . A child 's understanding of social norms can help them to infer the meaning of words that occur in conversation . In an English @-@ speaking tradition , " please " and " thank you " are taught to children at a very early age , so they are very familiar to the child by school @-@ age . For example , if a group of people is eating a meal with the child present and one person says , " give me the bread " and another responds with , " that was rude . What do you say ? " , and the person responds with " please " , the child may not know the meaning of " rude " , but can infer its meaning through social context and understanding the necessity of saying " please " .
= = = = Semantic support = = = =
Semantic support is the most obvious method of vocabulary development in school @-@ age children . It involves giving direct verbal information of the meaning of a word . By the time children are in school , they are active participants in conversation , so they are very capable and willing to ask questions when they do not understand a word or concept . For example , a child might see a zebra for the first time and ask , what is that ? and the parent might respond , that is a zebra . It is like a horse with stripes and it is wild so you cannot ride it .
= = = Pictures support = = =
Pictures support involves two memory techniques - association and visualization . Associating an image with a word helps a user learn word in a more effective way . Anshul Agarwal , Founder of dailyvocab.com mentioned in his interview to Career360 - " memory aid for each word help student learn words more faster and effectively "
= = = Memory and vocabulary development = = =
Memory plays an important role in vocabulary development , however the exact role that it plays is disputed in the literature . Specifically , short @-@ term memory and how its capacities work with vocabulary development is questioned by many researchers .
The phonology of words has proven to be beneficial to vocabulary development when children begin school . Once children have developed a vocabulary , they utilize the sounds that they already know to learn new words . The phonological loop encodes , maintains and manipulates speech @-@ based information that a person encounters . This information is then stored in the phonological memory , a part of short term memory . Research shows that children 's capacities in the area of phonological memory are linked to vocabulary knowledge when children first begin school at age 4 – 5 years old . As memory capabilities tend to increase with age ( between age 4 and adolescence ) , so does an individual 's ability to learn more complex vocabulary .
Serial @-@ order short @-@ term memory may be critical to the development of vocabulary . As lexical knowledge increases , phonological representations have to become more precise to determine the differences between similar sound words ( i.e. " calm " , " come " ) . In this theory , the specific order or sequence of phonological events is used to learn new words , rather than phonology as a whole .
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= Albert Bridge , London =
The Albert Bridge is a road bridge over the River Thames in West London , connecting Chelsea on the north bank to Battersea on the south bank . Designed and built by Rowland Mason Ordish in 1873 as an Ordish – Lefeuvre system modified cable @-@ stayed bridge , it proved to be structurally unsound , so between 1884 and 1887 Sir Joseph Bazalgette incorporated some of the design elements of a suspension bridge . In 1973 the Greater London Council added two concrete piers , which transformed the central span into a simple beam bridge . As a result , today the bridge is an unusual hybrid of three different design styles . It is an English Heritage Grade II * listed building .
Built as a toll bridge , it was commercially unsuccessful . Six years after its opening it was taken into public ownership and the tolls were lifted . The tollbooths remained in place and are the only surviving examples of bridge tollbooths in London . Nicknamed " The Trembling Lady " because of its tendency to vibrate when large numbers of people walked over it , the bridge has signs at its entrances that warned troops to break step whilst crossing the bridge .
Incorporating a roadway only 27 feet ( 8 @.@ 2 m ) wide , and with serious structural weaknesses , the bridge was ill @-@ equipped to cope with the advent of the motor vehicle during the 20th century . Despite the many calls for its demolition or pedestrianisation , the Albert Bridge has remained open to vehicles throughout its existence , other than for brief spells during repairs , and is one of only two Thames road bridges in central London never to have been replaced . The strengthening work carried out by Bazalgette and the Greater London Council did not prevent further deterioration of the bridge 's structure . A series of increasingly strict traffic control measures have been introduced to limit its use and thus prolong its life , making it the least busy Thames road bridge in London , except for the little @-@ used Southwark Bridge . The bridge 's condition is continuing to degrade as the result of traffic load and severe rotting of the timber deck structure caused by the urine of the many dogs using it as a route to nearby Battersea Park .
In 1992 , the Albert Bridge was rewired and painted in an unusual colour scheme designed to make it more conspicuous in poor visibility , and avoid being damaged by ships . At night it is illuminated by 4 @,@ 000 bulbs , making it one of west London 's most striking landmarks . In 2010 – 2011 , these were replaced with LEDs .
= = History = =
The historic industrial town of Chelsea on the north bank of the River Thames about 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) west of Westminster , and the rich farming village of Battersea , facing Chelsea on the south bank , were linked by the modest wooden Battersea Bridge in 1771 . In 1842 the Commission of Woods , Forests , and Land Revenues recommended the construction of an embankment at Chelsea to free land for development , and proposed a new bridge downstream of Battersea Bridge , and the replacement of the latter by a more modern structure . Work on the Victoria Bridge ( later renamed Chelsea Bridge ) , a short distance downstream of Battersea Bridge , began in 1851 and was completed in 1858 , with work on the Chelsea Embankment beginning in 1862 . Meanwhile , the proposal to demolish Battersea Bridge was abandoned .
The wooden Battersea Bridge had become dilapidated by the mid @-@ 19th century . It had grown unpopular and was considered unsafe . The newer Victoria Bridge , meanwhile , suffered severe congestion . In 1860 , Prince Albert suggested that a new tollbridge built between the two existing bridges would be profitable , and in the early 1860s the Albert Bridge Company was formed with the aim of building this new crossing . A proposal put forward in 1863 was blocked by strong opposition from the operators of Battersea Bridge , which was less than 500 yards ( 460 m ) from the proposed site of the new bridge and whose owners were consequently concerned over potential loss of custom . A compromise was reached , and in 1864 a new Act of Parliament was passed , authorising the new bridge on condition that it was completed within five years . The Act compelled the Albert Bridge Company to purchase Battersea Bridge once the new bridge opened , and to compensate its owners by paying them £ 3 @,@ 000 per annum ( about £ 266 @,@ 000 in 2016 ) in the interim .
Rowland Mason Ordish was appointed to design the new bridge . Ordish was a leading architectural engineer who had worked on the Royal Albert Hall , St Pancras railway station , the Crystal Palace and Holborn Viaduct . The bridge was built using the Ordish – Lefeuvre system , an early form of cable @-@ stayed bridge design which Ordish had patented in 1858 . Ordish 's design resembled a conventional suspension bridge in employing a parabolic cable to support the centre of the bridge , but differed in its use of 32 inclined stays to support the remainder of the load . Each stay consisted of a flat wrought iron bar attached to the bridge deck , and a wire rope composed of 1 @,@ 000 1 ⁄ 10 @-@ inch ( 2 @.@ 5 mm ) diameter wires joining the wrought iron bar to one of the four octagonal support columns .
= = Design and construction = =
Although authorised in 1864 , work on the bridge was delayed by negotiations over the proposed Chelsea Embankment , since the bridge 's design could not be completed until the exact layout of the new roads being built on the north bank of the river had been agreed . While plans for the Chelsea Embankment were debated , Ordish built the Franz Joseph Bridge over the Vltava in Prague to the same design as that intended for the Albert Bridge .
In 1869 , the time allowed by the 1864 Act to build the bridge expired . Delays caused by the Chelsea Embankment project meant that work on the bridge had not even begun , and a new Act of Parliament was required to extend the time limit . Construction finally got underway in 1870 , and it was anticipated that the bridge would be completed in about a year , at a cost of £ 70 @,@ 000 ( about £ 5 @.@ 83 million in 2016 ) . In the event , the project ran for over three years , and the final bill came to £ 200 @,@ 000 ( about £ 16 million in 2016 ) . It was intended to open the bridge and the Chelsea Embankment in a joint ceremony in 1874 , but the Albert Bridge Company was keen to start recouping the substantially higher than expected costs , and the bridge opened without any formal ceremony on 23 August 1873 , almost ten years after its authorisation . As the law demanded , the Albert Bridge Company then bought Battersea Bridge .
Ordish 's bridge was 41 feet ( 12 m ) wide and 710 feet ( 220 m ) long , with a 384 @-@ foot @-@ 9 @-@ inch ( 117 @.@ 27 m ) central span . The deck was supported by 32 rigid steel rods suspended from four octagonal cast iron towers , with the towers resting on cast iron piers . The four piers were cast at Battersea and floated down the river into position , at which time they were filled with concrete ; at the time they were the largest castings ever made . Unlike most other suspension bridges of the time , the towers were positioned outside the bridge to avoid causing any obstruction to the roadway . At each entrance was a pair of tollbooths with a bar between them , to prevent people entering the bridge without paying .
The bridge acquired the nickname of " The Trembling Lady " because of its tendency to vibrate , particularly when used by troops from the nearby Chelsea Barracks . Concerns about the risks of mechanical resonance effects on suspension bridges , following the 1831 collapse of the Broughton Suspension Bridge and the 1850 collapse of Angers Bridge , led to notices being placed at the entrances warning troops to break step ( i.e. not to march in rhythm ) when crossing the bridge ; Although the barracks closed in 2008 , the warning signs are still in place .
= = Transfer to public ownership = =
The Albert Bridge was catastrophically unsuccessful financially . By the time the new bridge opened , the Albert Bridge Company had been paying compensation to the Battersea Bridge Company for nine years , and on completion of the new bridge became liable for the costs of repairing the by then dilapidated and dangerous structure . The cost of subsidising Battersea Bridge drained funds intended for the building of wide approach roads , making the bridge difficult to reach . Located slightly further from central London than neighbouring Victoria ( Chelsea ) Bridge , demand for the new bridge was less than expected , and in the first nine months of its operation only £ 2 @,@ 085 ( about £ 175 @,@ 000 in 2016 ) were taken in tolls .
In 1877 the Metropolis Toll Bridges Act was passed , which allowed the Metropolitan Board of Works to buy all London bridges between Hammersmith and Waterloo bridges and free them from tolls . In 1879 , The Albert Bridge , which had cost £ 200 @,@ 000 to build , was bought by the Board of Works along with Battersea Bridge for a combined price of £ 170 @,@ 000 ( about £ 15 @.@ 6 million in 2016 ) . The tolls were removed from both bridges on 24 May 1879 , but the octagonal tollbooths were left in place , and today are the only surviving bridge tollbooths in London .
= = Structural weaknesses = =
In 1884 the Board of Works ' Chief Engineer Sir Joseph Bazalgette conducted an inspection of the bridge and found that the iron rods were already showing serious signs of corrosion . Over the next three years the staying rods were augmented with steel chains , giving it an appearance more closely resembling a conventional suspension bridge , and a new timber deck was laid , at a total cost of £ 25 @,@ 000 ( about £ 2 @.@ 35 million in 2016 ) . Despite these improvements , Bazalgette was still concerned about its structural integrity and a weight limit of five tons was imposed on vehicles using the bridge .
With a roadway only 27 feet ( 8 @.@ 2 m ) wide and subject to weight restrictions from early on , the Albert Bridge was ill @-@ suited to the advent of motorised transport in the 20th century . In 1926 the Royal Commission on Cross @-@ River Traffic recommended demolition and rebuilding of the bridge to carry four lanes of traffic , but the plan was not carried out because of a shortage of funds in the Great Depression . It continued to deteriorate , and in 1935 the weight limit was reduced to two tons .
Because of its ongoing structural weaknesses , in 1957 the London County Council proposed replacing the Albert Bridge with a more conventional design . A protest campaign led by John Betjeman resulted in the withdrawal of the proposal , but serious concerns about the integrity of the bridge continued . In 1964 an experimental tidal flow scheme was introduced , in which only northbound traffic was permitted to use the bridge in the mornings and southbound traffic in the evenings . The bridge 's condition continued to deteriorate however , and in 1970 the Greater London Council ( GLC ) sought and obtained consent to carry out strengthening work . In April 1972 the bridge was closed for the work to be carried out .
= = = Pedestrianised park proposal = = =
The GLC 's solution entailed adding two concrete piers in the middle of the river to support the central span and thus transform the bridge 's central section into a beam bridge . The bridge 's main girder was also strengthened , and a lightweight replacement deck was laid . The modifications were intended to be a stopgap measure to extend the bridge 's life by five years while a replacement was being considered ; in the GLC 's estimation the work would last for a maximum of 30 years , but the bridge would need to be either closed or replaced well before then .
In early 1973 , the Architectural Review submitted a proposal to convert the Albert Bridge into a landscaped public park and pedestrian footpath across the river . The proposal proved very popular with the area 's residents , and a May 1973 campaign led by John Betjeman , Sybil Thorndike and Laurie Lee raised a petition of 2 @,@ 000 signatures for the bridge to be permanently closed to traffic . Although the GLC reopened the bridge to traffic in July 1973 , it also announced its intention to proceed with the Architectural Review scheme once legal matters had been dealt with .
The Royal Automobile Club campaigned vigorously against the pedestrianisation proposal . A publicity campaign fronted by actress Diana Dors in favour of reopening the bridge was launched , whilst a lobbying group of local residents led by poet Robert Graves campaigned in support of the GLC 's plan . Graves 's campaign collected over a thousand signatures in support , but was vigorously attacked by the British Road Federation , who derided the apparent evidence of public support for the scheme as " sending a lot of students around to council flats [ where ] most people will sign anything without knowing what it is all about " . A public enquiry of 1974 recommended that the bridge remain open to avoid congestion on neighbouring bridges , and it remained open to traffic with the tidal flow and 2 @-@ ton weight limit in place .
= = Present day = =
In 1990 , the tidal flow system was abandoned and the Albert Bridge was converted back to two @-@ way traffic . A traffic island was installed on the south end of the bridge to prevent larger vehicles from using it . In the early years of the 21st century the Chelsea area experienced a growth in the popularity of large four @-@ wheel drive cars ( so @-@ called Chelsea tractors ) , many of which were over the two @-@ ton weight limit ; it was estimated that one third of all vehicles using the bridge were over the weight limit . In July 2006 the 27 @-@ foot ( 8 @.@ 2 m ) wide roadway was narrowed to a single lane in each direction to reduce the load . Red and white plastic barriers have been erected along the roadway in an effort to protect the structure from damage by cars .
Between 1905 and 1981 the Albert Bridge was painted uniformly green ; in 1981 it was repainted yellow . In 1992 it was redecorated and rewired . Partially as a result , it is now a major West London landmark . The bridge is painted in pink , blue and green to increase visibility in fog and murky light and thus to reduce the risks of ships colliding with the fragile structure during the day . At night , a network of 4 @,@ 000 low @-@ voltage tungsten @-@ halogen bulbs illuminate the bridge . In 1993 the innovative use of long @-@ life low @-@ energy lighting was commended by Mary Archer , at the time Chairwoman of the National Energy Foundation . Its distinctive and striking current appearance has led to its use as a backdrop for numerous films set in the Chelsea area , such as Absolute Beginners , Sliding Doors and Maybe Baby .
Except for Tower Bridge , built in 1894 , the Albert Bridge is the only Thames road bridge in central London never to have been replaced . Intended as a temporary measure to be removed in 1978 , the concrete central piers remain in place , and although in 1974 its lifespan was estimated at a maximum of 30 years , the bridge is still standing and operational . The Albert Bridge was protected as a Grade II * listed structure in 1975 , granting it protection against significant alteration without consultation . It continues to deteriorate . Although proposals have been drawn up by Kensington and Chelsea London Borough Council to repair and rescue it , by March 2008 funds for the repairs were unavailable . As well as structural damage caused by traffic , the timbers underpinning the deck are being seriously rotted by the urine of dogs crossing to and from nearby Battersea Park . With multiple measures in place to reduce traffic flow and prolong the life of the bridge , in 2009 it carried approximately 19 @,@ 000 vehicles per day , the lowest usage of any Thames road bridge in London other than the little @-@ used Southwark Bridge .
= = = Refurbishment of 2010 – 2011 = = =
The bridge was closed to motor vehicles on 15 February 2010 for refurbishment and strengthening . It was originally expected to remain closed for approximately 18 months , but after the condition of the bridge was found to be worse than expected , it was closed for 22 months . All of the timber in the decking as well as the footway that had rotted away were replaced , with additional timber added for strengthening . Surfaces at the carriageway and pavement decking were replaced . New steel structures were added to strengthen the bridge . All the lightbulbs were changed to more energy @-@ efficient ones . The tollbooths were refurbished . All twelve layers of paint were stripped down until the bare metal was exposed , which was repaired and treated before three new coats of paint were added . The whole project cost £ 7 @.@ 2 million of which the Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea provided 25 % of the cost and the other 75 % was provided by Transport for London .
It re @-@ opened on 2 December 2011 , when two dogs named Prince and Albert , from nearby Battersea Dogs and Cats Home , walked across the bridge . All of the Grade II features were retained .
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= Bowfin =
Bowfin ( Amia calva ) are basal bony fishes related to gars in the infraclass Holostei . Common names include mudfish , mud pike , dogfish , griddle , grinnel , cypress trout and choupique . They are regarded as taxonomic relicts , being the sole surviving species of the order Amiiformes which dates from the Jurassic to the Eocene , persisting to the present . Although bowfin are highly evolved , they are often referred to as " primitive fishes " because they have retained some morphological characteristics of their early ancestors .
Bowfin are demersal freshwater piscivores native to North America , and commonly found throughout much of the eastern United States , and in southern Ontario and Quebec . Fossil deposits indicate Amiiformes were once widespread in both freshwater and marine environments with a range that spanned across North and South America , Europe , Asia and Africa . Now their range is limited to much of the eastern United States and adjacent southern Canada , including the drainage basins of the Mississippi River , Great Lakes and various rivers exiting in the Eastern Seaboard or Gulf of Mexico . Their preferred habitat includes vegetated sloughs , lowland rivers and lakes , swamps and backwater areas ; they are also occasionally found in brackish water . They are stalking , ambush predators known to move into the shallows at night to prey on fish and aquatic invertebrates such as crawfish , mollusks , and aquatic insects .
Like gars , bowfin are bimodal breathers which means they have the capacity to breathe both water and air . Their gills exchange gases in the water allowing them to exploit oxygen for breathing , but they also have a gas bladder that serves to maintain buoyancy , and also allows them to breathe air by means of a small pneumatic duct connected from the foregut to the gas bladder . They can break the surface to gulp air , which allows them to survive conditions of aquatic hypoxia that would be lethal to most other species .
= = Morphology = =
The average length of a bowfin is 50 cm ( 20 in ) ; females typically grow to 65 – 70 cm ( 26 – 28 in ) , males to 50 – 65 cm ( 20 – 26 in ) . Records indicate bowfin can reach 109 cm ( 43 in ) in length , and weigh 9 @.@ 75 kg ( 21 @.@ 5 lb ) . Young of the year typically grow to 13 – 23 cm ( 5 @.@ 1 – 9 @.@ 1 in ) by October . Females tend to grow larger than males .
The body of the bowfin is elongated and cylindrical , with the sides and back olive to brown in color , often with vertical bars , and dark reticulations , or camouflaged pattern . The dorsal fin has horizontal bars , and the caudal fin has irregular vertical bars . The underside is white or cream , and the paired fins and anal fin are bright green . During larval stage , hatchlings from about 7 – 10 mm ( 0 @.@ 28 – 0 @.@ 39 in ) total length are black and tadpole @-@ like in appearance . At approximately 25 mm ( 0 @.@ 98 in ) total length they have been described as looking like miniature placoderms . They grow quickly , and typically leave the nest within 4 to 6 weeks after hatching . Young males have a black eyespot on the base of the tail ( caudal peduncle ) that is commonly encircled by an orange @-@ yellowish border while the female 's is black , if present at all . It is thought the purpose of the eyespot is to confuse predators , deflecting attacks away from the head of the fish to its tail , which affords the bowfin an opportunity to escape predation . The bowfin is so named for its long , undulating dorsal fin consisting of 145 to 250 rays , and running from the middle of the back to the base of the tail .
Bowfin are often referred to as " living fossils " , or " primitive fishes " because they retained some of the primitive characters common to their ancestral predecessors , including a modified ( rounded externally ) heterocercal caudal fin , a highly vascularized gas bladder lung , vestiges of a spiral valve , and a bony gular plate . The bony gular plate is located underneath the head on the exterior of the lower jaw between the two sides of the lower jaw bone . Other distinguishing characteristics include long , sharp teeth , and two protruding tube @-@ like nostrils . Unlike all of the most primitive actinopterygians , the scales of bowfin differ in that they are not ganoid scales , rather they are large , single @-@ layered cycloid scales closer in similarity to more derived teleosts .
= = = Fishes similar in appearance = = =
Northern snakeheads ( Channa argus ) are commonly mistaken for bowfin because of similarities in appearance , most noticeably their elongated , cylindrical shape , and long dorsal fin that runs along their backs . Northern snakeheads are piscivorous fishes native to the rivers and estuaries of China , Russia , and Korea . However , unlike bowfin which are native to North America , the northern snakehead is considered an invasive species and environmentally harmful . Some contrasting differences in bowfin include a black eyespot on their caudal peduncle , a tan and olive coloration , a shorter anal fin , a more rounded head , and an upper jaw that is longer than its lower jaw .
The burbot , a predatory fish native to streams and lakes of North America and Eurasia , is also commonly mistaken for bowfin . Burbots can be distinguished by their flat head and chin barbel , long anal fin , and pelvic fins situated beneath the pectoral fins .
= = Physiology = =
Bowfin , like other physostomes such as bichirs ( Polypteridae ) , gars ( Lepisosteidae ) , and the lungfishes ( Dipnoi ) , are capable of bimodal respiration . They can extract oxygen from the water when breathing through their gills , and can also break the water 's surface to breathe or gulp air through a small pneumatic duct connected from their foregut to the gas bladder . When performing low @-@ level physical activity , bowfin obtain more than half of their oxygen from breathing air . Bowfin have two distinct air @-@ breathing mechanisms used to ventilate the gas bladder . Type I air breaths are consistent with the action of exhale @-@ inhale stimulated by aerial or aquatic hypoxia to regulate O2 gas exchange ; type II air breaths are by inhalation alone which is believed to regulate gas bladder volume for buoyancy control . Bimodal respiration helps bowfin survive and maintain their metabolic rate in hypoxic conditions . The rate of air breathing is higher in darkness , when the fish is more active .
Bowfin blood can adapt to warm , acidic waters . The fish becomes inactive in waters below 10 ° C ( 50 ° F ) ; at this temperature they breathe almost no air ; however , with increasing temperature their air breathing increases . Their preferred temperature range is between 12 – 26 ° C ( 54 – 79 ° F ) , with 18 ° C ( 64 ° F ) the temperature of maximum activity . Air breathing is at a maximum in the range 18 @.@ 4 – 29 @.@ 6 ° C ( 65 @.@ 1 – 85 @.@ 3 ° F ) .
Herpetologist Wilfred T. Neill , reported in 1950 that he unearthed a bowfin aestivating in a chamber 4 inches ( 10 cm ) below the ground surface , 8 inches ( 20 cm ) in diameter , .25 miles ( 0 @.@ 4 km ) from a river . It was further noted that flood levels had previously reached the area , and receded . It is not unusual for riverine species like bowfin to move into backwaters with flood currents , and become trapped when water levels recede . While aestivation is anecdotally documented by multiple researchers , laboratory experiments have suggested instead that bowfin are physiologically incapable of surviving more than three to five days of air exposure . However , no field manipulation has been performed . Regardless of the lack of evidence confirming the bowfin 's ability to aestivate , it has been noted that bowfin can survive prolonged conditions of exposure to air because they have the ability to breathe air . Their gill filaments and lamellae are rigid in structure which helps prevent the lamellae from collapsing and aids gas exchange even during air exposure .
= = Evolution and phylogeny = =
Competing hypotheses and debates continue over the evolution of Amia and relatives , including their relationship among basal extant teleosts , and organization of clades . Bowfin are the last remaining member of Halecomorphi , a group that includes many extinct species in several families . Halecomorphs were generally accepted as the sister group to Teleostei but not without question . While a halecostome pattern of neopterygian clades was produced in morphology @-@ based analyses of extant actinopterygians , a different result was produced with fossil taxa which showed a monophyletic Holostei . Monophyletic Holostei were also recovered by at least two nuclear gene analyses , in an independent study of fossil and extant fishes , and in an analysis of ultraconserved genomic elements .
The extant ray @-@ finned fishes of the subclass Actinopterygii include 42 orders , 431 families and over 23 @,@ 000 species . They are currently classified into two infraclasses , Chondrostei ( holosteans ) and Neopterygii ( teleost fishes ) . Sturgeons , paddlefish , bichirs and reed fish comprise the thirty @-@ eight species of chondrosteans , and are considered relict species . Included in the over 23 @,@ 000 species of neopterygians are eight relict species comprising gars and the bowfin .
= = = Infraclass Neopterygii = = =
Neopterygians are the second major occurrence in the evolution of ray @-@ finned fishes and today include the majority of modern bony fish . They are distinguished from their earlier ancestors by major changes to the jaws , shape of the skull , and tail . They are divided into three divisions :
Division 1 . Order Lepisosteiformes – the relict gars which include extant species of garfishes that first appeared in the Cretaceous .
Division 2 . Order Amiiformes – the relict bowfin , ( halecomorphids ) , the only extant species in the order Amiiformes which date back to the Triassic period .
Division 3 . Division Teleostei – the stem group of Teleostei from which modern fish arose , including most of the bony fish we are familiar with today .
= = = Genome evolution = = =
The bowfin genome contains an intact ParaHox gene cluster , similar to the bichir and to most other vertebrates . This is in contrast , however , with teleost fishes , which have a fragmented ParaHox cluster , probably because of a whole genome duplication event in their lineage . The presence of an intact ParaHox gene cluster suggests that bowfin ancestors separated from other fishes before the last common ancestor of all teleosts appeared . Bowfin are thus possibly a better model to study vertebrate genome organization than common teleost model organisms such as zebrafish .
= = Feeding behavior = =
Bowfin are stalking , ambush predators that customarily move into the shallows at night to prey on fish , and aquatic invertebrates such as crawfish , mollusks , and aquatic insects . Young bowfin feed mostly on small crustaceans , while adults are mostly piscivorous , but also known to be opportunistic . Bowfin are remarkably agile , can move quickly through the water , and they have a voracious appetite . Their undulating dorsal fin propels them silently through the water while stalking their prey . The attack is straight forward and swift with a movement that lasts approximately 0 @.@ 075 seconds .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
Fossil deposits indicate amiiforms included freshwater and marine species that were once widely distributed in North America , South America , Eurasia and Africa . Today , bowfin ( Amia calva ) are the only remaining species in the order Amiiformes ; they are demersal freshwater piscivores , and their range is restricted to freshwater environments in North America , including much of the eastern United States and adjacent southern Canada from the St. Lawrence River and Lake Champlain drainage of southern Ontario and Quebec westward around the Great Lakes in southern Ontario into Minnesota . Historically , their distribution in North America included the drainage basins of the Mississippi River from Quebec to northern Minnesota , the St. Lawrence @-@ Great Lakes , including Georgian Bay , Lake Nipissing and Simcoe , Ontario , south to the Gulf of Mexico ; Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plain from the Susquehanna River drainage in southeastern Pennsylvania to the Colorado River in Texas .
= = = Stocking = = =
Research from the late 1800s to the 1980s suggests a trend of intentional stockings of non @-@ indigenous fishes into ponds , lakes and rivers in the United States . At that time , little was known about environmental impacts , or long @-@ term effects of new species establishment and spread as a result of " fish rescue and transfer " efforts , or the importance of nongame fishes to the ecological balance of aquatic ecosystems . Introductions of bowfin to areas they were considered a non @-@ indigenous species included various lakes , rivers and drainages in Connecticut , Illinois , Iowa , Kansas , Kentucky Maryland , Massachusetts , Missouri , New Jersey , New York , North Carolina , Pennsylvania , Virginia , West Virginia , and Wisconsin . Many of the introductions were intentional stockings by various resource management ; however , there is no way to positively determine distribution resulting from flood transfers , or other inadvertent migrations . Bowfin are typically piscivorous , but as an introduced species are capable of being voracious predators that pose a threat to native fishes and their prey .
= = = Preferred habitat = = =
Bowfin prefer vegetated sloughs , lowland rivers and lakes , swamps , backwater areas , and are occasionally found in brackish water . They are well camouflaged , and not easy to spot in slow water with abundant vegetation . They often seek shelter under roots , and submerged logs . Oxygen @-@ poor environments can be tolerated because of their ability to breathe air .
= = Life cycle = =
Bowfin spawn in the spring or early summer , typically between April and June , more commonly at night in abundantly vegetated , clear shallow water in weed beds over sand bars , and also under stumps , logs , and bushes . Optimum temperatures for nesting and spawning range between 16 – 19 ° C ( 61 – 66 ° F ) . The males construct circular nests in fibrous root mats , clearing away leaves and stems . Depending on the density of surrounding vegetation there may be a tunnel @-@ like entrance at one side . The diameter of the nests commonly range between 39 – 91 cm ( 15 – 36 in ) , at a water depth of 61 – 92 cm ( 24 – 36 in ) .
During spawning season , the fins and underside of male bowfin often change in color to a bright lime green . The courtship / spawning sequence lasts one to three hours , and can repeat up to five times . Courtship begins when a female approaches the nest . The ritual consists of intermittent nose bites , nudges , and chasing behavior by the male until the female becomes receptive , at which time the pair lie side by side in the nest . She deposits her eggs while he shakes his fins in a vibratory movement , and releases his milt for fertilization to occur . A male often has eggs from more than one female in his nest , and a single female often spawns in several nests .
Females vacate the nest after spawning , leaving the male behind to protect the eggs during the eight to ten days of incubation . A nest may contain 2 @,@ 000 to 5 @,@ 000 eggs , possibly more . Fecundity is usually related to size of the fish , so it isn 't unusual for the roe of a large gravid female to contain over 55 @,@ 000 eggs . Bowfin eggs are adhesive , and will attach to aquatic vegetation , roots , gravel , and sand . After hatching , larval bowfin do not swim actively in search of food . During the seven to nine days required for yolk @-@ sac absorption , they attach to vegetation by means of an adhesive organ on their snout , and remain protected by the parent male bowfin . Bowfin aggressively protect their spawn from the first day of incubation to a month or so after the eggs have hatched . When the fry are able to swim and forage on their own , they will form a school and leave the nest accompanied by the parent male bowfin who slowly circles them to prevent separation .
Bowfin reach sexually maturity at two to three years of age . They can live ten to twelve years in the wild , and 30 years in captivity . Females are longer @-@ lived than males .
= = Diseases = =
A common parasite of bowfin is the anchor worm ( Lernaea ) . These small crustaceans infest the skin and bases of fins , with consequences ranging from slowed growth to death . The mollusk Megalonaias gigantea lays eggs in the bowfin gills , that are then externally fertilized by sperm passing in the water flow . The small glochidia larvae then hatch and develop in the gill tubes .
Bowfin with liver cancer and with fatal leukemia have been reported .
= = Utilization = =
As a sport fish , bowfin are not considered desirable to many anglers . They were once considered a nuisance fish by anglers and early biologists who believed the bowfin 's predatory nature was harmful to sport fish populations . As a result , efforts were taken to reduce their numbers . Research has since proven otherwise , and that knowledge together with a better understanding of maintaining overall balance of ecosystems , regulations were introduced to help protect and maintain viable populations of bowfin . Bowfin are strong fighters , a prized trait in game fish . However , they do have a jaw full of sharp teeth which requires careful handling . The current tackle record is 21 @.@ 5 lb ( 9 @.@ 8 kg )
Bowfin were once considered to have little commercial value because of its poor tasting meat which has been referred to as " soft , bland @-@ tasting and of poor texture " . However , it is considered quite palatable if cleaned properly and smoked , or prepared fried , blackened , used in courtbouillion , or in fishballs or fishcakes . Over the years , global efforts have imposed strict regulations on the international trade of caviar , particularly on the harvest of sturgeons from the Caspian Sea where the highly prized caviar from the beluga sturgeon originates . The bans imposed on Caspian sturgeons have created lucrative markets for affordable substitutes in the United States including paddlefish , bowfin , and various species of sturgeon . In Louisiana , bowfin are harvested in the wild , and cultured commercially in hatcheries for their meat and roe . The roe is processed into caviar , and sold as " Cajun caviar " , or marketed under the trade name " Choupiquet Royale " .
= = Accumulation of toxic substances = =
In some areas of the United States where aquatic environments have tested positive for elevated levels of toxins , such as mercury , arsenic , chromium , and copper , there are posted signs with warnings about the consumption of fish caught in those areas . Concentration of mercury biomagnifies as it passes up the food chain from organisms on lower trophic levels to apex predators . It bioaccumulates in the tissues of larger , long @-@ lived predatory fishes . When compared to smaller , short @-@ lived fishes , bowfin tend to concentrate mercury at higher levels thereby making them less safe for human consumption .
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= Craig Taborn =
Craig Marvin Taborn ( / ˈteɪˌbɔːrn / ; born February 20 , 1970 ) is an American pianist , organist , keyboardist and composer . He works solo and in bands , mostly playing various forms of jazz . He started playing piano and Moog synthesizer as an adolescent and was influenced at an early stage by a wide range of music , including by the freedom expressed in recordings of free jazz and contemporary classical music .
While at university , Taborn toured and recorded with jazz saxophonist James Carter . Taborn went on to play with numerous other musicians in electronic and acoustic settings , while also building a reputation as a solo pianist . He has a range of styles , and often adapts his playing to the nature of the instrument and the sounds that he can make it produce . His improvising , particularly for solo piano , often adopts a modular approach , in which he begins with small units of melody and rhythm and then develops them into larger forms and structures .
In 2011 , Down Beat magazine chose Taborn as winner of the electric keyboard category , as well as rising star in both the piano and organ categories . By May 2016 , Taborn had released six albums under his own name and appeared on more than eighty as a sideman .
= = Early life = =
Taborn was born in Minneapolis , Minnesota , to John , a psychologist , and Marjorie , a social worker . He grew up in Golden Valley , Minnesota , where he attended Breck School . His parents gave him a Moog synthesizer as a present when he was 12 , which was also around the time when he started playing piano . He borrowed records from a public library and listened to public radio , discovering music from the Association for the Advancement of Creative Musicians and Sun Ra , among others . As a youth he also listened to heavy metal and contemporary classical music , and identified commonalities among these disparate forms of music .
At high school , Taborn studied music theory and composition with PhD @-@ qualified teachers for two years . In his own words , he is " not a classically trained pianist at all " ; he practiced with others , initially playing rock , progressive rock , and jazz fusion , before becoming more interested in jazz . He borrowed from the library Segments II ( Orchestra Of Two Continents ) by pianist Cecil Taylor 's band while at high school , but found separating the various elements of the music too difficult . After attending a Last Exit concert ( a loud free jazz band of Peter Brötzmann , Bill Laswell , Ronald Shannon Jackson and Sonny Sharrock ) , he went home and listened to the Taylor album again : " It was more manageable in terms of being able to hear detail and listen to content . That was a big moment in terms of being able to relax and process information in more abstract environments . "
= = Later life and career = =
= = = 1988 – 1999 = = =
Taborn studied at the University of Michigan in Ann Arbor from 1988 . He auditioned for the jazz program in the university 's School of Music , but joined the College of Literature , Science and the Arts . Taborn met drummer Gerald Cleaver soon after arriving at university , and they established an electronic group , the Tracey Science Quartet . Taborn also played with Marcus Belgrave and Wendell Harrison . While still a university student , he became known for his membership of saxophonist James Carter 's band , where he contributed to a series of albums , beginning with JC on the Set , which was recorded in 1993 .
Taborn 's first recording as leader came in 1994 , and was released by DIW . Craig Taborn Trio , with bassist Jaribu Shahid and drummer Tani Tabbal , featured Taborn playing in a range of styles on piano and included several of his own compositions . At this stage in his career , his comments on his tastes in composition and performance were : " Even though I like avant garde jazz and classical music , I like to swing . I like to work with harmony and melody in my own music , and I like acoustical instruments . But I can be quite dictatorial about the composed section , and lay down in great detail what everyone is supposed to do and how they should do it . "
Frequent performances and tours with Carter and others meant that Taborn 's studies were delayed : he graduated from university with a BA in general studies ( rather than the intended English literature ) in April 1995 , after which he moved to New York . He continued playing with Carter into 1998 . In the late 1990s , Taborn also recorded with saxophonist Roscoe Mitchell ( Taborn 's first appearance on the ECM label ) , and for techno producer Carl Craig 's album Programmed as part of Innerzone Orchestra .
= = = 2000 – 2009 = = =
In 2001 , Taborn made his second recording as leader : Light Made Lighter , for Thirsty Ear , with Chris Lightcap on bass and Cleaver on drums . " On the strength of this recording " , wrote the Los Angeles Times reviewer , " Taborn emerges as one of the most exciting pianists to lead a band since the ascent of Matthew Shipp " . Another reviewer commented that " Taborn seems to revel in the cracks the way [ Thelonious ] Monk did , hitting the awkward @-@ sounding notes between the notes to punctuate his lines " .
In the 2000s , " Taborn became one of the most in @-@ demand musicians in New York " , in the words of one biographer . He played and recorded with a large , diverse range of musicians , in both free jazz and more mainstream bands , and playing various keyboard and electronic instruments . One critic observed that a lot of his collaborations in the early and mid @-@ 2000s did not feature a bassist , and suggested that Taborn 's " dexterity and inventiveness [ ... ] stand in for both a keyboard and a bass player . " In 2001 , he had his first solo concert in New York , and made his first recordings under the leadership of saxophonist Tim Berne , and with a trio led by percussionist Susie Ibarra . On these , he employed electronics as well as piano . Taborn went on to record , during the period 2002 – 04 , as a sideman under the leadership of Steve Coleman , Dave Douglas , Marty Ehrlich , Drew Gress , Evan Parker , Wadada Leo Smith , and others . In 2003 , Taborn toured Europe with Ibarra 's band , and played with saxophonist Lotte Anker for the first time .
Taborn 's third release as a leader was Junk Magic in 2004 , again for Thirsty Ear , with tenor saxophonist Aaron Stewart , violist Mat Maneri and drummer Dave King . The album 's title was also the name of the band , which was formed to be Taborn 's electronic group , allowing him to explore the interactions of composition , improvisation and electronics . Texture and pulse were important contributors to the overall sound .
Taborn played with Chris Potter from around 2005 , and toured Europe with the saxophonist 's Underground band early in 2007 . The pianist played the Monterey Jazz Festival in 2007 . In late 2007 and early 2008 , Taborn toured internationally with Underground , guitarist David Torn 's Prezens , as well as being part of shorter tours and making occasional appearances with Cleaver , Gress , Ibarra , Mitchell , and William Parker . In April 2008 he toured Europe with Berne 's Science Friction , was back in Europe for the first three weeks of the following month , this time as part of David Binney 's quartet , and returned there in November with Potter . Taborn remarked in 2008 that he was attempting to phase out his use of a laptop in performance , to allow him to concentrate more on improvising , and that he had delayed further performances as a leader , owing to finances . In the same year , he commented on the number of regular , working bands he was a member of : " You could say 15 to 20 . But if you 're talking about the ones that are regularly working right now , I 'd have to say seven or eight . "
After joining Michael Formanek 's quartet in 2008 , Taborn recorded under the double bassist 's leadership for the first time the following year . Also in 2009 , Taborn played with trumpeter Tomasz Stańko in New York , and returned to Europe for concerts with Torn , violinist Dominique Pifarély , and with his own trio .
= = = 2010 – present = = =
In the early 2010s , Taborn continued playing and recording with others , but also had more solo concerts than earlier in his career . He had a solo tour of Europe in 2010 , which may have led to an agreement with ECM to record his first solo piano album , Avenging Angel , which was released in 2011 . In critic Nate Chinen 's view , this album concentrated on " pure sound " , being " full of moments where a note hangs sharply in the air , and you hear the gathering overtones , the vibrations of the strings " . The album helped Taborn get more attention as a leader .
In 2010 , Taborn also toured Europe with Anker 's trio , Potter 's Underground , and played piano duets with Vijay Iyer . In the following year , Taborn again performed with Stańko , as part of drummer Paul Motian 's quartet , and had another solo tour of Europe . Taborn toured internationally with his own trio , Anker 's trio , and with Dave Holland 's quartet Prism in 2012 , and remained part of Holland 's band into 2014 .
A further ECM album , Chants , led by Taborn and with bassist Thomas Morgan and drummer Gerald Cleaver , was released in 2013 . This was the trio 's first release after eight years together . At this point , Taborn 's comments on composition and group performance were : " I knew that if I created a context and then deferred , fully , to Gerald 's and Thomas 's sensibilities it would inherently be stimulating and would also challenge the context . [ ... ] I 'd much rather engage with the group , always , than have the format be ' piano adventures with supporting cast ' . " This band began a tour of Europe in 2014 , but Cleaver was replaced by J.T. Bates part of the way through it , owing to illness . Earlier the same year , Taborn played in a small group led by guitarist Bill Frisell . Taborn played as part of the Ches Smith Trio late in 2014 and toured with the percussionist and Mat Maneri early in 2016 . His sixth album as leader , Flaga : Book of Angels Volume 27 , was released in 2016 . The trio recording , with Christian McBride on bass and Tyshawn Sorey on drums , employed compositions by John Zorn .
According to Jazz Police , Taborn is " basically shy " and prefers to " let his music do the talking " , which is why he " doesn 't have , or want , his own website " .
= = Playing style = =
Taborn 's range of playing styles was summarized by Mike Hobart in The Financial Times : Taborn " draws obliquely on the jazz tradition [ ... ] he is as at home in free improvisation as he is in composition " . In an interview for Down Beat in 2011 , Taborn described his improvising style , particularly for solo piano . When playing , he often adopts a modular approach , using small units of melody and rhythm and then developing them . This can begin from as little as three notes , with structure being built around referring back to elements of the units . He starts simply , using basic elements such as major and minor thirds , varies them in turn , and then continues to expand to create larger structures .
Taborn has commented on the similarities and differences in his playing on piano and electronic instruments . Comparing his accompaniments on piano and Fender Rhodes , he said that :
I play some of the same chords on the piano , but there are definitely things I would do on the piano because it 's a more transparent instrument that I wouldn 't do on the Rhodes . [ ... ] The Rhodes is so strong that when you play something on it , it really can dictate , because it 's louder and the timbre is much more opaque . So you leave more holes . On the piano , I would maybe play more sustain chords .
Taborn prefers earlier models of Fender Rhodes , for their raunchier sound . He also attempts to retain control over the sound that is presented to an audience when playing electronic instruments : he links his instruments to his own amplifier , and then has the venue take its feed from that amplifier .
Guitarist Torn commented that Taborn is " the rare musician who takes the approach , ' What can I do with this instrument ? ' rather than playing through its book of techniques . [ ... He ] is able to eschew the technological aspect in order to get out the sounds that he feels are suitable for the music . "
= = Compositions = =
Taborn incorporates requirements to improvise within his compositions . Commenting on his writing for trio and quartet , Taborn stated that " I like multiple kinds of rhythmic things . On their own , they 're not so complicated , but when you fit them together , it sounds a little mysterious . A lot of that writing extends from my trio writing , where I 'm writing things that are playable in real time . There 's a certain orchestration you can get out of a four @-@ piece . How far can we suggest a larger ensemble ? [ I want ] to create the illusion of a larger ensemble " .
= = Awards = =
In 2009 and 2010 , Down Beat critics selected Taborn as the electric keyboard rising star winner . In 2011 , he was chosen as winner of the electric keyboard category , as well as rising star in both the piano and organ categories . In 2012 , he was given the North Sea Jazz Festival 's Paul Acket Award , which is presented " to an artist deserving wider recognition for extraordinary musicianship " . JazzTimes ranked Taborn in their 2013 critics ' poll as best piano player . In 2014 , the Jazz Journalists Association awarded him the Pianist of the Year award .
In 2014 , Taborn was given a Doris Duke Artist Award , worth up to $ 275 @,@ 000 and given to " exemplary individual artists in contemporary dance , jazz , theatre and related interdisciplinary work who have proven their artistic vitality and commitment to their field . "
= = Discography = =
= = = As leader = = =
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= Géza I of Hungary =
Géza I ( Hungarian pronunciation : [ ˈɡeːzɒ ] ; Hungarian : I. Géza ; c . 1040 – 25 April 1077 ) was King of Hungary from 1074 until his death . He was the eldest son of King Béla I. His baptismal name was Magnus . When his father died in 1063 , Géza 's cousin Solomon acquired the crown with German assistance , forcing Géza to leave Hungary . Géza returned with Polish reinforcements and signed a treaty with Solomon in early 1064 . In the treaty , Géza and his brother , Ladislaus acknowledged the rule of Solomon , who granted them their father 's former duchy , which encompassed one @-@ third of the Kingdom of Hungary .
Géza closely cooperated with Solomon , but their relationship became tense from 1071 . The king invaded the duchy in February 1074 and defeated Géza in a battle . However , Géza was victorious at the decisive battle of Mogyoród on 14 March 1074 . He soon acquired the throne , although Solomon maintained his rule in the regions of Moson and Pressburg ( present @-@ day Bratislava , Slovakia ) for years . Géza initiated peace negotiations with his dethroned cousin in the last months of his life . Géza 's sons were minors when he died and he was succeeded by his brother Ladislaus .
= = Early years ( before 1064 ) = =
Géza was the eldest son of the future King Béla I of Hungary and his wife Richeza or Adelhaid , a daughter of King Mieszko II of Poland . The Illuminated Chronicle narrates that Géza and his brother Ladislaus were born in Poland , where their father who had been banished from Hungary settled in the 1030s . Géza was born in about 1040 . According to the historians Gyula Kristó and Ferenc Makk , he was named after his grandfather 's uncle Géza , Grand Prince of the Hungarians . His baptismal name was Magnus .
In about 1048 , Géza 's father returned to Hungary and received one third of the kingdom with the title of duke from his brother , King Andrew I. Géza seems to have arrived in Hungary with his father . The king , who had not fathered a legitimate son , declared Béla as his heir . According to the traditional principle of seniority , Béla preserved his claim to succeed his brother even after Andrew 's wife Anastasia of Kiev gave birth to Solomon in 1053 . However , the king had his son crowned in 1057 or 1058 . The Illuminated Chronicle narrates that the child Solomon " was anointed king with the consent of Duke Bela and his sons Geysa and Ladislaus " , which is the first reference to a public act by Géza . However , according to the contemporaneous text Annales Altahenses , Géza was absent from the meeting where Judith — the sister of the German monarch Henry IV — was engaged to the child Solomon in 1058 .
Géza accompanied his father , who left for Poland to seek assistance against King Andrew . They returned with Polish reinforcements in 1060 . Géza was one of his father 's most influential advisors . Lampert of Hersfeld wrote that Géza persuaded his father to set free Count William of Weimar , one of the commanders of the German troops fighting on Andrew 's side , who had been captured in a battle .
The king died during the civil war ; his partisans took Solomon to the Holy Roman Empire and Géza 's father Béla was crowned king on 6 December 1060 . Although Géza remained his father 's principal advisor , King Béla did not grant his former duchy to his son . According to the Annales Altahenses , Béla even offered Géza as hostage to the Germans when he was informed that the German court decided , in August 1063 , to invade Hungary to restore Solomon . However , the Germans refused Béla 's offer and he died on 11 September 1063 , some days after the imperial troops entered Hungary .
Following his father 's death , Géza offered to accept Solomon 's rule if he received his father 's former duchy . This offer was refused , which forced him and his two brothers — Ladislaus and Lampert — to leave Hungary for Poland . King Bolesław II of Poland provided them with reinforcements and they returned after the German troops withdrewn from Hungary . The brothers wanted to avoid a new civil war and made an agreement with King Solomon . According to the treaty , which was signed in Győr on 20 January 1064 , Géza and his brothers accepted Solomon 's rule and the king granted them their father 's duchy . The king and his cousins celebrated Easter together in the cathedral of Pécs , where Duke Géza ceremoniously put a crown on Solomon 's head .
Being a newcomer and not yet established in his kingdom , King [ Solomon ] was afraid that [ Géza ] would perhaps attack him with a Polish army , and he therefore retired for a time with his forces and took up a safe station in the strongly fortified castle of [ Moson ] . The bishops and other religious men strove most earnestly to bring about a peaceful settlement between them . Especially bishop Desiderius softened Duke [ Géza ] ' s spirit with his gentle admonitions and sweet pleadings that he should peaceably restore the kingdom to [ Solomon ] , even though he was the younger , and should himself assume the dukedom which his father had held before him . [ Géza ] listened to his words of wise persuasion and laid aside his ill feeling . At [ Győr ] , on the feast day of SS Fabian and Sebastian the martyrs , King [ Solomon ] and Duke [ Géza ] made peace with each other before the Hungarian people .
= = Duke in Hungary ( 1064 – 1074 ) = =
According to Ján Steinhübel and other Slovak historians , Géza only retained the administration of the region of Nyitra ( present @-@ day Nitra , Slovakia ) and gave the eastern territories of their father 's duchy , which were centered around Bihar ( present @-@ day Biharia , Romania ) , to his brother , Ladislaus . The Hungarian historian , Gyula Kristó likewise says that this division of Béla 's one @-@ time duchy is " probable " . The historians Gyula Kristó and Ferenc Makk write that Géza seems to have married a German countess , named Sophia around this time . Géza had the right to coinage in his duchy . The silver half @-@ denars minted for him bore the inscriptions DUX MAGNUS ( " Duke Magnus " ) and PANONAI ( " Kingdom of Hungary " ) .
Géza closely cooperated with the king between 1064 and 1071 . For instance , they jointly routed an invading army which had plundered the eastern territories of the kingdom at Kerlés ( present @-@ day Chiraleş , Romania ) in 1068 . The identification of the invaders is uncertain : the Annales Posonienses writes of Pechenegs , the Illuminated Chronicle and other 14th- and 15th @-@ century Hungarian chronicles refer to Cumans , and a Russian chronicle identifies them as Cumans and Vlachs . Modern historians have concluded that they were Pechenegs .
Géza 's and Solomon 's relationship only began to worsen during the siege of the Byzantine fortress of Belgrade in 1071 . Its commander preferred to surrender to Géza instead of the king and the Byzantine envoys who arrived in the Hungarian camp after the fall of Belgrade only negotiated with Géza . The division of the booty also gave rise to a new conflict between Solomon and Géza . Although Géza accompanied the king on a new campaign against the Byzantine Empire in 1072 , but his brother , Ladislaus stayed behind with half of the troops of their duchy .
The conflict between the king and his cousins was sharpened by Solomon 's main advisor , Count Vid who wanted to acquire the dukes ' domains for himself . However , Solomon and Géza , who were convinced that they needed foreign reinforcements before attacking the other party , concluded a truce which was to last from 11 November 1073 to 24 April 1075 . Géza sent his brothers to Poland and Rus ' to seek assistance against Solomon . At a meeting in the Szekszárd Abbey , Count Vid persuaded the king to break the truce in order to unexpectedly attack Géza who was " hunting in Igfan Forest " to the east of the river Tisza . Although the abbot of the monastery , which had been established by Géza 's father , warned the duke of the king 's plans , the royal army crossed the river and routed Géza 's troops in the battle of Kemej on 26 February 1074 .
From the battlefield , Géza and his retinue hastened towards Vác where he came upon his brother , Ladislaus and their brother @-@ in @-@ law , Duke Otto I of Olomouc . The latter , accompanied by Czech reinforcements , arrived in Hungary in order to assist Géza against Solomon . In the ensuing battle , fought at Mogyoród on 14 March 1074 , Géza " with the troops from Nitria was stationed in the centre " , according to the Illuminated Chronicle . During the battle , Géza and Ladislaus changed their standards in order to bewilder Solomon who was planning to attack Géza . Géza and his allies won a decisive victory and forced the king to flee from the battlefield and to withdraw to Moson at the western frontier of Hungary . Géza " made " Kapuvár , Babót , Székesfehérvár and " other castles secure with garrisons of the bravest soldiers " , thus taking possession of almost the entire kingdom .
= = His reign ( 1074 – 1077 ) = =
According to the Illuminated Chronicle , Géza accepted the throne " at the insistence of the Hungarians " after Solomon had taken refuge in Moson . However , he was not crowned because the royal jewels were still in the dethroned king 's possession . The German monarch Henry IV , who was Solomon 's brother @-@ in @-@ law , launched an expedition against Hungary in mid @-@ 1074 . The Germans marched as far as Vác , but Géza applied scorched earth tactics and bribed German commanders , who persuaded the German monarch to retreat from Hungary .
[ Géza ] , hearing that the Emperor had come to Vacia , with prudent policy gave instructions to approach and win over the patriarch of Aquilegia , to whose counsels the Emperor most readily listened , and also all the [ German ] dukes , promising them much money if they would make the Emperor turn back . The patriarch , therefore , and the dukes , seduced by the gifts and possessed with love of gold , invented various false stories to induce the Emperor to turn back . The patriarch pretended that he had a dream whose interpretation most plainly was that the Emperor 's army would be wholly destroyed by the divine vengeance unless he returned with the utmost speed . The dukes pretended likewise to be awestricken by divine warnings ...
In early 1074 , Géza had approached Pope Gregory VII to obtain international recognition of his rule . However , the pope wanted to take advantage of the conflict between Solomon and Géza and attempted to persuade both of them to acknowledge the suzerainty of the Holy See . Géza did not obey the pope and asked the Byzantine Emperor Michael VII Doukas for a crown . The emperor sent Géza a gold and enamel diadem , which bore the legend " Géza , the faithful king of Hungary " on one of its plaques . This " splendid work of art " became the lower part of the Holy Crown of Hungary by the end of the 12th century . Géza was crowned king with this diadem in early 1075 . In this year he styled himself as " anointed king of the Hungarians by the grace of God " in the charter of the foundation of the Benedictine Abbey of Garamszentbenedek ( present @-@ day Hronský Beňadik , Slovakia ) .
Géza married a niece of Nikephoros Botaneiates , a close advisor of Emperor Michael VII . However , Solomon still controlled Moson and Pressburg ; the royal troops — which were under the command of Géza 's brother , Ladislaus — could not take Pressburg in 1076 . According to the Illuminated Chronicle , Géza considered renouncing the crown in favor of Solomon from the end of the year . Géza died on 15 April 1077 and was buried in the cathedral of Vác , which he had erected in the honor of the Holy Virgin . His brother , Ladislaus succeeded him . A grave discovered in the center of the medieval cathedral in August 2015 was identified as Géza 's burial site by Zoltán Batizi , the leader of the excavations .
[ King Géza ] celebrated Christmas at [ Szekszárd ] . ... When the Mass had been celebrated and all observances had been duly performed , the King instructed that all should leave except the bishop and the abbots . Then the King prostrated himself with tears before the Archbishop and the other ecclesiastical personages and prelates . He said that he had sinned because he had possessed himself of the kingdom of a lawfully crowned king ; and he promised that he would restore the kingdom to [ Solomon ] , and that these would be the conditions of firm peace between them : He would by lawful right hold the crown with that third part of the kingdom belonging with the duchy ; the crowned [ Solomon ] would hold the two parts of the kingdom which he had held before . ... Then King [ Géza ] sent messengers to King [ Solomon ] with letters setting forth the terms of peace . Messengers passed to and fro , but feelings on this side and that were at variance , and so the reconciliation found no consummation . Meanwhile King [ Géza ] fell gravely ill , and on April 25 , adorned with virtues , he went the way of all flesh . He was most devoted to God in the Catholic faith , and he was a most Christian Prince .
= = Family = =
Géza married twice . The family of his first wife Sophia , whom he married in the late 1060s , is unknown . After his coronation in 1075 , he married his second wife , who was the niece of the future Byzantine Emperor Nikephoros III .
It is uncertain which wife bore Géza 's children , but the historians Gyula Kristó and Márta Font say that Sophia was their mother . Kristó adds that Géza fathered at least six children . Although only two of them — Coloman and Álmos — are known by name , the Illuminated Chronicle states that Coloman had brothers who " died before him " . Both Coloman and Álmos were apparently born around 1070 .
The following family tree presents Géza 's ancestors and some of his relatives who are mentioned in the article .
* Whether Géza 's first or second wife was his children 's mother is uncertain . * * Géza had at least two further children , but their names are unknown .
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= Low @-@ pressure area =
A low @-@ pressure area , low or depression , is a region where the atmospheric pressure is lower than that of surrounding locations . Low @-@ pressure systems form under areas of wind divergence that occur in the upper levels of the troposphere . The formation process of a low @-@ pressure area is known as cyclogenesis . Within the field of meteorology , atmospheric divergence aloft occurs in two areas . The first area is on the east side of upper troughs , which form half of a Rossby wave within the Westerlies ( a trough with large wavelength that extends through the troposphere ) . A second area of wind divergence aloft occurs ahead of embedded shortwave troughs , which are of smaller wavelength . Diverging winds aloft ahead of these troughs cause atmospheric lift within the troposphere below , which lowers surface pressures as upward motion partially counteracts the force of gravity .
Thermal lows form due to localized heating caused by greater sunshine over deserts and other land masses . Since localized areas of warm air are less dense than their surroundings , this warmer air rises , which lowers atmospheric pressure near that portion of the Earth 's surface . Large @-@ scale thermal lows over continents help drive monsoon circulations . Low @-@ pressure areas can also form due to organized thunderstorm activity over warm water . When this occurs over the tropics in concert with the Intertropical Convergence Zone , it is known as a monsoon trough . Monsoon troughs reach their northerly extent in August and their southerly extent in February . When a convective low acquires a well @-@ hot circulation in the tropics it is termed a tropical cyclone . Tropical cyclones can form during any month of the year globally , but can occur in either the northern or southern hemisphere during November .
Atmospheric lift will also generally produce cloud cover through adiabatic cooling once the air becomes saturated as it rises , although the low @-@ pressure area typically brings cloudy skies , which act to minimize diurnal temperature extremes . Since clouds reflect sunlight , incoming shortwave solar radiation decreases , which causes lower temperatures during the day . At night the absorptive effect of clouds on outgoing longwave radiation , such as heat energy from the surface , allows for warmer diurnal low temperatures in all seasons . The stronger the area of low pressure , the stronger the winds experienced in its vicinity . Globally , low @-@ pressure systems are most frequently located over the Tibetan Plateau and in the lee of the Rocky mountains . In Europe ( particularly in the United Kingdom ) , recurring low @-@ pressure weather systems are typically known as " depressions " .
= = Formation = =
Cyclogenesis is the development and strengthening of cyclonic circulations , or low @-@ pressure areas , within the atmosphere . Cyclogenesis is the opposite of cyclolysis , and has an anticyclonic ( high @-@ pressure system ) equivalent which deals with the formation of high @-@ pressure areas — anticyclogenesis . Cyclogenesis is an umbrella term for several different processes , all of which result in the development of some sort of cyclone . The term cyclone is used where circular pressure systems flow in the direction of the Earth 's rotation , which normally coincides with areas of low pressure . The largest low @-@ pressure systems are cold @-@ core polar cyclones and extratropical cyclones which lie on the synoptic scale . Warm @-@ core cyclones such as tropical cyclones , mesocyclones , and polar lows lie within the smaller mesoscale . Subtropical cyclones are of intermediate size . Cyclogenesis can occur at various scales , from the microscale to the synoptic scale . Larger scale troughs , which are also called Rossby waves , are synoptic in scale . Shortwave troughs embedded within the flow around larger scale troughs are smaller in scale , or mesoscale in nature . Both Rossby waves and shortwaves embedded within the flow around Rossby waves migrate equatorward of the polar cyclones located in both the Northern and Southern hemispheres . All share one important aspect , that of upward vertical motion within the troposphere . Such upward motions decrease the mass of local atmospheric columns of air , which lower surface pressure .
Extratropical cyclones form as waves along weather fronts due to a passing by shortwave aloft or upper level jet streak before occluding later in their life cycle as cold core cyclones . Polar lows are small @-@ scale , short @-@ lived atmospheric low @-@ pressure systems that are found over the ocean areas poleward of the main polar front in both the Northern and Southern Hemispheres . They are part of the larger class of mesoscale weather systems . Polar lows can be difficult to detect using conventional weather reports and are a hazard to high @-@ latitude operations , such as shipping and gas and oil platforms . They are vigorous systems that have near @-@ surface winds of at least 17 metres per second ( 38 mph ) .
Tropical cyclones form due to latent heat driven by significant thunderstorm activity , and are warm core with well @-@ defined circulations . Certain criteria need to be met for their formation . In most situations , water temperatures of at least 26 @.@ 5 ° C ( 79 @.@ 7 ° F ) are needed down to a depth of at least 50 m ( 160 ft ) ; waters of this temperature cause the overlying atmosphere to be unstable enough to sustain convection and thunderstorms . Another factor is rapid cooling with height , which allows the release of the heat of condensation that powers a tropical cyclone . High humidity is needed , especially in the lower @-@ to @-@ mid troposphere ; when there is a great deal of moisture in the atmosphere , conditions are more favorable for disturbances to develop . Low amounts of wind shear are needed , as high shear is disruptive to the storm 's circulation . Lastly , a formative tropical cyclone needs a pre @-@ existing system of disturbed weather , although without a circulation no cyclonic development will take place . Mesocyclones form as warm core cyclones over land , and can lead to tornado formation . Waterspouts can also form from mesocyclones , but more often develop from environments of high instability and low vertical wind shear .
In deserts , lack of ground and plant moisture that would normally provide evaporative cooling can lead to intense , rapid solar heating of the lower layers of air . The hot air is less dense than surrounding cooler air . This , combined with the rising of the hot air , results in a low @-@ pressure area called a thermal low . Monsoon circulations are caused by thermal lows which form over large areas of land and their strength is driven by how land heats quicker than the surrounding nearby ocean . This creates a steady wind blowing toward the land , bringing the moist near @-@ surface air over the oceans with it . Similar rainfall is caused by the moist ocean air being lifted upwards by mountains , surface heating , convergence at the surface , divergence aloft , or from storm @-@ produced outflows at the surface . However the lifting occurs , the air cools due expansion in lower pressure , which in turn produces condensation . In winter , the land cools off quickly , but the ocean keeps the heat longer due to its higher specific heat . The hot air over the ocean rises , creating a low @-@ pressure area and a breeze from land to ocean while a large area of drying high pressure is formed over the land , increased by wintertime cooling . Monsoons are similar to sea and land breezes , a term usually referring to the localized , diurnal ( daily ) cycle of circulation near coastlines everywhere , but they are much larger in scale also stronger and seasonal .
= = Climatology = =
= = = Mid @-@ latitudes and subtropics = = =
Large polar cyclones help determine the steering of systems moving through the mid @-@ latitudes , south of the Arctic and north of the Antarctic . An index which is used to gauge the magnitude of this effect in the Northern Hemisphere is the Arctic oscillation . Extratropical cyclones tend to form east of climatological trough positions aloft near the east coast of continents , or west side of oceans . A study of extratropical cyclones in the Southern Hemisphere shows that between the 30th and 70th parallels , there are an average of 37 cyclones in existence during any 6 @-@ hour period . A separate study in the Northern Hemisphere suggests that approximately 234 significant extratropical cyclones form each winter . In Europe , particularly the United Kingdom , recurring extratropical low @-@ pressure weather systems are typically known as depressions . These tend to bring wet weather throughout the year . Thermal lows also occur over continental areas across the subtropics during the summer such as the Sonoran Desert , the Mexican plateau , Sahara , South America , and Southeast Asia . The lows are most commonly located over the Tibetan plateau and in the lee of the Rocky mountains .
= = = Monsoon trough = = =
Elongated areas of low pressure form at the monsoon trough or intertropical convergence zone as part of the Hadley cell circulation . Monsoon troughing in the western Pacific reaches its zenith in latitude during the late summer when the wintertime surface ridge in the opposite hemisphere is the strongest . It can reach as far as the 40th parallel in East Asia during August and 20th parallel in Australia during February . Its poleward progression is accelerated by the onset of the summer monsoon which is characterized by the development of lower air pressure over the warmest part of the various continents . The large @-@ scale thermal lows over continents help create pressure gradients which drive monsoon circulations . In the southern hemisphere , the monsoon trough associated with the Australian monsoon reaches its most southerly latitude in February , oriented along a west @-@ northwest / east @-@ southeast axis . Many of the world 's rainforests are associated with these climatological low @-@ pressure systems .
= = = Tropical cyclone = = =
Tropical cyclones generally need to form more than 555 km ( 345 mi ) or poleward of the 5th parallel north and 5th parallel south , allowing the Coriolis effect to deflect winds blowing towards the low @-@ pressure center and creating a circulation . Worldwide , tropical cyclone activity peaks in late summer , when the difference between temperatures aloft and sea surface temperatures is the greatest . However , each particular basin has its own seasonal patterns . On a worldwide scale , May is the least active month while September is the most active month . November is the only month that activity in all the tropical cyclone basins is possible . Nearly one @-@ third of the world 's tropical cyclones form within the western Pacific ocean , making it the most active tropical cyclone basin on Earth .
= = Associated weather = =
Wind is initially accelerated from areas of high pressure to areas of low pressure . This is due to density ( or temperature and moisture ) differences between two air masses . Since stronger high @-@ pressure systems contain cooler or drier air , the air mass is denser and flows towards areas that are warm or moist , which are in the vicinity of low @-@ pressure areas in advance of their associated cold fronts . The stronger the pressure difference , or pressure gradient , between a high @-@ pressure system and a low @-@ pressure system , the stronger the wind . Thus , stronger areas of low pressure are associated with stronger winds .
The Coriolis force caused by the Earth 's rotation is what gives winds within low @-@ pressure systems their counter @-@ clockwise ( anticlockwise ) circulation in the northern hemisphere ( as the wind moves inward and is deflected right from the center of high pressure ) and clockwise circulation in the southern hemisphere ( as the wind moves inward and is deflected left from the center of high pressure ) . Friction with land slows down the wind flowing into low @-@ pressure systems and causes wind to flow more inward , or flowing more ageostrophically , toward their centers . A low @-@ pressure area is commonly associated with inclement weather , while a high @-@ pressure area is associated with light winds and fair skies .
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= The Secret War of Lisa Simpson =
" The Secret War of Lisa Simpson " is the twenty @-@ fifth and final episode of The Simpsons ' eighth season . It first aired on the Fox network in the United States on May 18 , 1997 . Bart gets sent to a military academy as punishment for bad behavior . While visiting the academy , Lisa sees that the school is far more challenging than hers and she decides that she wants to attend as well . It was directed by Mike B. Anderson , written by Richard Appel and featured Willem Dafoe in a guest spot as the school 's commandant .
= = Plot = =
After a day watching mind @-@ numbing videos in class , Lisa becomes concerned that her education is not challenging enough . Meanwhile , Bart 's class visits the Springfield Police Department , where Bart finds a room with several megaphones . After placing them end to end and increasing their amplification , he inadvertently creates a sonic shockwave that shatters all the glass in Springfield . Chief Wiggum suggests sending Bart to military school to correct his behavior . When the family visit the school , Lisa is impressed by the challenging curriculum and decides to attend with Bart.
Lisa stirs discontent among the students , as she is the first female student and gets her own barracks . She and Bart are subjected to hazing ; Bart is eventually accepted and distances himself from his sister . Lonely , Lisa considers going home , but decides to see it through . As the school year comes to a close , the Commandant reveals the final test for the students : the " Eliminator " , a hand @-@ over @-@ hand crawl across a rope suspended high above thorn bushes . Lisa fears she will not be able to complete the task , but Bart helps her train in secret .
On the day of the test , Lisa is the last to cross the Eliminator . She is about to fall and the students jeer , but Bart cheers her on and she makes it across safely . The other students vow to make the rest of the semester a living hell for him , but realize they graduate in three hours . The Commandant awards Lisa a special medal " For Satisfactory Completion of the Second Grade " .
= = Production = =
The episode was written by Richard Appel , but the idea of Bart and Lisa attending a military academy had previously been pitched , and had been floating around since 1991 . The idea had not yet been used as an episode plot , because the writers had not felt comfortable with taking Bart and Lisa to a strange place early in the series .
During the scene where the Commandant is talking , there is a brief shot of Lisa blinking . As there had been an error in the final print of the episode , the shot was animated , painted and shot on May 16 , 1997 , the Friday before the episode 's airdate . The spiky blond @-@ haired boy , who runs towards the Eliminator while screaming , is a caricature of director Mike B. Anderson .
= = Reception = =
The episode originally aired on May 18 , 1997 , as the season finale , along with a rerun of " The Springfield Files . " The episode was mistakenly anticipated by some as being about Lisa launching " a legal battle " to enroll at the military school . In its original broadcast , " The Secret War of Lisa Simpson " finished 47th in ratings for the week of May 12 – 18 , 1997 , with a Nielsen rating of 8 @.@ 3 , equivalent to approximately 8 @.@ 1 million viewing households . It was the second highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week , following The X @-@ Files .
Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , the authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , disliked the episode , writing that it was " very dull " and that Dafoe was not used well . However , Dafoe is one of show runner Josh Weinstein 's favorite guest stars . Ian Johnson argued Dafoe 's casting was " rare " and " somewhat offbeat " .
Journalist Raju Mudhar also wrote that in this episode , " The Simpsons have succinctly laid out our eventual future . " This referred to the rise of robots in the real world and the quote from this episode :
" The wars of the future will not be fought on the battlefield or at sea . They will be fought in space , or possibly on top of a very tall mountain . In either case , most of the actual fighting will be done by small robots . And as you go forth today remember always your duty is clear : To build and maintain those robots . "
= = Merchandise = =
The episode was one of four in 1999 released on a VHS ( Re @-@ released on DVD in 2005 ) called Bart Wars focused on crosses between The Simpsons and Star Wars . However , one critic wrote that with this episode and " Marge Be Not Proud " and " Dog of Death , " both of which are also on the DVD , the " Star Wars connection " is " tangential at best . " The other episode was " Mayored to the Mob . "
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= Zapp ( band ) =
Zapp ( also known as the Zapp Band or Zapp & Roger ) is an American funk band that emerged from Hamilton , Ohio , in 1977 . Particularly influential in the electro subgenre of funk , Zapp served as partial inspiration toward the creation of the G @-@ funk sound of hip @-@ hop popular on the West Coast of the United States in the early to mid 1990s , with many of their songs sampled by numerous hip @-@ hop artists . The original line @-@ up consisted of four brothers — Roger Troutman , Larry Troutman , Lester Troutman and Terry Troutman — and non @-@ Troutman family members Bobby Glover , Gregory Jackson , Sherman Fleetwood , Jerome Derrickson , Eddie Barber and Jannetta Boyce . The group received attention in the early 1980s for implementing heavy use of the talk @-@ box , which became one of their most well known characteristics . Zapp worked closely with members George Clinton and Bootsy Collins of the band Parliament @-@ Funkadelic during its early stages , their support being a factor in the group gaining a record deal with Warner Bros. Records in 1979 . Zapp released its eponymous debut album in 1980 , having a sound reminiscent of P @-@ Funk as a result of Clinton 's and Collins ' input on the production . Zapp achieved most of its mainstream recognition from the single " More Bounce to the Ounce " from the same album , now widely regarded as a classic example of early 1980s electronic funk . The following year in 1981 , Clinton stopped working with the band over a record dispute regarding Roger Troutman 's solo debut . Zapp continued to produce several more albums thereafter , releasing Zapp II in 1982 . The album 's musical style veered drastically away from their first release ; despite this , the album sold well , and was certified gold by late 1982 .
Zapp disbanded in 1999 after both Roger and Larry Troutman were killed in a murder @-@ suicide , that was apparently carried out by Larry . Roger was shot several times before dying in hospital during surgery . Larry 's body was found close @-@ by in his vehicle with a single gunshot wound to the head . The motive behind Larry 's attack is unclear , but there are speculations that there were arguments over money , and Larry being angry over the lack of consultation from Roger as to why he fired him from being his manager . Zapp reformed briefly in 2003 with the remaining brothers of the Troutman family to produce the album Zapp VI : Back By Popular Demand .
= = Career = =
= = = 1966 – 80 : Early career and major record deal = = =
Born on November 29 , 1951 , in Hamilton , Ohio , Roger Troutman began recording music in the late to mid 1960s , issuing his first solo recording efforts " Jolly Roger " and " Night Time " on the obscure and now defunct Ohio label , Teen Records in 1966 under the band name ' Lil ' Roger and His Fabulous Vels . Although neither song received recognition due to its very limited release , Troutman and brothers pursued their music career throughout the 1970s , forming Roger & The Human Body in 1976 , on their privately owned label Troutman Bros. Records . Their own label allowed Troutman and the band to give a slightly wider and more high profile release of their own music , issuing their first ( and only ) album Introducing Roger in 1976 .
In the late 1970s Roger Troutman continued to record with his brothers , losing the name Roger & The Human Body and adopting the Zapp nickname from his brother Terry in 1977 . The group searching for recognition , began playing at various small venues locally around Ohio . The Troutman family had long standing friendships with Ohio natives Phelps " Catfish " Collins and William Earl " Bootsy " Collins , who had both been involved with Parliament @-@ Funkadelic in the early 1970s . Phelps and Bootsy were attendees at a performance , and were impressed with Zapp 's musical abilities , prompting Bootsy to invite Roger to the United Sound Studios in Detroit ( the P @-@ Funk studio base ) which was frequently used by Parliament @-@ Funkadelic . Roger Troutman subsequently wrote and recorded the demo for " More Bounce to the Ounce " in 1978 . George Clinton , the leader of Funkadelic liked the recording and encouraged Troutman to present the demo to Warner Bros. Records . Warner Bros. signed Zapp in early 1979 , and on July 28 , 1980 , Zapp released their debut album , which was recorded by Roger and produced by Bootsy between 1979 and early 1980 at the United Sound Studios in Detroit , their first recording on a major label . The album 's sound , which is highly influenced by Parliament @-@ Funkadelic , contrasts largely with Zapp 's later releases . " More Bounce to the Ounce " reached number two on the Billboard Hot R & B tracks for two weeks during the autumn of 1980 . By November 18 , 1980 , Zapp had been certified gold by the RIAA .
= = = 1980 – 81 : Split with George Clinton and other workings = = =
After the 1980 release of Zapp 's debut album , tensions rose between Roger Troutman and George Clinton . Troutman 's solo album The Many Facets of Roger was primarily funded by Clinton , through CBS , and was slated to be released on his own Uncle Jam Records label . By the early 1980s , Clinton and his musical projects were a midst financial troubles due to his poor management skills and shifting tastes in music . Around the time of Troutman 's to be released debut , Warner Bros. Records dropped Clinton from their label , and quietly released The Electric Spanking of War Babies which Troutman had worked briefly on , in early 1981 without much impact .
Troutman , seeing the disarray that was surrounding Clinton at the time , accepted Warner Bros. offer of more money for the demo recordings of his album . The move resulted in a bitter severing of partnerships between Clinton and Troutman , and with Clinton 's departure , Troutman was left to exercise virtually full creative control over the band 's later work . In Clinton 's biography George Clinton : For the Record , Troutman was quoted commenting on the situation with a blasé attitude , " ... Heck gee @-@ willickers , Warner Bros. offered me mo ' money " . In response , Clinton remarked , " CBS paid for it , I paid for it . I don 't like to go into it on the negative side , but it cost about 5 million [ dollars ] , and a lot of people 's jobs and what we consider as the empire falling " . The loss of money that resulted from the actions of Troutman , is credited as one of the factors that disassembled both Clinton 's and Funkadelic 's musical careers . The Many Facets of Roger was eventually released in October 1981 on Warner Bros.
= = = 1982 – 85 : Style change and gradual decline = = =
Zapp released its second album , Zapp II , on October 14 , 1982 . It focused on more of an electronic orientated sound , containing greater use of the talk @-@ box that is often considered Troutman 's trademark . Despite the contrasting styles between the first and the second albums , Zapp II attained gold status by September 21 , 1982 . The album fared almost as well as Zapp 's debut , peaking at number two on the Billboard R & B chart , and reaching 25 on The Billboard 200 Albums chart . The single " Dancefloor ( Part I ) " peaked at number one on the R & B singles chart of 1982 .
Zapp spawned several more albums in close succession within the 1980s , retaining the heavily electronic style that Zapp II had adopted . Zapp III was released in 1983 , but it did not reach the same chart positions as Zapp 's previous efforts . While still gaining a gold certification , it only peaked at 39 on the Billboard 200 and nine on the R & B chart . Zapp III 's poorer commercial performance became a sign that the band 's popularity and impact were beginning to decline toward the mid 1980s , with post @-@ disco music falling out of trend . By the release of The New Zapp IV U on October 25 , 1985 , Zapp 's popularity declined more . The album gained gold status , but only in 1994 , almost a decade after its initial release . Zapp 's presence began to fade in the latter half of the 1980s , and Troutman 's attention was focused on his solo career . The final release by Zapp before Troutman 's death was Zapp V , on September 12 , 1989 , which was met with moderate commercial success and failed to receive an RIAA certification .
= = = 1993 – 96 : Resurgence and brief increase in popularity = = =
The growing and increasingly dominant West Coast hip @-@ hop scene of the early to mid 1990s brought Zapp and Roger back into the spotlight for a brief amount of time as many hip @-@ hop acts began favoring Zapp 's material as a source for sampling in their own music . Troutman gained recognition for providing talk @-@ box backing vocals for both the original and remixed version of Tupac Shakur 's 1995 @-@ 96 comeback single " California Love " ; the alternate version of the music video features Troutman playing the keyboard and talk @-@ box during a party . Roger 's involvement in " California Love " awarded him a Grammy nomination for " Best Rap Performance by a Duo or Group " in 1997 .
= = = 1996 – present : Deaths of Roger and Larry Troutman , disbandment , and current activity = = =
On Sunday morning , April 25 , 1999 , Roger Troutman was fatally wounded as a result of an apparent murder @-@ suicide that was orchestrated by his older brother , Larry . Roger was shot several times in the torso by Larry as he exited a recording studio in Dayton , Ohio . Roger was taken to Good Samaritan Hospital , but died shortly after . Larry 's body was found in a car a short distance away from the murder scene . There were no witnesses at the time , and Larry 's motive for the murder of Roger remains unclear , however , there were increasingly large troubles over money surrounding Larry who managed the family run housing company , Troutman Enterprises . The business filed for chapter 11 bankruptcy , owing $ 400 @,@ 000 in delinquent taxes . Larry was also possibly angry over Roger firing him as manager for his music career , of which Larry had been for several years .
During Roger 's funeral , his nephew Clet Troutman performed a talk @-@ box rendition of " Amazing Grace . " Roger was survived by his six sons and five daughters ; his eldest son , Roger Lynch Troutman Jr . , died of head injuries several years after the murder of Roger , ( January 31 , 1970 – January 22 , 2003 ) .
After Troutman 's death , Ice Cube said that " More Bounce To The Ounce " introduced him to hip @-@ hop . " I was in the sixth grade , we 'd stayed after school . We had this dude named Mr. Lock , and he used to bring in his radio with these pop @-@ lockers . He used to teach [ the dance group ] the L.A. Lockers , and he would do community service in after @-@ school programs . He knew a lot of kids and introduced them to all the new dances , he put on that song ' More Bounce ' , and they started pop @-@ locking . And I think from that visual , from seeing that , it was my first introduction into hip @-@ hop . Period . I didn 't know nothing about nothing . I hadn 't heard " Rapper 's Delight " yet . It was the first thing that was really fly to me . They started dancing , and since ' More Bounce ' goes on forever , they just got down . I just think that was a rush of adrenaline for me , like a chemical reaction in my brain . "
The resulting impact of Roger and Larry 's deaths left the band stranded , halting production . Without Roger serving as the creative source , they effectively disbanded , and quietly left the music industry altogether . Warner Bros. Records eventually dropped the band from their label , bringing the professional recording career of Zapp to a close . A few years later , Zapp resurfaced for a short period after the establishment of its own independent label , Zapp Town Records , managed by the Troutman family . The label released its only album , Zapp VI : Back By Popular Demand , in 2003 . Zapp returned to performing only in live concert , touring across the U.S. at various venues .
Lester Troutman Sr. and Terry Troutman confirmed the presence of a new project / album in the works with an expected release date of August 2015 .
= = Personnel = =
= = = Original lineup = = =
Roger Troutman : lead and background vocals , guitar , bass , keyboards , harmonica , vibraphone , percussion , talk box
Larry Troutman : percussion
Lester Troutman : drums
Terry Troutman : keyboards , bass , background vocals
Gregory Jackson : keyboards , lead and background vocals
Bobby Glover : lead and background vocals
= = = Other members = = =
Eddie Barber
Jannetta Boyce
Robert Jones
Jerome Derrickson
Sherman Fleetwood
Michael Warren
Shirley Murdock
Dale DeGroat
Aaron Blackmon ( 1984 - 1990 )
Nicole Cottom
Bart Thomas
Ricardo Bray
Bigg Robb ( from the early / mid 1990s - 2009 )
Rhonda Stevens
Ray Davis
Roger Troutman Jr . ( died of head injury in 2003 )
Thomas Troutman
Rufus Troutman III
Davis Brown ( sound man )
Wanda Rash ( vocalist )
Toika Troutman ( vocalist )
Marchelle Smith ( vocalist )
Eba Glover ( vocalist )
= = Discography = =
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= Austria in the Eurovision Song Contest 2014 =
Austria participated in the Eurovision Song Contest 2014 with the song " Rise Like a Phoenix " , written by Charlie Mason , Joey Patulka , Ali Zuckowski and Julian Maas . The song was performed by Conchita Wurst , the drag stage persona of Tom Neuwirth , who had risen to fame after taking part in an Austrian talent show in 2011 and attempting to represent Austria at the Eurovision Song Contest 2012 . In September 2013 the Austrian broadcaster Österreichischer Rundfunk ( ORF ) announced that they had internally selected Wurst to compete at the 2014 contest in Copenhagen , Denmark , with her song presented to the public in March 2014 .
After a promotional tour of several European countries , Austria was seen as one of the countries most likely to qualify for the grand final . In the second of the Eurovision semi @-@ finals " Rise Like a Phoenix " came first of the 15 participating countries , securing its place among the 26 other countries in the final . In Austria 's forty @-@ seventh Eurovision appearance on 10 May , " Rise Like a Phoenix " became the sixty @-@ second song to win the Eurovision Song Contest , receiving a total of 290 points and full marks from thirteen countries . This was Austria 's second win in the contest , having previously won in 1966 .
After the show , the song went on to chart in several European countries , reaching number one in Austria and the UK Indie Chart , as well as reaching the top 10 in a further 10 countries . Wurst 's appearance in the contest brought about both criticism and praise : by some of the more socially conservative sections of European society her victory in the contest was condemned as a promotion of LGBT rights ; conversely the international attention received by Wurst 's victory firmly established her among the LGBT community , leading her to take an active role in promoting tolerance and respect , and resulted in several invites to perform at several European pride events , as well as performances at the European Parliament and United Nations Office at Vienna .
= = Background = =
Prior to the 2014 contest , Austria had participated in the Eurovision Song Contest forty @-@ six times since its first entry in 1957 , winning it in 1966 with the song " Merci , Chérie " performed by Udo Jürgens . Following the introduction of semi @-@ finals for the 2004 contest , Austria had featured in only two finals . Austria 's least successful result has been last place , which they have achieved on eight occasions , most recently in the 2012 contest . Austria has also received nul points on three occasions ; in 1962 , 1988 and 1991 .
The Austrian national broadcaster , Österreichischer Rundfunk ( ORF ) , broadcasts the event within Austria and organises the selection process for the nation 's entry . From 2011 to 2013 , ORF had set up national finals with several artists to choose both the song and performer to compete at Eurovision for Austria , with both the public and a panel of jury members involved in the selection . For the 2014 Eurovision Song Contest , ORF held an internal selection to choose the artist and song to represent Austria at the contest . This method had last been used by ORF in 2007 .
= = Before Eurovision = =
= = = Selection procedure = = =
ORF confirmed their intentions to participate at the 2014 Eurovision Song Contest on 6 September 2013 . On 10 September 2013 , the broadcaster announced that they had internally selected Conchita Wurst to represent Austria in Copenhagen . Wurst is the drag stage persona of Tom Neuwirth , who in 2007 finished second in the third season of Austrian talent show Starmania , behind the 2011 Austrian entry Nadine Beiler . Neuwirth went on to join the boy band Jetzt Anders ! along with other contestants from Starmania in 2007 , which disbanded later that year . Following this , Neuwirth , who uses masculine pronouns when referring to himself but feminine pronouns to describe Wurst , went on to developed his new drag persona and appeared on ORF 's talent show Die große Chance ( " The Big Opportunity " ) as Wurst in 2011 , achieving sixth place . Wurst went on to compete in the Austrian selection for the Eurovision Song Contest 2012 with the song " That 's What I Am " , qualifying for the super final and finishing second with 49 percent of the public vote .
ORF confirmed in October 2013 that the song to be performed by Wurst at the contest would also be chosen internally . On 18 March 2014 at a ORF press conference in Vienna , the song " Rise Like a Phoenix " was announced as the Austrian entry for the contest . The song was written by Charlie Mason , Joey Patulka , Ali Zuckowski and Julian Maas . Wurst 's first live performance of the song was on 22 March 2014 , during an episode of Dancing Stars , the Austrian version of international franchise Dancing with the Stars .
As part of the contest 's graphic design , special postcards were commissioned by the Danish host broadcaster DR to introduce each of the participating countries before the acts took to the stage . For the 2014 contest the contestants were asked to take a photo of their country 's flag , made in a creative way . Austria 's postcard was the first to be filmed by DR , and was shot at the Schönbrunn Palace in Vienna featuring Wurst and her stylist Tamara Mascara creating the Austrian flag out of 70 baroque @-@ style dresses .
In the run @-@ up to the contest , Wurst asked her fans to take part in a campaign called " Knit for Tolerance " , in which they would wear knitted beards in a display of tolerance and respect , also promising that she would take all beards that she received with her to Copenhagen .
= = = Selection controversy = = =
The selection of Wurst caused some controversy in Austria and the rest of Europe . A Facebook group which amassed approximately 38 @,@ 000 members protested the decision by the publicly funded broadcaster ORF , to internally select the country 's Eurovision act without a public vote . In an interview with Austrian newspaper Kurier , Wurst defended her internal selection by ORF , noting that the broadcaster had the sole responsibility of making decisions regarding the contest and that the 2007 internal selection of Eric Papilaya received no backlash from the Austrian public . Wurst also claimed that the criticism from the group surpassed protest against her as the selected artist and instead " displayed homophobic statements and discrimination " , and she vowed to " continue fighting against discrimination " in response to the Facebook group .
Wurst 's selection for Eurovision also sparked outrage outside of Austria ; in Belarus , a petition by more than 2 @,@ 000 people petitioned the Belarusian Ministry of Information to prevent the contest from being broadcast in the country , claiming it to being " a hotbed of sodomy " and an attempt by European liberals to impose Western values on Belarus and Russia . A similar petition of more than 15 @,@ 000 signatures was also received by the Russian Ministry of Communications and Mass Media from the " All @-@ Russian parenting group " , claiming that Wurst " leads the lifestyle inapplicable [ sic ] for Russians " Wurst also received criticism from the Armenian representative , Aram Mp3 , who claimed that her lifestyle was " not natural " and that she should " eventually decide whether she is a woman or a man " . Aram MP3 later apologised and insisted his statements were " a joke " .
In response to petitions in Russia , Belarus and Ukraine asking for Wurst to be removed from the competition , some of the other 2014 participants gave Wurst their support . Ireland 's representative Kasey Smith , said that " everyone should be allowed in " to Eurovision and that she " totally disagree [ s ] with what they are doing . It 's homophobia . "
= = = Promotion = = =
Before her appearance at the contest , Wurst went on a promotional tour , performing in several European countries . Prior to her song selection , Wurst appeared at a Eurovision fan event in Vienna in October 2013 held by the Austrian branch of OGAE , an international organisation of Eurovision fan clubs across Europe and beyond , where she shared the stage with Anne @-@ Marie David , the 1973 Eurovision winner . On 28 March Wurst appeared at the 2014 Euroschlager Party , held by OGAE Spain , in Madrid . On 29 March 2014 , Wurst was a guest at the " Eurovision Pre @-@ Party Riga " in Latvia , appearing alongside Poland 's 2014 representatives Donatan & Cleo and Latvia 's 2013 representatives PeR . Wurst was also one of 26 acts from the 2014 contest to perform during the 2014 Eurovision in Concert , the largest gathering of Eurovision artists outside of Eurovision itself , held in the Melkweg , a popular music venue in Amsterdam , the Netherlands on 5 April 2014 . This was followed by an appearance at the London Preview Party alongside 15 other participating entries from 2014 , held at the Café de Paris nightclub in London on 13 April . Wurst also took part in several interviews and performances on Irish , Belgian and Dutch television networks .
= = At Eurovision = =
According to Eurovision rules , all nations with the exceptions of the host country and the " Big 5 " ( France , Germany , Italy , Spain and the United Kingdom ) are required to qualify from one of two semi @-@ finals in order to compete for the final ; the top ten countries from each semi @-@ final progress to the final . The European Broadcasting Union ( EBU ) split up the competing countries into six different pots based on voting patterns from previous contests , with countries with favourable voting histories put into the same pot . On 20 January 2014 , a special allocation draw was held which placed each country into one of the two semi @-@ finals , as well as which half of the show they would perform in . Austria was placed into the second semi @-@ final , to be held on 8 May 2014 , and was scheduled to perform in the first half of the show .
Once all the competing songs for the 2014 contest had been released , the running order for the semi @-@ finals was decided by the shows ' producers rather than through another draw , so that similar songs were not placed next to each other . Austria was set to perform in position 6 , following the entry from Poland and before the entry from Lithuania . All three shows were broadcast on ORF eins , with commentary by Andi Knoll . The Austrian spokesperson , who announced the Austrian votes during the final , was Kati Bellowitsch .
= = = Semi @-@ final = = =
Wurst took part in technical rehearsals on 30 April and 3 May , followed by dress rehearsals on 7 and 8 May . This included the jury final where professional juries of each country , responsible for 50 percent of each country 's vote , watched and voted on the competing entries .
The stage show featured Wurst in a cream @-@ covered mermaid @-@ like dress standing on a pedestal in the middle of the stage . The stage appeared dark at the beginning of the song with minimal lighting , before the lighting rose towards the beginning of the first chorus . At the start of the song , the camera appeared at the back of the arena before swooping into centre stage to a close @-@ up of Wurst , followed by it flying off again at the beginning of the chorus . The background LED screens featured at the first chorus flaming rain , followed by flames in the shape of wings , in reference to the phoenix in the title of the song . Pyrotechnic flames also featured at the finale of the song . Wind machines were also used to effect during the performance .
At the end of the show , it was announced that Austria had finished in the top 10 and thus qualifying for the grand final ; it was the last qualifying country to be announced by the show 's hosts , Pilou Asbæk and Nikolaj Koppel . It was later revealed that Austria had won the semi @-@ final , receiving a total of 169 points .
= = = Final = = =
Shortly after the second semi @-@ final , a winner 's press conference was held for the ten qualifying countries . As part of this press conference , the qualifying artists took part in a draw to determine which half of the grand final they would subsequently participate in . This draw was done in the order the countries were announced during the semi @-@ final . Austria was drawn to compete in the first half . Following this draw , the shows ' producers decided upon the running order of the final , as they had done for the semi @-@ finals . Austria was subsequently placed to perform in position 11 , following the entry from Greece and before the entry from Germany . On the day of the grand final , Austria was considered by bookmakers to be the second most likely to win the competition , placed only behind the entry from Sweden .
Wurst once again took part in dress rehearsals on 9 and 10 May before the final , including the jury final where the professional juries casted their final votes before the live show . Wurst performed a repeat of her semi @-@ final performance during the final on 10 May . After a slow start , Austria eventually took the lead in the voting and won the competition with 290 points , beating the Netherlands and Sweden into second and third places respectively . Austria received 12 points , the maximum number of points a country can give to another country , from thirteen countries . The broadcast was watched by an average 1 @.@ 3 million people in Austria , receiving a 54 @.@ 4 percent market share .
= = = = Marcel Bezençon Awards = = = =
The Marcel Bezençon Awards , first awarded during the 2002 contest , are awards honouring the best competing songs in the final each year . Named after the creator of the annual contest , Marcel Bezençon , the awards are divided into 3 categories : the Press Award , given to the best entry as voted on by the accredited media and press during the event ; the Artistic Award , presented to the best artist as voted on by the shows ' commentators ; and the Composer Award , given to the best and most original composition as voted by the participating composers . " Rise Like a Phoenix " was awarded the Press Award , which was accepted at the awards ceremony by Kathrin Zechner , ORF 's Managing Director .
= = = Voting = = =
Voting during the three shows consisted of 50 percent public televoting and 50 percent from a jury deliberation . The jury consisted of five music industry professionals who were citizens of the country they represent , with their names published before the contest to ensure transparency . This jury was asked to judge each contestant based on : vocal capacity ; the stage performance ; the song 's composition and originality ; and the overall impression by the act . In addition , no member of a national jury could be related in any way to any of the competing acts in such a way that they cannot vote impartially and independently . The individual rankings of each jury member were released shortly after the grand final .
Below is a breakdown of points awarded to Austria and awarded by Austria in the second semi @-@ final and grand final of the contest , and the breakdown of the jury voting and televoting conducted during the two shows :
= = = = Points awarded to Austria = = = =
= = = = Points awarded by Austria = = = =
= = = = Split voting results = = = =
The following five members comprised the Austrian jury :
Stella Jones – Chairperson – singer , songwriter , vocal @-@ stagecoach , represented Austria in the 1995 Contest
Michael Dörfler – producer and owner of a sound studio
Dietmar Lienbacher – Division Head Austria Sony Music
Diana Lueger – singer , musician , songwriter
Alexander Kahr – producer
= = After Eurovision = =
As the winners of the 2014 contest , Austria was given the responsibility of hosting the 2015 contest . Shortly after the 2014 final , ORF confirmed the preliminary dates for the 2015 contest , as well as that several cities in Austria were competing to host the 60th edition of the Eurovision Song Contest . After a competition was held to determine the host venue , three cities were short @-@ listed by ORF : Vienna ; Innsbruck ; and Graz . On 6 August it was announced that the Wiener Stadthalle in Vienna would host the 2015 contest , scheduled to be held on 19 , 21 and 23 May 2015 . On 19 December 2014 , the hosts of the contest were announced , with Wurst taking on the role of green room host for the event .
On Wurst 's return to Austria after winning Eurovision , she was greeted at Vienna International Airport by thousands of fans and hundreds journalists celebrating her victory . On 18 May she met with Werner Faymann , the Chancellor of Austria and Josef Ostermayer , the Minister of Arts , Culture , and Media at an official reception , followed by a performance on stage at Vienna 's Ballhausplatz to an audience of thousands of fans . The concert was however criticised by the conservative Austrian People 's Party , a member of the coalition government .
" Rise Like a Phoenix " went on to become a hit across Europe , reaching the top 3 in iTunes download charts in fourteen countries , including both Belarus and Russia , where she had courted controversy before the contest . The song also reached the top 10 in charts in twelve countries , including number one in Austria and the UK Indie Chart .
Wurst received both praise and criticism following her victory . Many celebrities sent their congratulations and support to Wurst via Twitter and other means , including Elton John , Cher , Lady Gaga , Boy George and Robbie Williams , as well as from fellow Eurovision winners Alexander Rybak , Emmelie de Forest , Lena Meyer @-@ Landrut and Charlotte Perrelli . However her victory was also met with negative reaction by some more conservative sections of European society . In Turkey , which had not taken part in the contest since 2012 , the government party AKP criticised Wurst 's win , with then @-@ Prime Minister of Turkey Recep Tayyip Erdoğan vowing that Turkey would never take part in the contest again and his colleague Volkan Bozkır proclaiming " Thank god we no longer participate in Eurovision " .
Church leaders in the Balkans have also claimed that Wurst 's win is responsible for floods in south @-@ east Europe in May 2014 , which left over 60 people dead . Metropolitan Amfilohije , the Montenegrin patriarch of the Serbian Orthodox Church claimed that " this [ flood ] is not a coincidence , but a warning " and a " reminder that people should not join the wild side " , Patriarch Irinej , the spiritual leader of Eastern Orthodox Serbs has reportedly said the floods are " divine punishment for their vices " and that " God is thus washing Serbia of its sins " . Wurst had previously been condemned by the Russian Orthodox Church . However Fr . Michael Unger , Tom Neuwirth 's childhood Catholic priest , condemned the homophobic backlash against him , and said that he is " just happy that he 's happy " .
In the wake of her Eurovision win , Wurst was invited onto several television programmes across Europe . Wurst appeared as a guest on several BBC programmes in the United Kingdom ; including The Graham Norton Show on 16 May , a chat show hosted by British commentator Graham Norton ; and on 23 May 2014 she appeared on The One Show and Newsnight . Wurst was invited onto the German talk show TV total on 4 June 2014 , hosted by former Eurovision contestant and host Stefan Raab , and was in demand by German broadcaster RTL as a new personality for their upcoming reality shows . Wurst also performed on the popular Swedish show Allsång på Skansen in July 2014 .
In June 2014 , Wurst headlined the Vienna Life Ball , Europe 's biggest charity event supporting people with HIV and AIDS , attending the event in a dress designed by Jean Paul Gaultier . Wurst has since modelled for both Gautier and Karl Lagerfeld at several events .
Both before and after her Eurovision win , Wurst had become very involved with the LGBT community . In June 2014 Wurst recorded a message for the It Gets Better Project , an Internet @-@ based project devoted to preventing suicide among LGBT youth by having gay adults convey the message that their lives will improve , and to inspire change required to make life better for them . Wurst was also invited to perform at several pride events in several cities across Europe , including in Stockholm , Zürich , Dublin , Berlin , Madrid , Amsterdam , London and Manchester among others . In October 2014 , British gay lifestyle magazine Attitude awarded Wurst with the ' Moment of the Year ' award for her win at Eurovision as part of the 2014 Attitude Awards .
In October 2014 , Wurst accepted an invitation by Ulrike Lunacek MEP , vice @-@ president of the Austrian Greens , to perform in a special concert at the European Parliament . The concert was organised by MEPs from 5 different parliamentary groups , with the aim to support the adoption of a report against homophobia and sexual discrimination in February . This was followed in November 2014 by a performance at the United Nations Office at Vienna and a meeting with the Secretary @-@ General of the United Nations Ban Ki @-@ moon . Ban hailed Wurst 's win as a " powerful message " , praising her promotion of respect for diversity , which he called a " core value " of the United Nations and that " discrimination has no place in the United Nations , nor in the world of the 21st century " . Wurst had also extended her CV into voice acting , voicing the character of Eva in the German dub of the computer @-@ animated film Penguins of Madagascar , spin @-@ off of the Madagascar film franchise .
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= Margaret Thatcher =
Margaret Hilda Thatcher , Baroness Thatcher , LG , OM , PC , FRS , FRIC ( née Roberts ; 13 October 1925 – 8 April 2013 ) was a British stateswoman and politician who was the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1979 to 1990 and the Leader of the Conservative Party from 1975 to 1990 . She was the longest @-@ serving British prime minister of the 20th century and the first woman to have held the office . A Soviet journalist dubbed her the " Iron Lady " , a nickname that became associated with her uncompromising politics and leadership style . As Prime Minister , she implemented policies that have come to be known as Thatcherism .
Originally a research chemist before becoming a barrister , Thatcher was elected Member of Parliament ( MP ) for Finchley in 1959 . Edward Heath appointed her Secretary of State for Education and Science in his 1970 government . In 1975 , Thatcher defeated Heath in the Conservative Party leadership election to become Leader of the Opposition and became the first woman to lead a major political party in the United Kingdom . She became Prime Minister after winning the 1979 general election .
On moving into 10 Downing Street , Thatcher introduced a series of political and economic initiatives intended to reverse high unemployment and Britain 's struggles in the wake of the Winter of Discontent and an ongoing recession . Her political philosophy and economic policies emphasised deregulation ( particularly of the financial sector ) , flexible labour markets , the privatisation of state @-@ owned companies , and reducing the power and influence of trade unions . Thatcher 's popularity during her first years in office waned amid recession and high unemployment , until victory in the 1982 Falklands War and the recovering economy brought a resurgence of support , resulting in her re @-@ election in 1983 .
Thatcher was re @-@ elected for a third term in 1987 . During this period her support for a Community Charge ( referred to as the " poll tax " ) was widely unpopular , and her views on the European Community were not shared by others in her Cabinet . She resigned as Prime Minister and party leader in November 1990 , after Michael Heseltine launched a challenge to her leadership . After retiring from the Commons in 1992 , she was given a life peerage as Baroness Thatcher , of Kesteven in the county of Lincolnshire , which entitled her to sit in the House of Lords . After a series of small strokes in 2002 , she was advised to withdraw from public speaking . Despite this , she managed to prerecord a eulogy to Ronald Reagan prior to his death , which was broadcast at his funeral in 2004 . In 2013 , she died of another stroke in London at the age of 87 .
= = Early life and education = =
Thatcher was born Margaret Hilda Roberts on 13 October 1925 , in Grantham , Lincolnshire . Her father was Alfred Roberts , originally from Northamptonshire , and her mother was Beatrice Ethel ( née Stephenson ) from Lincolnshire . She spent her childhood in Grantham , where her father owned two grocery shops . She and her older sister Muriel ( 1921 – 2004 ) were raised in the flat above the larger of the two , on North Parade . Her father was active in local politics and the Methodist church , serving as an alderman and a local preacher , and brought up his daughter as a strict Wesleyan Methodist attending the Finkin Street Methodist Church . He came from a Liberal family but stood – as was then customary in local government – as an Independent . He was Mayor of Grantham in 1945 – 46 and lost his position as alderman in 1952 after the Labour Party won its first majority on Grantham Council in 1950 .
Margaret Roberts attended Huntingtower Road Primary School and won a scholarship to Kesteven and Grantham Girls ' School . Her school reports showed hard work and continual improvement ; her extracurricular activities included the piano , field hockey , poetry recitals , swimming and walking . She was head girl in 1942 – 43 . In her upper sixth year she applied for a scholarship to study chemistry at Somerville College , Oxford , but she was initially rejected and was offered a place only after another candidate withdrew . Roberts arrived at Oxford in 1943 and graduated in 1947 with Second @-@ Class Honours in the four @-@ year Chemistry Bachelor of Science degree , specialising in X @-@ ray crystallography under the supervision of Dorothy Hodgkin . Her dissertation was on the structure of the antibiotic gramicidin . Even while working on chemistry , she was already thinking towards law and politics . She was reportedly more proud of becoming the first Prime Minister with a science degree than the first female Prime Minister .
Roberts became President of the Oxford University Conservative Association in 1946 . She was influenced at university by political works such as Friedrich Hayek 's The Road to Serfdom ( 1944 ) , which condemned economic intervention by government as a precursor to an authoritarian state . After graduating , Roberts moved to Colchester in Essex to work as a research chemist for BX Plastics . In 1948 she applied for a job at ICI , but was rejected after the personnel department assessed her as " headstrong , obstinate and dangerously self @-@ opinionated " . Roberts joined the local Conservative Association and attended the party conference at Llandudno in 1948 , as a representative of the University Graduate Conservative Association . One of her Oxford friends was also a friend of the Chair of the Dartford Conservative Association in Kent , who were looking for candidates . Officials of the association were so impressed by her that they asked her to apply , even though she was not on the Conservative Party 's approved list : she was selected in January 1951 , aged 25 , and added to the approved list post ante . At a dinner following her formal adoption as Conservative candidate for Dartford in February 1951 she met Denis Thatcher , a successful and wealthy divorced businessman , who drove her to her Essex train . In preparation for the election Roberts moved to Dartford , where she supported herself by working as a research chemist for J. Lyons and Co. in Hammersmith , part of a team developing emulsifiers for ice cream .
= = Early political career = =
In the 1950 and 1951 general elections , Roberts was the Conservative candidate for the safe Labour seat of Dartford . The local party selected her as its candidate because , though not a dynamic public speaker , Roberts was well @-@ prepared and fearless in her answers ; another prospective candidate recalled that " Once she opened her mouth , the rest of us began to look rather second @-@ rate " . She attracted media attention as the youngest and the only female candidate . She lost on both occasions to Norman Dodds , but reduced the Labour majority by 6 @,@ 000 , and then a further 1 @,@ 000 . During the campaigns , she was supported by her parents and by Denis Thatcher , whom she married in December 1951 . Denis funded his wife 's studies for the bar ; she qualified as a barrister in 1953 and specialised in taxation . Later that same year their twins Carol and Mark were born , delivered by Caesarean section .
The marriage led to her being referred to as " Mrs Denis Thatcher " – now considered dated – by such official sources as selection minutes , travel itineraries , and society publications such as Queen , even after her election as a Member of Parliament , after which she preferred " Mrs Margaret Thatcher " .
= = = Member of Parliament : 1959 – 70 = = =
In 1954 , Thatcher was defeated when she sought selection to be the Conservative party candidate for the Orpington by @-@ election of January 1955 . She chose not to stand as a candidate in the 1955 general election , in later years stating " I really just felt the twins were ... only two , I really felt that it was too soon . I couldn 't do that . " Afterwards , Thatcher began looking for a Conservative safe seat and was selected as the candidate for Finchley in April 1958 ( narrowly beating Ian Montagu Fraser ) . She was elected as MP for the seat after a hard campaign in the 1959 election . Benefiting from her fortunate result in a lottery for backbenchers to propose new legislation , Thatcher 's maiden speech was in support of her private member 's bill ( Public Bodies ( Admission to Meetings ) Act 1960 ) , requiring local authorities to hold their council meetings in public . In 1961 she went against the Conservative Party 's official position by voting for the restoration of birching as a judicial corporal punishment .
Thatcher 's talent and drive caused her to be mentioned as a future Prime Minister in her early 20s although she herself was more pessimistic , stating as late as 1970 that " There will not be a woman prime minister in my lifetime — the male population is too prejudiced . " In October 1961 she was promoted to the front bench as Parliamentary Undersecretary at the Ministry of Pensions and National Insurance in Harold Macmillan 's administration . Thatcher was the youngest woman in history to receive such a post , and among the first MPs elected in 1959 to be promoted . After the Conservatives lost the 1964 election she became spokeswoman on Housing and Land , in which position she advocated her party 's policy of allowing tenants to buy their council houses . She moved to the Shadow Treasury team in 1966 and , as Treasury spokeswoman , opposed Labour 's mandatory price and income controls , arguing that they would produce effects contrary to those intended and distort the economy .
By 1966 , party leaders viewed Thatcher as a potential Shadow Cabinet member . James Prior proposed her as a member after the Conservatives ' 1966 defeat , but party leader Edward Heath and Chief Whip Willie Whitelaw chose Mervyn Pike as the shadow cabinet 's sole woman member .
At the Conservative Party Conference of 1966 she criticised the high @-@ tax policies of the Labour Government as being steps " not only towards Socialism , but towards Communism " , arguing that lower taxes served as an incentive to hard work . Thatcher was one of the few Conservative MPs to support Leo Abse 's Bill to decriminalise male homosexuality . She voted in favour of David Steel 's bill to legalise abortion , as well as a ban on hare coursing . She supported the retention of capital punishment and voted against the relaxation of divorce laws .
In 1967 , the United States Embassy in London chose Thatcher to take part in the International Visitor Leadership Program ( then called the Foreign Leader Program ) , a professional exchange programme that gave her the opportunity to spend about six weeks visiting various US cities and political figures as well as institutions such as the International Monetary Fund . Although she was not yet a cabinet or shadow cabinet member , the embassy reportedly described her to the State Department as a possible future prime minister . The description helped Thatcher meet with many prominent people during a busy itinerary focused on economic issues , including Paul Samuelson , Walt Rostow , Pierre @-@ Paul Schweitzer , and Nelson Rockefeller . After Pike 's retirement , Heath appointed Thatcher later that year to the Shadow Cabinet as Fuel and Power spokesman . Shortly before the 1970 general election , she was promoted to Shadow Transport spokesman and later to Education .
= = = Education Secretary : 1970 – 74 = = =
The Conservative Party under Edward Heath won the 1970 general election , and Thatcher was subsequently appointed to the Cabinet as Secretary of State for Education and Science . During her first months in office she attracted public attention as a result of the administration 's attempts to cut spending . She gave priority to academic needs in schools . She imposed public expenditure cuts on the state education system , resulting in the abolition of free milk for schoolchildren aged seven to eleven . She held that few children would suffer if schools were charged for milk , but agreed to provide younger children with a third of a pint daily , for nutritional purposes . Cabinet papers later revealed that she opposed the policy but had been forced into it by the Treasury . Her decision provoked a storm of protest from Labour and the press , leading to the moniker " Margaret Thatcher , Milk Snatcher " . She reportedly considered leaving politics in the aftermath and later wrote in her autobiography : " I learned a valuable lesson [ from the experience ] . I had incurred the maximum of political odium for the minimum of political benefit . "
Thatcher 's term of office was marked by proposals for more local education authorities to close grammar schools and to adopt comprehensive secondary education . Although she was committed to a tiered secondary modern @-@ grammar school system of education and was determined to preserve grammar schools , during her tenure as Education Secretary she turned down only 326 of 3 @,@ 612 proposals for schools to become comprehensives ; the proportion of pupils attending comprehensive schools consequently rose from 32 per cent to 62 per cent .
= = = Leader of the Opposition : 1975 – 79 = = =
The Heath government continued to experience difficulties with oil embargoes and union demands for wage increases in 1973 and lost the February 1974 general election . Labour formed a minority government and went on to win a narrow majority in the October 1974 general election . Heath 's leadership of the Conservative Party looked increasingly in doubt . Thatcher was not initially the obvious replacement , but she eventually became the main challenger , promising a fresh start . Her main support came from the Conservative 1922 Committee , but Thatcher 's time in office gave her the reputation of a pragmatist instead of an ideologue . She defeated Heath on the first ballot and he resigned the leadership . In the second ballot she defeated Whitelaw , Heath 's preferred successor . The vote polarised along right @-@ left lines , with the region , experience and education of the MP also having their effects . Thatcher 's support was stronger among MPs on the right , those from southern England , and those who had not attended public schools or Oxbridge .
Thatcher became party leader and Leader of the Opposition on 11 February 1975 ; she appointed Whitelaw as her deputy . Heath was never reconciled to Thatcher 's leadership .
Thatcher began to attend lunches regularly at the Institute of Economic Affairs ( IEA ) , a think tank founded by the poultry magnate Antony Fisher , a disciple of Friedrich Hayek ; she had been visiting the IEA and reading its publications since the early 1960s . There she was influenced by the ideas of Ralph Harris and Arthur Seldon , and she became the face of the ideological movement opposing the welfare state . Keynesian economics , they believed , was weakening Britain . The institute 's pamphlets proposed less government , lower taxes , and more freedom for business and consumers .
Television critic Clive James , writing in The Observer during the voting for the leadership , compared her voice of 1973 to a cat sliding down a blackboard . Thatcher had already begun to work on her presentation on the advice of Gordon Reece , a former television producer . By chance Reece met the actor Laurence Olivier , who arranged lessons with the National Theatre 's voice coach . Thatcher succeeded in completely suppressing her Lincolnshire dialect except when under stress , notably after provocation from Denis Healey in the House of Commons in April 1983 , when she accused the Labour front bench of being frit .
On 19 January 1976 Thatcher made a speech in Kensington Town Hall in which she made a scathing attack on the Soviet Union :
The Russians are bent on world dominance , and they are rapidly acquiring the means to become the most powerful imperial nation the world has seen . The men in the Soviet Politburo do not have to worry about the ebb and flow of public opinion . They put guns before butter , while we put just about everything before guns .
In response , the Soviet Defence Ministry newspaper Krasnaya Zvezda ( Red Star ) called her the " Iron Lady , " a sobriquet she gladly adopted .
Margaret Thatcher wanted to prevent the creation of a Scottish assembly . She told Conservative MPs to vote against the Scotland and Wales Bill in December 1976 , which was defeated , and then when new Bills were proposed she supported amending the legislation to allow the English to vote in the 1979 referendum on devolution .
Britain 's economy during the 1970s was so weak that Foreign Minister James Callaghan warned his fellow Labour Cabinet members in 1974 of the possibility of " a breakdown of democracy " , telling them that " If I were a young man , I would emigrate . " In mid @-@ 1978 , the economy began to improve and opinion polls showed Labour in the lead , with a general election being expected later that year and a Labour win a serious possibility . Now Prime Minister , Callaghan surprised many by announcing on 7 September that there would be no general election that year and he would wait until 1979 before going to the polls . Thatcher reacted to this by branding the Labour government " chickens " , and Liberal Party leader David Steel joined in , criticising Labour for " running scared " .
The Labour government then faced fresh public unease about the direction of the country and a damaging series of strikes during the winter of 1978 – 79 , dubbed the " Winter of Discontent " . The Conservatives attacked the Labour government 's unemployment record , using advertising with the slogan " Labour Isn 't Working " . A general election was called after Callaghan 's government lost a motion of no confidence in early 1979 . The Conservatives won a 44 @-@ seat majority in the House of Commons , and took charge .
= = Premiership of the United Kingdom : 1979 – 90 = =
Thatcher became Prime Minister on 4 May 1979 . Arriving at 10 Downing Street , she said , in a paraphrase of St. Francis of Assisi 's prayer Make Me an Instrument of Your Peace :
Where there is discord , may we bring harmony . Where there is error , may we bring truth . Where there is doubt , may we bring faith . And where there is despair , may we bring hope .
= = = Relations with the Queen = = =
As Prime Minister , Thatcher met weekly with Queen Elizabeth II to discuss government business , and their relationship came under close scrutiny .
In July 1986 , The Sunday Times reported claims attributed to the Queen 's advisers of a " rift " between Buckingham Palace and Downing Street " over a wide range of domestic and international issues " .
The Palace issued an official denial , heading off speculation about a possible constitutional crisis . After Thatcher 's retirement a senior Palace source again dismissed as " nonsense " the " stereotyped idea " that she had not got along with the Queen , or that they had fallen out over Thatcherite policies . Thatcher later wrote : " I always found the Queen 's attitude towards the work of the Government absolutely correct ... stories of clashes between ' two powerful women ' were just too good not to make up . "
= = = = Economy and taxation = = = =
Thatcher 's economic policy was influenced by monetarist thinking and economists such as Milton Friedman and Alan Walters . Together with Chancellor of the Exchequer Geoffrey Howe , she lowered direct taxes on income and increased indirect taxes . She increased interest rates to slow the growth of the money supply and thereby lower inflation , introduced cash limits on public spending , and reduced expenditure on social services such as education and housing . Her cuts in higher education spending resulted in her being the first Oxford @-@ educated post @-@ war Prime Minister not to be awarded an honorary doctorate by the University of Oxford , after a 738 to 319 vote of the governing assembly and a student petition . Her new centrally funded City Technology Colleges did not enjoy much success , and the Funding Agency for Schools was set up to control expenditure by opening and closing schools ; the Social Market Foundation , a centre @-@ left think tank , described it as having " an extraordinary range of dictatorial powers " .
Some Heathite Conservatives in the Cabinet , the so @-@ called " wets " , expressed doubt over Thatcher 's policies . The 1981 England riots resulted in the British media discussing the need for a policy U @-@ turn . At the 1980 Conservative Party conference , Thatcher addressed the issue directly , with a speech written by the playwright Ronald Millar that included the lines : " You turn if you want to . The lady 's not for turning ! "
Thatcher 's job approval rating fell to 23 % by December 1980 , lower than recorded for any previous Prime Minister . As the recession of the early 1980s deepened she increased taxes , despite concerns expressed in a statement signed by 364 leading economists issued towards the end of March 1981 .
By 1982 , the UK began to experience signs of economic recovery ; inflation was down to 8 @.@ 6 % from a high of 18 % , but unemployment was over 3 million for the first time since the 1930s . By 1983 overall economic growth was stronger and inflation and mortgage rates were at their lowest levels since 1970 , although manufacturing output had dropped by 30 % since 1978 and unemployment remained high , peaking at 3 @.@ 3 million in 1984 .
By 1987 , unemployment was falling , the economy was stable and strong , and inflation was low . Opinion polls showed a comfortable Conservative lead , and local council election results had also been successful , prompting Thatcher to call a general election for 11 June that year , despite the deadline for an election still being 12 months away . The election saw Thatcher re @-@ elected for a third successive term . Throughout the 1980s revenue from the 90 % tax on North Sea oil extraction was used as a short @-@ term funding source to balance the economy and pay the costs of reform .
Thatcher reformed local government taxes by replacing domestic rates – a tax based on the nominal rental value of a home – with the Community Charge ( or poll tax ) in which the same amount was charged to each adult resident . The new tax was introduced in Scotland in 1989 and in England and Wales the following year , and proved to be among the most unpopular policies of her premiership . Public disquiet culminated in a 70 @,@ 000 to 200 @,@ 000 @-@ strong demonstration in London on 31 March 1990 ; the demonstration around Trafalgar Square deteriorated into the Poll Tax Riots , leaving 113 people injured and 340 under arrest . The Community Charge was abolished by her successor , John Major .
= = = = Industrial relations = = = =
Thatcher was committed to reducing the power of the trade unions , whose leadership she accused of undermining parliamentary democracy and economic performance through strike action . Several unions launched strikes in response to legislation introduced to curb their power , but resistance eventually collapsed . Only 39 % of union members voted for Labour in the 1983 general election . According to the BBC , Thatcher " managed to destroy the power of the trade unions for almost a generation " .
The miners ' strike was the biggest confrontation between the unions and the Thatcher government . In March 1984 the National Coal Board ( NCB ) proposed to close 20 of the 174 state @-@ owned mines and cut 20 @,@ 000 jobs out of 187 @,@ 000 .
Two @-@ thirds of the country 's miners , led by the National Union of Mineworkers ( NUM ) under Arthur Scargill , downed tools in protest . Scargill had refused to hold a ballot on the strike , having previously lost three ballots on a national strike ( January 1982 , October 1982 , and March 1983 ) . This led to the strike being declared illegal .
Thatcher refused to meet the union 's demands and compared the miners ' dispute to the Falklands conflict two years earlier , declaring in a speech in 1984 : " We had to fight the enemy without in the Falklands . We always have to be aware of the enemy within , which is much more difficult to fight and more dangerous to liberty . " After a year out on strike , in March 1985 , the NUM leadership conceded without a deal . The cost to the economy was estimated to be at least £ 1 @.@ 5 billion , and the strike was blamed for much of the pound 's fall against the US dollar . The government closed 25 unprofitable coal mines in 1985 , and by 1992 a total of 97 had been closed ; those that remained were privatised in 1994 . The eventual closure of 150 coal mines , not all of which were losing money , resulted in the loss of tens of thousands of jobs and devastated entire communities . Miners had helped bring down the Heath government , and Thatcher was determined to succeed where he had failed . Her strategy of preparing fuel stocks , appointing a union @-@ busting NCB leader in Ian MacGregor , and ensuring police were adequately trained and equipped with riot gear , contributed to her victory .
The number of stoppages across the UK peaked at 4 @,@ 583 in 1979 , when more than 29 million working days were lost . In 1984 , the year of the miners ' strike , there were 1 @,@ 221 , resulting in the loss of more than 27 million working days . Stoppages then fell steadily throughout the rest of Thatcher 's premiership ; in 1990 there were 630 and fewer than 2 million working days lost , and they continued to fall thereafter . Thatcher 's time in office witnessed a sharp decline in trade union density , with the percentage of workers belonging to a trade union falling from 57 @.@ 3 % in 1979 to 49 @.@ 5 % in 1985 . In 1979 up until Thatcher 's last year in office , trade union membership also fell , from 13 @.@ 5 million in 1979 to fewer than 10 million .
= = = = Privatisation = = = =
The policy of privatisation has been called " a crucial ingredient of Thatcherism " . After the 1983 election the sale of state utilities accelerated ; more than £ 29 billion was raised from the sale of nationalised industries , and another £ 18 billion from the sale of council houses .
The process of privatisation , especially the preparation of nationalised industries for privatisation , was associated with marked improvements in performance , particularly in terms of labour productivity .
Some of the privatised industries , including gas , water , and electricity , were natural monopolies for which privatisation involved little increase in competition . The privatised industries that demonstrated improvement sometimes did so while still under state ownership . British Steel Corporation , for instance , made great gains in profitability while still a nationalised industry under the government @-@ appointed chairmanship of Ian MacGregor , who faced down trade @-@ union opposition to close plants and reduce the workforce by half . Regulation was also significantly expanded to compensate for the loss of direct government control , with the foundation of regulatory bodies such as Ofgas , Oftel and the National Rivers Authority . There was no clear pattern to the degree of competition , regulation , and performance among the privatised industries ; in most cases privatisation benefited consumers in terms of lower prices and improved efficiency , but the results overall were " mixed " .
Thatcher always resisted rail privatisation and was said to have told Transport Secretary Nicholas Ridley " Railway privatisation will be the Waterloo of this government . Please never mention the railways to me again . " Shortly before her resignation , she accepted the arguments for privatising British Rail , which her successor John Major implemented in 1994 . The effect of privatising the railway is disputed , with large growth in passenger numbers and increasing efficiency matched by large public subsidy and concern about foreign companies running British railways .
The privatisation of public assets was combined with financial deregulation in an attempt to fuel economic growth . Geoffrey Howe abolished Britain 's exchange controls in 1979 , allowing more capital to be invested in foreign markets , and the Big Bang of 1986 removed many restrictions on the London Stock Exchange . The Thatcher government encouraged growth in the finance and service sectors to compensate for Britain 's ailing manufacturing industry .
= = = = Northern Ireland = = = =
In 1980 and 1981 , Provisional Irish Republican Army ( IRA ) and Irish National Liberation Army ( INLA ) prisoners in Northern Ireland 's Maze Prison carried out hunger strikes in an effort to regain the status of political prisoners that had been removed in 1976 by the preceding Labour government .
Bobby Sands began the 1981 strike , saying that he would fast until death unless prison inmates won concessions over their living conditions . Thatcher refused to countenance a return to political status for the prisoners , declaring " Crime is crime is crime ; it is not political " , but nevertheless the UK government privately contacted republican leaders in a bid to bring the hunger strikes to an end . After the deaths of Sands and nine others , the strike ended . Some rights were restored to paramilitary prisoners , but not official recognition of political status . Violence in Northern Ireland escalated significantly during the hunger strikes ; in 1982 Sinn Féin politician Danny Morrison described Thatcher as " the biggest bastard we have ever known " .
Thatcher narrowly escaped injury in an IRA assassination attempt at a Brighton hotel early in the morning on 12 October 1984 . Five people were killed , including the wife of Cabinet Minister John Wakeham . Thatcher was staying at the hotel to attend the Conservative Party Conference , which she insisted should open as scheduled the following day . She delivered her speech as planned , a move that was widely supported across the political spectrum and enhanced her popularity with the public .
On 6 November 1981 , Thatcher and Irish Taoiseach Garret FitzGerald had established the Anglo @-@ Irish Inter @-@ Governmental Council , a forum for meetings between the two governments . On 15 November 1985 , Thatcher and FitzGerald signed the Hillsborough Anglo @-@ Irish Agreement , the first time a British government had given the Republic of Ireland an advisory role in the governance of Northern Ireland . In protest the Ulster Says No movement attracted 100 @,@ 000 to a rally in Belfast , Ian Gow resigned as Minister of State in the HM Treasury , and all fifteen Unionist MPs resigned their parliamentary seats ; only one was not returned in the subsequent by @-@ elections on 23 January 1986 .
= = = Environment = = =
Thatcher supported an active climate protection policy and was instrumental in the creation of the Environmental Protection Act 1990 and in founding the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and the British Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research in Exeter . Thatcher helped to put climate change , acid rain and general pollution in the British mainstream in the early 1980s . Her speeches included one to Royal Society on 27 September 1988 and to the UN general assembly in November 1989 . She did not visit the Earth Summit 1992 and later became sceptical about climate change policy .
= = = Foreign affairs = = =
Thatcher 's first foreign policy crisis came with the 1979 Soviet invasion of Afghanistan . She condemned the invasion , said it showed the bankruptcy of a détente policy , and helped convince some British athletes to boycott the 1980 Moscow Olympics . She gave weak support to American President Jimmy Carter who tried to punish the USSR with economic sanctions . Britain 's economic situation was precarious , and most of NATO was reluctant to cut trade ties . It was reported that her government secretly supplied Saddam Hussein with military equipment as early as 1981 .
Thatcher became closely aligned with the Cold War policies of United States President Ronald Reagan , based on their shared distrust of Communism , although she strongly opposed Reagan 's October 1983 invasion of Grenada . Reagan had assured Thatcher that an invasion was not contemplated , and thereafter Thatcher felt she could never fully trust Reagan again . During her first year as Prime Minister she supported NATO 's decision to deploy US nuclear cruise and Pershing II missiles in Western Europe and permitted the US to station more than 160 cruise missiles at RAF Greenham Common , starting on 14 November 1983 and triggering mass protests by the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament . She bought the Trident nuclear missile submarine system from the US to replace Polaris , tripling the UK 's nuclear forces at an eventual cost of more than £ 12 billion ( at 1996 – 97 prices ) . Thatcher 's preference for defence ties with the US was demonstrated in the Westland affair of January 1986 , when she acted with colleagues to allow the struggling helicopter manufacturer Westland to refuse a takeover offer from the Italian firm Agusta in favour of the management 's preferred option , a link with Sikorsky Aircraft Corporation . The UK Defence Secretary , Michael Heseltine , who had supported the Agusta deal , resigned in protest .
On 2 April 1982 the ruling military junta in Argentina ordered the invasion of the British @-@ controlled Falkland Islands and South Georgia , triggering the Falklands War . The subsequent crisis was " a defining moment of her [ Thatcher 's ] premiership " . At the suggestion of Harold Macmillan and Robert Armstrong , she set up and chaired a small War Cabinet ( formally called ODSA , Overseas and Defence committee , South Atlantic ) to take charge of the conduct of the war , which by 5 – 6 April had authorised and dispatched a naval task force to retake the islands . Argentina surrendered on 14 June and the operation was hailed a success , notwithstanding the deaths of 255 British servicemen and 3 Falkland Islanders . Argentinian deaths totalled 649 , half of them after the nuclear @-@ powered submarine HMS Conqueror torpedoed and sank the cruiser ARA General Belgrano on 2 May . Thatcher was criticised for the neglect of the Falklands ' defence that led to the war , and especially by Tam Dalyell in parliament for the decision to sink the General Belgrano , but overall she was considered a highly capable and committed war leader . The " Falklands factor " , an economic recovery beginning early in 1982 , and a bitterly divided opposition all contributed to Thatcher 's second election victory in 1983 . Thatcher often referred after the war to the " Falklands Spirit " ; Hastings and Jenkins ( 1983 ) suggested that this reflected her preference for the streamlined decision @-@ making of her War Cabinet over the painstaking deal @-@ making of peace @-@ time cabinet government .
In September 1982 she visited China to discuss with Deng Xiaoping the sovereignty of Hong Kong after 1997 . China was the first communist state Thatcher had visited and she was the first British prime minister to visit China . Throughout their meeting , she sought the PRC 's agreement to a continued British presence in the territory . Deng stated that the PRC 's sovereignty on Hong Kong was non @-@ negotiable , but he was willing to settle the sovereignty issue with Britain through formal negotiations , and both governments promised to maintain Hong Kong 's stability and prosperity . After the two @-@ year negotiations , Thatcher conceded to the PRC government and signed the Sino @-@ British Joint Declaration in Beijing in 1984 , agreeing to hand over Hong Kong 's sovereignty in 1997 .
Although saying that she was in favour of " peaceful negotiations " to end apartheid , Thatcher stood against the sanctions imposed on South Africa by the Commonwealth and the EC . She attempted to preserve trade with South Africa while persuading the government there to abandon apartheid . This included " [ c ] asting herself as President Botha 's candid friend " , and inviting him to visit the UK in June 1984 , in spite of the " inevitable demonstrations " against his government . Thatcher dismissed the African National Congress ( ANC ) in October 1987 as " a typical terrorist organisation " .
The Thatcher government supported the Khmer Rouge keeping their seat in the UN after they were ousted from power in Cambodia by the Cambodian – Vietnamese War . Although denying it at the time they also sent the SAS to train the non @-@ Communist members of the CGDK to fight against the Vietnamese @-@ backed People 's Republic of Kampuchea government .
Thatcher 's antipathy towards European integration became more pronounced during her premiership , particularly after her third election victory in 1987 . During a 1988 speech in Bruges she outlined her opposition to proposals from the European Community ( EC ) , forerunner of the European Union , for a federal structure and increased centralisation of decision making . Thatcher and her party had supported British membership of the EC in the 1975 national referendum , but she believed that the role of the organisation should be limited to ensuring free trade and effective competition , and feared that the EC 's approach was at odds with her views on smaller government and deregulation ; in 1988 , she remarked , " We have not successfully rolled back the frontiers of the state in Britain , only to see them re @-@ imposed at a European level , with a European super @-@ state exercising a new dominance from Brussels " .
Thatcher was firmly opposed to the UK 's membership of the Exchange Rate Mechanism , a precursor to European monetary union , believing that it would constrain the British economy , despite the urging of her Chancellor of the Exchequer Nigel Lawson and Foreign Secretary Geoffrey Howe , but she was persuaded by John Major to join in October 1990 , at what proved to be too high a rate .
In April 1986 , Thatcher permitted US F @-@ 111s to use Royal Air Force bases for the bombing of Libya in retaliation for the alleged Libyan bombing of a Berlin discothèque , citing the right of self @-@ defence under Article 51 of the UN Charter . Polls suggested that fewer than one in three British citizens approved of Thatcher 's decision . She was in the US on a state visit when Iraqi leader Saddam Hussein invaded neighbouring Kuwait in August 1990 . During her talks with President George H. W. Bush , who had succeeded Reagan in 1989 , she recommended intervention , and put pressure on Bush to deploy troops in the Middle East to drive the Iraqi Army out of Kuwait . Bush was apprehensive about the plan , prompting Thatcher to remark to him during a telephone conversation that " This was no time to go wobbly ! " Thatcher 's government provided military forces to the international coalition in the build @-@ up to the Gulf War , but she had resigned by the time hostilities began on 17 January 1991 .
Thatcher was one of the first Western leaders to respond warmly to reformist Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev . Following Reagan – Gorbachev summit meetings and reforms enacted by Gorbachev in the USSR , she declared in November 1988 that " We 're not in a Cold War now " , but rather in a " new relationship much wider than the Cold War ever was " . She went on a state visit to the Soviet Union in 1984 and met with Gorbachev and Nikolai Ryzhkov , the Chairman of the Council of Ministers . Thatcher was initially opposed to German reunification , telling Gorbachev that it " would lead to a change to postwar borders , and we cannot allow that because such a development would undermine the stability of the whole international situation and could endanger our security " . She expressed concern that a united Germany would align itself more closely with the Soviet Union and move away from NATO .
= = = Challenges to leadership and resignation = = =
Thatcher was challenged for the leadership of the Conservative Party by the little @-@ known backbench MP Sir Anthony Meyer in the 1989 leadership election . Of the 374 Conservative MPs eligible to vote , 314 voted for Thatcher and 33 for Meyer . Her supporters in the party viewed the result as a success , and rejected suggestions that there was discontent within the party .
During her premiership Thatcher had the second @-@ lowest average approval rating , at 40 % , of any post @-@ war Prime Minister . Polls consistently showed that she was less popular than her party . A self @-@ described conviction politician , Thatcher always insisted that she did not care about her poll ratings , pointing instead to her unbeaten election record .
Opinion polls in September 1990 reported that Labour had established a 14 % lead over the Conservatives , and by November the Conservatives had been trailing Labour for 18 months . These ratings , together with Thatcher 's combative personality and willingness to override colleagues ' opinions , contributed to discontent within the Conservative Party .
On 1 November 1990 , Geoffrey Howe the last remaining member of Thatcher 's original 1979 cabinet , resigned from his position as Deputy Prime Minister over her refusal to agree to a timetable for Britain to join the European Exchange Rate Mechanism . In his resignation speech on 13 November , Howe commented on Thatcher 's European stance : " It is rather like sending your opening batsmen to the crease only for them to find the moment that the first balls are bowled that their bats have been broken before the game by the team captain . " His resignation was fatal to Thatcher 's premiership .
The next day , Michael Heseltine mounted a challenge for the leadership of the Conservative Party . Opinion polls had indicated that he would give the Conservatives a national lead over Labour . Although Thatcher won the first ballot with 204 : 152 votes and 16 abstentions , Heseltine had attracted sufficient support to force a second ballot . Under party rules , Thatcher not only needed to win a majority , but her margin over Heseltine had to be equivalent to 15 % of the 372 Conservative MPs in order to win the leadership election outright ; with 54 @.@ 8 % against 40 @.@ 9 % for Heseltine , she came up four votes short . Thatcher initially stated that she intended to " fight on and fight to win " the second ballot , but consultation with her Cabinet persuaded her to withdraw . After visiting the Queen , calling other world leaders , and making one final Commons speech , she left Downing Street in tears . She reportedly regarded her ousting as a betrayal .
Thatcher was replaced as Prime Minister and party leader by her Chancellor John Major , who prevailed over Heseltine in the subsequent ballots . Major oversaw an upturn in Conservative support in the 17 months leading up to the 1992 general election and led the Conservatives to their fourth successive victory on 9 April 1992 . Thatcher had favoured Major over Heseltine in the leadership contest , but her support for him weakened in later years .
= = Later life = =
Thatcher returned to the backbenches as MP for Finchley for two years after leaving the premiership . She retired from the House at the 1992 election , aged 66 , saying that leaving the Commons would allow her more freedom to speak her mind .
= = = Post @-@ Commons : 1992 – 2003 = = =
After leaving the House of Commons , Thatcher became the first former Prime Minister to set up a foundation ; the British wing of the Margaret Thatcher Foundation was dissolved in 2005 because of financial difficulties . She wrote two volumes of memoirs , The Downing Street Years ( 1993 ) and The Path to Power ( 1995 ) . In 1991 , she and her husband Denis moved to a house in Chester Square , a residential garden square in central London 's Belgravia district .
In 1992 , Thatcher was hired by the tobacco company Philip Morris as a " geopolitical consultant " for $ 250 @,@ 000 per year and an annual contribution of $ 250 @,@ 000 to her foundation . She also earned $ 50 @,@ 000 for each speech she delivered .
In August 1992 , Thatcher called for NATO to stop the Serbian assault on Goražde and Sarajevo to end ethnic cleansing during the Bosnian War . She compared the situation in Bosnia to " the worst excesses of the Nazis " , and warned that there could be a " holocaust " . She had been an advocate of Croatian and Slovenian independence .
In a 1991 interview for Croatian Radiotelevision , Thatcher had commented on the Yugoslav Wars ; she was critical of Western governments for not recognising the breakaway republics of Croatia and Slovenia as independent states and for not supplying them with arms after the Serbian @-@ led Yugoslav Army attacked .
She made a series of speeches in the Lords criticising the Maastricht Treaty , describing it as " a treaty too far " and stated " I could never have signed this treaty " . She cited A. V. Dicey when stating that as all three main parties were in favour of the treaty , the people should have their say in a referendum .
Thatcher was honorary Chancellor of the College of William & Mary in Virginia ( 1993 – 2000 ) and also of the University of Buckingham ( 1992 – 99 ) , the UK 's first private university , which she had opened in 1975 .
After Tony Blair 's election as Labour Party leader in 1994 , Thatcher praised Blair in an interview as " probably the most formidable Labour leader since Hugh Gaitskell . I see a lot of socialism behind their front bench , but not in Mr Blair . I think he genuinely has moved " .
In 1998 , Thatcher called for the release of former Chilean dictator Augusto Pinochet when Spain had him arrested and sought to try him for human rights violations . She cited the help he gave Britain during the Falklands War . In 1999 , she visited him while he was under house arrest near London . Pinochet was released in March 2000 on medical grounds by the Home Secretary Jack Straw , without facing trial .
In the 2001 general election , Thatcher supported the Conservative general election campaign , as she had done in 1992 and 1997 , and in the Conservative leadership election shortly after , she supported Iain Duncan Smith over Kenneth Clarke .
In 2002 , Thatcher encouraged President George W. Bush to aggressively tackle the " unfinished business " of Saddam Hussein 's Iraq , and praised Tony Blair for his " strong , bold leadership " in standing with Bush in the Iraq War .
She broached the same subject in her Statecraft : Strategies for a Changing World , which was published that year and dedicated to Ronald Reagan , writing that there would be no peace in the Middle East until Saddam Hussein was toppled . Her book also said that Israel must trade land for peace , and that the European Union ( EU ) was " fundamentally unreformable " , " a classic utopian project , a monument to the vanity of intellectuals , a programme whose inevitable destiny is failure " . She argued that Britain should renegotiate its terms of membership or else leave the EU and join the North American Free Trade Area .
That same year , she suffered several small strokes and was advised by her doctors not to engage in further public speaking . On 23 March , she announced that on the advice of her doctors she would cancel all planned speaking engagements and accept no more .
= = = Husband 's death : 2003 = = =
Sir Denis Thatcher died of pancreatic cancer on 26 June 2003 and was cremated on 3 July . She had paid tribute to him in The Downing Street Years , writing " Being Prime Minister is a lonely job . In a sense , it ought to be : you cannot lead from the crowd . But with Denis there I was never alone . What a man . What a husband . What a friend . "
= = = Final years : 2003 – 13 = = =
On 11 June 2004 , Thatcher , against doctor 's orders , attended the state funeral service for Ronald Reagan . She delivered her eulogy via videotape ; in view of her health , the message had been pre @-@ recorded several months earlier . Thatcher flew to California with the Reagan entourage , and attended the memorial service and interment ceremony for the president at the Ronald Reagan Presidential Library .
Thatcher celebrated her 80th birthday at the Mandarin Oriental Hotel in Hyde Park , London , on 13 October 2005 ; guests included the Queen , the Duke of Edinburgh , Princess Alexandra and Tony Blair . Geoffrey Howe , by then Lord Howe of Aberavon , was also present , and said of his former leader : " Her real triumph was to have transformed not just one party but two , so that when Labour did eventually return , the great bulk of Thatcherism was accepted as irreversible . "
According to a later article in The Daily Telegraph , Thatcher 's daughter Carol first revealed that her mother had dementia in 2005 , saying that " Mum doesn 't read much any more because of her memory loss ... It 's pointless . She can 't remember the beginning of a sentence by the time she reaches the end . " She later recounted how she was first struck by her mother 's dementia when in conversation Thatcher confused the Falklands and Yugoslav conflicts ; she recalled the pain of needing to tell her mother repeatedly that Denis Thatcher was dead .
In 2006 , Thatcher attended the official Washington , D.C. memorial service to commemorate the fifth anniversary of the September 11 attacks on the United States . She was a guest of Vice President Dick Cheney , and met Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice during her visit .
In February 2007 , Thatcher became the first living British Prime Minister to be honoured with a statue in the Houses of Parliament . The bronze statue stands opposite that of her political hero , Sir Winston Churchill , and was unveiled on 21 February 2007 with Thatcher in attendance ; she made a brief speech in the members ' lobby of the House of Commons , responding : " I might have preferred iron — but bronze will do ... It won 't rust . "
She was a public supporter of the Prague Declaration on European Conscience and Communism and the resulting Prague Process , and sent a public letter of support to its preceding conference .
After collapsing at a House of Lords dinner , Thatcher was admitted to St Thomas ' Hospital in central London on 7 March 2008 for tests . In 2009 she was hospitalised again when she fell and broke her arm .
Thatcher returned to 10 Downing Street in late November 2009 for the unveiling of an official portrait by artist Richard Stone , an unusual honour for a living ex @-@ Prime Minister . Stone had previously painted portraits of the Queen and the Queen Mother .
On 4 July 2011 , Thatcher was to attend a ceremony for the unveiling of a 10 @-@ foot statue to former American President Ronald Reagan , outside the American Embassy in London , but was unable to attend due to her frail health . On 31 July 2011 , it was announced that her office in the House of Lords had been closed . Earlier that month , Thatcher had been named the most competent British Prime Minister of the past 30 years in an Ipsos MORI poll .
= = = Death and funeral : 2013 = = =
Lady Thatcher died on 8 April 2013 at the age of 87 after suffering a stroke . She had been staying at a suite in the Ritz Hotel in London since December 2012 after having difficulty with stairs at her Chester Square home in Belgravia .
Reactions to the news of Thatcher 's death were mixed in the UK , ranging from tributes lauding her as Britain 's greatest @-@ ever peacetime Prime Minister to public celebrations of her death and expressions of personalised vitriol .
Details of Thatcher 's funeral had been agreed with her in advance . She received a ceremonial funeral , including full military honours , with a church service at St Paul 's Cathedral on 17 April .
Queen Elizabeth II and Prince Philip , Duke of Edinburgh , attended the funeral , the second time in the Queen 's reign that she had attended the funeral of a former prime minister ( the first being that of Winston Churchill in 1965 ) .
After the service at St Paul 's Cathedral , Thatcher 's body was cremated at Mortlake Crematorium , where her husband had been cremated . On 28 September a service for Thatcher was held in the All Saints Chapel of the Royal Hospital Chelsea 's Margaret Thatcher Infirmary . In a private ceremony Thatcher 's ashes were interred in the grounds of the hospital , next to those of her husband .
= = Legacy = =
= = = Political legacy = = =
Thatcherism represented a systematic , decisive rejection and reversal of the post @-@ war consensus , Whereby the major political parties largely agreed on the central themes of Keynesianism , the welfare state , nationalised industry , and close regulation of the economy . There was one major exception : the National Health Service , which was widely popular . She promised Britons in 1982 , the NHS is " safe in our hands . "
Thatcher defined her own political philosophy in a major and controversial break with One Nation Conservatives like her predecessor Edward Heath , in her statement to Douglas Keay , published in Woman 's Own magazine in September 1987 :
I think we have gone through a period when too many children and people have been given to understand " I have a problem , it is the Government 's job to cope with it ! " or " I have a problem , I will go and get a grant to cope with it ! " " I am homeless , the Government must house me ! " and so they are casting their problems on society and who is society ? There is no such thing ! There are individual men and women and there are families and no government can do anything except through people and people look to themselves first . It is our duty to look after ourselves and then also to help look after our neighbour and life is a reciprocal business and people have got the entitlements too much in mind without the obligations .
The number of adults owning shares rose from 7 per cent to 25 per cent during her tenure , and more than a million families bought their council houses , giving an increase from 55 per cent to 67 per cent in owner @-@ occupiers from 1979 to 1990 . The houses were sold at a discount of 33 – 55 per cent , leading to large profits for some new owners . Personal wealth rose by 80 per cent in real terms during the 1980s , mainly due to rising house prices and increased earnings . Shares in the privatised utilities were sold below their market value to ensure quick and wide sales , rather than maximise national income .
Thatcher 's premiership was also marked by periods of high unemployment and social unrest , and many critics on the left of the political spectrum fault her economic policies for the unemployment level ; many of the areas affected by high unemployment as well as her monetarist economic policies remain blighted by social problems such as drug abuse and family breakdown .
Speaking in Scotland in April 2009 , before the 30th anniversary of her election as Prime Minister , Thatcher insisted she had no regrets and was right to introduce the poll tax , and to withdraw subsidies from " outdated industries , whose markets were in terminal decline " , subsidies that created " the culture of dependency , which had done such damage to Britain " . Political economist Susan Strange called the new financial growth model " casino capitalism " , reflecting her view that speculation and financial trading were becoming more important to the economy than industry .
Critics on the left describe her as " divisive " and claim she promoted greed and selfishness . Michael White , writing in the New Statesman in February 2009 , challenged the view that her reforms had brought a net benefit . Some critics contend that , despite being Britain 's first woman Prime Minister , Thatcher did " little to advance the political cause of women " , either within her party or the government , and some British feminists regarded her as " an enemy " . Her stance on immigration was perceived by some as part of a rising racist public discourse , which Professor Martin Barker called " new racism " .
Influenced at the outset by Keith Joseph , the term " Thatcherism " came to refer to her policies as well as aspects of her ethical outlook and personal style , including moral absolutism , nationalism , interest in the individual , and an uncompromising approach to achieving political goals . The nickname " Iron Lady " , originally given to her by the Soviets , became associated with her uncompromising politics and leadership style .
Thatcher 's tenure of 11 years and 209 days as Prime Minister was the longest since Lord Salisbury ( 13 years and 252 days in three spells starting in 1885 ) , and the longest continuous period in office since Lord Liverpool ( 14 years and 305 days starting in 1812 ) .
She was voted the fourth @-@ greatest British Prime Minister of the 20th century in a poll of 139 academics organised by MORI , and in 2002 was ranked number 16 in the BBC poll of the 100 Greatest Britons . In 1999 , Time magazine named Thatcher one of the 100 most important people of the 20th century .
Thatcher 's death prompted mixed reactions , including reflections of criticism as well as praise . Groups celebrated her death in Brixton , Leeds , Bristol and Glasgow , and a crowd of 3 @,@ 000 gathered in Trafalgar Square to celebrate her demise and protest against her legacy .
Shortly after Thatcher 's death , Scotland 's First Minister , Alex Salmond , argued that her policies had the " unintended consequence " of encouraging Scottish devolution . Lord Foulkes agreed on Scotland Tonight that she had provided " the impetus " for devolution .
= = = Cultural depictions = = =
One of the earliest satires of Thatcher as Prime Minister involved Wells ( as writer / performer ) , Janet Brown ( voicing Thatcher ) and future Spitting Image producer John Lloyd , who in 1979 were teamed up by producer Martin Lewis for the satirical audio album The Iron Lady consisting of skits and songs satirising Thatcher 's rise to power . The album was released in September 1979 , four months after Thatcher became Premier .
Thatcher was the subject or the inspiration for 1980s protest songs . Billy Bragg and Paul Weller helped to form the Red Wedge collective to support Labour in opposition to Thatcher .
Thatcher was lampooned by satirist John Wells in several media . Wells collaborated with Richard Ingrams on the spoof " Dear Bill " letters which ran as a column in Private Eye magazine , were published in book form , and later became a West End stage revue named Anyone for Denis ? , with Wells in the role of Denis Thatcher . The revue was followed by a 1982 TV special , directed by Dick Clement , in which Thatcher was portrayed by Angela Thorne . Spitting Image , a British TV show , satirised Thatcher as a bully who ridiculed her own ministers . She was voiced by Steve Nallon .
Margaret Thatcher has been depicted in many television programmes , documentaries , films and plays . She was played by Patricia Hodge in Ian Curteis 's long unproduced The Falklands Play ( 2002 ) , and by Andrea Riseborough in the TV film The Long Walk to Finchley ( 2008 ) . She is the title character in two films , portrayed by Lindsay Duncan in Margaret ( 2009 ) and by Meryl Streep in The Iron Lady ( 2011 ) , in which she is depicted as suffering from dementia or Alzheimer 's disease .
= = Titles , awards and honours = =
Thatcher became a Privy Councillor ( PC ) upon becoming Secretary of State for Education and Science in 1970 .
She was the first woman entitled to full membership rights as an honorary member of the Carlton Club on becoming leader of the Conservative Party in 1975 . Thatcher became an Honorary Fellow of the Royal Institute of Chemistry ( FRIC ) in 1979 .
Thatcher was bestowed with the Grand Cross of the Order of Good Hope , which was , at that time , the highest existing South African award , in 1991 , by President F. W. de Klerk .
Thatcher was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society ( FRS ) in 1983 , which caused controversy among some of the then @-@ existing Fellows .
Within two weeks of leaving office in 1990 , Thatcher was appointed a Member of the Order of Merit ( OM ) ( an order within the personal gift of the Queen ) . Her husband , Denis Thatcher , was made a Baronet at the same time .
In the Falklands , Margaret Thatcher Day has been marked every 10 January since 1992 , commemorating her visit in 1983 . Thatcher Drive in Stanley is named for her , as is Thatcher Peninsula in South Georgia , where the task force troops first set foot on the Falklands .
She became member of the House of Lords in 1992 with a life peerage as Baroness Thatcher , of Kesteven in the County of Lincolnshire . She was appointed a Lady Companion of the Order of the Garter ( LG ) , the UK 's highest order of chivalry , in 1995 .
She was a patron of The Heritage Foundation , which established the Margaret Thatcher Center for Freedom in 2005 .
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= 1st SAS Brigade =
The 1st Special Air Service Brigade ( 1st SAS ) was a fictional brigade during the Second World War . It was first formed in Cairo in 1941 , as part of a deception by Brigadier Dudley Clarke , to play on Italian fears of airborne attacks . Clarke used documents , photographs , news reports and even fake SAS soldiers to plant information about the brigade – he even named the Cairo @-@ based deception department , ' A ' Force , to bolster evidence of their existence .
In the summer of 1941 , when David Stirling was pitching his idea for a dedicated airborne commando unit ( which later evolved into the Special Air Service ) he obtained Clarke 's support partly by promising to use the SAS name . From late 1942 , Clarke used the 1st SAS in his major order of battle deception ( codenamed Operation Cascade ) . The brigade formed part of the fictional 4th Airborne Division ; between then and the end of the war it was used to mislead Axis commanders about the strength of Allied forces in North Africa , and as part of several specific tactical deceptions .
= = Formation = =
In late 1940 the Allies recovered the journal of an Italian officer during an operation at Sidi Barrani . The diary referred to fears of British paratroopers being landed to the Italian rear . At the time the Allies had no airborne troops in the North African region . Dudley Clarke , in charge of military deception in the region , decided to play on these fears by creating a fictional airborne unit . Clarke began Operation Abeam in January 1941 by creating a paper trail for the 1st SAS Brigade . The fictional unit was supposedly training for special missions in Transjordan . Clarke established their existence using documentary and physical subterfuge . Photographs of parachutists were printed in local papers , documents were planted with the enemy , Allied airmen were warned to look out for gliders ( Victor Jones mocked up some dummies to support the story ) , and a section of desert was cordoned off for " training " . To aid the rumours , two soldiers were dressed in 1st SAS uniforms and wandered around the Allied @-@ held cities of Cairo , Port Said , and Alexandria , where they were briefed to hint at missions in Crete or Libya .
By March , Clarke 's deception operations had grown and it was decided to create a formal department . He chose the name Advanced Headquarters ' A ' Force - the ' A ' being a subtle reference to airborne - in the hope that it would help support the existence of paratroopers in the area ( as well as hide the true purpose of the department ) . Clarke continued actively promoting the existence of 1st SAS until around June 1941 , and it appears that Axis commanders accepted the brigade as real . Clarke had created the unit with no specific aims , although it did mean that the enemy command had to factor the existence of airborne troops into any battle plan . However , Abeam and the 1st SAS represented his first attempt at inflating the apparent strength of Allied forces , a tactic he would use significantly over the rest of the war . The brigade occasionally featured in Clarke 's tactical deceptions ; such as a March 1941 threat to Axis supply lines near Tripoli .
= = = Stirling 's SAS = = =
In May 1941 , David Stirling , an injured British forces Commando in the North Africa theatre , proposed the idea of small airborne special forces units to operate behind enemy lines . Whilst lobbying for support within Middle East Command it came to Clarke 's attention , who offered his backing provided the force could also be used to help his own deception schemes .
The name SAS came mainly from the fact I was anxious to get the full co @-@ operation of a very ingenious individual called Dudley Clark [ e ] , who was responsible for running a deception operation in Cairo ... Clark [ e ] was quite an influential chap and promised to give me all the help he could if I would use the name of his bogus brigade of parachutists , which is the Special Air Service , the SAS
Stirling 's plan received approval in the summer of 1941 and the unit was designated " L " Detachment , Special Air Service . The name was intended to add further evidence of an airborne presence , specifically 1st SAS , in the region .
= = 4th Airborne = =
Through 1941 and 1942 , 1st SAS formed part of Clarke 's overall strategy to deceive the Axis about the strength of Allied forces in the region . In early 1942 , this ad hoc situation was formalised as Operation Cascade ; an entire fictional order of battle featuring numerous units .
By late 1942 , the Allies had begun to train a number of real airborne units in the North African theatre . Clarke created the fictional 4th Airborne Division out of several units , both real and fictional , including 1st SAS . Under the umbrella of Cascade , the aim was to mislead the Axis that paratroopers , most of whom were still training , posed a realistic threat . The 4th Airborne were utilised in a number of specific operational deceptions over the next few years ( including Operation Zeppelin and Operation Barclay ) , most often to threaten fictional invasions as a distraction from real Allied operations .
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= Triangulum Australe =
Triangulum Australe is a small constellation in the far Southern Celestial Hemisphere . Its name is Latin for " the southern triangle " , which distinguishes it from Triangulum in the northern sky and is derived from the almost equilateral pattern of its three brightest stars . It was first depicted on a celestial globe as Triangulus Antarcticus by Petrus Plancius in 1589 , and later with more accuracy and its current name by Johann Bayer in his 1603 Uranometria . The French explorer and astronomer Nicolas Louis de Lacaille charted and gave the brighter stars their Bayer designations in 1756 .
Alpha Trianguli Australis , known as Atria , is a second magnitude orange giant and the brightest star in the constellation , as well as the 42nd @-@ brightest star in the night sky . Completing the triangle are the two white main sequence stars Beta and Gamma Trianguli Australis . Although the constellation lies in the Milky Way and contains many stars , deep @-@ sky objects are not prominent . Notable features include the open cluster NGC 6025 and planetary nebula NGC 5979 .
= = History = =
Italian navigator Amerigo Vespucci explored the New World at the beginning of the 16th century . He learnt to recognize the stars in the southern hemisphere and made a catalogue for his patron king Manuel I of Portugal , which is now lost . As well as the catalogue , Vespucci wrote descriptions of the southern stars , including a triangle which may be either Triangulum Australe or Apus . This was sent to his patron in Florence , Lorenzo di Pierfrancesco de ' Medici , and published as Mundus Novus in 1504 . The first depiction of the constellation was provided in 1589 by Flemish astronomer and clergyman Petrus Plancius on a 32 1 ⁄ 2 @-@ cm diameter celestial globe published in Amsterdam by Dutch cartographer Jacob Floris van Langren , where it was called Triangulus Antarcticus and incorrectly portrayed to the south of Argo Navis . His student Petrus Keyzer , along with Dutch explorer Frederick de Houtman , coined the name Den Zuyden Trianghel . Triangulum Australe was more accurately depicted in Johann Bayer 's celestial atlas Uranometria in 1603 , where it was also given its current name .
Nicolas Louis de Lacaille portrayed the constellations of Norma , Circinus and Triangulum Australe as a set square and ruler , a compass , and a surveyor 's level respectively in a set of draughtsman 's instruments in his 1756 map of the southern stars . Also depicting it as a surveyor 's level , German Johann Bode gave it the alternate name of Libella in his Uranographia .
German poet and author Philippus Caesius saw the three main stars as representing the Three Patriarchs , Abraham , Isaac and Jacob ( with Atria as Abraham ) . The Wardaman people of the Northern Territory in Australia perceived the stars of Triangulum Australe as the tail of the Rainbow Serpent , which stretched out from near Crux across to Scorpius . Overhead in October , the Rainbow Serpent " gives Lightning a nudge " to bring on the wet season rains in November .
= = Characteristics = =
Triangulum Australe is a small constellation bordered by Norma to the north , Circinus to the west , Apus to the south and Ara to the east . It lies near the Pointers ( Alpha and Beta Centauri ) , with only Circinus in between . The constellation is located within the Milky Way , and hence has many stars . A roughly equilateral triangle , it is easily identifiable . Triangulum Australe lies too far south in the celestial southern hemisphere to be visible from Europe , yet is circumpolar from most of the southern hemisphere . The three @-@ letter abbreviation for the constellation , as adopted by the International Astronomical Union in 1922 , is " TrA " . The official constellation boundaries , as set by Eugène Delporte in 1930 , are defined by a polygon of 18 segments . In the equatorial coordinate system , the right ascension coordinates of these borders lie between 14h 56.4m and 17h 13.5m , while the declination coordinates are between − 60 @.@ 26 ° and − 70 @.@ 51 ° . Triangulum Australe culminates each year at 9 p.m. on 23 August .
= = Notable features = =
= = = Bright stars = = =
In defining the constellation , Lacaille gave twelve stars Bayer designations of Alpha through to Lambda , with two close stars called Eta ( one now known by its Henry Draper catalogue number ) , while Lambda was later dropped due to its dimness . The three brightest stars , Alpha , Beta and Gamma , make up the triangle . Readily identified by its orange hue , Alpha Trianguli Australis is a bright giant star of spectral type K2 IIb @-@ IIIa with an apparent magnitude of + 1 @.@ 91 that is the 42nd @-@ brightest star in the night sky . It lies 424 light @-@ years ( 130 parsecs ) away and has an absolute magnitude of − 3 @.@ 68 and is 5500 times more luminous than our sun . With a diameter 130 times that of our sun , it would almost reach the orbit of Venus if placed at the centre of the Solar System . The proper name Atria is a contraction of its Bayer designation . Beta Trianguli Australis is a double star , the primary being a F @-@ type main @-@ sequence star with a stellar classification of F1V , and an apparent magnitude of 2 @.@ 85 . Lying only 40 light @-@ years ( 12 parsecs ) away , it has an absolute magnitude of 2 @.@ 38 . Its companion , almost 3 arcminutes away , is a 13th magnitude star which may or may not be in orbit around Beta . The remaining member of the triangle is Gamma Trianguli Australis with an apparent magnitude of 2 @.@ 87 . It is an A @-@ type main sequence star of spectral class A1 V , which lies 180 light @-@ years ( 55 parsecs ) away .
Located outside the triangle near Beta , Delta Trianguli Australis is the fourth brightest star at apparent magnitude + 3 @.@ 8 . It is a yellow giant of spectral type G2Ib @-@ II and lies 606 light years ( 182 parsecs ) away . A binary star , it has a 12th magnitude companion star separated by 30 arcseconds from the primary . Lying halfway between Beta and Gamma , Epsilon Trianguli Australis is another double star . The primary component , Epsilon Trianguli Australis A , is an orange K @-@ type sub @-@ giant of spectral type K1.5III with an apparent magnitude of + 4 @.@ 11 . The companion , Epsilon Trianguli Australis B ( or HD 138510 ) , is a white main sequence star of spectral type A9IV / V which has an apparent magnitude of + 9 @.@ 32 , Zeta Trianguli Australis appears as a star of apparent magnitude + 4 @.@ 91 and spectral class F9V , but is actually a spectroscopic binary with a near companion , probably a red dwarf . The pair orbit each other once every 13 days . A young star , its proper motion indicates it is a member of the Ursa Major moving group . Iota Trianguli Australis shows itself to be a multiple star system composed of a yellow and a white star when seen though a 7 @.@ 5 cm telescope . The brighter star has a spectral type of F4IV and is a spectroscopic binary whose components are two yellow @-@ white stars which orbit each other every 39 @.@ 88 days . The primary is a Gamma Doradus variable , pulsating over a period of 1 @.@ 45 days . The fainter star is not associated with the system , hence the system is an optical double . HD 147018 is a sun @-@ like star of apparent magnitude 8 @.@ 3 and spectral type G9V , which was found to have two exoplanets , HD 147018 b and HD 147018 c , in 2009 .
Of apparent magnitude 5 @.@ 11 , the yellow bright giant Kappa Trianguli Australis of spectral type G5IIa lies around 1207 light years ( 370 parsecs ) distant from the Solar System . Eta Trianguli Australis ( or Eta1 Trianguli Australis ) is a Be star of spectral type B7IVe which is 661 light years ( 203 parsecs ) from earth , with an apparent magnitude of 5 @.@ 89 . Lacaille named a close @-@ by star as Eta as well , which was inconsistently followed by Francis Baily , who used the name for the brighter or both stars in two different publications . Despite their faintness , Benjamin Gould upheld their Bayer designation as they were closer than 25 degrees to the south celestial pole . The second Eta is now designated as HD 150550 . It is a variable star of average magnitude 6 @.@ 53 and spectral type A1III .
= = = Variable stars = = =
Triangulum Australe contains several cepheid variables , all of which are too faint to be seen with the naked eye : R Trianguli Australis ranges from apparent magnitude 6 @.@ 4 to 6 @.@ 9 over a period of 3 @.@ 389 days , S Trianguli Australis varies from magnitude 6 @.@ 1 to 6 @.@ 8 over 6 @.@ 323 days , and U Trianguli Australis ' brightness changes from 7 @.@ 5 to 8 @.@ 3 over 2 @.@ 568 days . All three are yellow @-@ white giants of spectral type F7Ib / II , F8II , and F8Ib / II respectively . RT Trianguli Australis is an unusual cepheid variable which shows strong absorption bands in molecular fragments of C2 , ⫶ CH and ⋅ CN , and has been classified as a carbon cepheid of spectral type R. It varies between magnitudes 9 @.@ 2 and 9 @.@ 97 over 1 @.@ 95 days . Lying nearby Gamma , X Trianguli Australis is a variable carbon star with an average magnitude of 5 @.@ 63 . It has two periods of around 385 and 455 days , and is of spectral type C5 , 5 ( Nb ) .
EK Trianguli Australis , a dwarf nova of the SU Ursae Majoris type , was first noticed in 1978 and officially described in 1980 . It consists of a white dwarf and a donor star which orbit each other every 1 @.@ 5 hours . The white dwarf sucks matter from the other star onto an accretion disc and periodically erupts , reaching magnitude 11 @.@ 2 in superoutbursts , 12 @.@ 1 in normal outbursts and remaining at magnitude 16 @.@ 7 when quiet . Nova Trianguli Australis 2008 was a slow nova which peaked at magnitude 8 @.@ 4 in April 2008 , before fading to magnitude 12 @.@ 4 by September of that year .
= = = Deep @-@ sky objects = = =
Triangulum Australe has few deep @-@ sky objects — one open cluster and a few planetary nebulae and faint galaxies . NGC 6025 is an open cluster with about 30 stars ranging from 7th to 9th magnitude . Located 3 degrees north and 1 east of Beta Trianguli Australis , it lies about 2 @,@ 500 light @-@ years ( 770 parsecs ) away and is about 11 light @-@ years ( 3 @.@ 4 parsecs ) in diameter . Its brightest star is MQ Trianguli Australis at apparent magnitude 7 @.@ 1 . NGC 5979 , a planetary nebula of apparent magnitude 12 @.@ 3 , has a blue @-@ green hue at higher magnifications , while Henize 2 @-@ 138 is a smaller planetary nebula of magnitude 11 @.@ 0 . NGC 5938 is a remote spiral galaxy around 300 million light @-@ years ( 90 megaparsecs ) away . It is located 5 degrees south of Epsilon Trianguli Australis . ESO 69 @-@ 6 is a pair of merging galaxies located about 600 million light years ( 185 megaparsecs ) away . Their contents have been dragged out in long tails by the interaction .
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= Tyrannosaurus =
Tyrannosaurus ( / tᵻˌrænəˈsɔːrəs / or / taɪˌrænəˈsɔːrəs / , meaning " tyrant lizard " , from the Ancient Greek tyrannos ( τύραννος ) , " tyrant " , and sauros ( σαῦρος ) , " lizard " ) is a genus of coelurosaurian theropod dinosaur . The species Tyrannosaurus rex ( rex meaning " king " in Latin ) , is one of the most well @-@ represented of the large theropods . Tyrannosaurus lived throughout what is now western North America , on what was then an island continent known as Laramidia . Tyrannosaurus had a much wider range than other tyrannosaurids . Fossils are found in a variety of rock formations dating to the Maastrichtian age of the upper Cretaceous Period , 68 to 66 million years ago . It was the last known member of the tyrannosaurids , and among the last non @-@ avian dinosaurs to exist before the Cretaceous – Paleogene extinction event .
Like other tyrannosaurids , Tyrannosaurus was a bipedal carnivore with a massive skull balanced by a long , heavy tail . Relative to its large and powerful hind limbs , Tyrannosaurus fore limbs were short but unusually powerful for their size and had two clawed digits . The most complete specimen measures up to 12 @.@ 3 m ( 40 ft ) in length , up to 3 @.@ 66 meters ( 12 ft ) tall at the hips , and up to 10 @.@ 2 metric tons ( 11 @.@ 2 short tons ) in weight . Although other theropods rivaled or exceeded Tyrannosaurus rex in size , it is still among the largest known land predators and is estimated to have exerted the largest bite force among all terrestrial animals . By far the largest carnivore in its environment , Tyrannosaurus rex was most likely an apex predator , preying upon hadrosaurs , ceratopsians , and possibly sauropods . Some experts , however , have suggested the dinosaur was primarily a scavenger . The question of whether Tyrannosaurus was an apex predator or a pure scavenger was among the longest ongoing debates in paleontology . It is accepted now that Tyrannosaurus rex acted as a predator , and scavenged as modern mammalian and avian predators do .
More than 50 specimens of Tyrannosaurus rex have been identified , some of which are nearly complete skeletons . Soft tissue and proteins have been reported in at least one of these specimens . The abundance of fossil material has allowed significant research into many aspects of its biology , including its life history and biomechanics . The feeding habits , physiology and potential speed of Tyrannosaurus rex are a few subjects of debate . Its taxonomy is also controversial , as some scientists consider Tarbosaurus bataar from Asia to be a second Tyrannosaurus species while others maintain Tarbosaurus is a separate genus . Several other genera of North American tyrannosaurids have also been synonymized with Tyrannosaurus .
= = Description = =
Tyrannosaurus rex was one of the largest land carnivores of all time ; the largest complete specimen , located at the Field Museum of Natural History under the name FMNH PR2081 and nicknamed Sue , measured 12 @.@ 3 meters ( 40 ft ) long , and was 3 @.@ 66 meters ( 12 ft ) tall at the hips . Mass estimates have varied widely over the years , from more than 7 @.@ 2 metric tons ( 7 @.@ 9 short tons ) , to less than 4 @.@ 5 metric tons ( 5 @.@ 0 short tons ) , with most modern estimates ranging between 5 @.@ 4 metric tons ( 6 @.@ 0 short tons ) and 6 @.@ 7 metric tons ( 7 @.@ 4 short tons ) . One study in 2011 found that the maximum weight of Sue , the largest Tyrannosaurus , was between 9 @.@ 5 and 18 @.@ 5 metric tons ( 9 @.@ 3 – 18 @.@ 2 long tons ; 10 @.@ 5 – 20 @.@ 4 short tons ) , though the authors stated that their upper and lower estimates were based on models with wide error bars and that they " consider [ them ] to be too skinny , too fat , or too disproportionate " . Packard et al . ( 2009 ) tested dinosaur mass estimation procedures on elephants and concluded that those of dinosaurs are flawed and produce over @-@ estimations ; thus , the weight of Tyrannosaurus could have been much less than previously thought . Other estimations have concluded that the largest known Tyrannosaurus specimens had masses approaching or exceeding 9 tonnes .
The neck of Tyrannosaurus rex formed a natural S @-@ shaped curve like that of other theropods , but was short and muscular to support the massive head . The forelimbs had only two clawed fingers , along with an additional small metacarpal representing the remnant of a third digit . In contrast the hind limbs were among the longest in proportion to body size of any theropod . The tail was heavy and long , sometimes containing over forty vertebrae , in order to balance the massive head and torso . To compensate for the immense bulk of the animal , many bones throughout the skeleton were hollow , reducing its weight without significant loss of strength .
The largest known Tyrannosaurus rex skulls measure up to 1 @.@ 45 meters ( 4 @.@ 8 ft ) in length . Large fenestrae ( openings ) in the skull reduced weight and provided areas for muscle attachment , as in all carnivorous theropods . But in other respects Tyrannosaurus 's skull was significantly different from those of large non @-@ tyrannosauroid theropods . It was extremely wide at the rear but had a narrow snout , allowing unusually good binocular vision . The skull bones were massive and the nasals and some other bones were fused , preventing movement between them ; but many were pneumatized ( contained a " honeycomb " of tiny air spaces ) which may have made the bones more flexible as well as lighter . These and other skull @-@ strengthening features are part of the tyrannosaurid trend towards an increasingly powerful bite , which easily surpassed that of all non @-@ tyrannosaurids . The tip of the upper jaw was U @-@ shaped ( most non @-@ tyrannosauroid carnivores had V @-@ shaped upper jaws ) , which increased the amount of tissue and bone a tyrannosaur could rip out with one bite , although it also increased the stresses on the front teeth .
The teeth of Tyrannosaurus rex displayed marked heterodonty ( differences in shape ) . The premaxillary teeth at the front of the upper jaw were closely packed , D @-@ shaped in cross @-@ section , had reinforcing ridges on the rear surface , were incisiform ( their tips were chisel @-@ like blades ) and curved backwards . The D @-@ shaped cross @-@ section , reinforcing ridges and backwards curve reduced the risk that the teeth would snap when Tyrannosaurus bit and pulled . The remaining teeth were robust , like " lethal bananas " rather than daggers , more widely spaced and also had reinforcing ridges . Those in the upper jaw were larger than those in all but the rear of the lower jaw . The largest found so far is estimated to have been 30 @.@ 5 centimeters ( 12 in ) long including the root when the animal was alive , making it the largest tooth of any carnivorous dinosaur yet found .
= = = Skin and feathers = = =
While there is no direct evidence for Tyrannosaurus rex having had feathers , many scientists now consider it likely that T. rex had feathers on at least parts of its body , due to their presence in related species of similar size . Mark Norell of the American Museum of Natural History summarized the balance of evidence by stating that : " we have as much evidence that T. rex was feathered , at least during some stage of its life , as we do that australopithecines like Lucy had hair . "
The first evidence for feathers in tyrannosauroids came from the small species Dilong paradoxus , found in the Yixian Formation of China , and reported in the journal Nature in 2004 . As with many other theropods discovered in the Yixian , the fossil skeleton was preserved with a coat of filamentous structures which are commonly recognized as the precursors of feathers . Because all known skin impressions from larger tyrannosauroids known at the time showed evidence of scales , the researchers who studied Dilong speculated that feathers may correlate negatively with body size — that juveniles may have been feathered , then shed the feathers and expressed only scales as the animal became larger and no longer needed insulation to stay warm . However , subsequent discoveries showed that even some gigantic tyrannosauroids had feathers covering much of their bodies , casting doubt on the hypothesis that they were a size @-@ related feature .
While skin impressions from a Tyrannosaurus rex specimen nicknamed " Wyrex " ( BHI 6230 ) discovered in Montana in 2002 , as well as some other giant tyrannosauroid specimens , show at least small patches of mosaic scales , others , such as Yutyrannus huali ( which was up to 9 meters ( 30 ft ) long and weighed about 1 @,@ 400 kilograms ( 3 @,@ 100 lb ) ) , preserve feathers on various sections of the body , strongly suggesting that its whole body was covered in feathers . It is possible that the extent and nature of feather covering in tyrannosauroids may have changed over time in response to body size , a warmer climate , or other factors .
Research has suggested that large theropods like Tyrannosaurus had teeth covered in lips like modern day lizards , rather than having bare teeth like crocodiles . This is based on the presence of enamel , which needs to remain hydrated , an issue not faced by aquatic species like crocodilians or toothless species like birds , which have lipless and toothless beaks . In modern terrestrial animals with bare teeth , the teeth typically lack some or all of the standard amount of tooth enamel . Because Tyrannosaurus and other toothed theropods had enamel @-@ covered teeth , they would have required some sort of lip @-@ like covering to seal the mouth when closed .
= = Classification = =
Tyrannosaurus is the type genus of the superfamily Tyrannosauroidea , the family Tyrannosauridae , and the subfamily Tyrannosaurinae ; in other words it is the standard by which paleontologists decide whether to include other species in the same group . Other members of the tyrannosaurine subfamily include the North American Daspletosaurus and the Asian Tarbosaurus , both of which have occasionally been synonymized with Tyrannosaurus . Tyrannosaurids were once commonly thought to be descendants of earlier large theropods such as megalosaurs and carnosaurs , although more recently they were reclassified with the generally smaller coelurosaurs .
In 1955 , Soviet paleontologist Evgeny Maleev named a new species , Tyrannosaurus bataar , from Mongolia . By 1965 , this species had been renamed Tarbosaurus bataar . Despite the renaming , many phylogenetic analyses have found Tarbosaurus bataar to be the sister taxon of Tyrannosaurus rex , and it has often been considered an Asian species of Tyrannosaurus . A recent redescription of the skull of Tarbosaurus bataar has shown that it was much narrower than that of Tyrannosaurus rex and that during a bite , the distribution of stress in the skull would have been very different , closer to that of Alioramus , another Asian tyrannosaur . A related cladistic analysis found that Alioramus , not Tyrannosaurus , was the sister taxon of Tarbosaurus , which , if true , would suggest that Tarbosaurus and Tyrannosaurus should remain separate . The discovery and description of Qianzhousaurus would later disprove this and revealed that Alioramus belonged to the clade Alioramini . The discovery of the tyrannosaurid Lythronax further indicates that Tarbosaurus and Tyrannosaurus are closely related , forming a clade with fellow Asian tyrannosaurid Zhuchengtyrannus , with Lythronax being their sister taxon . A further study , published in the journal Scientific Reports on February 2 , 2016 by Steve Brusatte , Thomas Carr et al . , also indicates Tyrannosaurus may have been an immigrant from Asia , as well as a possible descendent of Tarbosaurus . The study further indicates the possibility that Tyrannosaurus may have driven other tyrannosaurids that were native to North America extinct through competition .
Other tyrannosaurid fossils found in the same formations as Tyrannosaurus rex were originally classified as separate taxa , including Aublysodon and Albertosaurus megagracilis , the latter being named Dinotyrannus megagracilis in 1995 . However , these fossils are now universally considered to belong to juvenile Tyrannosaurus rex . A small but nearly complete skull from Montana , 60 centimeters ( 2 @.@ 0 ft ) long , may be an exception . This skull was originally classified as a species of Gorgosaurus ( G. lancensis ) by Charles W. Gilmore in 1946 , but was later referred to a new genus , Nanotyrannus . Opinions remain divided on the validity of N. lancensis . Many paleontologists consider the skull to belong to a juvenile Tyrannosaurus rex . There are minor differences between the two species , including the higher number of teeth in N. lancensis , which lead some scientists to recommend keeping the two genera separate until further research or discoveries clarify the situation .
Below is the cladogram of Tyrannosauridae based on the phylogenetic analysis conducted by Loewen et al. in 2013 .
= = Paleobiology = =
= = = Life history = = =
The identification of several specimens as juvenile Tyrannosaurus rex has allowed scientists to document ontogenetic changes in the species , estimate the lifespan , and determine how quickly the animals would have grown . The smallest known individual ( LACM 28471 , the " Jordan theropod " ) is estimated to have weighed only 30 kg ( 66 lb ) , while the largest , such as FMNH PR2081 ( Sue ) most likely weighed about 5 @,@ 650 kg ( 12 @,@ 460 lb ) . Histologic analysis of Tyrannosaurus rex bones showed LACM 28471 had aged only 2 years when it died , while Sue was 28 years old , an age which may have been close to the maximum for the species .
Histology has also allowed the age of other specimens to be determined . Growth curves can be developed when the ages of different specimens are plotted on a graph along with their mass . A Tyrannosaurus rex growth curve is S @-@ shaped , with juveniles remaining under 1 @,@ 800 kg ( 4 @,@ 000 lb ) until approximately 14 years of age , when body size began to increase dramatically . During this rapid growth phase , a young Tyrannosaurus rex would gain an average of 600 kg ( 1 @,@ 300 lb ) a year for the next four years . At 18 years of age , the curve plateaus again , indicating that growth slowed dramatically . For example , only 600 kg ( 1 @,@ 300 lb ) separated the 28 @-@ year @-@ old Sue from a 22 @-@ year @-@ old Canadian specimen ( RTMP 81 @.@ 12 @.@ 1 ) . A 2004 histological study performed by different workers corroborates these results , finding that rapid growth began to slow at around 16 years of age . Another study corroborated the latter study 's results but found the growth rate to be much faster , finding it to be around 1800 kilograms ( 4000 lbs ) . Although these results were much higher than previous estimations , the authors noted that these results significantly lowered the great difference between its actual growth rate and the one which would be expected of an animal of its size . The sudden change in growth rate at the end of the growth spurt may indicate physical maturity , a hypothesis which is supported by the discovery of medullary tissue in the femur of a 16 to 20 @-@ year @-@ old Tyrannosaurus rex from Montana ( MOR 1125 , also known as B @-@ rex ) . Medullary tissue is found only in female birds during ovulation , indicating that B @-@ rex was of reproductive age . Further study indicates an age of 18 for this specimen . In 2016 , it was finally confirmed by Mary Higby Schweitzer and Lindsay Zanno et al that the soft tissue within the femur of MOR 1125 was medullary tissue . This also confirmed the identity of the specimen as a female . The discovery of medullary bone tissue within Tyrannosaurus may prove valuable in determining the sex of other dinosaur species in future examinations , as the chemical makeup of medullary tissue is unmistakable . Other tyrannosaurids exhibit extremely similar growth curves , although with lower growth rates corresponding to their lower adult sizes .
Over half of the known Tyrannosaurus rex specimens appear to have died within six years of reaching sexual maturity , a pattern which is also seen in other tyrannosaurs and in some large , long @-@ lived birds and mammals today . These species are characterized by high infant mortality rates , followed by relatively low mortality among juveniles . Mortality increases again following sexual maturity , partly due to the stresses of reproduction . One study suggests that the rarity of juvenile Tyrannosaurus rex fossils is due in part to low juvenile mortality rates ; the animals were not dying in large numbers at these ages , and so were not often fossilized . However , this rarity may also be due to the incompleteness of the fossil record or to the bias of fossil collectors towards larger , more spectacular specimens . In a 2013 lecture , Thomas Holtz Jr. would suggest that dinosaurs " lived fast and died young " because they reproduced quickly whereas mammals have long life spans because they take longer to reproduce . Gregory S. Paul also writes that Tyrannosaurus reproduced quickly and died young , but attributes their short life spans to the dangerous lives they lived .
= = = Sexual dimorphism = = =
As the number of known specimens increased , scientists began to analyze the variation between individuals and discovered what appeared to be two distinct body types , or morphs , similar to some other theropod species . As one of these morphs was more solidly built , it was termed the ' robust ' morph while the other was termed ' gracile ' . Several morphological differences associated with the two morphs were used to analyze sexual dimorphism in Tyrannosaurus rex , with the ' robust ' morph usually suggested to be female . For example , the pelvis of several ' robust ' specimens seemed to be wider , perhaps to allow the passage of eggs . It was also thought that the ' robust ' morphology correlated with a reduced chevron on the first tail vertebra , also ostensibly to allow eggs to pass out of the reproductive tract , as had been erroneously reported for crocodiles .
In recent years , evidence for sexual dimorphism has been weakened . A 2005 study reported that previous claims of sexual dimorphism in crocodile chevron anatomy were in error , casting doubt on the existence of similar dimorphism between Tyrannosaurus rex sexes . A full @-@ sized chevron was discovered on the first tail vertebra of Sue , an extremely robust individual , indicating that this feature could not be used to differentiate the two morphs anyway . As Tyrannosaurus rex specimens have been found from Saskatchewan to New Mexico , differences between individuals may be indicative of geographic variation rather than sexual dimorphism . The differences could also be age @-@ related , with ' robust ' individuals being older animals .
Only a single Tyrannosaurus rex specimen has been conclusively shown to belong to a specific sex . Examination of B @-@ rex demonstrated the preservation of soft tissue within several bones . Some of this tissue has been identified as a medullary tissue , a specialized tissue grown only in modern birds as a source of calcium for the production of eggshell during ovulation . As only female birds lay eggs , medullary tissue is only found naturally in females , although males are capable of producing it when injected with female reproductive hormones like estrogen . This strongly suggests that B @-@ rex was female , and that she died during ovulation . Recent research has shown that medullary tissue is never found in crocodiles , which are thought to be the closest living relatives of dinosaurs , aside from birds . The shared presence of medullary tissue in birds and theropod dinosaurs is further evidence of the close evolutionary relationship between the two .
= = = Posture = = =
Modern representations in museums , art , and film show Tyrannosaurus rex with its body approximately parallel to the ground and tail extended behind the body to balance the head .
Like many bipedal dinosaurs , Tyrannosaurus rex was historically depicted as a ' living tripod ' , with the body at 45 degrees or less from the vertical and the tail dragging along the ground , similar to a kangaroo . This concept dates from Joseph Leidy 's 1865 reconstruction of Hadrosaurus , the first to depict a dinosaur in a bipedal posture . In 1915 , convinced that the creature stood upright , Henry Fairfield Osborn , former president of the American Museum of Natural History , further reinforced the notion in unveiling the first complete Tyrannosaurus rex skeleton arranged this way . It stood in an upright pose for 77 years , until it was dismantled in 1992 .
By 1970 , scientists realized this pose was incorrect and could not have been maintained by a living animal , as it would have resulted in the dislocation or weakening of several joints , including the hips and the articulation between the head and the spinal column . The inaccurate AMNH mount inspired similar depictions in many films and paintings ( such as Rudolph Zallinger 's famous mural The Age of Reptiles in Yale University 's Peabody Museum of Natural History ) until the 1990s , when films such as Jurassic Park introduced a more accurate posture to the general public .
= = = Arms = = =
When Tyrannosaurus rex was first discovered , the humerus was the only element of the forelimb known . For the initial mounted skeleton as seen by the public in 1915 , Osborn substituted longer , three @-@ fingered forelimbs like those of Allosaurus . However , a year earlier , Lawrence Lambe described the short , two @-@ fingered forelimbs of the closely related Gorgosaurus . This strongly suggested that Tyrannosaurus rex had similar forelimbs , but this hypothesis was not confirmed until the first complete Tyrannosaurus rex forelimbs were identified in 1989 , belonging to MOR 555 ( the " Wankel rex " ) . The remains of Sue also include complete forelimbs . Tyrannosaurus rex arms are very small relative to overall body size , measuring only 1 meter ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) long , and some scholars have labelled them as vestigial . However , the bones show large areas for muscle attachment , indicating considerable strength . This was recognized as early as 1906 by Osborn , who speculated that the forelimbs may have been used to grasp a mate during copulation . It has also been suggested that the forelimbs were used to assist the animal in rising from a prone position .
Another possibility is that the forelimbs held struggling prey while it was killed by the tyrannosaur 's enormous jaws . This hypothesis may be supported by biomechanical analysis . Tyrannosaurus rex forelimb bones exhibit extremely thick cortical bone , which have been interpreted as evidence that they were developed to withstand heavy loads . The biceps brachii muscle of a full @-@ grown Tyrannosaurus rex was capable of lifting 199 kilograms ( 439 lb ) by itself ; other muscles such as the brachialis would work along with the biceps to make elbow flexion even more powerful . The M. biceps muscle of T. rex was 3 @.@ 5 times as powerful as the human equivalent . A Tyrannosaurus rex forearm had a limited range of motion , with the shoulder and elbow joints allowing only 40 and 45 degrees of motion , respectively . In contrast , the same two joints in Deinonychus allow up to 88 and 130 degrees of motion , respectively , while a human arm can rotate 360 degrees at the shoulder and move through 165 degrees at the elbow . The heavy build of the arm bones , strength of the muscles , and limited range of motion may indicate a system evolved to hold fast despite the stresses of a struggling prey animal . In the first detailed scientific description of Tyrannosaurus forelimbs , paleontologists Kenneth Carpenter and Matt Smith dismissed notions that the forelimbs were useless or that Tyrannosaurus rex was an obligate scavenger .
= = = Soft tissue = = =
In the March 2005 issue of Science , Mary Higby Schweitzer of North Carolina State University and colleagues announced the recovery of soft tissue from the marrow cavity of a fossilized leg bone from a Tyrannosaurus rex . The bone had been intentionally , though reluctantly , broken for shipping and then not preserved in the normal manner , specifically because Schweitzer was hoping to test it for soft tissue . Designated as the Museum of the Rockies specimen 1125 , or MOR 1125 , the dinosaur was previously excavated from the Hell Creek Formation . Flexible , bifurcating blood vessels and fibrous but elastic bone matrix tissue were recognized . In addition , microstructures resembling blood cells were found inside the matrix and vessels . The structures bear resemblance to ostrich blood cells and vessels . Whether an unknown process , distinct from normal fossilization , preserved the material , or the material is original , the researchers do not know , and they are careful not to make any claims about preservation . If it is found to be original material , any surviving proteins may be used as a means of indirectly guessing some of the DNA content of the dinosaurs involved , because each protein is typically created by a specific gene . The absence of previous finds may be the result of people assuming preserved tissue was impossible , therefore not looking . Since the first , two more tyrannosaurs and a hadrosaur have also been found to have such tissue @-@ like structures . Research on some of the tissues involved has suggested that birds are closer relatives to tyrannosaurs than other modern animals .
In studies reported in Science in April 2007 , Asara and colleagues concluded that seven traces of collagen proteins detected in purified Tyrannosaurus rex bone most closely match those reported in chickens , followed by frogs and newts . The discovery of proteins from a creature tens of millions of years old , along with similar traces the team found in a mastodon bone at least 160 @,@ 000 years old , upends the conventional view of fossils and may shift paleontologists ' focus from bone hunting to biochemistry . Until these finds , most scientists presumed that fossilization replaced all living tissue with inert minerals . Paleontologist Hans Larsson of McGill University in Montreal , who was not part of the studies , called the finds " a milestone " , and suggested that dinosaurs could " enter the field of molecular biology and really slingshot paleontology into the modern world " .
Subsequent studies in April 2008 confirmed the close connection of Tyrannosaurus rex to modern birds . Postdoctoral biology researcher Chris Organ at Harvard University announced , " With more data , they would probably be able to place T. rex on the evolutionary tree between alligators and chickens and ostriches . " Co @-@ author John M. Asara added , " We also show that it groups better with birds than modern reptiles , such as alligators and green anole lizards . "
The presumed soft tissue was called into question by Thomas Kaye of the University of Washington and his co @-@ authors in 2008 . They contend that what was really inside the tyrannosaur bone was slimy biofilm created by bacteria that coated the voids once occupied by blood vessels and cells . The researchers found that what previously had been identified as remnants of blood cells , because of the presence of iron , were actually framboids , microscopic mineral spheres bearing iron . They found similar spheres in a variety of other fossils from various periods , including an ammonite . In the ammonite they found the spheres in a place where the iron they contain could not have had any relationship to the presence of blood . However , Schweitzer has strongly criticized Kaye 's claims and argues that there 's no reported evidence that biofilms can produce branching , hollow tubes like those noted in her study . San Antonio , Schweitzer and colleagues published an analysis in 2011 of what parts of the collagen had been recovered , finding that it was the inner parts of the collagen coil that had been preserved , as would have been expected from a long period of protein degradation . Other research challenges the identification of soft tissue as biofilm and confirms finding " branching , vessel @-@ like structures " from within fossilized bone .
= = = Thermoregulation = = =
As of 2014 , it is not clear if Tyrannosaurus was endothermic ( warm @-@ blooded ) . Tyrannosaurus , like most dinosaurs , was long thought to have an ectothermic ( " cold @-@ blooded " ) reptilian metabolism . The idea of dinosaur ectothermy was challenged by scientists like Robert T. Bakker and John Ostrom in the early years of the " Dinosaur Renaissance " , beginning in the late 1960s . Tyrannosaurus rex itself was claimed to have been endothermic ( " warm @-@ blooded " ) , implying a very active lifestyle . Since then , several paleontologists have sought to determine the ability of Tyrannosaurus to regulate its body temperature . Histological evidence of high growth rates in young Tyrannosaurus rex , comparable to those of mammals and birds , may support the hypothesis of a high metabolism . Growth curves indicate that , as in mammals and birds , Tyrannosaurus rex growth was limited mostly to immature animals , rather than the indeterminate growth seen in most other vertebrates .
Oxygen isotope ratios in fossilized bone are sometimes used to determine the temperature at which the bone was deposited , as the ratio between certain isotopes correlates with temperature . In one specimen , the isotope ratios in bones from different parts of the body indicated a temperature difference of no more than 4 to 5 ° C ( 7 to 9 ° F ) between the vertebrae of the torso and the tibia of the lower leg . This small temperature range between the body core and the extremities was claimed by paleontologist Reese Barrick and geochemist William Showers to indicate that Tyrannosaurus rex maintained a constant internal body temperature ( homeothermy ) and that it enjoyed a metabolism somewhere between ectothermic reptiles and endothermic mammals . Other scientists have pointed out that the ratio of oxygen isotopes in the fossils today does not necessarily represent the same ratio in the distant past , and may have been altered during or after fossilization ( diagenesis ) . Barrick and Showers have defended their conclusions in subsequent papers , finding similar results in another theropod dinosaur from a different continent and tens of millions of years earlier in time ( Giganotosaurus ) . Ornithischian dinosaurs also showed evidence of homeothermy , while varanid lizards from the same formation did not . Even if Tyrannosaurus rex does exhibit evidence of homeothermy , it does not necessarily mean that it was endothermic . Such thermoregulation may also be explained by gigantothermy , as in some living sea turtles .
= = = Footprints = = =
Two isolated fossilized footprints have been tentatively assigned to Tyrannosaurus rex . The first was discovered at Philmont Scout Ranch , New Mexico , in 1983 by American geologist Charles Pillmore . Originally thought to belong to a hadrosaurid , examination of the footprint revealed a large ' heel ' unknown in ornithopod dinosaur tracks , and traces of what may have been a hallux , the dewclaw @-@ like fourth digit of the tyrannosaur foot . The footprint was published as the ichnogenus Tyrannosauripus pillmorei in 1994 , by Martin Lockley and Adrian Hunt . Lockley and Hunt suggested that it was very likely the track was made by a Tyrannosaurus rex , which would make it the first known footprint from this species . The track was made in what was once a vegetated wetland mud flat . It measures 83 centimeters ( 33 in ) long by 71 centimeters ( 28 in ) wide .
A second footprint that may have been made by a Tyrannosaurus was first reported in 2007 by British paleontologist Phil Manning , from the Hell Creek Formation of Montana . This second track measures 72 centimeters ( 28 in ) long , shorter than the track described by Lockley and Hunt . Whether or not the track was made by Tyrannosaurus is unclear , though Tyrannosaurus and Nanotyrannus are the only large theropods known to have existed in the Hell Creek Formation .
A set of footprints in Glenrock , Wyoming dating to the Maastrichtian stage of the late cretaceous and hailing from the Lance Formation were recently described by Scott Persons , Phil Currie et al. in January 2016 , and are believed to belong to either a juvenile Tyrannosaurus rex or the dubious tyrannosaurid genus Nanotyrannus lancensis . From measurements and based on the positions of the footprints , the animal was believed to be traveling at a walking speed of around 2 @.@ 8 to 5 miles per hour and was estimated to have a hip height of 1 @.@ 56 m ( 5 @.@ 1 ft ) to 2 @.@ 06 m ( 6 @.@ 8 ft ) . The discovery was described in the journal Cretaceous Research .
= = = Locomotion = = =
There are two main issues concerning the locomotory abilities of Tyrannosaurus : how well it could turn ; and what its maximum straight @-@ line speed was likely to have been . Both are relevant to the debate about whether it was a hunter or a scavenger .
Tyrannosaurus may have been slow to turn , possibly taking one to two seconds to turn only 45 ° — an amount that humans , being vertically oriented and tailless , can spin in a fraction of a second . The cause of the difficulty is rotational inertia , since much of Tyrannosaurus ' mass was some distance from its center of gravity , like a human carrying a heavy timber horizontally — although it might have reduced the average distance by arching its back and tail and pulling its head and forelimbs close to its body , rather like the way ice skaters pull their arms closer in order to spin faster .
Scientists have produced a wide range of maximum speed estimates , mostly around 11 meters per second ( 40 km / h ; 25 mph ) , but a few as low as 5 – 11 meters per second ( 18 – 40 km / h ; 11 – 25 mph ) , and a few as high as 20 meters per second ( 72 km / h ; 45 mph ) . Researchers have to rely on various estimating techniques because , while there are many tracks of very large theropods walking , so far none have been found of very large theropods running — and this absence may indicate that they did not run . Scientists who think that Tyrannosaurus was able to run point out that hollow bones and other features that would have lightened its body may have kept adult weight to a mere 4 @.@ 5 metric tons ( 5 @.@ 0 short tons ) or so , or that other animals like ostriches and horses with long , flexible legs are able to achieve high speeds through slower but longer strides . Additionally , some have argued that Tyrannosaurus had relatively larger leg muscles than any animal alive today , which could have enabled fast running at 40 – 70 kilometers per hour ( 25 – 43 mph ) .
Jack Horner and Don Lessem argued in 1993 that Tyrannosaurus was slow and probably could not run ( no airborne phase in mid @-@ stride ) , because its ratio of femur ( thigh bone ) to tibia ( shin bone ) length was greater than 1 , as in most large theropods and like a modern elephant . However , Holtz ( 1998 ) noted that tyrannosaurids and some closely related groups had significantly longer distal hindlimb components ( shin plus foot plus toes ) relative to the femur length than most other theropods , and that tyrannosaurids and their close relatives had a tightly interlocked metatarsus that more effectively transmitted locomotory forces from the foot to the lower leg than in earlier theropods ( " metatarsus " means the foot bones , which function as part of the leg in digitigrade animals ) . He therefore concluded that tyrannosaurids and their close relatives were the fastest large theropods . Thomas Holtz Jr. would echo these sentiments in his 2013 lecture , stating that the giant allosaurs had shorter feet for the same body size than Tyrannosaurus , whereas Tyrannosaurus had longer , skinnier and more interlocked feet for the same body size ; attributes of faster moving animals .
A study by Eric Snively and Anthony P. Russel published in 2003 would also find that the tyrannosaurid arctometatarsals and elastic ligaments worked together in what he called a ' tensile keystone model ' to strengthen the feet of Tyrannosaurus , increase the animal 's stability and add greater resistance to dissociation over that of other theropod families ; while still allowing resiliency that is otherwise reduced in ratites , horses , giraffids and other animals with metapodia to a single element . The study would also point out that elastic ligaments in larger vertebrates could store and return relatively more elastic strain energy , which could have improved locomotor efficiency and decrease the strain energy transferred to the bones . The study would suggest that this mechanism could have worked efficiently in tyrannosaurids as well . Hence , the study involved identifying the type of ligaments attached to the metatarsals , then how they functioned together and comparing it to those of other theropods and modern day analogs . The scientists would find that arctometatarsals may have enabled tyrannosaurid feet to absorb forces such as linear deceleration , lateral acceleration and torsion more effectively than those of other theropods . It is also stated in their study that this may imply , though not demonstrate , that tyrannosaurids such as Tyrannosaurus had greater agility than other large theropods without an arctometatarsus .
Christiansen ( 1998 ) estimated that the leg bones of Tyrannosaurus were not significantly stronger than those of elephants , which are relatively limited in their top speed and never actually run ( there is no airborne phase ) , and hence proposed that the dinosaur 's maximum speed would have been about 11 meters per second ( 40 km / h ; 25 mph ) , which is about the speed of a human sprinter . But he also noted that such estimates depend on many dubious assumptions .
Farlow and colleagues ( 1995 ) have argued that a Tyrannosaurus weighing 5 @.@ 4 metric tons ( 6 @.@ 0 short tons ) to 7 @.@ 3 metric tons ( 8 @.@ 0 short tons ) would have been critically or even fatally injured if it had fallen while moving quickly , since its torso would have slammed into the ground at a deceleration of 6 g ( six times the acceleration due to gravity , or about 60 meters / s ² ) and its tiny arms could not have reduced the impact . However , giraffes have been known to gallop at 50 kilometers per hour ( 31 mph ) , despite the risk that they might break a leg or worse , which can be fatal even in a " safe " environment such as a zoo . Thus it is possible that Tyrannosaurus also moved fast when necessary and had to accept such risks .
In a study published by Gregory S. Paul in the journal Gaia , he would point out that the flexed kneed and digitigrade adult Tyrannosaurus were much better adapted for running than elephants or humans , pointing out that Tyrannosaurus had a large ilium bone and cnemial crest that would have supported large muscles needed for running . He would also mention that Alexander 's ( 1989 ) formula to calculate speed by bone strength was only partly reliable . He suggests that the formula is overly sensitive to bone length ; making long bones artificially weak . He would also point out that the lowered risk of being wounded in combat may have been worth the risk of Tyrannosaurus falling while running .
Most recent research on Tyrannosaurus locomotion does not support speeds faster than 40 kilometers per hour ( 25 mph ) , i.e. moderate @-@ speed running . For example , a 2002 paper in Nature used a mathematical model ( validated by applying it to three living animals , alligators , chickens , and humans ; later eight more species including emus and ostriches ) to gauge the leg muscle mass needed for fast running ( over 40 km / h or 25 mph ) . They found that proposed top speeds in excess of 40 kilometers per hour ( 25 mph ) were infeasible , because they would require very large leg muscles ( more than approximately 40 – 86 % of total body mass ) . Even moderately fast speeds would have required large leg muscles . This discussion is difficult to resolve , as it is unknown how large the leg muscles actually were in Tyrannosaurus . If they were smaller , only 18 kilometers per hour ( 11 mph ) walking or jogging might have been possible .
A study in 2007 used computer models to estimate running speeds , based on data taken directly from fossils , and claimed that Tyrannosaurus rex had a top running speed of 8 meters per second ( 29 km / h ; 18 mph ) . An average professional football ( soccer ) player would be slightly slower , while a human sprinter can reach 12 meters per second ( 43 km / h ; 27 mph ) . These computer models predict a top speed of 17 @.@ 8 meters per second ( 64 km / h ; 40 mph ) for a 3 @-@ kilogram ( 6 @.@ 6 lb ) Compsognathus ( probably a juvenile individual ) .
However , in 2010 , Scott Persons , a graduate student from the University of Alberta proposed that Tyrannosaurus 's speed may have been enhanced by strong tail muscles . He found that theropods such as T rex had certain muscle arrangements that are different from modern day birds and mammals but with some similarities to modern reptiles . He concluded that the caudofemoralis muscles which link the tail bones and the upper leg bones could have assisted Tyrannosaurus in leg retraction and enhanced its running ability , agility and balance . The caudofemoralis muscle would have been a key muscle in femoral retraction ; pulling back the leg at the femur . The study also found that theropod skeletons such as those of Tyrannosaurus had adaptations ( such as elevated transverse processes in the tail vertebrae ) to enable the growth of larger tail muscles and that Tyrannosaurus 's tail muscle mass may have been underestimated by over 25 percent and perhaps as much as 45 percent . The caudofemoralis muscle was found to comprise 58 percent of the muscle mass in the tail of Tyrannosaurus . Tyrannosaurus also had the largest absolute and relative caudofemoralis muscle mass out of the three extinct organisms in the study . This is because Tyrannosaurus also had additional adaptations to enable large tail muscles ; the elongation of its tail 's hemal arches . According to Persons , the increase in tail muscle mass would have moved the center of mass closer to the hindquarters and hips which would have lessened the strain on the leg muscles to support its weight ; improving its overall balance and agility . This would also have made the animal less front @-@ heavy , thus reducing rotational inertia . Persons also notes that the tail is also rich in tendons and septa which could have been stores of elastic energy , and thereby improved locomotive efficiency . Persons adds that this means non @-@ avian theropods actually had broader tails than previously depicted , as broad or broader laterally than dorsoventrally near the base .
Heinrich Mallison from Berlin 's Museum of Natural History would also present a theory in 2011 , suggesting that Tyrannosaurus and many other dinosaurs may have achieved relatively high speeds through short rapid strides instead of the long strides employed by modern birds and mammals when running , likening their movement to power @-@ walking . This , according to Mallison , would have been achievable irrespective of joint strength and lessened the need for additional muscle mass in the legs , particularly at the ankles . To support his theory , Mallison assessed the limbs of various dinosaurs and found that they were different from those of modern mammals and birds ; having their stride length greatly limited by their skeletons , but also having relatively large muscles at the hindquarters . He would however find a few similarities between the muscles in dinosaurs and race @-@ walkers ; having less muscle mass in the ankles but more at the hindquarters . Mallison suggests that the differences between dinosaurs , extant mammals , and birds would also have made equations to calculate speed from stride length inapplicable to dinosaurs . John Hutchinson however advised caution regarding this theory , suggesting that they must first look into dinosaur muscles to see how frequently they could have contracted .
Those who argue that Tyrannosaurus was incapable of running estimate the top speed of Tyrannosaurus at about 17 kilometers per hour ( 11 mph ) . This is still faster than its most likely prey species , hadrosaurids and ceratopsians . In addition , some advocates of the idea that Tyrannosaurus was a predator claim that tyrannosaur running speed is not important , since it may have been slow but still faster than its probable prey . Thomas Holtz would also note that Tyrannosaurus had proportionately longer feet than the animals it hunted : duck @-@ billed dinosaurs and horned dinosaurs . However , Paul and Christiansen ( 2000 ) argued that at least the later ceratopsians had upright forelimbs and the larger species may have been as fast as rhinos . Healed Tyrannosaurus bite wounds on ceratopsian fossils are interpreted as evidence of attacks on living ceratopsians ( see below ) . If the ceratopsians that lived alongside Tyrannosaurus were fast , that casts doubt on the argument that Tyrannosaurus did not have to be fast to catch its prey .
= = = Brain and senses = = =
A study conducted by Lawrence Witmer and Ryan Ridgely of Ohio University found that Tyrannosaurus shared the heightened sensory abilities of other coelurosaurs , highlighting relatively rapid and coordinated eye and head movements , as well as an enhanced ability to sense low frequency sounds that would allow tyrannosaurs to track prey movements from long distances and an enhanced sense of smell . A study published by Kent Stevens of the University of Oregon concluded that Tyrannosaurus had keen vision . By applying modified perimetry to facial reconstructions of several dinosaurs including Tyrannosaurus , the study found that Tyrannosaurus had a binocular range of 55 degrees , surpassing that of modern hawks , and had 13 times the visual acuity of a human , thereby surpassing the visual acuity of an eagle which is only 3 @.@ 6 times that of a person . This would have allowed Tyrannosaurus to discern objects as far as 6 km ( 3 @.@ 7 mi ) away , which is greater than the 1 @.@ 6 km ( 1 mi ) that a human can see .
Thomas Holtz Jr. would note that high depth perception of Tyrannosaurus may have been due to the prey it had to hunt ; noting that it had to hunt horned dinosaurs such as Triceratops , armored dinosaurs such as Ankylosaurus and the duck @-@ billed dinosaurs may have had complex social behaviors . He would suggest that this made precision more crucial for Tyrannosaurus enabling it to , " get in , get that blow in and take it down . " In contrast , Acrocanthosaurus had limited depth perception because they hunted large sauropods , which were relatively rare during the time of Tyrannosaurus .
Tyrannosaurus had very large olfactory bulbs and olfactory nerves relative to their brain size , the organs responsible for a heightened sense of smell . This suggests that the sense of smell was highly developed , and implies that tyrannosaurs could detect carcasses by scent alone across great distances . The sense of smell in tyrannosaurs may have been comparable to modern vultures , which use scent to track carcasses for scavenging . Research on the olfactory bulbs has shown that Tyrannosaurus rex had the most highly developed sense of smell of 21 sampled non @-@ avian dinosaur species .
Somewhat unusually among theropods , T. rex had a very long cochlea . The length of the cochlea is often related to hearing acuity , or at least the importance of hearing in behavior , implying that hearing was a particularly important sense to tyrannosaurs . Specifically , data suggests that Tyrannosaurus rex heard best in the low @-@ frequency range , and that low @-@ frequency sounds were an important part of tyrannosaur behavior .
A study by Grant R. Hurlburt , Ryan C. Ridgely and Lawrence Witmer would obtain estimates for Encephalization Quotients ( EQs ) , based on reptiles and birds , as well as estimates for the ratio of cerebrum to brain mass . The study would conclude that Tyrannosaurus had the relatively largest brain of all adult non @-@ avian dinosaurs with the exception of certain small maniraptoriforms ( Bambiraptor , Troodon and Ornithomimus ) . The study would however find that Tyrannosaurus 's relative brain size was still within the range of modern reptiles , being at most 2 standard deviations above the mean of non @-@ avian reptile EQs . The estimates for the ratio of cerebrum mass to brain mass would range from 47 @.@ 5 to 49 @.@ 53 percent . According to the study , this is more than the lowest estimates for extant birds ( 44 @.@ 6 percent ) , but still close to the typical ratios of the smallest sexually mature alligators which range from 45 @.@ 9 – 47 @.@ 9 percent .
= = = Feeding strategies = = =
A 2012 study by scientists Karl Bates and Peter Falkingham suggested that the bite force of Tyrannosaurus could have been the strongest of any terrestrial animal that has ever lived . The calculations suggested that adult T. rex could have generated from 35 @,@ 000 to 57 @,@ 000 Newtons of force in the back teeth . However , even higher estimates were made by professor Mason B. Meers of the University of Tampa in 2003 . In his study , Meers estimated a possible bite force of around 183 @,@ 000 to 235 @,@ 000 Newtons or 18 @.@ 3 to 23 @.@ 5 metric tons ( 20 @.@ 2 to 25 @.@ 9 short tons ) . Research done by Stephan Lautenschlager et al. of the University of Bristol , also reveals Tyrannosaurus was also capable of a maximum jaw gape of around 63 @.@ 5 degrees , a necessary adaptation for a wide range of jaw angles in order to power the creature 's strong bite .
The debate about whether Tyrannosaurus was a predator or a pure scavenger is as old as the debate about its locomotion . Lambe ( 1917 ) described a good skeleton of Tyrannosaurus close relative Gorgosaurus and concluded that it and therefore also Tyrannosaurus was a pure scavenger , because the Gorgosaurus teeth showed hardly any wear . This argument is no longer taken seriously , because theropods replaced their teeth quite rapidly . Ever since the first discovery of Tyrannosaurus most scientists have speculated that it was a predator ; like modern large predators it would readily scavenge or steal another predator 's kill if it had the opportunity .
Paleontologist Jack Horner has been a major advocate of the idea that Tyrannosaurus was exclusively a scavenger and did not engage in active hunting at all , though Horner himself has claimed that he never published this idea in the peer @-@ reviewed scientific literature and used it mainly as a tool to teach a popular audience , particularly children , the dangers of making assumptions in science ( such as assuming T. rex was a hunter ) without using evidence . Nevertheless , Horner presented several arguments in the popular literature to support the pure scavenger hypothesis :
Tyrannosaur arms are short when compared to other known predators . Horner argues that the arms were too short to make the necessary gripping force to hold on to prey .
Tyrannosaurs had large olfactory bulbs and olfactory nerves ( relative to their brain size ) . These suggest a highly developed sense of smell which could sniff out carcasses over great distances , as modern vultures do . Research on the olfactory bulbs of dinosaurs has shown that Tyrannosaurus had the most highly developed sense of smell of 21 sampled dinosaurs . Opponents of the pure scavenger hypothesis have used the example of vultures in the opposite way , arguing that the scavenger hypothesis is implausible because the only modern pure scavengers are large gliding birds , which use their keen senses and energy @-@ efficient gliding to cover vast areas economically . However , researchers from Glasgow concluded that an ecosystem as productive as the current Serengeti would provide sufficient carrion for a large theropod scavenger , although the theropod might have had to be cold @-@ blooded in order to get more calories from carrion than it spent on foraging ( see Metabolism of dinosaurs ) . They also suggested that modern ecosystems like the Serengeti have no large terrestrial scavengers because gliding birds now do the job much more efficiently , while large theropods did not face competition for the scavenger ecological niche from gliding birds .
Tyrannosaur teeth could crush bone , and therefore could extract as much food ( bone marrow ) as possible from carcass remnants , usually the least nutritious parts . Karen Chin and colleagues have found bone fragments in coprolites ( fossilized feces ) that they attribute to tyrannosaurs , but point out that a tyrannosaur 's teeth were not well adapted to systematically chewing bone like hyenas do to extract marrow .
Since at least some of Tyrannosaurus 's potential prey could move quickly , evidence that it walked instead of ran could indicate that it was a scavenger . On the other hand , recent analyses suggest that Tyrannosaurus , while slower than large modern terrestrial predators , may well have been fast enough to prey on large hadrosaurs and ceratopsians .
Other evidence suggests hunting behavior in Tyrannosaurus . The eye sockets of tyrannosaurs are positioned so that the eyes would point forward , giving them binocular vision slightly better than that of modern hawks . Horner also pointed out that the tyrannosaur lineage had a history of steadily improving binocular vision . It is not obvious why natural selection would have favored this long @-@ term trend if tyrannosaurs had been pure scavengers , which would not have needed the advanced depth perception that stereoscopic vision provides . In modern animals , binocular vision is found mainly in predators .
A skeleton of the hadrosaurid Edmontosaurus annectens has been described from Montana with healed tyrannosaur @-@ inflicted damage on its tail vertebrae . The fact that the damage seems to have healed suggests that the Edmontosaurus survived a tyrannosaur 's attack on a living target , i.e. the tyrannosaur had attempted active predation . There is also evidence for an aggressive interaction between a Triceratops and a Tyrannosaurus in the form of partially healed tyrannosaur tooth marks on a Triceratops brow horn and squamosal ( a bone of the neck frill ) ; the bitten horn is also broken , with new bone growth after the break . It is not known what the exact nature of the interaction was , though : either animal could have been the aggressor . Since the Triceratops wounds healed , it is most likely that the Triceratops survived the encounter and managed to overcome the Tyrannosaurus . Paleontologist Peter Dodson estimates that in a battle against a bull Triceratops , the Triceratops had the upper hand and would successfully defend itself by inflicting fatal wounds to the Tyrannosaurus using its sharp horns .
When examining Sue , paleontologist Pete Larson found a broken and healed fibula and tail vertebrae , scarred facial bones and a tooth from another Tyrannosaurus embedded in a neck vertebra . If correct , these might be strong evidence for aggressive behavior between tyrannosaurs but whether it would have been competition for food and mates or active cannibalism is unclear . However , further recent investigation of these purported wounds has shown that most are infections rather than injuries ( or simply damage to the fossil after death ) and the few injuries are too general to be indicative of intraspecific conflict . Some researchers argue that if Tyrannosaurus were a scavenger , another dinosaur had to be the top predator in the Amerasian Upper Cretaceous . Top prey were the larger marginocephalians and ornithopods . The other tyrannosaurids share so many characteristics that only small dromaeosaurs and troodontids remain as feasible top predators . In this light , scavenger hypothesis adherents have suggested that the size and power of tyrannosaurs allowed them to steal kills from smaller predators , although they may have had a hard time finding enough meat to scavenge , being outnumbered by smaller theropods . Most paleontologists accept that Tyrannosaurus was both an active predator and a scavenger like most large carnivores .
Tyrannosaurus may have had infectious saliva used to kill its prey . This theory was first proposed by William Abler . Abler examined the teeth of tyrannosaurids between each tooth serration ; the serrations may have held pieces of carcass with bacteria , giving Tyrannosaurus a deadly , infectious bite much like the Komodo dragon was thought to have . However , Jack Horner regards Tyrannosaurus tooth serrations as more like cubes in shape than the serrations on a Komodo monitor 's teeth , which are rounded . All forms of saliva contain possibly hazardous bacteria , so the prospect of it being used as a method of predation is disputable .
Tyrannosaurus , and most other theropods , probably primarily processed carcasses with lateral shakes of the head , like crocodilians . The head was not as maneuverable as the skulls of allosauroids , due to flat joints of the neck vertebrae .
= = = = Cannibalism = = = =
A study from Currie , Horner , Erickson and Longrich in 2010 has been put forward as evidence of cannibalism in the genus Tyrannosaurus . They studied some Tyrannosaurus specimens with tooth marks in the bones , attributable to the same genus . The tooth marks were identified in the humerus , foot bones and metatarsals , and this was seen as evidence for opportunistic scavenging , rather than wounds caused by intraspecific combat . In a fight , they proposed it would be difficult to reach down to bite in the feet of a rival , making it more likely that the bite marks were made in a carcass . As the bite marks were made in body parts with relatively scanty amounts of flesh , it is suggested that the Tyrannosaurus was feeding on a carcass in which the more fleshy parts had already been consumed . They were also open to the possibility that other tyrannosaurids practiced cannibalism . Other evidence for cannibalism has been unearthed .
= = = = Pack behavior = = = =
Philip J. Currie of the University of Alberta has suggested that Tyrannosaurus may have been pack animals . Currie compared Tyrannosaurus rex favorably to related species Tarbosaurus bataar and Albertosaurus sarcophagus , fossil evidence from which Currie had previously used to suggest that they lived in packs . Currie pointed out that a find in South Dakota preserved three Tyrannosaurus rex skeletons in close proximity to each other . After using CT scanning , Currie stated that Tyrannosaurus would have been capable of such complex behavior , because its brain size is three times greater than what would be expected for an animal of its size . Currie elaborated that Tyrannosaurus had a larger brain @-@ to @-@ body @-@ size proportion than crocodiles and three times more than plant eating dinosaurs such as Triceratops of the same size . Currie believed Tyrannosaurus to be six times smarter than most dinosaurs and other reptiles. because the available prey , such as Triceratops and Ankylosaurus , were well @-@ armored , and that others were fast @-@ moving , it would have been necessary for Tyrannosaurus to hunt in groups . Currie speculated that juveniles and adults would have hunted together , with the faster juveniles chasing down the prey and the more powerful adults making the kill , by analogy to modern @-@ day pack hunters where each member contributes a skill .
However , Currie 's pack @-@ hunting hypothesis has been harshly criticized by other scientists . Brian Switek , writing for The Guardian in 2011 , noted that Currie 's pack hypothesis has not been presented as research in a peer @-@ reviewed scientific journal , but primarily in relation to a television special and tie @-@ in book called Dino Gangs . Switek also noted that Currie 's argument for pack hunting in Tyrannosaurus rex is primarily based on analogy to a different species , Tarbosaurus bataar , and that the supposed evidence for pack hunting in T. bataar itself has not yet been published and subjected to scientific scrutiny . According to Switek and other scientists who have participated in panel discussions about the Dino Gangs television program , the evidence for pack hunting in Tarbosaurus and Albertosaurus is weak , based primarily on the association of several skeletons , for which numerous alternative explanations have been proposed ( e.g. drought or floods forcing numerous specimens together to die in one place ) . In fact , Switek notes that the Albertosaurus bonebed site , on which Currie has based most of the interpretations of supposed pack hunting in related species , preserves geological evidence of just such a flood . Switek said , " bones alone are not enough to reconstruct dinosaur behaviour . The geological context in which those bones are found – the intricate details of ancient environments and the pace of prehistoric time – are essential to investigating the lives and deaths of dinosaurs , " and noted that Currie must first describe the geological evidence from other tyrannosaur bonebed sites before jumping to conclusions about social behavior . Switek described the sensational claims provided in press releases and news stories surrounding the Dino Gangs program as " nauseating hype " and noted that the production company responsible for the program , Atlantic Productions , has a poor record involving exaggerating claims about new fossil discoveries , most notably the controversial claim it published regarding the supposed early human ancestor Darwinius , which soon turned out to be a relative of lemurs instead .
Lawrence Witmer pointed out that social behavior can 't be determined by brain endocasts and the brains of solitary leopards are identical to those of a cooperatively hunting lion ; estimated brain sizes only show that an animal may have hunted in groups . In his opinion , the brains of tyrannosaurs were large enough for what he dubs " communal hunting " , a semi @-@ organized behavior that falls between solitary and cooperative hunting . Witmer claims that communal hunting is a step towards the evolution of cooperative hunting . He found it hard to believe that tyrannosaurs wouldn 't have exploited the opportunity to join others in making a kill , and thus decrease risk and increase their chances of success .
On July 23 , 2014 , evidence , for the first time , in the form of fossilized trackways in Canada , showed that tyrannosaurs may have hunted in groups .
= = = Pathology = = =
In 2001 , Bruce Rothschild and others published a study examining evidence for stress fractures and tendon avulsions in theropod dinosaurs and the implications for their behavior . Since stress fractures are caused by repeated trauma rather than singular events they are more likely to be caused by regular behavior than other types of injuries . Of the 81 Tyrannosaurus foot bones examined in the study one was found to have a stress fracture , while none of the 10 hand bones were found to have stress fractures . The researchers found tendon avulsions only among Tyrannosaurus and Allosaurus . An avulsion injury left a divot on the humerus of Sue the T. rex , apparently located at the origin of the deltoid or teres major muscles . The presence of avulsion injuries being limited to the forelimb and shoulder in both Tyrannosaurus and Allosaurus suggests that theropods may have had a musculature more complex than and functionally different from those of birds . The researchers concluded that Sue 's tendon avulsion was probably obtained from struggling prey . The presence of stress fractures and tendon avulsions in general provides evidence for a " very active " predation @-@ based diet rather than obligate scavenging .
A 2009 study showed that holes in the skulls of several specimens that were previously explained by intraspecific attacks might have been caused by Trichomonas @-@ like parasites that commonly infect avians . Further evidence of intraspecific attack would however be found by Joseph Peterson and his colleagues in the juvenile Tyrannosaurus nicknamed Jane . Peterson and his team found that Jane 's skull showed healed puncture wounds on the upper jaw and snout which they believe came from another juvenile Tyrannosaurus . Subsequent CT scans of Jane 's skull would further confirm the team 's hypothesis , showing that the puncture wounds came from a traumatic injury and that there was subsequent healing . The team would also state that Jane 's injuries were structurally different from the parasite @-@ induced lesions found in Sue and that Jane 's injuries were on her face whereas the parasite that infected Sue caused lesions to the lower jaw .
= = Paleoecology = =
Tyrannosaurus lived during what is referred to as the Lancian faunal stage ( Maastrichtian age ) at the end of the Late Cretaceous . Tyrannosaurus ranged from Canada in the north to at least Texas and New Mexico in the south of Laramidia . During this time Triceratops was the major herbivore in the northern portion of its range , while the titanosaurian sauropod Alamosaurus " dominated " its southern range . Tyrannosaurus remains have been discovered in different ecosystems , including inland and coastal subtropical , and semi @-@ arid plains .
Several notable Tyrannosaurus remains have been found in the Hell Creek Formation . During the Maastrichtian this area was subtropical , with a warm and humid climate . The flora consisted mostly of angiosperms , but also included trees like dawn redwood ( Metasequoia ) and Araucaria . Tyrannosaurus shared this ecosystem with Triceratops , related ceratopsians Nedoceratops , Tatankaceratops and Torosaurus , the harosaurid Edmontosaurus annectens and possibly a species of Parasaurolophus , the armored dinosaurs Denversaurus , Edmontonia , Ankylosaurus , the dome headed dinosaurs Pachycephalosaurus , Stygimoloch , Sphaerotholus , and Dracorex , hypsilophodont Thescelosaurus , and the theropods Ornithomimus , Struthiomimus , Orcomimus , Acheroraptor , Dakotaraptor , Richardoestesia , Paronychodon , Pectinodon and Troodon .
Another formation with tyrannosaur remains is the Lance Formation of Wyoming . This has been interpreted as a bayou environment similar to today 's Gulf Coast . The fauna was very similar to Hell Creek , but with Struthiomimus replacing its relative Ornithomimus . The small ceratopsian Leptoceratops also lived in the area .
In its southern range Tyrannosaurus lived alongside the titanosaur Alamosaurus , the ceratopsians Torosaurus , Bravoceratops and Ojoceratops , hadrosaurs which consisted of a species of Edmontosaurus , Kritosaurus and a possible species of Gryposaurus , the nodosaur Glyptodontopelta , the oviraptorid Ojoraptosaurus , possible species of the theropods Troodon and Richardoestesia , and the pterosaur Quetzalcoatlus . The region is thought to have been dominated by semi @-@ arid inland plains , following the probable retreat of the Western Interior Seaway as global sea levels fell .
= = History = =
Henry Fairfield Osborn , president of the American Museum of Natural History , named Tyrannosaurus rex in 1905 . The generic name is derived from the Greek words τυράννος ( tyrannos , meaning " tyrant " ) and σαύρος ( sauros , meaning " lizard " ) . Osborn used the Latin word rex , meaning " king " , for the specific name . The full binomial therefore translates to " tyrant lizard the king " or " King Tyrant Lizard " , emphasizing the animal 's size and perceived dominance over other species of the time .
= = = Earliest finds = = =
Teeth from what is now documented as a Tyrannosaurus rex were found in 1874 by Arthur Lakes near Golden , Colorado . In the early 1890s , John Bell Hatcher collected postcranial elements in eastern Wyoming . The fossils were believed to be from a large species of Ornithomimus ( O. grandis ) but are now considered Tyrannosaurus rex remains . Vertebral fragments found by Edward Drinker Cope in western South Dakota in 1892 and assigned to Manospondylus gigas have also been recognized as belonging to Tyrannosaurus rex .
Barnum Brown , assistant curator of the American Museum of Natural History , found the first partial skeleton of Tyrannosaurus rex in eastern Wyoming in 1900 . H. F. Osborn originally named this skeleton Dynamosaurus imperiosus in a paper in 1905 . Brown found another partial skeleton in the Hell Creek Formation in Montana in 1902 . Osborn used this holotype to describe Tyrannosaurus rex in the same paper in which D. imperiosus was described . In 1906 , Osborn recognized the two as synonyms , and acted as first revisor by selecting Tyrannosaurus as the valid name . The original Dynamosaurus material resides in the collections of the Natural History Museum , London .
In total , Brown found five Tyrannosaurus partial skeletons . In 1941 , Brown 's 1902 find was sold to the Carnegie Museum of Natural History in Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania . Brown 's fourth and largest find , also from Hell Creek , is on display in the American Museum of Natural History in New York .
= = = Manospondylus = = =
The first named fossil specimen which can be attributed to Tyrannosaurus rex consists of two partial vertebrae ( one of which has been lost ) found by Edward Drinker Cope in 1892 . Cope believed that they belonged to an " agathaumid " ( ceratopsid ) dinosaur , and named them Manospondylus gigas , meaning " giant porous vertebra " in reference to the numerous openings for blood vessels he found in the bone . The M. gigas remains were later identified as those of a theropod rather than a ceratopsid , and H.F. Osborn recognized the similarity between M. gigas and Tyrannosaurus rex as early as 1917 . However , owing to the fragmentary nature of the Manospondylus vertebrae , Osborn did not synonymize the two genera .
In June 2000 , the Black Hills Institute located the type locality of M. gigas in South Dakota and unearthed more tyrannosaur bones there . These were judged to represent further remains of the same individual , and to be identical to those of Tyrannosaurus rex . According to the rules of the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature ( ICZN ) , the system that governs the scientific naming of animals , Manospondylus gigas should therefore have priority over Tyrannosaurus rex , because it was named first . However , the Fourth Edition of the ICZN , which took effect on January 1 , 2000 , states that " the prevailing usage must be maintained " when " the senior synonym or homonym has not been used as a valid name after 1899 " and " the junior synonym or homonym has been used for a particular taxon , as its presumed valid name , in at least 25 works , published by at least 10 authors in the immediately preceding 50 years ... " Tyrannosaurus rex may qualify as the valid name under these conditions and would most likely be considered a nomen protectum ( " protected name " ) under the ICZN if it is ever formally published on , which it has not yet been . Manospondylus gigas could then be deemed a nomen oblitum ( " forgotten name " ) .
= = = Notable specimens = = =
Sue Hendrickson , amateur paleontologist , discovered the most complete ( approximately 85 % ) and the largest Tyrannosaurus fossil skeleton known in the Hell Creek Formation near Faith , South Dakota , on August 12 , 1990 . This Tyrannosaurus , nicknamed Sue in her honor , was the object of a legal battle over its ownership . In 1997 this was settled in favor of Maurice Williams , the original land owner . The fossil collection was purchased by the Field Museum of Natural History at auction for $ 7 @.@ 6 million , making it the most expensive dinosaur skeleton to date . From 1998 to 1999 Field Museum of Natural History preparators spent over 25 @,@ 000 man @-@ hours taking the rock off each of the bones . The bones were then shipped off to New Jersey where the mount was made . The finished mount was then taken apart , and along with the bones , shipped back to Chicago for the final assembly . The mounted skeleton opened to the public on May 17 , 2000 in the great hall ( Stanley Field Hall ) at the Field Museum of Natural History . A study of this specimen 's fossilized bones showed that Sue reached full size at age 19 and died at age 28 , the longest any tyrannosaur is known to have lived . Early speculation that Sue may have died from a bite to the back of the head was not confirmed . Though subsequent study showed many pathologies in the skeleton , no bite marks were found . Damage to the back of the skull may have been caused by post @-@ mortem trampling . Recent speculation indicates that Sue may have died of starvation after contracting a parasitic infection from eating diseased meat ; the resulting infection would have caused inflammation in the throat , ultimately leading Sue to starve because she could no longer swallow food . This hypothesis is substantiated by smooth @-@ edged holes in her skull which are similar to those caused in modern @-@ day birds that contract the same parasite .
Another Tyrannosaurus , nicknamed Stan , in honor of amateur paleontologist Stan Sacrison , was found in the Hell Creek Formation near Buffalo , South Dakota , in the spring of 1987 . It was not collected until 1992 , as it was mistakenly thought to be a Triceratops skeleton . Stan is 63 % complete and is on display in the Black Hills Institute of Geological Research in Hill City , South Dakota , after an extensive world tour during 1995 and 1996 . This tyrannosaur , too , was found to have many bone pathologies , including broken and healed ribs , a broken ( and healed ) neck and a spectacular hole in the back of its head , about the size of a Tyrannosaurus tooth .
In the summer of 2000 , Jack Horner discovered five Tyrannosaurus skeletons near the Fort Peck Reservoir in Montana . One of the specimens was reported to be perhaps the largest Tyrannosaurus ever found .
In 2001 , a 50 % complete skeleton of a juvenile Tyrannosaurus was discovered in the Hell Creek Formation in Montana , by a crew from the Burpee Museum of Natural History of Rockford , Illinois . Dubbed Jane , the find was initially considered the first known skeleton of the pygmy tyrannosaurid Nanotyrannus but subsequent research has revealed that it is more likely a juvenile Tyrannosaurus . It is the most complete and best preserved juvenile example known to date . Jane has been examined by Jack Horner , Pete Larson , Robert Bakker , Greg Erickson , and several other renowned paleontologists , because of the uniqueness of her age . Jane is currently on exhibit at the Burpee Museum of Natural History in Rockford , Illinois .
In a press release on April 7 , 2006 , Bozeman Campus , Montana State University , USA revealed that it possessed the largest Tyrannosaurus skull yet discovered . Discovered in the 1960s and only recently reconstructed , the skull measures 59 inches ( 150 cm ) long compared to the 55 @.@ 4 inches ( 141 cm ) of Sue 's skull , a difference of 6 @.@ 5 % . However , it has been incorrectly reconstructed , and has been corrected to 134 cm ( 53 in ) .
= = In popular culture = =
Since it was first described in 1905 , Tyrannosaurus rex has become the most widely recognized dinosaur species in popular culture . It is the only dinosaur that is commonly known to the general public by its full scientific name ( binomial name ) ( Tyrannosaurus rex ) , and the scientific abbreviation T. rex has also come into wide usage . Robert T. Bakker notes this in The Dinosaur Heresies and explains that a name like " Tyrannosaurus rex is just irresistible to the tongue . "
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= Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone =
Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone is the first novel in the Harry Potter series and J. K. Rowling 's debut novel , first published in 1997 by Bloomsbury . It was published in the United States as Harry Potter and the Sorcerer 's Stone by Scholastic Corporation in 1998 . The plot follows Harry Potter , a young wizard who discovers his magical heritage as he makes close friends and a few enemies in his first year at the Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry . With the help of his friends , Harry faces an attempted comeback by the dark wizard Lord Voldemort , who killed Harry 's parents , but failed to kill Harry when he was just a year old .
The novel won most of the British book awards that were judged by children and other awards in the US . The book reached the top of the New York Times list of best @-@ selling fiction in August 1999 and stayed near the top of that list for much of 1999 and 2000 . It has been translated into at least sixty @-@ seven other languages and has been made into a feature @-@ length film of the same name , as have all six of its sequels .
Most reviews were very favourable , commenting on Rowling 's imagination , humour , simple , direct style and clever plot construction , although a few complained that the final chapters seemed rushed . The writing has been compared to that of Jane Austen , one of Rowling 's favourite authors , or Roald Dahl , whose works dominated children 's stories before the appearance of Harry Potter , and of the Ancient Greek story @-@ teller Homer . While some commentators thought the book looked backwards to Victorian and Edwardian boarding school stories , others thought it placed the genre firmly in the modern world by featuring contemporary ethical and social issues .
Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone , along with the rest of the Harry Potter series , has been attacked by several religious groups and banned in some countries because of accusations that the novels promote witchcraft , but other religious commentators have written that the book exemplifies important viewpoints , including the power of self @-@ sacrifice and the ways in which people 's decisions shape their personalities . The series has been used as a source of object lessons in educational techniques , sociological analysis and marketing .
= = Synopsis = =
= = = Plot = = =
The most evil and powerful dark wizard in history , Lord Voldemort , murdered married couple James and Lily Potter but mysteriously disappeared after failing to kill their infant son , Harry . While the wizarding world celebrates Voldemort 's apparent downfall , Professor Dumbledore , Professor McGonagall and half @-@ giant Rubeus Hagrid place the one @-@ year @-@ old orphan in the care of his surly and cold Muggle uncle and aunt , Vernon and Petunia Dursley , with their spoiled and bullying son , Dudley .
Ten years later while living at number Four Privet Drive , Harry is tormented by the Dursleys , treated more like a servant than a member of the family and forced to live in a cupboard under the stairs . Shortly before his eleventh birthday , a series of letters addressed to Harry arrive , but Vernon destroys them before Harry can read them , leading only to an influx of more letters . To evade the pursuit of the letters , Vernon first takes the family to a hotel , and , when the letters arrive there too , he hires a boat out to a small island . On Harry 's eleventh birthday at midnight , Hagrid bursts through the door to deliver Harry 's letter and tells him what the Dursleys have kept from him : Harry is a wizard and has been accepted into Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry . Hagrid takes Harry to a hidden London street called Diagon Alley , where he is startled to discover how famous he is among the witches and wizards , who refer to him as " the boy who lived . " He also finds that his parents ' inheritance is waiting for him at Gringotts Wizarding Bank . Guided by Hagrid , he buys the equipment he will need for his first year at Hogwarts and receives a pet owl .
A month later , Harry leaves the Dursleys ' home to catch the Hogwarts Express from King 's Cross railway station . There he meets the Weasley family , who show him how to pass through the magic wall to Platform 9 ¾ , where the train that will take them to Hogwarts is waiting . While on the train , Harry meets two fellow first years , Ron Weasley , who immediately becomes his friend , and Hermione Granger , with whom the ice is a bit slower to break . Harry also makes an enemy of yet another first @-@ year , Draco Malfoy . Draco offers to advise Harry , but Harry dislikes Draco for his arrogance and prejudice and rejects his offer of " friendship " .
At Hogwarts , the first @-@ years are assigned by the magical Sorting Hat to houses that best suites their personality . While Harry is being sorted , the Hat suggests that he be placed into Slytherin which is known to house potential dark witches and wizards , but when Harry objects , the Hat sends him to Gryffindor . Ron and Hermione are also sorted into Gryffindor . Draco is sorted into Slytherin , like his whole family before him .
Harry starts classes at Hogwarts School , with lessons including Transfiguration with Head of Gryffindor , Minerva McGonagall , Herbology with Head of Hufflepuff , Pomona Sprout , Charms with Head of Ravenclaw Filius Flitwick , and Defence Against the Dark Arts with Quirinus Quirrell . Harry 's least favourite class is Potions , taught by Severus Snape , the vindictive Head of Slytherin who seems to loathe Harry . Harry , Ron , and Hermione become far more interested by extracurricular matters within and outside of the school , particularly after they discover that a huge three @-@ headed dog is standing guard over a trapdoor in a condemned corridor . They also become suspicious of Snape 's behaviour and become convinced that he is looking for ways to get past the trapdoor .
Harry discovers an innate talent for flying on broomsticks and is appointed as Seeker on his House ’ s Quidditch team , a wizards 's sport played in the air . His first game goes well until his broomstick wobbles in mid @-@ air and almost throws him off . Ron and Hermione suspect foul play from Snape , whom they saw behaving oddly . For Christmas , Harry receives an invisibility cloak from an anonymous source and begins exploring the school at night and investigating the hidden object further . He discovers the Mirror of Erised , in which the viewer 's sees his deepest desires becoming true .
Thanks to an indiscretion from Hagrid , Harry and his friends work out that the object kept at the school is a Philosopher 's Stone , made by an old friend of Dumbledore named Nicolas Flamel . Harry is also informed by a centaur he meets in the forest that a plot to steal the Philosopher ’ s stone is being orchestrated by none other than Voldemort himself , who would use it to be restored to his body and come back to power . When Dumbledore is lured from Hogwarts under false pretences , Harry and his friends fear that the theft is imminent and descend through the trapdoor themselves .
They encounter a series of obstacles , each of which requires unique skills possessed by one of the three , and one of which requires Ron to sacrifice himself in a life @-@ sized game of wizard 's chess . In the final room , Harry , now alone , finds Quirrell , who admits that he had tried to kill Harry at his Quidditch match against Slytherin . He also admits that he let the troll into Hogwarts . Snape had been trying to protect Harry all along rather than to kill him , and his suspicious behaviour came from his own suspicions about Quirrell .
Quirrell is one of Voldemort 's followers , and is now partly possessed by him : Voldemort 's face has sprouted on the back of his own head , hidden by his turban . Voldemort needs Harry 's help to get past the final obstacle : the Mirror of Erised , but when Quirrell tries to grab the Stone from Harry his contact proves lethal for Quirrell . Harry passes out and awakes in the school hospital , where Dumbledore explains to him that he survived because his mother sacrificed her life to protect him , and this left a powerful protective charm on him . Voldemort left Quirrell to die and is likely to return by some other means . The Stone has now been destroyed . The school year ends at the final feast , during which Gryffindor wins the House Cup . Harry returns to the Dursleys ' for the summer holiday but does not tell them that under @-@ age wizards are forbidden to use magic outside of Hogwarts .
= = = Main characters = = =
Harry Potter is an orphan whom Rowling imagined as a " scrawny , black @-@ haired , bespectacled boy who didn 't know he was a wizard . " She developed the series ' story and characters to explain how Harry came to be in this situation and how his life unfolded from there . Apart from the first chapter , the events of this book take place just before and in the year following Harry 's eleventh birthday . Voldemort 's attack left a lightning bolt @-@ shaped scar on Harry 's forehead , which produces stabbing pains whenever Voldemort is present . Harry has a natural talent for Quidditch and became the first person to get on a team in their first year .
Ron Weasley is Harry 's age and Rowling describes him as the ultimate best friend , " always there when you need him . " He is freckled , red @-@ haired and quite tall . He grew up in a fairly large pure @-@ blood family as the sixth born of seven children . Although his family is quite poor , they still live comfortably and happily . His loyalty and bravery in the face of a game of Wizards Chess plays a vital part in finding the Philosopher 's Stone .
Hermione Granger , the daughter of an all @-@ Muggle family , is a bossy girl who has apparently memorised most of the textbooks before the start of term . Rowling described Hermione as a " very logical , upright and good " character with " a lot of insecurity and a great fear of failure beneath her swottiness " . Despite her nagging efforts to keep Harry and Ron out of trouble , she becomes a close friend of the two boys after they save her from a troll , and her magical and analytical skills play an important role in finding the Philosopher 's Stone . She has bushy brown hair and rather large front teeth .
Neville Longbottom is a plump , diffident boy , so forgetful that his grandmother gives him a Remembrall , although he cannot remember why . Neville 's magical abilities are weak and appeared just in time to save his life when he was eight . Despite his timidity , Neville will fight anyone after some encouragement or if he thinks it is right and important .
Rubeus Hagrid , a half @-@ giant nearly 12 feet ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) tall , with tangled black hair and beard , was expelled from Hogwarts and his wand was broken , but Professor Dumbledore let him stay on as the school 's gamekeeper , a job which enables him to lavish affection and pet names on even the most dangerous of magical creatures . Hagrid is fiercely loyal to Dumbledore and quickly becomes a close friend of Harry , Ron and , later , Hermione , but his carelessness makes him unreliable .
Professor Dumbledore , a tall , thin man who wears half @-@ moon spectacles and has silver hair and a beard that tucks into his belt , is the headmaster of Hogwarts , and thought to be the only wizard Voldemort fears . Dumbledore , while renowned for his achievements in magic , finds it difficult to resist sweets and has a whimsical sense of humour . Although he shrugs off praise , he is aware of his own brilliance . Rowling described him as the " epitome of goodness " .
Professor McGonagall , a tall , severe @-@ looking woman with black hair tied in a tight bun , teaches Transfiguration , and sometimes transforms herself into a cat . She is Deputy Headmistress , and Head of Gryffindor House and , according to the author , " under that gruff exterior " is " a bit of an old softy " .
Petunia Dursley , the sister of Harry 's mother Lily , is a thin woman with a long neck that she uses for spying on the neighbours . She regards her magical sister as a freak and tries to pretend that she never existed . Her husband Vernon is a heavily built man whose irascible bluster covers a narrow mind and a fear of anything unusual . Their son Dudley is an overweight , spoiled bully .
Draco Malfoy is a slim , pale boy who speaks in a bored drawl . He is arrogant about his skill in Quidditch , and despises anyone who is not a pure @-@ blood wizard – and wizards who do not share his views . His parents had supported Voldemort , but changed sides after the dark wizard 's disappearance , claiming they had been bewitched . Draco avoids direct confrontations , and tries to get Harry and his friends into trouble .
Professor Quirrell is a twitching , stammering man who teaches Defence Against the Dark Arts . Reputedly he was a brilliant scholar , but his nerve was shattered by an encounter with vampires . Quirrell wears a turban to conceal the fact that he is voluntarily possessed by Voldemort , whose face appears on the back of Quirrell 's head .
Professor Snape , who has a hooked nose , sallow complexion and greasy black hair , teaches Potions , but would prefer to teach Defence Against the Dark Arts . Snape praises pupils in Slytherin , his own House but seizes every opportunity to humiliate others , especially Harry . Several incidents , beginning with the shooting pain in Harry 's scar during the start @-@ of @-@ term feast , lead Harry and his friends to think Snape is a follower of Voldemort .
Filch , the school caretaker who knows the school 's secret passages better than anyone else except , possibly , the Weasley twins . His cat , Mrs. Norris , aids his constant hunt for misbehaving pupils .
Other members of staff include the dumpy Herbology teacher and Head of Hufflepuff House Professor Sprout , Professor Flitwick , the tiny and excitable Charms teacher , and Head of Ravenclaw House , the soporific History of Magic teacher , Professor Binns , a ghost who does not seem to have noticed his own death ; and Madam Hooch , the Quidditch coach , who is strict , but a considerate and methodical teacher . The poltergeist Peeves wanders around the castle causing trouble wherever he can .
In the book , Rowling introduces an eclectic cast of characters . The first character to be introduced is Vernon Dursley , Harry 's uncle . Most of the actions centre on the eponymous hero Harry Potter , an orphan who escapes his miserable childhood with the Dursley family . Rowling imagined him as a " scrawny , black @-@ haired , bespectacled boy who didn 't know he was a wizard " , and says she transferred part of her pain about losing her mother to him . During the book , Harry makes two close friends , Ronald Weasley and Hermione Granger . Ron is described by Rowling as the ultimate best friend , " always there when you need him " . Rowling has described Hermione as a " very logical , upright and good " character with " a lot of insecurity and a great fear of failure beneath her swottiness " .
Rowling also imagined a supporting cast of adults . The headmaster of Hogwarts is the powerful , but kind wizard Albus Dumbledore , who becomes Harry 's confidant ; Rowling described him as " epitome of goodness " . His right hand is severe Minerva McGonagall , who according to the author " under that gruff exterior " is " a bit of an old softy " , the friendly half @-@ giant Rubeus Hagrid , who saved Harry from the Dursley family and the sinister Severus Snape . Professor Quirrell is also featured in the novel .
The main antagonists are Draco Malfoy , an elitist , bullying classmate and Lord Voldemort , the most powerful evil wizard who becomes disembodied when he tries to kill baby Harry . According to a 1999 interview with Rowling , the character of Voldemort was created as a literary foil for Harry , and his backstory was intentionally not fleshed @-@ out at first :
The basic idea ... Harry , I saw Harry very very very clearly . Very vividly . And I knew he didn 't know he was a wizard . [ ... ] And so then I kind of worked backwards from that position to find out how that could be , that he wouldn 't know what he was . [ ... ] When he was one year old , the most evil wizard for hundreds and hundreds of years attempted to kill him . He killed Harry 's parents , and then he tried to kill Harry — he tried to curse him . [ ... ] And — so — but for some mysterious reason , the curse didn 't work on Harry . So he 's left with this lightning bolt shaped scar on his forehead and the curse rebounded upon the evil wizard , who has been in hiding ever since .
= = Development , publication and reception = =
= = = Development = = =
The book , which was Rowling 's debut novel , was written between approximately June 1990 and some time in 1995 . In 1990 Jo Rowling , as she preferred to be known , wanted to move with her boyfriend to a flat in Manchester and in her words , " One weekend after flat hunting , I took the train back to London on my own and the idea for Harry Potter fell into my head ... A scrawny , little , black @-@ haired , bespectacled boy became more and more of a wizard to me ... I began to write Philosopher 's Stone that very evening . Although , the first couple of pages look nothing like the finished product . " Then Rowling 's mother died and , to cope with her pain , Rowling transferred her own anguish to the orphan Harry . Rowling spent six years working on Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone , and after it was accepted by Bloomsbury , she obtained a grant of £ 8 @,@ 000 from the Scottish Arts Council , which enabled her to plan the sequels . She sent the book to an agent and a publisher , and then the second agent she approached spent a year trying to sell the book to publishers , most of whom thought it was too long at about 90 @,@ 000 words . Barry Cunningham , who was building a portfolio of distinctive fantasies by new authors for Bloomsbury Children 's Books , recommended accepting the book , and the eight @-@ year @-@ old daughter of Bloomsbury 's chief executive said it was " so much better than anything else " .
= = = Publication and reception in the United Kingdom = = =
Bloomsbury accepted the book , paying Rowling a £ 2 @,@ 500 advance , and Cunningham sent proof copies to carefully chosen authors , critics and booksellers in order to obtain comments that could be quoted when the book was launched . He was less concerned about the book 's length than about its author 's name , since the title sounded like a boys ' book to him , and he believed boys preferred books by male authors . Rowling therefore adopted the nom de plume J.K. Rowling just before publication . In June 1997 , Bloomsbury published Philosopher 's Stone with an initial print @-@ run of 500 copies in hardback , three hundred of which were distributed to libraries . Her original name , " Joanne Rowling " , can be found in small print on the copyright page of this first British edition . ( The 1998 first American edition would remove reference to " Joanne " completely . ) The short initial print run was standard for first novels , and Cunningham hoped booksellers would read the book and recommend it to customers . Examples from this initial print run have become quite valuable , selling for as much as US $ 33 @,@ 460 in a 2007 Heritage Auction .
Lindsey Fraser , who had supplied one of the blurb comments , wrote what is thought to be the first published review , in The Scotsman on 28 June 1997 . She described Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone as " a hugely entertaining thriller " and Rowling as " a first @-@ rate writer for children " . Another early review , in The Herald , said , " I have yet to find a child who can put it down . " Newspapers outside Scotland started to notice the book , with glowing reviews in The Guardian , The Sunday Times and The Mail on Sunday , and in September 1997 Books for Keeps , a magazine that specialised in children 's books , gave the novel four stars out of five . The Mail on Sunday rated it as " the most imaginative debut since Roald Dahl " ; a view echoed by the Sunday Times ( " comparisons to Dahl are , this time , justified " ) , while The Guardian called it " a richly textured novel given lift @-@ off by an inventive wit " and The Scotsman said it had " all the makings of a classic " .
In 1997 the UK edition won a National Book Award and a gold medal in the 9 to 11 year @-@ olds category of the Nestlé Smarties Book Prize . The Smarties award , which is voted for by children , made the book well @-@ known within six months of publication , while most children 's books have to wait for years . The following year , Philosopher 's Stone won almost all the other major British awards that were decided by children . It was also shortlisted for children 's books awards adjudicated by adults , but did not win . Sandra Beckett comments that books which were popular with children were regarded as undemanding and as not of the highest literary standards – for example the literary establishment disdained the works of Roald Dahl , an overwhelming favourite of children before the appearance of Rowling 's books . In 2003 , the novel was listed at number 22 on the BBC 's survey The Big Read .
Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone won two publishing industry awards given for sales rather than literary merit , the British Book Awards Children 's Book of the Year and the Booksellers ' Association / Bookseller Author of the Year . By March 1999 UK editions had sold just over 300 @,@ 000 copies , and the story was still the UK 's best @-@ selling title in December 2001 . A Braille edition was published in May 1998 by the Scottish Braille Press .
Platform 9 ¾ , from which the Hogwarts Express left London , was commemorated in the real @-@ life King 's Cross railway station with a sign and a trolley apparently passing through the wall .
= = = U.S. publication and reception = = =
Scholastic Corporation bought the U.S. rights at the Bologna Book Fair in April 1997 for US $ 105 @,@ 000 , an unusually high sum for a children 's book . They thought that a child would not want to read a book with the word " philosopher " in the title and , after some discussion , the American edition was published in September 1998 under the title Rowling suggested , Harry Potter and the Sorcerer 's Stone . Rowling claimed that she regretted this change and would have fought it if she had been in a stronger position at the time . Philip Nel has pointed out that the change lost the connection with alchemy , and the meaning of some other terms changed in translation , for example from UK English " crumpets " to US English " muffin " . While Rowling accepted the change from both UK English " mum " and Seamus Finnigan 's Irish variant " mam " to " mom " in Harry Potter and the Sorcerer 's Stone , she vetoed this change in the later books ( this change was reversed in later editions of the book ) . However Nel considered that Scholastic 's translations were considerably more sensitive than most of those imposed on UK English books of the time , and that some other changes could be regarded as useful copyedits . Since the UK editions of early titles in the series were published a few months earlier than the American versions , some American readers became familiar with the British English versions after buying them via the Internet .
At first the most prestigious reviewers ignored the book , leaving it to book trade and library publications such as Kirkus Reviews and Booklist , which examined it only by the entertainment @-@ oriented criteria of children 's fiction . However , more penetrating specialist reviews ( such as one by Cooperative Children 's Book Center Choices , which pointed out the complexity , depth and consistency of the world Rowling had built ) attracted the attention of reviewers in major newspapers . Although The Boston Globe and Michael Winerip in The New York Times complained that the final chapters were the weakest part of the book , they and most other American reviewers gave glowing praise . A year later the US edition was selected as an American Library Association Notable Book , a Publishers Weekly Best Book of 1998 , and a New York Public Library 1998 Best Book of the Year , and won Parenting Magazine 's Book of the Year Award for 1998 , the School Library Journal Best Book of the Year , and the American Library Association Best Book for Young Adults .
In August 1999 Harry Potter and the Sorcerer 's Stone topped the New York Times list of best @-@ selling fiction , and stayed near the top of the list for much of 1999 and 2000 , until the New York Times split its list into children 's and adult sections under pressure from other publishers who were eager to see their books given higher placings . Publishers Weekly 's report in December 2001 on cumulative sales of children 's fiction placed Harry Potter and the Sorcerer 's Stone 19th among hardbacks ( over 5 million copies ) and 7th among paperbacks ( over 6 @.@ 6 million copies ) .
In May 2008 , Scholastic announced the creation of a 10th Anniversary Edition of the book that was released on 1 October 2008 to mark the tenth anniversary of the original American release . For the fifteenth anniversary of the books , Scholastic re @-@ released Sorcerer 's Stone , along with the other six novels in the series , with new cover art by Kazu Kibuishi in 2013 .
= = = Translations = = =
By mid @-@ 2008 , official translations of the book were published in 67 languages . Bloomsbury have published translations in Latin and in Ancient Greek , and the latter was described as " one of the most important pieces of Ancient Greek prose written in many centuries " .
= = Style and themes = =
Philip Nel highlighted the influence of Jane Austen , whom Rowling has greatly admired since the age of twelve . Both novelists encourage re @-@ reading , because details that look insignificant foreshadow important events or characters much later in the story @-@ line – for example Sirius Black is briefly mentioned near the beginning of Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone , and then becomes a major character in the third to fifth books . Like Austen 's heroines , Harry often has to re @-@ examine his ideas near the ends of books . Some social behaviour in the Harry Potter books is remininiscent of Austen , for example the excited communal reading of letters . Both authors satirise social behaviour and give characters names that express their personalities . However in Nel 's opinion Rowling 's humour is more based on caricature and the names she invents are more like those found in Charles Dickens 's stories , and Amanda Cockrell noted that many of these express their owners ' traits through allusions that run from ancient Roman mythology to eighteenth @-@ century German literature . Rowling , like the Narnia series ' author C.S. Lewis , thinks there is no rigid distinction between stories for children and for adults . Nel also noted that , like many good writers for children , Rowling combines literary genres — fantasy , young @-@ adult fiction , boarding school stories , Bildungsroman and many others .
Some reviewers compared Philosopher 's Stone to the stories of Roald Dahl , who died in 1990 . Many writers since the 1970s had been hailed as his successor , but none had attained anything near his popularity with children and , in a poll conducted shortly after the launch of Philosopher 's Stone , seven of the ten most popular children 's books were by Dahl , including the one in top place . The only other really popular children 's author of the late 1990s was an American , R. L. Stine . Some of the story elements in Philosopher 's Stone resembled parts of Dahl 's stories ; for example , the hero of James and the Giant Peach lost his parents and had to live with a pair of unpleasant aunts — one fat and one thin rather like Mr. and Mrs. Dursley , who treated Harry as a servant . However Harry Potter was a distinctive creation , able to take on the responsibilities of an adult while remaining a child inside .
Librarian Nancy Knapp and marketing professor Stephen Brown noted the liveliness and detail of descriptions , especially of shop scenes such as Diagon Alley . Tad Brennan commented that Rowling 's writing resembles that of Homer : " rapid , plain , and direct in expression . " Stephen King admired " the sort of playful details of which only British fantasists seem capable " and concluded that they worked because Rowling enjoys a quick giggle and then moves briskly forward .
Nicholas Tucker described the early Harry Potter books as looking back to Victorian and Edwardian children 's stories : Hogwarts was an old @-@ style boarding school in which the teachers addressed pupils formally by their surnames and were most concerned with the reputations of the houses with which they were associated ; characters ' personalities were plainly shown by their appearances , starting with the Dursleys ; evil or malicious characters were to be crushed rather than reformed , including Filch 's cat Mrs Norris ; and the hero , a mistreated orphan who found his true place in life , was charismatic and good at sports , but considerate and protective towards the weak . Several other commentators have stated that the books present a highly stratified society including many social stereotypes . However Karin Westerman drew parallels with 1990s Britain : a class system that was breaking down but defended by those whose power and status it upheld ; the multi @-@ ethnic composition of Hogwarts ' students ; the racial tensions between the various intelligent species ; and school bullying .
Susan Hall wrote that there is no rule of law in the books , as the actions of Ministry of Magic officials are unconstrained by laws , accountability or any kind of legal challenge . This provides an opportunity for Voldemort to offer his own horrific version of order . As a side @-@ effect Harry and Hermione , who were brought up in the highly regulated Muggle world , find solutions by thinking in ways unfamiliar to wizards . For example , Hermione notes that one obstacle to finding the Philosopher 's Stone is a test of logic rather than magical power , and that most wizards have no chance of solving it .
Nel suggested that the unflattering characterisation of the extremely conventional , status @-@ conscious , materialistic Dursleys was Rowling 's reaction to the family policies of the British government in the early 1990s , which treated the married heterosexual couple as the " preferred norm " , while the author was a single mother . Harry 's relationships with adult and juvenile wizards are based on affection and loyalty . This is reflected in his happiness whenever he is a temporary member of the Weasley family throughout the series , and in his treatment of first Rubeus Hagrid and later Remus Lupin and Sirius Black as father @-@ figures .
= = Legacy = =
= = = Sequels = = =
The second book , Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets , was originally published in the UK on 2 July 1998 and in the US on 2 June 1999 . Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban was then published a year later in the UK on 8 July 1999 and in the US on 8 September 1999 . Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire was published on 8 July 2000 at the same time by Bloomsbury and Scholastic . Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix is the longest book in the series at 766 pages in the UK version and 870 pages in the US version . It was published worldwide in English on 21 June 2003 . Harry Potter and the Half @-@ Blood Prince was published on 16 July 2005 and sold 11 million copies in the first 24 hours of its worldwide release . The seventh and final novel , Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows , was published on 21 July 2007 . The book sold 11 million copies within 24 hours of its release : 2 @.@ 7 million copies in the UK and 8 @.@ 3 million in the US .
= = = Film version = = =
In 1999 , Rowling sold the film rights of the first four Harry Potter books to Warner Bros. for a reported £ 1 million ( $ 1 @,@ 982 @,@ 900 ) . Rowling demanded that the principal cast be kept strictly British but allowed for the casting of Irish actors such as the late Richard Harris as Dumbledore and of foreign actors as characters of the same nationalities in later books . After extensive casting , filming began in September 2000 at Leavesden Film Studios and in London , with production ending in July 2001 . Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone was released in London on 14 November 2001 . Reviewers ' comments were positive , as reflected by an 80 % Fresh rating on Rotten Tomatoes and by a score of 64 % at Metacritic , representing " generally favourable reviews " .
= = = Video games = = =
Five unique video games by different developers were released between 2001 and 2003 by Electronic Arts , loosely based on the film and book :
= = = Uses in education and business = = =
Writers on education and business subjects have used the book as an object lesson . Writing about clinical teaching in medical schools , Jennifer Conn contrasted Snape 's technical expertise with his intimidating behaviour towards students ; on the other hand Quidditch coach Madam Hooch illustrated useful techniques in the teaching of physical skills , including breaking down complex actions into sequences of simple ones and helping students to avoid common errors . Joyce Fields wrote that the books illustrate four of the five main topics in a typical first @-@ year sociology class : " sociological concepts including culture , society , and socialisation ; stratification and social inequality ; social institutions ; and social theory " .
Stephen Brown noted that the early Harry Potter books , especially Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone , were a runaway success despite inadequate and poorly organised marketing . Brown advised marketing executives to be less preoccupied with rigorous statistical analyses and the " analysis , planning , implementation , and control " model of management . Instead he recommended that they should treat the stories as " a marketing masterclass " , full of enticing products and brand names . For example , a real @-@ world analogue of Bertie Bott 's Every Flavour Beans was introduced under licence in 2000 by toymaker Hasbro .
= = Release history = =
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= Kenilworth Road =
Kenilworth Road is a football stadium in Luton , Bedfordshire , England . It has been home to Luton Town Football Club since 1905 when they left Dunstable Road . The ground has also hosted women 's and youth international matches .
The 10 @,@ 356 all @-@ seater stadium is situated in Bury Park , one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) west of the centre of Luton . It is named after the road which runs along one end of it , but the official address is 1 Maple Road . Kenilworth Road hosted football in the Southern League until 1920 , then in the Football League until 2009 , when Luton were relegated to the Conference Premier . It has hosted Football League matches once more since 2014 .
The ground is known for the artificial playing surface which was present from 1985 to 1991 , the unusual entrance to the Oak Road End , and the five @-@ season ban on away supporters that Luton Town imposed following a riot by visiting fans in 1985 . Floodlights were fitted in 1953 , and the ground became all @-@ seated in 1986 . The record attendance of 30 @,@ 069 was set in 1959 , in an FA Cup sixth round replay against Blackpool .
= = History = =
Luton Town moved to Kenilworth Road in 1905 , leaving their previous home at Dunstable Road after their landlord sold the site for housing at short notice . The club 's directors quickly procured a new site , and the club 's first match at the new ground came on 4 September 1905 — a 0 – 0 draw against Plymouth Argyle . Watford player C. Barnes scored the first ever goal at the stadium , in a reserve match . Originally known as Ivy Road , the new ground brought success with it — in their last season at Dunstable Road , Luton had finished second from bottom , but in the first at Kenilworth Road , Luton finished fourth in the Southern League .
The ground has undergone several major changes since its original construction in 1905 . The original Main Stand , boasting a press loft and a balcony above the roof , burnt down in 1921 , and was replaced by the current stand before the 1922 – 23 campaign . The new Main Stand was split into two : the upper tier contained wooden seats , so there was a ban on smoking in the stand ; the lower tier , which became known as the Enclosure , was terracing .
When attendances were first counted , in 1932 – 33 , Luton Town 's average home attendance was taken at 5 @,@ 868 . Kenilworth Road 's capacity of the time was 25 @,@ 000 , so it was not deemed necessary to improve the ground . However , only three years later , on 25 April 1936 , a match against Coventry City attracted 23 @,@ 142 spectators — at that time a club record . The decision was taken to renovate the stadium , already in disrepair , and work began at the end of the following season . The Kenilworth End terrace was extended , the Oak Road End received a roof and major work was done on the Main Stand . Following these steps , the ground was more in line with those of rival clubs , the capacity standing at 30 @,@ 000 .
The first ten years following Kenilworth Road 's renovation saw average attendances of between 15 @,@ 000 and 18 @,@ 000 ; a huge improvement on what the club had previously been able to attract . Floodlights were installed at the ground before the 1953 – 54 season , and used for the first time in a friendly against Turkish side Fenerbahçe on 7 October 1953 . The Oak Road terrace was extended in 1955 , and promotion to the First Division for 1955 – 56 saw the average attendance climb as high as 21 @,@ 454 .
Renovation of Kenilworth Road was neglected for the next two decades — financial difficulties and the club 's ambitions to build a new ground meant that regeneration was unaffordable , and would also prove unnecessary should relocation occur . However , following the rejection of several potential sites for a new ground , the club finally turned their attentions back to the maintenance of Kenilworth Road . The first real modernisation of the ground came in 1973 , with the first addition of seats at the stadium since the construction of the new Main Stand in 1922 . The Bobbers Stand became all @-@ seated , while the rest of the ground remained terracing . The new @-@ look stand could only hold 1 @,@ 539 seats , and as a result the capacity of the ground dropped to 22 @,@ 601 .
A £ 1 million refubishment got under way in 1985 with the introduction of artificial turf , as well as the conversion of the ground to all @-@ seater , which began a year later in 1986 . The Oak Road End was filled with seats , while the Bobbers Stand had its seats ripped out to be replaced with executive boxes . The Main Stand 's enclosure received seats , and work also began on converting the Kenilworth Stand , which had a roof added at this time . The stand would also receive seats in stages over the coming years .
The David Preece Stand was erected in 1991 , simply called the New Stand on construction . The final improvements to the ground came in 2005 , when the conversion of the Kenilworth Stand was finally completed to bring the capacity to its present 10 @,@ 356 .
On 24 March 2015 the ground was officially renamed " The Prostate Cancer UK Stadium " for one day , for the game against Wycombe Wanderers , in support of charity and raising awareness of prostate cancer .
= = = Artificial pitch = = =
In 1985 , following the lead of Queen Park Rangers ' experiment at Loftus Road four years earlier , the grass pitch was dug up and replaced with an artificial playing surface . The surface , called Sporturf Professional , was manufactured by En @-@ Tout @-@ Cas , and cost the club £ 350 @,@ 000 . The first match on the new pitch was a 1 – 1 draw with Nottingham Forest . The new surface became exceedingly unpopular — derided as " the plastic pitch " , other clubs were starting to protest about Luton 's artificial pitch by 1989 . A meeting was held with other major clubs , mediated by a Football League Commission . The League Commission concluded that the pitch had suffered too much wear and tear from excessive use , and Luton installed a new surface during the summer of 1989 , at the cost of £ 60 @,@ 000 . This new artificial pitch was dug up during the summer of 1991 , as the surfaces were banned from English football .
= = = Away fan ban = = =
On 13 March 1985 , Millwall visited Kenilworth Road for an FA Cup sixth round match . After only 14 minutes the match was halted as the visiting fans began to riot . The referee took both teams off for 25 minutes , before bringing them back on to complete the match . Following the final whistle , and a 1 – 0 victory for Luton , another pitch invasion and subsequent riot by away supporters caused noticeable damage to the ground and the surrounding area . Many of those arrested turned out to be supporters of teams other than Millwall . The club 's chairman , David Evans , reacted by imposing a ban on all away supporters from Kenilworth Road from the start of 1986 – 87 , as well as introducing a scheme that would require even home supporters to carry membership cards to be admitted to matches . The Football League insisted that Luton relax the ban for League Cup matches , but when Evans refused to allow Cardiff City fans to visit Kenilworth Road for their second round tie , the club were thrown out of the competition . The ban continued for four seasons , with exceptions for cup matches , before Luton Town repealed the ban before the 1990 – 91 season .
= = = Ownership = = =
The ground was first constructed in 1905 , soon before the club moved in . The club rented the ground until 1933 , when newly appointed chairman Charles Jeyes organised the purchase of the stadium . The club retained ownership of the ground until February 1989 , when the freehold was sold to Luton Borough Council for £ 3 @.@ 25 million . The club was granted a seven @-@ year lease at peppercorn rent for its continued use . This arrangement has been extended several times , and as of 2015 is due to end in 2028 .
= = Structure and facilities = =
The ground is made up of five stands — opposite the eponymous Kenilworth Stand is the Oak Road End , and to the left is the Main Stand , which is flanked to its right by the David Preece Stand . Opposite them stand a row of executive boxes .
The Main Stand covers approximately two thirds of the length of the pitch , though the attached enclosure is longer , covering the whole distance . The Main Stand , which seats 4 @,@ 277 fans , also contains the dressing rooms , club offices and television gantry , as well as a number of supporting pillars , a car park and the Nick Owen and Eric Morecambe suites . To the Main Stand 's right , in the corner above the end of the enclosure and next to the Kenilworth Stand , is the David Preece Stand , a family area which seats 711 spectators . The David Preece Stand acquired its present name in 2008 , a year after the former player 's death .
Opposite the Main and Preece Stands are 25 executive boxes , which have an attached net to catch balls directed over them and a total capacity of 209 . The Bobbers Stand stood here until 1986 , when the seats were removed from the stand and replaced with the boxes .
To the right of the Main Stand is the 3 @,@ 229 @-@ seater Kenilworth Stand , which backs onto Kenilworth Road . The Club Shop is behind this stand , which was once an open terrace but is now a roofed all @-@ seater stand . In the corner between the Kenilworth Stand and the boxes is the stadium clock .
Opposite the Kenilworth Stand is the Oak Road End , which bears an electronic scoreboard on its roof and can seat a maximum of 1 @,@ 800 fans . Originally a home section , the Oak Road End was turned into a stand for away fans only at the start of the 1991 – 92 season . Early in the 2013 – 14 season , the Oak Road End was re @-@ opened for home supporters for fixtures where visiting support was predicted to be especially low , with the section for away fans moved to A Block of the Kenilworth Stand for these games . Later that season , it was announced that the stand was available for shared use between both home and away supporters , increasing Kenilworth Road 's home capacity by 15 % . The Oak Road End has an entrance that is often considered unusual , requiring spectators to go through an entrance built into the row of houses and up stairs to the stand .
= = Future = =
Luton Town have been looking for a new ground since 1955 , when club chairman Percy Mitchell spoke of building a stadium " to hold 35 @,@ 000 in comfort ... [ and ] get a lot of support which goes to London at the moment " . However , due to unstable finances and an inability to find a site , no ground was built . The club proposed a move to Milton Keynes in 1982 — according to The Luton News , to play as " MK Hatters " in a " super @-@ stadium " — but this was prevented by vehement protests in Luton , where supporters against such a move marched through the town to display their feelings . Despite consistent fan opposition to the idea , relocation up the M1 motorway to the new town was raised several more times over the next two decades ; for example , The Football League refused Luton permission to move to Milton Keynes in 2000 , saying that a member club was not allowed to leave its home town . Wimbledon F.C. was granted permission to relocate there in 2002 , did so a year later and became Milton Keynes Dons in 2004 .
Luton have only managed to get as far as a planning application for a new ground once , when chairman David Kohler 's Kohlerdome was proposed in 1995 . The Kohlerdome was envisioned by Kohler as a 20 @,@ 000 all @-@ seater indoor arena with a retractable roof and pitch , hosting 85 capacity events each year . Kohler 's plans , though ambitious , were perhaps not very realistic — the plans were turned down by the Secretary of State in 1998 , with the reason given that the ground was not feasible unless the M1 motorway was widened . Kohler put the club on the market upon the plan 's rejection and after a period under Cliff Bassett , the club came under the control of Mike Watson @-@ Challis in 2000 . Watson @-@ Challis bought 55 acres ( 220 @,@ 000 m2 ) of land by Junction 10 of the M1 in 2001 , intending to move the club there , but once again , nothing came of the scheme . Most recently , in 2007 , Jayten Stadium Limited were hoping to relocate the club to a new purpose built stadium at Junction 12 , near Harlington and Toddington . This plan was very unpopular with both Luton Town supporters and the local authorities , but a planning application was still submitted by former chairman Bassett on the club 's behalf . The application was withdrawn by the club almost immediately after the takeover by Nick Owen 's Luton Town Football Club 2020 consortium in 2008 .
As of 2012 , the club is undertaking an independent feasibility study to determine a viable location to move to . Sites mooted include a ground built as part of a new housing development to the west of Luton and a site by the proposed Junction 11A of the M1 , which is the preferred site of the local authorities . Luton Town did not rule out staying at a redeveloped Kenilworth Road , entering talks to buy the stadium back from the council in October 2012 , but by mid @-@ 2015 these plans had been dropped in favour of a move to a new location . Managing Director Gary Sweet confirmed that the club was in a position to " buy land , secure the best possible professional advice ... and to see the [ planning ] application process through to the receipt of consent . " The club announced its new preferred location in December 2015 — Power Court in central Luton , near the Mall and St Anne 's Church . The proposals describe a 17 @,@ 500 @-@ seater stadium ready for the start of the 2020 – 21 season .
= = Other uses = =
Kenilworth Road has been used occasionally by the England women 's team . The inaugural UEFA Women 's Championship in 1984 saw Kenilworth Road play host to the second leg of the Final against Sweden , won by Sweden on penalties . The most recent use of the stadium by the women 's team was a 4 – 2 victory over Spain on 22 March 2001 . Kenilworth Road has been used by England 's under @-@ 17 team since the 1970s , most recently in a 3 – 0 win over their Italian counterparts in the 2007 FA International Tournament Final .
The ground is home to the Hatters Study Support Centre , which provides local school pupils with ICT equipment , football training and lessons in numeracy and literacy . Kenilworth Road also hosts a number of local tournaments and events , including an annual youth competition organised by London Luton Airport .
= = Records = =
The highest attendance record at this stadium was 30 @,@ 069 against Blackpool in the FA Cup on 4 March 1959 . The highest attendance in the Football League was 27 @,@ 911 against Wolverhampton Wanderers in Division One on 5 November 1955 .
The highest seasonal average for Luton at Kenilworth Road was 21 @,@ 455 in the 1955 – 56 season . Luton 's lowest seasonal average was 5 @,@ 527 in 1998 – 99 . The most recent season in which the average attendance was more than 10 @,@ 000 was in the 1990 – 91 season , when the seasonal average was 10 @,@ 313 .
= = Transport = =
The ground is located about half a mile away from Luton railway station , which lies on the Midland Main Line between London 's St Pancras railway station and Leeds 's City station . Many of the roads near the ground are for residential permit holders only , meaning car parking at the ground is notoriously difficult . The number 31 bus , which is operated by Arriva and runs every ten minutes from outside the railway station , stops at the junction of Oak Road and Dunstable Road . The Luton to Dunstable Busway includes a terminal behind the Main Stand on Clifton Road as part of the A , B , C and E routes running between London Luton Airport and Houghton Regis .
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= Edwin Taylor Pollock =
Edwin Taylor Pollock ( October 25 , 1870 – June 4 , 1943 ) was a career officer in the United States Navy , serving in the Spanish – American War and in World War I. He was later promoted to the rank of captain . Like many naval officers , his name was often abbreviated using initials : E. T. Pollock .
As a young ensign , Pollock served aboard USS New York during the Spanish – American War . After the war , he rose through the ranks , served on several ships , and did important research into wireless communication . In 1917 , less than a week before the United States entered World War I , he won a race against a fellow officer to receive the U.S. Virgin Islands from Denmark , and served as the territory 's first acting governor . During the war , he was promoted to captain and a vessel under his command transported 60 @,@ 000 American soldiers to France , for which he was awarded a Navy Cross . Afterward , he was made the eighth Naval Governor of American Samoa and then the superintendent of the United States Naval Observatory , before retiring in 1927 .
= = Early career = =
Originally from Mount Gilead , Ohio , Pollock attended the United States Naval Academy and , as a midshipman , was assigned to USS Lancaster and USS Monocacy . He graduated with a rank of ensign in 1893 .
After graduation , Pollock returned to Ohio and married Beatrice E. Law Hale on December 5 . Two weeks later , he was assigned to the cruiser USS New York during its initial shake @-@ down . He was subsequently assigned to the gunboat USS Machias for an expedition to China . He remained in China for two and a half years as part of the Asiatic Squadron , then transferring to USS Detroit before returning home in 1897 . On his return home , the Spanish – American War was heating up and he was reassigned to the New York , to see service in Cuba and Puerto Rico , eventually taking part in the Battle of Santiago de Cuba .
In January 1900 , he was promoted to lieutenant and assigned to USS Alliance . Over the following year he served on USS Dolphin and USS Buffalo . On board the Buffalo , he returned to the Asiatic Squadron near China and was finally transferred to USS Brooklyn , the squadron 's flagship . He remained on board the Brooklyn , until its return home in May 1902 . After a brief leave , Pollock was assigned to the USS Chesapeake ( as the watch and division officer ) , a position he held for more than one year . He was transferred to USS Cincinnati , serving for another year , and then to Cavite Naval Base . At Cavite , he was promoted to lieutenant commander in February 1906 .
His first duty as a lieutenant commander was on USS Alabama , as the navigator . In 1910 , Pollock was reassigned to USS Massachusetts , where he was promoted to commander in March 1911 .
On his promotion , Pollock commanded USS Virginia and USS Kearsarge , before being transferred to the United States Naval Observatory . During his command of the Kearsarge , Pollock briefly commanded USS Salem for a world @-@ record setting wireless experiment . For this feat , the Salem was outfitted with 16 different wireless telegraph technologies and sailed to Gibraltar , with Pollock commanding . On arrival , they tested these technologies and set a world @-@ record for longest wireless telegraph distance , 2 @,@ 400 miles ( 3 @,@ 900 km ) , using a " Poulsen Apparatus " , based on principles by Valdemar Poulsen . Experiments were also conducted to determine wireless characteristics during inclement weather and during both the day and night . In 1916 , he was put in command of USS Alabama , the ship on which he had been the navigator .
= = U.S. Virgin Islands = =
In the final days before the entrance of the United States into World War I , the US military was concerned that Germany was planning to purchase or seize the Danish West Indies for use as a submarine or zeppelin base . At the time , Charlotte Amalie on Saint Thomas was considered the best port in the Caribbean outside of Cuba , and Coral Bay on Saint John was considered the safest harbor in the area . Although the United States was not yet at war with Germany , the US signed a treaty to purchase the territory from Denmark for 25 million dollars on March 28 , 1917 . President Woodrow Wilson nominated James Harrison Oliver to be the first military governor . The United States announced plans to build a naval base in the territory to aid in the protection of the Panama Canal .
Oliver was unable to travel immediately to the Islands and the honor of being the first Acting Governor of the United States Virgin Islands was decided in an unusual way . Both Pollock , commanding USS Hancock , and B. B. Blerer 's USS Olympia were dispatched to the Islands in a race . The commander of the ship that arrived first would officiate at the transfer ceremony and be acting governor . Pollock arrived first and the transfer ceremony took place on March 31 , 1917 , on Saint Thomas . Blerer officiated at a smaller ceremony on Saint Croix . Present for the handover was the crew of the Danish station cruiser Valkyrien and the former island legislature . The United States declared war on Germany on April 6 , less than a week after securing the islands . Oliver was confirmed by Congress on April 20 and relieved Pollock as governor .
= = World War I = =
During the war , Pollock was appointed as Captain on USS George Washington , a German cruise liner which was seized by the United States government for use as a military transport ship . She was rechristened George Washington in September 1917 and Pollock was given her command on October 1 , 1917 . That December , she set out with her first load of troops . During the war , Pollock successfully transported 60 @,@ 000 American soldiers to France in 18 round trips . In 1918 , the George Washington was tasked to deliver President Woodrow Wilson to the Paris Peace Conference , though Pollock would not make the trip . He was reassigned on September 29 , 1918 .
While on board the George Washington , Pollock and Chaplain Paul F. Bloomhardt edited a daily newspaper . After the war , stories from the paper were assembled and published in 1919 by J. J. Little & Ives co. as Hatchet of the United States Ship " George Washington " . A short review of the work by Outlook magazine called the book " readable " and " admirably illustrated " . It " abounds in clever bits of fun , queer and notable incidents , and sound and patriotic editorials . " After the war , he was eventually reassigned to the battleship USS Oklahoma , to serve in the Pacific fleet . On November 10 , 1920 , Pollock was awarded a Navy Cross for his services during the war .
= = American Samoa = =
On November 30 , 1921 , Pollock was transferred from command of the Oklahoma to become the Military Governor of American Samoa . Events both personal and political had led to a previous governor , Warren Terhune 's , suicide on November 3 , 1920 , and the appointment of Governor Waldo A. Evans to conduct a court of inquiry into the situation and to restore order . Pollock succeeded Evans , who had successfully restored the government and productivity of the islands after a period of unrest . At this time , American Samoa was administered by a team of twelve officers and a governor , with a total population of approximately 8 @,@ 000 people . The islands were primarily important due to the excellent harbor at Pago Pago .
Beginning in 1920 , a Mau movement , from the Samoan word for " opposition " , was forming in American Samoa in protest of several Naval government policies , some of which had been implemented by Terhune but which were not revoked following his death , which natives ( and some non @-@ natives ) found heavy @-@ handed . The movement itself may have been inspired by a different and older Mau movement in nearby Western Samoa , against the German and then New Zealand colonial powers . Some of the initial grievances of the movement included the quality of roads in the territory , a marriage law which largely forbade natives from marrying non @-@ natives , and a justice system which discriminated against locals in part because laws were not often available in Samoan . In addition , the United States Navy also prohibited an assembly of Samoan chiefs , whom the movement considered the real government of the territory . Surprisingly , the movement had grown to include several prominent officers of former Governor Terhune 's staff , including his executive officer . It culminated in a proclamation by Samuel S. Ripley , an American Samoan from an afakasi or mixed @-@ blood Samoan family , with large communal property in the islands , that he was the leader of a legitimate successor government to pre @-@ 1899 Samoa . Evans also met with the high chiefs and secured their assent to continued Naval government . Ripley , who had traveled to Washington to meet with Secretary of the Navy Edwin C. Denby , was not permitted by Evans to enter the port at American Samoa and returned to exile in California , where he later became the mayor of Richmond .
After being appointed as governor , Pollock 's continued the colonization work started by his predecessor . Prior to traveling to the territory , he met with Ripley in San Francisco , California . Although Ripley maintained that American " occupation " of Samoa was usurpation , he agreed to allow Pollock to govern unfettered and to provide him with copies of his letters . Almost immediately after arriving on the island , Pollock and Secretary of Native Affairs S. D. Hall met with representatives of the Mau , becoming the first governor to do so . Shortly afterwards , some members of the Mau disbanded , though the movement would continue in some form for another 13 years .
Pollock 's remaining time as governor was less eventful . While exploring Tonga in May 1923 , he discovered a turtle which had been branded by Captain Cook on his expedition there in 1773 . The turtle was thus known to have lived more than 150 years . He was ordered home on July 26 , 1923 .
= = United States Naval Observatory = =
Immediately on leaving Samoa , Pollock was appointed superintendent of the United States Naval Observatory in Washington , D.C. , replacing outgoing Rear Admiral William D. MacDougal .
On August 22 , 1924 , Mars came within 34 @,@ 630 @,@ 000 miles ( 55 @,@ 730 @,@ 000 km ) of Earth . The US Naval Observatory made no formal observations of the planet , but Pollock and the son of astronomer Asaph Hall ceremonially re @-@ enacted Hall 's 1877 discoveries of the moons Phobos and Deimos with his original 17 @-@ inch ( 430 mm ) telescope . They also made observations to calculate the masses of the two moons .
On January 24 , 1925 , Pollock commanded the dirigible USS Los Angeles on a flight from Lakehurst , New Jersey , to photograph a solar eclipse from an altitude of 8 @,@ 000 feet ( 2 @,@ 400 m ) . This was the first time an eclipse had been photographed from the air .
= = After retirement = =
Pollock retired from service in 1927 and was replaced as superintendent by Captain Charles F. Freeman . In 1930 , Pollock and his wife purchased a summer home in Jamestown , Rhode Island , while continuing to maintain their main residence in Washington , D.C. In 1932 , he was made a director of the Jamestown Historical Society . He also became interested in genealogy and published several works on his family 's history through the 1930s . He died on June 4 , 1943 , after a long illness and was buried in Arlington National Cemetery on June 7 , 1943 .
= = Works = =
Hatchet of the United States Ship " George Washington " , edited by Pollock and Paul F. Bloomhardt . A compilation of stories from The Hatchet , a daily printed on board the George Washington during the First World War . Published 1919 .
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= Assassination of Spencer Perceval =
Spencer Perceval , the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland , was shot and killed in the lobby of the House of Commons in London , at about 5 : 15 pm on Monday 11 May 1812 . His assailant was John Bellingham , a Liverpool merchant with a grievance against the government . Bellingham was detained and , four days after the murder , was tried , convicted and sentenced to death . He was hanged at Newgate Prison on 18 May .
Perceval had led the Tory government since 1809 , during a critical phase of the Napoleonic Wars . His determination to prosecute the war using the harshest of measures caused widespread poverty and unrest on the home front ; thus the news of his death was a cause of rejoicing in the worst affected parts of the country . Despite initial fears that the assassination might be linked to a general uprising , it transpired that Bellingham had acted alone , protesting against the government 's failure to compensate him for his treatment a few years previously , when he had been imprisoned in Russia for a trading debt . Bellingham 's lack of remorse , and apparent certainty that his action was justified , raised questions about his sanity , but at his trial he was judged to be legally responsible for his actions .
After Perceval 's death , Parliament made generous provision to his widow and children , and approved the erection of monuments . Thereafter his ministry was soon forgotten , his policies reversed , and he is generally better known for the manner of his death than for any of his achievements . Later historians have characterised Bellingham 's hasty trial and execution as contrary to the principles of justice . The possibility that he was acting within a conspiracy , on behalf of a consortium of Liverpool traders hostile to Perceval 's economic policies , is the subject of a 2012 study .
= = Background = =
= = = Biographical details = = =
Spencer Perceval was born on 1 November 1762 , the second son from the second marriage of John Perceval , 2nd Earl of Egmont . He attended Harrow School and , in 1780 , entered Trinity College , Cambridge , where he was a noted scholar and prizewinner . A deeply religious boy , at Cambridge he became closely aligned with evangelicalism , to which he remained faithful all his life . Under the rule of primogeniture , Perceval had no realistic prospect of a family inheritance , and needed to earn his living ; on leaving Cambridge in 1783 , he entered Lincoln 's Inn to train as a lawyer . After being called to the bar in 1786 , Perceval joined the Midland Circuit , where his family connections helped him to acquire a lucrative practice . In 1790 he married Jane Wilson , the couple having eloped on her 21st birthday . The marriage proved happy and prolific ; twelve children ( six sons and six daughters ) were born over the following 14 years .
Perceval 's politics were highly conservative , and he acquired a reputation for his attacks on radicalism . As a junior prosecuting counsel in the trials of Thomas Paine and John Horne Tooke , he was noticed by senior politicians in the ruling Pitt ministry . In 1796 , having refused the post of Chief Secretary for Ireland , Perceval was elected to parliament as the Tory member for Northampton , and won acclaim in 1798 with a speech defending Pitt 's government against attacks by the radicals Charles James Fox and Francis Burdett . He was generally seen as a rising star in his party ; his short stature and slight build earned him the nickname " Little P " .
After William Pitt 's resignation in 1801 , Perceval served as Solicitor General , and then as Attorney General , in the Addington ministry of 1801 – 04 , continuing in the latter office through Pitt 's second government , 1804 – 06 . Perceval 's deep evangelical convictions led him to his unwavering opposition to the Catholic Church and to Catholic emancipation , and his equally fervent support for the abolition of the slave trade , when he worked with fellow evangelicals such as William Wilberforce to secure the passage of the Slave Trade Act 1807 .
When Pitt died in 1806 his government was succeeded by the cross @-@ party " Ministry of All the Talents " , under Lord Grenville . Perceval remained in opposition during this short @-@ lived ministry , but when the Duke of Portland formed a new Tory administration in March 1807 , Perceval took office as Chancellor of the Exchequer and Leader of the House of Commons . Portland was elderly and ailing , and on his resignation in October 1809 , Perceval succeeded him as First Lord of the Treasury — the formal title by which prime ministers were then known — after a wounding internecine leadership struggle . In addition to his duties as head of the government he retained the Chancellorship , largely because he could find no minister of appropriate stature who would accept the office .
= = = Troubled times = = =
Perceval 's government was weakened by the refusals to serve of former ministers such as George Canning and William Huskisson . It faced massive problems at a time of considerable industrial unrest and at a low point in the war against Napoleon . The unsuccessful Walcheren Campaign in the Netherlands was unravelling , and the army of Sir Arthur Wellesley , the future Duke of Wellington , was pinned down in Portugal . At the outset of his ministry Perceval enjoyed the strong support of King George III , but in October 1810 the king lapsed into insanity and was permanently incapacitated . Perceval 's relationship with the Prince of Wales , who became Prince Regent , was initially far less cordial , but in the following months he and Perceval established a reasonable affinity , perhaps motivated in part by the prince 's fear that the king might recover and find his favourite statesman deposed .
When the final British forces withdrew from Walcheren in February 1810 , Wellington 's force in Portugal was Britain 's only military presence on the continent of Europe . Perceval insisted that it stayed there , against the advice of most of his ministers and at great cost to the British exchequer . Ultimately this decision was vindicated , but for the time being his main weapon against Napoleon was the Orders in Council of 1807 , inherited from the previous ministry . These had been issued as a tit @-@ for @-@ tat response to Napoleon 's Continental System , a measure designed to destroy Britain 's overseas trade . The Orders permitted the Royal Navy to detain any ship thought to be carrying goods to France or its continental allies . With both warring powers employing similar strategies , world trade shrank , leading to widespread hardship and dissatisfaction in key British industries , particularly textiles and cotton . There were frequent calls for modification or repeal of the Orders , which damaged relations with the United States to the point that , by early 1812 , the two nations were on the brink of war .
At home , Perceval upheld his earlier reputation as scourge of radicals , imprisoning Burdett and William Cobbett , the latter of whom continued to attack the government from his prison cell . Perceval was also faced with the anti @-@ machine protests known as " Luddism " , to which he reacted by introducing a bill making machine @-@ breaking a capital offence ; in the House of Lords the youthful Lord Byron called the legislation " barbarous " . Despite these difficulties Perceval gradually established his authority , so that in 1811 Lord Liverpool , the war minister , observed that the Prime Minister 's authority in the House now equalled that of Pitt . Perceval 's use of sinecures and other patronage to secure loyalties meant that by May 1812 , despite much public protest against his harsh policies , his political position had become unassailable . According to the humorist Sydney Smith , Perceval combined " the head of a country parson with the tongue of an Old Bailey lawyer " .
Early in 1812 agitation for repeal of the Orders in Council increased . After riots in Manchester in April , Perceval consented to a House of Commons enquiry into the operation of the Orders ; hearings began in May . Perceval was expected to attend the session on 11 May 1812 ; among the crowd in the lobby awaiting his arrival was a Liverpool merchant , John Bellingham .
= = John Bellingham = =
= = = Early life = = =
Bellingham was born in about 1770 , in the county of Huntingdonshire . His father , also named John , was a land agent and miniaturist painter ; his mother Elizabeth was from a well @-@ to @-@ do Huntingdonshire family . In 1779 John senior became mentally ill , and , after confinement in an asylum , died in 1780 or 1781 . The family were then provided for by William Daw , Elizabeth 's brother @-@ in @-@ law , a prosperous lawyer who arranged Bellingham 's appointment as an officer cadet on board the East India Company 's ship Hartwell . En route to India the ship was wrecked ; Bellingham survived and returned home . Daw then helped him to set up in business as a tin plate manufacturer in London , but after a few years the business failed , and Bellingham was made bankrupt in 1794 . He appears to have escaped debtors ' prison , perhaps through the further intervention of Daw . Chastened by this experience , he decided to settle down , and obtained a post as a book @-@ keeper with a firm engaged in trade with Russia . He worked hard , and was sufficiently regarded by his employers to be appointed in 1800 as the firm 's resident representative in Archangel , Russia . On his return home , Bellingham set up his own trading business , and moved to Liverpool . In 1803 he married Mary Neville from Dublin .
= = = In Russia = = =
In 1804 Bellingham returned to Archangel to supervise a major commercial venture , accompanied by Mary and their infant son . His business completed , in November he prepared to return home , but was detained on account of a supposed unpaid debt . This arose from losses incurred by a business associate for which Bellingham was deemed liable . He denied any responsibility for the debt ; his detention , he thought , was an act of revenge by powerful Russian merchants who — erroneously — thought that he had frustrated an insurance claim relating to a lost ship . Two arbitrators appointed by the governor of Archangel determined that he was responsible for a sum of 2 @,@ 000 roubles ( about £ 200 ) , a fraction of the original amount claimed . Bellingham rejected this judgement .
With the issue still unresolved , Bellingham obtained passes for him and his family to travel to the Russian capital , St Petersburg . In February 1805 , as they prepared to set out , Bellingham 's pass was revoked ; Mary and the child were permitted to proceed , but he was arrested and imprisoned in Archangel . When he sought help from Lord Granville Leveson @-@ Gower , the British ambassador in St Petersburg , the matter was dealt with by the British consul , Sir Stephen Shairp , who informed Bellingham that as the dispute involved a civil debt , he could not interfere . Bellingham remained in custody in Archangel until November 1805 , when a new city governor ordered his release and allowed him to join Mary in St Petersburg . Here , instead of arranging his family 's swift return to England , Bellingham laid charges against the Archangel authorities for false imprisonment , and demanded compensation . In doing so he outraged the Russian authorities , who in June 1806 ordered his imprisonment . According to his later account , he was " often marched publicly through the city with gangs of felons and criminals of the worse description [ to the ] heart @-@ rending humiliation of himself " .
Mary had meanwhile returned to England with her son ( she was pregnant with her second child ) , eventually settling in Liverpool where she set up a millinery business with a friend , Mary Stevens . For the next three years Bellingham made constant demands for release and compensation , seeking help from Shairp , Leveson @-@ Gower , and the latter 's successor as ambassador , Lord Douglas . None were prepared to intercede on his behalf : " Thus " , he later wrote when petitioning for redress , " without having offended any law , either civil or criminal , and without having injured any individual ... was your Petitioner bandied from one prison to another " . Bellingham 's position worsened in 1807 , when Russia signed the Treaty of Tilsit and aligned itself with Napoleon . Two further years passed before , after a direct petition to Tsar Alexander , he was released and ordered to leave Russia . He arrived in England , uncompensated , in December 1809 , determined to secure justice .
= = = Seeking redress = = =
On his return to England Bellingham spent six months in London , seeking compensation for the imprisonment and financial losses he had suffered in Russia . He considered the British authorities were responsible , through their neglect of his repeated requests for help . Successively he petitioned the Foreign Office , the Treasury , the Privy Council , and Perceval himself ; in each case his claims were politely rejected . Defeated and exhausted , in May 1811 Bellingham accepted his wife 's ultimatum to abandon his campaign or otherwise lose her and his family . He joined her in Liverpool to begin life afresh .
During the following 18 months , Bellingham worked to rebuild his commercial career , with modest success . Mary continued to work as a milliner . The fact that he remained uncompensated continued to rankle . In December 1811 he returned to London , ostensibly to conduct business there , but in reality to resume his campaign for redress . He petitioned the Prince Regent , before resuming his efforts with the Privy Council , the Home Office and the Treasury , only to receive the same polite refusals as before . He then sent a copy of his petition to every member of parliament , again to no avail . On 23 March 1812 he wrote to the magistrates at Bow Street Magistrates ' Court , arguing that the government had " completely endeavoured to close the door of justice " , and asking the court to intervene . He received a perfunctory reply . After consulting his own MP , Isaac Gascoyne , Bellingham made a final attempt to present his case to the government . On 18 April he met with a Treasury official , Mr Hill , to whom he said that if he could get no satisfaction , he would take justice into his own hands . Hill , not perceiving these words as a threat , told him he should take whatever action he deemed proper . On 20 April , Bellingham purchased two .50 calibre ( 12 @.@ 7 mm ) pistols from a gunsmith of 58 Skinner Street . He also had a tailor sew an inside pocket to his coat .
= = Assassination = =
= = = House of Commons , 11 May 1812 = = =
Bellingham 's presence in the House of Commons lobby on Monday 11 May , caused no particular suspicion ; he had made several recent visits , sometimes asking journalists to confirm specific ministers ' identities . Bellingham 's activities earlier that day did not overtly indicate a man preparing desperate measures . He had spent the morning writing letters and visiting his wife 's business partner , Mary Stevens , who was in London at the time . In the afternoon he had accompanied his landlady and her son on a visit to the European Museum , in the St James 's district of London . From there he made his way alone to the parliament buildings in Westminster , arriving in the lobby shortly before five o 'clock .
In the House , as the session began at 4 @.@ 30 pm , the Whig MP Henry Brougham , a leading opponent of the Orders , drew attention to the Prime Minister 's absence and remarked that he ought to be there . A messenger was sent to fetch Perceval from Downing Street , but met him in Parliament Street ( Perceval having decided to walk and dispense with his usual carriage ) on his way to the House , where he arrived at about 5 @.@ 15 . As Perceval entered the lobby , he was confronted by Bellingham who , drawing a pistol , shot the Prime Minister in the chest . Perceval staggered forward a few steps and exclaimed " I am murdered ! " before falling face down at the feet of William Smith , the MP for Norwich . ( It was also variously reported Perceval had said " Murder " or " Oh my God " . ) Smith only realised that the victim was Perceval when he turned the body face upwards . By the time he had been carried into an adjoining room and propped up on a table with his feet on two chairs , he was senseless , although there was still a faint pulse . When a surgeon arrived a few minutes later , the pulse had stopped , and Perceval was declared dead .
In the pandemonium that followed , Bellingham sat quietly on a bench as Perceval was carried into the Speaker 's quarters . In the lobby , such was the confusion that , according to a witness , had Bellingham " walked quietly out into the street , he would have escaped , and the committer of the murder would never have been known " . As it was , an official who had seen the shooting identified Bellingham , who was seized , disarmed , manhandled and searched . He remained calm , submitting to his captors without a struggle . When asked to explain his actions , he replied that he was rectifying a denial of justice on the part of the government .
The Speaker ordered that Bellingham be transferred to the Serjeant @-@ at @-@ Arms 's quarters , where MPs who were also magistrates would conduct a committal hearing under the chairmanship of Harvey Christian Combe . The makeshift court heard evidence from eyewitnesses to the crime , and sent messengers to search Bellingham 's lodgings . The prisoner kept his composure throughout ; although warned against self @-@ incrimination , he insisted on explaining himself : " I have been ill @-@ treated ... I have sought redress in vain . I am a most unfortunate man and feel here " — placing hand on heart — " sufficient justification for what I have done . " He had , he said , exhausted all proper avenues , and had made it clear to the authorities that he proposed to take independent action . He had been told to do his worst : " I have obeyed them . I have done my worst , and I rejoice in the deed . " At around eight o 'clock , Bellingham was formally charged with Perceval 's murder , and was committed to Newgate Prison to await trial .
= = = Reaction = = =
Reports of the assassination spread quickly ; in his history of the times , Arthur Bryant records the crude delight with which the news was received by hungry workers who had received nothing but woe from Perceval 's government . In his prison cell , Cobbett understood their feelings ; the shooting had " ridded them of one whom they looked upon as the leader among those whom they thought totally bent on the destruction of their liberties " . The scenes outside the Palace of Westminster as Bellingham was taken out for transfer to Newgate were consistent with this mood ; Samuel Romilly , the law reformer and MP for Wareham , heard from the assembled crowd " the most savage expressions of joy and exultation ... accompanied with regret that others , and particularly the attorney general , had not shared the same fate " . The throng surged around the hackney coach carrying Bellingham ; many tried to shake his hand , others mounted the coach @-@ box and had to be beaten off with whips . He was hustled back into the building , and kept there until the disorder had died down sufficiently for him to be moved , with a full military escort .
Among the governing classes there were initial fears that the assassination might be part of a general insurrection , or might spark one . The authorities took precautions ; the Foot Guards and mounted troops were deployed , as was the City militia , while local watches were reinforced . In contrast to the public 's evident approval of Bellingham 's actions , the mood among Perceval 's friends and colleagues was sombre and sorrowful . When parliament met the next day , George Canning spoke of " a man ... of whom it might with particular truth be said that , whatever was the strength of political hostility , he had never before that last calamity provoked a single enemy " . After further tributes from government and opposition members , the House moved a grant of £ 50 @,@ 000 and an annuity of £ 2 @,@ 000 to Perceval 's widow , which provision , slightly amended , was approved in June .
The regard in which Perceval was held by his peers was made evident in an anonymous 1812 poem , " Universal Sympathy , or , The Martyr 'd Statesman " :
= = Proceedings = =
= = = Preliminaries = = =
An inquest into Perceval 's death was held on 12 May , at the Rose and Crown public house in Downing Street . Among those who gave evidence were Gascoyne , Smith , and Joseph Hume , a doctor and Radical MP . He had helped to detain Bellingham , and now testified that from his controlled behaviour after the shooting , Bellingham appeared " perfectly sane " . The coroner duly registered the cause of death as " wilful murder by John Bellingham " . Armed with this verdict the Attorney General , Sir Vicary Gibbs , requested the Lord Chief Justice to arrange the earliest possible trial date .
In Newgate prison , Bellingham was questioned by magistrates . His calm demeanour and poise led them , unlike Hume , to doubt his sanity , although his keepers had observed no signs of unbalanced behaviour . James Harmer , Bellingham 's solicitor , knew that insanity would provide the only conceivable defence for his client , and despatched agents to Liverpool to make enquiries there . While awaiting their reports he learned from an informant that Bellingham 's father had died insane ; he also heard evidence of Bellingham 's supposed derangement from Ann Billett , the prisoner 's cousin , who had known him from childhood . On 14 May a grand jury met in the Sessions House , Clerkenwell , and after hearing evidence from the eyewitnesses , found " a true Bill against John Bellingham for the murder of Spencer Perceval " . The trial was arranged to take place the next day , Friday 15 May 1812 , at the Old Bailey .
When Bellingham received news of his forthcoming trial he asked Harmer to arrange for him to be represented in court by Brougham and Peter Alley , the latter an Irish lawyer with a reputation for flamboyance . Confident of his acquittal , Bellingham refused to discuss the case further with Harmer , and spent the afternoon and evening making notes . After drinking a glass of porter , he went to bed and slept soundly .
= = = Trial = = =
The trial began at the Old Bailey on Friday 15 May 1812 , under the presiding judge Sir James Mansfield , Chief Justice of the Court of Common Pleas . The prosecuting team was led by the Attorney General , Gibbs , whose assistants included William Garrow , himself a future Attorney General . Brougham having declined , Bellingham was represented by Alley , assisted by Henry Revell Reynolds . The law at that time limited the role of defending counsel in capital cases ; they could advise on points of law , and could examine and cross @-@ examine witnesses , but otherwise Bellingham would have to present his own defence .
After Bellingham had entered a not guilty plea , Alley asked for a postponement to allow him time to locate witnesses who could attest to the prisoner 's insanity . This was opposed by Gibbs as a mere ploy to delay justice ; Mansfield concurred , and the trial proceeded . Gibbs then summarised the prisoner 's business activities before meeting misfortune in Russia — " whether through his own misconduct or by the justice or injustice of that country , I know not " . He recounted Bellingham 's unsuccessful efforts to obtain redress , and the consequent growth of a desire for revenge .
Having described the shooting , Gibbs dismissed the possibility of insanity , maintaining that Bellingham was , at the time of the deed , fully in control of his actions . Numerous eyewitnesses testified to what they had seen in the Commons lobby . The court also heard from a tailor who , shortly before the attack had , on Bellingham 's instructions , modified the latter 's coat by adding a special inside pocket , in which Bellingham had concealed his pistols .
When Bellingham rose , he thanked the attorney general for rejecting the " insanity " strategy : " I think it is far more fortunate that such a plea ... should have been unfounded , than it should have existed in fact " . He began his defence by asserting that " all the miseries which it is possible for human nature to endure " had fallen on him . He then read the petition that he had sent to the Prince Regent , and recalled his fruitless dealings with various government agencies . In his view the principal blame lay not with " that truly amiable and highly lamented individual , Mr Perceval " , but with Leveson @-@ Gower , the ambassador in St Petersburg who he felt had originally denied him justice , and who he said deserved the shot rather than the eventual victim .
Bellingham 's main witnesses were Ann Billett and her friend , Mary Clarke , both of whom testified to his history of derangement , and Catherine Figgins , a servant in Bellingham 's lodgings . She had found him recently confused , but otherwise an honest and admirable lodger . As she stood down , Alley informed the court that two more witnesses had arrived from Liverpool . However , when they saw Bellingham , they realised that he was not the man to whose derangement they had come to attest , and withdrew . Mansfield then began his summing up , during the course of which he clarified the law : " The single question is whether at the time this act was committed , he possessed a sufficient degree of understanding to distinguish good from evil , right from wrong " . The judge advised the jury before they retired that the evidence showed Bellingham to be " in every respect a full and competent judge of all his actions " .
= = = Verdict and sentence = = =
The jury retired , and within 15 minutes returned with a guilty verdict . Bellingham appeared surprised but , from Thomas Hodgson 's contemporary trial account , was calm , " with [ out ] any demonstrations of that concern which the awfulness of his situation was calculate to produce " . Asked by the court clerk if he had anything to say , he remained silent .
The clerk then read the sentence , Hodgson records , " in a most solemn and affecting manner , which bathed many of the auditors in tears " . First , he damned the crime , " as odious and abominable in the eyes of God as it is hateful and abhorrent to the feelings of man " . He reminded the prisoner of the short time , " a very short time " , that remained for him to seek for mercy in another world , and then pronounced the sentence of death itself : " You shall be hanged by the neck until you be dead , your body to be dissected and anatomized " . The entire trial had lasted less than eight hours .
= = = Execution = = =
Bellingham 's execution was fixed for the morning of Monday 18 May . The day before , he was visited by the Revd Daniel Wilson , curate at St John 's Chapel , Bedford Row , a future Bishop of Calcutta , who hoped that Bellingham would show true repentance for his act . The clergyman was disappointed , concluding that " a more dreadful instance of depravity and hardness of heart has surely never occurred " . Late on Sunday , Bellingham wrote a last letter to his wife , in which he appeared confident of his soul 's destination : " Nine hours more will waft me to those happy shores where bliss is without alloy " .
Large crowds gathered outside Newgate on Monday ; a force of troops stood by , since warnings had been received of a " Rescue Bellingham " movement . The crowd was calm and restrained , as was Bellingham when he appeared at the scaffold shortly before 8 o 'clock . Hodgson records that Bellingham mounted the steps " with the utmost celerity ... his tread was bold and firm ... no indication of trembling , faltering , or irresolution appeared " . Bellingham was then blindfolded , the rope fastened , and a final prayer was said by the chaplain . As the clock struck eight the trap door was released , and Bellingham dropped to his death . Cobbett , still incarcerated in Newgate , observed the crowd 's reactions : " anxious looks ... half @-@ horrified countenances ... mournful tears ... unanimous blessings " . In accordance with the court 's sentence , the body was cut down and sent to St Bartholomew 's Hospital for dissection . In what the press described as " morbid sensationalism " , Bellingham 's clothes were sold for high prices to members of the public .
= = Aftermath = =
On 15 May , the House of Commons voted for the erection of a monument to the assassinated Prime Minister in Westminster Abbey . Later , memorials were placed in Lincoln 's Inn , and within Perceval 's Northampton constituency .
On 8 June the Regent appointed Lord Liverpool to head a new Tory administration . Despite their eulogies to their fallen leader , members of the new government soon began to distance themselves from his ministry . Many of the changes that Perceval had opposed were gradually introduced : greater press freedom , Catholic emancipation and parliamentary reform . The Orders in Council were repealed on 23 June , but too late to avoid the declaration of war on Britain by the United States . Lord Liverpool 's government did not maintain Perceval 's resolution in acting against the illegal slave trade , which began to flourish as the authorities looked the other way . Linklater estimates that around 40 @,@ 000 slaves were illegally transported from Africa to the West Indies , because of lax enforcement of the law .
Linklater cites Perceval 's greatest achievement as his insistence on keeping Wellington 's army in the field , a policy which helped to turn the tide in the Napoleonic Wars decisively in Britain 's favour . Despite this , with the passage of time Perceval 's reputation faded ; Charles Dickens considered him " a third @-@ rate politician scarcely fit to carry Lord Chatham 's crutch " . In due course , little but the fact of his assassination lingered in public memory . As the bicentenary of the shooting approached , Perceval was described in newspapers as " the prime minister that history forgot " .
The justice of Bellingham 's conviction was first questioned by Brougham , who condemned the trial as " the greatest disgrace to English justice " . In a study published in 2004 the American academic Kathleen S. Goddard criticises the timing of the trial so soon after the act , when passions were running high . She also draws attention to the court 's refusal to allow an adjournment that would permit the defence to contact possible witnesses . There was , she maintains , insufficient evidence produced at the trial to determine the true state of Bellingham 's sanity , and Mansfield 's summing @-@ up showed significant bias . Bellingham 's claim to have acted alone was accepted in court ; Linklater 's 2012 study posits that he could been an agent of other interests — perhaps Liverpool merchants , who bore the main brunt of Perceval 's economic policies and had much to gain by his demise . Comments by a Liverpool newspaper , says Linklater , indicate that talk of assassination was common in the city . It remains unknown how Bellingham gained the funds to spend freely in the months preceding the assassination , when he was not apparently engaged in any business . This conspiracy theory has not convinced other historians ; the columnist Bruce Anderson points to the lack of any concrete evidence to support it .
In the months immediately following her husband 's execution , Mary Bellingham continued to live and work in Liverpool . By the end of 1812 her business had failed , and thereafter her movements are obscure ; she may have reverted to her maiden name . In January 1815 , Jane Perceval married Sir Henry William Carr ; she died , aged 74 , in 1844 .
In 1828 , The Times reported that Cornish industrialist landowner , John Williams the Third ( 1753 @-@ 1841 ) received a dream warning of Perceval 's assassination on 2 or 3 May 1812 , nearly ten days before the event , " correct in every detail " .
A distant kinsman of the assassin , Henry Bellingham , became Conservative MP for North West Norfolk in 1983 , and held junior office in the Conservative @-@ Liberal coalition government of 2010 – 15 . When he temporarily lost his seat in 1997 — he regained it in 2001 — his narrow defeat was widely regarded as arising from the intervention of Roger Percival , the candidate for the Referendum Party whose votes largely came from disgruntled Conservatives . Despite the different spelling , media accounts asserted Percival 's descent from the assassinated Prime Minister 's family , and reported the defeat as a belated form of revenge .
The greater part of the Palace of Westminster ( Westminster Hall apart ) that stood at the time of the assassination was destroyed by an accidental fire in 1834 , following which the Houses were comprehensively rebuilt and expanded . In July 2014 , a brass memorial plaque was unveiled in St Stephen 's Hall , Houses of Parliament , close to the place where Perceval was killed . Michael Ellis , Conservative MP for Northampton North ( part of Perceval 's old Northampton constituency ) had campaigned for the plaque after four patterned floor tiles that were said to mark the spot had been removed by workmen in a recent renovation .
= = = = Books and news articles = = = =
= = = = Online = = = =
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= Battle of Vimy Ridge =
The Battle of Vimy Ridge was a military engagement fought primarily as part of the Battle of Arras , in the Nord @-@ Pas @-@ de @-@ Calais region of France , during the First World War . The main combatants were the Canadian Corps , of four divisions , against three divisions of the German Sixth Army . The battle , which took place from 9 to 12 April 1917 , was part of the opening phase of the British @-@ led Battle of Arras , a diversionary attack for the French Nivelle Offensive .
The objective of the Canadian Corps was to take control of the German @-@ held high ground along an escarpment at the northernmost end of the Arras Offensive . This would ensure that the southern flank could advance without suffering German enfilade fire . Supported by a creeping barrage , the Canadian Corps captured most of the ridge during the first day of the attack . The town of Thélus fell during the second day of the attack , as did the crest of the ridge once the Canadian Corps overcame a salient against considerable German resistance . The final objective , a fortified knoll located outside the village of Givenchy @-@ en @-@ Gohelle , fell to the Canadian Corps on 12 April . The German forces then retreated to the Oppy – Méricourt line .
Historians attribute the success of the Canadian Corps in capturing the ridge to a mixture of technical and tactical innovation , meticulous planning , powerful artillery support and extensive training , as well as the failure of the German Sixth Army to properly apply the new German defensive doctrine . The battle was the first occasion when all four divisions of the Canadian Expeditionary Force participated in a battle together and it was made a symbol of Canadian national achievement and sacrifice . A 100 @-@ hectare ( 250 @-@ acre ) portion of the former battleground serves as a memorial park and site of the Canadian National Vimy Memorial .
= = Background = =
Vimy Ridge is an escarpment 8 km ( 5 @.@ 0 mi ) northeast of Arras on the western edge of the Douai Plains . The ridge rises gradually on its western side , and drops more quickly on the eastern side . At approximately 7 km ( 4 @.@ 3 mi ) in length , and culminating at an elevation of 145 m ( 476 ft ) or 60 m ( 200 ft ) above the Douai Plains , the ridge provides a natural unobstructed view for tens of kilometres in all directions .
The ridge fell under German control in October 1914 during the Race to the Sea as the Franco @-@ British and German forces continually attempted to outflank each other through northeastern France . The French Tenth Army attempted to dislodge the Germans from the region during the Second Battle of Artois in May 1915 by attacking their positions at Vimy Ridge and Notre Dame de Lorette . The French 1st Moroccan Division managed to briefly capture the height of the ridge but was unable to hold it owing to a lack of reinforcements . The French made another attempt during the Third Battle of Artois in September 1915 but only captured the town of Souchez at the western base of the ridge . The Vimy sector calmed following the offensive with both sides taking a largely live and let live approach . In all , the French suffered approximately 150 @,@ 000 casualties in their attempts to gain control of Vimy Ridge and surrounding territory .
The British XVII Corps , commanded by Lieutenant @-@ General Sir Julian Byng , relieved the French Tenth Army in the sector in February 1916 , permitting the French to expand their operations at Verdun . The British soon discovered that German tunnelling companies had taken advantage of the relative calm on the surface to build an extensive network of tunnels and deep mines from which they would attack French positions by setting off explosive charges underneath their trenches . The Royal Engineers immediately deployed specialist tunnelling companies along the front to combat the German mining operations . In response to increased British mining aggression , German artillery and trench mortar fire intensified in early May 1916 . On 21 May 1916 , after shelling both forward trenches and divisional artillery positions from no less than 80 out @-@ of @-@ sight batteries on the reverse slope of the ridge , the German infantry began operation Schleswig Holstein , an attack on the British lines along a 1 @,@ 800 @-@ metre ( 2 @,@ 000 yd ) front in an effort to eject them from positions along the ridge . The Germans captured several British @-@ controlled tunnels and mine craters before halting their advance and entrenching their positions . Small counterattacks by units of the 140th and 141st British Brigades took place on 22 May but did not manage to change the situation . The Canadian Corps relieved the British IV Corps stationed along the western slopes of Vimy Ridge in October 1916 .
= = Prelude = =
= = = Strategic planning = = =
On 28 May 1916 , Byng took command of the Canadian Corps from Lieutenant @-@ General Sir Edwin Alderson . Formal discussions for a spring offensive near Arras began following a conference of corps commanders held at British First Army Headquarters on 21 November 1916 . In March 1917 , British First Army headquarters formally presented Byng with orders outlining Vimy Ridge as the corps 's objective for the Arras Offensive . A formal assault plan , adopted in early March 1917 , drew heavily on the briefings of staff officers sent to learn from the experiences of the French Army during the Battle of Verdun .
For the first time all four Canadian divisions were assembled to participate in a battle . The nature and size of the planned Canadian Corps assault necessitated support and resources beyond its normal operational capabilities . Consequently , the British 5th Infantry Division and supplementary artillery , engineer and labour units reinforced the four Canadian divisions . This brought the nominal strength of the Canadian Corps to about 170 @,@ 000 men , of whom 97 @,@ 184 were Canadian .
= = = Tactical plan = = =
In January 1917 , three Canadian Corps officers accompanied other British and Dominion officers attending a series of lectures hosted by the French Army regarding their experiences during the Battle of Verdun . The French counter offensive devised by General Robert Nivelle had been one of a number of Allied successes of 1916 . Following extensive rehearsal , eight French divisions had assaulted German positions in two waves along a 9 @.@ 7 @-@ kilometre ( 6 mi ) front . Supported by exceedingly strong artillery , the French had recovered lost ground and inflicted heavy casualties on five German divisions .
On their return from the lectures , the Canadian Corps staff officers produced a tactical analysis of the Verdun battles and delivered a series of corps and divisional @-@ level lectures to promote the primacy of artillery and stress the importance of harassing fire and company and platoon flexibility . The report of 1st Canadian Division commander Arthur Currie highlighted the lessons he believed the Canadian Corps could learn from the experiences of the French . The final plan for the assault on Vimy Ridge drew heavily on the experience and tactical analysis of the officers who attended the Verdun lectures . British First Army commander General Henry Horne approved the plan on 5 March 1917 .
The plan divided the Canadian Corps advance into four coloured objective lines . The attack would be made on a front of 6 @,@ 400 m ( 7 @,@ 000 yd ) , with its centre opposite the village of Vimy , to the east of the ridge . The first objective , represented by the Black Line , was to seize the German forward defensive line . The final objective of the northern flank was the Red Line : taking the highest point on the ridge , the fortified knoll known as the Pimple , the Folie Farm , the Zwischen @-@ Stellung trench and the hamlet of Les Tilleuls . The southern two divisions were to achieve two additional objectives : the Blue Line encompassing the town of Thélus and the woods outside the town of Vimy , and the Brown Line , which aimed at capturing the Zwölfer @-@ Graben trench and the German second line . The infantry would proceed close behind a creeping barrage placed down by light field guns , advancing in timed 91 @-@ metre ( 100 yd ) increments . The medium and heavy howitzers would establish a series of standing barrages further ahead of the infantry against known defensive systems .
The plan called for units to leapfrog over one another , as the advance progressed , to maintain momentum during the attack . The initial wave would capture and consolidate the Black Line and then push forward to the Red Line . The barrage would pause , to enable reserve units to move up , and then move forward with the units pushing beyond the Red Line to the Blue Line . Once the corps secured the Blue Line , advancing units would once again leapfrog established ones and capture the Brown Line . Conducted properly , the plan would leave the German forces little time to exit the security of their deep dugouts and defend their positions against the infantry advance . If the corps maintained its schedule , the troops would advance as much as 3 @,@ 700 m ( 4 @,@ 000 yd ) and have the majority of the ridge under control by 1 : 00 pm of the first day .
= = = German defences = = =
The experience of the Battle of the Somme led the German command to conclude that the policy of rigidly defending a trench position line was no longer effective against the firepower that the Entente armies had accumulated . Ludendorff published a new defensive doctrine in December 1916 , in which deeper defences were to be built , within which the garrison would have room to manoeuvre , rather than rigidly holding successive lines of trenches . Along Vimy Ridge , the German forces spent two years constructing fortifications designed for rigid defence . Little reconstruction based upon the new defence @-@ in @-@ depth doctrine had been accomplished by April 1917 because the terrain made it impractical .
The topography of the Vimy battlefield made defence @-@ in @-@ depth difficult to realize . The ridge was 700 metres ( 2 @,@ 300 ft ) wide at its narrowest point , with a steep drop on the eastern side , all but eliminating the possibility of counterattacks if the ridge was captured . The Germans were apprehensive about the inherent weakness of the Vimy Ridge defences . The German defensive scheme was to maintain a front line defence of sufficient strength to defend against an initial assault and move operational reserves forward , before the enemy could consolidate their gains or overrun remaining German positions . As a result , the German defence at Vimy Ridge relied largely on machine guns , which acted as force multipliers for the defending infantry .
Three line divisions , with seven infantry regiments between them , were responsible for the immediate defence of the ridge . The paper strength of each division was approximately 15 @,@ 000 men but their actual strengths was significantly fewer . In 1917 , a full @-@ strength German rifle company consisted of 264 men ; at Vimy Ridge , each rifle company contained approximately 150 men . Each German regiment held a zone approximately 1 @,@ 000 metres ( 1 @,@ 100 yd ) wide as far back as the rear area . When the Canadian Corps attacked , each German company faced two or more battalions of approximately 1 @,@ 000 men each . Reserve divisions were kept approximately 24 kilometres ( 15 mi ) back instead of assembling close behind the second line according the defence @-@ in @-@ depth theory .
= = = Artillery = = =
The Canadian Corps ' divisional artillery formations , totalling eight field brigades and two heavy artillery groups , were insufficient for the task at hand and were consequently reinforced with outside formations . Four heavy artillery groups , nine artillery field brigades , three divisional artillery groups and the artillery complement of the British 5th Division was attached to the Canadian Corps . In addition , ten heavy artillery groups of the flanking I and XVII Corps were assigned tasks in support of the Canadian Corps . The artillery batteries of I Corps were particularly important because they enfiladed German gun positions behind Vimy Ridge . In total , the British made available to the Canadian Corps twenty @-@ four brigade artillery groups consisting of four hundred and eighty 18 pounder field guns , one hundred thirty @-@ eight 4 @.@ 5 inch howitzers , ninety @-@ six 2 inch trench mortars , twenty @-@ four 9 @.@ 45 inch mortars , supported by 245 corps @-@ level siege guns and heavy mortars . This firepower gave a density of one heavy gun for every 18 metres ( 20 yd ) and one field gun for every 9 @.@ 1 metres ( 10 yd ) of Canadian Corps frontage , representing a considerable average increase , including three times the heavy guns , over the distribution of artillery at the Battle of the Somme a year earlier .
Brigadier @-@ General Edward Morrison developed and subsequently issued a 35 page multi @-@ phased fire support plan called Canadian Corps Artillery Instruction No. 1 for the Capture of Vimy Ridge to support the efforts of the infantry . For its operations , the Canadian Corps received three times the artillery normally assigned to a corps for regular operations . To manage the logistics associated with the increased artillery , Royal Artillery staff officer Major Alan Brooke developed coordinated communication and transport plans to work in conjunction with the complex barrage plans .
A 1 @.@ 6 million shell allotment allowed the artillery along the Canadian Corps front to maintain a high sustained rate of fire . Improvements in the quality of the shells compared to those used earlier in the war ensured fewer duds . The introduction of the instantaneous No. 106 fuze greatly improved the effectiveness of the artillery since this fuse burst reliably with the slightest of contact , unlike older timed fuses , making it especially effective at cutting barbed wire before the advance . To maintain communications during the battle , particularly with the artillery , field units laid over 1 @,@ 400 kilometres ( 870 mi ) of telegraph and field telephone cabling , normally at a depth of 2 @.@ 1 metres ( 7 ft ) . In addition , the corps conducted coordinated counter @-@ battery initiatives before the battle . The First Army Field Survey Company printed barrage maps for all batteries , produced artillery boards and provided counter @-@ battery support with their flash spotting groups and sound ranging sections . Utilizing flash spotting , sound ranging and aerial reconnaissance from No. 16 Squadron , and No. 1 & 2 Balloon Company of the Royal Flying Corps in the week before the battle , the counter battery artillery under command of Lieutenant @-@ Colonel Andrew McNaughton fired 125 @,@ 900 shells , harassing an estimated 83 % of the German gun positions .
= = = Training = = =
In February 1917 , the British General Staff released a training pamphlet titled SS 143 Instructions for the Training of Platoons for Offensive Action , espousing the return to the pre @-@ war emphasis on fire and movement tactics and the use of the platoon as a self @-@ contained tactical unit . The short pamphlet noted the importance of dedicated hand grenade , rifle grenade and machine gun sections in suppressing enemy strong points with an appropriate level of fire to permit other military units to advance . Coupled with the observations and suggestions made by Currie in the report he submitted in January 1917 following the Verdun lectures , the Canadian Corps instilled the tactical change with vigour . The corps instilled the tactical doctrine for small units by assigning objectives down to the platoon level . Assaulting infantry battalions used hills behind the lines as full @-@ scale model representations of the battlefield . Taped lines demarcated German trench lines while officers on horseback carried flags to represent the advancing front of the artillery barrage .
Recognizing that the men in leadership positions were likely to be wounded or killed , soldiers learned the jobs of those beside and above them . At the British First Army headquarters , a large @-@ scale plasticine model of the Vimy sector was constructed and used to show commissioned and senior non @-@ commissioned officers the topographical features of the battlefield and details of the German trench system . In addition , upwards of 40 @,@ 000 topographical trench maps were printed and distributed to ensure that even platoon sergeants and section commanders possessed a wider awareness of the battlefield . These measures gave each platoon a clearer picture of how it fitted into the greater battle plan , and in so doing , reduced the command and control problems that plagued First World War combat .
= = = Underground operations = = =
The Arras – Vimy sector was conducive to tunnel excavation owing to the soft , porous yet extremely stable nature of the chalk underground . Underground warfare had been conducted on the Vimy sector since 1915 . Bavarian engineers had blown twenty mines in the sector by March 1915 . By early 1916 , German miners had gained an advantage over their French counterparts . On their arrival , British tunnelling companies of the Royal Engineers began offensive mining against German miners , first stopping the German underground advance and then developing a defensive strategy that prevented the Germans from gaining a tactical advantage through their mining activities . By 1917 , 19 crater groups existed along this section of the Western Front , each with several large craters .
In preparation for the assault , British tunnelling companies created extensive underground networks and fortifications . Twelve subways , up to 1 @.@ 2 kilometres ( 1 @,@ 300 yd ) in length , were excavated at a depth of 10 metres ( 33 ft ) and used to connect reserve lines to front lines , permitting soldiers to advance to the front quickly , securely and unseen . Often incorporated into subways were light rail lines , hospitals , command posts , water reservoirs , ammunition stores , mortar and machine gun posts and communication centres . The Germans dug a number of similar tunnels on the Vimy front , to provide covered routes to the front line and protection for headquarters , resting personnel , equipment and ammunition .
To protect some advancing troops from German machine @-@ gun fire , as they crossed no man 's land during the attack , eight mines were laid at the end of the subways , to allow troops to move more quickly and safely enter the German trench system , by creating an elongated trench @-@ depth crater that spanned the length of no man 's land . In an effort to destroy some German surface fortifications before the assault , the British tunnelling companies secretly laid 13 large explosive charges under German positions . The Germans conducted counter @-@ mining against the British tunnellers and destroyed a number of British attempts to plant mines under or near their lines . Of the explosive charges laid by the British , three mines were fired before the assault and three mines and two specialized charges were fired at the start of the attack .
= = = Trench raiding = = =
Trench raiding involved making small @-@ scale surprise attacks on enemy positions , often in the middle of the night for reasons of stealth . All belligerents employed trench raiding as a tactic to harass their enemy and gain intelligence . In the Canadian Corps trench raiding developed into a training and leadership @-@ building mechanism . The size of a raid would normally be anything from a few men to an entire company , or more , depending on the size of the mission . The four months before the April attack saw the Canadian Corps execute no fewer than 55 separate trench raids . Competition between units even developed with units competing for the honour of the greatest number of prisoners captured or most destruction wrought . The policy of aggressive trench raiding was not without its cost . A large @-@ scale trench raid on 13 February 1917 , involving 900 men from the 4th Canadian Division , resulted in 150 casualties . An even more ambitious trench raid on 1 March 1917 , once again by the 4th Canadian Division , failed and resulted in 637 casualties including two battalion commanders and a number of company commanders killed . This experience did not lessen the extent to which the Canadian Corps employed trench raiding with raids being conducted nightly between 20 March and the opening of the offensive on 9 April , resulting in approximately 1 @,@ 400 additional Canadian casualties . The Germans operated an active patrolling policy and although not as large and ambitious as those of the Canadian Corps , they also engaged in trench raiding . As an example , a German trench raid launched by 79 men against the 3rd Canadian Division on 15 March 1917 was successful in capturing prisoners and causing damage .
= = = Battle in the air = = =
The Royal Flying Corps launched a determined effort to gain air superiority over the battlefield in support of the spring offensive . The Canadians considered activities such as artillery spotting , and photography of opposing trench systems , troop movements and gun emplacements essential to continue their offensive . The Royal Flying Corps deployed 25 squadrons totalling 365 aircraft along the Arras sector , outnumbering the Imperial German Army Air Service by 2 @-@ to @-@ 1 . Byng was given use of No. 2 Squadron , No. 8 ( Naval ) Squadron , No. 25 Squadron , No. 40 Squadron and No. 43 Squadron , with No. 16 Squadron permanently attached to the Canadian Corps and employed exclusively for observation and artillery support .
Aerial reconnaissance was often a hazardous task because of a requirement to fly at slow speeds and at low altitudes . The task was made all the more dangerous with the arrival of additional German flying squadrons , including Manfred von Richthofen 's highly experienced and well equipped Jasta 11 , which led to sharp increase in Royal Flying Corps casualties . Although significantly outnumbering the Germans , the Royal Flying Corps lost 131 aircraft during the first week of April alone . Despite the losses suffered by the Royal Flying Corps , the Imperial German Army Air Service failed to prevent the Royal Flying Corps from carrying out its prime objective , namely the continued support of the army throughout the Arras Offensive with up @-@ to @-@ date aerial photographs and reconnaissance information .
= = Battle = =
= = = Belligerents = = =
German Sixth Army commander General Ludwig von Falkenhausen was responsible for the Cambrai – Lille sector and commanded 20 divisions , plus reserves . Vimy Ridge itself was principally defended by the ad hoc Gruppe Vimy formation based under I Bavarian Reserve Corps commander General der Infanterie Karl von Fasbender . However , a division of Gruppe Souchez , under VIII Reserve Corps General of the Infantry Georg Karl Wichura , was involved in the frontline defence along the northernmost portion of the ridge .
Three divisions were ultimately responsible for manning the frontline defences opposite the Canadian Corps . The 16th Bavarian Infantry Division was located opposite the town of Souchez and responsible for the defence of the northernmost section of the ridge . The division was created in January 1917 through the amalgamation of existing Bavarian formations and had so far only opposed the Canadian Corps . The 79th Reserve Division was responsible for the defence of the vast central section including the highest point of the ridge , Hill 145 . The 79th Reserve Division fought for two years on the Eastern Front before being transferred to the Vimy sector at the end of February 1917 . The 1st Bavarian Reserve Division had been in the Arras area since October 1914 and was holding the towns of Thélus , Bailleul and the southern slope of the ridge .
Byng commanded four attacking divisions , one division of reserves and numerous support units . He was supported to the north by the 24th British Division of I Corps , which advanced north of the Souchez river and by the advancing XVII Corps to the south . The 4th Canadian Division was responsible for the northern portion of the advance that included the capture of the highest point of the ridge followed by the heavily defended Pimple just west of the town of Givenchy @-@ en @-@ Gohelle . The 3rd Canadian Division was responsible for the narrow central section of the ridge , including the capture of La Folie Farm . The 2nd Canadian Division , which later included an additional brigade from the 5th British Division , was directly south of 3rd Canadian Division and entrusted with the capture of the town of Thélus . The 1st Canadian Division was responsible for the broad southern sector of the corps advance and expected to make the greatest advance in terms of distance . Byng planned for a healthy reserve for contingencies that included the relief of forward troops , help in consolidating positions and aiding the 4th Canadian Division with the capture of the Pimple . As a result , the 9th Canadian Brigade , 15th British Brigade and 95th British Brigade were kept in corps @-@ level reserve .
= = = Preliminary attack = = =
German foreign intelligence gathering , large @-@ scale Allied trench raids and observed troop concentrations west of Arras made it clear to the Germans that a spring offensive near Arras was being planned . In February 1917 , a German @-@ born Canadian soldier deserted to the German side and helped confirm many of the suspicions held by the Germans , providing them with a great deal of useful information . By March 1917 , the German forces were aware that a major attack was imminent and would include operations aimed at capturing Vimy Ridge . General of Infantry Ernst August Marx von Bachmeister , commanding the German 79th Reserve Division , reported in late @-@ March that he believed the Canadian Corps was moving into an echelon formation and were preparing for a major attack . The Germans quickly developed plans to launch a pre @-@ emptive operation , following the adage that the best defence is a good offence , intent on capturing the northern section of the Zouave Valley along the northernmost portion of the Canadian front . Heavy Canadian Corps artillery fire ultimately prevented the Germans from executing their pre @-@ emptive attack .
The preliminary phase of the Canadian Corps artillery bombardment began on 20 March 1917 , with a systematic two @-@ week bombardment of German batteries , trenches and strong points . The Canadian Corps paid particular attention to eliminating German barbed wire , a task made easier with the introduction of the No. 106 instantaneous fuse . In addition , only half of the available artillery was committed at any one point in time with the intensity of the barrage expressly varied as to confuse the Germans and preserve some level of secrecy . Phase two lasted the entire week beginning 2 April 1917 and employed the entire artillery arsenal at the disposal of the Canadian Corps , massing the equivalent of one heavy gun for every 18 metres ( 20 yd ) and one field gun for every 9 @.@ 1 metres ( 10 yd ) . The German soldiers came to refer to the week before the attack as ' the week of suffering ' . By the Germans ' own account , their trenches and defensive works were almost completely demolished . Furthermore , German health and morale suffered from the stress of remaining at the ready for eleven straight days under extremely heavy artillery bombardment . Compounding German difficulties was the inability of ration parties to bring food supplies to the front lines . On 3 April , General von Falkenhausen ordered his reserve divisions to prepare to relieve frontline divisions over the course of a long drawn @-@ out defensive battle , in a manner similar to the Battle of the Somme . However , the divisions were kept 24 kilometres ( 15 mi ) from the battlefield to avoid being shelled .
= = = Main assault = = =
= = = = 9 April = = = =
The attack was to begin at 5 : 30 am on Easter Monday , 9 April 1917 . The attack was originally planned for the morning of 8 April ( Easter Sunday ) , but it was postponed for 24 hours at the request of the French . During the late hours of 8 April and early morning of 9 April the men of the leading and supporting wave of the attack were moved into their forward assembly positions . The weather was cold and later changed to sleet and snow . Although physically discomforting for everyone , the north @-@ westerly storm provided some advantage to the assaulting troops by blowing snow in the faces of the defending troops . Light Canadian and British artillery bombardments continued throughout the prior night but stopped in the few minutes before the attack , as the artillery recalibrated their guns in preparation for the synchronized barrage . At exactly 5 : 30 am , every artillery piece at the disposal of the Canadian Corps began firing . Thirty seconds later , engineers detonated the mine charges laid under no man 's land and the German trench line , destroying a number of German strong points and creating secure communication trenches directly across no man 's land . Light field guns laid down a barrage that advanced in predetermined increments , often 100 yards ( 91 m ) every three minutes , while medium and heavy howitzers established a series of standing barrages further ahead , against known defensive systems . During the early fighting the German divisional artilleries , despite heavy losses , were able to maintain their defensive firing . As the Canadian assault advanced , it overran many of the German guns because there was no means of moving them to the rear on account of many of the horses being killed in the initial gas attack .
The 1st , 2nd and 3rd Canadian Divisions reported reaching and capturing their first objective , the Black Line , by 6 : 25 am . The 4th Canadian Division encountered a great deal of trouble during its advance and was unable to complete its first objective until some hours later . After a planned pause , when the 1st , 2nd and 3rd Canadian Divisions consolidated their positions , the advance resumed . Shortly after 7 : 00 am , the 1st Canadian Division captured the left half of its second objective , the Red Line , and moved the 1st Canadian Brigade forward to mount an attack on the remainder . The 2nd Canadian Division reported reaching the Red Line and capturing the town of Les Tilleuls at approximately the same time . A mine explosion that killed many German troops of the Reserve Infantry Regiment 262 manning the front line preceded the advance of the 3rd Canadian Division . The remaining German troops could do no more than man temporary lines of resistance until later manning a full defence at the German third line . As a result , the southern section of the 3rd Canadian Division was able to reach the Red Line at the western edge of the Bois de la Folie at around 7 : 30 am . At 9 : 00 am the division learned of its exposed left flank , as the 4th Canadian Division had not yet captured Hill 145 . The 3rd Canadian Division was thus called upon to establish a divisional defensive flank to its north . Although the German commanders were able to maintain open lines of communication and issue operating orders , even with swift staff work the tempo of the assault was such that German decision cycle was unable to react decisively .
The only portion of the Canadian assault that did not go as planned was the advance of the 4th Canadian Division , collapsing almost immediately after exiting their trenches . The commanding officer of one of the assaulting battalions requested that the artillery leave a portion of German trench undamaged . Machine @-@ gun nests in the undamaged sections of the German line pinned down , wounded or killed much of the 4th Canadian Division 's right flank . The progress on the left flank was eventually impeded by harassing fire from the Pimple that was made worse when the creeping barrage got too far ahead of the advancing troops . In view of the German defence , the 4th Canadian Division did not attempt a further frontal assault throughout the afternoon . Reserve units from the 4th Canadian Division came forward and once again attacked the German positions on the top of the ridge . Persistent attacks eventually forced the German troops holding the south @-@ western portion of Hill 145 to withdraw , but only after they had run out of ammunition , mortar rounds and grenades .
Towards midday , the 79th Reserve Division was ordered to recapture the portions of its third line lost during the progression of the Canadian attack . However , it was not until 6 : 00 pm that the force was able to organize and counterattack , clearing the Canadian Corps troops out of the ruined village of Vimy , but not recapturing the third line south of the village . By night time , the German forces holding the top of the ridge believed they had overcome the immediate crisis for the mean time . Additional German reinforcements began arriving and by late evening portions of the 111th Infantry Division occupied the third line near Acheville and Arleux , with the remainder of the division arriving the following day .
= = = = 10 April = = = =
The British moved three fresh brigades up to the Red Line by 9 : 30 am on 10 April to support the advance of the 1st and 2nd Canadian Division , whereupon they were to leapfrog existing units occupying the Red line and advance to the Blue Line . Fresh units including two sections of tanks and the 13th British Brigade were called up from reserve to support the advance of the 2nd Canadian Division . By approximately 11 : 00 am , the Blue Line , including Hill 135 and the town of Thélus , had been captured . To permit the troops time to consolidate the Blue Line , the advance halted and the barrage remained stationary for 90 minutes while machine guns were brought forward . Shortly before 1 : 00 pm , the advance recommenced with both the 1st and 2nd Canadian Divisions reporting their final objective . The tank supported advance via Farbus , and directed at the rear of the 79th Reserve Division , was eventually halted by concentrated German fire short of the village . The Canadian 1st and 2nd Divisions were nonetheless able to secure the Brown Line by approximately 2 : 00 pm .
The 4th Canadian Division had made an attempt to capture the northern half of Hill 145 at around 3 : 15 pm , briefly capturing the peak before a German counterattack retook the position . The Germans occupying the small salient on ridge soon found themselves being attacked along their flanks by continuously reinforced Canadian Corps troops . When it became obvious that the position was completely outflanked and there was no prospect of reinforcement , the German troops pulled back . The German forces were evacuated off the ridge with German artillery batteries moved west of the Vimy – Bailleul railway embankment or to the Oppy – Méricourt line . By nightfall of 10 April , the only Canadian objective not yet achieved was the capture of the Pimple .
= = = = 12 April = = = =
The 4th Canadian Division faced difficulties at the start of the battle that forced it to delay its assault on the Pimple until 12 April . The Pimple was initially defended by the 16th Bavarian Infantry Division , but the Canadian Corps ' preliminary artillery bombardment leading up to the assault on 9 April caused heavy casualties amongst its ranks . On 11 April , the 4th Guards Infantry Division first reinforced and then relieved affected 16th Bavarian Infantry Division units . The night before the attack , artillery harassed German positions while a gas section of Royal Engineers , employing Livens Projectors , fired more than 40 drums of gas directly into the town of Givenchy @-@ en @-@ Gohelle to cause confusion . The defending German troops managed to drive back the initial Canadian assaults at around 4 : 00 am using small arms fire . The 10th Canadian Brigade attacked once again at 5 : 00 am , this time supported by a significant amount of artillery and the 24th British Division of I Corps to the north . The German defensive artillery fire was late and too light to cause the assaulting troops great difficulty , allowing the Canadian Corps to exploit wide gaps and break into the German positions . The 10th Canadian Brigade , assisted by snow and a westerly wind , fought hastily entrained German troops to capture the entire Pimple by 6 : 00 pm .
= = Aftermath = =
By nightfall on 12 April 1917 , the Canadian Corps was in firm control of the ridge . The corps suffered 10 @,@ 602 casualties : 3 @,@ 598 killed and 7 @,@ 004 wounded . The German Sixth Army suffered an unknown number of casualties with approximately 4 @,@ 000 men becoming prisoners of war . Four members of the Canadian Corps received Victoria Crosses , the highest military decoration awarded to British and Commonwealth forces for valour , for their actions during the battle :
Private William Johnstone Milne of the 16th ( Canadian Scottish ) Battalion .
Lance @-@ Sergeant Ellis Wellwood Sifton of the 18th ( Western Ontario ) Battalion .
Private John George Pattison of the 50th ( Calgary ) Battalion .
Captain Thain Wendell MacDowell of the 38th ( Ottawa ) Battalion .
At least two Orders Pour le Mérite , the Kingdom of Prussia 's highest military order , were awarded to German commanders for their actions during the battle :
Oberstleutnant Wilhelm von Goerne commander of the 261st Prussian Reserve Infantry Regiment , of the German 79th Reserve Division .
General of the Infantry Georg Karl Wichura commander of the VIII Reserve Corps and Gruppe Souchez .
Following the defeat , the Chief of the German General Staff , Field Marshal Paul von Hindenburg , ordered the Supreme Army Command to conduct a court of enquiry into the defensive collapse of the Arras sector . The court concluded that the Sixth Army headquarters had disregarded frontline commander reports , noting a possible imminent attack , and as a result , reserve units were kept too far back to execute a timely and effective counterattack . The court concluded that Sixth Army commander General Ludwig von Falkenhausen failed to apply an elastic defence properly as espoused by German defensive doctrine of the time . Instead , the defensive system was a series of unmoving strong points and static lines of resistance , which the Canadian artillery ultimately isolated and destroyed . As a result of the inquiry , Hindenburg removed Falkenhausen from his command and transferred him to Belgium where he served the remainder of the war as that country 's Governor General .
The Germans did not see the Canadian Corps 's capture of Vimy Ridge as a loss . Contemporary German sources viewed the action , at worst , as a draw , given that no full @-@ scale breakthrough occurred following the attack . The Germans did not attempt to recapture the ridge , even during the Spring Offensive , and it remained under British control until the end of the war .
The loss of Vimy Ridge forced the Germans to reassess their defensive strategy in the area . Instead of mounting a counterattack , they pursued a scorched earth policy , and retreated to the Oppy – Méricourt line . The complete failure of the French Nivelle Offensive in the week after the Arras Offensive placed pressure on Field Marshal Douglas Haig to keep the Germans occupied in the Arras sector to minimize French losses . The Canadian Corps participated in several of these actions including the Battle of Arleux and the Third Battle of the Scarpe in late April and early May 1917 .
After the end of World War I , Julian Byng was raised to the peerage as Baron Byng of Vimy , of Thorpe @-@ le @-@ Soken in the County of Essex , on 7 October 1919 . The next month , he retired from the military and moved to Thorpe Hall .
= = Commemoration = =
= = = Influence on Canada = = =
The Battle of Vimy Ridge has considerable significance for Canada .
Although the battle is not generally considered the greatest achievement of the Canadian Corps in strategic importance or results obtained , it was the first instance in which all four Canadian divisions , made up of troops drawn from all parts of the country , fought as a cohesive formation . The image of national unity and achievement is what initially gave the battle importance for Canada . According to Pierce , " The historical reality of the battle has been reworked and reinterpreted in a conscious attempt to give purpose and meaning to an event that came to symbolize Canada 's coming of age as a nation . " The idea that Canada 's national identity and nationhood were born out of the battle is an opinion that is widely held in military and general histories of Canada .
= = = Vimy Memorial = = =
The Canadian National Vimy Memorial is Canada 's largest and principal overseas war memorial . Located on the highest point of the Vimy Ridge , the memorial is dedicated to the commemoration of the Battle of Vimy Ridge and Canadian Expeditionary Force members killed during the First World War . It serves as the place of commemoration for Canadian soldiers killed in France during the First World War with no known grave . France granted Canada perpetual use of a section of land at Vimy Ridge in 1922 for the purpose of a battlefield park and memorial . A 100 @-@ hectare ( 250 @-@ acre ) portion of the former battlefield is preserved as part of the memorial park that surrounds the monument . The grounds of the site are still honeycombed with wartime tunnels , trenches , craters and unexploded munitions , and are largely closed off for public safety . A section of preserved trenches and a portion of a tunnel have been made accessible to site visitors .
The memorial took eleven years and $ 1 @.@ 5 million ( $ 20 @.@ 9 million in present terms ) to build and was unveiled on 26 July 1936 by King Edward VIII , in the presence of President Albert Lebrun of France and 50 @,@ 000 or more Canadian and French veterans and their families . Starting in 2004 , the monument underwent a major multi @-@ year restoration project , which included general cleaning and the recarving of many inscribed names . Queen Elizabeth II rededicated the restored monument on 9 April 2007 during a ceremony commemorating the 90th anniversary of the battle . Veterans Affairs Canada maintains the memorial site .
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= Haumea =
Haumea , minor @-@ planet designation 136108 Haumea , is a dwarf planet located beyond Neptune 's orbit . It was discovered in 2004 by a team headed by Mike Brown of Caltech at the Palomar Observatory in the United States and independently in 2005 , by a team headed by José Luis Ortiz Moreno at the Sierra Nevada Observatory in Spain , though the latter claim has been contested . On September 17 , 2008 , it was recognized as a dwarf planet by the International Astronomical Union ( IAU ) and named after Haumea , the Hawaiian goddess of childbirth .
Haumea 's mass is about one @-@ third that of Pluto , and 1 / 1400 that of Earth . Although its shape has not been directly observed , calculations from its light curve indicate that it is a triaxial ellipsoid , with its major axis twice as long as its minor . Its gravity is thought to be sufficient for it to have relaxed into hydrostatic equilibrium , making it a dwarf planet . Haumea 's elongated shape together with its rapid rotation , high density , and high albedo ( from a surface of crystalline water ice ) , are thought to be the consequences of a giant collision , which left Haumea the largest member of a collisional family that includes several large trans @-@ Neptunian objects ( TNOs ) and Haumea 's two known moons , Hiʻiaka and Namaka .
= = History = =
= = = Discovery = = =
Two teams claim credit for the discovery of Haumea . Mike Brown and his team at Caltech discovered Haumea in December 2004 on images they had taken on May 6 , 2004 . On July 20 , 2005 , they published an online abstract of a report intended to announce the discovery at a conference in September 2005 . At around this time , José Luis Ortiz Moreno and his team at the Instituto de Astrofísica de Andalucía at Sierra Nevada Observatory in Spain found Haumea on images taken on March 7 – 10 , 2003 . Ortiz emailed the Minor Planet Center with their discovery on the night of July 27 , 2005 .
Brown initially conceded discovery credit to Ortiz , but came to suspect the Spanish team of fraud upon learning that his observation logs were accessed from the Spanish observatory the day before the discovery announcement . These logs included enough information to allow the Ortiz team to precover Haumea in their 2003 images , and they were accessed again just before Ortiz scheduled telescope time to obtain confirmation images for a second announcement to the MPC on July 29 . Ortiz later admitted he had accessed the Caltech observation logs but denied any wrongdoing , stating he was merely verifying whether they had discovered a new object .
IAU protocol is that discovery credit for a minor planet goes to whoever first submits a report to the MPC ( Minor Planet Center ) with enough positional data for a decent determination of its orbit , and that the credited discoverer has priority in choosing a name . However , the IAU announcement on September 17 , 2008 , that Haumea had been accepted as a dwarf planet , did not mention a discoverer . The location of discovery was listed as the Sierra Nevada Observatory of the Spanish team , but the chosen name , Haumea , was the Caltech proposal ; Ortiz 's team had proposed " Ataecina " , named for the ancient Iberian goddess of Spring .
= = = Name = = =
Until it was given a permanent name , the Caltech discovery team used the nickname " Santa " among themselves , because they had discovered Haumea on December 28 , 2004 , just after Christmas . The Spanish team were the first to file a claim for discovery to the Minor Planet Center , in July 2005 . On July 29 , 2005 , Haumea was given the provisional designation 2003 EL61 , based on the date of the Spanish discovery image . On September 7 , 2006 , it was numbered and admitted into the official minor planet catalogue as ( 136108 ) 2003 EL61 .
Following guidelines established by the IAU that classical Kuiper belt objects be given names of mythological beings associated with creation , in September 2006 the Caltech team submitted formal names from Hawaiian mythology to the IAU for both ( 136108 ) 2003 EL61 and its moons , in order " to pay homage to the place where the satellites were discovered " . The names were proposed by David Rabinowitz of the Caltech team . Haumea is the matron goddess of the island of Hawaiʻi , where the Mauna Kea Observatory is located . In addition , she is identified with Papa , the goddess of the earth and wife of Wākea ( space ) , which is appropriate because Haumea is thought to be composed almost entirely of solid rock , without the thick ice mantle over a small rocky core typical of other known Kuiper belt objects . Lastly , Haumea is the goddess of fertility and childbirth , with many children who sprang from different parts of her body ; this corresponds to the swarm of icy bodies thought to have broken off the dwarf planet during an ancient collision . The two known moons , also believed to have formed in this manner , are thus named after two of Haumea 's daughters , Hiʻiaka and Nāmaka .
The proposal by the Ortiz team , Ataecina , did not meet IAU naming requirements , because Ataecina is not a creation deity . ( See Ataecina § Dwarf planet . )
= = Classification = =
Haumea is a plutoid , a dwarf planet beyond Neptune 's orbit . Its classification as a dwarf planet means it is presumed to be massive enough to have been rounded by its own gravity into a shape in hydrostatic equilibrium , but not massive enough to have cleared its neighbourhood of similar objects . Haumea appears to have a triaxial ellipsoid shape resulting its rapid rotation complicated by tidal interactions with its moons . This contrasts with the simpler oblate shape typically assumed by less rapidly rotating astronomical bodies such as the Earth , Jupiter ( or a water balloon tossed with moderate spin ) . Like the earth , Haumea is flattened at the poles ( indeed much more so ) , but its equator , instead of being round like the Earth 's , is elliptical , with two big bulges 180 degrees apart in longitude , buoyed up , as it were , by the greater centrifugal force they experience by virtue of being farther from the axis of rotation . In other words , Haumea is spinning so fast that if it spun much faster these bulges would distort into a dumbbell shape and split the planet in two . Haumea was initially listed as a classical Kuiper belt object in 2006 by the Minor Planet Center , but no longer . The nominal trajectory suggests that it is in the weak 7 : 12 resonance with Neptune ( orbiting the Sun 7 times for every 12 orbits of Neptune ) , because its perihelion distance of 35 AU is near the limit of stability with Neptune . There are precovery images of Haumea dating back to March 22 , 1955 from the Palomar Mountain Digitized Sky Survey . Further observations of the orbit will be required to verify its dynamic status .
= = Orbit and rotation = =
Haumea has an orbital period of 284 Earth years , a perihelion of 35 AU , and an orbital inclination of 28 ° . It passed aphelion in early 1992 , and is currently more than 50 AU from the Sun . Haumea 's orbit has a slightly greater eccentricity than that of the other members of its collisional family . This is thought to be due to Haumea 's weak 7 : 12 orbital resonance with Neptune gradually modifying its initial orbit over the course of a billion years , through the Kozai effect , which allows the exchange of an orbit 's inclination for increased eccentricity .
With a visual magnitude of 17 @.@ 3 , Haumea is the third @-@ brightest object in the Kuiper belt after Pluto and Makemake , and easily observable with a large amateur telescope . However , because the planets and most small Solar System bodies share a common orbital alignment from their formation in the primordial disk of the Solar System , most early surveys for distant objects focused on the projection on the sky of this common plane , called the ecliptic . As the region of sky close to the ecliptic became well explored , later sky surveys began looking for objects that had been dynamically excited into orbits with higher inclinations , as well as more distant objects , with slower mean motions across the sky . These surveys eventually covered the location of Haumea , with its high orbital inclination and current position far from the ecliptic .
Haumea displays large fluctuations in brightness over a period of 3 @.@ 9 hours , which can only be explained by a rotational period of this length . This is faster than any other known equilibrium body in the Solar System , and indeed faster than any other known body larger than 100 km in diameter . This rapid rotation is thought to have been caused by the impact that created its satellites and collisional family .
= = Physical characteristics = =
Because Haumea has moons , the mass of the system can be calculated from their orbits using Kepler 's third law . The result is 4 @.@ 2 × 1021 kg , 28 % the mass of the Plutonian system and 6 % that of the Moon . Nearly all of this mass is in Haumea .
= = = Size , shape , and composition = = =
The size of a Solar System object can be deduced from its optical magnitude , its distance , and its albedo . Objects appear bright to Earth observers either because they are large or because they are highly reflective . If their reflectivity ( albedo ) can be ascertained , then a rough estimate can be made of their size . For most distant objects , the albedo is unknown , but Haumea is large and bright enough for its thermal emission to be measured , which has given an approximate value for its albedo and thus its size . However , the calculation of its dimensions is complicated by its rapid rotation . The rotational physics of deformable bodies predicts that over as little as a hundred days , a body rotating as rapidly as Haumea will have been distorted into the equilibrium form of a triaxial ellipsoid . It is thought that most of the fluctuation in Haumea 's brightness is caused not by local differences in albedo but by the alternation of the side view and end view as seen from Earth .
The rotation and amplitude of Haumea 's light curve place strong constraints on its composition . If Haumea had a low density like Pluto , with a thick mantle of ice over a small rocky core , its rapid rotation would have elongated it to a greater extent than the fluctuations in its brightness allow . Such considerations constrain its density to a range of 2 @.@ 6 – 3 @.@ 3 g / cm3 . By comparison , the Moon , which is rocky , has a density of 3 @.@ 3 g / cm3 , whereas Pluto , which is typical of icy objects in the Kuiper belt , has a density of 1 @.@ 86 g / cm3 . Haumea 's possible density covers the values for silicate minerals such as olivine and pyroxene , which make up many of the rocky objects in the Solar System . This suggests that the bulk of Haumea is rock covered with a relatively thin layer of ice . A thick ice mantle more typical of Kuiper belt objects may have been blasted off during the impact that formed the Haumean collisional family .
The denser the object in hydrostatic equilibrium , the more spherical it must be for a given rotational period , placing constraints on Haumea 's possible dimensions . Fitting its accurately known mass , its rotation , and its inferred density to an equilibrium ellipsoid predicts that Haumea is approximately the diameter of Pluto along its longest axis and about half that at its poles . Because no observations of occultations of stars by Haumea or occultations of the dwarf planet with its moons have yet been made , direct , precise measurements of its dimensions , like those that were made for Pluto , do not yet exist .
Several ellipsoid @-@ model calculations of Haumea 's dimensions have been made . The first model produced after Haumea 's discovery was calculated from ground @-@ based observations of Haumea 's light curve at optical wavelengths : it provided a total length of 1 @,@ 960 to 2 @,@ 500 km and a visual albedo ( pv ) greater than 0 @.@ 6 . The most likely shape is a triaxial ellipsoid with approximate dimensions of 2 @,@ 000 x 1 @,@ 500 x 1 @,@ 000 km , with an albedo of 0 @.@ 71 . Observations by the Spitzer Space Telescope give a diameter of 1 @,@ 150 + 250
− 100 km and an albedo of 0 @.@ 84 + 0 @.@ 1
− 0 @.@ 2 , from photometry at infrared wavelengths of 70 μm . Subsequent light @-@ curve analyses have suggested an equivalent circular diameter of 1 @,@ 450 km . In 2010 an analysis of measurements taken by Herschel Space Telescope together with the older Spitzer Telescope measurements yielded a new estimate of the equivalent diameter of Haumea — about 1300 km . These independent size estimates overlap at an average geometric mean diameter of roughly 1 @,@ 400 km . This makes Haumea one of the largest trans @-@ Neptunian objects discovered , smaller than Eris , Pluto , probably Makemake , and possibly 2007 OR10 , and larger than Sedna , Quaoar , and Orcus .
= = = Surface = = =
In 2005 , the Gemini and Keck telescopes obtained spectra of Haumea which showed strong crystalline water ice features similar to the surface of Pluto 's moon Charon . This is peculiar , because crystalline ice forms at temperatures above 110 K , whereas Haumea 's surface temperature is below 50 K , a temperature at which amorphous ice is formed . In addition , the structure of crystalline ice is unstable under the constant rain of cosmic rays and energetic particles from the Sun that strike trans @-@ Neptunian objects . The timescale for the crystalline ice to revert to amorphous ice under this bombardment is on the order of ten million years , yet trans @-@ Neptunian objects have been in their present cold @-@ temperature locations for timescales of billions of years . Radiation damage should also redden and darken the surface of trans @-@ Neptunian objects where the common surface materials of organic ices and tholin @-@ like compounds are present , as is the case with Pluto . Therefore , the spectra and colour suggest Haumea and its family members have undergone recent resurfacing that produced fresh ice . However , no plausible resurfacing mechanism has been suggested .
Haumea is as bright as snow , with an albedo in the range of 0 @.@ 6 – 0 @.@ 8 , consistent with crystalline ice . Other large TNOs such as Eris appear to have albedos as high or higher . Best @-@ fit modeling of the surface spectra suggested that 66 % to 80 % of the Haumean surface appears to be pure crystalline water ice , with one contributor to the high albedo possibly hydrogen cyanide or phyllosilicate clays . Inorganic cyanide salts such as copper potassium cyanide may also be present .
However , further studies of the visible and near infrared spectra suggest a homogeneous surface covered by an intimate 1 : 1 mixture of amorphous and crystalline ice , together with no more than 8 % organics . The absence of ammonia hydrate excludes cryovolcanism and the observations confirm that the collisional event must have happened more than 100 million years ago , in agreement with the dynamic studies . The absence of measurable methane in the spectra of Haumea is consistent with a warm collisional history that would have removed such volatiles , in contrast to Makemake .
In addition to the large fluctuations in Haumea 's light curve due to the body 's shape , which affect all colours equally , smaller independent colour variations seen in both visible and near @-@ infrared wavelengths show a region on the surface that differs both in colour and in albedo . More specifically , a large dark red area on Haumea 's bright white surface was seen in September 2009 , possibly an impact feature , which indicates an area rich in minerals and organic ( carbon @-@ rich ) compounds , or possibly a higher proportion of crystalline ice . Thus Haumea may have a mottled surface reminiscent of Pluto , if not as extreme .
= = Moons = =
Two small satellites have been discovered orbiting Haumea , ( 136108 ) Haumea I Hiʻiaka and ( 136108 ) Haumea II Namaka . Brown 's team discovered both in 2005 , through observations of Haumea using the W.M. Keck Observatory .
Hiʻiaka , at first nicknamed " Rudolph " by the Caltech team , was discovered January 26 , 2005 . It is the outer and , at roughly 310 km in diameter , the larger and brighter of the two , and orbits Haumea in a nearly circular path every 49 days . Strong absorption features at 1 @.@ 5 and 2 micrometres in the infrared spectrum are consistent with nearly pure crystalline water ice covering much of the surface . The unusual spectrum , along with similar absorption lines on Haumea , led Brown and colleagues to conclude that capture was an unlikely model for the system 's formation , and that the Haumean moons must be fragments of Haumea itself .
Namaka , the smaller , inner satellite of Haumea , was discovered on June 30 , 2005 , and nicknamed " Blitzen " . It is a tenth the mass of Hiʻiaka , orbits Haumea in 18 days in a highly elliptical , non @-@ Keplerian orbit , and as of 2008 is inclined 13 ° from the larger moon , which perturbs its orbit . The relatively large eccentricities together with the mutual inclination of the orbits of the satellites are unexpected as they should have been damped by the tidal effects . A relatively recent passage by a 3 : 1 resonance might explain the current excited orbits of the Haumean moons .
At present , the orbits of the Haumean moons appear almost exactly edge @-@ on from Earth , with Namaka periodically occulting Haumea . Observation of such transits would provide precise information on the size and shape of Haumea and its moons , as happened in the late 1980s with Pluto and Charon . The tiny change in brightness of the system during these occultations will require at least a medium @-@ aperture professional telescope for detection . Hiʻiaka last occulted Haumea in 1999 , a few years before discovery , and will not do so again for some 130 years . However , in a situation unique among regular satellites , Namaka 's orbit is being greatly torqued by Hiʻiaka , preserving the viewing angle of Namaka – Haumea transits for several more years .
= = Collisional family = =
Haumea is the largest member of its collisional family , a group of astronomical objects with similar physical and orbital characteristics thought to have formed when a larger progenitor was shattered by an impact . This family is the first to be identified among TNOs and includes — beside Haumea and its moons — ( 55636 ) 2002 TX300 ( ≈ 364 km ) , ( 24835 ) 1995 SM55 ( ≈ 174 km ) , ( 19308 ) 1996 TO66 ( ≈ 200 km ) , ( 120178 ) 2003 OP32 ( ≈ 230 km ) , and ( 145453 ) 2005 RR43 ( ≈ 252 km ) . Brown and colleagues proposed that the family were a direct product of the impact that removed Haumea 's ice mantle , but a second proposal suggests a more complicated origin : that the material ejected in the initial collision instead coalesced into a large moon of Haumea , which was later shattered in a second collision , dispersing its shards outwards . This second scenario appears to produce a dispersion of velocities for the fragments that is more closely matched to the measured velocity dispersion of the family members .
The presence of the collisional family could imply that Haumea and its " offspring " might have originated in the scattered disc . In today 's sparsely populated Kuiper belt , the chance of such a collision occurring over the age of the Solar System is less than 0 @.@ 1 percent . The family could not have formed in the denser primordial Kuiper belt because such a close @-@ knit group would have been disrupted by Neptune 's migration into the belt — the believed cause of the belt 's current low density . Therefore , it appears likely that the dynamic scattered disc region , in which the possibility of such a collision is far higher , is the place of origin for the object that generated Haumea and its kin .
Because it would have taken at least a billion years for the group to have diffused as far as it has , the collision which created the Haumea family is believed to have occurred very early in the Solar System 's history .
= = Exploration = =
It was calculated that a flyby mission to Haumea could take 14 @.@ 25 years using a Jupiter gravity assist , based on a launch date of 25 September 2025 . Haumea would be 48 @.@ 18 AU from the Sun when the spacecraft arrives . A flight time of 16 @.@ 45 years can be achieved with launch dates on 1 November 2026 , 23 September 2037 and 29 October 2038 . Haumea could become a target for an exploration missions , and an example of this work is a preliminary study on a probe to Haumea and its moons ( at 35 – 51 AU ) . Probe mass , power source , and propulsion systems are key technology areas for this type of mission .
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= An Inconvenient Truth =
An Inconvenient Truth is a 2006 documentary film directed by Davis Guggenheim about former United States Vice President Al Gore 's campaign to educate citizens about global warming via a comprehensive slide show that , by his own estimate made in the film , he has given more than a thousand times .
Premiering at the 2006 Sundance Film Festival and opening in New York City and Los Angeles on May 24 , 2006 , the documentary was a critical and box @-@ office success , winning two Academy Awards for Best Documentary Feature and Best Original Song . The film grossed $ 24 million in the U.S. and $ 26 million in the foreign box office , becoming the tenth highest grossing documentary film to date in the United States .
The idea to document his efforts came from producer Laurie David who saw his presentation at a town @-@ hall meeting on global warming which coincided with the opening of The Day After Tomorrow . Laurie David was so inspired by Gore 's slide show that she , with producer Lawrence Bender , met with Guggenheim to adapt the presentation into a film .
Since the film 's release , An Inconvenient Truth has been credited for raising international public awareness of global warming and reenergizing the environmental movement . The documentary has also been included in science curricula in schools around the world , which has spurred some controversy .
= = Synopsis = =
An Inconvenient Truth presents in film form an illustrated talk on climate by Al Gore , aimed at alerting the public to an increasing " planetary emergency " due to global warming , and shows re @-@ enacted incidents from his life story which influenced his concerns about environmental issues . He began making these presentations in 1989 with flip chart illustrations , the film version uses a Keynote presentation , which Gore refers to as " the slide show " .
The former vice president opens the film by greeting an audience with his well known line about his campaign in 2000 : " I am Al Gore ; I used to be the next President of the United States . " He is shown using his laptop to edit his presentation , and pondering the difficulty he has had in awakening public concern : " I 've been trying to tell this story for a long time and I feel as if I 've failed to get the message across . "
Gore then begins his slide show on Global Warming ; a comprehensive presentation replete with detailed graphs , flow charts and stark visuals . Gore shows off several majestic photographs of the Earth taken from multiple space missions , Earthrise and The Blue Marble . Gore notes that these photos dramatically transformed the way we see the Earth , helping spark modern environmentalism .
Following this , Gore shares anecdotes that inspired his interest in the issue , including his college education with early climate expert Roger Revelle at Harvard University , his sister 's death from lung cancer and his young son 's near @-@ fatal car accident . Gore recalls a story from his grade @-@ school years , where a fellow student asked his geography teacher about continental drift ; in response , the teacher called the concept the " most ridiculous thing [ he 'd ] ever heard . " Gore ties this conclusion to the assumption that " the Earth is so big , we can 't possibly have any lasting , harmful impact on the Earth 's environment . " For comic effect , Gore uses a clip from the Futurama episode " Crimes of the Hot " to describe the greenhouse effect . Gore refers to his loss to George W. Bush in the 2000 United States presidential election as a " hard blow " yet one which subsequently " brought into clear focus , the mission [ he ] had been pursuing for all these years . "
Throughout the movie , Gore discusses the scientific opinion on global warming , as well as the present and future effects of global warming and stresses that global warming " is really not a political issue , so much as a moral one , " describing the consequences he believes global warming will produce if the amount of human @-@ generated greenhouse gases is not significantly reduced in the very near future . Gore also presents Antarctic ice coring data showing CO2 levels higher now than in the past 650 @,@ 000 years .
The film includes segments intended to refute critics who say that global warming is unproven or that warming will be insignificant . For example , Gore discusses the possibility of the collapse of a major ice sheet in Greenland or in West Antarctica , either of which could raise global sea levels by approximately 20 feet , flooding coastal areas and producing 100 million refugees . Melt water from Greenland , because of its lower salinity , could then halt the currents that keep northern Europe warm and quickly trigger dramatic local cooling there . It also contains various short animated projections of what could happen to different animals more vulnerable to global warming
The documentary ends with Gore arguing that if appropriate actions are taken soon , the effects of global warming can be successfully reversed by releasing less CO2 and planting more vegetation to consume existing CO2 . Gore calls upon his viewers to learn how they can help him in these efforts . Gore concludes the film by saying :
" Each one of us is a cause of global warming , but each one of us can make choices to change that with the things we buy , the electricity we use , the cars we drive ; we can make choices to bring our individual carbon emissions to zero . The solutions are in our hands , we just have to have the determination to make it happen . We have everything that we need to reduce carbon emissions , everything but political will . But in America , the will to act is a renewable resource . "
During the film 's end credits , a diaporama pops up on screen suggesting to viewers things at home they can do to combat global warming , including " recycle " , " speak up in your community " , " try to buy a hybrid vehicle " and " encourage everyone you know to watch this movie . "
Gore 's book of the same title was published concurrently with the theatrical release of the documentary . The book contains additional information , scientific analysis , and Gore 's commentary on the issues presented in the documentary . A 2007 documentary entitled An Update with Former Vice President Al Gore features Gore discussing additional information that came to light after the film was completed , such as Hurricane Katrina , coral reef depletion , glacial earthquake activity on the Greenland ice sheet , wildfires , and trapped methane gas release associated with permafrost melting .
= = Background = =
= = = Origins = = =
Gore became interested in global warming when he took a course at Harvard University with Professor Roger Revelle , one of the first scientists to measure carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . Later , when Gore was in Congress , he initiated the first congressional hearing on the subject in 1981 . Gore 's 1992 book , Earth in the Balance , dealing with a number of environmental topics , reached the New York Times bestseller list .
As Vice President during the Clinton Administration , Gore pushed for the implementation of a carbon tax to encourage energy efficiency and diversify the choices of fuel better reflecting the true environmental costs of energy use ; it was partially implemented in 1993 . He helped broker the 1997 Kyoto Protocol , an international treaty designed to curb greenhouse gas emissions . The treaty was not ratified in the United States after a 95 to 0 vote in the Senate . The primary objections stemmed from the exemptions the treaty gave to China and India , whose industrial base and carbon footprint have grown rapidly , and fears that the exemptions would lead to further trade imbalances and offshoring arrangement with those countries .
Gore also supported the funding of the controversial , and much @-@ delayed satellite called Triana , which would have provided an image of the Earth 24 hours a day , over the internet and would have acted as a barometer measuring the process of global warming . During his 2000 presidential campaign , Gore ran , in part , on a pledge to ratify the Kyoto Protocol .
= = = The slide show = = =
After his defeat in the 2000 presidential election by George W. Bush , Gore returned his focus to the topic . He edited and adapted a slide show he had compiled years earlier , and began featuring the slide show in presentations on global warming across the U.S. and around the world . At the time of the film , Gore estimated he had shown the presentation more than one thousand times .
Producer Laurie David saw Gore 's slide show in New York City at a global warming town @-@ hall meeting after the May 27 , 2004 premiere of The Day After Tomorrow . Gore was one of several panelists and he showed a ten @-@ minute version of his slide show .
I had never seen it before , and I was floored . As soon as the evening 's program concluded , I asked him to let me present his full briefing to leaders and friends in New York and Los Angeles . I would do all the organizing if he would commit to the dates . Gore 's presentation was the most powerful and clear explanation of global warming I had ever seen . And it became my mission to get everyone I knew to see it too .
Inspired , David assembled a team , including producer Lawrence Bender and former president of eBay Jeffrey Skoll , who met with Gore about the possibility of making the slide show into a movie . It took some convincing . The slide show , she says , " was his baby , and he felt proprietary about it and it was hard for him to let go . "
David said the box office returns weren 't important to her . " None of us are going to make a dime . " What is at stake , she says , " is , you know , the planet . "
David and Bender later met with director Davis Guggenheim , to have him direct the film adaptation of his slide show . Guggenheim , who was skeptical at first , later saw the presentation for himself , stating that he was " blown away , " and " left after an hour and a half thinking that global warming [ was ] the most important issue ... I had no idea how you ’ d make a film out of it , but I wanted to try , " he said .
In 2004 Gore enlisted Duarte Design to condense and update his material and add video and animation . Ted Boda described the tools that went into designing the project : " Gore 's presentation was in fact using Apple 's Keynote presentation software ( the same software Steve Jobs presents from ) and did so for a number of reasons . As a designer for the presentation , Keynote was the first choice to help create such an engaging presentation . "
Initially reluctant of the film adaptation , Gore said after he and the crew were into the production of the movie , the director , Guggenheim , earned his trust .
I had seen enough to gain a tremendous respect for his skill and sensitivity . And he said that one of the huge differences between a live stage performance and a movie is that when you 're in the same room with a live person who 's on stage speaking – even if it 's me – there 's an element of dramatic tension and human connection that keeps your attention . And in a movie , that element is just not present . He explained to me that you have to create that element on screen , by supplying a narrative thread that allows the audience to make a connection with one or more characters . He said , " You 've got to be that character . " So we talked about it , and as I say , by then he had earned such a high level of trust from me that he convinced me .
= = = Production = = =
When Bender first saw Gore 's visual presentation he had concerns about connection with viewers , citing a " need to find a personal way in . " In the string of interviews with Gore that followed , Gore himself felt like they " were making Kill Al Vol . 3 " . Bender had other issues including a time frame that was " grueling " and needed to be done in " a very short period of time " despite many filming locations planned . These included many locations throughout the United States and also included China . " It was a lot of travel in a very short period of time . And they had to get this thing edited and cut starting in January , and ready to screen in May . That ’ s like a seriously tight schedule . So the logistics of pulling it off with a low budget were really difficult , and if there ’ s one person who gets credit , it ’ s Leslie Chilcott , because she really pulled it together . "
= = = = Technical aspects = = = =
The majority of the movie exhibits Gore delivering his lecture to an audience at a relatively small theater in Los Angeles . Gore 's presentation was delivered on a 70 @-@ foot digital screen that Bender commissioned specifically for the movie .
While the bulk of the film was shot on 4 : 4 : 4 HDCAM , according to director Guggenheim , a vast array of different film formats were used : " There ’ s 35mm and 16mm . A lot of the stuff on the farm I just shot myself on 8mm film . We used four Sony F950 HDCAMs for the presentation . We shot three different kinds of prosumer HD , both 30 and 24 . There ’ s MiniDV , there ’ s 3200 black @-@ and @-@ white stills , there ’ s digital stills , some of them emailed on the day they were taken from as far off as Greenland . There was three or four different types of animation . One of the animators is from New Zealand and emailed me his work . There ’ s JPEG stuff . "
Guggenheim says while it would 've been a lot easier to use one format , it would not have had the same impact . " Each format has its own feel and texture and touch . For the storytelling of what Gore ’ s memory was like of growing up on the farm , some of this 8mm stuff that I shot is very impressionistic . And for some of his memories of his son ’ s accident , these grainy black @-@ and @-@ white stills ... have a feel that contrasted very beautifully with the crisp hi @-@ def HD that we shot . Every format was used to its best potential . Some of the footage of Katrina has this blown @-@ out video , where the chroma is just blasted , and it looks real muddy , but that too has its own kind of powerful , impactful feeling . "
= = Scientific basis = =
The film 's thesis is that global warming is real , potentially catastrophic , and human @-@ caused . Gore presents specific data that supports the thesis , including :
The Keeling curve , measuring CO2 from the Mauna Loa Observatory .
The retreat of numerous glaciers is shown in before @-@ and @-@ after photographs .
A study by researchers at the Physics Institute at the University of Bern and the European Project for Ice Coring in Antarctica ( EPICA ) presenting data from Antarctic ice cores showing carbon dioxide concentrations higher than at any time during the past 650 @,@ 000 years .
Instrumental temperature record showing that the ten hottest years ever measured in this atmospheric record had all occurred in the previous fourteen years .
A 2004 survey , by Naomi Oreskes of 928 peer @-@ reviewed scientific articles on global climate change published between 1993 and 2003 . The survey , published as an editorial in the journal Science , found that every article either supported the human @-@ caused global warming consensus or did not comment on it . Gore also presented a 2004 study by Max and Jules Boykoff showing 53 % of articles that appeared in major US newspapers over a fourteen @-@ year period gave roughly equal attention to scientists who expressed views that global warming was caused by humans as they did to global warming " skeptics " ( many of them funded by carbon @-@ based industry interests ) , creating a false balance .
The Associated Press contacted more than 100 climate researchers and questioned them about the film 's veracity . All 19 climate scientists who had seen the movie or had read the homonymous book said that Gore accurately conveyed the science , with few errors .
William H. Schlesinger , dean of the Nicholas School of Environment and Earth Sciences at Duke University said " [ Gore ] got all the important material and got it right . " Robert Corell , chairman of the Arctic Climate Impact Assessment was also impressed . " I sat there and I 'm amazed at how thorough and accurate . After the presentation I said , ' Al , I 'm absolutely blown away . There 's a lot of details you could get wrong . ' ... I could find no error . " Michael Shermer , scientific author and founder of The Skeptics Society , wrote in Scientific American that Gore 's slide show " shocked me out of my doubting stance . " Eric Steig , a climate scientist writing on RealClimate , lauded the film 's science as " remarkably up to date , with reference to some of the very latest research . " Ted Scambos , lead scientist from the National Snow and Ice Data Center , said the film " does an excellent job of outlining the science behind global warming and the challenges society faces in the coming century because of it . "
One concern among scientists in the film was the connection between hurricanes and global warming , which remains contentious in the science community . Gore cited five recent scientific studies to support his view . " I thought the use of imagery from Hurricane Katrina was inappropriate and unnecessary in this regard , as there are plenty of disturbing impacts associated with global warming for which there is much greater scientific consensus , " said Brian Soden , professor of meteorology and oceanography at the University of Miami . Gavin Schmidt , climate modeler for NASA , thought Gore appropriately addressed the issue . " Gore talked about 2005 and 2004 being very strong seasons , and if you weren 't paying attention , you could be left with the impression that there was a direct cause and effect , but he was very careful to not say there 's a direct correlation , " Schmidt said . " There is a difference between saying ' we are confident that they will increase ' and ' we are confident that they have increased due to this effect , ' " added Steig . " Never in the movie does he say : ' This particular event is caused by global warming . ' "
Gore 's use of long ice core records of CO2 and temperature ( from oxygen isotope measurements ) in Antarctic ice cores to illustrate the correlation between the two drew some scrutiny ; Schmidt , Steig and Michael E. Mann back up Gore 's data . " Gore stated that the greenhouse gas levels and temperature changes over ice age signals had a complex relationship but that they ' fit ' . Both of these statements are true , " said Schmidt and Mann . " The complexity though is actually quite fascinating ... a full understanding of why CO2 changes in precisely the pattern that it does during ice ages is elusive , but among the most plausible explanations is that increased received solar radiation in the southern hemisphere due to changes in Earth ’ s orbital geometry warms the southern ocean , releasing CO2 into the atmosphere , which then leads to further warming through an enhanced greenhouse effect . Gore ’ s terse explanation of course does not mention such complexities , but the crux of his point – that the observed long @-@ term relationship between CO2 and temperature in Antarctica supports our understanding of the warming impact of increased CO2 concentrations – is correct . Moreover , our knowledge of why CO2 is changing now ( fossil fuel burning ) is solid . We also know that CO2 is a greenhouse gas , and that the carbon cycle feedback is positive ( increasing temperatures lead to increasing CO2 and CH4 ) , implying that future changes in CO2 will be larger than we might anticipate . " " Gore is careful not to state what the temperature / CO2 scaling is , " said Steig . " He is making a qualitative point , which is entirely accurate . The fact is that it would be difficult or impossible to explain past changes in temperature during the ice age cycles without CO2 changes . In that sense , the ice core CO2 @-@ temperature correlation remains an appropriate demonstration of the influence of CO2 on climate . "
Steig disputed Gore 's statement that you can visibly see the effect that the United States Clean Air Act has had on ice cores in Antarctica . " One can neither see , nor even detect using sensitive chemical methods any evidence in Antarctica of the Clean Air Act , " he said , but did note that they are " clearly recorded in ice core records from Greenland . " Despite these flaws , Steig said that the film got the fundamental science right and the minor factual errors did not undermine the main message of the film , adding " An Inconvenient Truth rests on a solid scientific foundation . "
Lonnie Thompson , Earth Science professor at Ohio State University , whose work on retreating glaciers was featured in the film , was pleased with how his research was presented . " It 's so hard given the breadth of this topic to be factually correct , and make sure you don 't lose your audience , " Thompson said . " As scientists , we publish our papers in Science and Nature , but very few people read those . Here 's another way to get this message out . To me , it 's an excellent overview for an introductory class at a university . What are the issues and what are the possible consequences of not doing anything about those changes ? To me , it has tremendous value . It will reach people that scientists will never reach . "
John Nielsen @-@ Gammon from Texas A & M University said the " main scientific argument presented in the movie is for the most part consistent with the weight of scientific evidence , but with some of the main points needing updating , correction , or qualification . " Nielsen @-@ Gammon thought the film neglected information gained from computer models , and instead relied entirely on past and current observational evidence , " perhaps because such information would be difficult for a lay audience to grasp , believe , or connect with emotionally . "
Steven Quiring , climatologist from Texas A & M University added that " whether scientists like it or not , An Inconvenient Truth has had a much greater impact on public opinion and public awareness of global climate change than any scientific paper or report . "
= = Reception = =
= = = Box office = = =
The film opened in New York City and Los Angeles on May 24 , 2006 . On Memorial Day weekend , it grossed an average of $ 91 @,@ 447 per theater , the highest of any movie that weekend and a record for a documentary , though it was only playing on four screens at the time .
At the 2006 Sundance Film Festival , the movie received three standing ovations . It was also screened at the 2006 Cannes Film Festival and was the opening night film at the 27th Durban International Film Festival on June 14 , 2006 . An Inconvenient Truth was the most popular documentary at the 2006 Brisbane International Film Festival .
The film has grossed over $ 24 million in the U.S. , making it the tenth @-@ highest @-@ grossing documentary in the U.S. ( from 1982 to the present ) . It grossed nearly $ 26 million in foreign countries , the highest being France , where it grossed $ 5 million . According to Gore , " Tipper and I are devoting 100 percent of the profits from the book and the movie to a new bipartisan educational campaign to further spread the message about global warming . " Paramount Classics committed 5 % of their domestic theatrical gross from the film to form a new bipartisan climate action group , Alliance for Climate Protection , dedicated to awareness and grassroots organizing .
= = = Reviews = = =
The film received a positive reaction from film critics and audiences . It garnered a " certified fresh " 93 % rating at Rotten Tomatoes . At Metacritic , which assigns a weighted average score out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , the film has received an average score of 75 , based on 32 reviews . Film critics Roger Ebert and Richard Roeper gave the film " two thumbs up " . Ebert said , " In 39 years , I have never written these words in a movie review , but here they are : You owe it to yourself to see this film . If you do not , and you have grandchildren , you should explain to them why you decided not to , " calling the film " horrifying , enthralling and [ having ] the potential , I believe , to actually change public policy and begin a process which could save the Earth . "
New York Magazine critic David Edelstein called the film " One of the most realistic documentaries I 've ever seen — and , dry as it is , one of the most devastating in its implications . " The New Yorker 's David Remnick added that while it was " not the most entertaining film of the year ... it might be the most important " and a " brilliantly lucid , often riveting attempt to warn Americans off our hellbent path to global suicide . " New York Times reviewer A.O. Scott thought the film was " edited crisply enough to keep it from feeling like 90 minutes of C @-@ SPAN and shaped to give Mr. Gore 's argument a real sense of drama , " and " as unsettling as it can be , " Scott continued , " it is also intellectually exhilarating , and , like any good piece of pedagogy , whets the appetite for further study . " Bright Lights Film Journal critic Jayson Harsin declared the film 's aesthetic qualities groundbreaking , as a new genre of slideshow film . NASA climatologist James Hansen described the film as powerful , complemented by detail in the book . Hansen said that " Gore has put together a coherent account of a complex topic that Americans desperately need to understand . The story is scientifically accurate and yet should be understandable to the public , a public that is less and less drawn to science . " He added that with An Inconvenient Truth , " Al Gore may have done for global warming what Silent Spring did for pesticides . He will be attacked , but the public will have the information needed to distinguish our long @-@ term well @-@ being from short @-@ term special interests . "
In " extensive exit polling " of An Inconvenient Truth in " conservative suburban markets like Plano and Irvine ( Orange County ) , as well as Dallas and Long Island " , 92 percent rated " Truth " highly and 87 percent of the respondents said they 'd recommend the film to a friend . University of Washington professor Michele Poff argued that Gore was successful in communicating to conservative @-@ leaning audiences by framing the climate crisis as apolitical . " Gore ’ s and the environment ’ s identification with the Democratic Party posed a significant challenge to reaching Republicans and conservatives , as well as those disgruntled with politics in general , " Poff wrote . " To appeal to such individuals , Gore framed the matter as distinctly apolitical — as an issue both outside politics and one that was crucial regardless of one ’ s ideological leanings . These explicit attempts to frame the issue as apolitical take on further gravitas when we consider how Gore infused the film with reflections of conservative values . Indeed , Gore reached deeply into the value structure of American conservatives to highlight ideals that suggested his cause was not liberal , but rather was beyond politics , beyond ideology . "
= = = Critical reviews = = =
Several reviews criticized the film on scientific and political grounds . Journalist Ronald Bailey argued in the libertarian magazine Reason that although " Gore gets [ the science ] more right than wrong , " he exaggerates the risks . MIT atmospheric physicist Richard S. Lindzen was vocally critical of the film , writing in a June 26 , 2006 op @-@ ed in the Wall Street Journal that Gore was using a biased presentation to exploit the fears of the public for his own political gain .
Some other reviewers were also skeptical of Gore 's intent , wondering whether he was setting himself for another Presidential run . Boston Globe writer Peter Canello criticized the " gauzy biographical material that seems to have been culled from old Gore campaign commercials . " Phil Hall of Film Threat gave the film a negative review , saying " An Inconvenient Truth is something you rarely see in movies today : a blatant intellectual fraud . "
Others felt Gore didn 't go far enough in depicting the threat Indigenous peoples faced with the dire consequences of climate change . " An Inconvenient Truth completely ignores the plight of Arctic indigenous peoples whose cultures and landscapes are facing profound changes produced by melting polar ice , " argued environmental historian Finis Dunaway .
= = Accolades = =
An Inconvenient Truth has received many different awards worldwide . The film won the 2006 Academy Awards for Best Documentary Feature and Best Original Song for Melissa Etheridge 's " I Need to Wake Up " . It is the first documentary to win 2 Oscars and the first to win a best original song Oscar .
After winning the 2007 Academy Award for Documentary Feature , the Oscar was awarded to director Guggenheim , who asked Gore to join him and other members of the crew on stage . Gore then gave a brief speech , saying :
My fellow Americans , people all over the world , we need to solve the climate crisis . It 's not a political issue ; it 's a moral issue . We have everything we need to get started , with the possible exception of the will to act . That 's a renewable resource . Let 's renew it .
Sight & Sound magazine conducts a poll every ten years of the world 's finest film directors to find out the Ten Greatest Films of All Time . This poll has been going since 1992 , and has become the most recognised poll of its kind in the world . In 2012 Cyrus Frisch voted for " An Inconvenient Truth " . Frisch commented : " A few years after this film was made , global industry has become more aware of its impact on nature . "
In addition , the film received numerous other accolades , including a special recognition from the Humanitas Prize , the first time the organization had handed out a Special Award in over 10 years , the 2007 Stanley Kramer Award from The Producers Guild of America , which recognizes " work that dramatically illustrates provocative social issues " and the President ’ s Award 2007 from the Society for Technical Communication " for demonstrating that effective and understandable technical communication , when coupled with passion and vision , has the power to educate — and change — the world . " For Gore 's wide @-@ reaching efforts to draw the world ’ s attention to the dangers of global warming which is centerpieced in the film , Al Gore , along with the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , won the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize . The related album , which featured the voices of Beau Bridges , Cynthia Nixon and Blair Underwood , also won Best Spoken Word Album at the 51st Grammy Awards .
The film won many other awards for Best Documentary :
= = Impact = =
The documentary has been generally well @-@ received politically in many parts of the world and is credited for raising further awareness of global warming internationally . The film inspired producer Kevin Wall to conceive the 2007 Live Earth festival and influenced Italian composer Giorgio Battistelli to write an operatic adaptation , entitled " CO2 , " premiering at La Scala in Milan in 2015 .
= = = Activism = = =
Following the film , Gore founded The Climate Reality Project in 2006 which trained 1 @,@ 000 activists to give Gore ’ s presentation in their communities . Presently , the group has 3 @,@ 500 presenters worldwide . An additional initiative was launched in 2010 , called " Inconvenient Youth " . " ' Inconvenient Youth ' is built on the belief that teens can help lead efforts to solve the climate crisis , " said Gore . The project was inspired by Mary Doerr , a 16 @-@ year @-@ old who trained as presenter for the organization .
University of Scranton professor Jessica Nolan found in a 2010 study published for Environment and Behavior that people became more informed and concerned about climate change right after seeing the film but that these concerns didn 't translate into changed behavior a month later . On the contrary , in a 2011 paper published in the Journal of Environmental Economics and Management , University of Oregon professor Grant Jacobsen found in the two months following the release of the film , zip codes within a 10 @-@ mile radius of a zip code where the film was shown experienced a 50 percent relative increase in the purchase of voluntary carbon offsets .
= = = Public opinion = = =
In a July 2007 47 @-@ country Internet survey conducted by The Nielsen Company and Oxford University , 66 % of those respondents who said they had seen An Inconvenient Truth stated that it had " changed their mind " about global warming and 89 % said it had made them more aware of the problem . Three out of four ( 74 % ) said they had changed some of their habits because of seeing the film .
= = = Governmental reactions = = =
Then @-@ president George W. Bush , when asked whether he would watch the film , responded : " Doubt it . " Gore responded that " The entire global scientific community has a consensus on the question that human beings are responsible for global warming and he [ Bush ] has today again expressed personal doubt that that is true . " White House deputy press secretary Dana Perino stated that " The president noted in 2001 the increase in temperatures over the past 100 years and that the increase in greenhouse gases was due to a certain extent to human activity " .
Several United States Senators screened the film . New Mexico Democratic Senator Jeff Bingaman and Nevada Democratic Senator Harry Reid saw the movie at its Washington premiere at the National Geographic Society . New Mexico Democratic Senator Tom Udall planned to see the film saying " It 's such a powerful statement because of the way the movie is put together , I tell everybody , Democrat or Republican , they 've got to go see this movie . " Former New Mexico Republican Senator Pete Domenici thought Gore 's prominence on the global warming issue made it more difficult to get a consensus in Congress . Bingaman disputed this saying , " It seems to me we were having great difficulty recruiting Republican members of Congress to support a bill before Al Gore came up with this movie . "
Oklahoma Republican Senator Jim Inhofe , then @-@ chairman of the Senate Environment and Public Works Committee , didn 't plan to see the film ( which he appears in ) , and compared it to Adolf Hitler 's book " Mein Kampf " . " If you say the same lie over and over again , and particularly if you have the media 's support , people will believe it , " Inhofe said , adding that he thought Gore was trying to use the issue to run for president again in 2008 .
In contrast to Inhofe , Arizona Republican Senator John McCain , did not criticize Gore 's efforts or the movie , which he planned to see .
Tennessee Republican Senator Lamar Alexander , said " Because ( Gore ) was a former vice president and presidential nominee , he brings a lot of visibility to ( the issue ) , " Alexander said . " On the other hand it may be seen as political by some , and they may be less eager to be a part of it . " Alexander also criticized the omission of nuclear power in the film . " Maybe it needs a sequel : ' An Inconvenient Truth 2 : Nuclear Power . ' "
In September 2006 , Gore traveled to Sydney , Australia to promote the film . Then @-@ Australian Prime Minister John Howard said he would not meet with Gore or agree to Kyoto because of the movie : " I don 't take policy advice from films . " Former Opposition Leader Kim Beazley joined Gore for a viewing and other MPs attended a special screening at Parliament House earlier in the week . After winning the general election a year later , Prime Minister Kevin Rudd ratified Kyoto in his first week of office , leaving the United States the only industrialized nation in the world not to have signed the treaty .
In the United Kingdom , Conservative party leader and future Prime Minister David Cameron urged people to watch the film in order to understand climate change .
In Belgium , Margaretha Guidone persuaded the entire Belgian government to see the film . 200 politicians and political staff accepted her invitation , among whom were Belgian prime minister Guy Verhofstadt and Minister @-@ President of Flanders , Yves Leterme . Gore received the Prince of Asturias Prize in 2007 for international cooperation .
In Costa Rica , the film was screened by president Oscar Arias . Arias 's subsequent championing of the climate change issue was greatly influenced by the film .
= = = Industry and business = = =
The Competitive Enterprise Institute released pro @-@ carbon dioxide television ads in preparation for the film 's release in May 2006 . The ads featured a little girl blowing a dandelion with the tagline , " Carbon dioxide . They call it pollution . We call it life . "
In August 2006 , the Wall Street Journal revealed that a YouTube video lampooning Gore and the movie , titled Al Gore 's Penguin Army , appeared to be " astroturfing " by DCI Group , a Washington public relations firm .
= = Use in education = =
Several colleges and high schools have begun to use the film in science curricula . In Germany , German Environment Minister Sigmar Gabriel bought 6 @,@ 000 DVDs of An Inconvenient Truth to make it available to German schools . Prime Minister José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero distributed 30 000 copies to the Spanish schools in October , 2007 . In Burlington , Ontario , Canada , the Halton District School Board made An Inconvenient Truth available at schools and as an educational resource .
= = = In the United Kingdom = = =
As part of a nationwide " Sustainable Schools Year of Action " launched in late 2006 , the UK Government , Welsh Assembly Government and Scottish Executive announced between January – March 2007 that copies of An Inconvenient Truth would be sent to all their secondary schools . The film was placed into the science curriculum for fourth and sixth @-@ year students in Scotland as a joint initiative between Learning and Teaching Scotland and ScottishPower .
= = = = Dimmock case = = = =
In May 2007 , Stewart Dimmock — a lorry ( HGV ) driver , school governor from Kent , England , and member of a right @-@ wing group called the New Party — challenged the UK Government 's distribution of the film in a lawsuit , Dimmock v Secretary of State for Education and Skills , with help from political ally and New Party founder Viscount Monckton , who notably pointed out " 35 serious scientific errors " . The plaintiffs sought an injunction preventing the screening of the film in English schools , arguing that by law schools are forbidden to promote partisan political views and , when dealing with political issues , are required to provide a balanced presentation of opposing views .
On October 10 , 2007 , Justice Michael Burton , after explaining that the requirement for a balanced presentation does not warrant that equal weight be given to alternative views of a mainstream view , ruled that it was clear that the film was substantially founded upon scientific research and fact , albeit that the science had been used , in the hands of a " talented politician and communicator " , to make a political statement and to support a political program . The judge ruled that An Inconvenient Truth contained nine scientific errors and thus must be accompanied by an explanation of those errors before being shown to school children . The judge said that showing the film without the explanations of error would be a violation of education laws .
The judge concluded " I have no doubt that Dr Stott , the Defendant 's expert , is right when he says that : ' Al Gore 's presentation of the causes and likely effects of climate change in the film was broadly accurate . ' " On the basis of testimony from Robert M. Carter and the arguments put forth by the claimant 's lawyers , the judge also pointed to nine " errors " , i.e. statements the truth of which he did not rule on , but that he found to depart from the mainstream scientific positions on global warming . He also found that some of these departures from the mainstream arose in the context of alarmism and exaggeration in support of political theses . Since the government had already accepted to amend the guidance notes to address these along with other points in a fashion that the judge found satisfactory , no order was made on the application .
Each side declared victory . Government Minister of Children , Young People and Families , Kevin Brennan stated : " We have updated the accompanying guidance , as requested by the judge to make it clearer for teachers as to the stated Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change position on a number of scientific points raised in the film . " Plaintiff Dimmock complained that " no amount of turgid guidance " could change his view that the film was unsuitable for the classroom . A spokesman for Gore said : " Of the thousands of facts in the film , the judge only took issue with just a handful . And of that handful , we have the studies to back those pieces up . "
= = = In the United States = = =
In the United States , 50 @,@ 000 free copies of An Inconvenient Truth were offered to the National Science Teachers Association ( NSTA ) , which declined to take them . Producer David provided an email correspondence from the NSTA detailing that their reasoning was that the DVDs would place " unnecessary risk upon the [ NSTA ] capital campaign , especially certain targeted supporters , " and that they saw " little , if any , benefit to NSTA or its members " in accepting the free DVDs . A Washington Post editorial called the decision " Science a la Joe Camel " , citing for example that the NSTA had received $ 6 million since 1996 from Exxon Mobil , which had a representative on the organization 's corporate board . In public , the NSTA argued that distributing this film to its members would have been contrary to a long @-@ standing NSTA policy against distributing unsolicited materials to its members . The NSTA also said that they had offered several other options for distributing the film but ultimately " [ it ] appears that these alternative distribution mechanisms were unsatisfactory . " David has said that NSTA Executive Director Gerry Wheeler promised in a telephone conversation to explore alternatives with NSTA 's board for advertising the film but she had not yet received an alternative offer at the time of NSTA 's public claim . She also said that she rejected their subsequent offers because they were nothing more than offers to sell their " commercially available member mailing list " and advertising space in their magazine and newsletter , which are available to anyone . She noted that in the past , NSTA had shipped out 20 @,@ 000 copies of a 10 @-@ part video produced by Wheeler with funding provided by ConocoPhillips in 2003 . NSTA indicated that they retained editorial control over the content , which David questioned based on the point of view portrayed in the global warming section of the video .
The American Association for the Advancement of Science publication ScienceNOW published an assessment discussing both sides of the NSTA decision in which it was reported that " David says NSTA 's imprimatur [ i.e. endorsement or sanction ] was essential and that buying a mailing list is a nonstarter . ' You don 't want to send out a cold letter , and it costs a lot of money , ' she says . ' There are a thousand reasons why that wouldn 't work . ' "
In January 2007 , the Federal Way ( Washington State ) School Board voted to require an approval by the principal and the superintendent for teachers to show the film to students and that the teachers must include the presentation of an approved " opposing view " . The moratorium was repealed , at a meeting on January 23 , after a predominantly negative community reaction . Shortly thereafter , the school board in Yakima , Washington , calling the film a " controversial issue " , prevented the Environmental Club of Eisenhower High School from showing it , pending review by the school board , teachers , principal , and parents . It lifted the stay a month later , upon the approval by a review panel .
= = = In New Zealand = = =
Former ACT New Zealand Member of Parliament Muriel Newman filed a petition to have New Zealand schoolchildren be protected from political indoctrination by putting provisions that resembled those in the UK to the Education Act . The petition was in response to concerned parents talked with Newman after An Inconvenient Truth was shown in schools in 2007 . The parents were worried that teachers were not pointing out supposed inaccuracies in the film and were not explaining differing viewpoints .
= = Music = =
An Inconvenient Truth was scored by Michael Brook with an accompanying theme song played during the end credits by Melissa Etheridge . Brook explained that he wanted to bring out the emotion expressed in the film : " ... in Inconvenient Truth , there 's a lot of information and it 's kind of a lecture , in a way , and very well organized and very well presented , but it 's a lot to absorb . And the director , Guggenheim , wanted to have – sort of give people a little break every once in a while and say , okay , you don 't have to absorb this information , you can just sort of – and it was more the personal side of Al Gore 's life or how it connected to the theme of the film . And that 's when there 's music . "
Etheridge agreed to write An Inconvenient Truth 's theme song , " I Need to Wake Up " after viewing Gore 's slide show . " I was so honored he would ask me to contribute to a project that is so powerful and so important , I felt such a huge responsibility , " she said . " Then I went , ' What am I going to write ? What am I going to say ? ' " Etheridge 's former partner , Tammy Lynn Michaels , told her : " Write what you feel , because that 's what people are going to feel . " Of Etheridge 's commitment to the project , Gore said , " Melissa is a rare soul who gives a lot of time and effort to causes in which she strongly believes . " Etheridge received the 2006 Academy Award for Best Original Song for " I Need to Wake Up . " Upon receiving the award , she noted in her acceptance speech :
Mostly I have to thank Al Gore , for inspiring us , for inspiring me , showing that caring about the Earth is not Republican or Democrat ; it 's not red or blue , it 's all green .
= = Sequel = =
When asked during a Reddit " Ask Me Anything " in 2013 whether there were plans for a follow @-@ up film , Guggenheim said , " I think about it a lot -- I think we need one right now . " In 2014 , The Hollywood Reporter reported that the producers of the film were in talks over a possible sequel . " We have had conversations , " co @-@ producer Bender said . " We 've met ; we 've discussed . If we are going to make a movie , we want it to have an impact . " Co @-@ producer David also believed a sequel was needed . " God , do we need one , " David said . " Everything in that movie has come to pass . At the time we did the movie , there was Hurricane Katrina ; now we have extreme weather events every other week . The update has to be incredible and shocking . "
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= The Psychology of The Simpsons =
The Psychology of The Simpsons : D 'oh ! is a non @-@ fiction book analyzing psychology themes in the television series The Simpsons . It contains content from several contributors , including psychologists , counselors and school therapists . The book was edited by Alan S. Brown , Ph.D. , and Chris Logan , and was published on March 1 , 2006 by BenBella Books . It has received praise from reviewers .
= = Background = =
The book was published on March 1 , 2006 by BenBella Books , and is part of their " Psychology of Popular Culture Series , " or " Smart Pop " for short . Other books in the series include works which analyze psychology and pop culture themes as related to Superman , the X @-@ Men , and The Matrix . The BenBella psychology series was inspired by a similar pop philosophy series from publisher Open Court Publishing Company . The editors of the book were Alan S. Brown , Ph.D. , and Chris Logan . Brown is a professor of psychology , and Logan is a lecturer in the field . The book is meant to appeal both to fans of The Simpsons , and academic students of psychology .
= = Content = =
The book contains content from twenty @-@ nine contributors , including psychologists , counselors , teachers and school therapists . It also includes content from Brown and Logan . General topics discussed in the work include family , alcohol abuse , relationships , self @-@ esteem , sex and gender , and personality . Specific topics in the field of psychology include clinical psychology , cognition , abnormal psychology , evolutionary psychology , gambling addiction , Pavlovian conditioning and family therapy . Contributor Denis M. McCarthy , assistant professor of psychology at the University of Missouri , analyzes risk factors for alcoholism presented in The Simpsons . McCarthy cites Bart 's passive @-@ avoidance learning as a risk factor , and notes that Maggie is at a high risk for substance abuse due to violent tendencies .
Though each chapter contains material comparing The Simpsons episodes to academic psychology themes , the chapter titles are less serious , including " Which One of Us is Truly Crazy " and " Looking For Mr. Smarty Pants . " Editor Chris Logan explained : " The book ’ s content is very serious , but it 's not presented in an overly serious way . " The Simpsons Archive also described the balance between humor and academia in the book , noting : " Fortunately , despite numerous references to various psychological theories and academic studies , the essays steer clear of becoming too serious , and manage to stay entertaining throughout the book . "
= = Reception = =
The book was received favorably in a publication of Southern Methodist University . In the introduction to an interview with one of the book 's editors , the interviewer noted : " Get past the goofy cover , with its illustration of Homer ’ s beer- and TV @-@ saturated brain , and you find analysis aimed at both TV viewers and students of psychology . " The book also received positive mention in The Times , where Andrew Billen wrote : " I can commend D 'Oh ! : The Psychology of The Simpsons and Reading The Sopranos , since both shows are sturdy enough to support the intellectual studies . " An article at The Simpsons Archive also wrote positively of the work : " The connection to the show and its events is solid and psychological points are illustrated using explanatory snippets from the Simpsons . "
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= Ron Hextall =
Ronald Jeffrey Hextall ( born May 3 , 1964 ) is a Canadian former professional ice hockey goaltender who played 13 National Hockey League ( NHL ) seasons for the Philadelphia Flyers , Quebec Nordiques , and New York Islanders . He served as Assistant General Manager for the Flyers for one season , and was promoted to General Manager of the Philadelphia Flyers , replacing Paul Holmgren on May 7 , 2014 . Before this he served as Assistant General Manager for the Los Angeles Kings , who won the Stanley Cup in 2012 .
Hextall played 11 of his 13 seasons over two stints with the Flyers . He holds several team records and is a member of the Flyers Hall of Fame . During his rookie season in 1986 – 87 , he was awarded the Vezina Trophy as the league 's top goaltender and led the Flyers to the Stanley Cup Finals . Despite the Flyers ' loss to the Edmonton Oilers in seven games , he won the Conn Smythe Trophy as the playoffs ' most valuable player , making him one of only five players to win the trophy in a losing effort . Injuries in the middle of his career contributed to a drop in his playing ability ; as a result , he was traded on three occasions in the off @-@ seasons between 1992 and 1994 to the Quebec Nordiques , the New York Islanders and then back to the Flyers . Upon his return to Philadelphia , Hextall regained confidence and form , recording goals against averages ( GAA ) below 3 @.@ 00 in each of his five subsequent seasons – the lowest of his career . He retired from the NHL at the end of the 1998 – 99 season .
Hextall became the first NHL goaltender to score a goal by shooting the puck into the opponent 's empty net , against the Boston Bruins in the 1987 – 88 season . The following season , he became the first goaltender to score in the playoffs , by shooting the puck into the Washington Capitals ' empty net . His mobile style of play , in which he provided support to his defencemen by coming out of the goal area to play the puck was revolutionary , and inspired future generations of goaltenders , such as Martin Brodeur . He was also known for being one of the NHL 's most aggressive goaltenders : he was suspended for six or more games on three occasions , had more than 100 penalty minutes in each of his first three seasons , and set new records for the number of penalty minutes recorded by a goaltender in the NHL .
= = Early life = =
Ron Hextall was born on May 3 , 1964 in Brandon , Manitoba , the third and youngest child of Bryan and Fay Hextall . Hextall is a third @-@ generation NHL player - his grandfather , Hall of Famer Bryan Hextall , played 11 seasons with the New York Rangers , and was inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame in 1969 . His father , Bryan Hextall , Jr . , played in the NHL for 10 seasons , most notably for the Pittsburgh Penguins , and his uncle , Dennis Hextall , played 14 seasons of NHL hockey , not staying with any one club for longer than five years . During his youth , Hextall saw his father and uncle often roughed up by the Philadelphia Flyers , whose aggressive style of play for much of the 1970s gave the team the name " Broad Street Bullies " . Hextall later reflected that during this period he " hated the Flyers . "
Because of his father 's career , Hextall 's education was far from stable ; each year began at Brandon , and once the hockey season commenced in October , he moved to a school nearer to where his father was playing . At school , he achieved B and C grades , putting in the minimum amount of effort , but his mind remained on hockey , and specifically goaltending . " Everybody else would be working and I 'd be drawing pictures of Tony Esposito and Jimmy Rutherford , " he recalled . Hextall came to mostly enjoy the constant moving , later saying " I got to hang around NHL rinks . What more would I have wanted ? "
Although both his father and grandfather played as forwards , his father was happy for him to play in goal , but insisted that he try other positions to improve his skating : Bryan believed his son would have made a good defenceman . Hextall 's mother thought her son 's love for hockey exceeded that of her husband 's teammates and believed it would drive him to achieve his aim of goaltending in the NHL . Each summer , Hextall received training at the hockey school at which his father taught , but the hockey programs in Pittsburgh and Atlanta were sub @-@ standard , and meant that during his teenage years , he was behind many of his fellow players . He describes himself as " [ not ] what you would call real polished " in his first year of junior hockey , aged 17 .
= = Playing career = =
= = = Junior hockey = = =
Hextall began his junior hockey career with the Melville Millionaires in the Saskatchewan Junior Hockey League ( SJHL ) . In his solitary season with the club , he played 37 games with a goals against average ( GAA ) of 6 @.@ 57 . In one game that season , against the Prince Albert Raiders , Hextall faced 105 shots , and made 84 saves , a performance described as brilliant by the Regina Leader @-@ Post . Although the Millionaires lost 21 – 2 , the reporter noted that if it was not for Hextall , the Raiders could have scored " 34 or 35 " . Millionaires teammate Mark Odnokon praised his performance , particularly the way " he lived up to his responsibilities and stayed in there until the end . " In 2009 , Hextall was inducted as one of the inaugural members of the SJHL Hall of Fame .
Hextall returned to Brandon for the 1981 – 82 season , playing for the Brandon Wheat Kings in the Western Hockey League ( WHL ) . He played 30 regular season games for the Wheat Kings , during which he recorded a GAA of 5 @.@ 71 . The Wheat Kings reached the playoffs but were swept four games to none ( 4 – 0 ) in the first @-@ round by the Regina Pats . Hextall played in three of the games , but completed only two and had a GAA of 9 @.@ 32 . His team was regarded as a poor one at the time by critics and Hextall had to battle in each game . Flyers ' scout Gerry Melnyk said he could understand why many teams did not rate Hextall : " There were teams who thought he was loony . " Melnyk claimed it was these attributes which he was attracted by , and he felt that Hextall could fit in well with the Flyers . Subsequently , the Flyers chose Hextall in the sixth round of the 1982 NHL Draft , 119th overall .
After his selection , Hextall remained with Brandon for two further seasons . He played 44 games in 1982 – 83 , recording a GAA of 5 @.@ 77 during a season in which the Wheat Kings did not qualify for the playoffs . The following year was his most successful in the WHL : a GAA of 4 @.@ 29 across his 46 regular season games , which included 29 wins – more than in the previous two seasons combined . He played in ten of the twelve playoff games , recording five wins and five losses , with a GAA of 3 @.@ 75 . During the 1983 – 84 season , Hextall set a record for the most penalty minutes accumulated by a goaltender , being assessed for 117 minutes during the regular season .
= = = Professional hockey = = =
Hextall arrived at the Philadelphia Flyers training camp in 1984 with the expectation of playing in the NHL . However , the Flyers subsequently sent him to their farm team in the International Hockey League ( IHL ) , the Kalamazoo Wings . Although disappointed , Hextall was now playing at a higher level than at WHL and made his debut in professional hockey . He played 19 games for Kalamazoo , recording six wins and a GAA of 4 @.@ 35 . During the season , he moved to the Flyers ' other farm team ; Hershey Bears of the American Hockey League ( AHL ) , where he played 11 times , with four wins , and a GAA of 3 @.@ 68 .
In the following season , Hextall remained with Hershey , appearing in 53 games during the 1985 – 86 season . He recorded 30 wins and the lowest GAA average of his career to that point , 3 @.@ 41 . The Bears finished the regular season as league leaders , and won the John D. Chick Trophy as the South Division Champions . Hextall lived up to his aggressive reputation in the Conference final , played against the St. Catharines Saints , fighting three different members of the opposition side during a single bench @-@ clearing brawl . The Bears advanced to the Calder Cup final , having beaten the New Haven Nighthawks 4 – 1 and the St. Catharines Saints 4 – 3 . In the final , they faced the Adirondack Red Wings , who won the championship by four games to two . Hextall played 13 games in the playoffs , of which his team won five , and his GAA was 3 @.@ 23 . He was named as the Dudley " Red " Garrett Memorial Award winner , as the AHL 's outstanding rookie player . Looking back on his time in the AHL , Hextall reflected that despite his initial disappointment at not being selected to play for the Flyers straight away , " the two years that I spent in the American League got me to the point where I was sure I could be a No. 1 goaltender at the NHL level . "
= = = Philadelphia Flyers = = =
= = = = First three seasons = = = =
After his performances in the AHL , Hextall was invited to the Flyers ' training camp as a long @-@ shot . His play in four exhibition games convinced Flyers ' coach Mike Keenan to call up Hextall to the NHL , and to play him in the opening game of the season , against the Edmonton Oilers . Hextall conceded a goal from the first shot he faced in the game , but allowed no further shots past him , leading his side to a 2 – 1 victory . Hextall continued to display the aggressive nature with which he had always played , swinging his stick at Brad Smith and Troy Murray early in his first NHL season . Despite these swipes , Hextall claimed at the time that , " I used to be worse , I 've learned to control my temper . " Two months after making these comments , Hextall was involved in a fight with opposing New Jersey Devils goaltender Alain Chevrier . Having lost to the Devils , the Flyers wanted revenge for Steve Richmond 's punch on Kjell Samuelsson at the end of the game ; Hextall targeted Chevrier in a fight labelled by Chico Resch as " like a heavyweight against a lightweight . " Hextall and seven other players were fined $ 300 each for their part in the brawl .
In 66 regular season games during his rookie year , Hextall posted a GAA of 3 @.@ 00 , and recorded 37 wins . His was awarded the Vezina Trophy for the most outstanding goaltender by the NHL general managers , but he was second in the voting to Luc Robitaille for the Calder Memorial Trophy , awarded to the " player selected as the most proficient in his first year of competition " . Hextall led the Flyers to top their Conference , and win the Prince of Wales Trophy . The Flyers progressed to face the Edmonton Oilers in the Stanley Cup Finals , having beaten the New York Rangers 4 – 2 , the New York Islanders 4 – 3 , and the Montreal Canadiens 4 – 2 . Following their series victory over Montreal , Flyers captain Dave Poulin identified Hextall as the team 's leading performer . In the fourth game of the Finals , Hextall received two penalties , first a ten @-@ minute misconduct penalty for " expressing his displeasure at the fourth Oiler goal , " and later a five @-@ minute penalty for slashing Kent Nilsson . In the latter incident , Hextall had received a slash from Glenn Anderson for which there was no call from the referees , and Hextall sought revenge by striking the back of Nilsson 's knees . After the game Hextall expressed remorse for striking the wrong player but not for his action :
" If somebody slaps you in the face , you 're going to slap him back , it 's not like he gave me a touch to jar the puck . What 's he going to do next , break my arm ? I 'm sorry it was Nilsson and not Anderson I hit , but I just reacted . At the time , it seemed the right thing to do . "
The performance of Hextall in the next game tied the series and forced a seventh game ; at the end , the Flyers team surrounded Hextall in congratulation and the Oilers player Kevin Lowe said that Hextall " held them in it " . Between the sixth and seventh games , the Oilers ' forward Wayne Gretzky described Hextall as " probably the best goaltender I 've ever played against in the NHL " Edmonton won the final game of the series to take the Stanley Cup . Robin Finn , writing in The New York Times , said that the team won the title " without their trademark , those endless waves of madcap scoring " , primarily due to the " heroics of Hextall " . Flyers teammate Rick Tocchet said that when he realised his side were going to lose , his " first thought was to feel sorry for Ronny Hextall , because he did everything he could to get us here and keep us in it . " Hextall was awarded the Conn Smythe Trophy for the most valuable player in the playoffs , becoming only the fourth player from a losing side to be awarded the trophy . During the off @-@ season , Hextall received an eight @-@ game suspension for the start of the 1987 – 88 season after his slash on Nilsson . Speaking on behalf of the NHL , Brian O 'Neill said that : " There is no justification for any player to swing his stick in retaliation and this is especially the case for a goaltender whose stick , because of its weight , can cause serious injury . "
The Flyers had a difficult start to the 1987 – 88 season , partly attributed by Keenan to the absence of Hextall . Hextall returned to the Flyers line @-@ up against the New York Rangers , and made over 40 saves in a 2 – 2 tie . Just over a month later , Hextall became the first goaltender to shoot at goal and score in the NHL when he scored an empty net goal towards the end of a game against the Boston Bruins . The Flyers led 4 – 2 which prompted the Bruins to pull their goaltender in favour of an extra attacker . The puck was dumped into the Philadelphia zone by the Bruins , and Hextall picked it up without any players near him ; his shot fired into the air , bounced and rolled into the net . Hextall had targeted becoming the " first NHL goaltender to score a true goal " over a year earlier , and , speaking after the game , commented that : " I knew I could do it . It was a matter of when . " Despite his early season suspension , and a shoulder injury late in the season which made him miss five games , Hextall played 62 of the 67 games for which he was available during the regular season . He recorded 30 wins , and a GAA of 3 @.@ 50 , slightly higher than during his rookie year . Hextall struggled in the playoffs : he was replaced in successive games of the series against the Washington Capitals having conceded four goals in each . In the final two games of the series , which the Capitals won 4 – 3 , Hextall gave up a further 12 goals , and completed the playoffs with a GAA of 4 @.@ 75 .
In each of his first two seasons , Hextall accumulated 104 penalty minutes during the regular season , the first time that a goaltender had collected over 100 . In the 1988 – 89 season , he broke his own record , being assessed 113 penalty minutes , the most by any goaltender in an NHL season ( as of 2015 ) . Hextall completed the 1988 – 89 regular season with 30 wins , the third consecutive season in which he had recorded so many , and the first time a goaltender had recorded 30 wins in each of their first three seasons in the NHL . The Flyers finished fourth in the Patrick Division and qualified for the playoffs . They faced the Washington Capitals in the first round , and the teams shared the first four games . The Flyers won the fifth , despite being 5 – 4 down in the third period . Flyers ' defenceman Mark Howe credited their victory to Hextall . Late in the game , the Capitals pulled their goaltender , and Hextall scored the second goal of his career . The puck was shot into the Flyers ' left defensive zone by Scott Stevens , and Hextall went around the back of his net , controlled the puck and shot at goal . He became the first goaltender to score a goal in the NHL playoffs . The Flyers won 8 – 5 , and went on to win the series 4 – 2 , which Joe Sexton of the New York Times attributed primarily to Hextall 's return to form .
Against the Penguins in the Patrick Division Final , Hextall 's performances were mixed : he under @-@ performed early in the series , and in game five was swapped out of the net and then reinstated twice during a 10 – 7 defeat for the Flyers . Hextall faced 17 shots in the game , conceding nine of the Penguins goals . After the game , he denied being out of control , despite having assaulted one of the officials and chasing Rob Brown around the ice . He said , " I like to think I 'm strong mentally . Hey , if I was as out of control as people say I am , I wouldn 't be in the National Hockey League . " The Penguins coach , Gene Ubriaco , agreed with Hextall 's assessment , and believed the goaltender lost control intentionally : " He uses a loss of control to his advantage , in a way . He 's the extreme example of controlled violence . And they [ the Flyers ] live and die with it . " The Flyers won the next game to force a decider , but Hextall was ruled out of the contest with a first degree sprain of the medial collateral ligament ( MCL ) in his right knee . Hextall 's injury kept him out of the first three games of the series against the Canadiens , during which the Canadiens took a 2 – 1 lead . He returned for the fourth game , but could not prevent his side losing 3 – 0 . The Flyers won the following game to extend the series to six games , but lost the next game 4 – 2 , and were eliminated . Hextall displayed his violent side during the final minutes of game six , skating out of his crease to attack Chris Chelios . Hextall claimed that the attack was in retaliation for Chelios ' hit on his Flyer teammate Brian Propp in game one , when Chelios caught Flyer Propp with a " flying elbow " to the side of the head , rendering him unconscious . Hextall was given a 12 @-@ game suspension for his actions , at the beginning of the 1989 – 90 season . Following the announcement of the suspension , Hextall stated his disappointment , and added that his intention was to fight rather than hurt Chelios .
= = = = Contract rebel and injury troubles = = = =
Prior to the 1989 – 90 season , Hextall became unhappy that his eight @-@ year , $ 4 million contract was only earning him $ 325 @,@ 000 a year , and hired a confrontational agent , Ritch Winter , to renegotiate his contract . The Flyers refused to deal with the agent , and at a tearful press conference , Hextall declared his contract invalid and announced that he would not take part in the team 's training camp . After negotiations about which neither side revealed details , Hextall returned to practice with the team on October 20 , 42 days later . Hextall suffered a slight groin pull during his first game back , and in his second , he hurt his left hamstring . Just under a month later , while playing for the Hershey Bears in an attempt to establish his fitness , he was carried off the ice after once more hurting his groin . In total that season , Hextall appeared nine times ; once for the Bears in the AHL , and eight times for the Flyers . In the NHL , he recorded a GAA of 4 @.@ 15 , the highest he averaged during any single season of the NHL .
Hextall continued to be plagued by groin injuries during the next two seasons , twice straining his left groin muscle in the 1990 – 91 season . The Flyers ' orthopaedist , Dr. Arthur Bartolozzi , suggested a possible reason for his series of injuries :
" He is in motion anticipating the shot before the guy even hits the puck . So he 's already on the ice or doing a split or anticipating the shot well before it 's made . That 's probably what makes him a great goaltender . But it 's also what may predispose him to injury . "
In 1990 – 91 , Hextall appeared in 36 NHL games , less than half of those played by the Flyers that season . He recorded 13 wins , with a GAA of 3 @.@ 13 . For the second successive year , the Flyers failed to qualify for the playoffs . Early the following season , Hextall received the third significant suspension of his career , missing six games for slashing Detroit forward Jim Cummins during a pre @-@ season game . Suspension , further injuries , and a lack of form meant Hextall appeared 45 times for the Flyers . He recorded 16 wins during the season , resulting in his lowest win percentage in the NHL , 35 @.@ 56 % .
= = = Quebec Nordiques = = =
In the 1992 off @-@ season , Hextall was part of the trade which brought Eric Lindros to the Philadelphia Flyers . Lindros , who had been picked first overall by the Quebec Nordiques in the 1991 entry draft , had refused to play for Quebec during the 1991 – 92 season , forcing the club 's owner Marcel Aubut to trade him . While negotiating to get the best possible deal , Aubut traded Lindros to both the Flyers and the Rangers , meaning an arbitrator had to rule which club should receive him . During the ten days between the trades being made and the arbitrator 's ruling , there was a lot of speculation about which Flyers ' and Rangers ' players were involved in the potential trades . Hextall was among the players mentioned , something which he was unhappy about . Speaking through his agent , Hextall admitted to being " scared to death " about the possibility of moving with his family to the French @-@ speaking area . On July 30 , the arbitrator ruled in favour of the Philadelphia Flyers , and Hextall was traded to Quebec , along with five other players , two first round selections ( in 1993 and 1994 ) , and $ 15 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 cash for Lindros .
In the New York Times preview of the Adams Division for the 1992 – 93 season , Hextall is described as " inconsistent and injury @-@ prone " , while the players gained in the Lindros trade are collected dubbed as " good players but no superstars . " Hextall regained some of the confidence he displayed during his first years in Philadelphia , and although a strained thigh muscle kept him out towards the end of the regular season , he helped the Nordiques to reach the playoffs for the first time since 1987 . Quebec were eliminated 4 – 2 by the Montreal Canadiens in the first round , during which Hextall was praised as being " at the top of his game " .
= = = New York Islanders = = =
After only one season at the Nordiques , Hextall was traded to the New York Islanders in return for Mark Fitzpatrick during the off @-@ season , a move made because the Nordiques could only protect one goalie for the expansion draft and instead of losing him chose to trade him to Long Island . The two teams also traded first round draft picks . The move was a surprise for Hextall , who had settled in well in Quebec with his family . Don Maloney , the Islanders ' General Manager , described the trade as " too good to pass up " . The trade was praised by the New York Times as possibly " the best in the league over the off season " . Hextall had a poor beginning to his career as an Islander , conceding 23 goals in 14 periods at the start of the season , resulting in his replacement prior to the third period against the New Jersey Devils in mid @-@ October . During that game , in which the Islanders were playing at home , Hextall was jeered by the crowd , something to which he had become accustomed during his time with Philadelphia . In contrast to the fan 's derision , Hextall 's teammates backed him , taking some of the blame themselves , and expressing their belief in their new colleague . Steve Thomas suggested that Hextall was " one of the best goalies in the league , easily in the top five or 10 , " while coach Al Arbour dismissed dropping Hextall , saying that " We 're not playing well in front of the goaltender and he can only be as good as the guys in front of him . " Any thoughts that Arbour might have had of replacing Hextall as the team 's number @-@ one goaltender were limited by the play of his back @-@ up , Tom Draper , who recorded a GAA of 4 @.@ 23 in the seven NHL games he played that season . This , coupled with the lack of experienced goaltenders at the club 's IHL affiliate , the Salt Lake Golden Eagles , resulted in Hextall starting 20 games in a row until Jamie McLennan was called up from the Golden Eagles .
The break , and challenge , that Hextall was afforded by McLennan 's call @-@ up helped him to recover his form , and in February , he made consecutive shutouts against the Ottawa Senators and Washington Capitals . He recorded another shutout in his next home game , against the Flyers , and was shortly thereafter named as the NHL 's player of the week . During the regular season with the Islanders , Hextall recorded a career @-@ best five shutouts , and a GAA of 3 @.@ 08 , the best since his rookie year . Maloney described Hextall 's time with the team as having " a slow start and a disastrous finish " . The Islanders reached the playoffs , but were swept 4 – 0 by their rivals , the New York Rangers . Hextall played three of the four games , conceding 16 goals for a GAA of 6 @.@ 08 , the worst average of his NHL career by some distance . After the season had concluded , Maloney said that he believed that only two Islanders players had distinguished themselves during the 1993 – 94 season , with one of those being Jamie McLennan . He also praised Hextall 's play during his long sequence of starts , but five months later , Maloney traded Hextall back to Philadelphia . He described the move as being two @-@ pronged : it would appease the fans and prevent the derisory calls when the team were struggling , and it would give McLennan a chance to establish himself as the number @-@ one goaltender . Hextall , along with a sixth round draft pick was traded to the Flyers in return for goaltender Tommy Söderström .
= = = Return to Philadelphia = = =
In his first season back in Philadelphia , Hextall played 31 games , recording his lowest GAA in a season to that point , 2 @.@ 89 . The Flyers reached the playoffs for the first time in six years . After defeating the Buffalo Sabres in the first round , the Flyers faced the New York Rangers in the second . Following the Rangers sweep of the Islanders the previous season , the Rangers ' fans chanted " We Want Hex @-@ tall ! " during their game @-@ six victory in the first round . The Flyers ' coach , Terry Murray dismissed the chants , stating that " emotionally he 's really under control . " The New York Times supported this belief , claiming that " this isn 't the same Ron Hextall they remember so fondly " . The Flyers won the first two games of the series , and at Madison Square Garden , Hextall had a quiet game in which he even acted as a calming influence to teammates Kevin Haller and Dmitri Yushkevich , a turnaround from the aggressiveness he had displayed earlier in his career . The Flyers swept the Rangers 4 – 0 and advanced to the Conference Final against the New Jersey Devils , to whom they lost 4 – 2 . Hextall 's statistics in the playoffs were his best since his rookie year : he recorded ten wins with a GAA of 2 @.@ 81 .
For the first time in three seasons , Hextall was not traded during the off @-@ season , and remained with the Flyers for the 1995 – 96 season . During the regular season , Hextall improved on his figures from the previous year , passing 30 wins for the first time since 1988 – 89 . His GAA of 2 @.@ 17 was both the best in the NHL that year , and the best of Hextall 's career . In the playoffs , Hextall played in all twelve of the Flyers ' games , a 4 – 2 first round victory over the Tampa Bay Lightning followed by a 4 – 2 defeat to the Florida Panthers . His GAA of 2 @.@ 13 was his lowest recorded in any post @-@ season . He continued to perform well over the next two seasons , passing 30 wins again in 1996 – 97 , and adding another nine shutouts to the four he had made in 1995 – 96 . Over his first five seasons in the NHL , Hextall only made one shutout , while in his final six seasons , he achieved the feat on nineteen occasions . The Flyers progressed to the 1997 Stanley Cup Finals , though Hextall only appeared in eight playoff games , finishing seven of them . Throughout the season and the playoffs , the uncertainty in goal resulted in Hextall and Garth Snow swapping places regularly . Snow started nine of the ten games during the first two rounds , but Hextall replaced him in game two of the Conference Final , and remained the starting goaltender for the remainder of the series . A loss against the Detroit Red Wings in the first game of the Stanley Cup finals resulted in coach Murray switching back to Snow for the second game . Hextall returned for games three and four , but the Flyers were swept 4 – 0 by the Red Wings .
In his final two playing seasons , both spent at the Flyers , Hextall made fewer appearances ; he played 46 games in 1997 – 98 , and 23 the following year . He maintained a sub @-@ three GAA in each year , repeating the achievement in each of his final five seasons in the NHL having failed to do so in the previous eight seasons . At the end of 1998 – 99 , Hextall was waived by the Flyers , and after going unclaimed in the expansion draft , he announced his retirement on September 6 , 1999 .
= = International career = =
Hextall 's first international recognition came when he was named as part of Team Canada 's squad for the 1987 Canada Cup . During a practice session , he chopped Sylvain Turgeon 's arm with his stick during a scrimmage , claiming that the left wing was too close to the goal . Turgeon missed the tournament with a fractured arm ; Hextall was back @-@ up to Grant Fuhr and did not play a single game . He later represented Canada in the 1992 World Championships , playing five games to record one win and a GAA of 2 @.@ 86 as Canada were eliminated in the quarter @-@ finals .
= = Playing style = =
Hextall brought a new style of goaltending to the NHL , providing support to his two defencemen due to his willingness to come out of the net and play the puck . He was known for his excellent puck @-@ handling ability . In Hextall 's time , goaltenders would limit themselves to stopping the puck behind the net , make short push passes , or at most clear the puck out of the zone with " clumsy " backhands . He distinguished himself by using his stick as a defenceman would ; for example , he was capable of starting a counterattack , easily lifting the puck or bouncing it off the glass . Hextall 's puck @-@ handling ability meant that it was inadvisable to try a dump and chase strategy of sending the puck in a corner , regaining it , and establishing an attack in the offensive zone , because Hextall would invariably get to the puck first and clear it out of his zone towards a waiting player in the neutral zone . He was described by former NHL player Peter McNab as the " original outlet pass goalie " .
While playing junior hockey , Hextall 's coaches advised him that he would not reach the NHL if he continued to move the puck . Not everyone agreed ; NHL goaltender Darren Pang described feeling as if " he had just witnessed Superman flying out of a phone booth " when he saw Hextall 's puckhandling ability in a minor league game . Former NHL goaltender Johnny Bower , when scouting for the Toronto Maple Leafs in Brandon , remarked that Hextall would at times let in soft goals , and doubted if he would reach the NHL ; Hextall retained a tendency to let in occasional weak goals throughout his career . Hextall claims his adventurous style stemmed from his youth , when he played on outdoor ice rinks with a skater 's stick , rather than the heftier goaltender 's stick . Martin Brodeur modelled his own play on that of Hextall , saying " I love the fact that he was playing the puck . He was one of the first goalies that came out and played the puck . He was a little rough for my liking , but it was entertaining . The playing of the puck was the big thing . " Hextall 's mobility provided extra passing opportunities for his defencemen : when killing a penalty they would frequently pass the puck back to him , relieving some of the pressure on his team . He is described on the Hockey Hall of Fame 's Legends of Hockey website as being " perhaps the game 's most mobile goalie of all time . "
Frank Orr , a columnist in the Toronto Star , suggested that Hextall 's aggressive nature , which resulted in three suspensions of six or more games during his NHL career , was an intentional part of his game designed to protect him . He theorized that because Hextall 's style of play frequently took him out of his goal crease , the threat of physical violence lessened the chances of him being challenged by an attacker when out of position . In the 1993 playoff series between the Montreal Canadiens and Hextall 's Nordiques , the Canadiens ' coach Jacques Demers designed a plan to disrupt Hextall 's play after Montreal had lost its two first games to Quebec . He noted that Hextall would be off his game if he were disturbed or bumped . Montreal then won four straight games to win the series in six games . Demers felt that Hextall 's emotional play lessened his effectiveness ; while acknowledging him as a " great competitor " , he felt that " he didn 't reach the level of a Grant Fuhr or a Martin Brodeur [ because ] he lost his cool if you got in his face . "
Rogie Vachon , who served as the General Manager of the Los Angeles Kings during the early part of the Hextall 's playing career , praised his goaltending ability , but felt that his aggressive conduct " shouldn 't be in hockey and I think it tarnishes his image , too . He can play . He doesn 't need that ( stuff ) . " His view was shared by many , leading Hextall to be tagged as one of the most " revered and reviled " players in the league . Former NHL goaltender John Davidson commented that Hextall " thrived " on being a villain ; he further described him as a " great character " , and noted that " when he came to town , fans would want to race to the arena to boo him . "
= = Management career = =
Upon his retirement from playing in 1999 , Hextall immediately joined the Philadelphia Flyers ' set @-@ up as a Professional Scout . He was promoted to Director of Professional Player Personnel three years later , and was considered by the Manitoba Sports Hall of Fame to be a key factor in the success experienced by the Flyers during the early 2000s , when they won the Atlantic Division three times , and reached the Eastern Conference Finals on two occasions . In June 2006 , Hextall moved to the Los Angeles Kings to take on the role of Vice President and Assistant General Manager . In addition , Hextall served as the General Manager of the Manchester Monarchs of the AHL , the Kings ' primary affiliate . On June 11 , 2012 , Hextall won the Stanley Cup that eluded him in 1987 and 1997 , this time as the Assistant General Manager of the Los Angeles Kings . On July 15 , 2013 , Hextall returned to the Flyers , being named Assistant General Manager and Director of Hockey Operations . On May 7 , 2014 , Hextall was named General Manager of the Flyers , following the promotion of Paul Holmgren to team President .
= = Personal life = =
Hextall married Diane Ogibowski , a former figure skater , and the pair have four children ; Kristin , Brett , Rebecca , and Jeffrey . Brett Hextall was drafted by the Phoenix Coyotes as a sixth @-@ round pick ( 159th overall ) in the 2008 NHL Entry Draft . He was signed to an entry @-@ level contract with the team in April 2011 , and if he plays in the NHL will become the second fourth @-@ generation player in NHL history , after Blake Geoffrion .
= = Awards and honours = =
= = Records = =
= = = NHL = = =
Most penalty minutes by a goaltender in a single season – 113 ( 1988 – 89 )
= = = Philadelphia Flyers = = =
Most career games played by a goaltender – 489
Most career wins – 240
Most career playoff wins – 45
Most career points by a goaltender – 28
Most career penalty minutes by a goaltender – 476
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Regular season = = =
= = = Post season = = =
= = = International = = =
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= Pulling Strings ( White Collar ) =
" Pulling Strings " is the 14th episode of the third season of the American comedy @-@ drama television series White Collar , and the 44th episode overall . It was first broadcast on USA Network in the United States on February 7 , 2012 . The episode was directed by Anton Cropper and written by Channing Powell .
In the episode , Peter Burke ( Tim DeKay ) assigns Neal Caffrey ( Matt Bomer ) to work with his former girlfriend , Sara Ellis ( Hilarie Burton ) , to track down a missing Stradivarius violin . Meanwhile , Peter must deal with the arrival of Elizabeth 's ( Tiffani Thiessen ) parents ( Tom Skerritt and Debra Monk ) , who are in New York for their daughter 's birthday .
According to the Nielsen ratings system , an estimated 2 @.@ 469 million household viewers watched the original broadcast of the episode , with 0 @.@ 8 million in the 18 – 49 demographic . " Pulling Strings " received mostly mixed to positive reviews from critics , with many praising individual elements of the episode .
= = Plot = =
After taking vacation from work to be with his wife – and her parents – on her birthday , Peter turns Neal over to Sara in order to retrieve a missing Stradivarius that she believes was stolen by her former fiancé and current boss , Bryan McKenzie ( Bailey Chase ) . Before beginning work on the case , Neal is approached by Agent Kramer ( Beau Bridges ) , who is in New York to look into Neal ’ s upcoming commutation hearing . Searching McKenzie ’ s apartment , Neal discovers a hidden security tape . Meanwhile , Sara convinces him to attend the symphony with her . With help from June ( Diahann Carroll ) , Neal and Diana Berrigan ( Marsha Thomason ) are able to go to the symphony as well . While they quickly discover that the second @-@ chair violinist is the woman on the security video , McKenzie realizes that Neal is not exactly who he claims to be . While searching backstage , Neal and Diana find a body ; they quickly recognize him as the symphony ’ s instrument expert . Upon questioning the violinist from the security tape , Diana discovers that she had damaged the violin and had given it to the instrument expert for repairs . Sara approaches McKenzie with the information she has , pretending to want to join him . Diana and Neal soon arrive to arrest McKenzie , and Sara tells Neal to “ call [ her ] sometime . ”
Meanwhile , Peter suffers through the arrival of his in @-@ laws . Everything goes wrong at Elizabeth ’ s birthday : her parents give her a much @-@ despised doll from her childhood , Peter ’ s gift to Elizabeth does not turn out the way he had planned , and Elizabeth ’ s father continues to disapprove of Peter . Peter eventually calls upon Mozzie ( Willie Garson ) for assistance , and together they right all of the wrongs .
Agent Kramer returns to the FBI to speak with Diana , who has recently announced her engagement to Christie . Kramer intimidates Diana , learning that she , Peter , and Jones ( Sharif Atkins ) have been covering up Neal ’ s recent crimes .
= = Production = =
On June 20 , 2011 , it was announced that Beau Bridges had been cast as Peter 's mentor ; his first appearance was in " Countdown " , and he returned for " Pulling Strings " . The next month , the casting of Tom Skerritt was announced ; he was reported to play Alan Mitchell , the father of Elizabeth Burke . Bailey Chase 's casting as Bryan McKenzie , a Sterling @-@ Bosch vice president , was announced simultaneously . Debra Monk 's appearance in the series was confirmed simultaneously with the announcement of the fourth season renewal ; while it was not stated which episode she would appear in , it was revealed that she would appear in one of the season 's last six episodes . With this announcement also came news that Diahann Carroll would return to the series in her recurring role as June . " Pulling Strings " was directed by Anton Cropper , his first directing credit for the series . The episode was written by Channing Powell ; it was his fifth writing contribution . Powell has stated that Peter 's reduced role in the episode was due to actor Tim DeKay 's preparation for directing the next episode .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
Upon its premiere , " Pulling Strings " drew 2 @.@ 469 million viewers , which , at the time , was the lowest of the series . The episode drew 0 @.@ 8 million viewers in the 18 – 49 demographic , which was down 0 @.@ 3 and 0 @.@ 2 million from the previous two episodes , " Upper West Side Story " and " Neighborhood Watch " , respectively . The episode ranked 28th in the 18 – 49 demographic for the night , down seventeen places from the previous week .
= = = Reviews = = =
" Pulling Strings " received mostly mixed to positive reviews , with many critics praising Tom Skerritt 's performance , but with many criticizing the use of Hilarie Burton 's character . Kenny Herzog of The A.V. Club gave the episode a B + rating , praising Channing Powell 's writing in a mostly standalone episode . While he complimented Bomer and Garson 's rapport and Garson 's scenes at the Burke home , he stated that Burton 's character " continues to feel just off . " He went on to say that the episode is " once again an example of ... just how good they 've gotten at making White Collar tick . " Hilary Rothing of CraveOnline wrote that she enjoyed the performances of Bridges and Skerritt and that the Burkes ' storyline was " fun " but " still schmaltzy . " She also praised the episode 's use of Burton 's character . Rothing later complimented both the episodic case and Bridges 's story arc ; she ultimately gave the episode a rating of 8 @.@ 5 out of 10 . C. Charles of TV Fanatic called the episode " intriguing " and praised many aspects of " Pulling Strings " , including Bridges and Burton 's reintroductions and the use of Elizabeth 's parents ; Charles rated the episode 4 @.@ 8 out of 5 . Reviewer Gregg Wright gave the episode an 8 out of 10 , elaborating that while the episode " could have easily been an average or sub @-@ par procedural , " it became above @-@ average when all of the elements were combined . He also complimented Carroll 's appearance and Bridges 's performance as a strong antagonist .
Brittany Frederick of Starpulse.com gave the episode a more mediocre review , calling it " lackluster " and mentioning that she has " never felt Hilarie Burton 's chemistry with Matt Bomer . " She did , however , praise the heightened roles of Thomason and Atkins and the introduction of Elizabeth 's parents .
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= Colorado River =
The Colorado River is one of the principal rivers of the Southwestern United States and northern Mexico ( the other being the Rio Grande ) . The 1 @,@ 450 @-@ mile ( 2 @,@ 330 km ) Colorado River drains an expansive , arid watershed that encompasses parts of seven U.S. and two Mexican states . Starting in the central Rocky Mountains in the U.S. , the river flows generally southwest across the Colorado Plateau and through the Grand Canyon before reaching Lake Mead on the Arizona – Nevada border , where it turns south toward the international border . After entering Mexico , the Colorado approaches the large Colorado River Delta at the tip of the Gulf of California between Baja California and Sonora .
Known for its dramatic canyons and whitewater rapids , the Colorado is a vital source of water for agricultural and urban areas in much of the southwestern desert lands of North America . The river and its tributaries are controlled by an extensive system of dams , reservoirs , and aqueducts , which in most years divert its entire flow to furnish irrigation and municipal water supply for almost 40 million people both inside and outside the watershed . The Colorado 's large flow and steep gradient are used for generating hydroelectric power , and its major dams regulate peaking power demands in much of the Intermountain West . This intensive consumption has dried up the lower 100 miles ( 160 km ) of the river , such that it has reached the sea only a few times since the 1960s .
Beginning with small bands of nomadic hunter @-@ gatherers , Native Americans have inhabited the Colorado River basin for at least 8 @,@ 000 years . Between 2 @,@ 000 and 1 @,@ 000 years ago , the river and its tributaries fostered large agricultural civilizations , which may have been some of the most sophisticated indigenous cultures in North America . These societies are believed to have collapsed because of a combination of severe drought and poor land use practices . Most native peoples that inhabit the basin today are descended from other groups that settled in the region beginning about 1 @,@ 000 years ago . Europeans first entered the Colorado Basin in the 16th century , when explorers from Spain began mapping and claiming the area , which later became part of Mexico upon its independence in 1821 . Early contact between foreigners and natives was generally limited to the fur trade in the headwaters and sporadic trade interactions along the lower river .
After the greater Colorado River basin became part of the U.S. in 1846 , the bulk of the river 's course was still largely the subject of myths and speculation . Several expeditions charted the Colorado in the mid @-@ 19th century , one of which , led by John Wesley Powell in 1869 , was the first to run the rapids of the Grand Canyon . American explorers collected valuable information that would later be used to develop the river for navigation and water supply . Large @-@ scale settlement of the lower basin began in the mid- to late @-@ 19th century , with steamboats providing transportation from the Gulf of California to landings along the Colorado River that linked to wagon roads into the interior of New Mexico Territory . Lesser numbers settled in the upper basin , which was the scene of major gold strikes in the 1860s and 1870s .
Major engineering of the river basin began around the start of the 20th century , with many guidelines established in a series of domestic and international treaties known as the " Law of the River " . The U.S. federal government was the main driving force behind the construction of hydraulic engineering projects in the river system , although many state and local water agencies were also involved . Most of the major dams in the river basin were built between 1910 and 1970 , and the system keystone , Hoover Dam , was completed in 1935 . The Colorado is now considered among the most controlled and litigated rivers in the world , with every drop of its water fully allocated .
The damming and diversion of the Colorado River system have been opposed by the environmental movement in the American Southwest because of the detrimental effect on the ecology and natural beauty of the river and its tributaries . During the construction of Glen Canyon Dam , environmental organizations vowed to block any further development of the river , and a number of later dam and aqueduct proposals were defeated by citizen opposition . As demands for Colorado River water continue to rise , the level of human development and control of the river continues to generate controversy .
= = Course = =
The Colorado begins at La Poudre Pass in the Southern Rocky Mountains of Colorado , at just under 2 miles ( 3 km ) above sea level . After a short run south , the river turns west below Grand Lake , the largest natural lake in the state . For the first 250 miles ( 400 km ) of its course , the Colorado carves its way through the mountainous Western Slope , a sparsely populated region defined by the portion of the state west of the Continental Divide . As it flows southwest , it gains strength from many small tributaries , as well as larger ones including the Blue , Eagle and Roaring Fork rivers . After passing through De Beque Canyon , the Colorado emerges from the Rockies into the Grand Valley , a major farming and ranching region where it meets one of its largest tributaries , the Gunnison River , at Grand Junction . Most of the upper river is a swift whitewater stream ranging from 200 to 500 feet ( 60 to 150 m ) wide , the depth ranging from 6 to 30 feet ( 2 to 9 m ) , with a few notable exceptions , such as the Blackrocks reach where the river is nearly 100 feet ( 30 m ) deep . In a few areas , such as the marshy Kawuneeche Valley near the headwaters and the Grand Valley , it exhibits braided characteristics .
Arcing northwest , the Colorado begins to cut across the eponymous Colorado Plateau , a vast area of high desert centered at the Four Corners of the southwestern United States . Here , the climate becomes significantly drier than that in the Rocky Mountains , and the river becomes entrenched in progressively deeper gorges of bare rock , beginning with Ruby Canyon and then Westwater Canyon as it enters Utah , now once again heading southwest . Farther downstream it receives the Dolores River and defines the southern border of Arches National Park , before passing Moab and flowing through " The Portal " , where it exits the Moab Valley between a pair of 1 @,@ 000 @-@ foot ( 300 m ) sandstone cliffs .
In Utah , the Colorado flows primarily through the " slickrock " country , which is characterized by its narrow canyons and unique " folds " created by the tilting of sedimentary rock layers along faults . This is one of the most inaccessible regions of the continental United States . Below the confluence with the Green River , its largest tributary , in Canyonlands National Park , the Colorado enters Cataract Canyon , named for its dangerous rapids , and then Glen Canyon , known for its arches and erosion @-@ sculpted Navajo sandstone formations . Here , the San Juan River , carrying runoff from the southern slope of Colorado 's San Juan Mountains , joins the Colorado from the east . The Colorado then enters northern Arizona , where since the 1960s Glen Canyon Dam near Page has flooded the Glen Canyon reach of the river , forming Lake Powell for water supply and hydroelectricity generation .
In Arizona , the river passes Lee 's Ferry , an important crossing for early explorers and settlers and since the early 20th century the principal point where Colorado River flows are measured for apportionment to the seven U.S. and two Mexican states in the basin . Downstream , the river enters Marble Canyon , the beginning of the Grand Canyon , passing under the Navajo Bridges on a now southward course . Below the confluence with the Little Colorado River , the river swings west into Granite Gorge , the most dramatic portion of the Grand Canyon , where the river cuts up to one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) into the Colorado Plateau , exposing some of the oldest visible rocks on Earth , dating as long ago as 2 billion years . The 277 miles ( 446 km ) of the river that flow through the Grand Canyon are largely encompassed by Grand Canyon National Park and are known for their difficult whitewater , separated by pools that reach up to 110 feet ( 34 m ) in depth .
At the lower end of Grand Canyon , the Colorado widens into Lake Mead , the largest reservoir in the continental United States , formed by Hoover Dam on the border of Arizona and Nevada . Situated southeast of metropolitan Las Vegas , the dam is an integral component for management of the Colorado River , controlling floods and storing water for farms and cities in the lower Colorado River basin . Below the dam the river passes under the Mike O 'Callaghan – Pat Tillman Memorial Bridge – which at nearly 900 feet ( 270 m ) above the water is the highest concrete arch bridge in the Western Hemisphere – and then turns due south towards Mexico , defining the Arizona – Nevada and Arizona – California borders .
After leaving the confines of the Black Canyon , the river emerges from the Colorado Plateau into the Lower Colorado River Valley ( LCRV ) , a desert region dependent on irrigation agriculture and tourism and also home to several major Indian reservations . The river widens here to a broad , moderately deep waterway averaging 500 to 1 @,@ 000 feet ( 150 to 300 m ) wide and reaching up to 1 ⁄ 4 mile ( 400 m ) across , with depths ranging from 8 to 60 feet ( 2 to 20 m ) . Before channelization of the Colorado in the 20th century , the lower river was subject to frequent course changes caused by seasonal flow variations . Joseph C. Ives , who surveyed the lower river in 1861 , wrote that " the shifting of the channel , the banks , the islands , the bars is so continual and rapid that a detailed description , derived from the experiences of one trip , would be found incorrect , not only during the subsequent year , but perhaps in the course of a week , or even a day . "
The LCRV is one of the most densely populated areas along the river , and there are numerous towns including Bullhead City , Arizona , Needles , California , and Lake Havasu City , Arizona . Here , many diversions draw from the river , providing water for both local uses and distant regions including the Salt River Valley of Arizona and metropolitan Southern California . The last major U.S. diversion is at Imperial Dam , where over 90 percent of the river 's remaining flow is moved into the All @-@ American Canal to irrigate California 's Imperial Valley , the most productive winter agricultural region in the United States .
Below Imperial Dam , only a small portion of the Colorado River makes it beyond Yuma , Arizona , and the confluence with the intermittent Gila River – which carries runoff from western New Mexico and most of Arizona – before defining about 24 miles ( 39 km ) of the Mexico – United States border . At Morelos Dam , the entire remaining flow of the Colorado is diverted to irrigate the Mexicali Valley , among Mexico 's most fertile agricultural lands . Below San Luis Río Colorado , the Colorado passes entirely into Mexico , defining the Baja California – Sonora border ; in most years , the stretch of the Colorado between here and the Gulf of California is dry or a trickle formed by irrigation return flows . The Hardy River provides most of the flow into the Colorado River Delta , a vast alluvial floodplain covering about 3 @,@ 000 square miles ( 7 @,@ 800 km2 ) of northwestern Mexico . A large estuary is formed here before the Colorado empties into the Gulf about 75 miles ( 120 km ) south of Yuma . Before 20th @-@ century development dewatered the lower Colorado , a major tidal bore was present in the delta and estuary ; the first historical record was made by the Croatian missionary in Spanish service Father Ferdinand Konščak on July 18 , 1746 . During spring tide conditions , the tidal bore – locally called El Burro – formed in the estuary about Montague Island in Baja California and propagated upstream .
= = = Major tributaries = = =
The Colorado is joined by over 25 significant tributaries , of which the Green River is the largest by both length and discharge . The Green takes drainage from the Wind River Range of west @-@ central Wyoming , from Utah 's Uinta Mountains , and from the Rockies of northwestern Colorado . The Gila River is the second longest and drains a greater area than the Green , but has a significantly lower flow because of a more arid climate and larger diversions for irrigation and cities . Both the Gunnison and San Juan rivers , which derive most of their water from Rocky Mountains snowmelt , contribute more water than the Gila did naturally .
= = Discharge = =
In its natural state , the Colorado River poured about 16 @.@ 3 million acre feet ( 20 @.@ 1 km3 ) into the Gulf of California each year , amounting to an average flow rate of 22 @,@ 500 cubic feet per second ( 640 m3 / s ) . Its flow regime was not at all steady – indeed , " prior to the construction of federal dams and reservoirs , the Colorado was a river of extremes like no other in the United States . " Once , the river reached peaks of more than 100 @,@ 000 cubic feet per second ( 2 @,@ 800 m3 / s ) in the summer and low flows of less than 2 @,@ 500 cubic feet per second ( 71 m3 / s ) in the winter annually . At Topock , Arizona , about 300 miles ( 480 km ) upstream from the Gulf , a maximum historical discharge of 384 @,@ 000 cubic feet per second ( 10 @,@ 900 m3 / s ) was recorded in 1884 and a minimum of 422 cubic feet per second ( 11 @.@ 9 m3 / s ) was recorded in 1935 . In contrast , the regulated discharge rates on the lower Colorado below Hoover Dam rarely exceed 35 @,@ 000 cubic feet per second ( 990 m3 / s ) or drop below 4 @,@ 000 cubic feet per second ( 110 m3 / s ) . Annual runoff volume has ranged from a high of 22 @.@ 2 million acre feet ( 27 @.@ 4 km3 ) in 1984 to a low of 3 @.@ 8 million acre feet ( 4 @.@ 7 km3 ) in 2002 , although in most years only a small portion of this flow , if any , reaches the Gulf .
Between 85 and 90 percent of the Colorado River 's discharge originates in snowmelt , mostly from the Rocky Mountains of Colorado and Wyoming . The three major upper tributaries of the Colorado – the Gunnison , Green , and San Juan – alone deliver almost 9 million acre feet ( 11 km3 ) per year to the main stem , mostly from snowmelt . The remaining 10 to 15 percent comes from a variety of sources , principally groundwater base flow and summer monsoon storms . The latter often produces heavy , highly localized floods on lower tributaries of the river , but does not often contribute significant volumes of runoff . Most of the annual runoff in the basin occurs with the melting of Rocky Mountains snowpack , which begins in April and peaks during May and June before exhausting in late July or early August .
Flows at the mouth have steadily declined since the beginning of the 20th century , and in most years after 1960 the Colorado River has run dry before reaching the sea . Irrigation , industrial , and municipal diversions , evaporation from reservoirs , natural runoff , and likely climate change have all contributed to this substantial reduction in flow , threatening the future water supply . For example , the Gila River – formerly one of the Colorado 's largest tributaries – contributes little more than a trickle in most years due to use of its water by cities and farms in central Arizona . The average flow rate of the Colorado at the northernmost point of the Mexico – United States border ( NIB , or Northerly International Boundary ) is about 2 @,@ 060 cubic feet per second ( 58 m3 / s ) , 1 @.@ 49 million acre feet ( 1 @.@ 84 km3 ) per year – less than a 10th of the natural flow – due to upstream water use . Below here , all of the remaining flow is diverted to irrigate the Mexicali Valley , leaving a dry riverbed from Morelos Dam to the sea that is supplemented by intermittent flows of irrigation drainage water . There have been exceptions , however , namely in the early to mid @-@ 1980s , when the Colorado once again reached the sea during several consecutive years of record @-@ breaking precipitation and snowmelt . In 1984 , so much excess runoff occurred that some 16 @.@ 5 million acre feet ( 20 @.@ 4 km3 ) , or 22 @,@ 860 cubic feet per second ( 647 m3 / s ) , poured into the sea .
The United States Geological Survey ( USGS ) operates or has operated 46 stream gauges to measure the discharge of the Colorado River , ranging from the headwaters near Grand Lake to the Mexico – U.S. border . The tables at right list data associated with eight of these gauges . River flows as gauged at Lee 's Ferry , Arizona , about halfway along the length of the Colorado and 16 miles ( 26 km ) below Glen Canyon Dam , are used to determine water allocations in the Colorado River basin . The average discharge recorded there was approximately 14 @,@ 800 cubic feet per second ( 420 m3 / s ) , 10 @.@ 72 million acre feet ( 13 @.@ 22 km3 ) per year , from 1921 to 2010 . This figure has been heavily affected by upstream diversions and reservoir evaporation , especially after the completion of the Colorado River Storage Project in the 1970s . Prior to the completion of Glen Canyon Dam in 1964 , the average discharge recorded between 1912 and 1962 was 17 @,@ 850 cubic feet per second ( 505 m3 / s ) , 12 @.@ 93 million acre feet ( 15 @.@ 95 km3 ) per year .
= = Watershed = =
The drainage basin or watershed of the Colorado River encompasses 246 @,@ 000 square miles ( 640 @,@ 000 km2 ) of southwestern North America , making it the seventh largest on the continent . About 238 @,@ 600 square miles ( 618 @,@ 000 km2 ) , or 97 percent of the watershed , is in the United States . The river and its tributaries drain most of western Colorado and New Mexico , southwestern Wyoming , eastern and southern Utah , southeastern Nevada and California , and nearly all of Arizona . The areas drained within Baja California and Sonora are very small and do not contribute measurable runoff . Most of the basin is arid , defined by the Sonoran and Mojave deserts and the expanse of the Colorado Plateau , although significant expanses of forest are found in the Rocky Mountains ; the Kaibab , Aquarius , and Markagunt plateaus in southern Utah and northern Arizona ; the Mogollon Rim through central Arizona ; and other smaller mountain ranges and sky islands . Elevations range from sea level at the Gulf of California to 14 @,@ 321 feet ( 4 @,@ 365 m ) at the summit of Uncompahgre Peak in Colorado , with an average of 5 @,@ 500 feet ( 1 @,@ 700 m ) across the entire basin .
Climate varies widely across the watershed . Mean monthly high temperatures are 25 @.@ 3 ° C ( 77 @.@ 5 ° F ) in the upper basin and 33 @.@ 4 ° C ( 92 @.@ 1 ° F ) in the lower basin , and lows average − 3 @.@ 6 and 8 @.@ 9 ° C ( 25 @.@ 5 and 48 @.@ 0 ° F ) , respectively . Annual precipitation averages 6 @.@ 5 inches ( 164 mm ) , ranging from over 40 inches ( 1 @,@ 000 mm ) in some areas of the Rockies to just 0 @.@ 6 inches ( 15 mm ) along the Mexican reach of the river . The upper basin generally receives snow and rain during the winter and early spring , while precipitation in the lower basin falls mainly during intense but infrequent summer thunderstorms brought on by the North American Monsoon .
As of 2010 , approximately 12 @.@ 7 million people lived in the Colorado River basin . Phoenix in Arizona and Las Vegas in Nevada are the largest metropolitan areas in the watershed . Population densities are also high along the lower Colorado River below Davis Dam , which includes Bullhead City , Lake Havasu City , and Yuma . Other significant population centers in the basin include Tucson , Arizona ; St. George , Utah ; and Grand Junction , Colorado . Colorado River basin states are among the fastest @-@ growing in the U.S. ; the population of Nevada alone increased by about 66 percent between 1990 and 2000 as Arizona grew by some 40 percent .
The Colorado River basin shares drainage boundaries with many other major watersheds of North America . The Continental Divide of the Americas forms a large portion of the eastern boundary of the watershed , separating it from the basins of the Yellowstone River and the Platte River – both tributaries of the Missouri River – on the northeast , and from the headwaters of the Arkansas River on the east . Both the Missouri and Arkansas rivers are part of the Mississippi River system . Further south , the Colorado River basin borders on the Rio Grande drainage , which along with the Mississippi flows to the Gulf of Mexico , as well as a series of endorheic ( closed ) drainage basins in southwestern New Mexico and extreme southeastern Arizona .
For a short stretch , the Colorado watershed meets the drainage basin of the Snake River , a tributary of the Columbia River , in the Wind River Range of western Wyoming . Southwest of there , the northern divide of the Colorado watershed skirts the edge of the Great Basin , bordering on the closed drainage basins of the Great Salt Lake and the Sevier River in central Utah , and other closed basins in southern Utah and Nevada . To the west in California , the Colorado River watershed borders on those of small closed basins in the Mojave Desert , the largest of which is the Salton Sea drainage north of the Colorado River Delta . On the south , the watersheds of the Sonoyta , Concepción , and Yaqui rivers , all of which drain to the Gulf of California , border that of the Colorado .
= = Geology = =
As recently as the Cretaceous period 100 million years ago , much of western North America was still part of the Pacific Ocean . Tectonic forces from the collision of the Farallon Plate with the North American Plate pushed up the Rocky Mountains between 75 and 50 million years ago in a mountain @-@ building episode known as the Laramide orogeny . The Colorado first formed as a west @-@ flowing stream draining the southwestern portion of the range , and the uplift also diverted the Green River from its original course to the Mississippi River west towards the Colorado . About 30 to 20 million years ago , volcanic activity related to the orogeny led to the Mid @-@ Tertiary ignimbrite flare @-@ up , which created smaller formations such as the Chiricahua Mountains in Arizona and deposited massive amounts of volcanic ash and debris over the watershed . The Colorado Plateau first began to rise during the Eocene , between about 55 and 34 million years ago , but did not attain its present height until about 5 million years ago , about when the Colorado River established its present course into the Gulf of California .
The time scale and sequence over which the river 's present course and the Grand Canyon were formed is uncertain . Before the Gulf of California was formed around 12 to 5 million years ago by faulting processes along the boundary of the North American and Pacific plates , the Colorado flowed west to an outlet on the Pacific Ocean – possibly Monterey Bay on the Central California coast , forming the Monterey submarine canyon . The uplift of the Sierra Nevada mountains began about 4 @.@ 5 million years ago , diverting the Colorado southwards towards the Gulf . As the Colorado Plateau continued to rise between 5 and 2 @.@ 5 million years ago , the river maintained its ancestral course ( as an antecedent stream ) and began to cut the Grand Canyon . Antecedence played a major part in shaping other peculiar geographic features in the watershed , including the Dolores River 's bisection of Paradox Valley in Colorado and the Green River 's cut through the Uinta Mountains in Utah .
Sediments carried from the plateau by the Colorado River created a vast delta made of more than 10 @,@ 000 cubic miles ( 42 @,@ 000 km3 ) of material that walled off the northernmost part of the gulf in approximately 1 million years . Cut off from the ocean , the portion of the gulf north of the delta eventually evaporated and formed the Salton Sink , which reached about 260 feet ( 79 m ) below sea level . Since then the river has changed course into the Salton Sink at least three times , transforming it into Lake Cahuilla , which at maximum size flooded up the valley to present @-@ day Indio , California . The lake took about 50 years to evaporate after the Colorado resumed flowing to the Gulf . The present @-@ day Salton Sea can be considered the most recent incarnation of Lake Cahuilla , though on a much smaller scale .
Between 1 @.@ 8 million and 10 @,@ 000 years ago , massive flows of basalt from the Uinkaret volcanic field in northern Arizona dammed the Colorado River within the Grand Canyon . At least 13 lava dams were formed , the largest of which was more than 2 @,@ 300 feet ( 700 m ) high , backing the river up for nearly 500 miles ( 800 km ) to present @-@ day Moab , Utah . The lack of associated sediment deposits along this stretch of the Colorado River , which would have accumulated in the impounded lakes over time , suggests that most of these dams did not survive for more than a few decades before collapsing or being washed away . Failure of the lava dams caused by erosion , leaks and cavitation caused catastrophic floods , which may have been some of the largest ever to occur in North America , rivaling the late @-@ Pleistocene Missoula Floods of the northwestern United States . Mapping of flood deposits indicate that crests as high as 700 feet ( 210 m ) passed through the Grand Canyon , reaching peak discharges as great as 17 million cubic feet per second ( 480 @,@ 000 m3 / s ) .
= = History = =
= = = Indigenous peoples = = =
The first humans of the Colorado River basin were likely Paleo @-@ Indians of the Clovis and Folsom cultures , who first arrived on the Colorado Plateau about 12 @,@ 000 years ago . Very little human activity occurred in the watershed until the rise of the Desert Archaic Culture , which from 8 @,@ 000 to 2 @,@ 000 years ago constituted most of the region 's human population . These prehistoric inhabitants led a generally nomadic lifestyle , gathering plants and hunting small animals ( though some of the earliest peoples hunted larger mammals that became extinct in North America after the end of the Pleistocene epoch ) . Another notable early group was the Fremont culture , whose peoples inhabited the Colorado Plateau from 2 @,@ 000 to 700 years ago . The Fremont were likely the first peoples of the Colorado River basin to domesticate crops and construct masonry dwellings ; they also left behind a large amount of rock art and petroglyphs , many of which have survived to the present day .
Beginning in the early centuries A.D. , Colorado River basin peoples began to form large agriculture @-@ based societies , some of which lasted hundreds of years and grew into well @-@ organized civilizations encompassing tens of thousands of inhabitants . The Ancient Puebloan ( also known as Anasazi or Hisatsinom ) people of the Four Corners region were descended from the Desert Archaic culture . The Anasazi people developed a complex distribution system to supply drinking and irrigation water in Chaco Canyon in northwestern New Mexico .
The Puebloans dominated the basin of the San Juan River , and the center of their civilization was in Chaco Canyon . In Chaco Canyon and the surrounding lands , they built more than 150 multi @-@ story pueblos or " great houses " , the largest of which , Pueblo Bonito , is composed of more than 600 rooms . The Hohokam culture was present along the middle Gila River beginning around 1 A.D. Between 600 and 700 A.D. they began to employ irrigation on a large scale , and did so more prolifically than any other native group in the Colorado River basin . An extensive system of irrigation canals was constructed on the Gila and Salt rivers , with various estimates of a total length ranging from 180 to 300 miles ( 290 to 480 km ) and capable of irrigating 25 @,@ 000 to 250 @,@ 000 acres ( 10 @,@ 000 to 101 @,@ 000 ha ) . Both civilizations supported large populations at their height ; the Chaco Canyon Puebloans numbered between 6 @,@ 000 and 15 @,@ 000 and estimates for the Hohokam range between 30 @,@ 000 and 200 @,@ 000 .
These sedentary peoples heavily exploited their surroundings , practicing logging and harvesting of other resources on a large scale . The construction of irrigation canals may have led to a significant change in the morphology of many waterways in the Colorado River basin . Prior to human contact , rivers such as the Gila , Salt and Chaco were shallow perennial streams with low , vegetated banks and large floodplains . In time , flash floods caused significant downcutting on irrigation canals , which in turn led to the entrenchment of the original streams into arroyos , making agriculture difficult . A variety of methods were employed to combat these problems , including the construction of large dams , but when a megadrought hit the region in the 14th century A.D. the ancient civilizations of the Colorado River basin abruptly collapsed . Some Puebloans migrated to the Rio Grande Valley of central New Mexico and south @-@ central Colorado , becoming the predecessors of the Hopi , Zuni , Laguna and Acoma people in western New Mexico . Many of the tribes that inhabited the Colorado River basin at the time of European contact were descended from Puebloan and Hohokam survivors , while others already had a long history of living in the region or migrated in from bordering lands .
The Navajo were an Athabaskan people who migrated from the north into the Colorado River basin around 1025 A.D. They soon established themselves as the dominant Native American tribe in the Colorado River basin , and their territory stretched over parts of present @-@ day Arizona , New Mexico , Utah and Colorado – in the original homelands of the Puebloans . In fact , the Navajo acquired agricultural skills from the Puebloans before the collapse of the Pueblo civilization in the 14th century . A profusion of other tribes have made a continued , lasting presence along the Colorado River . The Mohave have lived along the rich bottomlands of the lower Colorado below Black Canyon since 1200 A.D. They were fishermen – navigating the river on rafts made of reeds to catch Gila trout and Colorado pikeminnow – and farmers , relying on the annual floods of the river rather than irrigation to water their crops . Ute peoples have inhabited the northern Colorado River basin , mainly in present @-@ day Colorado , Wyoming and Utah , for at least 2 @,@ 000 years , but did not become well established in the Four Corners area until 1500 A.D. The Apache , Maricopa , Pima , Havasupai and Hualapai are among many other groups that lived along or had territories bordering on the Colorado River and its tributaries .
Beginning in the 17th century , contact with Europeans brought significant changes to the lifestyles of Native Americans in the Colorado River basin . Missionaries sought to convert indigenous peoples to Christianity – an effort sometimes successful , such as in Father Eusebio Francisco Kino 's 1694 encounter with the " docile Pimas of the Gila Valley [ who ] readily accepted Father Kino and his Christian teachings " . The Spanish introduced sheep and goats to the Navajo , who came to rely heavily on them for meat , milk and wool . By the mid @-@ 16th century , the Utes , having acquired horses from the Spanish , introduced them to the Colorado River basin . The use of horses spread through the basin via trade between the various tribes and greatly facilitated hunting , communications and travel for indigenous peoples . More warlike groups such as the Utes and Navajos often used horses to their advantage in raids against tribes that were slower to adopt them , such as the Goshutes and Southern Paiutes .
The gradual influx of European and American explorers , fortune seekers and settlers into the region eventually led to conflicts that forced many Native Americans off their traditional lands . After the acquisition of the Colorado River basin from Mexico in the Mexican – American War in 1846 , U.S. military forces commanded by Kit Carson forced more than 8 @,@ 000 Navajo men , women and children from their homes after a series of unsuccessful attempts to confine their territory , many of which were met with violent resistance . In what is now known as the Long Walk of the Navajo , the captives were marched from Arizona to Fort Sumner in New Mexico , and many died along the route . Four years later , the Navajo signed a treaty that moved them onto a reservation in the Four Corners region that is now known as the Navajo Nation . It is the largest Native American reservation in the United States , encompassing 27 @,@ 000 square miles ( 70 @,@ 000 km2 ) with a population of over 180 @,@ 000 as of 2000 .
The Mohave were expelled from their territory after a series of minor skirmishes and raids on wagon trains passing through the area in the late 1850s , culminating in an 1859 battle with American forces that concluded the Mohave War . In 1870 , the Mohave were relocated to a reservation at Fort Mojave , which spans the borders of Arizona , California and Nevada . Some Mohave were also moved to the 432 @-@ square @-@ mile ( 1 @,@ 120 km2 ) Colorado River Indian Reservation on the Arizona – California border , originally established for the Mohave and Chemehuevi people in 1865 . In the 1940s , some Hopi and Navajo people were also relocated to this reservation . The four tribes now form a geopolitical body known as the Colorado River Indian Tribes .
Water rights of Native Americans in the Colorado River basin were largely ignored during the extensive water resources development carried out on the river and its tributaries in the 19th and 20th centuries . The construction of dams has often had negative impacts on tribal peoples , such as the Chemehuevi when their riverside lands were flooded after the completion of Parker Dam in 1938 . Ten Native American tribes in the basin now hold or continue to claim water rights to the Colorado River . The U.S. government has taken some actions to help quantify and develop the water resources of Native American reservations . The first federally funded irrigation project in the U.S. was the construction of an irrigation canal on the Colorado River Indian Reservation in 1867 . Other water projects include the Navajo Indian Irrigation Project , authorized in 1962 for the irrigation of lands in part of the Navajo Nation in north @-@ central New Mexico . The Navajo continue to seek expansion of their water rights because of difficulties with the water supply on their reservation ; about 40 percent of its inhabitants must haul water by truck many miles to their homes . In the 21st century , they have filed legal claims against the governments of Arizona , New Mexico and Utah for increased water rights . Some of these claims have been successful for the Navajo , such as a 2004 settlement in which they received a 326 @,@ 000 @-@ acre @-@ foot ( 402 @,@ 000 ML ) allotment from New Mexico .
= = = Early explorers = = =
During the 16th century , the Spanish began to explore and colonize western North America . An early motive was the search for the Seven Cities of Gold , or " Cibola " , rumored to have been built by Native Americans somewhere in the desert Southwest . According to a United States Geological Survey publication , it is likely that Francisco de Ulloa was the first European to see the Colorado River when in 1536 he sailed to the head of the Gulf of California . Francisco Vásquez de Coronado 's 1540 – 1542 expedition began as a search for the fabled Cities of Gold , but after learning from natives in New Mexico of a large river to the west , he sent García López de Cárdenas to lead a small contingent to find it . With the guidance of Hopi Indians , Cárdenas and his men became the first outsiders to see the Grand Canyon . Cárdenas was reportedly unimpressed with the canyon , assuming the width of the Colorado River at 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) and estimating 300 @-@ foot ( 91 m ) -tall rock formations to be the size of a man . After failing at an attempt to descend to the river , they left the area , defeated by the difficult terrain and torrid weather .
In 1540 , Hernando de Alarcón and his fleet reached the mouth of the river , intending to provide additional supplies to Coronado 's expedition . Alarcón may have sailed the Colorado as far upstream as the present @-@ day California – Arizona border . Coronado never reached the Gulf of California , and Alarcón eventually gave up and left . Melchior Díaz reached the delta in the same year , intending to establish contact with Alarcón , but the latter was already gone by the time of Díaz 's arrival . Díaz named the Colorado River Rio del Tizon ( " Firebrand River " ) after seeing a practice used by the local natives for warming themselves . The name Tizon lasted for the next 200 years , while the name Rio Colorado ( " Red River " ) was first applied to a tributary of the Gila River , possibly the Verde River , circa 1720 . The first known map to label the main stem as the Colorado was drawn by French cartographer Jacques @-@ Nicolas Bellin in 1743 .
During the 18th and early 19th centuries , many Americans and Spanish believed in the existence of the Buenaventura River , purported to run from the Rocky Mountains in Utah or Colorado to the Pacific Ocean . The name Buenaventura was given to the Green River by Silvestre Vélez de Escalante as early as 1776 , but Escalante did not know that the Green drained to the Colorado . Many later maps showed the headwaters of the Green and Colorado rivers connecting with the Sevier River ( Rio San Ysabel ) and Utah Lake ( Lake Timpanogos ) before flowing west through the Sierra Nevada into California . Mountain man Jedediah Smith reached the lower Colorado by way of the Virgin River canyon in 1826 . Smith called the Colorado the " Seedskeedee " , as the Green River in Wyoming was known to fur trappers , correctly believing it to be a continuation of the Green and not a separate river as others believed under the Buenaventura myth . John C. Frémont 's 1843 Great Basin expedition proved that no river traversed the Great Basin and Sierra Nevada , officially debunking the Buenaventura myth .
In 1857 , Lieutenant Joseph C. Ives led an expedition to explore the feasibility of using the Colorado River as a navigation route in the Southwest . Ives and his men used a specially built steamboat , the shallow @-@ draft U.S.S. Explorer , and traveled up the river as far as Black Canyon on what is now the Arizona – Nevada border . After experiencing numerous groundings and accidents and having been inhibited by low water in the river , Ives declared : " Ours has been the first , and will doubtless be the last , party of whites to visit this profitless locality . It seems intended by nature that the Colorado River , along the greater portion of its lonely and majestic way , shall be forever unvisited and undisturbed . "
Up until the mid @-@ 19th century , long stretches of the Colorado and Green rivers between Wyoming and Nevada remained largely unexplored due to their remote location and dangers of navigation . Because of the dramatic drop in elevation of the two rivers , there were rumors of huge waterfalls and violent rapids , and Native American tales strengthened their credibility . In 1869 , one @-@ armed Civil War veteran John Wesley Powell led an expedition from Green River Station in Wyoming , aiming to run the two rivers all the way down to St. Thomas , Nevada , near present @-@ day Hoover Dam . Powell and nine men – none of whom had prior whitewater experience – set out in May . After braving the rapids of the Gates of Lodore , Cataract Canyon and other gorges along the Colorado , the party arrived at the mouth of the Little Colorado River , where Powell noted down arguably the most famous words ever written about the Grand Canyon of the Colorado :
We are now ready to start on our way down the Great Unknown . Our boats , tied to a common stake , are chafing each other , as they are tossed by the fretful river . They ride high and buoyant , for their loads are lighter than we could desire . We have but a month 's rations remaining . The flour has been re @-@ sifted through the mosquito net sieve ; the spoiled bacon has been dried , and the worst of it boiled ; the few pounds of dried apples have been spread in the sun , and re @-@ shrunken to their normal bulk ; the sugar has all melted , and gone on its way down the river ; but we have a large sack of coffee . The lighting of the boats has this advantage : they will ride the waves better , and we shall have little to carry when we make a portage .
We are three @-@ quarters of a mile in the depths of the earth , and the great river shrinks into insignificance , as it dashes its angry waves against the walls and cliffs , that rise to the world above ; they are but puny ripples , and we but pigmies , running up and down the sands , or lost among the boulders .
We have an unknown distance yet to run ; an unknown river yet to explore . What falls there are , we know not ; what rocks beset the channel , we know not ; what walls rise over the river , we know not ; Ah , well ! we may conjecture many things . The men talk as cheerfully as ever ; jests are bandied about freely this morning ; but to me the cheer is somber and the jests are ghastly .
On August 28 , 1869 , three men deserted the expedition , convinced that they could not possibly survive the trip through the Grand Canyon . They were killed by either Native Americans or Mormon settlers after making it to the rim of the canyon ; two days later , the expedition ran the last of the Grand Canyon rapids and reached St. Thomas . Powell led a second expedition in 1871 , this time with financial backing from the U.S. government . The explorers named many features along the Colorado and Green rivers , including Glen Canyon , the Dirty Devil River , Flaming Gorge , and the Gates of Lodore . In what is perhaps a twist of irony , modern @-@ day Lake Powell , which floods Glen Canyon , is also named for their leader .
= = = American settlement = = =
During the Manifest Destiny era of the mid @-@ 19th century , American pioneers settled many western states but generally avoided the Colorado River basin until the 1850s . Under Brigham Young 's grand vision for a " vast empire in the desert " , ( the State of Deseret ) Mormon settlers were among the first whites to establish a permanent presence in the watershed , Fort Clara or Fort Santa Clara , in the winter of 1855 @-@ 1856 along the Santa Clara River , tributary of the Virgin River . In 1860 , anticipating the American Civil War , the Mormons established a number of settlements to grow cotton along the Virgin River in Washington County , Utah . From 1863 to 1865 , Mormon colonists founded St. Thomas and other colonies on the Muddy and Virgin rivers in northwestern Arizona Territory , ( now Clark County , Nevada ) . Stone 's Ferry was established by these colonists on the Colorado at the mouth of the Virgin River to carry their produce on a wagon road to the mining districts of Mohave County , Arizona to the south . Also , in 1866 , a steamboat landing was established at Callville , intended as an outlet to the Pacific Ocean via the Colorado River , for Mormon settlements in the Great Basin . These settlements reached a peak population of about 600 before being abandoned in 1871 , and for nearly a decade these valleys became a haven for outlaws and cattle rustlers . One Mormon settler Daniel Bonelli , remained , operating the ferry and began mining salt in nearby mines , bring it in barges , down river to El Dorado Canyon where it was used to process silver ore . From 1879 to 1887 , Colorado Steam Navigation Company steamboats carried the salt , operating up river in the high spring flood waters , through Boulder Canyon , to the landing at Rioville at the mouth of the Virgin River . From 1879 to 1882 the Southwestern Mining Company , largest in El Dorado Canyon , brought in a 56 @-@ foot sloop the Sou 'Wester that sailed up and down river carrying the salt in the low water time of year until it was wrecked in the Quick and Dirty Rapids of Black Canyon .
Mormons founded the settlement of Vernal along the Green River in Utah in 1878 , and populated the Little Colorado River valley later in the century , creating towns such as St. Johns , Arizona . They also established settlements along the Gila River in central Arizona beginning in 1871 . These early settlers were impressed by the extensive ruins of the Hohokam civilization that previously occupied the Gila River valley , and are said to have " envisioned their new agricultural civilization rising as the mythical phoenix bird from the ashes of Hohokam society " . The Mormons were the first whites to develop the water resources of the basin on a large scale , and built complex networks of dams and canals to irrigate wheat , oats and barley in addition to establishing extensive sheep and cattle ranches .
One of the main reasons the Mormons were able to colonize Arizona was the existence of Jacob Hamblin 's ferry across the Colorado at Lee 's Ferry ( then known as Pahreah Crossing ) , which began running in March 1864 . This location was the only section of river for hundreds of miles in both directions where the canyon walls dropped away , allowing for the development of a transport route . John Doyle Lee established a more permanent ferry system at the site in 1870 . One reason Lee chose to run the ferry was to flee from Mormon leaders who held him responsible for the Mountain Meadows Massacre , in which 120 emigrants in a wagon train were killed by a local militia disguised as Native Americans . Even though it was located along a major travel route , Lee 's Ferry was very isolated , and there Lee and his family established the aptly named Lonely Dell Ranch . In 1928 , the ferry sank , resulting in the deaths of three men . Later that year , the Navajo Bridge was completed at a point 5 miles ( 8 km ) downstream , rendering the ferry obsolete .
Gold strikes from the mid @-@ 19th to early 20th centuries played a major role in attracting settlers to the upper Colorado River basin . In 1859 , a group of adventurers from Georgia discovered gold along the Blue River in Colorado and established the mining boomtown of Breckenridge . During 1875 , even bigger strikes were made along the Uncompahgre and San Miguel rivers , also in Colorado , and these led to the creation of Ouray and Telluride , respectively . Because most gold deposits along the upper Colorado River and its tributaries occur in lode deposits , extensive mining systems and heavy machinery were required to extract them . Mining remains a substantial contributor to the economy of the upper basin and has led to acid mine drainage problems in some regional streams and rivers .
Starting in the latter half of the 19th century , the lower Colorado below Black Canyon became an important waterway for steamboat commerce . In 1852 , the Uncle Sam was launched to provide supplies to the U.S. Army outpost at Fort Yuma . Although this vessel accidentally foundered and sank early in its career , commercial traffic quickly proliferated because river transport was much cheaper than hauling freight over land . Navigation on the Colorado River was dangerous because of the shallow channel and flow variations , so the first sternwheeler on the river , the Colorado of 1855 , was designed to carry 60 short tons ( 54 t ) while drawing less than 2 feet ( 0 @.@ 6 m ) of water . The tidal bore of the lower Colorado also presented a major hazard ; in 1922 , a 15 @-@ foot ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) -high wave swamped a ship bound for Yuma , killing between 86 and 130 people . Steamboats quickly became the principal source of communication and trade along the river until competition from railroads began in the 1870s , and finally the construction of dams along the lower river , none of which had locks to allow the passage of ships .
= = = = Naming of the upper Colorado River and controversy = = = =
Prior to 1921 , the upper Colorado River above the confluence with the Green River in Utah had assumed various names . Fathers Dominguez and Escalante named it Rio San Rafael in 1776 . Through the mid @-@ 1800s , the river between Green River and the Gunnison River was most commonly known as the Grand River . The river above the junction with the Gunnison River , however , was known variously as the Bunkara River , the North Fork of the Grand River , the Blue River , and the Grand River . The latter name did not become consistently applied until the 1870s .
In 1921 , U.S. Representative Edward T. Taylor of Colorado petitioned the Congressional Committee on Interstate and Foreign Commerce to rename the Grand River as the Colorado River . Taylor saw the fact that the Colorado River started outside the border of his state as an " abomination " . On July 25 , the name change was made official in House Joint Resolution 460 of the 66th Congress , over the objections of representatives from Wyoming , Utah , and the USGS , which noted that the Green River was much longer and had a larger drainage basin above its confluence with the Grand River , although the Grand contributed a greater flow of water .
= = Engineering and development = =
36 to 40 million people depend on its water for agricultural , industrial and domestic needs . Southern Nevada Water Authority called the Colorado River one of the " most controlled , controversial and litigated rivers in the world " . Over 29 major dams and hundreds of miles of canals serve to supply thirsty cities , provide irrigation water to some 4 million acres ( 1 @.@ 6 million hectares ) , and meet peaking power demands in the Southwest , generating more than 12 billion kWh of hydroelectricity each year . Often called " America 's Nile " , the Colorado is so carefully managed – with basin reservoirs capable of holding four times the river 's annual flow – that each drop of its water is used an average of 17 times in a single year .
One of the earliest water projects in the Colorado River basin was the Grand Ditch , a 16 @-@ mile ( 26 km ) diversion canal that sends water from the Never Summer Mountains , which would naturally have drained into the headwaters of the Colorado River , to bolster supplies in Colorado 's Front Range Urban Corridor . Constructed primarily by Japanese and Mexican laborers , the ditch was considered an engineering marvel when completed in 1890 , delivering 17 @,@ 700 acre feet ( 21 @,@ 800 ML ) across the Continental Divide each year . Because roughly 75 percent of Colorado 's precipitation falls west of the Rocky Mountains while 80 percent of the population lives east of the range , more of these interbasin water transfers , locally known as transmountain diversions , followed . While first envisioned in the late 19th century , construction on the Colorado @-@ Big Thompson Project ( C @-@ BT ) did not begin until the 1930s . The C @-@ BT now delivers more than 11 times the Grand Ditch 's flow from the Colorado River watershed to cities along the Front Range .
Meanwhile , large @-@ scale development was also beginning on the opposite end of the Colorado River . In 1900 , entrepreneurs of the California Development Company ( CDC ) looked to the Imperial Valley of southern California as an excellent location to develop agriculture irrigated by the waters of the river . Engineer George Chaffey was hired to design the Alamo Canal , which split off from the Colorado River near Pilot Knob , curved south into Mexico , and dumped into the Alamo River , a dry arroyo which had historically carried flood flows of the Colorado into the Salton Sink . With a stable year @-@ round flow in the Alamo River , irrigators in the Imperial Valley were able to begin large @-@ scale farming , and small towns in the region started to expand with the influx of job @-@ seeking migrants . By 1903 , more than 100 @,@ 000 acres ( 40 @,@ 000 ha ) in the valley were under cultivation , supporting a growing population of 4 @,@ 000 .
It was not long before the Colorado River began to wreak havoc with its erratic flows . In autumn , the river would drop below the level of the canal inlet , and temporary brush diversion dams had to be constructed . In early 1905 , heavy floods destroyed the headworks of the canal , and water began to flow uncontrolled down the canal towards the Salton Sink . On August 9 , the entire flow of the Colorado swerved into the canal and began to flood the bottom of the Imperial Valley . In a desperate gamble to close the breach , crews of the Southern Pacific Railroad , whose tracks ran through the valley , attempted to dam the Colorado above the canal , only to see their work demolished by a flash flood . It took seven attempts , more than $ 3 million , and two years for the railroad , the CDC , and the federal government to permanently block the breach and send the Colorado on its natural course to the gulf – but not before part of the Imperial Valley was flooded under a 45 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 72 km ) lake , today 's Salton Sea . After the immediate flooding threat passed , it was realized that a more permanent solution would be needed to rein in the Colorado .
= = = Lower Basin development , 1930s @-@ 50s = = =
In 1922 , six U.S. states in the Colorado River basin signed the Colorado River Compact , which divided half of the river 's flow to both the Upper Basin ( the drainage area above Lee 's Ferry , comprising parts of Colorado , New Mexico , Utah , and Wyoming and a small portion of Arizona ) and the Lower Basin ( Arizona , California , Nevada , and parts of New Mexico and Utah ) . Each was given rights to 7 @.@ 5 million acre feet ( 9 @.@ 3 km3 ) of water per year , a figure believed to represent half of the river 's minimum flow at Lee 's Ferry . This was followed by a U.S. – Mexico treaty in 1944 , allocating 1 @.@ 5 million acre feet ( 1 @.@ 9 km3 ) of Colorado River water to the latter country per annum . Arizona refused to ratify the Colorado River Compact in 1922 because it feared that California would take too much of the lower basin allotment ; in 1944 a compromise was reached in which Arizona would get a firm allocation of 2 @.@ 8 million acre feet ( 3 @.@ 5 km3 ) , but only if California 's 4 @.@ 4 @-@ million @-@ acre @-@ foot ( 5 @.@ 4 km3 ) allocation was prioritized during drought years . These and nine other decisions , compacts , federal acts and agreements made between 1922 and 1973 form what is now known as the Law of the River .
On September 30 , 1935 , the United States Bureau of Reclamation ( USBR ) completed Hoover Dam in the Black Canyon of the Colorado River . Behind the dam rose Lake Mead , the largest artificial lake in the U.S. , capable of holding more than two years of the Colorado 's flow . The construction of Hoover was a major step towards stabilizing the lower channel of the Colorado River , storing water for irrigation in times of drought , and providing much @-@ needed flood control as part of a program known as the Boulder Canyon Project . Hoover was the tallest dam in the world at the time of construction and also had the world 's largest hydroelectric power plant . Flow regulation from Hoover Dam opened the doors for rapid development on the lower Colorado River ; Imperial and Parker dams followed in 1938 , and Davis Dam was completed in 1950 .
Completed in 1938 some 20 miles ( 32 km ) above Yuma , Imperial Dam diverts nearly all of the Colorado 's flow into two irrigation canals . The All @-@ American Canal , built as a permanent replacement for the Alamo Canal , is so named because it lies completely within the U.S. , unlike its ill – fated predecessor . With a capacity of over 26 @,@ 000 cubic feet per second ( 740 m3 / s ) , the All @-@ American is the largest irrigation canal in the world , supplying water to 500 @,@ 000 acres ( 2 @,@ 000 km2 ) of California 's Imperial Valley . Because the valley 's warm and sunny climate lends to a year @-@ round growing season in addition to the large water supply furnished by the Colorado , the Imperial Valley is now one of the most productive agricultural regions in North America . In 1957 , the USBR completed a second canal , the Gila Gravity Main Canal , to irrigate about 110 @,@ 000 acres ( 450 km2 ) in southwestern Arizona with Colorado River water as part of the Gila Project .
The Lower Basin states also sought to develop the Colorado for municipal supplies . Central Arizona initially relied on the Gila River and its tributaries through projects such as the Theodore Roosevelt and Coolidge Dams – completed in 1924 and 1928 , respectively . Roosevelt was the first large dam constructed by the USBR and provided the water needed to start large @-@ scale agricultural and urban development in the region . The Colorado River Aqueduct , which delivers water nearly 250 miles ( 400 km ) from near Parker Dam to 10 million people in the Los Angeles metropolitan area , was completed in 1941 . The San Diego Aqueduct branch , whose initial phase was complete by 1947 , furnishes water to nearly 3 million people in San Diego and its suburbs . The Las Vegas Valley of Nevada experienced rapid growth in part due to Hoover Dam construction , and Las Vegas had tapped a pipeline into Lake Mead by 1937 . Nevada officials , believing that groundwater resources in the southern part of the state were sufficient for future growth , were more concerned with securing a large amount of the dam 's power supply than water from the Colorado ; thus they settled for the smallest allocation of all the states in the Colorado River Compact .
= = = Upper Basin development , 1950s @-@ 1970s = = =
Through the early decades of the 20th century , the Upper Basin states , with the exception of Colorado , remained relatively undeveloped and used little of the water allowed to them under the Colorado River Compact . Water use had increased significantly by the 1950s , and more water was being diverted out of the Colorado River basin to the Front Range corridor , the Salt Lake City area in Utah , and the Rio Grande basin in New Mexico . Such projects included the Roberts Tunnel , completed in 1956 , which diverts 63 @,@ 000 acre feet ( 78 @,@ 000 ML ) per year from the Blue River to the city of Denver , and the Fryingpan @-@ Arkansas Project , which delivers 69 @,@ 200 acre feet ( 85 @,@ 400 ML ) from the Fryingpan River to the Arkansas River basin each year . Without the addition of surface water storage in the upper basin , there was no guarantee that the upper basin states would be able to use the full amount of water given to them by the compact . There was also the concern that drought could impair the upper basin 's ability to deliver the required 7 @.@ 5 million acre feet ( 9 @.@ 3 × 109 m3 ) past Lee 's Ferry per year as stipulated by the compact . A 1956 act of Congress cleared the way for the USBR 's Colorado River Storage Project ( CRSP ) , which entailed the construction of large dams on the Colorado , Green , Gunnison and San Juan Rivers .
The initial blueprints for the CRSP included two dams on the Green River within Dinosaur National Monument 's Echo Park Canyon , a move criticized by both the U.S. National Park Service and environmentalist groups such as the Sierra Club . Controversy reached a nationwide scale , and the USBR dropped its plans for the Dinosaur dams in exchange for a dam at Flaming Gorge and a raise to an already @-@ proposed dam at Glen Canyon . The famed opposition to Glen Canyon Dam , the primary feature of the CRSP , did not build momentum until construction was well underway . This was primarily because of Glen Canyon 's remote location and the result that most of the American public did not even know of the existence of the impressive gorge ; the few who had contended that it had much greater scenic value than Echo Park . Sierra Club leader David Brower fought the dam both during the construction and for many years afterwards until his death in 2000 . Brower strongly believed that he was personally responsible for the failure to prevent Glen Canyon 's flooding , calling it his " greatest mistake , greatest sin " .
= = = Pacific Southwest Water Plan = = =
Agricultural and urban growth in Arizona eventually outstripped the capacity of local rivers ; these concerns were reflected in the creation of a Pacific Southwest Water Plan in the 1950s , which aimed to build a project that would permit Arizona to fully utilize its 2 @.@ 8 @-@ million @-@ acre @-@ foot ( 3 @.@ 5 km3 ) allotment of the river . The Pacific Southwest Water Plan was the first major proposal to divert water to the Colorado Basin from other river basins – namely , from the wetter northwestern United States . It was intended to boost supplies for the Lower Basin states of Arizona , California and Nevada as well as Mexico , thus allowing the Upper Basin states to retain native Colorado River flows for their own use . Although there was still a surplus of water in the Colorado Basin during the mid @-@ 20th century , the Bureau of Reclamation predicted , correctly , that eventually population growth would outstrip the available supply and require the transfer of water from other sources .
The original version of the plan proposed to divert water from the Trinity River in northern California to reduce Southern California 's dependence on the Colorado , allowing more water to be pumped , by exchange , to central Arizona . Because of the large amount of power that would be required to pump Colorado River water to Arizona , the CAP originally included provisions for hydroelectric dams at Bridge Canyon and Marble Canyon , which would have flooded large portions of the Colorado within the Grand Canyon and dewatered much of the remainder . When these plans were publicized , the environmental movement – still reeling from the Glen Canyon controversy – successfully lobbied against the project . As a result , the Grand Canyon dams were removed from the CAP agenda , the boundaries of Grand Canyon National Park were extended to preclude any further development in the area , and the pumping power was replaced by the building of the coal @-@ fired Navajo Generating Station near Page , Arizona , in 1976 . The resulting Central Arizona Project ( CAP ) irrigates more than 830 @,@ 000 acres ( 3 @,@ 400 km2 ) and provides municipal supplies to over 5 million people from Phoenix to Tucson using water from the Colorado River .
= = = Environmental impacts = = =
Historically , the Colorado transported from 85 to 100 million short tons ( 77 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 to 91 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 t ) of sediment or silt to the Gulf of California each year – second only to the Mississippi among North American rivers . This sediment nourished wetlands and riparian areas along the river 's lower course , particularly in its 3 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ mile ( 7 @,@ 800 km2 ) delta , once the largest desert estuary on the continent . Currently , the majority of sediments carried by the Colorado River are deposited at the upper end of Lake Powell , and most of the remainder ends up in Lake Mead . Various estimates place the time it would take for Powell to completely fill with silt at 300 to 700 years . Dams trapping sediment not only pose damage to river habitat but also threaten future operations of the Colorado River reservoir system .
Reduction in flow caused by dams , diversions , water for thermoelectric power stations , and evaporation losses from reservoirs – the latter of which consumes more than 15 percent of the river 's natural runoff – has had severe ecological consequences in the Colorado River Delta and the Gulf of California . Historically , the delta with its large freshwater outflow and extensive salt marshes provided an important breeding ground for aquatic species in the Gulf . Today 's desiccated delta , at only a fraction of its former size , no longer provides suitable habitat , and populations of fish , shrimp and sea mammals in the gulf have seen a dramatic decline . Since 1963 , the only times when the Colorado River has reached the ocean have been during El Niño events in the 1980s and 1990s .
Reduced flows have led to increases in the concentration of certain substances in the lower river that have impacted water quality . Salinity is one of the major issues . The lower Colorado 's salt content was about 50 parts per million ( ppm ) in its natural state , but by the 1960s , it had increased to well over 2000 ppm . By the early 1970s , there was also serious concern about salinity caused by salts leached from local soils by irrigation drainage water , which were estimated to add 10 million short tons ( 9 @,@ 100 @,@ 000 t ) of excess salt to the river per year . The Colorado River Basin Salinity Control Act was passed in 1974 , mandating conservation practices including the reduction of saline drainage . The program reduced the annual load by about 1 @.@ 2 million short tons ( 1 @,@ 100 @,@ 000 t ) , but salinity remains an ongoing issue . In 1997 , the USBR estimated that saline irrigation water caused crop damages exceeding $ 500 million in the U.S. and $ 100 million in Mexico . Further efforts have been made to combat the salt issue in the lower Colorado , including the construction of a desalination plant at Yuma . In 2011 , the seven U.S. states agreed upon a " Plan of Implementation " , which aims to reduce salinity by 644 @,@ 000 short tons ( 584 @,@ 000 t ) per year by 2030 .
Agricultural runoff containing pesticide residues has also been concentrated in the lower river in greater amounts . Toxins derived from pesticides have led to fish kills ; six of these events were recorded between 1964 and 1968 alone . The pesticide issue is even greater in streams and water bodies near agricultural lands irrigated by the Imperial Irrigation District with Colorado River water . In the Imperial Valley , Colorado River water used for irrigation overflows into the New and Alamo rivers and into the Salton Sea . Both rivers and the sea are among the most polluted bodies of water in the United States , posing dangers not only to aquatic life but to contact by humans and migrating birds . Pollution from agricultural runoff is not limited to the lower river ; the issue is also significant in upstream reaches such as Colorado 's Grand Valley , also a major center of irrigated agriculture .
Large dams such as Hoover and Glen Canyon typically release water from lower levels of their reservoirs , resulting in stable and relatively cold year @-@ round temperatures in long reaches of the river . The Colorado 's average temperature once ranged from 85 ° F ( 29 ° C ) at the height of summer to near freezing in winter , but modern flows through the Grand Canyon , for example , rarely deviate significantly from 46 ° F ( 8 ° C ) . Changes in temperature regime have caused declines of native fish populations , and stable flows have enabled increased vegetation growth , obstructing riverside habitat . These flow patterns have also made the Colorado more dangerous to recreational boaters ; people are more likely to die of hypothermia in the colder water , and the general lack of flooding allows rockslides to build up , making the river more difficult to navigate .
= = = = Minute 319 = = = =
In the 21st century , there has been renewed interest in restoring a limited water flow to the delta . In November 2012 , the U.S. and Mexico reached an agreement , known as Minute 319 , permitting Mexico storage of its water allotment in U.S. reservoirs during wet years , thus increasing the efficiency with which the water can be used . In addition to renovating irrigation canals in the Mexicali Valley to reduce leakage , this will make about 45 @,@ 000 acre feet ( 56 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 m3 ) per year available for release to the delta on average . The water will be used to provide both an annual base flow and a spring " pulse flow " to mimic the river 's original snowmelt @-@ driven regime . The first pulse flow , an eight @-@ week release of 105 @,@ 000 acre feet ( 130 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 m3 ) , was initiated on March 21 , 2014 , with the aim of revitalising 2 @,@ 350 acres ( 950 hectares ) of wetland . This pulse reached the sea on May 16 , 2014 , marking the first time in 16 years that any water from the Colorado flowed into the ocean , and was hailed as " an experiment of historic political and ecological significance " and a landmark in U.S. – Mexican cooperation in conservation . The pulse will be followed by the steady release of 52 @,@ 000 acre feet ( 64 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 m3 ) over the following three years , just a small fraction of its average flow before damming .
= = = Uncertain future = = =
When the Colorado River Compact was drafted in the 1920s , it was based on barely 30 years of streamflow records that suggested an average annual flow of 17 @.@ 5 million acre feet ( 21 @.@ 6 km3 ) past Lee 's Ferry . Modern studies of tree rings revealed that those three decades were probably the wettest in the past 500 to 1 @,@ 200 years and that the natural long @-@ term annual flow past Lee 's Ferry is probably closer to 13 @.@ 5 million acre feet ( 16 @.@ 7 km3 ) , as compared to the natural flow at the mouth of 16 @.@ 3 million acre feet ( 20 @.@ 1 km3 ) . This has resulted in more water being allocated to river users than actually flows through the Colorado . Droughts have exacerbated the issue of water over @-@ allocation , including the Texas drought of the 1950s , which saw several consecutive years of notably low water and has often been used in planning for " a worst @-@ case scenario " .
The most severe drought on record began in the early 21st century , in which the river basin produced normal or above @-@ average runoff in only four years between 2000 and 2012 . Major reservoirs in the basin dropped to historic lows , with Lake Powell falling to just one @-@ third of capacity in early 2005 , the lowest level on record since the reservoir was first filling in 1969 . The watershed is experiencing a warming trend , which is accompanied by earlier snowmelt and a general reduction in precipitation . A 2004 study showed that a 1 – 6 percent decrease of precipitation would lead to runoff declining by as much as 18 percent by 2050 . Average reservoir storage declined by at least 32 percent , further crippling the region 's water supply and hydropower generation . A study by the Scripps Research Institute in 2008 predicted that both Lake Mead and Lake Powell stand an even chance of dropping to useless levels or " dead pool " by 2021 if current drying trends and water usage rates continue .
In late 2010 , Lake Mead dropped to just 8 feet ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) above the first " drought trigger " elevation , a level at which Arizona and Nevada would have to begin rationing water as delineated by the Colorado River Compact . Despite above @-@ average runoff in 2011 that raised the immense reservoir more than 30 feet ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) , record drought conditions returned in 2012 and 2013 . Reservoir levels were low enough at the beginning of water year 2014 that the Bureau of Reclamation cut releases from Lake Powell by 750 @,@ 000 acre feet ( 930 @,@ 000 ML ) – the first such reduction since the 1960s , when Lake Powell was being filled for the first time . This resulted in Lake Mead dropping to its lowest recorded level since 1937 , when it was first being filled . Rapid development and economic growth further complicate the issue of a secure water supply , particularly in the case of California 's senior water rights over those of Nevada and Arizona : in case of a reduction in water supply , Nevada and Arizona would have to endure severe cuts before any reduction in the California allocation , which is also larger than the other two combined . Although stringent water conservation measures have been implemented , the threat of severe shortfalls in the Colorado River basin continues to increase each year .
= = Wildlife and plants = =
The Colorado River and its tributaries often nourish extensive corridors of riparian growth as they traverse the arid desert regions of the watershed . Although riparian zones represent a relatively small proportion of the basin and have been affected by engineering projects and river diversion in many places , they have the greatest biodiversity of any habitat in the basin . The most prominent riparian zones along the river occur along the lower Colorado below Davis Dam , especially in the Colorado River Delta , where riparian areas support 358 species of birds despite the reduction in freshwater flow and invasive plants such as tamarisk ( salt cedar ) . Reduction of the delta 's size has also threatened animals such as jaguars and the vaquita porpoise , which is endemic to the gulf . Human development of the Colorado River has also helped to create new riparian zones by smoothing the river 's seasonal flow , notably through the Grand Canyon .
More than 1 @,@ 600 species of plants grow in the Colorado River watershed , ranging from the creosote bush , saguaro cactus , and Joshua trees of the Sonoran and Mojave Deserts to the forests of the Rocky Mountains and other uplands , composed mainly of ponderosa pine , subalpine fir , Douglas @-@ fir and Engelmann spruce . Before logging in the 19th century , forests were abundant in high elevations as far south as the Mexico – U.S. border , and runoff from these areas nourished abundant grassland communities in river valleys . Some arid regions of the watershed , such as the upper Green River valley in Wyoming , Canyonlands National Park in Utah and the San Pedro River valley in Arizona and Sonora , supported extensive reaches of grassland roamed by large mammals such as buffalo and antelope as late as the 1860s . Near Tucson , Arizona , " where now there is only powder @-@ dry desert , the grass once reached as high as the head of a man on horse back " .
Rivers and streams in the Colorado basin were once home to 49 species of native fish , of which 42 were endemic . Engineering projects and river regulation have led to the extinction of four species and severe declines in the populations of 40 species . Bonytail chub , razorback sucker , Colorado pikeminnow , and humpback chub are among those considered the most at risk ; all are unique to the Colorado River system and well adapted to the river 's natural silty conditions and flow variations . Clear , cold water released by dams has significantly changed characteristics of habitat for these and other Colorado River basin fishes . A further 40 species that occur in the river today , notably the brown trout , were introduced during the 19th and 20th centuries , mainly for sport fishing .
= = Recreation = =
Famed for its dramatic rapids and canyons , the Colorado is one of the most desirable whitewater rivers in the United States , and its Grand Canyon section – run by more than 22 @,@ 000 people annually – has been called the " granddaddy of rafting trips " . Grand Canyon trips typically begin at Lee 's Ferry and take out at Diamond Creek or Lake Mead , and range from one to eighteen days for commercial trips and from two to twenty @-@ five days for private trips . Private ( noncommercial ) trips are extremely difficult to arrange because the National Park Service limits river traffic for environmental purposes ; people who desire such a trip often have to wait more than 10 years for the opportunity .
Several other sections of the river and its tributaries are popular whitewater runs , and many of these are also served by commercial outfitters . The Colorado 's Cataract Canyon and many reaches in the Colorado headwaters are even more heavily used than the Grand Canyon , and about 60 @,@ 000 boaters run a single 4 @.@ 5 @-@ mile ( 7 @.@ 2 km ) section above Radium , Colorado , each year . The upper Colorado also includes many of the river 's most challenging rapids , including those in Gore Canyon , which is considered so dangerous that " boating is not recommended " . Another section of the river above Moab , known as the Colorado " Daily " or " Fisher Towers Section " , is the most visited whitewater run in Utah , with more than 77 @,@ 000 visitors in 2011 alone . The rapids of the Green River 's Gray and Desolation Canyons and the less difficult " Goosenecks " section of the lower San Juan River are also frequently traversed by boaters .
Eleven U.S. national parks – Arches , Black Canyon of the Gunnison , Bryce Canyon , Canyonlands , Capitol Reef , Grand Canyon , Mesa Verde , Petrified Forest , Rocky Mountain , Saguaro , and Zion – are in the watershed , in addition to many national forests , state parks and recreation areas . Hiking , backpacking , camping , skiing and fishing are among the multiple recreation opportunities offered by these areas . Fisheries have declined in many streams in the watershed , especially in the Rocky Mountains , because of polluted runoff from mining and agricultural activities . The Colorado 's major reservoirs are also heavily traveled summer destinations . Houseboating and water @-@ skiing are popular activities on Lakes Mead , Powell , Havasu and Mojave , as well as Flaming Gorge Reservoir in Utah and Wyoming , and Navajo Reservoir in New Mexico and Colorado . Lake Powell and surrounding Glen Canyon National Recreation Area received more than 2 million visitors per year as of 2007 , while nearly 7 @.@ 9 million people visited Lake Mead and the Lake Mead National Recreation Area in 2008 . Colorado River recreation employs some 250 @,@ 000 people and contributes $ 26 billion each year to the Southwest economy .
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= Missy Higgins =
Melissa " Missy " Morrison Higgins ( born 19 August 1983 ) is an Australian singer @-@ songwriter , musician and actress . Her Australian number @-@ one albums are The Sound of White ( 2004 ) , On a Clear Night ( 2007 ) and The Ol ' Razzle Dazzle ( 2012 ) , and her most popular singles are " Scar " , " The Special Two " , " Steer " and " Where I Stood " . Higgins was nominated for five ARIA Music Awards in 2004 and won ' Best Pop Release ' for " Scar " . In 2005 , she was nominated for seven more awards and won five . Higgins won her seventh ARIA in 2007 . Her third album , The Ol ' Razzle Dazzle , was released in Australia in June 2012 ( July 2012 in the US ) . As of August 2014 , Higgins ' first three studio albums had sold over one million units .
Higgins ' fourth studio album , OZ , was released in September 2014 and consists of cover versions of Australian composers , as well as a book of related essays .
Alongside her music career , Higgins pursues interests in animal rights and the environment , endeavouring to make her tours carbon neutral . In 2010 she made her acting debut in the feature film Bran Nue Dae and also performed on its soundtrack .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life = = =
Higgins was born in Melbourne , Victoria , to Christopher Higgins , an English @-@ Australian general practitioner , and Margaret ( née Morrison ) , an Australian childcare centre operator . Her sister , Nicola , is seven years older , and brother , David , is six years older . She learned to play classical piano from age six , following in the footsteps of Christopher and David , but realised she wanted to be a singer at about 12 when she appeared in an Armadale Primary School production of Andrew Lloyd Webber 's musical Joseph and the Amazing Technicolor Dreamcoat . Bored with practice , she gave up playing piano at that time . Hoping for more freedom , she urged her parents to send her to Geelong Grammar School , an independent boarding school attended by her siblings . At Geelong she took up the piano again , this time playing jazz including performing with her brother David 's group on weekends . She was introverted and found that piano practice helped her cope with living at boarding school .
At 15 , she wrote " All for Believing " for a school music assignment and completed it just hours before the deadline . The assignment earned an A and she performed her song in front of classmates . She approached a Melbourne record company and was told that they wanted more than one song . She wrote more songs and worked with the Kool Skools project , which enables students to record music . In 2001 , her sister Nicola entered " All for Believing " on Higgins ' behalf into Unearthed , radio station Triple J 's competition for unsigned artists . The song won the competition and was added to the station 's play list .
Two record companies showed an interest in Higgins — Sony and Eleven . She signed with Eleven , partly because they agreed that she would not be " made into a pop star " and partly because they were happy for her to take time off for a backpacking holiday . Higgins ' manager is Eleven 's John Watson , who also manages rock band Silverchair . Watson later disclosed that " Missy 's the only time in my career I knew after 90 seconds I really wanted to sign her . " The backpacking trip had been planned with a friend for years and the pair spent most of 2002 in Europe ; while Higgins was travelling , " All for Believing " started to receive airplay on Los Angeles radio station KCRW . Such radio exposure attracted the attention of American record labels and , by year 's end , an international recording deal with Warner Bros. had been negotiated
= = = 2003 – 2005 : The Sound of White = = =
Higgins was the support act on a 2003 Australian tour by folk rock band The Waifs and rock band george . She travelled to the US to work with John Porter , who produced her first EP , Missy Higgins , which was released in November and entered the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) Singles Chart Top 50 in August 2004 .
She toured Australia , supporting Pete Murray and John Butler Trio . Her second four @-@ track EP Scar was released in July . The title track " Scar " , co @-@ written with US songwriter , Kevin Griffin , debuted at No. 1 on the ARIA Charts . Her first album , The Sound of White , was released in September , and debuted at No. 1 on the ARIA Albums Chart . Also produced by Porter , it sold over 500 @,@ 000 copies . She was nominated in five categories at the ARIA Music Awards of 2004 for " Scar " : Best Female Artist ' , ' Single of the Year ' , ' Best Pop Release ' , ' Breakthrough Artist – Single ' and ' Best Video ' ( directed by Squareyed Films ) . At the awards ceremony on 17 October she received the award for Best Pop Release , beating Delta Goodrem , The Dissociatives , Kylie Minogue and Pete Murray . This was followed by her first national headline tour . Her second single " Ten Days " was co @-@ written with Jay Clifford ( guitarist in US band Jump , Little Children ) and was inspired by Higgins ' 2002 break @-@ up with her boyfriend before she travelled to Europe . Released in November , it peaked at No. 12 .
On 29 January 2005 Higgins performed with other local musicians including Nick Cave and Powderfinger at the WaveAid fundraising concert in the Sydney Cricket Ground . The concert raised A $ 2 @.@ 3 million for four charities supporting the victims of the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake . In March Higgins performed at the MTV Australia Awards and won the prize for ' Breakthrough Artist of the Year ' . The following month she released her third single , " The Special Two " , which was a radio hit and reached No. 2 . " The Special Two " was released on an EP which included her cover of the Skyhooks song , " You Just Like Me Cos I 'm Good In Bed " , recorded for Triple J 's 30th anniversary . The song had been the first track played on Triple J when it launched ( as Double J ) in 1975 . In May , Higgins won the ' Song of the Year ' and ' Breakthrough ' awards for " Scar " from the Australasian Performing Right Association ( APRA ) . She continued touring in mid @-@ 2005 and released her fourth single , " The Sound of White " , in August . In September she played a sold out performance at the Vanguard in Sydney with the proceeds going to charity . She was nominated for seven more ARIAs and in October won ' Album of the Year ' , ' Best Pop Release ' , ' Breakthrough Artist – Album ' and ' Highest Selling Album ' ( all for The Sound of White ) and ' Best Female Artist ' ( for " Scar " ) . She teamed up with fellow ARIA award @-@ winning singer Ben Lee in late 2005 for a national tour .
= = = 2006 – 2009 : On a Clear Night = = =
During 2006 , Higgins lived in Broome , Western Australia for six months , away from the entertainment industry . The relaxed lifestyle helped her focus on writing new material . The landscape made a big impression , " It was the first place I 'd ever felt honestly connected with my country , with the physical land of my country " and inspired her to write " Going North " . She then toured the United States and South Africa , writing more material on the road . In September she based herself in Los Angeles to record her second album , On a Clear Night , with producer Mitchell Froom . " Steer " was released as an EP , followed a fortnight later by its album on 28 April 2007 , both debuted at No. 1 on their respective charts .
In February , Higgins had contributed a tribute song to the album , Cannot Buy My Soul , for noted indigenous singer , Kev Carmody , singing " Droving Woman " with musician Paul Kelly and group Augie March . On 7 July , she participated in the Live Earth concert in Sydney , performing her own set before joining Carmody , Kelly and vocalist John Butler on stage for the song " From Little Things Big Things Grow " . Emily Dunn in The Sydney Morning Herald wrote " [ the song ] could have been the event 's anthem " . Rolling Stone 's Dan Lander pointed out a highlight , when the " whole crowd sung along – all eleven verses . "
Higgins returned to Los Angeles to focus on the US market — she spent September and October touring — where she was still relatively unknown . On 26 October , backed by the Sydney Youth Orchestra , she headlined the annual Legs 11 concert , a breast cancer benefit held in The Domain , Royal Botanic Gardens , Sydney . Two days later Higgins performed at the 2007 ARIAs where she was nominated for ' Best Pop Release ' , ' Highest Selling Album ' and ' Highest Selling Single ' ( for " Steer " ) and won ' Best Female Artist ' ( for On a Clear Night ) — her seventh ARIA Music Award . On 31 October , she was a guest at television music channel MAX 's inaugural Concert for the Cure , a private concert for people affected by breast cancer . She sang headline act Powderfinger 's " Sunsets " with front man Bernard Fanning and joined in with the encore of " These Days " . She spent November and December on her For One Night Only Tour , taking in Cairns , Sydney and Perth . You Am I lead singer , Tim Rogers , joined her on some shows .
On a Clear Night , was released in the US on 26 February 2008 , supported by a tour in March . Her ten @-@ month stay in Los Angeles during 2008 promoted her songs for films and television shows . Her first US single " Where I Stood " was featured in US series including Grey 's Anatomy , One Tree Hill and So You Think You Can Dance . During 2008 , Higgins supported the Indigo Girls and then Ben Folds on their respective US tours . February and March 2009 saw her co @-@ headlining a US tour with Canadian Justin Nozuka . On 31 March she released an EP , More Than This in Australia that features cover versions of " More Than This " by Roxy Music , " ( I 'm ) In Love Again " by Peggy Lee , " Breakdown " by Tom Petty and " Moses " by Patty Griffin . " Moses " had been included on Triple J 's 2005 compilation album Like a Version : Volume One and " More Than This " was recorded as part of Covered , A Revolution in Sound , a Warner Bros. tribute album also released in March 2009 .
= = = 2010 – 2013 : The Ol ' Razzle Dazzle = = =
Higgins started writing music for her third album in 2009 . After about seven years of touring and recording she took a break from the music industry to pursue other interests . In 2010 she enrolled in a course in indigenous studies at the University of Melbourne . Her acting debut was as Annie in 2010 film Bran Nue Dae directed by Rachel Perkins . The film is an adaptation of the 1990 musical , Bran Nue Dae , " Australia 's first Aboriginal musical " . Although Higgins would consider future acting projects she has no plans to actively pursue it as a career .
In July and August 2010 , Higgins played several dates of Sarah McLachlan 's Lilith Fair tour in the US . At Lilith Fair , she met Australian musician Butterfly Boucher and they decided to work together . In 2011 , Higgins travelled to where Boucher was living in Nashville to record her third album , which is co @-@ produced by Boucher and Brad Jones . Titled The Ol ' Razzle Dazzle , the album was released on 1 June 2012 . Its first single , " Unashamed Desire " , co @-@ written with Boucher , was released on 23 April . In November 2011 , at the ARIA Music Awards , Higgins performed a duet of " Warwu " with Geoffrey Gurrumul Yunupingu , from his Rrakala album .
" The Ol ' Razzle Dazzle " album debuted at # 1 on the ARIA Albums Chart the week of 12 June 2012 . It is now Higgins ' 3rd straight number one album . Higgins now ties Delta Goodrem , Olivia Newton @-@ John and Kylie Minogue for the 2nd most Australian number one albums by an Australian female artist . Only Kasey Chambers has done better at 4 number one ARIA albums .
= = = 2014 onward : Oz = = =
In September 2014 , Higgins released her fourth studio album , Oz , which features cover versions of Australian composers , including The Angels , Slim Dusty , Something For Kate , Warumpi Band , Paul Kelly and The Drones . The album is also accompanied by a book of related essays , in which Higgins uses each of the recordings to reflect upon subjects such as music and love . Higgins collaborated with Dan Sultan for the recording of the Slim Dusty song " The Biggest Disappointment " .
Higgins explained in an October 2014 interview that she experienced a significant bout of writer 's block following the completion of her second album and someone suggested an album of cover versions at the time , but she only revisited the idea during the conception of Oz . Higgins further explained :
I responded to all these songs on an emotional level , when I first heard them . I wanted songs I felt I could tell with my own voice , and interpret them authentically ... But it was important to maintain the emotional integrity and the heart of the song . It was a high priority to keep true to the songs .
The album was co @-@ produced by Jherek Bischoff , who previously worked with David Byrne , formerly of Talking Heads , and Amanda Palmer .
Oz debuted at number 3 on the ARIA Albums chart and remained in the top five positions until 18 October 2014 .
The national Australian tour in support of Oz commenced on 20 September 2014 in Cairns , Queensland , and is scheduled to end in Melbourne in October 2014 . Higgins will be accompanied by Bischoff , and Australian artist Dustin Tebbutt will appear as a special guest .
On 19 February 2016 , Higgins released a new single titled , " Oh Canada " .
= = Musical influences and technique = =
Higgins grew up in the 1980s and 1990s listening to artists that her older siblings liked — Nicola played Mariah Carey and Whitney Houston , while David favoured Queen and Kiss . Departing for boarding school at age 13 , she was exposed to alternative artists like Nirvana and Courtney Love and started teaching herself guitar and writing her own music . She also began singing with David 's jazz group on weekends . As an adult she prefers Nina Simone and Ray Charles to " poppy dance music " . She has cited Patty Griffin , Ron Sexsmith , Rufus Wainwright , Paul Kelly and Sarah McLachlan as influences . Material from her third album is influenced by ambient music from Low , Jon Hopkins , Icelandic band Sigur Rós and Estonian classical composer Arvo Pärt .
Higgins ' song writing grew out of a desire to express her emotions when she was at school and her lyrics describe her feelings about her own life and relationships . The piano was the first instrument she learned to play , and she continues to use it as well as digital pianos including a Roland RD @-@ 300SX , RD @-@ 700 and KR @-@ 15 . She also uses guitars extensively in her music particularly when touring , due to their portable nature and favours the Australian brand , Maton . On occasion she plays keytar , xylophone and melodica during performances .
On 7 September 2012 , Higgins recorded a cover version of Gotye 's " Heart 's A Mess " for the " Like a Version " segment , explaining on @-@ air that the song is her favourite Gotye composition . Higgins had travelled with Gotye previously and referred to him as " an incredible singer " in the interview prior to the rendition .
= = Causes = =
As a vegetarian , Higgins promoted the health benefits of not eating meat in a 2005 advertising campaign by People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals ( PETA ) ; and has supported their anti @-@ fur stance . She is interested in environmental issues and is involved with the Sierra Club , a grassroots organisation based in California . She has protested against the proposed industrialisation of the Kimberley region of Western Australia and donated the royalties from her 2009 EP More Than This . Since early 2007 , Higgins has tried to make her tours carbon neutral , she purchases green energy to power venues , uses hybrid cars where possible and purchases carbon offsets .
On 5 October 2012 , Higgins performed alongside The John Butler Trio and Clare Bowditch at the " Save the Kimberley " concert held at Federation Square in Melbourne , Australia . In relation to the Kimberley region and campaign , Higgins stated :
Apparently scientists are still discovering hundreds of new plant and animal species there every year , which goes to show that there is still so much we don 't know about the region . I just fell in love with it ; it gets under your skin . Woodside Petroleum are planning to build one of the world 's biggest LNG ( liquified natural gas ) processing plants on the Kimberley coast , just north of Broome . They would be drilling for the gas out at sea and bringing it onshore at this plant , which would just be devastating for the region . The question everyone is asking is , why not process it offshore or pipe it to one of the mining towns down south that already have the infrastructure in place ? Why ruin the Kimberley if there 's an alternative ?
Higgins performed at another concert in support of the Kimberley cause on 24 February 2013 , with John Butler also appearing again , with the event held at The Esplanade in Fremantle , Western Australia . Jarrah Records , the record label that John Butler co @-@ founded with The Waifs and Phil Stevens , worked in partnership with The Wilderness Society to stage the free event that also featured the band Ball Park Music and Dr Bob Brown , former leader of the Australian Greens Party . A march to protest the proposed gas refinery construction at James Price Point accompanied the free concert and campaign supporters were photographed with banners and placards .
As of 2012 , Higgins is one of numerous publicly known advocates for the ' Oscar 's Law ' campaign . The campaign , launched in 2010 , protests the existence of " puppy factories " in Australia , whereby animals are factory farmed . One of the campaign 's slogans is " Break the Puppy Trade — Don 't buy puppies from pet shops " and the list of notable advocates includes Paul Dempsey ( musician ) , Kate Ceberano ( singer ) and Mick Molloy ( comedian ) .
In response to the proposed dumping of around 3 million cubic metres of dredged seabed onto the Great Barrier Reef , a legal fighting team was formed by World Wide Fund for Nature ( WWF ) -Australia and the Australian Marine Conservation Society ( AMCS ) in late 2013 / early 2014 . The legal team received further support in April 2014 , following the release of the " Sounds For The Reef " musical fundraising project . Produced by Straightup , the digital album features Higgins , in addition to artists such as The Herd , Sietta , John Butler , The Cat Empire , Fat Freddys Drop , The Bamboos ( featuring Kylie Auldist ) and Resin Dogs . Released on 7 April , the album 's 21 songs were sold on the Bandcamp website .
= = Personal life = =
Higgins has been a patron of multiple mental health charities since 2003 . She described her younger self as " a bit of a depressed child " and " introverted " , and that she had " experienced various degrees of depression " . Prescribed antidepressant medication while in high school , she learned to channel low moods into song writing , calling music her " emotional outlet " . In a 2006 interview she said that her songs were " coming from more of a happier place " . While recording her second album she discovered a passion for rock climbing , as a " meditative pursuit " and that , " It 's the first thing I 've had — other than music — that I 'm passionate about . "
From 2004 to 2007 , Higgins ' sexual orientation was the subject of media speculation based partly on interpretations of her lyrics and her interviews . In an October 2007 interview with Australian lesbian magazine Cherrie , she was asked if she fell under the moniker of " not @-@ so @-@ straight " girls . She replied " Um , yeah , definitely . ... I think sexuality is a fluid thing and it 's becoming increasingly more acceptable to admit that you 're that way . " In November her Myspace page reported , " I 've been in relationships with both men and women so I guess I fall most easily under the category ' Bisexual ' " . She went on to say that she wanted future interviews to focus on her music rather than her sexuality . In a March 2008 interview with AfterEllen.com , Higgins said that her song " Secret " was written about an ex @-@ girlfriend who was not comfortable , at first , about going public with their relationship ; " I was so head over heels in love with her I kind of wanted to shout it out to the world , so it was just a song about keeping something under the covers ... keeping it away locked in a little room . "
In 2013 , Higgins began a relationship with Broome playwright and comedian Dan Lee . In December 2013 , Lee announced the couple 's engagement on his Facebook page . While he remained tight @-@ lipped on the details , Lee said the proposal was low @-@ key : " It was very simple ... Just a thing between us . " On 2 August 2014 , Higgins announced on her Facebook page that she and her fiance were expecting a baby , due in January 2015 . She said , " A new chapter is about to begin , and with it a crazy and wonderful journey , no doubt . " In October 2014 , Higgins announced via Instagram that she is expecting a boy . When asked about her impending parenthood in an October 2014 interview , Higgins replied :
I like being home , having my routines , looking after my garden and playing with my dog , but I also love playing . I love being able to do both ... I don 't know what will happen after this . I 've got no plans at the moment . I 'm going to see how this motherhood thing turns out .
Higgins gave birth to her son , Samuel Arrow Lee , on 5 January 2015 .
= = Discography = =
2004 : The Sound of White
2007 : On a Clear Night
2012 : The Ol ' Razzle Dazzle
2014 : Oz
= = Filmography = =
2010 : Bran Nue Dae as Annie
2014 : Unity – Narrator ( Documentary )
= = Awards and nominations = =
= = = APRA Awards = = =
The APRA Awards are presented annually from 1982 by the Australasian Performing Right Association ( APRA ) . Higgins has won two awards from six nominations .
= = = ARIA Awards = = =
The ARIA Music Awards are presented annually from 1987 by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) . Higgins has won nine awards from twenty @-@ three nominations .
= = = Other awards = = =
She has won an MTV Australia Video Music Award .
2005 MTV Australia Video Music Awards , Breakthrough Artist of the Year
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= Battle of the Eurymedon =
The Battle of the Eurymedon was a double battle , taking place both on water and land , between the Delian League of Athens and her Allies , and the Persian Empire of Xerxes I. It took place in either 469 or 466 BC , in the vicinity of the mouth of the Eurymedon River ( now the Köprüçay ) in Pamphylia , Asia Minor . It forms part of the Wars of the Delian League , itself part of the larger Greco @-@ Persian Wars .
The Delian League had been formed between Athens and many of the city @-@ states of the Aegean to continue the war with Persia , which had begun with the first and second Persian invasions of Greece ( 492 – 490 and 480 – 479 BC , respectively ) . In the aftermath of the Battles of Plataea and Mycale , which had ended the second invasion , the Greek Allies had taken the offensive , besieging the cities of Sestos and Byzantium . The Delian League then took over responsibility for the war , and continued to attack Persian bases in the Aegean throughout the next decade .
In either 469 or 466 BC , the Persians began assembling a large army and navy for a major offensive against the Greeks . Gathering near the Eurymedon , it is possible that the expedition aimed to move up the coast of Asia Minor , capturing each city in turn . This would bring the Asiatic Greek regions back under Persian control , and give the Persians naval bases from which to launch further expeditions into the Aegean . Hearing of the Persian preparations , the Athenian general Cimon took 200 triremes and sailed to Phaselis in Pamphylia , which eventually agreed to join the Delian League . This effectively blocked the Persian strategy at its first objective .
Cimon then moved to pre @-@ emptively attack the Persian forces near the Eurymedon . Sailing into the mouth of the river , Cimon quickly routed the Persian fleet gathered there . Most of the Persian fleet made land @-@ fall , and the sailors fled to the shelter of the Persian army . Cimon then landed the Greek marines and proceeded to attack the Persian army , which was also routed . The Greeks captured the Persian camp , taking many prisoners , and were able to destroy 200 beached Persian triremes . This stunning double victory seems to have greatly demoralised the Persians , and prevented any further Persian campaigning in the Aegean until at least 451 BC . However , the Delian League do not appear to have pressed home their advantage , probably because of other events in the Greek world that required their attention .
= = = Chronology = = =
Thucydides provides a succinct list of the main events occurring between the end of the second Persian invasion and the outbreak of the Peloponnesian War , but almost no chronological information . Various attempts have been made to reassemble the chronology , but there is no definitive answer . The assumption central to these attempts is that Thucydides is describing the events in the appropriate chronological order . The one firmly accepted date is 465 BC for the beginning of the Siege of Thasos . This is based on an ancient scholiast 's annotation of a copy of Aeschines 's works . The scholiast notes that the Athenians met disaster at the ' Nine @-@ Ways ' in the archonship of Lysitheus ( known to be 465 / 464 BC ) . Thucydides mentions this attack on the ' Nine @-@ Ways ' in connection with the beginning of the Siege of Thasos , and since Thucydides says that the siege ended in its third year , the Siege of Thasos therefore dates to c.465 – 463 BC .
The Battle of Eurymedon has been dated to 469 BC by Plutarch 's anecdote about the Archon Apsephion ( 469 / 468 BC ) choosing Cimon and his fellow generals as judges in a competition . The implication is that Cimon had recently achieved a great victory , and the most likely candidate is Eurymedon . However , since the Battle of Eurymedon seems to have occurred after the Athenian siege of Naxos ( but before the Siege of Thasos ) , the date of Eurymedon is clearly constrained by the date of Naxos . Whilst some accept a date of 469 or earlier for this Naxos , another school of thought places it as late as 467 BC . Since the Battle of Eurymedon seems to have occurred before Thasos , the alternative date for this battle would therefore be 466 BC . Modern historians are split , some supporting 469 BC as the most likely date , and others opting for 466 BC .
= = Background = =
The Greco @-@ Persian Wars had their roots in the conquest of the Greek cities of Asia Minor , and in particular Ionia , by the Persian Empire of Cyrus the Great shortly after 550 BC . The Persians found the Ionians difficult to rule , eventually settling for sponsoring a tyrant in each Ionian city . While Greek states had in the past often been ruled by tyrants , this was a form of government on the decline . By 500 BC , Ionia appears to have been ripe for rebellion against these Persian place @-@ men . The simmering tension finally broke into open revolt due to the actions of the tyrant of Miletus , Aristagoras . Attempting to save himself after a disastrous Persian @-@ sponsored expedition in 499 BC , Aristagoras chose to declare Miletus a democracy . This triggered similar revolutions across Ionia , and indeed Doris and Aeolis , beginning the Ionian Revolt .
The Greek states of Athens and Eretria allowed themselves to be drawn into this conflict by Aristagoras , and during their only campaigning season ( 498 BC ) they contributed to the capture and burning of the Persian regional capital of Sardis . After this , the Ionian Revolt carried on ( without further outside aid ) for a further 5 years , until it was finally completely crushed by the Persians . However , in a decision of great historic significance , the Persian king Darius the Great decided that , despite successfully subduing the revolt , there remained the unfinished business of exacting punishment on Athens and Eretria for supporting the revolt . The Ionian Revolt had severely threatened the stability of Darius 's empire , and the states of mainland Greece would continue to threaten that stability unless dealt with . Darius thus began to contemplate the complete conquest of Greece , beginning with the destruction of Athens and Eretria .
In the next two decades there would be two Persian invasions of Greece , including some of the most famous battles in history . During the first invasion , Thrace , Macedon and the Aegean islands were added to the Persian Empire , and Eretria was duly destroyed . However , the invasion ended in 490 BC with the decisive Athenian victory at the Battle of Marathon . Between the two invasions , Darius died , and responsibility for the war passed to his son Xerxes I. Xerxes then led the second invasion personally in 480 BC , taking an enormous ( although oft @-@ exaggerated ) army and navy to Greece . Those Greeks who chose to resist ( the ' Allies ' ) were defeated in the twin battles of Thermopylae and Artemisium on land and at sea respectively . All of Greece except the Peloponnesus thus fell into Persian hands , but then seeking to finally destroy the Allied navy , the Persians suffered a decisive defeat at the Battle of Salamis . The following year , 479 BC , the Allies assembled the largest Greek army yet seen and defeated the Persian invasion force at the Battle of Plataea , ending the invasion and the threat to Greece .
According to tradition , on the same day as Plataea , the Allied fleet defeated the demoralised remnants of the Persian fleet in the Battle of Mycale . This action marks the end of the Persian invasion , and the beginning of the next phase in the Greco @-@ Persian wars , the Greek counterattack . After Mycale , the Greek cities of Asia Minor again revolted , with the Persians now powerless to stop them . The Allied fleet then sailed to the Chersonesos , still held by the Persians , and besieged and captured the town of Sestos . The following year , 478 BC , the Allies sent a force to capture the city of Byzantium ( modern day Istanbul ) . The siege was successful , but the behaviour of the Spartan general Pausanias alienated many of the Allies , and resulted in Pausanias 's recall . The siege of Byzantium was the last action of the Hellenic alliance that defeated the Persian invasion .
After Byzantium , Sparta was eager to end her involvement in the war . The Spartans were of the view that , with the liberation of mainland Greece , and the Greek cities of Asia Minor , the war 's purpose had already been reached . There was also perhaps a feeling that securing long @-@ term security for the Asian Greeks would prove impossible . The loose alliance of city states that fought against Xerxes 's invasion was dominated by Sparta and the Peloponnesian league . With the Spartan withdrawal , the leadership of the Greeks now explicitly passed to the Athenians . A congress was called on the holy island of Delos to institute a new alliance to continue the fight against the Persians . This alliance , now including many of the Aegean islands , was formally constituted as the ' First Athenian Alliance ' , commonly known as the Delian League . According to Thucydides , the official aim of the League was to " avenge the wrongs they suffered by ravaging the territory of the king . " Forces of the Delian League spent much of the next decade expelling the remaining Persian garrisons from Thrace , and expanding the Aegean territory controlled by the League .
= = Prelude = =
Once the Persian forces in Europe had largely been neutralised , the Athenians seem to have gone about starting to extend the League in Asia Minor . The islands of Samos , Chios and Lesbos seem to have become members of the original Hellenic alliance after Mycale , and presumably were also therefore original members of the Delian League . However , it is unclear exactly when the other Ionian cities , or indeed the other Greek cities of Asia Minor , joined the league , though they certainly did at some point . Thucydides attests the presence of Ionians at Byzantium in 478 BC , so it is possible that at least some of the Ionian cities joined the league in early 478 BC . The Athenian politician Aristides was said to have died in Pontus ( c . 468 BC ) whilst on public business . Given that Aristides was responsible for organising the financial contributions of each League member , this trip may have been connected with expansion of the League into Asia Minor .
Cimon 's Eurymedon campaign itself seems to have begun in response to the assembly of a large Persian fleet and army at Aspendos , near the mouth of the Eurymedon River . It is usually argued that the Persians were the would @-@ be aggressors , and that Cimon 's campaign was launched to deal with this new threat . Cawkwell suggests that the Persian build @-@ up was the first concerted attempt to counter the activity of the Greeks since the failure of the second invasion . It is possible that internal strife within the Persian empire had contributed to the length of time it took to launch this campaign . Cawkwell outlines the Persian strategic problems :
" Persia was a land power which used its naval forces in close conjunction with its armies , not free ranging in enemy waters . In any case , secure naval bases were necessary . In the Ionian Revolt with land forces already operating in Ionia and elsewhere along the Aegean seaboard , it was easy for a Royal army and navy to deal with the revolt , but in view of the general revolt of the [ Ionian ] cities in 479 BC and the subsequent successes of the Greek navies the only way for Persia must have seemed to be to move along the coast restoring order in city after city , with fleet and army moving together . "
The nature of naval warfare in the Ancient world , dependent as it was on large teams of rowers , meant that ships would have to make landfall every few days to resupply with food and water . This severely limited the range of an Ancient fleet , and essentially meant that navies could only operate in the vicinity of secure naval bases . Cawkwell therefore suggests that the Persian forces gathered at Aspendos were aiming to move along the southern coast of Asia Minor , capturing each city , until eventually the Persian navy could begin operating in Ionia again . Alexander the Great would employ this strategy in reverse in winter of 333 BC . Lacking a navy with which to take on the Persians , Alexander settled instead for denying the Persian navy suitable bases , by capturing the ports of southern Asia Minor .
Plutarch says that upon hearing that the Persian forces were gathering at Aspendos , Cimon sailed from Cnidus ( in Caria ) with 200 triremes . It is highly likely that Cimon had assembled this force because the Athenians had had some warning of a forthcoming Persian campaign to re @-@ subjugate the Asiatic Greeks . Certainly , no other league business would have required such a great force . Cimon may have been waiting in Caria because he expected the Persians to march straight into Ionia , along the Royal road from Sardis . According to Plutarch , Cimon sailed with these 200 triremes to the Greek city of Phaselis ( in Lycia ) but was refused admittance . He therefore began ravaging the lands of Phaselis , but with the mediation of the Chian contingent of his fleet , the people of Phaselis agreed to join the league . They were to contribute troops to the expedition , and to pay the Athenians ten talents . The fact that Cimon pre @-@ emptively sailed to and captured Phaselis suggests that he anticipated a Persian campaign to capture the coastal cities ( as outlined above ) . The presence of both army and navy at Aspendos may have persuaded him that there was to be no immediate assault on Ionia . By capturing Phaselis , the furthest east Greek city in Asia Minor ( and just to the west of the Eurymedon ) , he effectively blocked the Persian campaign before it had begun , denying them the first naval base they needed to control . Taking further initiative , Cimon then moved to directly attack the Persian fleet at Aspendos .
= = Opposing forces = =
= = = Greek = = =
According to Plutarch , the League fleet consisted of 200 triremes . These were of the sleek Athenian aphract ( deckless ) design , originally developed by Themistocles primarily for ramming actions , although they had been modified by Cimon to improve their suitability for boarding actions .
The standard complement of a trireme was 200 men , including 14 marines . In the second Persian invasion of Greece , each Persian ship had carried thirty extra marines , and this was probably also true in the first invasion when the whole invasion force was apparently carried in triremes . Furthermore , the Chian ships at the Battle of Lade also carried 40 marines each . This suggests that a trireme could probably carry a maximum of 40 – 45 soldiers — triremes seem to have been easily destabilised by extra weight . There were therefore probably around 5 @,@ 000 hoplite marines with the League fleet .
= = = Persian = = =
Several different estimates for the size of the Persian fleet are given . Thucydides says that there was a fleet of 200 Phoenician ships , and is generally considered the most reliable source . Plutarch gives numbers of 350 from Ephorus and 600 from Phanodemus . Furthermore , Plutarch says that the Persian fleet was awaiting 80 Phoenician ships sailing from Cyprus . Although Thucydides 's account is generally to be favoured , there may an element of truth in Plutarch 's assertion that the Persians were awaiting further reinforcements ; this would explain why Cimon was able to launch a pre @-@ emptive assault on them . There are no estimates in the ancient sources for the size of the Persian land army . However , the number of Persian marines accompanying the fleet was presumably in the same range as the number of Greek marines ( c . 5 @,@ 000 ) , since the Persian ships carried the same complement of troops . Plutarch quotes Ephorus as saying that Tithraustes was commander of the royal fleet , and Pherendatis of the infantry , but says that Callisthenes named Ariomandes as overall commander .
= = Battle = =
Thucydides gives only the barest of details for this battle ; the most reliable detailed account is given by Plutarch . According to Plutarch , the Persian fleet was anchored off the mouth of the Eurymedon , awaiting the arrival of 80 Phoenician ships from Cyprus . Cimon , sailing from Phaselis , made to attack the Persians before the reinforcements arrived , whereupon the Persian fleet , eager to avoid fighting , retreated into the river itself . However , when Cimon continued to bear down on the Persians , they accepted battle . Regardless of their numbers , the Persian battle line was quickly breached , and the Persian ships then turned about , and made for the river bank . Grounding their ships , the crews sought sanctuary with the army waiting nearby . Some ships may have been captured or destroyed during the naval battle , but it seems likely that most were able to land .
The Persian army now began to move towards the Greek fleet , which had presumably also grounded itself in order to capture the Persian ships . Despite the weariness of his troops after this first battle , Cimon , seeing " that his men were exalted by the impetus and pride of their victory , and eager to come to close quarters with the Barbarians " , landed the marines and proceeded to attack the Persian army . Initially the Persian line held the Athenian assault , but eventually , as at the Battle of Mycale , the heavily armoured hoplites proved superior , and routed the Persian army . Fleeing back to their camp , the Persians were then captured , along with their camp , by the victorious Greeks .
Thucydides says that 200 Phoenician ships were captured and destroyed . It is highly unlikely that this occurred during the apparently brief naval battle , so these were probably grounded ships captured after the battle and destroyed with fire , as has been the case at Mycale . Plutarch says that 200 ships were captured , in addition to those that were destroyed or fled . It is possible that ' destroyed ' in this context means sunk during the battle , since the Greeks would almost certainly have destroyed the ships that they captured as well ( as Thucydides indeed implies ) . Since Thucydides only explicitly gives the number of ships destroyed , it is possible to reconcile Plutarch 's and Thucydides 's numbers , but it is not clear that this is the best approach . There are no estimates in the ancient sources for casualties amongst the troops of either side .
Plutarch says that , following his double victory , " though like a powerful athlete he had brought down two contests in one day ... Cimon still went on competing with his own victories . " Cimon supposedly sailed with the Greek fleet as quickly as possible to intercept the fleet of 80 Phoenician ships the Persians had expected . Taking them by surprise , he captured or destroyed the entire fleet . However , Thucydides does not mention this subsidiary action , and some have cast doubt on whether it actually happened .
= = Aftermath = =
According to Plutarch , one tradition had it that the Persian king ( who at the time would still have been Xerxes ) agreed a humiliating peace treaty in the aftermath of the Eurymedon . However , as Plutarch admits , other authors denied that such a peace was made at this time , and the more logical date for any peace treaty would have been after the Cyprus campaign of 450 BC . The alternative suggested by Plutarch is that the Persian king acted as if he had made a humiliating peace with the Greeks , because he was so fearful of engaging in battle with them again . It is generally considered unlikely by modern historians that a peace treaty was made in the aftermath of Eurymedon .
The Eurymedon was a highly significant victory for the Delian League , which probably ended once and for all the threat of another Persian invasion of Greece . It also seems to have prevented any Persian attempt to reconquer the Asiatic Greeks until at least 451 BC . The accession of further cities of Asia Minor to the Delian league , particularly from Caria , probably followed Cimon 's campaign there .
Despite Cimon 's massive victory , something of a stalemate developed between Persia and the League . The Greeks do not appear to have pressed their advantage home in a meaningful way . If the later date of 466 BC for the Eurymedon campaign is accepted , this might be because the revolt in Thasos meant that resources were diverted away from Asia Minor to prevent the Thasians seceding from the League . Conversely , as Plutarch suggests , the Persians adopted a very defensive strategy in the Aegean for the next decade and a half . The Persian fleet was effectively absent from the Aegean until 451 BC , and Greek ships were able to ply the coasts of Asia Minor with impunity . The next major Delian League campaign against the Persian would only occur in 460 BC , when the Athenians decided to support a revolt in the Egyptian satrapy of the Persian empire . This campaign would last 6 years , before eventually ending in disaster for the Greeks .
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= Hominid ( novel ) =
Hominid is a short novel by Austrian writer Klaus Ebner . Taking place millions of years ago , it is a fictional story of a band of extinct hominids who inhabit Central Africa . Referencing the seven days of biblical Creation , the novel takes place in seven days . As the protagonist Pitar leads his band to civilization , tension arises between the clan leader Costello and his rival Re . Over the course of the story , Pitar invents tools , discovers the use of fire , and falls in love with Maluma . The seventh day marks a turning point in the storyline , as the members of the band separate from one another .
The characters ' contemporary language and Pitar 's thorough knowledge of modern @-@ day history , philosophy and science add to the grotesque humor of the novel , while his two friends quote classical Roman literature and Chinese sayings . The book was published by Viennese publisher FZA Verlag in October 2008 . Between 2008 and 2010 , several Austrian and German critics and writers published reviews of the novel .
= = Background = =
Ebner first considered writing a novel in which prehistoric characters have present @-@ day knowledge and a modern language in 2006 . Believing that this topic would not suffice for a long novel , he initially did not pursue the idea . In February 2008 Ebner won the Wiener Werkstattpreis in the categories of short story and essay — in addition to the prize money the organizer of the award , the Viennese publishing house FZA , offers to the winner to publish a 100 @-@ page book . Hence Ebner wrote and finalized his narrative within four months . The book was published in the October of the same year with the German title Hominide . The publisher introduced the work to the public with a public reading in Vienna .
The novel consists of seven chapters , " Day 1 " to " Day 7 " , with the action of each chapter occurring on consecutive days . The chapters refer to the seven days of the biblical Creation . In comparison with other works of Ebner , Hominid is the first to be about a prehistoric subject . The author had already addressed topics of religious faith before , in the short stories “ Der Schreiber von Aram ( The Scribe of Aram ) ” and “ Momentaufnahme ( Snapshot ) ” , and frequently used a satirical style for his narratives .
= = Plot synopsis = =
Hominid takes place several million years ago in the Central African transitional region between rainforest and savanna . The main characters are Australopithecus afarenses , an extinct , mostly tree @-@ dwelling hominid that existed before the use of tools and fire . The story is told through first @-@ person narration by the protagonist , Pitar . In deliberating his social and natural environment , Pitar decides to lead his band to civilization : “ Hence I decided to shed some light on the darkness , to light a candle following the motto Let there be light and so on . ” His linguistic capacity , thoughts and speech correspond to those of modern man , and he also is knowledgeable about history , politics , philosophy and literature . Intermittent comments made by Pitar concerning a particular prospect or artifact that has not been invented or developed yet add to the humor of the grotesque scenario . Pitar 's close friends are Carpediem , who enunciates Latin phrases and quotes the writers of Classical Antiquity , and Lao , who frequently refers to Chinese philosophy .
Although it is difficult to convince his fellow Hominidae to follow him , Pitar manages to persuade the patriarchal leader of the clan , Costello , who has taken command from the recently deceased Thorn . The band builds windbreaks to help them descend more often from the trees , thus exposing them to a higher risk of being attacked by predators on the ground . A rivalry emerges between Costello and another band member , Re , who not only questions the leading abilities of the present alpha but also desires Costello 's females . To alleviate the escalating debate of authority , Pitar tries to implement a parliament to settle disputes peacefully . Costello , however , considers the parliament to be a forum in which he can consolidate his power , citing famous speeches by Winston Churchill and Abraham Lincoln ; the other members ruin this noble idea with their lack of discipline and ostentatious indifference .
One of the subplots of the novel details the budding love between Pitar and Maluma , a female member of the band . Costello perceives the group of females as his personal harem , but when Maluma falls in love with Pitar she breaks off her relationship with him . On each day , the characters discover new insights and artefacts , but seek rest from their exhaustion by the seventh day . This repose , however , is disrupted by the attack of a saber @-@ toothed cat . Several members of the band are killed , including Costello , thus enabling Re to assume power . Pitar and Maluma decide to leave the band , stating , " We should leave in time , leave Re and his new Reich , which , when I 'm taking into account Thorn 's previous reign , would be the Third over here . " Pitar and Maluma head toward the savanna , an action which alludes to both the expulsion from paradise and the Out of Africa theory . Only odd @-@ numbered chapters narrate the love story , which bookmarks the novel . Writer Karin Gayer mentions in her review that the love story of Pitar and Maluma , and its positioning within the text , offers " a second interpretation of the beginning and the end " .
= = Characters = =
In a conversation with the Viennese regional leader of publisher Arovell , Ebner revealed the hidden meanings of his characters ' names .
Akshaya : The name originates from Hindi ( specifically Sanskrit ) and signifies “ the indomitable ” . Akshaya is a female character with a firm personality , and belongs to the band although she often acts as an antepole in regard to Costello . In a certain sense she represents the matriarchal form of governance by daring to disagree with the alpha and making her own decisions .
Bongo : Originates from the African people and language and is also used for place names in several African countries , also alluding to Adriano Celentanos film Bingo Bongo and a kind of forest antelope . The novel presents Bongo as a clownish , male juvenile who teases the other members of the band but is protected from backlashes by his youth and humor .
Carpediem : Latin for " seize the day " , literally meaning " pluck the day " , which stems from a poem by Horace . Carpediem is Pitar 's closest friend and uses Latin quotations and expressions .
Costello : English @-@ Italian surname . Costello is the patriarch of the band . Keen on remaining in power , he recognizes that Pitar 's ideas might help him prevail . For this reason he supports Pitar .
Djamila : A female character who belongs to Costello 's harem . Her name stems from the Arabic language meaning " the pretty one " .
Ischa : A female character who belongs to Costello 's harem . Together with Djamila she woos the clan leader . Her name stems from the Semitic languages meaning " woman " .
Konrad : Old High German for " bold or good adviser " . Konrad is a follower of Re and acts as his speaker , also challenging and ridiculing Pitar 's ideas .
Lao : Depending on the intonation , the word is Chinese for " firm , solid " or " old " . It is also an allusion to either or both the philosopher Lao @-@ Tzu , author of the Tao Te Ching , or the Lao people who live in Southeast Asia . The character Lao quotes Chinese philosophers and is a friend of Pitar . When he leaves the band after the attack of the sabre @-@ tooth , he goes in the direction of East Africa and Asia .
Lucy : An allusion to Lucy , the skeleton of an Australopithecus afarensis specimen discovered in 1974 in Ethiopia . Lucy is the mother of most children in the band . At the end of the book she leaves for East Africa with Lao and Maluma .
Maluma : Maluma is an artificial word from synesthesia , representing curvy and smooth shapes . She becomes the loving companion of Pitar . Through Maluma , Pitar discovers the power and the sweets of love .
Manisha : This name stems from the Hindi and Sanskrit languages , signifying " the wise " . In Hinduism , Manisha is the goddess of the mind . Among the clan 's women , Manisha has a similar role as Lao has among the men . She easily holds her own in discussions with the males , and her reasoning is witty and logical .
Pitar The protagonist 's name stems from Sanskrit and means " father " ; its intonation lies on the second syllable : " Pitár " . Pitar narrates the story of which he is the main character .
Re : Italian for " king " , also an allusion to the ancient Egyptian sun god Re or Ra . Re is Costello 's opponent and antagonist . An aggressive character , he perceives Pitar as an enemy because of Pitar 's perceived support for the band 's leader . He repeatedly defies Costello but does not dare to start an open revolt . The attack of the sabre @-@ toothed cat , which kills Costello and some other members of the band , enables Re to become the leader at the end of the novel .
Rhododendron : Greek for " rose tree " , a genus of flowering plants in the family Ericaceae . The character Rhododendron is a male member of the band with an ecological attitude . Rhododendron is only a supporting actor in the story .
Ruth : Hebrew for " companion " . Ruth is a female band member with a distinctive strength of character . When the band is constructing their first windshield , she pushes a fervent discussion about labor law and commences a strike .
Thorn : This name stems from the Germanic languages and is the denomination of the rune Thurisaz “ Þ ” , pronounced as “ θ ” . Thorn is the eldest of the clan and considered a sage . He appears only in the first two chapters , at the end of which he dies . From a dynastic point of view , he was Costello 's predecessor .
= = Major themes = =
The novel addresses hominization from an ironic point of view . Mankind 's evolution from the ape @-@ like Australopithecus afarenses to modern society with history , technology and cultural expression is compressed into only seven days . The strong allusion to faith is contrasted by numerous references to scientific insights . With the evolution of mankind starting in Central Africa , Lucy is the name given to the first skeleton of an Australopitecus afarensis found . The characters mention that Homo erectus would be the hominid species to tame fire . Orrorin and Toumaï represent two of the oldest @-@ known hominin ancestors , while Aegyptopithecus zeuxis is one of the earliest primates . Through scientific references and a distinct ironic tone , Ingrid Reichel makes it clear in her review that the book cannot be taken in by any religion or fundamentalism .
While scholars know of patriarchal and matrifocal ancient societies , very little can be said about a society of a species , which is as remote as Australopithecus . On the basis of examples in today 's chimpanzee and bonobo societies , Klaus Ebner introduced both patriarchal and matriarchal characters in the novel , Costello and Akshaya . Some of the female characters are very strong and self @-@ conscious , such as Akshaya , who is so firm that even Costello retrocedes from her . While political power is controlled by the males , the social structure seems matrifocal and matrilineal , corresponding to the image of prehistoric societies exhibited by scholars .
Another theme is the love story between Pitar and Maluma . While the society of the band is depicted as driven by sexual attraction in a male hierarchy , the relationship between Pitar and Maluma leads them to break away from traditional habitudes . Pitar is not the alpha male , but he starts a love relationship on his own , in which Maluma quits Costello 's harem . The love story demonstrates love as a quite late cultural achievement of mankind . In addition , Karin Gayer emphasizes the significance of Pitar 's and Maluma 's love against the religious component in defining the love story and its positioning within the storyline as another concept " of the beginning and the end " .
= = Style = =
Hominid is a short novel which contains one single and linear storyline . However , it is subdivided into seven chapters , each standing for a narrated day . The satirical character of the book stems from the underlying grotesque scenario , the speeches of Pitar and his fellow hominids , the mentioning of artifacts which have not yet been invented , and the numerous allusions to world history and literature .
Steffen Roye from the German literary magazine Verstärker states in the title of his book review that Ebner has the characters of his story " talk as if they were modern @-@ day juveniles " . When it comes to allusions , a number of them consist of quotes , usually from classical Latin writers .
Ebner 's writing style is rich in detail , as Ingrid Reichel states , and she pinpoints the " artist of the word " . Similar judgments have been made by other critics when they reviewed the preceding works by Ebner , such as Wolfgang Ratz about Auf der Kippe or Julia Rafael about Lose .
= = Reception and criticism = =
Heinz Gerstinger thinks the book is a " history of the awakening of the spirit of mankind " . The author has the events glided " into the playful by his gently irony " . Several reviewers underline the narrative 's ironic and satirical aspect , including the names of the characters , Latin quotations and idioms as well as the parallelism between the seven days of Creation and scientific hominization . Ingrid Reichel points out the perfect publication date , just in time for the 150th anniversary of Charles Darwin 's theory of evolution . Similarly to other reviewers who had written about Ebner 's earlier books , she highlights the sophisticated use of a detail @-@ rich language which is " steeped in subtle and sensitive humor " .
Despite many explicit allusions to several world religions , Ingrid Reichel states that the novel is a book for “ readers with humor , for reasoners ( … ) , for darwinists , on no account for creationists , to a lesser extent for people of faith , but rather for atheists , … and fundamentalists drop out entirely ” . Another aspect is identified by Karin Gayer when pinpointing the parallel evolution of the patriarchal hierarchy in the narrated society and the alluded social matriarchy , the first resembling chimpanzee communities and the second representing those of bonobos . In addition , she points out the strength of the women characters . She declares that at the time of the Australopithecus , neither chimpanzees nor bonobos existed , but " the author is not interested in paleoanthropologic precisenesses — he is interested in mirroring our society , in exposing human behavior " . She compares Costello with the alpha of a community of chimpanzees and a classical manager , and Akshaya with bonobo females and a modern @-@ day career woman . With regard to these underlying comparisons , Gayer says , " On another level we are struck by the permanent notional commingling of the simian and the human , a composition which leaves us pensive and asks the legitimate question where we , who consider ourselves sapiens in a double sense , should finally classify man . "
The multitudinous allusions to well @-@ known and lesser @-@ known books , movies and sayings cause contradicting receptions . While Heinz Gerstinger and Ingrid Reichel explicitly highlight the comical effect of the insinuations , the German critic Steffen Roye regards them as sometimes " exaggerated " and says , " As the story develops , it becomes more and more like a revue . " The numerous expressions in foreign languages , especially in Latin , remain untranslated in the first edition . In her review , Ingrid Reichel invites the publisher to add a glossary to a new edition . The author subsequently released such a glossary on his own website .
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= Eisenhower dollar =
The Eisenhower dollar is a one @-@ dollar coin issued by the United States Mint from 1971 to 1978 ; it was the first coin of that denomination issued by the Mint since the Peace dollar series ended in 1935 . The coin depicts President Dwight D. Eisenhower on the obverse , with both sides designed by Frank Gasparro .
In 1965 , the Mint had begun to strike copper @-@ nickel clad coins instead of silver , due to rises in bullion prices . No dollar coins had been struck in thirty years , and none , initially , were minted in the new metal . Beginning in 1969 , legislators sought to reintroduce a dollar coin into commerce . After Eisenhower died in March of that year , there were a number of proposals to honor Eisenhower with the new coin . While these bills generally commanded wide support , enactment was delayed by a dispute over whether the new coin should be in base metal or 40 % silver . In 1970 , a compromise was reached to strike the Eisenhower dollar in base metal for circulation , and in 40 % silver as a collectible . President Richard Nixon signed legislation authorizing the new coin on December 31 , 1970 .
Although the collector 's pieces sold well , the new dollars failed to circulate to any degree , except in and around Nevada casinos , where they took the place of privately issued tokens . There are no dollars dated 1975 ; coins from that year and from 1976 bear a double date 1776 @-@ 1976 , and a special reverse by Dennis R. Williams in honor of the bicentennial of American independence . Beginning in 1977 , the Mint sought to replace the Eisenhower dollar with a smaller @-@ sized piece . Congress authorized the Susan B. Anthony dollar , struck beginning in 1979 , but that piece also failed to circulate . Due to their modest cost and the short length of the series , sets of Eisenhower dollars are becoming more popular among collectors .
= = Background = =
The silver dollar had never been a popular coin , circulating little except in the West ; it served as a means of monetizing metal and generally sat in bank vaults once struck . The Peace dollar , the last circulating dollar made of silver , was not struck after 1935 , and in most years in the quarter century after that , the bullion value of a silver dollar did not exceed 70 cents . In the early 1960s , though , silver prices rose , and the huge stocks of silver dollars in the hands of banks and the government were obtained by the public through the redemption of silver certificates . This caused shortages of silver dollars in the western states where the pieces circulated , and interests there sought the issuance of more dollars .
On August 3 , 1964 , Congress passed legislation providing for the striking of 45 million silver dollars . This legislation was enacted as coins vanished from circulation as the price of silver rose past the $ 1 @.@ 29 per ounce at which silver coins were worth more as bullion than as currency . The new pieces were intended to be used at Nevada casinos and elsewhere in the West where " hard money " was popular . Numismatic periodicals complained that striking the dollars was a waste of resources . The law had been passed at the urging of the Senate Majority Leader , Mike Mansfield ( Democrat – Montana ) , who represented a state that heavily used silver dollars . Despite the efforts of Mint Director Eva Adams and her staff to persuade him , Senator Mansfield refused to consider any cancellation or delay and on May 12 , 1965 , the Denver Mint began striking 1964 @-@ D Peace dollars — the Mint had obtained congressional authorization to continue striking 1964 @-@ dated coins into 1965 .
A public announcement of the new pieces was made on May 15 , 1965 , to be met with a storm of objections . Both the public and many congressmen saw the issue as a poor use of Mint resources at a time of severe coin shortages , which would only benefit coin dealers . On May 24 , one day before a hastily called congressional hearing , Adams announced that the pieces were deemed trial strikes , never intended for circulation . The Mint later stated that 316 @,@ 076 pieces had been struck ; all were reported melted amid heavy security . To ensure that there would be no repetition , Congress inserted a provision in the Coinage Act of 1965 forbidding the coinage of silver dollars for five years . That act also removed silver from the dime and quarter , and reduced the silver content of the half dollar to 40 % .
= = Inception = =
In 1969 , Nixon administration Mint Director Mary Brooks sought the reissuance of the dollar coin . By this time , rising bullion prices threatened the continued use of silver in the Kennedy half dollar , but Brooks hoped to maintain the dollar as a silver coin . Brooks ' proposal for a new silver dollar was opposed by the chairman of the House Banking Committee , Wright Patman , who had been convinced by Nixon 's predecessor , Lyndon Johnson , to support the continued use of silver in the half dollar against his better judgment .
On March 28 , 1969 , former president Dwight D. Eisenhower ( nicknamed " Ike " ) , a former World War II general , died . Soon after his death , New Jersey Representative Florence Dwyer , like Eisenhower a Republican , suggested that the proposed dollar coin bear his likeness . She spoke to Democratic Missouri Representative Leonor Sullivan , who agreed that the dollar should bear a portrait of Eisenhower as " equal time " to the half dollar , which bore the likeness of Democratic president Kennedy . A bill was filed by Connecticut Congressman Robert N. Giaimo to authorize an Eisenhower dollar , to be struck without silver content . The Joint Commission on the Coinage , drawing members from the administration and from Congress , including Giaimo , recommended the dollar in spring 1969 . It also called for the elimination of silver from the half dollar , and for the transfer from the Treasury to the General Services Administration ( GSA ) of quantities of rare silver dollars , so they could be sold . Giaimo noted that the coin would be useful in casinos , which were striking their own tokens in the absence of circulating dollar coins , and in the vending industry , which was starting to sell higher @-@ priced items .
On October 3 , 1969 , the House Banking Committee passed legislation for a silverless Eisenhower dollar , with Patman stating that he hoped to have it approved by the full House in time for the late president 's birthday on October 14 . On October 6 , the bill 's sponsors lost a procedural vote which would have allowed for no amendments . While some representatives spoke against the manner in which the legislation was to be considered , Iowa Congressman H. R. Gross objected to the base @-@ metal composition of the proposed coin : " You would be doing the memory of President Eisenhower no favor to mint a dollar made perhaps of scrap metal . " Both houses voted on October 14 , Eisenhower 's birthday . Although the House passed the administration @-@ backed bill for a base metal dollar , the Senate passed the bill as amended by Colorado Senator Peter Dominick , calling for the piece to be minted in 40 % silver . Instrumental in the passage of the Senate amendment was a letter from Mamie Eisenhower , recalling that her husband had liked to give silver dollars as mementoes , and had gone to some effort to obtain coins struck in the year of his birth , 1890 . Idaho Senator James McClure stated , " It is somehow beneath the dignity of a great president like General Eisenhower to withhold silver from the coin . " On October 29 , 1969 , Texas Representative Robert R. Casey introduced legislation to honor both Eisenhower and the recent Apollo XI Moon landing . These provisions would become part of the enacted bill authorizing the Eisenhower dollar . Casey originally wanted the mission theme of Apollo XI , " We came in peace for all mankind " to appear on the coin ; when the Mint informed him there was not room for that inscription , he settled for requiring that the reverse design be emblematic of that theme .
In March 1970 , the two houses reached a compromise whereby 150 million dollars would be struck in the 40 % silver alloy for collectors and others . The circulating dollar , though , would have no silver and would be struck in larger quantities . The 47 @.@ 4 million troy ounces of silver needed to strike the collectors ' pieces would come from bullion already held by the government . The compromise was worked out by McClure and other congressional Republicans , with the aid of Brooks , an Idahoan . McClure described the deal as " a lot less than the country deserves , but a lot more than it appeared we would get " . The reason for having a collector 's edition with silver was to avoid the hoarding which had driven the Kennedy half dollar from circulation .
Although the compromise passed the Senate in March 1970 , it was blocked in the House by Representative Patman , who was determined to end silver in the coinage . The Senate passed the bill again in September , this time attaching it as a rider to a bank holding company bill sought by Patman . The bill , which also included provisions to eliminate silver from the half dollar and to transfer the rare silver dollars to the GSA , was approved by a conference committee and passed both houses . Nixon had intended to let the bill pass into law without his signature . When aides realized that as Congress had adjourned , not signing the bill would pocket veto it , Nixon hastily signed it just before midnight on December 31 , 1970 , only minutes before the deadline .
= = Design = =
For Mint Chief Engraver Frank Gasparro , the opportunity to put Eisenhower on a coin was the fulfillment of a longtime dream . On June 19 , 1945 , Gasparro had been one of more than 4 million people who gathered in New York to watch a parade in honor of the Allied victory in Europe . Although Gasparro , then an assistant engraver at the Mint , only saw a glimpse of General Eisenhower , he stepped back from the crowd and sketched the general 's features . That sketch served as the basis of his design for the obverse . Gasparro consulted with the late president 's widow , Mamie Eisenhower , as to the designs of both sides of the coin ; the former First Lady was presented with a galvano ( a metallic model used in the coin design process ) by Brooks and Gasparro on January 1 , 1971 . Gasparro wrote in 1991 that he had six weeks to complete the work beginning in mid @-@ November 1970 , that his extensive research into eagles over the years was a great help in creating the reverse , and that his sketches were adopted without change . The chief engraver was not given full freedom of design ; he was instructed to have the layout of the obverse resemble that of the Washington quarter .
Before the legislation passed , Gasparro had prepared two reverses , the one actually used , and a reverse with a more formal heraldic eagle , which numismatic historian and coin dealer Q. David Bowers finds reminiscent of pattern coins prepared in the 1870s . At Congress 's insistence , the chief engraver created a design in commemoration of the Apollo XI lunar landing , based on the mission patch conceived by astronaut Michael Collins and others . Bowers deems the choice of the lunar landing " a stroke of genius " , allowing the dollar , which would be little @-@ used in commerce , to be a commemorative both of Eisenhower and of the Moon mission . The reverse depicts an eagle ( representing the lunar lander , Eagle ) swooping low over the Moon 's surface , holding an olive branch , token of peace , in its claws .
The use of Collins ' mission patch design had initially been opposed by some government officials because of the fierce expression of the eagle ; Gasparro 's initial concept met similar objections . The Mint Director recalled that Gasparro had gone to the Philadelphia Zoo to look at eagles , and on his return had prepared a design which she felt emphasized the eagle 's predatory nature . Brooks informed Gasparro that the eagle was " too fierce , too warlike , a little too aggressive " and asked that the expression be made friendlier . Gasparro , who reportedly was unhappy at having to change the eagle , described the final version as " pleasant looking " . The State Department also feared that the eagle 's expression might offend , and sought a neutral visage . The distant Earth may be seen above the bird , and there are 13 stars in honor of the original states .
Bowers deems the bust of Eisenhower " well modeled " by Gasparro , and notes that the fact that the eagle on the reverse holds only an olive branch , rather than arrows as well ( token of war ) , " meant that the public would like the design " . Nevertheless , he notes that Eisenhower 's stern expression was widely criticized as not typical of a man noted for geniality . Numismatic author David Lange opines that " the Eisenhower dollar is one of the poorest products to emanate from the U.S. Mint " . Lange writes that Gasparro had designed only one side of the coin for the Kennedy half dollar and Lincoln Memorial reverse for the cent , " the Eisenhower dollar was his design alone and should have served as a showcase for his talent . Sadly , it is a mediocre design that reveals his typically unnatural treatment of Ike 's hair and the eagle 's feathers . " Some collectors complained after the release that the Earth was not fully shown , not realizing that Gasparro had carefully followed the mission badge . The chief engraver responded by clarifying the design .
= = Release = =
Two prototype dollars were struck at the Philadelphia Mint on January 25 , 1971 ; they were subsequently destroyed . Striking such large pieces of tough copper @-@ nickel proved destructive to the Mint 's dies , and Gasparro repeatedly used the Janvier reducing lathe to lower the relief to be used on the circulation strikes and the uncirculated silver clad coins . The chief engraver altered the resulting master die directly to restore at least some of the detail which was lost as the relief was lowered . The proof coins struck at San Francisco , nevertheless , remained in high relief . This meant that in 1971 and for much of 1972 ( until better @-@ quality steel was used in the dies ) , the uncirculated strikes had a lower relief , less detailed surface , compared with the proof coins . Proof coins are struck slowly , and generally multiple times , to bring out the full detail . Striking of Eisenhower dollars for circulation began at Denver on February 3 , apparently without any ceremony ; minting at Philadelphia also began early in the year , although Bowers , in his comprehensive encyclopedia of silver and clad dollar coins , does not record a specific date . The first Eisenhower dollars in 40 % silver , with an uncirculated finish , were struck at the San Francisco Assay Office ( today the San Francisco Mint ) on March 31 , 1971 ; Brooks ceremoniously operated the presses . The first coin struck was for presentation to Mamie Eisenhower ; the second to David Eisenhower ( grandson of Dwight and Mamie Eisenhower ) and the third to David Eisenhower 's father @-@ in @-@ law , President Nixon .
On January 29 , 1971 , the Mint announced the prices for the 40 % silver pieces which would be struck at San Francisco : $ 3 for uncirculated specimens and $ 10 for mirror @-@ surfaced proof pieces , with orders to be taken by mail beginning on July 1 , with a limit of five of each per customer . Order forms for the public were shipped to 44 @,@ 000 post offices and 33 @,@ 000 banks , with instructions not to hand them out until June 18 . The Mint returned some orders for being sent in too early . Mint sets of the circulating coinage for 1971 did not include the Eisenhower dollar .
The first proof strikes , at San Francisco , took place in July . The proof pieces were sold in a plastic holder inside a brown box with a gold eagle seal ; the uncirculated silver pieces were encased in pliofilm inside a blue envelope . These were dubbed " brown Ikes " and " blue Ikes " and are still known by those terms . On July 27 , 1971 , President Nixon presented the first piece to be struck to Mamie Eisenhower at a White House ceremony . Sales of the 40 % silver pieces were ended on October 8 ; the first proof coins were mailed to collectors on October 14 , President Eisenhower 's birthday .
The circulation version of the Eisenhower dollar , the largest clad coin ever attempted by the Mint , was released through banks on November 1 , 1971 . Many were obtained by collectors ; there was sufficient demand that many banks imposed a limit of one coin per customer . The clad pieces were struck from coinage strip purchased by the Mint from contractors . Many were not well @-@ struck , causing collectors to search through rolls in search of better specimens . An oil film was found on a large number of specimens ; this was removed by collectors .
From the start , the coin failed to circulate . In 1976 , a Treasury study done in conjunction with a private @-@ sector firm found that the Eisenhower dollar had a near @-@ 100 percent attrition rate , that is , almost always , a coin was used in only one transaction , and then stopped circulating . ( by comparison , the attrition rate of the quarter was close to zero ) This was because of the coin 's large size , its weight , and the lack of potential uses for it . Even so , it was successful in replacing private @-@ issue tokens in Nevada casinos . According to numismatist Randy Camper , about 70 % of Eisenhower dollars were used in casinos . Although the vending machine industry lobbied for the Eisenhower dollar , they converted few machines to take the pieces . Lange recalled , " The fact is that these coins never circulated outside of casinos and nearby areas , and I don 't recall ever seeing a vending machine that accepted them . "
= = Production = =
= = = Early years ( 1971 – 1974 ) = = =
The Mint struck over 125 million of the Eisenhower dollars in 1971 , more than doubling its largest annual production for a dollar coin . Despite an increased mintage in 1972 to over 170 million , and despite what CoinAge magazine termed " near @-@ heroic measures on the part of the Mint " , the piece did not circulate . In a 1974 article for CoinAge , numismatist Clement F. Bailey noted , " the circulation value of the coin has been nil " . Many Eisenhower dollars were put aside as souvenirs by non @-@ collectors . Nevertheless , the silver coins sold so well that in October 1971 , Mint Director Brooks warned that orders for 1971 @-@ S proof dollars would not all be filled until well into 1972 . She ascribed the delay to the large public demand and to production difficulties which she indicated had been corrected . More than 11 million of the 1971 @-@ S silver pieces were sold , in proof and uncirculated , with nearly 7 million in proof . In May 1972 , Treasury Secretary John Connally , testifying before a Senate committee , described the profits the Mint had made on the silver version of the Eisenhower dollar as " just unconscionable " , with the average profit on a silver coin at $ 3 @.@ 89 , and expected to increase as production became more efficient . Mint officials felt that reducing the price would anger those who had already purchased the pieces .
The 1972 silver pieces were again struck at San Francisco . Sales dropped considerably , to just under 2 @.@ 2 million specimens in uncirculated and 1 @.@ 8 million in proof . The part @-@ silver 1972 @-@ S Eisenhower dollars were available for sale by mail order , with the ordering period from May 1 to July 15 for the proof coins and August 1 to October 16 for the uncirculated version .
With ample supplies of Eisenhower dollars , the Federal Reserve had no need to order any in 1973 , and none were struck for circulation . The 1973 and 1973 @-@ D were the first Eisenhower dollars struck for inclusion in mint sets , and were , in theory , only available that way . Many 1973 and 1973 @-@ D are known in circulated condition , leading to speculation that the 230 @,@ 798 pieces which were reported melted after the Mint failed to sell as many mint sets as anticipated , were in fact released into circulation . John Wexler , Bill Crawford , and Kevin Flynn , in their volume on Eisenhower dollars , deny this , citing a 1974 letter from Assistant Director of the Mint for Public Services Roy C. Cahoon , which stated that all 1973 Eisenhower dollars from unsold mint sets were melted . The 1973 @-@ S was struck for inclusion in base @-@ metal proof sets , as well as for the regular " blue Ikes " and " brown Ikes " . Sales of the part @-@ silver pieces dipped to a total of just under 2 @.@ 9 million . The coin was struck again for circulation in 1974 , was included in mint sets and proof sets , and was available in proof and uncirculated silver clad from San Francisco . Congress ordered that some of the money from the sale of 1974 @-@ S silver pieces be used to support Eisenhower College in Seneca Falls , New York . Coin collectors felt that this set a bad precedent , but about $ 9 million was paid to the college between 1974 and 1978 , but despite the infusion of money , the college closed its doors in 1982 .
= = = Bicentennial issue ( 1975 – 1976 ) = = =
The United States had issued commemorative coins between 1892 and 1954 , as a means for fundraising for organizations deemed worthy of federal support . A sponsoring organization would be designated in the authorizing legislation , and was permitted to buy up the issue at face value , selling it to the public at a premium , and pocketing the difference . Various problems with the issues , including mishandling of distributions and complaints that public coins should not be used for private profit , resulted in firm Treasury Department opposition to such issues , and none were struck after 1954 .
The American Revolutionary Bicentennial Commission ( ARBC ) was established by Congress in 1966 as an oversight body for the 1976 two @-@ hundredth anniversary of American independence ( the " Bicentennial " ) . In 1970 , its coins and medals advisory committee recommended the issuance of a special half dollar , and subsequently the committee sought the temporary redesign of circulating American coins . Brooks and the Mint initially opposed legislation to effect these proposals , but eventually Brooks supported legislation to redesign the reverses of the quarter , half dollar and dollar coins , and to issue special collector 's sets in silver clad . Legislation to authorize this was signed by President Nixon on October 18 , 1973 . By the terms of this legislation , coins of these denomination minted for delivery after July 4 , 1975 and before December 31 , 1976 would bear special reverses , and also be dated 1776 – 1976 . A total of 15 million sets ( 45 million ) coins in all would be struck in silver clad for sale to the public at a premium .
The reverse designs for the three Bicentennial coins were determined by a design competition open to the public . This competition closed in January 1974 , and in March , a design submitted by 22 @-@ year @-@ old art student Dennis R. Williams was selected for the dollar . Williams , the youngest person to that point to design a U.S. coin , had submitted a design depicting the Liberty Bell superimposed against the Moon . Gasparro slightly modified the design , simplifying the features visible on the lunar surface , and altering the lettering and the bell . Williams and the designers of the other denominations operated the presses to strike the first coins on August 12 , 1974 ; a set of these prototypes was later given to the new president , Gerald Ford . Williams ' design was liked by the public but attracted criticism in the numismatic community as the Liberty Bell had been previously used on coinage ( for example , on the Franklin half dollar ) . Fearing that a low @-@ mintage 1975 piece would be hoarded , the Mint obtained legislation in December 1974 allowing it to continue coining 1974 @-@ dated pieces until it began coinage of Bicentennial pieces .
The Bicentennial dollars were the first of the three denominations to be struck for distribution to the public ; these were coined beginning in February 1975 . The silver pieces were struck at San Francisco beginning on April 23 , 1975 . The Mint found that the copper nickel dollar was striking indistinctly , a problem not seen with the silver pieces . Brooks called a halt in production to allow Gasparro to modify the dies ; the most noticeable change is that the revised issue , or Type II as it came to be known , have narrower , sharper lettering on the reverse . All silver pieces ( struck only at San Francisco ) are Type I ; all three mints struck both Type I and Type II copper nickel pieces . All dollars included in 1975 proof sets are Type I ; all those included in 1976 proof sets are Type II . The first Bicentennial dollars were released into circulation on October 13 , 1975 . Over 220 million were struck . The Bicentennial design was not used after 1976 ; sets of silver clad Bicentennial coins were sold by the Mint until sales were finally closed at the end of 1986 .
One proof Bicentennial coin in silver clad and lacking a mint mark , similar to the dollar in the prototype set given to President Ford , is known . This piece supposedly came from a cash register drawer at the Woodward & Lothrop department store in Washington , D.C. Thomas K. DeLorey , who was then a reporter for Coin World , spoke to the discoverer and was suspicious of the story , thinking it more likely the coin was surreptitiously obtained from the government . He declined to question the origin then , fearing it might be seized and lost to the numismatic community . The piece brought almost $ 30 @,@ 000 by private sale in 1987 .
= = = Final years and replacement ( 1977 – 1978 ) = = =
By 1975 , the Treasury was concerned about the drain on resources from striking the dollar , which did not circulate . It engaged a private firm to study the six current denominations of U.S. coinage , and make recommendations . The firm concluded in its report that the Eisenhower dollar was too large and heavy to circulate effectively , but if the diameter was reduced by about a third , and the weight by two @-@ thirds , it might be used . That report found that " the Eisenhower dollar has not been widely accepted by the public because of its large size and weight " . In January 1977 , just prior to leaving office , Ford 's Treasury Secretary , William E. Simon , proposed the elimination of the cent and half dollar , and a reduction in size of the dollar . According to Bowers , the Treasury had come to believe that a coin as large as the Eisenhower dollar simply would not circulate in the United States .
The Mint struck pattern pieces of the smaller size , with various shapes and compositions . An 11 @-@ sided coin was considered , which would have differentiated it from the quarter , but the patterns would not work in vending machines . Such exotic metals as titanium were considered before the Mint decided on the standard clad composition . Gasparro prepared , for the circulating pieces , a design showing Liberty with flowing hair , similar to early American coins .
As the Eisenhower dollar awaited its demise , approximately 50 million per year were struck , using the eagle design for the reverse . In both years , the majority coined were at Denver . No silver collector 's edition was issued ; the blue and brown Ikes ended with 1974 .
The new Treasury Secretary , Michael Blumenthal supported Gasparro 's design in testimony before Congress ; Wisconsin Senator William Proxmire dubbed Blumenthal 's position a " cop @-@ out " . Proxmire refused to introduce the bill , which would have left the choice of design up to Blumenthal or his successor , instead introducing his own legislation , to commemorate early women 's rights leader Susan B. Anthony . Many in the new Congress and in the Carter Administration were social progressives , and supported women 's lib . Ohio Representative Mary Rose Oakar also introduced legislation for a Susan B. Anthony dollar in October 1978 ; it proceeded rapidly through Congress and was signed by President Jimmy Carter . Gasparro was given photographs of Anthony and told to reproduce her appearance exactly on the coin . Anthony 's stern expression caused some to dub it the " Susan B. Agony " dollar . The Eisenhower dollar 's reverse was used for the Anthony dollar . Convinced that the public would hoard the new pieces , the Mint Bureau produced half a billion before its official release to the public on July 2 , 1979 . It need not have worried ; the public quickly rejected the new coin as too close in size and weight to the quarter dollar , and production for circulation ceased after 1980 . Mint Director Stella Hackel Sims stated , " people are accustomed to the Eisenhower dollar , but in time , they 'll become accustomed to the Susan " . Attempts were made to give the new smaller dollars out as change in postal transactions , and to force their use by U.S. military personnel in Europe ; both failed .
= = Collecting = =
Collected by date and mint mark , no Eisenhower dollar is rare , and a complete set may be acquired without difficulty . However , many were badly struck , without full detail , especially in 1971 and 1972 , and the pieces acquired nicks , or " bag marks " from contact with each other soon after striking . Although lower @-@ grade silver coins can be melted , this is not practical for Eisenhower dollars due to the lack of precious metal content , and dealers often try to get any premium they can on face value . Completing a set of highest @-@ grade specimens may be difficult and expensive , especially for the 1971 and 1972 from Philadelphia or Denver , which were not sold in mint sets , and thus only came to collectors through banks . A 1973 @-@ D piece , tied with ten other specimens for the finest known of that date and mint mark in near @-@ pristine MS @-@ 67 condition sold in June 2013 for $ 12 @,@ 925 . According to numismatic writer Steve Reach , " as more people submit modern @-@ era coins like Eisenhower dollars for third @-@ party certification , the true rarity of many issues in top @-@ grades is becoming clear . "
Some of the 1971 @-@ D pieces exhibit a variety in which ( among several differences ) the eagle lacks brow lines , these have been dubbed by Eisenhower dollar specialists the " Friendly Eagle Pattern " . The 1972 dollar struck at Philadelphia is broken down into three varieties , which were made as Gasparro adjusted the design to take advantage of better steel being used in the Mint 's dies . A midyear change in the design was announced by Brooks at the American Numismatic Association 's 1972 convention in New Orleans , although she did not state exactly what was being changed . The three varieties may be differentiated by examining the depiction of the Earth on the reverse . Type I dollars show the Earth somewhat flattened , Florida pointing to the southeast , with the islands mostly to the southeast of the tip of the peninsula . The Earth is round and Florida points to the south on the Type II , with a single , large island to the southeast . The Type III is similar to the Type II , except that there are two islands directly to the south of the peninsula . The Type II is from a single reverse die , used in March 1972 , and erroneously placed in service at Philadelphia — it is identical to and should have been used for the silver proof strikes at San Francisco . The Type III was placed in service , replacing the Type I , in September 1972 . The Type I is most common ; the Type III design was used in 1973 and after . The 1972 Type II is expensive in top grades , as is the 1776 – 1976 Type I from Philadelphia , which was only available in mint sets .
Some 1971 @-@ S proof pieces ( and a few uncirculated 1971 @-@ S ) have the serifs at the foot of the " R " in " LIBERTY " missing ; this is dubbed the " peg leg " variety . The serifs are missing on all 1972 @-@ S , both uncirculated and proof . After the Mint obtained better steel for dies , the serifs returned for all of the remaining non @-@ Bicentennial coinage , from all mints , though the leg of the R was shortened , and also for the Type II Bicentennial ( the Type I lacks serifs on the R ) . Gasparro was often trying to improve the detail of Eisenhower 's head during the coin 's tenure , and as the R is the letter closest to it , these changes were most likely made in an effort to improve the flow of metal as the coins were struck .
In 1974 and again in 1977 , the Denver Mint struck a small number of pieces on silver @-@ clad planchets , or blanks . Both times , these came from planchets which had been shipped from the San Francisco Assay Office to Denver . The first ones in 1974 were found independently by two Las Vegas blackjack dealers . The 1974 planchets were initially intended to be used for " brown Ike " proof strikings ; Mint policy then was that rejected silver proof planchets were to be used for uncirculated " blue Ikes " , but these were placed in the bin for rejected copper @-@ nickel proof planchets , intended to be shipped to be coined for circulation at Denver . The 1977 pieces resulted from pieces rejected for Bicentennial silver proof use , which were again placed in the wrong bin ( they should have been melted , as the Mint was no longer striking silver uncirculated Eisenhower dollars ) . Between 10 and 20 of each date are known . Wexler , Crawford , and Flynn report an even rarer 1776 @-@ 1976 @-@ D dollar in silver , but state that none have been offered at auction or submitted to the major coin grading services .
Bowers notes that the Morgan dollar ( struck between 1878 and 1921 ) was not widely collected at the time , only to become very popular later , and suggests that one day , the turn of the Eisenhower dollar will come . Numismatist Charles Morgan said of the Eisenhower dollar in 2012 @,@
It stands today as the greatest achievement in clad coinage in U.S. history . It was the most technically challenging coin ever attempted ... Researching the Eisenhower Dollar is vital for numismatic historians who want to understand what the post @-@ silver era was like . The Eisenhower Dollar was a noble failure . In this respect , it truly is a perfect collectible coin .
= = Mintage figures = =
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= Kitchen Princess =
Kitchen Princess ( Japanese : キッチンのお姫さま , Hepburn : Kicchin no Ohime @-@ sama ) is a shōjo ( targeted towards girls ) cooking , romance manga series , featuring full professional recipes for every dish at the end of each chapter , written by Miyuki Kobayashi and illustrated by Natsumi Andō . Appearing as a serial in the manga magazine Nakayoshi from the September 2004 issue to the October 2008 issue , the forty @-@ seven chapters were compiled into ten bound volumes by Kodansha , and published from February 2005 to November 2008 . The series marked the first time that Ando illustrated a manga that was not also written by her . Set in modern @-@ day Japan , Kitchen Princess follows Najika Kazami , a cheerful thirteen @-@ year @-@ old who searches for her " flan prince , " a boy who rescued her from drowning as a young girl and brought a little happiness to her life after her parents ' death . In March 2008 , Kodansha published a related light novel , Kitchen Princess : Search for the Angel Cake , written by Kobayashi and illustrated by Ando .
In 2006 , Del Rey Manga licensed the series for an English @-@ language translation in North America . It published the ten volumes from January 2007 to July 2009 . Following Kodansha 's decision to publish in North America through an imprint , Kodansha Comics USA released a four @-@ volume omnibus edition from June 2012 to June 2013 . The series has been well received by English @-@ language readers , with the appearance of three volumes and one omnibus on various bestseller lists and the series appearing twice on ICv2 's annual list of the top twenty @-@ five manga properties . Critical reception ranged from positive to lukewarm , and the series won the 2006 Kodansha Manga Award for children 's manga .
= = Plot = =
Set in modern @-@ day Japan , the plot centers on Najika Kazami ( 風見 七虹香 , Kazami Najika ) , a cheerful thirteen @-@ year @-@ old with an excellent sense of taste who hopes to become a chef . In her backstory , it is revealed that a mysterious boy rescued her from drowning in Hokkaidō as a young , recently orphaned girl and gave her flan to cheer her up . Before he left , she promised to make him the best @-@ tasting dessert in the world . Now on a journey to find her " flan prince , " as she calls him , Najika attends Seika Academy in Tokyo , after she learned that the silver spoon her flan prince left her is unique to the school . There she befriends Sora Kitazawa ( 北沢 空 , Kitazawa Sora ) , the substitute director of the academy , and his younger brother Daichi Kitazawa ( 北沢 大地 , Kitazawa Daichi ) . Although teen model Akane Kishida ( 岸田 茜 , Kishida Akane ) initially dislikes her , they eventually become friends after Najika heals her eating disorder by making her her grandmother 's recipe . Najika periodically competes in cooking competitions , both formal and informal , while working at the diner run by the skilled , yet lazy chef Fujita ( フジタ ) .
Najika falls in love with Sora , after he tells her that he is her flan prince . However , he soon dies after being struck by a truck while on a journey to deliver some ingredients to Najika , and , in his final moments , admits that he lied about being her flan prince , having fallen in love with her . She loses her sense of taste out of sorrow , although she quickly recovers it . After Sora 's death , Daichi is unable to bring himself to act on his love for her , though he gives in to his father 's demands to protect Najika from being kicked out of the school and becomes the student body president to replace Sora . Wealthy and conceited junior pastry chef Seiya Mizuno ( 水野 星夜 , Mizuno Seiya ) also begins to attend the school , where he clashes with Najika , whom he had watched bake as a young girl at the orphanage . Seiya eventually falls in love with her , and tries to romantically pursue her , although he gives up when he realizes that she loves Daichi . After Daichi recovers a repressed memory of his mother 's death during a family trip to Hokkaidō — which Sora attempted to protect him from by lying about being Najika 's flan prince — he remembers that he is actually her flan prince , having given her a flan made by Seiya , and accepts her feelings for him . Joyful , she fulfills her promise to him by making him a crème brûlée .
= = Development = =
The writer of Kitchen Princess , Miyuki Kobayashi , is a novelist published under Kodansha 's X Bunko Teen Heart label . When deciding on a story , she first creates the names , then the plot : Najika 's name — meaning " seven " , " rainbow " and " fragrance " — was designed to be " ethnically ambiguous " and carry a sense of nature , while Daichi and Sora 's names , meaning " earth " and " sky " respectively , were meant " to match hers " . Akane 's name , which means " deep red , " was intended to evoke the evening sun for the reader . Kitchen Princess marked the first time that manga artist Natsumi Ando illustrated a manga that was not also written by her . Despite this , she did make some changes to the original script ; she suggested to Kobayashi that Hagio , the head of the orphanage , be an elderly woman and Fujita , initially an elderly woman , a " rugged man " . Ando made it a personal rule to have each of the splash pages contain an illustration of food .
= = Media = =
= = = Manga = = =
Written by Miyuki Kobayashi and illustrated by Natsumi Ando , the forty @-@ seven chapters appeared as a serial in the shōjo ( targeted towards girls ) manga magazine Nakayoshi from the September 2004 issue to the October 2008 issue . Kodansha collected the chapters into ten bound volumes , and published them from February 4 , 2005 , to November 6 , 2008 .
At the 2006 Comic @-@ Con , Del Rey Manga announced that it had licensed Kitchen Princess for an English @-@ language translation in North America . Del Rey published the volumes from January 30 , 2007 , to July 7 , 2009 . Following Kodansha 's decision to publish its titles in North America through an imprint , including those formerly licensed to Del Rey Manga , Kodansha Comics USA later published a four @-@ volume omnibus edition of Kitchen Princess from June 5 , 2012 , to June 18 , 2013 . Digital editions of the series have also been published by Kodansha in the United Kingdom . The series has also been licensed in Hong Kong , Korea , Thailand , and Taiwan .
= = = Light novel = = =
On March 19 , 2008 , Kodansha published a light novel written by Kobayashi and illustrated by Ando , Kitchen Princess : Search for the Angel Cake ( なかよし文庫 小説 キッチンのお姫さま 天使のケーキを探せ ！ , Nakayoshi Bunko Shōsetsu Kitchin no Ohime @-@ sama Tenshi no Kēki o Sagase ! ) . Comprising four story arcs named after the seasons , the novel follows Najika 's quest to duplicate a recipe for white cake for a classmate 's grandmother . Del Rey published an English @-@ language translation on November 10 , 2009 .
= = Reception = =
Kitchen Princess was well received by English @-@ language readers , with three original volumes and one omnibus volume placing on either BookScan 's list of the top twenty bestselling graphic novels , or The New York Times manga bestseller list . The sixth volume placed eighteenth on BookScan 's list for May 2008 . The seventh volume appeared at the fifteenth spot for BookScan 's list for August 2008 . In 2009 , the tenth volume debuted at the seventh place on The New York Times manga bestseller list for the week of July 5 to 11 ; during the following week , it dropped to the eighth place and remained there for another week . In 2012 , the second volume of the omnibus edition appeared at the ninth place for the week of October 14 – 20 . The series placed nineteenth on ICv2 's top twenty @-@ five manga properties for 2008 , dropping to the twentieth spot a year later . The series also placed seventh on ICv2 's list of the top ten shōjo properties for 2009 , and appeared at the eighth spot of the ten bestselling shōjo series for the first quarter of 2010 .
Kitchen Princess won the Kodansha Manga Award for children 's manga in 2006 . The series has received a range of reviews , from positive to lukewarm . Publishers Weekly enjoyed that Najika was not given a magical power and had to keep improving her cooking skills . Although the reviewer for School Library Journal described the series as " a perfectly ordinary romance manga , " he praised Nunzio Defilippis and Christina Weir 's adaptation of the manga . Deb Aoki of About.com listed the manga as one of the best shōjo series . Jason Thompson rated the series 3 @.@ 5 out of 4 stars , describing it as " [ a ] quick , delightful read . " Another reviewer for Publishers Weekly , Johanna Draper Carlsen , wrote that she found the manga reminiscent of the romantic comedy film Simply Irresistible ( 1999 ) and that the manga contained conventional shōjo aspects . In a later review of the second volume , she described the series as " entertaining enough , but it ’ s fluffy and forgettable ( like so many of the mousse items and drinks Najika makes ) . The volumes already feel familiar , even as I ’ m reading them for the first time . " Mania Entertainment 's Sakura Eries expressed her lukewarm feelings towards the first volume , writing that the reader 's suspension of disbelief was vital to enjoying the manga . She disliked the two @-@ dimensional characterization and Ando 's illustrations of the characters , although she felt that the food was well @-@ drawn . Comparing the series to others in the cooking genre , she wrote that it differed in that " cooking is Najika 's expression of self and her means of creating relationships and drawing others to common ground ( like the estranged Kitazawa Brothers ) . " In follow @-@ up reviews of the second and third volumes , she remained lukewarm to the series ; she praised Kobayashi 's portrayal of Akane 's eating disorder , though she disliked how Najika 's quest to find her flan prince seemed to become more of a side @-@ plot . Carlo Santos of Anime News Network praised Najika as a likeable protagonist and the characterizations as believable . He enjoyed the plot and recipes , although he wrote that the character designs lacked creativity , and criticized the plot clichés and the antagonists ' weak characterization . He had mixed feelings about the fourth volume 's emphasis on conventional shōjo romance and plot twists at the cost of its cooking aspect . He found the artwork conventional , though able to convey emotion . He wrote that the fifth volume finally balanced the romance and cooking elements , although he disliked the inclusion of a side story , preferring another chapter instead . In his review of the seventh volume , he concluded : " this series takes the hoariest elements of the romance / drama / cooking genres and still manages to come up with something greater than the sum of its parts . "
Reviews of the light novel varied . Draper Carlsen wrote that the characters and premise lacked the strength to make the novel compelling , though she felt that the response of others may differ . Grading the novel a B , Eries wrote that the novel would appeal to fans of the manga , although she found the story arcs varying in quality and content , from junior @-@ high school romance to philosophy on death .
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= River martin =
The river martins form a distinctive subfamily Pseudochelidoninae within the swallow and martin bird family Hirundinidae . The two species are the African river martin Pseudochelidon eurystomina , found in the Congo and Gabon , and the white @-@ eyed river martin Pseudochelidon sirintarae , known only from one site in Thailand . These are medium @-@ sized , largely black swallows that have a light buoyant flight and feed on insects caught in the air . They appear to be more terrestrial than other swallows , frequently walking rather than perching , and the white @-@ eyed may be crepuscular . The African species excavates nest holes in sandy ridges in rivers , while the breeding locations and habits of the Asian bird are unknown .
When the African river martin was first discovered in the 19th century , Gustav Hartlaub thought it was a roller , and later authors either placed it in its own family , or with the woodswallows . Study of the anatomy revealed that the species was closest to the swallows and martins , but that it possessed a number of distinctive features , such as its robust legs and feet and stout bill . These indicated that it should be placed in a separate subfamily . The two river martin species are usually considered to belong to a single genus , Pseudochelidon , due to their having a number of structural similarities . However , Brooke proposed that the white @-@ eyed river martin be placed in a separate monotypic genus Eurochelidon .
The African river martin has a restricted distribution ; it appears to be locally numerous , although its true status has not been fully investigated . The white @-@ eyed river martin was discovered as recently as 1969 and is only known from specimens and anecdotal evidence – no modern ornithologists have seen the species in the wild , and its breeding grounds are unknown . It may be extinct , although a possible sighting was reported in 2004 .
= = Taxonomy = =
When a specimen of the African river martin from Gabon was first formally described by German zoologist Gustav Hartlaub in 1861 , it was not initially identified as a member of the swallow and martin family . Hartlaub placed it with the rollers , and later authors either put it in its own separate family , or with the woodswallows . It was only following study of the anatomy of the species by Lowe that it was determined to be closely related to the swallows and martins , but sufficiently different that it could be placed in a separate subfamily Pseudochelidoninae . The genus name Pseudochelidon comes from the Ancient Greek prefix ψευδο / pseudo , " false " , and χελιδων / chelidôn , " swallow " , reflecting its distinctiveness from the " true " swallows .
For many years the African river martin was the sole member of its genus and subfamily until the discovery of the white @-@ eyed river martin , Pseudochelidon eurystomina , by Thai ornithologist Kitti Thonglongya in 1968 . Although some authorities follow Brooke in placing that species in a separate genus Eurochelidon due to its significant differences from the African species , it remains a member of the same subfamily . Genetic studies confirmed that the two river martins form a distinct clade from the typical swallows in the Hirundininae subfamily .
The river martins are in some ways intermediate between typical swallows and other passerines : they have stout bills , large feet and relatively strong legs , which is unusual in aerial feeders . They also have a large syrinx ( vocal organ ) and a different bronchial structure . The extent of their differences from other swallows and the wide geographical separation of these two martins suggest that they are relict populations of a group of species that diverged from the main swallow lineage early in its evolutionary history , and they may be the most primitive of the swallows . Like other early hirundine lineages , they nest in burrows , rather than adopted nest holes or mud nests .
= = Description = =
Both species are medium @-@ sized ( 14 – 18 cm or 5 @.@ 5 – 7 @.@ 1 in ) , mainly black @-@ plumaged swallows , unlikely to be confused with any other hirundine in their respective ranges . Adults of both species have large , blue @-@ glossed heads , a green tinge to the body plumage , and brown wings . The sexes are similar in plumage . The white @-@ eyed has elongated outer tail feathers , a whitish rump , a white eye and eye @-@ ring , and a yellow bill . The African has a red eye @-@ ring and bill and lacks a contrasting rump patch or tail streamers . The juveniles of both species are similar to the adults , but with brown heads , and young white @-@ eyeds lack the long tail streamers of the adults .
The African river martin has a chee chee or cheer @-@ cheer @-@ cheer call when it is flying in flocks . It is very vocal during migration , giving harsh gull @-@ like calls , and appears to have a jingling courtship song . No calls have been described for the white @-@ eyed river martin .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The two members of the subfamily have geographically separate ranges . The African river martin breeds along the Congo and Ubangi rivers in the Democratic Republic of the Congo . It is migratory , wintering in coastal savannah in southern Gabon and the Republic of Congo ; it has recently been discovered to nest in beach ridges and grassland in its coastal wintering areas . The white @-@ eyed river martin is known only from its wintering site at Bueng Boraphet lake in Thailand , where it was seen between the months of November and February . It may be migratory , but its breeding grounds and habitat are unknown , although river valleys in Northern Thailand or south @-@ western China are possibilities , as are Cambodia and Myanmar . However , doubts have been cast on whether it is actually migratory at all .
The African species ' breeding habitat consists of forested rivers with islands with sandy shores for breeding . The nesting grounds of the white @-@ eyed river martin are unknown , but if the breeding habitat resembles that of its relative , it is likely to be the forested valleys of large rivers , which can provide sandbars and islands for nesting , and woodland over which the birds can catch insect prey . The African river martin uses coastal savannah as its winter habitat . Based on its only known wintering site , the non @-@ breeding habitat of the white @-@ eyed is assumed to be in the vicinity of open fresh water for feeding , with reed @-@ beds for the night @-@ time roost .
= = Behaviour = =
Breeding behaviour is known only for the African river martin . It nests in large colonies of up to 800 birds from December to April , when the river levels are low . Each pair excavates a 1 – 2 m ( 39 – 79 in ) long tunnel in the exposed sandbanks . The pocket at the end of the tunnel has a few twigs and leaves to serve as a nest , onto which two to four unspotted white eggs are laid . It has chasing flight displays and will walk on the ground ; it also displays on the ground , but the function of this is uncertain . It rarely perches during the breeding season . Although it has been assumed that the breeding habits of the white @-@ eyed species resemble those of the African species , distinctive differences in foot and toe morphology suggest that it might not use a burrow for nesting .
The African river martin feeds in flocks over river and forest , often far from water . It eats insects , mainly taking winged ants . The flight is strong and fast , interspersed with glides . Wintering birds regularly perch on treetops , wires and roofs . The white @-@ eyed river martin feeds on insects , including beetles , which are caught on the wing . Given its size and unusual mouth structure , it may take larger insects than other swallows . This species is described as graceful and buoyant in flight , and , like its African relative , appears reluctant to use perches . This behaviour , together with its unusual toe @-@ shape and the fact that mud was found on the toes of one of the first specimens , suggests that this species may be relatively terrestrial . In winter , it roosts with barn swallows in reedbeds . Pamela C. Rasmussen suggested that , given its unusually large eyes , the species might be nocturnal or crepuscular , a factor that could make it highly cryptic and thus partly explain how such a distinctive species remained undetected for so long . Although the fact that the first specimens were supposedly collected roosting at night in reed @-@ beds might be a contraindication , it is possible that the birds might not actually have been caught at the roost ; or they might be crepuscular , feeding at dawn and dusk ; or they might be capable of both diurnal and nocturnal behaviour , depending on the season or local circumstances .
= = Status = =
The white @-@ eyed river martin was seen in Thailand in 1972 , 1977 and 1980 , but not definitely since . There are unconfirmed sightings from Thailand in 1986 and Cambodia in 2004 . It is classified as critically endangered by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources ( IUCN ) . This designation means that a species ' numbers have decreased , or will decrease , by 80 % within three generations . This species may be extinct , but the IUCN will not categorise it as such until extensive targeted surveys have been conducted . Despite legal protection under Appendix 1 of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora ( CITES ) agreement , it was captured by locals along with other swallows for sale as food or for release by devout Buddhists . Following its discovery by ornithologists , trappers were reported to have caught as many as 120 and sold them to the director of the Nakhon Sawan Fisheries Station who was unable to keep them alive in captivity . The small population may therefore have become non @-@ viable .
One factor that reduces the chances of re @-@ discovering the white @-@ eyed martin is the drastic decline in the numbers of swallows wintering at Bueng Boraphet , its only known site , from the hundreds of thousands reported around 1970 to maximum counts of 8 @,@ 000 made in the winter of 1980 – 1981 . It is not certain whether this represents a real decline or a shift in site in response to persecution . Other potential causes for the species ' decline include the disturbance of riverine sand bars , the construction of dams which flood the area upstream and alter the downstream hydrology , deforestation , and increasing conversion of its habitat to agriculture . Very few swallows now roost in the Bueng Boraphet reedbeds , preferring sugarcane plantations , and , despite searching , the white @-@ eyed river martin has not been found in other nearby large swallow roosts . Bueng Boraphet has been declared a non @-@ hunting area in an effort to protect the species , but surveys to find this martin have been unsuccessful . Past surveys include several at Bueng Boraphet , a 1969 survey of the Nan Yom and Wang Rivers of northern Thailand , and a 1996 survey of rivers in northern Laos . A possible unverified sighting was reported in 2004 .
The total population size of the African river martin is unknown . In the late 1980s , it appeared to be common , if local , and large numbers were seen on migration in Gabon . However , it is particularly poorly known in the Democratic Republic of the Congo ( DRC ) , and it is unclear if there is any relationship between the birds breeding in the DRC and those breeding in coastal areas of Gabon and the Republic of Congo . A flock of 15 @,@ 000 birds was seen in 1997 , and a mixed flock with rosy bee @-@ eater Merops malimbicus was estimated at 100 @,@ 000 birds ; nevertheless , due to the lack of detailed information , the species is classed by the IUCN as Data Deficient . In the 1950s , the species was caught and eaten in large quantities in the DRC by the local population , and this practice could be increasing . Breeding colonies in river sandbars are also liable to flooding , but thousands of birds were breeding on the grasslands east of Gamba as recently as 2005 .
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= Admiral Hipper @-@ class cruiser =
The Admiral Hipper class was a group of five heavy cruisers built by Nazi Germany 's Kriegsmarine in the mid @-@ 1930s . The class comprised Admiral Hipper , the lead ship , Blücher , Prinz Eugen , Seydlitz , and Lützow . Only the first three ships of the class saw action during World War II . Work on Seydlitz stopped when she was approximately 95 percent complete ; it was decided to convert her into an aircraft carrier , but this was not completed either . Lützow was sold incomplete to the Soviet Union in 1940 .
Admiral Hipper and Blücher took part in Operation Weserübung , the invasion of Norway in April 1940 . Blücher was sunk by Norwegian coastal defenses outside Oslo while Admiral Hipper led the attack on Trondheim . She then conducted sorties into the Atlantic to attack Allied merchant shipping . In 1942 , she was deployed to northern Norway to attack shipping to the Soviet Union , culminating in the Battle of the Barents Sea in December 1942 , where she was damaged by British cruisers . Prinz Eugen saw her first action during Operation Rheinübung with the battleship Bismarck . She eventually returned to Germany during the Channel Dash in 1942 , after which she too went to Norway . After being torpedoed by a British submarine , she returned to Germany for repairs . Admiral Hipper while decommissioned after returning to Germany in early 1943 , was partially repaired and recommissioned in the fall of 1944 for a refugee transport mission in 1945 . Only Prinz Eugen continued to serve in full commission and stayed in the Baltic until the end of the war .
Admiral Hipper was scuttled in Kiel in May 1945 , leaving Prinz Eugen as the only member of the class to survive the war . She was ceded to the US Navy , which ultimately expended the ship in the Operation Crossroads nuclear tests in 1946 . Seydlitz was towed to Königsberg and scuttled before the advancing Soviet Army could seize the ship . She was ultimately raised and broken up for scrap . Lützow , renamed Petropavlovsk , remained unfinished when the Germans invaded the Soviet Union . The ship provided artillery support against advancing German forces until she was sunk in September 1941 . She was raised a year later and repaired enough to participate in the campaign to relieve the Siege of Leningrad in 1944 . She served on in secondary roles until the 1950s , when she was broken up .
= = Design = =
= = = Development = = =
Article 181 of the Treaty of Versailles limited the German Reichsmarine to six battleships of the " Deutschland or Lothringen types " and six old light cruisers . These obsolete ships could not be replaced until they were at least twenty years old , and their replacements could displace no more than 10 @,@ 000 long tons ( 10 @,@ 000 t ) and 6 @,@ 000 long tons ( 6 @,@ 100 t ) , respectively . In February 1922 , the major naval powers signed the Washington Naval Treaty ; Germany was not invited to attend , but she would be held to the same qualitative limitations as the signatories . By the early 1920s , the cruisers of the Reichsmarine were old enough to permit replacement ; the three Königsberg @-@ class cruisers and Leipzig were built in the middle of the decade .
The 1930 London Naval Treaty formally divided cruiser types into two categories : heavy cruisers , armed with 20 @.@ 3 cm ( 8 @.@ 0 in ) guns , and light cruisers , armed with 15 @.@ 5 cm ( 6 @.@ 1 in ) guns . The Treaty of Versailles still prohibited Germany from building heavy cruisers , but the rise of Adolf Hitler 's Nazi Party to power in 1933 led to the formal rejection of the Treaty of Versailles . After pulling out of the Geneva Conference in 1933 , Hitler argued that if the other European powers did not disarm to parity with Germany , they should accept German rearmament . The German navy , renamed the Kriegsmarine on 21 May 1935 , was now free to pursue rearmament . Germany concluded the Anglo @-@ German Naval Agreement with Great Britain , which set German naval strength at 35 % of the size of the Royal Navy . This permitted Germany to build 50 @,@ 000 long tons ( 51 @,@ 000 t ) of heavy cruisers , enough for five 10 @,@ 000 @-@ ton ships .
The design for the first three of the five Admiral Hipper @-@ class ships was prepared in 1934 – 1935 . Seydlitz and Lützow were initially designed as light cruisers ; their design was prepared in 1934 – 1936 . These last two ships were to be armed with four triple turrets housing 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) guns , as opposed to the four twin 20 @.@ 3 cm ( 8 @.@ 0 in ) guns on the first three ships . The " light cruisers " were otherwise planned to follow the same particulars as their three " heavy " half @-@ sisters . On 14 November 1936 , the Navy decided to complete the final two ships identically to the other members of the class .
= = = General characteristics = = =
The ships of the Admiral Hipper class varied slightly in size . Admiral Hipper was 195 @.@ 5 meters ( 641 ft ) long at the waterline and 202 @.@ 8 m ( 665 ft ) overall . After the installation of a clipper bow during fitting out , her overall length increased to 205 m ( 673 ft ) . The ship had a beam of 21 @.@ 3 m ( 70 ft ) . Blücher was 195 m ( 640 ft ) long at the waterline and 203 @.@ 2 m ( 667 ft ) overall ; with the clipper bow , her overall length was 205 @.@ 9 m ( 676 ft ) . Her beam was 22 m ( 72 ft ) . Both ships had a designed draft of 6 @.@ 5 m ( 21 ft ) and a full load draft of 7 @.@ 2 m ( 24 ft ) . Prinz Eugen was 199 @.@ 5 m ( 655 ft ) at the waterline and 207 @.@ 7 m ( 681 ft ) long overall ; with the clipper bow , her overall length was 212 @.@ 5 m ( 697 ft ) . Her beam was 21 @.@ 7 m ( 71 ft ) and a draft of 6 @.@ 6 m ( 22 ft ) standard and 7 @.@ 2 m at full load . Seydlitz and Lützow were 210 m ( 690 ft ) long overall , with beams of 21 @.@ 8 m ( 72 ft ) and drafts of 6 @.@ 9 m ( 23 ft ) standard and 7 @.@ 9 m ( 26 ft ) at full load . Admiral Hipper and Blücher had a designed displacement of 16 @,@ 170 metric tons ( 15 @,@ 910 long tons ; 17 @,@ 820 short tons ) and a full load displacement of 18 @,@ 200 long tons ( 18 @,@ 500 t ) . Prinz Eugen 's displacement increased slightly , to 16 @,@ 970 t ( 16 @,@ 700 long tons ; 18 @,@ 710 short tons ) designed and 18 @,@ 750 long tons ( 19 @,@ 050 t ) full load . Seydlitz and Lützow grew heavier still , at 17 @,@ 600 t ( 17 @,@ 300 long tons ; 19 @,@ 400 short tons ) designed and 19 @,@ 800 long tons ( 20 @,@ 100 t ) full load .
The ships ' hulls were constructed from longitudinal steel frames . The hulls were divided into fourteen watertight compartments and a double bottom that extended for 72 percent of the length of the keel . The Kriegsmarine regarded the ships as good sea boats , with gentle motion . At low speed , however , they were affected unpredictably by wind and currents . The ships heeled up to fourteen degrees and lost up to 50 % speed with the rudder hard over at high speed . The ships had a standard complement of 42 officers and 1 @,@ 340 enlisted men . Wartime modifications increased the crew to 51 officers and 1 @,@ 548 sailors . The ships carried several smaller vessels , including two picket boats , two barges , one launch , one pinnace , and two dinghies .
= = = Machinery = = =
The Admiral Hipper @-@ class ships were powered by three sets of geared steam turbines . Admiral Hipper 's and Blücher 's engines were built by Blohm & Voss , while Prinz Eugen 's turbines were built by Germaniawerft . The turbines installed on Seydlitz 's and Lützow 's engines were manufactured by Deschimag . Steam was provided in the first three ships by twelve ultra @-@ high pressure boilers . Seydlitz and Lützow were equipped with nine double @-@ ended high @-@ pressure boilers . Admiral Hipper 's and Prinz Eugen 's boilers were manufactured by Wagner , while the boilers for the other three ships were built by La Mont .
Each turbine drove a three @-@ bladed screw 4 @.@ 1 m ( 13 ft ) in diameter . The ships ' engines were rated at 132 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 98 @,@ 000 kW ) for a top speed of 32 knots ( 59 km / h ; 37 mph ) . They carried 1 @,@ 420 to 1 @,@ 460 t ( 1 @,@ 400 to 1 @,@ 440 long tons ; 1 @,@ 570 to 1 @,@ 610 short tons ) of fuel oil as designed , though the ships could carry up to 3 @,@ 050 to 3 @,@ 250 t ( 3 @,@ 000 to 3 @,@ 200 long tons ; 3 @,@ 360 to 3 @,@ 580 short tons ) . At a cruising speed of 20 kn ( 37 km / h ; 23 mph ) , the ships had a maximum range of 6 @,@ 800 nautical miles ( 12 @,@ 600 km ; 7 @,@ 800 mi ) .
Steering was controlled by a single rudder . Admiral Hipper and Blücher were equipped with three electricity plants with four diesel generators and six turbo @-@ generators each ; the diesel generators supplied 150 kW apiece , four of the six turbo @-@ generators provided 460 kW , and the final pair provided 230 kW . Total electrical output was 2900 kW . Prinz Eugen , Seydlitz , and Lützow were equipped with three 150 kW diesel generators , four 460 kW turbo @-@ generators , one 230 kW turbo @-@ generator , and one 150 kW AC generator , for a total of 2870 kW . All five ships ' electrical plants operated at 220 volts .
= = = Armament = = =
The three completed ships were armed with eight 20 @.@ 3 cm ( 8 @.@ 0 in ) SK C / 34 guns in four twin turrets . The ships were supplied with between 960 and 1 @,@ 280 rounds of ammunition , or 120 to 160 rounds per gun . The guns were mounted in Drh LC / 34 turrets , which enabled depression to − 10 ° and elevation to 37 ° . At maximum elevation , the gun could reach out to 33 @,@ 540 m ( 110 @,@ 040 ft ) . It fired a 122 kg ( 269 lb ) projectile at a muzzle velocity of 925 meters per second ( 3 @,@ 030 ft / s ) . The projectiles included armor @-@ piercing shells , base @-@ fuzed and nose @-@ fuzed high @-@ explosive ( HE ) warheads . Each ship was also supplied with 40 illumination rounds that weighed 103 kg ( 227 lb ) and had a muzzle velocity of 700 m / s ( 2 @,@ 300 ft / s ) . The four gun turrets built for Seydlitz were emplaced as coastal artillery pieces in the Atlantic Wall . Only the two forward turrets had been installed on Lützow when she was delivered to the Soviet Union .
The ships ' heavy anti @-@ aircraft battery consisted of twelve 10 @.@ 5 cm ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) SK C / 33 guns in twin mountings . These guns were supplied with a total of 4 @,@ 800 rounds of ammunition . The mounts were the Dopp LC / 31 type , originally designed for earlier 8 @.@ 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) SK C / 31 guns . The LC / 31 mounting was triaxially @-@ stabilized and capable of elevating to 80 ° . This enabled the guns to engage targets up to a ceiling of 12 @,@ 500 m ( 41 @,@ 000 ft ) . Against surface targets , the guns had a maximum range of 17 @,@ 700 m ( 58 @,@ 100 ft ) . The guns fired fixed ammunition weighing 15 @.@ 1 kg ( 33 lb ) ; the guns could fire HE and HE incendiary rounds , as well as illumination shells .
Close @-@ range anti @-@ aircraft weaponry initially consisted of twelve 3 @.@ 7 cm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) SK C / 30 guns and eight 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) Flak 38 guns . The 3 @.@ 7 cm gun was a single @-@ shot gun , with a rate of fire of around 30 rounds per minute . At its maximum elevation of 85 ° , the gun had a ceiling of 6 @,@ 800 m ( 22 @,@ 300 ft ) . The 2 cm gun was a magazine @-@ fed automatic weapon , firing at up to 500 rounds per minute . Twenty and forty @-@ round magazines were supplied for the guns ; The guns were supplied with 16 @,@ 000 rounds of ammunition . Later in the war , the light anti @-@ aircraft batteries for Admiral Hipper and Prinz Eugen were modified . Four 3 @.@ 7 cm guns were removed and the number of 2 cm guns had increased to twenty @-@ eight . In 1944 , Prinz Eugen 's 3 @.@ 7 cm guns were replaced by fifteen 4 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) Flak 28 guns . By 1945 , the ship 's light anti @-@ aircraft battery comprised twenty 4 cm guns and eighteen 2 cm guns ; Admiral Hipper mounted sixteen 4 cm guns and fourteen 2 cm guns .
The ships ' armament was rounded out by twelve torpedo tubes ; they were mounted in four triple launchers on the ships ' main deck . The ships carried twenty @-@ four G7a torpedoes , twelve loaded in the tubes and one reload for each . The G7a torpedo carried a 300 kg ( 660 lb ) warhead . It had three speed settings ; in 1939 , it could reach 12 @,@ 500 m ( 41 @,@ 000 ft ) at 30 kn ( 56 km / h ; 35 mph ) , 7 @,@ 500 m ( 24 @,@ 600 ft ) at 40 kn ( 74 km / h ; 46 mph ) , and 5 @,@ 000 m ( 16 @,@ 000 ft ) at 44 kn ( 81 km / h ; 51 mph ) , its maximum speed setting . The 340 horsepower ( 250 kW ) radial engine was improved during the war , which improved performance . The ranges increased to 14 @,@ 000 m ( 46 @,@ 000 ft ) , 8 @,@ 000 m ( 26 @,@ 000 ft ) , and 6 @,@ 000 m ( 20 @,@ 000 ft ) , respectively . Admiral Hipper also carried 96 EMC mines ; these mines were contact mines and had a 300 kg explosive charge .
= = = Armor = = =
The five Admiral Hipper @-@ class ships were protected by Krupp steel armor , of both Wotan Hart and Wotan Weich types . The ships had two armored decks to protect the ship from vertical attacks . The upper deck was 30 mm ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) thick amidships to protect the ships ' vitals . At either end , the deck was reduced to 12 mm ( 0 @.@ 47 in ) thickness . The bow and stern was not protected by deck armor . The main armored deck was 20 to 50 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 to 1 @.@ 97 in ) thick . Both decks were Wotan Hart steel . The main armored belt was 80 mm ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) thick amidships and reduced to 70 mm ( 2 @.@ 8 in ) thick aft . An interior 20 mm thick torpedo bulkhead protected the ships ' vitals from underwater attack .
The ships ' main battery turrets were protected with 105 mm ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) thick faces and 70 mm thick sides . Their roofs were also 70 mm thick . The 10 @.@ 5 cm guns were equipped with 10 to 15 mm ( 0 @.@ 39 to 0 @.@ 59 in ) thick gun shields . The forward conning tower had 150 mm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) thick sides and a 50 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) thick roof . The rear conning tower was significantly less well armored , with only splinter protection . Their sides were 30 mm thick with a 20 mm thick roof . The anti @-@ aircraft fire directors were also given splinter protection , with 17 mm ( 0 @.@ 67 in ) thick shields .
= = Construction = =
Admiral Hipper ordered as " H " , as a replacement for the light cruiser Hamburg . She was laid down at the Blohm & Voss shipyard in Hamburg under construction number 501 , on 6 July 1935 . She was launched on 6 February 1937 and fitting out work was completed two years later in April 1939 ; the ship was commissioned into the Kriegsmarine on 29 April 1939 . Blücher , ordered as " G " to replace Berlin , was built by the Deutsche Werke shipyard in Kiel , under construction number 246 . Her keel was laid on 15 August 1936 and launched 8 June 1937 . Work on the ship was finished by 20 September 1939 , the day she was commissioned into the Kriegsmarine . Prinz Eugen , the last ship of the class to be completed , was ordered from the Germaniawerft shipyard in Kiel as " J " under construction number 564 . She was laid down on 23 April 1936 and launched on 22 August 1938 . She was commissioned into the Kriegsmarine on 1 August 1940 .
Seydlitz and Lützow were both built by the Deutsche Schiff- und Maschinenbau shipyard in Bremen ; Seydlitz was ordered as " K " , under construction number 940 , and Lützow was ordered as " L " under construction number 941 . Seydlitz was laid down on 29 December 1936 and Lützow followed her on 2 August 1937 . The ships were launched on 19 January 1939 and 1 July 1939 , respectively . Work ceased on Seydlitz when she was approximately 95 percent complete . In October 1939 , the Soviet Union approached Germany with a request to purchase the then unfinished Prinz Eugen , Seydlitz , and Lützow , along with plans for German capital ships , naval artillery , and other naval technology . The Kriegsmarine denied the request for Seydlitz and Prinz Eugen , but agreed to sell Lützow .
= = Service history = =
= = = Admiral Hipper = = =
Admiral Hipper led the assault on Trondheim during Operation Weserübung ; while en route to her objective , she sank the British destroyer HMS Glowworm . In December 1940 , she broke out into the Atlantic Ocean to operate against Allied merchant shipping , though this operation ended without significant success . In February 1941 , Admiral Hipper sortied again , sinking several merchant vessels before eventually returning to Germany via the Denmark Strait . The ship was then transferred to northern Norway to participate in operations against convoys to the Soviet Union , culminating in the Battle of the Barents Sea on 31 December 1942 , where she was damaged and forced to withdraw by the light cruisers HMS Sheffield and HMS Jamaica .
Enraged by the defeat at the battle , Adolf Hitler ordered the majority of the surface warships scrapped , though Admiral Karl Dönitz was able to convince Hitler to retain the surface fleet . As a result , Admiral Hipper was returned to Germany and decommissioned for repairs . The ship was never restored to operational status , however , and on 3 May 1945 , Royal Air Force bombers severely damaged Admiral Hipper while she was in Kiel . Her crew scuttled the ship at her moorings , and in July 1945 , she was raised and towed to Heikendorfer Bay . She was ultimately broken up for scrap in 1948 – 1952 ; her bell resides in the National Maritime Museum in Greenwich .
= = = Blücher = = =
Following her commissioning in November 1939 , Blücher conducted a series of sea trials and training exercises in the Baltic , which lasted until March 1940 . She was pronounced ready for service with the fleet on 5 April 1940 . Assigned to Group 5 during the invasion of Norway in April 1940 , the ship served as Konteradmiral Oskar Kummetz 's flagship . The ship led the flotilla of warships into the Oslofjord on the night of 8 April , to seize Oslo , the capital of Norway . Two old 28 cm ( 11 in ) coastal guns in the Oscarsborg Fortress engaged the ship at very close range , scoring two damaging hits . Two torpedoes fired by land @-@ based torpedo batteries struck the ship , causing serious damage . A major fire broke out aboard Blücher , which could not be contained . After a magazine explosion , the ship slowly capsized and sank , with major loss of life .
The wreck remains on the bottom of the Oslofjord ; several salvage attempts were considered after 1963 , but none were carried out . The ship 's screws were removed in 1953 and divers removed over 1 @,@ 000 t ( 980 long tons ; 1 @,@ 100 short tons ) of fuel oil from the ship 's bunkers in 1994 , though oil from unaccessible fuel tanks is still leaking from the sunken ship . At the time the divers removed the oil , they also recovered one of her Ar 196 floatplanes , which is preserved in Stavanger .
= = = Prinz Eugen = = =
Prinz Eugen saw extensive action during Operation Rheinübung , an attempted breakout into the Atlantic Ocean with the battleship Bismarck in May 1941 . The two ships engaged the British battlecruiser Hood and battleship Prince of Wales in the Battle of Denmark Strait , during which Hood was destroyed and Prince of Wales was severely damaged . Prinz Eugen was detached from Bismarck during the operation to raid Allied merchant shipping , but this was cut short due to engine troubles . After putting into occupied France and undergoing repairs , the ship participated in Operation Cerberus , a daring daylight dash through the English Channel back to Germany . In February 1942 , Prinz Eugen was deployed to Norway , although her time stationed there was cut short when she was torpedoed by the British submarine Trident days after arriving in Norwegian waters . The torpedo severely damaged the ship 's stern , which necessitated repairs in Germany .
Upon returning to active service , the ship spent several months training new officer cadets in the Baltic before serving as artillery support to the retreating German Army on the Eastern Front . After the German collapse in May 1945 , the ship was surrendered to the British Royal Navy before being transferred to the US Navy as a war prize . After examining the ship in the United States , the US Navy assigned the cruiser to the Operation Crossroads nuclear tests in the Bikini Atoll . After surviving both atomic blasts , Prinz Eugen was towed to Kwajalein Atoll where she ultimately capsized and sank in December 1946 . The wreck remains partially visible above the water ; one of her screws was salvaged and is on display at the Laboe Naval Memorial in Germany .
= = = Seydlitz = = =
At the time construction on Seydlitz was halted , she was approximately 95 percent complete . The unfinished ship remained inactive until March 1942 , when the Kriegsmarine decided to pursue aircraft carriers over surface combatants . Seydlitz was among the vessels chosen for conversion into auxiliary aircraft carriers . Renamed Weser , conversion work began on the ship in May 1942 . The majority of the superstructure was cut away , with the exception of the funnel , to prepare for the installation of a flight deck and an aircraft hangar . In total , approximately 2 @,@ 400 t ( 2 @,@ 400 long tons ; 2 @,@ 600 short tons ) of material from the ship was removed .
As a carrier , the ship was to have had a complement of ten Bf 109 fighters and ten Ju 87 dive @-@ bombers . She would have been armed with an anti @-@ aircraft battery of ten 10 @.@ 5 cm SK C / 33 guns in dual mounts , ten 3 @.@ 7 cm SK C / 30 guns in dual mounts , and twenty @-@ four 2 cm Flak 38 guns in quadruple mounts . Conversion work was halted in June 1943 , however , and the incomplete vessel was towed to Königsberg where she was eventually scuttled on 29 January 1945 . The ship was seized by the advancing Soviet Army and was briefly considered for cannibalization for spare parts to complete her sister ship Lützow , which had been purchased by the Soviet Navy before the war . This plan was also abandoned , and the ship was broken up for scrap .
= = = Lützow = = =
In October 1939 , the Soviet Union requested the purchase of the incomplete Lützow . After a series of negotiations , the Kriegsmarine agreed to the sale in February 1940 , at the price of 150 million Reichsmarks . The transfer was completed on 15 April . The vessel was still incomplete when sold to the Soviet Union , with only half of her main battery of eight 20 @.@ 3 cm ( 8 @.@ 0 in ) guns installed and much of the superstructure missing . Renamed Petropavlovsk in September 1940 , work on the ship was effected by a German @-@ advised Soviet shipyard in Leningrad . Still unfinished when Germany invaded the Soviet Union in June 1941 , the ship briefly took part in the defense of Leningrad by providing artillery support to the Soviet defenders . She was sunk by German artillery in September 1941 and raised a year later in September 1942 . After repairs were effected , the ship was renamed Tallinn and used in the Soviet counter @-@ offensive that relieved Leningrad in 1944 . After the end of the war , the ship was used as a stationary training platform and as a floating barracks before being broken up for scrap sometime between 1953 and 1960 .
= = See Also = =
List of ships of the Second World War
List of ship classes of the Second World War
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= 1st Filipino Infantry Regiment =
The 1st Filipino Infantry Regiment was a segregated United States Army infantry regiment made up of Filipino Americans from the continental United States and a few veterans of the Battle of the Philippines that saw combat during World War II . It was formed and activated at Camp San Luis Obispo , California , under the auspices of the California National Guard . Originally created as a battalion , it was declared a regiment on 13 July 1942 . Deployed initially to New Guinea in 1944 , it became a source of manpower for special forces and units that would serve in occupied territories . In 1945 , it deployed to the Philippines , where it first saw combat as a unit . After major combat operations , it remained in the Philippines until it returned to California and was deactivated in 1946 at Camp Stoneman .
= = Background = =
In 1898 , the Philippines was ceded by Spain to the United States and , after a conflict between Philippine independence forces and the United States , Filipinos were allowed to immigrate freely to the United States as U.S. nationals . Most immigrants chose to settle in the Territory of Hawaii and the West coast . In 1934 , U.S. policy changed and their status as nationals was revoked .
In 1941 , the Imperial Japanese Navy attacked Pearl Harbor , while other Japanese forces attacked the Philippines . Filipino Americans , like other Americans , attempted to volunteer for military service , but were not allowed to enlist since they were neither citizens nor resident aliens . Following a change in legislation it was announced on 3 January 1942 , the day after Manila fell , that Filipinos would be permitted to volunteer , and could be drafted , for military service ; in California , almost half of the male Filipino American population enlisted . Some who volunteered to serve were refused due to their age ; other older volunteers were refused due to the need for agricultural labor . Filipinos were strongly encouraged to volunteer for the Regiment , and only those who did so were assigned to it . Those who did not volunteer to serve in the Regiment served in regular ( white ) units in various theaters of operation . One example was PFC Ramon S. Subejano , who was awarded the Silver Star for actions in Germany .
= = History = =
= = = Stateside = = =
Constituted in March 1942 , the 1st Filipino Infantry Battalion was activated in April at Camp San Luis Obispo , to liberate the Philippines . Colonel Robert Offley was selected as the unit 's commanding officer , as he spoke Tagalog and had spent time on Mindoro in his youth . During the following months , Filipino Americans continued to volunteer and the unit grew . Philippine Army personnel who were in the United States and Filipino military personnel who had escaped the fall of the Philippines and were recuperating in the United States were also instructed to report to the unit . In July 1942 , the battalion was elevated to a regiment at the California Rodeo Grounds in Salinas , California . The Regiment was made up of three battalions , each consisting of a headquarters company and four infantry companies . The Regiment had a separate regimental headquarters company , a service company , an anti @-@ tank company , a medical detachment , and a band .
The Regiment continued to train and grow , leading to the activation of the 2nd Filipino Infantry Regiment at Fort Ord in November 1942 . The 2nd Regiment was assigned to Camp Cooke and the 1st to Camp Beale . Eventually , more than 7 @,@ 000 soldiers would be assigned to the Filipino Infantry Regiments . While at Camp Beale , there was a mass naturalization ceremony of 1 @,@ 200 soldiers of the Regiment . As members of the armed forces they were able to become citizens ; in 1924 naturalization of Filipino Americans had been barred , as it was determined that only aliens could be naturalized and Filipinos at the time were nationals . In November 1943 , it paraded through Los Angeles , with Carlos Bulosan , the influential Filipino author of America Is in the Heart , there to witness it .
Members of the Regiment faced discrimination during this period . The anti @-@ miscegenation laws in California meant that the soldiers were banned from marrying non @-@ Filipino women ; those soldiers who wished to marry in this way were transported to Gallup , New Mexico , as New Mexico had repealed its anti @-@ miscegenation law after the Civil War . Soldiers of the Regiment faced discrimination in Marysville while visiting from neighboring Camp Beale , as the local businesses refused to serve Filipinos . This was later remedied by the Regiment 's commander , who informed the Chamber of Commerce that they were failing to cooperate with the Army , at which point they changed their business practices . Further instances of discrimination against soldiers of the Regiment were also reported in Sacramento and San Francisco , where they were mistaken for Japanese Americans .
= = = Deployment = = =
In April 1944 , the Regiment departed California aboard the USS General John Pope for Oro Bay , New Guinea . On the way to New Guinea the Regiment spent part of June in Australia . Upon arriving at Oro Bay , it was assigned to the 31st Infantry Division , 8th Army to provide area security and continue training . Some soldiers were then assigned to the Alamo Scouts , the 5217th Reconnaissance Battalion , and to the Philippine Regional Section of Allied Intelligence Bureau . One example was Second Lieutenant Rafael Ileto , a future Vice Chief of Staff in the Philippines , who led a team in the Alamo Scouts . Due to the reassignment of these soldiers , both Filipino Infantry Regiments became smaller than authorized . In response , the 2nd Filipino Infantry Regiment was disbanded and used to bring the 1st Filipino Infantry Regiment to 125 % of its standard allocated size . The remaining soldiers of the 2nd Filipino Infantry Regiment who did not join the Regiment formed the 2nd Filipino Infantry Battalion ( Separate ) . During its time at Oro Bay the Regiment was reinforced with Filipinos from Hawaii . These men had not been able to enlist in the Army until 1943 as the Hawaiian Sugar Planters ' Association had successfully argued that their labor was needed in the sugar industry .
In February 1945 , the Regiment was sent to Leyte and was assigned to the Americal Division , 10th Corps . It would later be reassigned back to the 8th Army , in May 1945 , along with the Americal Division . Finally in the Philippines , it conducted " mopping up " operations on Leyte , Samar , and other islands in the Visayan islands group . In addition , some of the companies of the Regiment provided security for 8th Army General Headquarters , Far East Air Force , two airstrips at Tanauan and Tacloban , and Seventh Fleet Headquarters . Other soldiers would also participate in the Luzon Campaign , fighting on the Bataan Peninsula , and the recapture of former Fort Mills ; the Regiment was not awarded formal campaign participation for these individual actions .
= = = Post @-@ combat = = =
By August 1945 , operations came to a close due to the Japanese Emperor 's decision to end the war following the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki . Soldiers of the Regiment who had been detached to the Alamo Scouts , 5217th Reconnaissance Battalion , and other units were reassigned back to it . During the period between the close of operations and their return to the United States , and without the Imperial Japanese Army to fight , the men of the Regiment clashed with soldiers of the Philippine Commonwealth Army and Philippine Constabulary over differences in pay , culture and local women . Others married women under the War Brides Act , which allowed spouses and adopted children of United States military personnel to enter the U.S. For these newly married couples , a " tent city " was established by Colonel William Hamby , who had succeeded Offley as the Regiment Commander . Many younger soldiers connected to a culture to which they had previously only had a distant relationship , learning language and customs that were not used or practiced in the United States .
Soldiers of the Regiment who did either not qualify to return to the U.S. , either due to having insufficient service points or their being otherwise ineligible , and those who chose to remain in the Philippines , were transferred to 2nd Filipino Infantry Battalion ( Separate ) in Quezon City . Returning to the United States aboard the USS General Calan on 8 April 1946 , the rest of the Regiment was sent to Camp Stoneman , near Pittsburgh , California , where it was deactivated on 10 April 1946 .
= = Legacy = =
During the war the efforts of Filipino and American defenders during the Battle of Bataan were widely covered by the press , as were the actions of the 100th and 442nd Infantry . After the war , the efforts of the 442nd continued to be lauded , with the 1951 film Go for Broke ! portraying their endeavors . By contrast , the activities of the Filipino Infantry Regiment and her sister units were largely unpublicized ; it was not until the documentaries Unsung Heroes and An UnTold Triumph that any significant visual media covered the history of the Regiment . In 1984 an association of veterans of the Regiment erected a marker in Salinas in honor of their former unit .
The War Brides Act of 1945 , and subsequent Alien Fiancées and Fiancés Act of 1946 , continued to apply until the end of 1953 , allowing veterans of the Regiment , and other Filipino American veterans , to return to the Philippines to bring back fiancées , wives , and children . In the years following the war , some sixteen thousand Filipinas entered the United States as war brides . These new Filipino American families formed a second generation of Filipino Americans , significantly expanding the Filipino American community .
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= City and South London Railway =
The City and South London Railway ( C & SLR ) was the first deep @-@ level underground " tube " railway in the world , and the first major railway to use electric traction . The railway was originally intended for cable @-@ hauled trains , but owing to the bankruptcy of the cable contractor during construction , a system of electric traction using electric locomotives — an experimental technology at the time — was chosen instead .
When opened in 1890 , the line had six stations and ran for 3 @.@ 2 miles ( 5 @.@ 1 km ) in a pair of tunnels between the City of London and Stockwell , passing under the River Thames . The diameter of the tunnels restricted the size of the trains , and the small carriages with their high @-@ backed seating were nicknamed padded cells . The railway was extended several times north and south , eventually serving 22 stations over a distance of 13 @.@ 5 miles ( 21 @.@ 7 km ) from Camden Town in north London to Morden in Surrey .
Although the C & SLR was well used , low ticket prices and the construction cost of the extensions placed a strain on the company 's finances . In 1913 , the C & SLR became part of the Underground Group of railways and , in the 1920s , it underwent major reconstruction works before its merger with another of the Group 's railways , the Charing Cross , Euston & Hampstead Railway , forming a single London Underground line called the Morden @-@ Edgware line . In 1933 , the C & SLR and the rest of the Underground Group was taken into public ownership . Today , its tunnels and stations form the Bank Branch of the Northern Line from Camden Town to Kennington and the southern leg of the line from Kennington to Morden .
= = Establishment = =
In November 1883 , notice was given that a private bill was to be presented to Parliament for the construction of the City of London & Southwark Subway ( CL & SS ) . The promoter of the bill , and engineer of the proposed railway , was James Henry Greathead , who had , in 1869 – 70 , constructed the Tower Subway using the same tunnelling shield / segmented cast iron tube method proposed for the CL & SS . The railway was to run from Elephant and Castle , in Southwark , south London , under the River Thames to King William Street in the City of London . The tracks were to be in twin tunnels 10 ft 2 in ( 3 @.@ 1 metres ) in diameter , running for a distance of 1 @.@ 25 miles ( 2 @.@ 01 km ) .
The bill received royal assent as the City of London and Southwark Subway Act , 1884 on 28 July 1884 . Section 5 of the Act stated :
The works authorised by this Act are as follows :
A subway commencing ... near ... Short Street at the ... junction ... with Newington Butts and terminating at King William Street ...
The subway shall consist of two tubes for separate up and down traffic and shall be approached by means of staircases and by hydraulic lifts .
In 1886 , a further bill was submitted to Parliament to extend the tunnels south from Elephant and Castle to Kennington and Stockwell . This received assent on 12 July 1887 as the City of London and Southwark Subway ( Kennington Extensions , & c . ) Act , 1887 , allowing the construction of the extension to be added to the work on the original route , which had begun in 1886 . The tunnels on this section were of a slightly larger diameter – 10 ft 6 in ( 3 @.@ 2 m ) and extended the line by a further 1 @.@ 75 miles ( 2 @.@ 82 km ) . Before the railway opened , a further bill received assent , granting permission to continue the line south to Clapham Common . The act was published on 25 July 1890 as the City and South London Railway Act , 1890 , also effecting a change of the company 's name .
= = Haulage and infrastructure = =
Given the small dimension of the tunnels as well as the difficulty of providing sufficient ventilation , steam power , as used on London 's other underground railways , was not feasible for a deep tube railway . Like Greathead 's earlier Tower Subway , the CL & SS was intended to be operated by cable haulage with a static engine pulling the cable through the tunnels at a steady speed . Section 5 of the 1884 Act specified that :
The traffic of the subway shall be worked by ... the system of the Patent Cable Tramway Corporation Limited or by such means other than steam locomotives as the Board of Trade may from time to time approve .
The Patent Cable Tramway Corporation owned the rights to the Hallidie cable @-@ car system first invented and used in San Francisco in 1873 ; trains were attached to the cable with clamps , which would be opened and closed at stations , allowing the carriages to disconnect and reconnect without needing to stop the cable or to interfere with other trains sharing the cable . There were to be two independent endless cables , one between City station and Elephant and Castle moving at 10 mph , and the other between Elephant and Castle and Stockwell , where the gradient was less , at 12 mph . However , the additional length of tunnel permitted by the supplementary acts challenged the practicality of the cable system .
It is reported that this problem with the CL & SS contributed to the bankruptcy of the cable company in 1888 . However , electric motor traction had been considered all along , and much engineering progress had been made since the tunnel 's construction had begun in 1886 . So , CL & SS chairman Charles Grey Mott decided to switch to electric traction . Other cable @-@ operated systems using the Hallidie patents continued to be designed , such as the Glasgow Subway which opened in 1896 .
The solution adopted was electrical power , provided via a third rail beneath the train , but offset to the west of centre for clearance reasons . Although the use of electricity to power trains had been experimented with during the previous decade , and small @-@ scale operations had been implemented , the C & SLR was the first major railway in the world to adopt it as a means of motive power . The system operated using electric locomotives built by Mather & Platt collecting a voltage of 500 volts ( actually + 500 volts in the northbound tunnel and − 500 volts in the southbound ) from the third rail and pulling several carriages . A depot and generating station were constructed at Stockwell . Owing to the limited capacity of the generators , the stations were originally illuminated by gas . The depot was on the surface , and trains requiring maintenance were initially hauled up via a ramp although , following a runaway accident , a lift was soon installed . In practice , most rolling stock and locomotives went to the surface only for major maintenance .
To avoid the need to purchase agreements for running under surface buildings , the tunnels were bored below roadways , where construction could be carried out without charge . At the northern end of the railway , the need to pass deep beneath the bed of the River Thames and the medieval street pattern of the City of London constrained the arrangement of the tunnels on the approach to King William Street station . Because of the proximity of the station to the river , steeply inclined tunnels were required to the west of the station . Because of the narrow street under which they ran , they were bored one above the other rather than side by side as elsewhere . The outbound tunnel was the lower and steeper of the two . The tunnels converged immediately before the station , which was in one large tunnel and comprised a single track with platforms either side . The other terminus at Stockwell was also constructed in a single tunnel but with tracks on either side of a central platform .
= = Opening = =
The railway was opened officially by Edward , Prince of Wales ( later Edward VII ) on 4 November 1890 . It was opened to the public on 18 December 1890 . Initially , it had stations at :
Stockwell
The Oval ( now Oval )
Kennington
Elephant & Castle
Borough
King William Street
The original service was operated by trains composed of an engine and three carriages . Thirty @-@ two passengers could be accommodated in each carriage , which had longitudinal bench seating and sliding doors at the ends , leading onto a platform for boarding and alighting . It was reasoned that there was nothing to look at in the tunnels , so the only windows were in a narrow band high up in the carriage sides . Gate @-@ men rode on the carriage platforms to operate the lattice gates and announce the station names to the passengers . Because of their claustrophobic interiors , the carriages soon became known as padded cells . Unlike other railways , the C & SLR had no ticket classes or paper tickets ; when the railway began operations , a flat fare of two pence , collected at a turnstile , was charged . Despite the cramped carriages and competition from bus and tram services , the railway attracted 5 @.@ 1 million passengers in 1891 , its first year of operation . To alleviate overcrowding , the fleet of rolling stock was enlarged .
= = Extensions to Clapham Common and Angel , 1890 – 1901 = =
Shortly before it opened to the public , the C & SLR gave notice of its intention to submit another private bill to Parliament , to construct a new line from its northern terminus at King William Street towards Islington . Because of the awkward arrangement of King William Street station , the extension was not to be connected directly to the existing running tunnels but was to be linked via a pedestrian subway through which passengers could make interchanges between the separate lines . The bill was rejected on the grounds that the extension failed to make a connection to the existing line . In November 1891 , the C & SLR published details of a revised bill for the extension to Islington . The company had recognised the deficiencies of its King William Street station and , just a year after the line had opened , planned to construct a new pair of tunnels to bypass the problematic northern section .
Near Borough station the new tunnels would branch off via a new station to form an interchange with the SE & CR and the LB & SCR at London Bridge mainline station . The tunnels would then pass to the east of London Bridge , north through the City of London to Angel . Following a delay , during which a Joint Select Committee reviewed the proposals of several new underground railways , the City and South London Railway Act , 1893 received royal assent on 24 August 1893 . The Act also incorporated another bill of 1893 to grant an extension of time to build the southern extension to Clapham .
Construction of the two authorised extensions was delayed while funds were raised and plans were finalised . Between 1895 and 1898 , three further bills were put before Parliament to keep the permissions alive and obtain additional approvals :
1895 : an extension of time for the 1890 Act and to allow for a new approach tunnel to be built into King William Street station . Approved as the City and South London Railway Act , 1895 on 14 April 1895 .
1896 : an extension of time for the 1893 Act and changes to the construction of Bank station . Approved as the City and South London Railway Act , 1896 on 14 August 1896 .
1898 : an extension of time for the 1896 Act , plans to add sidings to the southern extension at Clapham Common and plans to sell King William Street station and its approach tunnels to the newly proposed City and Brixton Railway ( C & BR ) . Approved as the City and South London Railway Act , 1898 on 23 May 1898 .
The new tunnels permitted by the 1895 Act enabled the track layout at King William Street station to be modified to a single central platform with a track each side . This was opened as a temporary measure while funds for the extensions were raised . Finance was eventually obtained and construction proceeded so that the King William Street section closed and the first section of the northern extension opened on 25 February 1900 , with stations at :
London Bridge
Bank
Moorgate Street
The southern extension opened on 3 June 1900 , with stations at :
Clapham Road
Clapham Common
Like the original Stockwell station and the rearranged King William Street , Clapham Road and Clapham Common were constructed with a single station tunnel , with a central platform served by tracks on each side .
Work continued on the rest of the northern extension . The City and South London Railway Act , 1900 , approved on 25 May 1900 , gave permission to enlarge the station tunnel at Angel to a diameter of 9 @.@ 2 m ( 30 ft ) and the rest of the extension opened on 17 November 1901 , with stations at :
Old Street
City Road ( closed 1922 )
Angel
= = Extension to Euston , 1901 – 1907 = =
Despite the technical innovations of the railway and the large passenger demand , the C & SLR was not particularly profitable and the rapid series of extensions aimed at improving profits had placed a strain on the finances . The dividends were low and declining ( 2 ⅛ % in 1898 , 1 ⅞ % in 1899 and 1 ¼ % in 1900 ) and the company had been accused of extravagance for the abandonment of King William Street station . In an attempt to work around this poor reputation and make it easier to raise funds , the next bill for an extension of the line was submitted in November 1900 by a notionally separate company , the Islington and Euston Railway ( I & ER ) , albeit one that shared its chairman with the C & SLR . The proposed railway was to run from the as yet unfinished C & SLR station at Angel to the main @-@ line stations at King 's Cross , St Pancras and Euston . The I & ER bill coincided with a rash of other railway bills encouraged by the successful opening of the Central London Railway ( CLR ) in 1900 and was considered alongside these by another Parliamentary Joint Committee in 1901 . The bill was approved , but the time taken for the committee 's review meant that it had to be resubmitted for the 1902 Parliamentary session .
In the 1902 session , the bill was considered again but was subject to opposition from one of London 's other underground railways , the Metropolitan Railway ( MR ) , which considered the proposed extension to be a threat to its service between King 's Cross and Moorgate . The I & ER also submitted a petition to allow the C & SLR to take over the powers of the railway if approved . The committee reversed its earlier decision and rejected the bill . In November 1902 , the C & SLR submitted a bill in its own name for the Euston extension as well as the authority to take over the dormant powers of the C & BR . At Euston , the railway would have an interchange with the planned but not yet built Charing Cross , Euston & Hampstead Railway ( CCE & HR ) . The intention for C & BR powers was to adapt them to provide a new station at King William Street , which would have pedestrian subway connections to the C & SLR 's Bank station and the District Railway 's ( DR 's ) Monument station . A third pair of tunnels would be constructed under the Thames to connect with the original abandoned tunnels north of Borough station and then the C & BR route would be constructed as previously approved with connections to the existing C & SLR route at London Bridge and Oval . This time , the bill was approved and received royal assent as the City and South London Railway Act , 1903 on 11 August 1903 . Although the C & BR proposals were never implemented , the Euston extension was quickly built and opened on 12 May 1907 , with stations at :
King 's Cross
Euston
= = Cooperation and consolidation , 1907 – 1919 = =
By 1907 , Londoners had seen the network of deep tube underground railways expand from the original C & SLR line of 1890 with its six stations to a network of seven lines serving more than 70 stations . These companies , along with the sub @-@ surface Metropolitan Railway and District Railway , criss @-@ crossed beneath the city streets , competing with one another for passengers as well as with the new electric trams and motor buses . In several cases pre @-@ opening predictions of passenger numbers had proven to be over optimistic . The reduced revenues generated from the lower numbers of passengers using the lines made it difficult for the operators to pay back the capital borrowed and pay dividends to shareholders .
In an effort to improve their collective situations , most of the underground railways in London : the C & SLR , the CLR , the Great Northern & City Railway and the Underground Electric Railways Company of London ( UERL , which operated the Baker Street & Waterloo Railway ( BS & WR ) , the Great Northern , Piccadilly & Brompton Railway ( GNP & BR ) , the CCE & HR and the DR ) began , from 1907 , to introduce fare agreements . From 1908 , they began to present themselves through common branding as the Underground . The Waterloo & City Railway , operated by the main @-@ line London and South Western Railway , was the only tube railway that did not participate in the arrangement .
In 1912 , the C & SLR submitted another bill for Parliamentary consideration seeking to increase its capacity by enlarging its tunnels to the larger diameter used for the tunnels of the more recently built railways to allow larger , more modern rolling stock to be used . A separate bill was published at the same time by the London Electric Railway ( LER , a company formed by the UERL in 1910 through a merger of the BS & WR , GNP & BR and CCE & HR ) , which included plans to construct tunnels to connect the C & SLR at Euston to the CCE & HR 's station at Camden Town . Together , the works proposed in these bills would enable the CCE & HR 's trains to run over the C & SLR 's route and vice versa , effectively combining the two separate railways .
On 1 January 1913 the UERL purchased the C & SLR , paying two shares of its own stock for three of the C & SLR 's , a discount reflecting the struggling financial position of the older company . Both bills were enacted on 15 August 1913 , as the City and South London Railway Act , 1913 and the London Electric Railway Act , 1913 .
The proposed extension and tunnel enlargement works were delayed by World War I and it was not until after the war that works could begin .
= = Reconstruction , connections and extension , 1919 – 1926 = =
In February 1919 , with the war over , the C & SLR submitted a new bill that included provisions for an extension of time for the tunnel enlargement works approved in the act of 1913 . The resulting act was passed on 19 August 1919 as the City and South London Railway Act , 1919 . In 1920 , under special wartime provisions , the LER was granted an extension of time to carry out the works for its own 1913 act . Although the permissions to carry out the works had been renewed , the Underground companies were not in a position to raise the funds needed to pay for the works . Construction costs had increased considerably during the war years and the returns produced by the companies could not cover the cost of repaying borrowed capital .
The projects were made possible when the government introduced the Trade Facilities Act , 1921 by which the Treasury underwrote loans for public works as a means of alleviating unemployment . With this support , the Underground companies were able to obtain the funds and work began on enlarging the tunnels of the C & SLR .
The tunnels were enlarged by removing several of the cast iron segments from each tunnel ring , excavating a void behind to the required new diameter and reinstalling the segments with additional packing spacers . The northern section of the C & SLR between Euston and Moorgate was closed from 8 August 1922 , but the rest of the line remained open with enlargement works taking place at night . A collapse on 27 November 1923 caused when a train hit temporary shoring on the incomplete excavations near Elephant & Castle station filled the tunnel with soil . The line was briefly operated in two parts , but was completely closed on 28 November 1923 .
The Euston to Moorgate section reopened on 20 April 1924 , along with the new tunnels linking Euston to Camden Town . The rest of the line to Clapham Common reopened on 1 December 1924 . At the same time as the tunnels were being enlarged , the stations were modernised , with longer platforms , a new tiling scheme on platform and passageway walls and new frontages to the surface buildings . Some stations also received escalators to replace the original lifts .
While the reconstruction works were underway , the C & SLR submitted a bill in 1922 that contained proposals to extend the line south from Clapham Common through Balham and Tooting to Morden in tunnel . From Morden , the line was to continue on the surface to Sutton sharing part of the route of an unbuilt railway planned from Wimbledon to Sutton ( see Wimbledon and Sutton Railway for full details ) .
The bill was enacted as the City and South London Railway Act , 1923 on 2 August 1923 . Parallel negotiations with the Southern Railway over the proposals curtailed the extension at Morden , where a large new depot was constructed . The Morden extension opened on 13 September 1926 , with stations designed by Charles Holden at :
Clapham South
Balham ( opened on 6 December 1926 )
Tooting Bec ( originally Trinity Road )
Tooting Broadway
Colliers Wood
South Wimbledon
Morden
Also on 13 September 1926 a further connection between the CCE & HR and the C & SLR was opened when tunnels were brought into service from the CCE & HR 's Charing Cross station ( now Embankment ) to Kennington station rebuilt with four platforms . An intermediate station was constructed at Waterloo . Thus fully integrated , combined services operated over the C & SLR and CCE & HR routes using new Standard Stock trains . On tube maps the combined lines were shown in a single colour , although the separate names continued in use into the 1930s . " Edgware , Highgate and Morden line " and " Morden @-@ Edgware line " were used in the mid 1930s before the adoption of " Northern line " on 28 August 1937 .
= = Move to public ownership , 1924 – 1933 = =
Despite the modernisation of the C & SLR and other improvements made to other parts of the network , the Underground railways were still struggling to make a profit . The Underground Group 's ownership of the highly profitable London General Omnibus Company ( LGOC ) since 1912 had enabled the Group , through the pooling of revenues , to use profits from the bus company to subsidise the less profitable railways . However , competition from numerous small bus companies during the early years of the 1920s eroded the profitability of the LGOC and had a negative impact on the profitability of the whole Group .
In an effort to protect the Group 's income , its Managing Director / Chairman , Lord Ashfield , lobbied the government for regulation of transport services in the London area . During the 1920s , a series of legislative initiatives was made in this direction , with Ashfield and Labour London County Councillor ( later MP ) Herbert Morrison , at the forefront of debates as to the level of regulation and public control under which transport services should be brought . Ashfield aimed for regulation that would give the existing Group protection from competition and allow it to take substantive control of the LCC 's tram system ; Morrison preferred full public ownership . Eventually , after several years of false starts , a bill was announced at the end of 1930 for the formation of the London Passenger Transport Board , a public corporation that would take control of the Underground Group , the Metropolitan Railway as well as all buses and trams within an area designated as the London Passenger Transport Area . The Board was a compromise – public ownership but not full nationalisation – and came into existence on 1 July 1933 . On this date , the C & SLR and the other Underground companies were liquidated .
= = Legacy = =
The technologies of deep tube tunnelling and electric traction pioneered and proved by the C & SLR shaped the direction of subsequent underground railways built in London . The C & SLR demonstrated that an underground railway could be constructed without the need to purchase large and expensive tracts of land for the shallow cuttings of sub @-@ surface steam operated railways . Instead , it became possible to construct a tunnel at deep level without adversely affecting conditions on the surface . The C & SLR thus encouraged the construction of a network of underground railways in London , far larger than might have been the case otherwise . The size and depth of the tunnels used on the deep tube lines , including the Northern line , does have drawbacks : the tunnels have a limited loading gauge and the lines suffer from overheating in the summer .
During World War II , the disused tunnels between Borough and King William Street stations were converted for use as an air @-@ raid shelter , with entrances to the shelter at King William Street and at six sites south of the Thames ( of nine planned ) . In the 1960s the disused tunnels were used to assist the ventilation of London Bridge station and all the entrances bar that at 9 London Bridge Street were infilled with concrete . It is now only possible to access the tunnels from Three Castles House or a passage from the Jubilee line at London Bridge . Most of the C & SLR 's six original station buildings were rebuilt or modified during the improvements to the line in the 1920s or during more recent modernisations . Only the building at Kennington retains its original exterior and the dome over the lift shaft , a feature of all the original stations .
= = Rolling stock = =
= = = Locomotives = = =
See City & South London Railway locomotives for more information
= = = Carriages = = =
= = = Preserved stock = = =
A number of the C & SLR 's vehicles have been preserved .
Locomotive 35 had been placed on display on a pedestal at the Metropolitan line 's Moorgate station following the C & SLR 's reconstruction . It was badly damaged during an air raid , and was eventually removed . Carriage number 39 survived for over two decades after withdrawal as a summer house at Watlington , Oxfordshire .
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= 1990 – 91 South Pacific cyclone season =
The 1990 – 91 South Pacific cyclone season was one of the least active cyclone seasons , with only three tropical cyclones occurring within the South Pacific basin which is to the east of 160 ° E. The season officially ran from November 1 , 1990 , to April 30 , 1991 with the first disturbance of the season forming on November 23 and the last disturbance dissipating on May 19 . This is the period of the year when most tropical cyclones form within the South Pacific Ocean . During the season there was no deaths recorded from any of the tropical cyclones while they were within the basin . However six people were killed by Cyclone Joy , when it made landfall on Australia . As a result of the impacts caused by Joy and Sina , the names were retired from the tropical cyclone naming lists .
During the season , tropical cyclones were monitored by the Tropical Cyclone Warning Centers ( TCWC ) in Nadi , Fiji , and in Wellington , New Zealand . Whilst tropical cyclones that moved to the west of 160 ° E were monitored as a part of the Australian region . Both the United States Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) and the Naval Western Oceanography Center ( NWOC ) issued unofficial warnings within the southern Pacific . The JTWC issued warnings between 160 ° E and the International Date Line whilst the NWOC issued warnings for tropical cyclones forming between the International Date Line and the coasts of the Americas . Both the JTWC and the NWOC designated tropical cyclones with a number and a P suffix with numbers assigned in order to tropical cyclones developing within the whole of the Southern Hemisphere . TCWC Nadi , TCWC Wellington and TCWC Brisbane all use the Australian Tropical Cyclone Intensity Scale and estimate wind speeds over a ten @-@ minute period , while the JTWC estimates sustained winds over a one @-@ minute period , which are subsequently compared to the Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale ( SSHWS ) .
= = Seasonal summary = =
As a result of the South Pacific Convergence Zone being both weaker and located further to the north than in previous seasons and the Madden – Julian oscillations being weaker and less regular defined than in previous tropical cyclone seasons . As a result , only three tropical cyclones occurred within the South Pacific basin between 160 ° E and 120 ° W , which made the season one of the least active on record . The first tropical cyclone was first noted as a shallow depression on November 20 before it was named Sina on November 24 after it had intensified into a tropical cyclone . After peaking as a category three severe tropical cyclone on the Australian tropical cyclone intensity scale , Sina affected Fiji , Tonga , Niue and the Southern Cook Islands with total damage estimated at over 18 @.@ 5 million before it was last noted on December 4 , as it was absorbed by an advancing trough of low pressure near 50 ° S. During December 15 , the precursor tropical low to Cyclone Joy developed near the Solomon Islands . Over the next two days the system moved westwards , before it moved into the Australian region during December 17 . The system was subsequently named Joy on December 19 , before it made landfall on Queensland during December 26 .
The basin then remained quiet until March when three significant tropical depressions including 15 and 16P were observed within the Coral Sea / Australian region , which did not develop into tropical cyclones but were subject to gale warnings . 15P was first noted on March 3 , while it was located about 900 km ( 560 mi ) to the east of the Solomon Islands and over the next couple of days subsequently moved south @-@ westwards and out of the South Pacific basin during the next day . 16P was first noted on March 14 , while located about 300 km ( 185 mi ) to the southeast of Honiara in the Solomon Islands . Over the next couple of days the system moved towards the south @-@ east before the JTWC designated the system 16P and initiated advisories on it during March 18 after it had moved into the South Pacific basin . Over the next couple of days the system , moved towards the south @-@ southeast before it turned towards the southwest and passed over New Caledonia on March 20 , before it was last noted during the next day moving out of the basin . The final tropical cyclone of the season , Lisa , moved into the Southern Pacific on May 11 at its peak intensity of 110 km / h ( 75 mph ) . During the next day as the storm moved towards the subtropical jet , Lisa rapidly weakened into a tropical depression before passing over Anatom Island without causing any significant damage . After the season both the names Sina and Joy were retired from the naming lists for the region , while it was determined that a weak gale force tropical cyclone had affected Tonga between December 14 – 17 .
= = Storms = =
= = = Severe Tropical Cyclone Sina = = =
On November 20 , the FMS started to monitor a shallow tropical depression that had developed within the South Pacific Convergence Zone to the west of Wallis Island . Over the next three days the system moved towards the west @-@ northwest and the Fijian dependency of Rotuma , before the JTWC initiated advisories and classified the depression as Tropical Cyclone 03P during November 24 . TCWC Nadi subsequently named the system Sina after the depression had developed into a category 1 tropical cyclone on the Australian scale , while it was located about 425 km ( 265 mi ) to the northwest of Rotuma . During the next day the cyclone continued to intensify and developed an eye as it moved erratically towards the west @-@ southwest and performed a small clockwise loop . During that day Sina 's eye became very distinct on satellite imagery , as it intensified and the upper level steering flow which resulted in Sina moving erratically towards the southeast and Fiji . Later that day TCWC Nadi reported that the system had peaked as a category 3 severe tropical cyclone , with 10 @-@ minute sustained wind speeds of 140 km / h ( 85 mph ) .
The JTWC subsequently reported early the next day that Sina had peaked with 1 @-@ minute sustained wind speeds of 140 km / h ( 85 mph ) , which made it equivalent to a category 4 hurricane on the SSHWS . Sina remained at its peak intensity for most of that day , before it started to gradually weaken as it passed about 40 km ( 25 mi ) to the south of Viti Levu before it passed over the island groups of Vatulele and Moala and the Southern Lau Islands during November 28 . Early on November 29 , Sina weakened into a category two tropical cyclone on the Australian scale just before it passed to the north of Tongatapu in Tonga . During that day the system moved eastwards towards the Southern Cook Islands and gradually weakened further . Early the next day , the system passed about 160 km ( 100 mi ) to the south of Niue , before it recurved sharply towards the south @-@ southeast later that day as it approached the Southern Cook Islands . The system subsequently rapidly weakened and transitioned into an extratropical cyclone under the influence of strong vertical wind shear and cooler sea surface temperatures . Over the next couple of days Sina 's extratropical remnants maintained a southeastward track , before it was absorbed by an advancing trough of low pressure near 50 ° S on December 4 .
The cyclone caused no deaths and over US $ 18 @.@ 5 million in damages , as it affected Fiji , Tonga , Niue and the Southern Cook Islands . Ahead of the system affecting Fiji , hundreds of holiday makers were evacuated from Fiji 's outer island resorts to hotels on the mainland . High winds and heavy rain forced the closure of several local airports and the main Nadi International Airport . As Sina moved through the archipelago , the system destroyed or damaged houses and other building structures , while bringing down electric and telephone lines and uprooting trees . The system also washed away a railway bridge on Vanua Levu that was used to take sugar cane to Labasa 's mills , growers had no choice but to go through the village of Korowiri . However , the workers refused to go into their fields unless they had police protection to go through the village , after Methodists from the local church attacked a group of growers for working on Sundays in defiance of Fiji 's Sunday Observance Decree . Within Tonga only minor damage to weak structures , trees , banana plantations , electric and telephone lines was recorded . Within both Niue and the Southern Cook Islands only minor damage to crops and structures was reported .
= = = Tropical Cyclone Lisa = = =
Tropical Cyclone Lisa moved into the South Pacific from the Australian region during May 11 , while it was a Category 2 tropical cyclone with sustained wind speeds of 110 km / h ( 75 mph ) . Over the next couple of days , Lisa moved south @-@ eastwards and passed in between the Vanuatuan islands of Tanna and Anatom as it gradually weakened and lost its tropical cyclone characteristics . Lisa 's remnants subsequently started to deepen during May 14 , under the influence of an upper level mid latitude trough and reached a secondary peak intensity of 100 km / h ( 65 mph ) . Over the next few days the system continued to move towards the southeast while slowly weakening until it was last noted dissipating about 2 @,@ 600 km ( 1 @,@ 615 mi ) to the east of Wellington , New Zealand . There were no reports of any significant damage associated with Lisa in Papua New Guinea , Vanuatu or the Solomon Islands .
= = = Other systems = = =
On December 15 , in response to the formation of Typhoon Russ , in the North @-@ Western Pacific Ocean , a tropical low developed about 500 km ( 310 mi ) to the south @-@ east of Honiara in the Solomon Islands . Over the next two days the moved westwards before it moved into the Australian basin during December 17 , where it was later named Joy . A weak gale force tropical cyclone affected Tonga between December 14 – 17 .
During March , three significant tropical depressions including 15 and 16P were observed within the Coral Sea / Australian region , which did not become tropical cyclones on the Australian scale but were subject to gale warnings . 15P was first noted on March 3 , while it was located about 900 km ( 560 mi ) to the east of the Solomon Islands and over the next couple of days subsequently moved south @-@ westwards and out of the South Pacific basin during the next day . 16P was first noted on March 14 , while located about 300 km ( 185 mi ) to the southeast of Honiara in the Solomon Islands . Over the next couple of days the system moved towards the south @-@ east before the JTWC designated the system 16P and initiated advisories on it during March 18 after it had moved into the South Pacific basin . Over the next couple of days the system moved towards the south @-@ southeast before it turned towards the southwest and passed over New Caledonia on March 20 , before it was last noted during the next day as it moved back into the Australian region .
= = Season effects = =
This table lists all the storms that developed in the South Pacific to the east of longitude 160 ° E during the 1990 – 91 season . It includes their intensity on the Australian tropical cyclone intensity scale , duration , name , landfalls , deaths , and damages . All data is taken from the warning centers from the region unless otherwise noted .
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= Al Costello =
Giacomo Costa ( 14 December 1919 – 22 January 2000 ) was an Italian Australian professional wrestler best known by his ring name , Al Costello . Costello was the first professional wrestler to be nicknamed " The Man of a Thousand Holds " because of his innovative and very technical style .
Costello was the creator and original member of the tag team The Fabulous Kangaroos , whose " Ultra Australian " gimmick complete with boomerangs , bush hats and the song " Waltzing Matilda " as their entrance music , existed in various forms from 1957 until 1983 . Costello was either an active wrestler , or a manager in all versions of The Fabulous Kangaroos . He and Roy Heffernan are arguably the most famous version of The Kangaroos , regarded as one of the top tag teams to ever compete in professional wrestling , and are often credited with popularizing tag team wrestling in the late 1950s and 1960s .
Costello later formed other versions of The Fabulous Kangaroos with Ray St. Clair , Don Kent and Tony Charles . He also managed the team of Don Kent & Bruno Bekkar and later on " Johnny Heffernan " under The Fabulous Kangaroos name .
Costello officially retired from wrestling in 1983 but still made a few brief returns to the ring after that . In 1993 , he managed The New Fabulous Kangaroos ( Denny Kass and Al Snow ) before retiring completely from the wrestling business . Both Costello and his tag team partner Heffernan died before Kangaroos were honored as the first tag team to ever be inducted into the Professional Wrestling Hall of Fame in 2003 , which started a tradition of inducting a new team every year .
= = Growing up = =
Costa was born in Lingua di Salina , Italy , near Sicily , and lived there until his family immigrated to Australia when he was six years old . The family settled in Rockdale , New South Wales , where Costa helped out in his father ’ s fruit store . He excelled at school sports , and became interested in weightlifting at an early age . At age 16 , Costa took up amateur boxing despite his father ’ s wishes that he should become an opera singer . Costa was approached by Australian middleweight wrestling champion " Basher Bonas " , who convinced him to try wrestling . Costa made his debut under an assumed name ; his father still had hopes of him becoming an opera singer , and he did not want his parents to find out that he was wrestling . He came up with the name " Al Costello " , thinking it sounded tough like a portmanteau of Al Capone and Frank Costello .
= = Wrestling career = =
Al Costello made his professional wrestling debut in 1938 , but the man that would be known as " The Man of a Thousand Holds " 20 years later , found little success early in his career . The general belief in Australian professional wrestling at the time was that a wrestler had to go to North America and learn how to be a pro before the bookers would even consider pushing them up the card . Costello travelled across Asia , where he did see some success ; he won the Malaysian Heavyweight title in 1939 , as well as the South Africa trophy in 1949 . During the 1950s , Costello finally started to turn heads at home by winning the Australasian title . In 1952 , Costello began wrestling in America , hoping to finally break through and make a big name of himself .
= = = Fabulous Kangaroos = = =
For years , Al Costello had been working on an idea for a new tag team ; he even knew who he wanted for a partner : a wrestler he had worked with some years ago named Roy Heffernan . Because Costello and Heffernan had lost touch over the years , the idea remained dormant until Costello toured Hawaii in 1956 . Costello mentioned his idea of an " Ultra Australian " tag team to fellow wrestler , and future promoter , Joe Blanchard . Blanchard happened to be a good friend of Roy Heffernan and knew he was working in Stampede Wrestling at the time . Blanchard put the two in touch with each other , and Costello was soon off to Calgary , Alberta , Canada to join Heffernan and finally make his tag team a reality . Costello and Heffernan debuted as " The Fabulous Kangaroos " on 3 May 1957 for Stu Hart ’ s Stampede Wrestling promotion in a match against Maurice LaPointe and Tony Baillargeon . Only weeks after that first match , The Kangaroos were working with the top tag teams in the promotion .
After working in Stampede for a while , The Fabulous Kangaroos started to travel across the United States , headlining shows wherever they went due to their ability to rile up crowds with their heel ( bad guy ) tactics . On one occasion in August 1958 , The Kangaroos , or " Kangaroo Men " as they were billed , nearly caused a riot in Madison Square Garden during a match against Antonino Rocca and Miguel Pérez ; the fans began to throw fruit and stones at them . After the match ended without a decisive winner , the promoters stepped in , turned up the arena lights , and played the National Anthem to stop a potential riot . This was a common tactic used at the time by the New York promoters in order to prevent riots and help the heels leave the arena unharmed . Later that year , Costello and Heffernan started working for Dory Funk ’ s NWA Western States promotion based in Amarillo , Texas . Here , The Kangaroos won their first title as a team when they defeated Pepper Gomez and El Medico to win the Texas version of the NWA World Tag Team Championship on 17 November 1958 . Their first title reign was short lived , however , as Gomez and Rito Romero defeated them to regain the titles two weeks later .
Between 1957 and 1965 , The Kangaroos wrestled in the United States , Canada , Asia and select tours of Australia and New Zealand . They worked for such companies as Capitol Wrestling Corporation ( the future World Wrestling Entertainment ) , Championship Wrestling from Florida , NWA Ohio , the Japan Wrestling Association and the World Wrestling Association in Los Angeles , California .
The Kangaroos never forgot their roots and continued to work in Canada off and on through the years ; in addition to Stampede Wrestling , the team also worked for NWA All @-@ Star Wrestling based in Vancouver , British Columbia . Costello featured in a National Film Board of Canada short subject La Lotta / Wrestling / Le Catch . Their stint in NWA All @-@ Star Wrestling was the last time Costello and Heffernan teamed together . In June 1965 , The Kangaroos lost to Don Leo Jonathan and Jim Hardy and then split up . Heffernan had left Australia to tour the world in 1953 and wanted to return to his homeland , while Costello was determined to remain in the United States for a while longer .
= = = Between Kangaroos = = =
Heffernan returned to Australia and began working for World Championship Wrestling ( the Australian version , not the North American wrestling federation ) under booker Jim Barnett as a singles wrestler . Costello was originally supposed to return to Australia as well and work for WCW , but those plans never came through . Instead , Costello remained in the United States and kept working in the tag team division , never seeking a career as a singles wrestler . Costello began wrestling for Georgia Championship Wrestling , where he teamed up with Louis Tillet to form a tag team known as " The Globetrotters " ; a name that played off Costello ’ s Australian and Tillet ’ s French heritage . The Globetrotters defeated the Mysterious Medics in the finals of the Georgia NWA World Tag Team Championship championship but only held the titles for a week before losing them to Kurt and Karl Von Brauner on 4 February 1966 . After this , the Globetrotters broke up due to differences in their approach to tag teaming .
Costello then moved to the NWA Mid @-@ America territory near Nashville , Tennessee . In Mid @-@ American , Costello teamed with Herb Welch to win the Mid @-@ American version of the NWA World Tag Team Championship , which they held for just over 2 months . While still working in Mid @-@ America , Costello began to team with Karl Von Brauner , who used a " German Nazi " gimmick despite being American . Under the management of " Playboy " Gary Hart , Costello and Von Brauner were billed as " The Internationals " ; the team was later managed by George " Crybaby " Cannon . The Internationals worked mainly in Tennessee and Texas for NWA Western States . In Texas , Costello and Von Brauner won the Texas version of the NWA World Tag Team Championship , a title Costello and Heffernan had held in 1958 . The team was also billed as the first NWA American Tag Team Champions , titles that were also recognized by World Class Championship Wrestling in addition to the Western States promotion . The Internationals lost the American Tag Team title to Fritz and Waldo Von Erich on 21 February 1967 . Kurt then decided to go back to teaming with his storyline brother , Karl Von Brauner .
After the Internationals broke up , Costello returned to Australia to visit friends and relatives and to recuperate after many years on the road . On his way back to the United States , Costello had a stop over in Detroit , Michigan , where he met Cleo Williams . The two fell in love and married shortly afterwards , remaining together for the rest of Costello ’ s life .
= = = Kangaroos once more = = =
In 1967 , Al Costello reformed The Fabulous Kangaroos , this time teaming up with Ray St. Clair . The team had been touring non @-@ stop for about six months when St. Clair was forced to retire due to knee problems . A few months after St. Clair retired , Costello found a new man to don the bush hat : Don Kent . Kent , who was from Michigan , adopted the Ultra @-@ Australian gimmick ( but retained his American accent ) and the two formed the third overall and second most well @-@ known version of The Fabulous Kangaroos . Costello and Kent teamed together on a regular basis from 1968 until 1974 , approximately the same amount of time that Costello spent teaming with his original partner , Roy Heffernan . Costello and Kent continued in a tradition that was reminiscent of the original Kangaroos ; when a federation needed a new tag team title , The Kangaroos were brought in and acknowledged as champions upon arrival instead of holding a tournament to determine the champions . In 1967 , the Japanese federation " International Wrestling Enterprise " ( IWE ) brought The Kangaroos in as the first Trans @-@ World Wrestling Alliance World Tag Team Champions . They held this title until 10 January 1968 when IWE mainstays Toyonobori and Thunder Sugiyama beat them for the gold . Over the years , many more title reigns came from various promotions all over the globe . In Canada , The Kangaroos were the first Eastern Sports Association International Tag Team Champions . In the World Wrestling Association of Indianapolis , they held the WWA World Tag Team Championship twice . In addition to winning titles all over North America , Costello and Kent also made appearances for the World Wide Wrestling Federation ( now known as WWE ) .
The Kangaroos frequented NWA Detroit , where they held the Detroit version of the NWA World Tag Team Championship for most of 1971 . By the end of 1972 , The Kangaroos began working for Nick Gulas ’ NWA Mid @-@ America . In Mid @-@ America , they held the local version of the NWA World Tag Team Championship , the Mid @-@ America version , on three occasions .
After a match at Cincinnati Gardens , an enraged fan took a fire extinguisher off the wall and threw it at Costello and Kent from the balcony of the Gardens . The extinguisher hit Costello in the hip , damaging it so much that he needed hip replacement surgery later that year . The fan was arrested , served 15 days in jail , and fined fifty dollars for damaging the fire extinguisher . The hip injury left Costello unable to wrestle , and The Fabulous Kangaroos split up once again . Costello had a full hip replacement and was forced to retire from active competition .
= = = Managing = = =
In 1975 , Costello surprised everyone by returning to professional wrestling as the manager of the team known as " The Love Brothers " ( Hartford and Reggie Love ) . He actually stepped into the ring on occasion as part of special six @-@ man tag team matches .
After recovering from his hip surgery , Costello returned to active competition at age 56 . The fact that he was able to recover from such a major injury is credited to his almost @-@ fanatical style of healthy living . As a devout vegan , Costello credited his meat @-@ free diet with his recovery , as well as the remarkable shape he was in for a man of his age .
Costello reformed The Fabulous Kangaroos once more , this time teaming up with wrestler Tony Charles . The team defeated Dominic DeNucci and Chris Markoff to win Detroit 's version of the NWA World Tag Team title , the same title that Costello and Kent had previously held . The Kangaroos title run was short , however , and they lost their gold to " Crazy " Luke Graham and Ripper Collins .
In 1977 , Tony Charles was replaced by Don Kent and the two reunited for a tour of Puerto Rico with the World Wrestling Council ( WWC ) . In Puerto Rico , The Kangaroos arrived billed as the WWC World Tag Team Champions , once more to give a newly created title legitimacy . They dropped the titles to Carlos Colón and Jose Rivera on 12 March 1977 and remained in the WWC until 1978 chasing , but never regaining , the WWC World Tag Team Championship . After their tour in Puerto Rico ended , Don Kent returned to singles wrestling , and Costello refocused on managing .
= = = Still a Kangaroo = = =
In 1981 , Costello convinced Kent to once again don the bush hat and pick up the boomerang . Costello got Kent to team up with Bruno Bekkar , who was mostly known from working in his native New Zealand and Australia . Kent and Bekkar worked a tour for the WWC , while Costello served as their manager . The team won the WWC North American Tag Team titles from Jack and Jerry Brisco on 22 October 1981 . They then lost the titles to Invader I and Super Gladiator but quickly gained them back before dropping the titles for good to Invader and Gladiator on 26 January 1982 . The Kent and Bekkar team only lasted through one tour of the Caribbean , after which Bruno Bekkar returned to Australia and New Zealand to work for the local promotions there .
Bekkar was replaced with Johnny Heffernan ( Canadian wrestler Bob Della Serra ) , a storyline cousin of Roy Heffernan , for what was the final version of The Fabulous Kangaroos . The team ended Terry and Dory Funk , Jr . ' s year and a half run with the WWC World Tag Team championship on 1 May 1982 . Kent and Heffernan held the gold for less than two months before losing the WWC World Tag Team titles to Invader I and Pierre Martel . After a tour in Puerto Rico , Costello , Kent and Heffernan returned to work for Championship Wrestling from Florida ( CWF ) , a promotion The Kangaroos last worked for in 1962 . In Florida , The Kangaroos won the NWA Florida Global Tag Team Championship four times . The final storyline involving The Fabulous Kangaroos saw Al Costello bring in J.J. Dillon to act as his short term replacement while he was " away on business " . When Costello returned from his business trip , Dillon kayfabe refused to give up The Kangaroos ' contracts and was backed up by both Kent and Heffernan . This angle was designed to write Al Costello out of The Fabulous Kangaroos ' storyline and allow him to retire from wrestling altogether . Not long after Costello retired , Kent and Johnny Heffernan went their separate ways .
= = = Retirement = = =
After retiring from wrestling , Al Costello became the head of security at College Harbor , Florida . In 1992 , at the age of 71 , Costello retired from his job in Florida and began teaching wrestling . He also started to manage The New Fabulous Kangaroos in 1993 , a team consisting of Mickey Doyle and Denny Kass who worked for " Motor City Wrestling " ( MCW ) . By the fall of 1993 , Mickey Doyle had been replaced by a young wrestler by the name of Al Snow ; with Costello ’ s help The New Fabulous Kangaroos defeated " Canadian Lighting " ( Otis Apollo and " Irish " Bobby Clancy ) , on 29 December 1993 , to win the MCW Tag Team Championship . On 14 May 1994 , Kass and Snow defeated Canadian Lighting again to win the Border City Wrestling ( BCW ) Can @-@ Am Tag Team Championship , unifying the two tag team championships . A week later , The New Fabulous Kangaroos lost both sets of titles to Scott D 'Amore and " Irish " Bobby Clancy . After losing the unified MCW / BCW Tag Team championships , The New Kangaroos split up ; Snow focused on his World Wrestling Federation career while Costello retired for good , never making another wrestling related appearance .
= = = Death = = =
On 22 January 2000 , Costello died from a combination of pneumonia and heart problems . In 2003 , Al Costello and Roy Heffernan became the first tag team to ever be inducted into the Professional Wrestling Hall of Fame . Since that time , the Hall of Fame has honored other tag teams , but The Fabulous Kangaroos were given the honor of being the first . In the tradition of the Kangaroos , they were " billed as champions on arrival " one last time .
= = In wrestling = =
Managers
" Wild " Red Berry
George " Crybaby " Cannon
" Sir " Dudley Clement
Wrestlers Managed by Costello
Don Kent
Bruno Bekkar
Johnny Heffernan
Al Snow
Mickey Doyle
Denny Kass
The Love Brothers ( Reginald and Hartford )
Kurt Von Hess
Dennis Condrey
Phil Hickerson
David St. Onge
= = Championships and accomplishments = =
Alex Turk Promotions ( Winnipeg )
International Tag Team Championship ( 2 times ) - with Roy Heffernan
Capitol Wrestling Corporation
NWA United States Tag Team Championship ( Northeast version ) ( 3 times ) - with Roy Heffernan
Cauliflower Alley Club
Other honoree ( 1994 )
Championship Wrestling from Florida
NWA United States Tag Team Championship ( Florida version ) ( 1 time ) - with Roy Heffernan
NWA World Tag Team Championship ( Florida version ) ( 1 time ) - with Roy Heffernan
Eastern Sports Association
ESA International Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) - with Don Kent
Georgia Championship Wrestling
NWA World Tag Team Championship ( Georgia version ) 1 time – with Louie Tillet
International Wrestling Enterprise
Trans @-@ World Wrestling Alliance World Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) - with Don Kent
Japan Wrestling Association
NWA International Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) - with Roy Heffernan
Midwest Wrestling Association
NWA United States Tag Team Championship ( Ohio version ) ( 1 time ) - with Roy Heffernan
Mike London Promotions
Rocky Mountain Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) - with Roy Heffernan
National Wrestling Alliance
NWA Hall of Fame ( Class of 2013 )
NWA All @-@ Star Wrestling
NWA Canadian Tag Team Championship ( Vancouver version ) ( 4 times ) - with Roy Heffernan
NWA Big Time Wrestling
NWA American Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) - with Karl Von Brauner
NWA World Tag Team Championship ( Texas version ) ( 2 times ) - with Roy Heffernan ( 1 ) , Karl Von Brauner ( 1 )
NWA Detroit
NWA World Tag Team Championship ( Detroit version ) ( 3 times ) - with Roy Heffernan ( 2 ) , Ray St. Clair ( 1 )
NWA Mid @-@ America
NWA Southern Junior Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time )
NWA World Tag Team Championship ( Mid @-@ America version ) 4 times ) - with Don Kent ( 3 ) , Herb Welch ( 1 )
NWA Western States Sports
NWA International Tag Team Championship ( Texas version ) ( 1 time ) - with Roy HeffernanA
New Zealand Wrestling Union
NWA Australasian Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time )
Professional Wrestling Hall of Fame
Class of 2003 - with Roy Heffernan
World Wrestling Association
WWA World Tag Team Championship ( 2 times ) - with Don Kent
Worldwide Wrestling Associates
WWA World Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) - with Roy Heffernan
WWA International Television Tag Team Championship ( 2 times ) - with Roy Heffernan
World Wrestling Council
WWC World Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) - with Don Kent
Wrestling Observer Newsletter awards
Wrestling Observer Newsletter Hall of Fame ( Class of 1996 ) - with Roy Heffernan
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= Battle of Mont Sorrel =
The Battle of Mont Sorrel ( Battle of Mount Sorrel , Battle of Hill 62 ) was a local operation in World War I by three divisions of the British Second Army and three divisions of the German Fourth Army in the Ypres Salient , near Ypres , Belgium , from 2 to 14 June 1916 .
In an effort to pull British resources from the observed build @-@ up in the Somme , the XIII ( Royal Württemberg ) Corps and the 117th Infantry Division attacked an arc of high ground positions , defended by the Canadian Corps . The German forces initially captured the heights at Mount Sorrel and Tor Top before entrenching on the far slope of the ridge . Following a number attacks and counterattacks , two divisions of the Canadian Corps , supported by the 20th Light Division and Second Army siege and howitzer battery groups , recaptured the majority of their former positions .
= = Background = =
Located in the Ypres Salient , 3 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) east of Ypres , Belgium , the Battle of Mount Sorrel took place along a ridge between Hooge and Zwarteleen . The crest line of Mount Sorrel , nearby Tor Top ( Hill 62 ) and Hill 61 rose approximately 30 metres ( 98 ft ) higher than the shallow ground at Zillebeke , affording the occupying force excellent observation over the salient , the town of Ypres and approach routes . The peaks were the only portion of the crest of the Ypres ridge which remained in Allied hands .
In northern France , men and resources were being marshalled in preparation for the large British @-@ French Somme Offensive . The build @-@ up in the Somme did not go unnoticed by the German Supreme Army Command . The German Second Army , which was holding the sector north of the Somme , had observed preparations for an offensive since the end of February 1916 . Short of resources due to operations at Verdun , the Germans could only mount local operations in an effort to divert British resources from the Somme .
On 28 May 1916 , in an abrupt change of command , Lieutenant @-@ General Edwin Alderson was appointed to the largely ceremonial post of Inspector General of Canadian Forces in England and was succeeded by Lieutenant @-@ General Julian Byng as commander of the Canadian Corps .
= = Battle = =
= = = German offensive = = =
Byng inspected the Canadian Corps positions and noted that the Canadian troops were overlooked by German positions and under constant danger of enemy fire . He assigned 3rd Canadian Division commander , Major @-@ General Malcolm Mercer to draw up a plan to overrun the more dangerous German positions in a local attack .
As the Canadians began preparations for an assault , the Germans were in the process of executing an assault plan of their own . The XIII ( Royal Württemberg ) Corps spent six weeks planning and carefully preparing their attack on the Mount Sorrel , Tor Top ( Hill 62 ) and Hill 61 peaks . Their objective was to take control of the observation positions east of Ypres and keep as many British units as possible pinned down in the area , to avoid them transferring to the Somme front and assisting with the observed build @-@ up in that area . The Germans constructed practice trenches resembling the Canadian positions near Tor Top to rehearse the assault , well behind their own lines .
In mid @-@ May , aerial reconnaissance near Mont Sorrel indicated that German forces were preparing an attack . Royal Flying Corps ( RFC ) observers had noted the existence of works curiously resembling the Canadian positions , well behind the German lines . The Germans were also observed digging new sap trenches which implied that an assault was intended . The Canadian Corps had just begun developing plans to overrun the more dangerous German positions , when the Germans executed an assault of their own .
On the morning of 2 June , the German XIII Corps began a massive heavy artillery bombardment against the Canadian positions . Nine @-@ tenths of the Canadian forward reconnaissance battalion became casualties during the bombardment . 3rd Canadian Division commander Major @-@ General Malcolm Mercer and 8th Canadian Brigade commander Brigadier @-@ General Arthur Victor Seymour Williams had been conducting an inspection of the front line , when the shelling began . Mercer was wounded three times and died early on June 3 ; Williams was wounded in the face and head and taken prisoner .
At 1 : 00pm , German pioneers detonated four mines near the Canadian forward trenches , before the Germans attacked with six battalions , five more battalions in support and an additional six in reserve . When the German forces attacked , mainly against positions held by the 8th Canadian Brigade , resistance at the front lines was " minimal " . For several critical hours both the 3rd Canadian Division and the 8th Canadian Brigade were leaderless and their level of defence suffered accordingly . Brigadier @-@ General Edward Spencer Hoare Nairne , of the Lahore Divisional Artillery , eventually assumed temporary command of the 3rd Canadian Division . However , German forces were still able to capture Mont Sorrel and Hill 61 . After advancing up to 1 @,@ 100 metres ( 1 @,@ 200 yd ) , the XIII Corps troops dug in . Although the road to Ypres was open and undefended , no German officer took the initiative to exceed instructions and capitalize on the success experienced by the German forces .
= = = Failed counterattack = = =
Lieutenant @-@ General Byng assembled a hastily organized counterattack in the early hours of 3 June . Owing to the 3rd Canadian Division ’ s heavy losses , two brigades of the 1st Canadian Division were temporarily placed under the control of Brigadier @-@ General Hoare Nairne , who had assumed control of 3rd Canadian Division . The counterattack was scheduled to begin at 2 : 00 am on 3 June 1916 . Due to the distances that had to be covered by incoming units , the difficulties in communications and ever present enemy fire , the time allowed for assembly proved inadequate and the attack was postponed until 7 : 00 am . The signal to attack was to be six simultaneous green rockets . Some rockets misfired and did not burst , resulting in an uneven assault whereby each unit moved from their start lines at different times . The four attacking battalions suffered heavy losses as they advanced over open ground in broad daylight . The attackers failed to regain any lost territory but managed to close a 550 metres ( 600 yd ) gap in the line and advance the Canadian front about 910 metres ( 1 @,@ 000 yd ) from the positions it had retreated to after the German assault .
= = = British reinforcements and second German attack = = =
British Expeditionary Force commander General Douglas Haig and Second Army commander General Herbert Plumer both believed it necessary to expel the Germans from the captured positions . In view of the preparations for the Somme offensive , Haig did not wish to divert more forces than were necessary . Support was limited to a number of additional artillery units and an infantry brigade from the 20th Light Division . It was suggested that the next counterattack be carried out with the infantry available , with a particularly large emphasis placed on artillery .
The additional artillery units immediately went to work hampering German consolidation , by shelling their front and support lines and seeking out hostile batteries . The Germans sprung a surprise on the Canadians by exploding four large mines under trenches of the 2nd Canadian Division covering the spur at the eastern outskirts of the ruins of Hooge and a company of the Canadian 28th ( North West ) Battalion was wiped out in the explosions . The Canadians managed to hold their position and prevent the Germans from reaching their support line but Byng ultimately decided to leave the Hooge trenches in German hands and to concentrate on regaining Mount Sorrel and Tor Top . To dissuade the Germans from more attacks on the left flank of the Canadian Corps , the dismounted British 2nd Cavalry Brigade came on loan to the Canadian Corps as a counter @-@ attack force .
= = = Return to original lines = = =
Byng ordered 1st Canadian Division commander Major @-@ General Arthur Currie to organize a careful attack against the German positions at Mont Sorrel and Tor Top . Due to the casualties suffered during the unsuccessful counterattack of 3 June , Currie regrouped his stronger battalions into two composite brigades . Four intense bombardments of thirty minutes each were carried out between 9 and 12 June in an effort to deceive the Germans into expecting immediate attacks , which did not transpire . For ten hours on 12 June all the German positions between Hill 60 and Sanctuary Wood were shelled unremittingly . Particular attention was given to the Canadian Corps flanks , from which enfilade machine @-@ gun fire might be expected . The following morning , the Germans were subjected to an additional 45 minutes of heavy artillery bombardment , before the assaulting troops advanced behind a generated smoke screen . The Germans are believed to have been taken largely by surprise as they offered little resistance and the Canadians were able to take approximately 200 prisoners . With the exception of the trenches at Hooge , the Germans fell back to their original lines and in a little over an hour the assault was over . On 14 June , the Germans launched two counterattacks which were repulsed , after which they advanced their trench to within 150 metres ( 490 ft ) of the Canadians but made no further assaults .
= = Aftermath = =
The Canadian Corps remained in the Ypres Salient in a stationary yet aggressive status until the beginning of September when the corps was transferred to the Somme . In the aftermath of the battle and in the wake of the death of Major @-@ General M.S. Mercer , Canadian Corps commander Julian Byng was forced to address the politically sensitive topic of appointing a new 3rd Canadian Division commander . Canadian Minister of Militia and Defence Sam Hughes telegraphed Byng and insisted that his son , 1st Canadian Brigade commander Brigadier @-@ General Garnet Hughes , be given command of the 3rd Canadian Division . To the fury of the minister , Byng instead promoted 2nd Canadian Brigade commander Brigadier @-@ General Louis Lipsett , a highly regarded pre @-@ war British regular , to the post . The minister protested and confronted Byng in August 1916 but he did not relent , insisting that " he had nothing against Garnet Hughes there was simply a better man for the post " . The change in command between Lieutenant @-@ General Edwin Alderson and Julian Byng was also used as an opportunity to make additional changes . Much to the displeasure of Minister Hughes and delight of the Canadian troops , the unreliable Canadian Ross Rifle began to be replaced with the British Lee – Enfield and the Colt machine gun with the Vickers and Lewis machine guns .
= = Commemoration = =
For the Canadian Corps , participation in the Battle of Mount Sorrel is commemorated with the Hill 62 ( Sanctuary Wood ) Memorial . The nearby Sanctuary Wood Museum Hill 62 contains a preserved / simulated section of front line trenches occupied by the British and Canadians between 1916 and 1917 . Allied soldiers killed during the battle are buried in the nearby Sanctuary Wood Commonwealth War Graves Commission Cemetery , Hooge Crater Commonwealth War Graves Commission Cemetery , Maple Copse Commonwealth War Graves Commission Cemetery and Lijssenthoek Military Cemetery . Those killed during the battle with no known resting place are commemorated on the Menin Gate in Ypres , Belgium . The Royal Regiment of Canada conducts a Sorrel Day parade , open to the public , at the Fort York Armoury every year on the second Sunday in June .
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= Music of Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 =
The music of the video game Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 was composed by Noriko Matsueda and Takahito Eguchi . Regular series composer Nobuo Uematsu did not contribute any of the music , despite having composed the majority of the soundtrack for the first game , Final Fantasy X. The Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 Original Soundtrack was released on two Compact Discs in 2003 by Avex . After the release of Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 International + Last Mission , an album entitled Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 International + Last Mission Original Soundtrack composed of the songs added to the soundtrack for that game was released in 2003 by Avex . Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 Piano Collection , a collection of piano arrangements of the original soundtracks by Noriko Matsueda , Takahito Eguchi , Hiroko Kokubu , Masahiro Sayama , and Febian Reza Pane , was released by Avex in 2004 .
A single by Koda Kumi entitled real Emotion / 1000 no Kotoba , based on the theme song for the game and the ending credits song , was published by Rhythm Zone prior to the game 's release in 2003 . Another single , titled Eternity ~ Memories of Waves and Light ~ Music from Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 , was released by Avex in 2003 along with the original soundtrack . It consisted of live arrangements of several of the game 's songs , composed and arranged by Noriko Matsueda and Takahito Eguchi . A set of three singles entitled Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 Vocal Collection- Paine , Rikku , and Yuna was published by Avex in 2003 , with each single including vocal arrangements of songs from the game , sung by the respective character 's voice actress .
The soundtrack received mixed reviews from critics ; while several felt that the music was good and keeping in tone with the game , others found it to be odd and shallow . Several reviewers attributed the change to the lack of participation by Uematsu . Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 International + Last Mission Original Soundtrack and Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 Piano Collection , on the other hand , were very well received by critics , who felt that they were far superior to the original soundtrack . The singles for the soundtrack were poorly received by critics , who found a few of the songs to be enjoyable but all of the singles to be overpriced .
= = Concept and creation = =
Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 marks the first soundtrack where former Square composer Nobuo Uematsu did not contribute a single piece , despite having composed the majority of the soundtrack for the predecessor , Final Fantasy X , as he was already busy with other projects . None of the pieces from the Final Fantasy X soundtrack were re @-@ used in X @-@ 2 . Noriko Matsueda and Takahito Eguchi were brought on board to compose the music for the game , as the developers felt they were the " perfect fit " to incorporate a " pop " style into the music . The game includes two songs with vocalized elements , one of which , the J @-@ Pop song " Real Emotion " , was written by Ken Kato and composed by Kazuhiro Hara . The other , J @-@ Pop ballad " 1000 Words " , was written by scenario writers Kazushige Nojima and Daisuke Watanabe . Matsueda and Eguchi composed and arranged the track . Both songs were sung by Jade Villalon from Sweetbox in the English version of the game , and are available as bonus tracks on the Japanese release of her album Adagio . In the Japanese version of the game both the songs were sung by Koda Kumi , and were released as a single entitled real Emotion / 1000 no Kotoba . Kumi also released her own English versions of the songs on her CD single Come with Me , with slightly different versions of the lyrics than Jade .
= = Albums = =
= = = Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 Original Soundtrack = = =
Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 Original Soundtrack is a soundtrack album of music from Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 composed , arranged and produced by Noriko Matsueda and Takahito Eguchi . The album spans two discs and 61 tracks , covering a duration of 2 : 18 : 00 . It was released on March 31 , 2003 in Japan by Avex bearing the catalog number AVCD @-@ 17254 . It included a booklet filled with printed images , providing more information about the soundtrack .
Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 Original Soundtrack sold 82 @,@ 000 copies as of January 2010 ; it reached position # 5 on the Japanese Oricon charts and remained on the charts for 12 weeks . The game 's soundtrack was met with mixed feelings from critics , because Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 's score was the first in the series without input from Nobuo Uematsu , composer of all previous games in the main series , and because of the change to a distinct J @-@ pop atmosphere . While IGN commented that the music provided an " appropriately fitting backdrop " and 1UP.com suggested that it " certainly is in keeping with the new flavor " , others , such as Electronic Gaming Monthly , regarded it as " too bubbly " . One staff member at RPGamer suggested that " the absence of Uematsu proves deafening " and " the soundtrack that accompanies this nonsensical adventure manages to encapsulate the shallow nature of the game perfectly " . Ben Schweitzer of RPGFan found that the Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 Original Soundtrack album was unique and enjoyable , but " ultimately forgettable . " Liz Maas of RPGFan agreed , finding the album to be simultaneously " refreshing " and " odd " . Chris Heit of Soundtrack Central , however , found that the album had " good , original music " , although altogether different than previous Final Fantasy soundtracks .
Tracklist
= = = Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 International + Last Mission Original Soundtrack = = =
Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 International + Last Mission Original Soundtrack is a soundtrack album of music from Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 International + Last Mission composed , arranged and produced by Noriko Matsueda , Takahito Eguchi and Kazuhiro Hara . The album spans 10 tracks , covering a duration of 45 : 21 . It includes the English versions of " real Emotion " and " 1000 Words " , performed by Jade Villalon of Sweetbox , as well as the eight tracks added for the International version of Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 , released in Japan on February 19 , 2004 . The album was released on July 16 , 2003 in Japan by Avex bearing the catalog number AVCD @-@ 17388 .
The album was better received than the original soundtrack , with Patrick Gann finding several of the tracks to be " beautiful " and the album as a whole " a sure step up from the X @-@ 2 OST " . He concluded that " if you owned and kept the X @-@ 2 OST , you 're a fool not to add this CD to your collection . " Chris of Square Enix Music Online had similar feelings for the album , terming it a " high @-@ quality and surprising effort " and " an incredible improvement " over the original soundtrack . The album reached # 42 on the Oricon charts and remained on the charts for four weeks .
= = = Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 Piano Collection = = =
Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 Piano Collection is a collection of music from the game 's soundtrack composed by Noriko Matsueda and Takahito Eguchi and arranged for the piano . The tracks were arranged by Noriko Matsueda , Takahito Eguchi , Hiroko Kokubu , Masahiro Sayama , and Febian Reza Pane . Matsueda and Eguchi 's tracks were performed by Shinko Ogata , while the other arrangers performed their own works . The album spans 12 tracks and covers a duration of 47 : 38 . It was released on March 31 , 2004 by Avex with catalog number AVCD @-@ 17444 .
The album was very well received , with Patrick Gann claiming that it " shines as a light in the darkness " compared to the original soundtrack and that he was " extremely pleased " with the album . Chris from Square Enix Music Online agreed , calling the album " nothing short of fantastic " and saying that the pianists did " a flawless job executing each arrangement " . Jillian of Square Enix Music Online agreed , finding it to be the best Final Fantasy piano arrangement album to date .
= = Singles = =
= = = Real Emotion / 1000 no Kotoba = = =
" real Emotion / 1000 no Kotoba " ( real Emotion / 1000の言葉 , riaru Emōshon / Sen no Kotoba ) is a double A @-@ side by Koda Kumi , consisting of the songs " Real Emotion " and " 1000 no Kotoba " ( lit . " 1000 words " ) , which are used as the opening and closing themes respectively of Square Enix 's game Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 , which was used in a cut @-@ scene in the game as well as its ending credits .
" 1000 no Kotoba " was arranged by Takahito Eguchi and Noriko Matsueda . The CD contains the two songs in addition to their instrumental versions , covering a duration of 20 : 02 . It was published by Rhythm Zone on March 5 , 2003 with the catalog number RZCD @-@ 45080 .
Real Emotion / 1000 Words was poorly received by critics , with Patrick Gann declaring himself to be " not too impressed " .
= = = Eternity ~ Memories of Waves and Light ~ Music from Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 = = =
Eternity ~ Memories of Waves and Light ~ Music from Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 is an arranged single consisting of the songs from the game " Eternity ~ Memory of Lightwaves " , " Besaid " , and " Yuna 's Ballad " , composed and arranged by Noriko Matsueda and Takahito Eguchi . The songs feature live instruments , and are the only arranged tracks released from the Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 OST to date . The album was released by Avex on March 31 , 2003 . It covers a duration of 9 : 37 and has a catalog number of AVCD @-@ 30444 .
Gann was more receptive to the album than to " Real Emotion " , feeling that the tracks were three of the best tracks from the soundtrack , and that the single was worth purchasing if only because it was the only release of arranged music from the game to date . However , he felt that for the length , the single was overpriced . Chris of Square Enix Music Online also felt the single was overpriced , but additionally felt that the arrangements were " unremarkable musically " and that the album as a whole was " a cheap production . " Memories of Waves and Light reached # 32 on the Oricon charts and stayed on the charts for eight weeks .
= = = Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 Vocal Collection = = =
Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 Vocal Collection was a set of three singles , each consisting of two tracks sung by the voice actress for one of the main characters of the game and two instrumental tracks . The singles , Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 Vocal Collection- Paine , Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 Vocal Collection- Rikku , and Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 Vocal Collection- Yuna , were released by Avex on July 16 , 2003 . The songs were composed and arranged by Noriko Matsueda and Takahito Eguchi . Paine was voiced by Megumi Toyoguchi , Rikku by Marika Matsumoto , and Yuna by Mayuko Aoki . Each single was produced with an accompanying DVD which included a music video , an interview with the voice actress , and a montage of scenes from the game . Paine covered a duration of 16 : 19 and had a catalog number of AVCD @-@ 30485 / B , Rikku had a duration of 16 : 09 and a catalog number of AVCD @-@ 30483 / B , while Yuna covered a duration of 18 : 59 and had a catalog number of AVCD @-@ 30481 / B.
The Final Fantasy Vocal Collection singles received mixed reviews , with Patrick Gann praising Paine as " sophisticated " and applauding the instrumentation , while also approving of Yuna , terming it " peaceful " and the best of the three . However , he also derided Rikku as " cheesy " and disliked the lyrics of one of the two tracks from Paine . Additionally , he overall found the singles to be very overpriced for the small amount of material included . Paine , Rikku and Yuna reached # 30 , # 25 , and # 21 on the Oricon charts , respectively , and stayed on the charts for four , six , and seven weeks .
Track listing
= = Legacy = =
Unlike the music from the main Final Fantasy series , no songs from Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 have been played at any of the numerous Final Fantasy concerts . Selections of music from the game have appeared on Japanese remix albums , called dojin music , and on English remixing websites .
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= N3 @-@ class battleship =
The N3 class was a dreadnought battleship class designed for the Royal Navy after World War I , incorporating all the lessons learned from that conflict . They were very similar in design to the G3 @-@ class battlecruiser , but had larger guns and thicker armour . They were never ordered due to signing of the Washington Naval Treaty in 1922 , which limited the size and armament of battleships to 35 @,@ 000 long tons ( 36 @,@ 000 t ) and no gun bigger than 16 inches ( 406 mm ) .
= = Background = =
In 1916 the US had declared its intention to create a Navy " second to none " ; Congress had authorized the building of a large number of battleships and battlecruisers . In response , the Japanese government also began a large programme of warship building ( the 8 @-@ 8 fleet ) . Two improved Revenge @-@ class hulls were rebuilt into the two Renown @-@ class battlecruisers by the Royal Navy during the war . The only new capital ships laid down during the war were the Admiral @-@ class battlecruisers . Their design had been called into question after the Battle of Jutland in 1916 and three ships of this class were cancelled , leaving only Hood to be completed to a modified design .
The US plan had been delayed by the wartime need to build smaller vessels . Nevertheless , estimates by the Admiralty were that by the early 1920s the Royal Navy would be behind in ships . By the beginning of 1920 , the Americans had completed one battleship since the end of World War I and had five more building . Seven more were intended to be laid down in 1920 – 21 , six of these were the very large and powerful South Dakota class , armed with twelve 16 @-@ inch guns . The Japanese had finished one battleship since the end of the war and had three more under construction . To correct this state of affairs , the Admiralty initially planned to build three battleships and one battlecruiser in Fiscal Year ( FY ) 1921 – 22 and again in FY 1922 – 23 , but this was changed to four G3 @-@ class battlecruisers to be built first , presumably to be followed by the same number of battleships the following year .
A pair of designs were prepared in June 1920 , derived from the ' ' U @-@ 4 ' ' battleship design of 1914 , of ships with displacements of about 50 @,@ 000 long tons ( 51 @,@ 000 t ) and armed with eight or nine guns , in four twin or three triple gun turrets mounting a new 18 @-@ inch ( 457 mm ) gun then under development . The only limitation of the design was the inability to use British dockyards and pass through the Suez Canal . The most unusual feature of these designs was that none of the turrets were superfiring , presumably to keep the centre of gravity as low as possible and avoid the extra weight required for tall , superfiring barbettes .
The designs were revised in October and split into separate battleship and battlecruiser designs . The battleship designs were given letters of the alphabet from L through N , with the use of triple or double gun turrets shown by 3 or 2 respectively . Both ' L2 ' and ' L3 ' had superfiring guns and the armour was reduced to a 15 @-@ inch ( 381 mm ) inclined waterline belt while the main armoured deck was 8 inches ( 203 mm ) thick ( 9 inches ( 229 mm ) where it sloped to meet the belt ) . They both had a designed speed of 25 knots ( 46 km / h ; 29 mph ) and had transom sterns . ' L2 ' displaced 52 @,@ 100 long tons ( 52 @,@ 900 t ) , but ' L3 ' was a thousand tons lighter . ' M2 ' and ' M3 ' followed in November and December and were very different from the earlier designs .
'M2 ' and ' M3 ' sacrificed fire directly astern by moving the rear turret ( s ) amidships in order to save weight by shortening the length of the armoured citadel . Compared to the earlier , more conventional , designs , ' M2 ' saved 1 @,@ 540 long tons ( 1 @,@ 560 t ) and ' M3 ' 1 @,@ 740 long tons ( 1 @,@ 770 t ) . More weight was saved by reducing the designed speed to 23 – 23 @.@ 5 knots ( 42 @.@ 6 – 43 @.@ 5 km / h ; 26 @.@ 5 – 27 @.@ 0 mph ) and using only two propeller shafts , although it was thought that this would improve manoeuvering power over four smaller propellers . These changes saved 4 @,@ 350 long tons ( 4 @,@ 420 t ) for ' M2 ' and 5 @,@ 000 long tons ( 5 @,@ 100 t ) for ' M3 ' over their predecessors . A lengthened version of ' M3 ' was chosen for further development as N3 and approved in November 1921 .
= = Description = =
Most noticeable of the N3 design was the concentration of the main battery forward of the bridge and machinery spaces . A related feature of the design was the tower bridge structure behind the first two gun turrets . This provided a better and more stable foundation for fire @-@ control equipment , greatly improved accommodation and protection from the weather .
The N3 battleships were significantly larger than their predecessors of the Revenge class . They had an overall length of 820 feet ( 249 @.@ 9 m ) , a beam of 106 feet ( 32 @.@ 3 m ) , and a draught of 33 feet ( 10 @.@ 1 m ) at deep load . They would have displaced about 48 @,@ 500 long tons ( 49 @,@ 300 t ) , nearly double the displacement of the older ships . They had a complete double bottom 7 feet ( 2 @.@ 1 m ) deep .
The ships would have had two geared steam turbine sets , each of which drove one propeller shaft , in two engine rooms forward of the boiler rooms . This allowed the funnel to be placed further aft and increased the ability of the rear turret to fire to the rear . The turbines would have been powered by small @-@ tube boilers intended to produce a total of 56 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 42 @,@ 000 kW ) . The ships ' maximum speed would have been about 23 knots .
Housing the main armament in triple turrets was new to the Royal Navy though British companies had been involved in the production of triple gun turret designs for other navies . The choice of a high muzzle velocity with a relatively lighter shell was taken from the German practice ; it ran counter to previous British guns such as the BL 15 @-@ inch Mark I gun of 42 @-@ calibre length which were lower @-@ muzzle @-@ velocity weapons firing heavy shells .
= = = Armament = = =
The N3 design mounted nine 45 @-@ calibre BL 18 @-@ inch guns in three triple gun turrets , designated ' A ' , ' B ' , and ' X ' from front to rear . The guns had a maximum elevation of 40 ° . As none of these guns was ever completed and test @-@ fired , sources differ on their exact specifications . Naval historian John Campbell quotes the projectile weight as 2 @,@ 916 pounds ( 1 @,@ 323 kg ) fired at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 650 ft / s ( 810 m / s ) , but Alan Raven and John Roberts cite a 2 @,@ 837 pounds ( 1 @,@ 287 kg ) fired at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 700 ft / s ( 820 m / s ) . The N3s carried a secondary armament of sixteen BL 6 @-@ inch Mk XXII guns in superfiring twin turrets . Four turrets were sited around the forward superstructure and four at the stern . The guns could elevate between – 5 ° and + 60 ° . They fired 100 @-@ pound ( 45 kg ) projectiles at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 945 ft / s ( 898 m / s ) . Their maximum range was 25 @,@ 800 yd ( 23 @,@ 600 m ) at 45 ° elevation . Their rate of fire was five rounds per minute .
An anti @-@ aircraft battery of six QF 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch Mk VIII guns was included . They had a maximum depression of -5 ° and a maximum elevation of 90 ° . They fired a 50 @-@ pound ( 23 kg ) high explosive shell at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 457 ft / s ( 749 m / s ) at a rate of eight to twelve rounds per minute . The guns had a maximum ceiling of 32 @,@ 000 ft ( 9 @,@ 800 m ) , but an effective range of much less . The ships were intended to carry four 10 @-@ barreled mountings for the 40 @-@ millimetre ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) QF 2 @-@ pounder Mk VIII gun ( commonly known as a pom @-@ pom ) , two abaft the funnels and two at the stern . Each barrel was provided with 1300 rounds of ammunition . The gun fired a 40 @-@ millimetre ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) .91 @-@ pound ( 0 @.@ 41 kg ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 920 ft / s ( 590 m / s ) to a distance of 3 @,@ 800 yards ( 3 @,@ 500 m ) . The gun 's rate of fire was approximately 96 – 98 rounds per minute .
Like previous classes of British battlecruisers , a pair of submerged , broadside @-@ firing torpedo tubes were planned for these ships . Their compartment was located just forward of the ' A ' shell room on the platform deck . Six 24 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 620 mm ) torpedoes per tube were to be carried in peace @-@ time , but this would increase to eight in wartime . These Mark I torpedoes had a warhead of 743 pounds ( 337 kg ) of TNT and were powered by oxygen @-@ enriched air . They had two speed settings which governed their range : either 15 @,@ 000 yards ( 13 @,@ 716 m ) at 35 knots ( 65 km / h ; 40 mph ) , or 20 @,@ 000 yards ( 18 @,@ 288 m ) at 30 knots ( 56 km / h ; 35 mph ) .
= = = Fire @-@ control = = =
The main guns of the battleships could be controlled from any of the two director @-@ control towers ( DCT ) . The primary DCT was mounted at the top of the forward superstructure . Another was mounted on the roof of the conning tower in an armoured hood . Each main gun turret was provided with a 41 @-@ foot ( 12 @.@ 5 m ) coincidence rangefinder in an armoured housing on the turret roof . The secondary armament was primarily controlled by two DCTs mounted on each side of the bridge . The anti @-@ aircraft guns were controlled by a high @-@ angle control system mounted on the mizzenmast . Each pom @-@ pom mount had its own director and there was also a height @-@ finder aft . Two 15 @-@ foot ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) torpedo rangefinders were located on the sides of the funnels .
= = = Armour = = =
A first for any British dreadnought was the use of the all or nothing protection scheme in the N3s and G3s . Medium @-@ thickness armour had proven to be useless in stopping heavy @-@ calibre shells during World War I so the vital areas of the ship were protected by the thickest possible armour and the rest of the ship was left unarmoured . Use of this system was pioneered by contemporary U.S. Navy battleship designs starting with the Nevada class . However , this system of protection required that the armoured citadel should have enough reserve buoyancy to keep the ship stable even if the rest of the hull was riddled by gunfire .
The waterline belt of the N3 had a maximum thickness of 15 inches ( 381 mm ) thick with the top of the armour angled outwards . This angle increased the armor 's relative thickness to horizontal , close @-@ range fire , albeit at the cost of reducing its relative height which increased the chance of plunging shellfire going over or under it . It ran some 463 feet ( 141 @.@ 1 m ) , from 9 feet ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) forward of ' A ' barbette to the rear of the after 6 @-@ inch magazine . For about 115 feet ( 35 @.@ 1 m ) , it reduced to 13 @.@ 5 inches ( 343 mm ) over the engine and boiler rooms . The belt had a height of 14 feet 3 inches ( 4 @.@ 3 m ) , of which 4 feet 6 inches ( 1 @.@ 4 m ) was below the designed waterline . The lower edge of the belt abreast the magazines was continued down another 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 9 m ) by a 4 inches ( 102 mm ) thickness of high @-@ tensile steel inclined at 36 ° to prevent a shell from reaching the magazines via a wave trough at high speed . The ends of the belt terminated in 14 @-@ inch ( 356 mm ) transverse bulkheads . The 8 @-@ inch ( 203 mm ) armoured deck matched the length of the waterline belt and sloped down to meet the upper edge of the belt . It extended forward over the torpedo compartment which had a separate transverse bulkhead protecting it that was 9 inches ( 229 mm ) thick . The steering gear was protected by a deck and bulkhead 6 inches ( 152 mm ) thick .
The turret faces were 18 inches ( 457 mm ) thick while their sides were probably 14 inches ( 356 mm ) in thickness , and the roof was 8 inches thick . The armour of the barbettes and the conning tower was 15 inches thick and the conning tower 's communications tube to the upper deck was 8 inches thick . The fire @-@ control director atop the conning tower was protected by an armoured hood 4 to 6 inches thick .
The anti @-@ torpedo bulges of the N3 were internal to the hull and were intended to withstand the explosion of a 750 @-@ pound ( 340 kg ) torpedo warhead . They consisted of an outer air space , an inner buoyancy space and the 2 inches ( 51 mm ) thick torpedo bulkhead . The bulkhead was situated about 16 feet ( 4 @.@ 9 m ) inboard from the side of the ship . Postwar tests done on a replica of this system showed that filling the buoyancy space with water rather than the sealed steel crushing tubes as used in Hood was just as effective and weighed less .
= = Cancellation = =
The four N3 battleships were never ordered because the Washington Naval Treaty , an arms limitation treaty under negotiation at the time , forbade construction of any ship larger than 35 @,@ 000 tons . Many of the aspects of their design ultimately were incorporated into the two Nelson @-@ class battleships , and they are often described as being a cut @-@ down N3 . Indeed , the Nelsons received the design designation ' O3 ' , marking them as next in the design sequence , although they used the guns intended for the G3 battlecruisers for cost reasons and to comply with the Treaty 's 16 @-@ inch limitation on main armament .
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= Tropical Storm Andres ( 1997 ) =
Tropical Storm Andres was the only tropical cyclone on record to strike El Salvador . The first named storm of the active 1997 Pacific hurricane season , Andres formed on June 1 off the coast of Mexico . It initially moved toward the coast , although a change in steering winds turned the storm toward Mexico and Guatemala . After passing just offshore , Andres again changed direction toward the southeast , gradually weakening in the process . On June 7 , it turned toward and hit El Salvador before dissipating . The storm brought rainfall to coastlines along much of its path , destroying some houses and inflicted damage . Two fishermen were reported missing in Nicaragua due to high seas , and there were four deaths in El Salvador .
= = Meteorological history = =
Tropical Storm Andres was the first of many storms of the season , with above @-@ average activity due to one of the strongest El Niño events on record . In most of May 1997 , strong westerlies extended across the eastern Pacific Ocean , which inhibited tropical cyclogenesis . Toward the end of the month , however , wind shear decreased in the easternmost portion of the basin , which allowed a low @-@ level circulation to develop ; it is possible the system originated from a tropical wave that traversed the Atlantic Ocean in the previous two weeks . Deep convection increased over the circulation on May 31 , prompting classifications with the Dvorak technique . Based on satellite imagery , it is estimated the system developed into Tropical Depression One @-@ E early on June 1 , about 345 miles ( 555 km ) south of the Gulf of Tehuantepec .
The tropical cyclone was never well @-@ organized , and after its formation , the convection became elongated . As the entire system moved northwestward , another circulation developed which eventually became the dominant center , causing the original circulation to dissipate . Midday on June 2 , the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Andres . The next day , steering winds forced the storm east @-@ northeastward , and on June 4 , Andres attained peak winds of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) . A trough bypassed the storm to the north and changed the steering flow toward the southeast . This produced a track paralleling the Central America coastline ; such a track was considered " unprecedented " by the National Hurricane Center in the database for all eastern Pacific storms . Initially , the storm was expected to continue moving toward Mexico and Guatemala .
Turning southeastward , Tropical Storm Andres passed about 35 miles ( 55 km ) off the coast of Guatemala , before it began weakening due to interaction with the Intertropical Convergence Zone . The convection became amorphous and later shifted to the southeast of the circulation . On June 6 Andres weakened to tropical depression status . It turned northward and moved ashore near San Salvador , El Salvador on June 7 , which was the first recorded landfall in the country . The low @-@ level circulation quickly dissipated over land , although the mid @-@ level circulation persisted across Central America . After the featured reached the western Caribbean Sea , a new surface circulation developed , and initially , tropical cyclone forecast models anticipated the development of a significant storm in the eastern Gulf of Mexico . Instead , the system remained disorganized , bringing rainfall to Cuba , Florida , and the Bahamas before it was absorbed by a weak trough in the Gulf of Mexico .
= = Impact and preparations = =
When Tropical Storm Andres first turned to the northeast , tropical storm warnings were issued from Punta Galera , Mexico to the Mexico / Guatemala border . A tropical storm warning was later issued from Champerico , Guatemala to the Mexican border . All of the warnings were dropped when Andres turned toward the southeast . Later , a tropical storm watch was issued for Guatemala and El Salvador , but it was quickly canceled . Due to the threat of the storm , officials closed ports along the southern Mexican coastline , and also advised for small boats to excise caution .
Throughout its life , Andres produced rainfall along the coast of Mexico , in Guerrero , Oaxaca , and Chiapas , as well as through the Yucatán Peninsula . The highest total in the country was 11 @.@ 42 inches ( 29 cm ) in Mazatán , Chiapas . Heavy rainfall and high seas spread across western Central America . In El Salvador and Nicaragua , the storm led to power outages , traffic accidents , and overflown rivers , as well as destroyed bridges and buildings in Nicaragua . Two fishermen were left missing in Nicaragua , and the storm damaged 91 houses and destroyed 82 more , leaving a total of 1 @,@ 259 people homeless . There were 4 deaths in El Salvador where Andres made landfall . The remnants of Andres brought rainfall to Cuba , Florida , and the Bahamas . In Florida , the system produced a daily record precipitation of 5 @.@ 89 inches ( 15 cm ) at the Miami International Airport ; the rainfall led to street flooding , accidents , and housing damage .
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= The Boat Race 1983 =
The 129th Boat Race took place on 2 April 1983 . Held annually , the event is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge along the River Thames . The pre @-@ race preparation saw Cambridge threaten to boycott the race for the first time , following the inclusion of Boris Rankov in the Oxford boat . The crews were the two heaviest in the history of the event , and featured ten former Boat Race competitors . Oxford won the race by four @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half lengths .
Isis won the reserve race , while Cambridge were victorious in the Women 's Boat Race .
= = Background = =
The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . First held in 1829 , the race takes place on the 4 @.@ 2 miles ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities and followed throughout the United Kingdom and broadcast worldwide . Oxford were the reigning champions , having beaten Cambridge by three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ quarter lengths in the previous year 's race . However , Cambridge held the overall lead , with 68 victories to Oxford 's 59 . The race was sponsored by Ladbrokes ; the winner was awarded the Ladbrokes Trophy .
On 7 March 1983 , Cambridge issued a statement suggesting that they might boycott the race following a dispute over Oxford 's selection of Boris Rankov as a member of their crew . Veteran of the previous five Boat Races , all of which were Dark Blue victories , Cambridge argued Rankov was ineligible for inclusion as he was a lecturer at the university . Coach David Townsend of the University of London offered the services of his crew to provide an opponent for Oxford , should Cambridge refuse to participate . Rankov himself had offered to withdraw from the race , but the Dark Blues ' committee rejected this . Cambridge finally agreed to race after they reached an agreement with Oxford to discuss and possibly tighten the eligibility criteria . This ultimately led to establishment of the so @-@ called " Rankov Rule " , which states that oarsmen will compete in the race no more than four times as an undergraduate and no more than four times as a graduate .
The first Women 's Boat Race took place in 1927 , but did not become an annual fixture until the 1960s . Up until 2014 , the contest was conducted as part of the Henley Boat Races , but as of the 2015 race , it is held on the River Thames , on the same day as the men 's main and reserve races . The reserve race , contested between Oxford 's Isis boat and Cambridge 's Goldie boat has been held since 1965 . It usually takes place on the Tideway , prior to the main Boat Race .
= = Crews = =
The two crews were the heaviest in Boat Race history , Oxford averaging 14 stone 8 lbs ( 92 @.@ 3 kg ) per rower , nearly 7 pounds ( 3 @.@ 2 kg ) a man heavier than the Cambridge crew , and were pre @-@ race favourites to win an eighth consecutive race . Cambridge 's crew featured six unsuccessful Blues , while Oxford 's boat contained four Blues with ten Boat Race victories between them . While seven of the Oxford rowers were international post @-@ graduates , Cambridge 's crew included seven undergraduates . The average age of the Oxford crew was 25 , four years more than Cambridge .
= = Race = =
Cambridge won the toss and elected to start from the Surrey station . Oxford , rowing at a higher rate , took an early lead and were clear of Cambridge by the Mile Post . Extending their lead to six seconds by Hammersmith Bridge , Oxford pushed on to lead by nine seconds at Chiswick Steps . Despite trying to keep in touch , Cambridge were four lengths behind at Barnes Bridge and trailed by 13 seconds as Oxford passed the finishing post . Oxford won by four @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half lengths in a time of 19 minutes 7 seconds .
This was Oxford 's eighth consecutive victory , and their ninth in ten years , and took the overall record to 68 – 60 in favour of Cambridge . The race was watched by 14 million television viewers .
In the reserve race , Oxford 's Isis beat Cambridge 's Goldie by six @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half lengths , while Cambridge won the 38th Women 's Boat Race .
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= Air mass =
In meteorology , an air mass is a volume of air defined by its temperature and water vapor content . Air masses cover many hundreds or thousands of square miles , and adapt to the characteristics of the surface below them . They are classified according to latitude and their continental or maritime source regions . Colder air masses are termed polar or arctic , while warmer air masses are deemed tropical . Continental and superior air masses are dry while maritime and monsoon air masses are moist . Weather fronts separate air masses with different density ( temperature and / or moisture ) characteristics . Once an air mass moves away from its source region , underlying vegetation and water bodies can quickly modify its character . Classification schemes tackle an air mass ' characteristics , and well as modification .
= = Classification and notation = =
The Bergeron classification is the most widely accepted form of air mass classification , though others have produced more refined versions of this scheme over different regions of the globe . Air mass classification involves three letters . The first letter describes its moisture properties , with c used for continental air masses ( dry ) and m for maritime air masses ( moist ) . The second letter describes the thermal characteristic of its source region : T for Tropical , P for Polar , A for arctic or Antarctic , M for monsoon , E for Equatorial , and S for superior air ( an adiabatically drying and warming air formed by significant downward motion in the atmosphere ) . For instance , an air mass originating over the desert southwest of the United States in summer may be designated " cT " . An air mass originating over northern Siberia in winter may be indicated as " cA " .
The stability of an air mass may be shown using a third letter , either " k " ( air mass colder than the surface below it ) or " w " ( air mass warmer than the surface below it ) . An example of this might be a polar air mass blowing over the Gulf Stream , denoted as " cPk " . Occasionally , one may also encounter the use of an apostrophe or " degree tick " denoting that a given air mass having the same notation as another it is replacing is colder than the replaced air mass ( usually for polar air masses ) . For example , a series of fronts over the Pacific might show an air mass denoted mPk followed by another denoted mPk ' .
Another convention utilizing these symbols is the indication of modification or transformation of one type to another . For instance , an Arctic air mass blowing out over the Gulf of Alaska may be shown as " cA @-@ mPk " . Yet another convention indicates the layering of air masses in certain situations . For instance , the overrunning of a polar air mass by an air mass from the Gulf of Mexico over the Central United States might be shown with the notation " mT / cP " ( sometimes using a horizontal line as in fraction notation ) .
= = Characteristics = =
Arctic , Antarctic , and polar air masses are cold . The qualities of arctic air are developed over ice and snow @-@ covered ground . Arctic air is deeply cold , colder than polar air masses . Arctic air can be shallow in the summer , and rapidly modify as it moves equatorward . Polar air masses develop over higher latitudes over the land or ocean , are very stable , and generally shallower than arctic air . Polar air over the ocean ( maritime ) loses its stability as it gains moisture over warmer ocean waters .
Tropical and equatorial air masses are hot as they develop over lower latitudes . Those that develop over land ( continental ) are drier and hotter than those that develop over oceans , and travel poleward on the western periphery of the subtropical ridge . Maritime tropical air masses are sometimes referred to as trade air masses . Monsoon air masses are moist and unstable . Superior air masses are dry , and rarely reach the ground . They normally reside over maritime tropical air masses , forming a warmer and drier layer over the more moderate moist air mass below , forming what is known as a trade wind inversion over the maritime tropical air mass . Continental Polar air masses ( cP ) are air masses that are cold and dry due to their continental source region . Continental polar air masses that affect North America form over interior Canada . Continental Tropical air masses ( cT ) are a type of tropical air produced by the subtropical ridge over large areas of land and typically originate from low @-@ latitude deserts such as the Sahara Desert in northern Africa , which is the major source of these air masses . Other less important sources producing cT air masses are the Arabian Peninsula , the central arid / semi @-@ arid part of Australia and deserts lying in the Southwestern United States . Continental tropical air masses are extremely hot and dry .
= = Movement and fronts = =
A weather front is a boundary separating two masses of air of different densities , and is the principal cause of meteorological phenomena . In surface weather analyses , fronts are depicted using various colored lines and symbols , depending on the type of front . The air masses separated by a front usually differ in temperature and humidity . Cold fronts may feature narrow bands of thunderstorms and severe weather , and may on occasion be preceded by squall lines or dry lines . Warm fronts are usually preceded by stratiform precipitation and fog . The weather usually clears quickly after a front 's passage . Some fronts produce no precipitation and little cloudiness , although there is invariably a wind shift .
Cold fronts and occluded fronts generally move from west to east , while warm fronts move poleward . Because of the greater density of air in their wake , cold fronts and cold occlusions move faster than warm fronts and warm occlusions . Mountains and warm bodies of water can slow the movement of fronts . When a front becomes stationary , and the density contrast across the frontal boundary vanishes , the front can degenerate into a line which separates regions of differing wind velocity , known as a shearline . This is most common over the open ocean .
= = Modification = =
Air masses can be modified in a variety of ways . Surface flux from underlying vegetation , such as forest , acts to moisten the overlying air mass . Heat from underlying warmer waters can significantly modify an air mass over distances as short as 35 kilometres ( 22 mi ) to 40 kilometres ( 25 mi ) . For example , southwest of extratropical cyclones , curved cyclonic flow bringing cold air across the relatively warm water bodies can lead to narrow lake @-@ effect snow bands . Those bands bring strong localized precipitation since large water bodies such as lakes efficiently store heat that results in significant temperature differences ( larger than 13 ° C or 23 ° F ) between the water surface and the air above . Because of this temperature difference , warmth and moisture are transported upward , condensing into vertically oriented clouds ( see satellite picture ) which produce snow showers . The temperature decrease with height and cloud depth are directly affected by both the water temperature and the large @-@ scale environment . The stronger the temperature decrease with height , the deeper the clouds get , and the greater the precipitation rate becomes .
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= The Mad Hermit =
The Mad Hermit is a 1910 American silent short drama film produced by the Thanhouser Company . The story focuses on Harry Willard , who becomes a hermit after his wife and daughter leave him . He spends a quarter of a century in isolation , but he stumbles across a runaway carriage and the woman tosses her baby to him . He runs into the wilderness and prepares to kill it , but he stays his hand when he sees the baby 's locket . The parents survive the carriage crash and seek out the hermit , and it is revealed that the baby 's mother is the daughter of Harry Willard . Created by a staff of twenty , it was the first film to be produced by the Thanhouser Company . The film was released in August 9 , 1910 , after the success of the company was ensured , and met with positive reception by critics . The film is presumed lost .
= = Plot = =
Though the film is presumed lost , a synopsis survives in The Moving Picture World from August 13 , 1910 . It states : " The story centers on Harry Willard , a plodding farmer . A city gentleman promises Harry 's frivolous wife a life of ease and luxury - and it is the old , old story . She takes her tiny daughter , Agnes , with her , and leaves a note announcing the fact for Harry . The young farmer , who loves his wife and child with an all @-@ consuming love , loses his reason as he reads the announcement of his betrayal . Although without the bare means for his subsistence , he searches for days for his loved ones . Eventually the strain , mental and physical , tells on him - he comes out of it all a maniac . His wrath takes the form of an aversion to all mankind . He wants to forget the world that has treated him so ill - he decides to become a hermit and betakes himself to a desolate cave , where he spends the years execrating humanity . A quarter century goes by . Rarely in that time does he venture on beaten paths for fear that he may meet a hated human , but one day he forgets his resolve long enough to cross a carriage drive . He hears the clatter of hooves and sights a horse tearing toward him with a swaying carriage and screaming occupants - runaway ! As the carriage passes by him , a woman flings a bundle to him ; he catches it and finds it a pink and white bit of humanity . Dazed he runs into the wilderness with a baby and makes for his cave . Arrived at the cave the maniac resolves to even his score with society by taking the babe 's life . But his eyes light on the baby 's locket and his hand is stayed . For the locket bears a picture of the child of the wife who betrayed him ! "
" The parents of the baby have miraculously escaped death in the crash of their carriage and trace the strange creature who rescued the child to his lair . They arrive as he ponders upon the picture in the locket and tries to recall the original of it . The babe is the daughter of the original and its mother the hermit 's daughter , Agnes - the one @-@ time tot whom the deserting wife took with her . A wife and mother , she is quite a mature woman now - but her features are unchanged . The face appears familiar to the hermit and he tries to place it . Eventually he succeeds . The shock of recognition dazes him - and changes him . The light of sanity returns to his eyes . His reason is restored . He takes to his breast the daughter whom he had lost and found again . She takes him from his forest home and back to the civilization that had tricked him . But the kindly care and love his daughter bestows on him to act in a measure as a recompense for the wrong done him in the long ago , and with the passing years the bitterness passes from his being . The picture touches the heartstrings ; it will please to a certainty . "
= = Production = =
The Mad Hermit was the first film to be produced by the Thanhouser Company , but the first release was The Actor 's Children . The writer of the scenario is unknown . The film was shot in the autumn of 1909 . Edwin Thanhouser would later describe the production as , " ... a rather lamentable affair . It included everything from murder through robbery and a love story . It boasted enough material for 15 plots . " According to Q. David Bowers , Edwin Thanhouser felt that the production had many amateurish aspects and held off on releasing the film until the reputation of the company was secured . The film was directed by Barry O 'Neil , the stage name of Thomas J. McCarthy . O 'Neil would direct many important Thanhouser pictures , including its first two @-@ reeler , Romeo and Juliet . There are no known credits for the cast , but Anna Rosemond and Frank H. Crane are two possible actors that were prominent players in 1910 . Involved with the company since its beginnings , Anna Rosemond was one of two leading ladies of the Thanhouser company in this era . Frank H. Crane was a leading male actor of the company and also involved since the very beginnings of the Thanhouser Company . Bowers states that most of the credits are fragmentary for 1910 Thanhouser productions . A later statement by Edwin Thanhouser would state that 20 persons , including the director and cameraman , were involved in the production . A surviving film still leaves open the possibility of identifying two characters .
= = Release and reception = =
The single reel drama , approximately 1 @,@ 000 feet long , was released on August 9 , 1910 . The film had a wide national release , with advertisements including those in Kansas , California , Arizona , Nebraska , Washington , South Dakota , Pennsylvania , and Texas . An advertisement for the Province Theatre suggests that the film arrived in British Columbia , Canada within days of its release .
The film received praise from critics with The Moving Picture World stating , " [ It is a ] picture which touches the heart and arouses the strongest emotions . It can be readily understood how a man might become a maniac under such circumstances . The loss of a wife and daughter is sufficient to overthrow reason . That a man should be a hermit afterward seems not unusual . Then comes the excitement of the runaway , the rescue of the baby and the discovery of his daughter , with returning reason and love to follow during his declining years . The emotions will be strongly aroused by this picture , and that will make it popular . Whatever touches the heart is always popular , and this seems to appeal with unusual power . " The New York Dramatic Mirror offered minor praise for the film for the production and its acting .
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= Scotland in the Middle Ages =
Scotland in the Middle Ages concerns the history of the region that is now Scotland , from the departure of the Romans ( from Britannia ) in the early fifth century , to the adoption of major aspects of the Renaissance in the early sixteenth century . From the fifth century North Britain was divided into a series of petty kingdoms . Of these the four most important to emerge were the Picts , the Scots of Dál Riata , the Britons of Strathclyde and the Anglian kingdom of Bernicia . After the arrival of the Vikings in the late eighth century , Scandinavian rulers and colonies were established along parts of the coasts and in the islands . In the ninth century the Scots and Picts combined under the House of Alpin to form a single Kingdom of Alba , with a Pictish base and dominated by Gaelic culture . After the reign of King David I in the twelfth century , the Scottish monarchs are best described as Scoto @-@ Norman , preferring French culture to native Scottish culture . Alexander II and his son Alexander III , were able to annexe the remainder of the western seaboard , cumulating the Treaty of Perth with Norway in 1266 . Scotland established its independence from England under figures including William Wallace in the late thirteenth century and Robert Bruce in the fourteenth century . In the fifteenth century under the Stewart Dynasty , despite a turbulent political history , the crown gained greater political control at the expense of independent lords and regained most of its lost territory to approximately the modern borders of the country . However , the Auld Alliance with France led to the heavy defeat of a Scottish army at the Battle of Flodden in 1513 and the death of the king James IV , which would be followed by a long minority and a period of political instability .
Kingship was the major form of government , growing in sophistication in the late Middle Ages . The scale and nature of war also changed , with larger armies , naval forces and the development of artillery and fortifications . Christianity introduced monasticism and what has been identified as Celtic Christianity . Nevertheless , the church accepted papal authority and from the eleventh century embraced monastic reform , developing a flourishing religious culture that asserted its independence from English control . Scotland grew from a relatively small area in the eastern Lowlands , to approximately its modern borders . The varied and dramatic geography of the land provided a protection against invasion , but limited central control . It also defined the largely pastoral economy , with the first burghs being created from the twelfth century . The population may have grown to a peak of a million before the arrival of the Black Death in 1337 . In the early Middle Ages society was divided between a small aristocracy and larger numbers of freemen and slaves . Serfdom disappeared in the fourteenth century and there was a growth of new social groups .
The Pictish and Cumbric languages were replaced by Gaelic , Old English and later Norse , with Gaelic emerging as the major cultural language . From the eleventh century French was adopted in the court and in the late Middle Ages , Scots , derived from Old English , became dominant , with Gaelic largely confined to the Highlands . Christianity brought Latin , written culture and monasteries as centres of learning . From the twelfth century , educational opportunities widened and a growth of lay education cumulated in the Education Act 1496 . Until in the fifteenth century , when Scotland gained three universities , Scots pursuing higher education had to travel to England or the continent , where some gained an international reputation . Literature survives in all the major languages present in the early Middle Ages , with Scots emerging as a major literary language from John Barbour 's Brus ( 1375 ) , developing a culture of poetry by court makars , and later major works of prose . Art from the early Middle Ages survives in carving , in metalwork , and elaborate illuminated books , which contributed to the development of the wider insular style . Much of the finest later work has not survived , but there are a few key examples , particularly of work commissioned in the Netherlands . Scotland had a musical tradition , with secular music composed and performed by bards and from the thirteenth century , church music increasingly influenced by continental and English forms .
= = Political history = =
= = = Early Middle Ages = = =
= = = = Minor kingdoms = = = =
In the centuries after the departure of the Romans from Britain , four major circles of influence emerged within the borders of what is now Scotland . In the east were the Picts , whose kingdoms eventually stretched from the river Forth to Shetland . The first identifiable king to have exerted a superior and wide @-@ ranging authority , was Bridei mac Maelchon ( r. c . 550 – 84 ) , whose power was based in the Kingdom of Fidach and his base was at the fort of Craig Phadrig near modern Inverness . After his death leadership seems to have shifted to the Fortriu , whose lands were centred on Strathearn and Menteith and who raided along the eastern coast into modern England . Christian missionaries from Iona appear to have begun the conversion of the Picts to Christianity from 563 .
In the west were the Gaelic ( Goidelic ) -speaking people of Dál Riata with their royal fortress at Dunadd in Argyll , with close links with the island of Ireland , from which they brought with them the name Scots . In 563 a mission from Ireland under St. Columba founded the monastery of Iona off the west coast of Scotland and probably began the conversion of the region to Christianity . The kingdom reached its height under Áedán mac Gabráin ( r . 574 – 608 ) , but its expansion was checked at the Battle of Degsastan in 603 by Æthelfrith of Northumbria .
In the south was the British ( Brythonic ) Kingdom of Strathclyde , descendants of the peoples of the Roman influenced kingdoms of " The Old North " , often named Alt Clut , the Brythonic name for their capital at Dumbarton Rock . In 642 , they defeated the men of Dál Riata , but the kingdom suffered a number of attacks from the Picts , and later their Northumbrian allies , between 744 and 756 . After this , little is recorded until Alt Clut was burnt and probably destroyed in 780 , although by whom and what in what circumstances is not known .
Finally , there were the English or " Angles " , Germanic invaders who had overrun much of southern Britain and held the Kingdom of Bernicia , in the south @-@ east . The first English king in the historical record is Ida , who is said to have obtained the throne and the kingdom about 547 . Ida 's grandson , Æthelfrith , united his kingdom with Deira to the south to form Northumbria around the year 604 . There were changes of dynasty , and the kingdom was divided , but it was re @-@ united under Æthelfrith 's son Oswald ( r . 634 – 42 ) , who had converted to Christianity while in exile in Dál Riata and looked to Iona for missionaries to help convert his kingdom .
= = = = Origins of the Kingdom of Alba = = = =
This situation was transformed in AD 793 when ferocious Viking raids began on monasteries like Iona and Lindisfarne , creating fear and confusion across the kingdoms of North Britain . Orkney , Shetland and the Western Isles eventually fell to the Norsemen . The King of Fortriu , Eógan mac Óengusa , and the King of Dál Riata Áed mac Boanta , were among the dead in a major defeat at the hands of the Vikings in 839 . A mixture of Viking and Gaelic Irish settlement into south @-@ west Scotland produced the Gall @-@ Gaidel , the Norse Irish , from which the region gets the modern name Galloway . Sometime in the ninth century the beleaguered Kingdom of Dál Riata lost the Hebrides to the Vikings , when Ketil Flatnose is said to have founded the Kingdom of the Isles .
These threats may have speeded a long term process of gaelicisation of the Pictish kingdoms , which adopted Gaelic language and customs . There was also a merger of the Gaelic and Pictish crowns , although historians debate whether it was a Pictish takeover of Dál Riata , or the other way around . This culminated in the rise of Cínaed mac Ailpín ( Kenneth MacAlpin ) in the 840s , which brought to power the House of Alpin . In AD 867 the Vikings seized Northumbria , forming the Kingdom of York ; three years later they stormed the Britons ' fortress of Dumbarton and subsequently conquered much of England except for a reduced Kingdom of Wessex , leaving the new combined Pictish and Gaelic kingdom almost encircled . When he died as king of the combined kingdom in 900 , Domnall II ( Donald II ) was the first man to be called rí Alban ( i.e. King of Alba ) . The term Scotia would be increasingly be used to describe the kingdom between North of the Forth and Clyde and eventually the entire area controlled by its kings would be referred to as Scotland .
= = = High Middle Ages = = =
= = = = Gaelic kings : Constantine II to Alexander I = = = =
The long reign ( 900 – 942 / 3 ) of Causantín ( Constantine II ) is often regarded as the key to formation of the Kingdom of Alba . He was later credited with bringing Scottish Christianity into conformity with the Catholic Church . After fighting many battles , his defeat at Brunanburh was followed by his retirement as a Culdee monk at St. Andrews . The period between the accession of his successor Máel Coluim I ( Malcolm I ) and Máel Coluim mac Cináeda ( Malcolm II ) was marked by good relations with the Wessex rulers of England , intense internal dynastic disunity and relatively successful expansionary policies . In 945 , Máel Coluim I annexed Strathclyde , where the kings of Alba had probably exercised some authority since the later ninth century , as part of an agreement with King Edmund of England . This event was offset by loss of control in Moray . The reign of King Donnchad I ( Duncan I ) from 1034 was marred by failed military adventures , and he was defeated and killed by MacBeth , the Mormaer of Moray , who became king in 1040 . MacBeth ruled for 17 years before he was overthrown by Máel Coluim , the son of Donnchad , who some months later defeated MacBeth 's step @-@ son and successor Lulach to become king Máel Coluim III ( Malcolm III ) .
It was Máel Coluim III , who acquired the nickname " Canmore " ( Cenn Mór , " Great Chief " ) , which he passed to his successors and who did most to create the Dunkeld dynasty that ruled Scotland for the following two centuries . Particularly important was his second marriage to the Anglo @-@ Hungarian princess Margaret . This marriage , and raids on northern England , prompted William the Conqueror to invade and Máel Coluim submitted to his authority , opening up Scotland to later claims of sovereignty by English kings . When Malcolm died in 1093 , his brother Domnall III ( Donald III ) succeeded him . However , William II of England backed Máel Coluim 's son by his first marriage , Donnchad , as a pretender to the throne and he seized power . His murder within a few months saw Domnall restored with one of Máel Coluim sons by his second marriage , Edmund , as his heir . The two ruled Scotland until two of Edmund 's younger brothers returned from exile in England , again with English military backing . Victorious , Edgar , the oldest of the three , became king in 1097 . Shortly afterwards Edgar and the King of Norway , Magnus Bare Legs concluded a treaty recognising Norwegian authority over the Western Isles . In practice Norse control of the Isles was loose , with local chiefs enjoying a high degree of independence . He was succeeded by his brother Alexander , who reigned 1107 – 24 .
= = = = Scoto @-@ Norman kings : David I to Alexander III = = = =
When Alexander died in 1124 , the crown passed to Margaret 's fourth son David I , who had spent most of his life as an English baron . His reign saw what has been characterised as a " Davidian Revolution " , by which native institutions and personnel were replaced by English and French ones , underpinning the development of later Medieval Scotland . Members of the Anglo @-@ Norman nobility took up places in the Scottish aristocracy and he introduced a system of feudal land tenure , which produced knight service , castles and an available body of heavily armed body of cavalry . He created an Anglo @-@ Norman style of court , introduced the office of justicar to oversee justice , and local offices of sheriffs to administer localities . He established the first royal burghs in Scotland , granting rights to particular settlements , which led to the development of the first true Scottish towns and helped facilitate economic development as did the introduction of the first recorded Scottish coinage . He continued a process begun by his mother and brothers , of helping to establish foundations that brought the reformed monasticism based on that at Cluny . He also played a part in the organisation of diocese on lines closer to those in the rest of Western Europe .
These reforms were pursued under his successors and grandchildren Malcolm IV of Scotland and William I , with the crown now passing down the main line of descent through primogeniture , leading to the first of a series of minorities . The benefits of greater authority were reaped by William 's son Alexander II and his son Alexander III , who pursued a policy of peace with England to expand their authority in the Highlands and Islands . By the reign of Alexander III , the Scots were in a position to annexe the remainder of the western seaboard , which they did following Haakon Haakonarson 's ill @-@ fated invasion and the stalemate of the Battle of Largs with the Treaty of Perth in 1266 .
= = = Late Middle Ages = = =
= = = = Wars of Independence : Margaret to David II = = = =
The death of King Alexander III in 1286 , and then of his granddaughter and heir Margaret , Maid of Norway in 1290 , left 14 rivals for succession . To prevent civil war the Scottish magnates asked Edward I of England to arbitrate , for which he extracted legal recognition that the realm of Scotland was held as a feudal dependency to the throne of England before choosing John Balliol , the man with the strongest claim , who became king in 1292 . Robert Bruce , 5th Lord of Annandale , the next strongest claimant , accepted this outcome with reluctance . Over the next few years Edward I used the concessions he had gained to systematically undermine both the authority of King John and the independence of Scotland . In 1295 John , on the urgings of his chief councillors , entered into an alliance with France , known as the Auld Alliance . In 1296 Edward invaded Scotland , deposing King John . The following year William Wallace and Andrew de Moray raised forces to resist the occupation and under their joint leadership an English army was defeated at the Battle of Stirling Bridge . For a short time Wallace ruled Scotland in the name of John Balliol as guardian of the realm . Edward came north in person and defeated Wallace at the Battle of Falkirk . The English barons refuted the French @-@ inspired papal claim to Scottish overlordship in the Barons ' Letter , 1301 , claiming it rather as long possessed by English kings . Wallace escaped but probably resigned as Guardian of Scotland . In 1305 he fell into the hands of the English , who executed him for treason despite the fact that he believed he owed no allegiance to England .
Rivals John Comyn and Robert the Bruce , grandson of the claimant , were appointed as joint guardians in his place . On 10 February 1306 , Bruce participated in the murder of Comyn , at Greyfriars Kirk in Dumfries . Less than seven weeks later , on 25 March , Bruce was crowned as king . However , Edward 's forces overran the country after defeating Bruce 's small army at the Battle of Methven . Despite the excommunication of Bruce and his followers by Pope Clement V , his support slowly strengthened ; and by 1314 with the help of leading nobles such as Sir James Douglas and Thomas Randolph only the castles at Bothwell and Stirling remained under English control . Edward I had died in 1307 . His heir Edward II moved an army north to break the siege of Stirling Castle and reassert control . Robert defeated that army at the Battle of Bannockburn in 1314 , securing de facto independence . In 1320 the Declaration of Arbroath , a remonstrance to the pope from the nobles of Scotland , helped convince Pope John XXII to overturn the earlier excommunication and nullify the various acts of submission by Scottish kings to English ones so that Scotland 's sovereignty could be recognised by the major European dynasties . The declaration has also been seen as one of the most important documents in the development of a Scottish national identity .
In 1328 , Edward III signed the Treaty of Northampton acknowledging Scottish independence under the rule of Robert the Bruce . However , four years after Robert 's death in 1329 , England once more invaded on the pretext of restoring Edward Balliol , son of John Balliol , to the Scottish throne , thus starting the Second War of Independence . Despite victories at Dupplin Moor and Halidon Hill , in the face of tough Scottish resistance led by Sir Andrew Murray , the son of Wallace 's comrade in arms , successive attempts to secure Balliol on the throne failed . Edward III lost interest in the fate of his protege after the outbreak of the Hundred Years ' War with France . In 1341 David II , King Robert 's son and heir , was able to return from temporary exile in France . Balliol finally resigned his claim to the throne to Edward in 1356 , before retiring to Yorkshire , where he died in 1364 .
= = = = The Stewarts : Robert II to James IV = = = =
After David II 's death , Robert II , the first of the Stewart kings , came to the throne in 1371 . He was followed in 1390 by his ailing son John , who took the regnal name Robert III . During Robert III 's reign ( 1390 – 1406 ) , actual power rested largely in the hands of his brother , Robert Stewart , Duke of Albany . After the suspicious death ( possibly on the orders of the Duke of Albany ) of his elder son , David , Duke of Rothesay in 1402 , Robert , fearful for the safety of his younger son , the future James I , sent him to France in 1406 . However , the English captured him en route and he spent the next 18 years as a prisoner held for ransom . As a result , after the death of Robert III , regents ruled Scotland : first , the Duke of Albany ; and later his son Murdoch .
When Scotland finally paid the ransom in 1424 , James , aged 32 , returned with his English bride determined to assert this authority . Several members of the Albany family were executed , and he succeeded in centralising control in the hands of the crown , but at the cost of increasingly unpopularity and he was assassinated in 1437 . His son James II when he came of age in 1449 , continued his father 's policy of weakening the great noble families , most notably taking on the powerful Black Douglas family that had come to prominence at the time of Robert I. His attempt to take Roxburgh from the English in 1460 succeeded , but at the cost of his life as he was killed by an exploding artillery piece .
His young son came to the throne as James III , resulting in another minority , with Robert , Lord Boyd emerging as the most important figure . In 1468 James married Margaret of Denmark , receiving the Orkney and the Shetland Islands in payment of her dowry . In 1469 the King asserted his control , executing members of the Boyd family and his brothers , Alexander , Duke of Albany and John , Earl of Mar , resulting in Albany leading an English backed invasion and becoming effective ruler . The English retreated , having taken Berwick for the last time in 1482 , and James was able to regain power . However , the King managed to alienate the barons , former supporters , his wife and his son James . He was defeated at the Battle of Sauchieburn and killed in 1488 .
His successor James IV successfully ended the quasi @-@ independent rule of the Lord of the Isles , bringing the Western Isles under effective Royal control for the first time . In 1503 , he married Margaret Tudor , daughter of Henry VII of England , thus laying the foundation for the seventeenth century Union of the Crowns . However , in 1512 the Auld Alliance was renewed and under its terms , when the French were attacked by the English under Henry VIII the next year , James IV invaded England in support . The invasion was stopped decisively at the Battle of Flodden during which the King , many of his nobles , and a large number of ordinary troops were killed . Once again Scotland 's government lay in the hands of regents in the name of the infant James V.
= = Government = =
Kingship was the major form of political organisation in the Early Middle Ages , with competing minor kingdoms and fluid relationships of over and under kingdoms . The primary function of these kings was as war leaders , but there were also ritual elements to kingship , evident in ceremonies of coronation.The unification of the Scots and Picts from the tenth century that produced the Kingdom of Alba , retained some of these ritual aspects in the coronation at Scone . While the Scottish monarchy remained a largely itinerant institution , Scone remained one of its most important locations , with Royal castles at Stirling and Perth becoming significant in the later Middle Ages before Edinburgh developed as a capital in the second half of the fifteenth century . The Scottish crown grew in prestige throughout the era and adopted the conventional offices of Western European courts and later elements of their ritual and grandeur .
In the early period the kings of the Scots depended on the great lords of the mormaers ( later earls ) and Toísechs ( later thanes ) , but from the reign of David I sheriffdoms were introduced , which allowed more direct control and gradually limited the power of the major lordships . While knowledge of early systems of law is limited , justice can be seen as developing from the twelfth century onwards with local sheriff , burgh , manorial and ecclesiastical courts and offices of the justicar to oversee administration . The Scots common law began to develop in this period and there were attempts to systematise and codify the law and the beginnings of an educated professional body of lawyers . In the Late Middle Ages major institutions of government , including the privy council and parliament developed . The council emerged as a full @-@ time body in the fifteenth century , increasingly dominated by laymen and critical to the administration of justice . Parliament also emerged as a major legal institution , gaining an oversight of taxation and policy . By the end of the era it was sitting almost every year , partly because of the frequent minorities and regencies of the period , which may have prevented it from being sidelined by the monarchy .
= = Warfare = =
In the Early Middle Ages , war on land was characterised by the use of small war @-@ bands of household troops often engaging in raids and low level warfare . The arrival of the Vikings brought a new scale of naval warfare , with rapid movement based around the Viking longship . The birlinn , which developed form the longship , became a major factor in warfare in the Highlands and Islands . By the High Middle Ages , the kings of Scotland could command forces of tens of thousands of men for short periods as part of the " common army " , mainly of poorly armoured spear and bowmen . After the introduction of feudalism to Scotland , these forces were augmented by small numbers of mounted and heavily armoured knights . Feudalism also introduced castles into the country , originally simple wooden motte @-@ and @-@ bailey constructions , but these were replaced in the thirteenth century with more formidable stone " enceinte " castles , with high encircling walls . In the thirteenth century the threat of Scandinavian naval power subsided and the kings of Scotland were able to use naval forces to help subdue the Highlands and Islands .
Scottish field armies rarely managed to stand up to the usually larger and more professional armies produced by England , but they were used to good effect by Robert I at Bannockburn in 1314 to secure Scottish independence . He also made use of naval power to support his forces and began to develop a royal Scottish naval force . Under the Stewart kings these forces were further augmented by specialist troops , particularly men @-@ at @-@ arms and archers , hired by bonds of manrent , similar to English indentures of the same period . New " livery and maintenance " castles were built to house these troops and castles began to be adapted to accommodate gunpowder weapons . The Stewarts also adopted major innovations in continental warfare , such as longer pikes and the extensive use of artillery , and they built up a formidable navy . However , in the early fifteenth century one of the best armed and largest Scottish armies ever assembled still met with defeat at the hands of an English army at the Battle of Flodden in 1513 , which saw the destruction of a large number of ordinary troops , a large section of the nobility and the king , James IV .
= = Religion = =
Christianity was probably introduced to what is now lowland Scotland from Roman soldiers stationed in the north of the province of Britannia . It is presumed to have survived among the Brythonic enclaves in the south of modern Scotland , but retreated as the pagan Anglo @-@ Saxons advanced . Scotland was largely converted by Irish @-@ Scots missions associated with figures such as St Columba from the fifth to the seventh centuries . These missions tended to found monastic institutions and collegiate churches that served large areas . Partly as a result of these factors , some scholars have identified a distinctive form of Celtic Christianity , in which abbots were more significant than bishops , attitudes to clerical celibacy were more relaxed and there was some significant differences in practice with Roman Christianity , particularly the form of tonsure and the method of calculating Easter , although most of these issues had been resolved by the mid @-@ seventh century . After the reconversion of Scandinavian Scotland from the tenth century , Christianity under papal authority was the dominant religion of the kingdom .
In the Norman period the Scottish church underwent a series of reforms and transformations . With royal and lay patronage , a clearer parochial structure based around local churches was developed . Large numbers of new foundations , which followed continental forms of reformed monasticism , began to predominate and the Scottish church established its independence from England , developed a clearer diocesan structure , becoming a " special daughter of the see of Rome " , but lacking leadership in the form of archbishops . In the Late Middle Ages the problems of schism in the Catholic Church allowed the Scottish Crown to gain greater influence over senior appointments and two archbishoprics had been established by the end of the fifteenth century . While some historians have discerned a decline of monasticism in the Late Middle Ages , the mendicant orders of friars grew , particularly in the expanding burghs , to meet the spiritual needs of the population . New saints and cults of devotion also proliferated . Despite problems over the number and quality of clergy after the Black Death in the fourteenth century , and some evidence of heresy in this period , the church in Scotland remained relatively stable before the Reformation in the sixteenth century .
= = Geography = =
Modern Scotland is half the size England and Wales in area , but with its many inlets , islands and inland lochs , it has roughly the same amount of coastline at 4 @,@ 000 miles . Only a fifth of Scotland is less than 60 metres above sea level . Its east Atlantic position means that it has very heavy rainfall : today about 700 cm per year in the east and over 1 @,@ 000 cm in the west . This encouraged the spread of blanket peat bog , the acidity of which , combined with high level of wind and salt spray , made most of the islands treeless . The existence of hills , mountains , quicksands and marshes made internal communication and conquest extremely difficult and may have contributed to the fragmented nature of political power .
The defining factor in the geography of Scotland is the distinction between the Highlands and Islands in the north and west and the Lowlands in the south and east . The highlands are further divided into the Northwest Highlands and the Grampian Mountains by the fault line of the Great Glen . The lowlands are divided into the fertile belt of the Central Lowlands and the higher terrain of the Southern Uplands , which included the Cheviot hills , over which the border with England came to run by the end of the period . Some of these were further divided by mountains , major rivers and marshes . The Central Lowland belt averages about 50 miles in width and , because it contains most of the good quality agricultural land and has easier communications , could support most of the urbanisation and elements of conventional Medieval government . However , the Southern Uplands , and particularly the Highlands were economically less productive and much more difficult to govern . This provided Scotland with a form of protection , as minor English incursions had to cross the difficult southern uplands and the two major attempts at conquest by the English , under Edward I and then Edward III , were unable to penetrate the highlands , from which area potential resistance could reconquer the Lowlands . However , it also made those areas problematic to govern for Scottish kings and much of the political history of the era after the wars of independence circulated around attempts to resolve problems of entrenched localism in these regions .
Until the thirteenth century the borders with England were very fluid , with Northumbria being annexed to Scotland by David I , but lost under his grandson and successor Malcolm IV in 1157 . By the late thirteenth century when the Treaty of York ( 1237 ) and Treaty of Perth ( 1266 ) had fixed the boundaries with the Kingdom of the Scots with England and Norway respectively , its borders were close to the modern boundaries . The Isle of Man fell under English control in the fourteenth century , despite several attempts to restore Scottish authority . The English were able to annexe a large slice of the Lowlands under Edward III , but these losses were gradually regained , particularly while England was preoccupied with the Wars of the Roses ( 1455 – 85 ) . The dowry of the Orkney and Shetland Islands in 1468 was the last great land acquisition for the kingdom . However , in 1482 Berwick , a border fortress and the largest port in Medieval Scotland , fell to the English once again , for what was to be the final change of hands .
= = Economy and society = =
= = = Economy = = =
Having between a fifth or sixth of the arable or good pastoral land and roughly the same amount of coastline as England and Wales , marginal pastoral agriculture and fishing were two of the most important aspects of the Medieval Scottish economy . With poor communications , in the Early Middle Ages most settlements needed to achieve a degree of self @-@ sufficiency in agriculture . Most farms were based around a family unit and used an infield and outfield system . Arable farming grew in the High Middle Ages and agriculture entered a period of relative boom between the thirteenth century and late fifteenth century .
Unlike England , Scotland had no towns dating from Roman occupation . From the twelfth century there are records of burghs , chartered towns , which became major centres of crafts and trade. and there is evidence of 55 burghs by 1296 . There are also Scottish coins , although English coinage probably remained more significant in trade and until the end of the period barter was probably the most common form of exchange . Nevertheless , craft and industry remained relatively undeveloped before the end of the Middle Ages and , although there were extensive trading networks based in Scotland , while the Scots exported largely raw materials , they imported increasing quantities of luxury goods , resulting in a bullion shortage and perhaps helping to create a financial crisis in the fifteenth century .
= = = Demography = = =
There are almost no written sources from which to re @-@ construct the demography of early Medieval Scotland . Estimates have been made of a population of 10 @,@ 000 inhabitants in Dál Riata and 80 – 100 @,@ 000 for Pictland . It is likely that the 5th and 6th centuries saw higher mortality rates due to the appearance of bubonic plague , which may have reduced net population . The examination of burial sites for this period like that at Hallowhill , St Andrews indicate a life expectancy of only 26 @-@ 9 . The known conditions have been taken to suggest it was a high fertility , high mortality society , similar to many developing countries in the modern world , with a relatively young demographic profile , and perhaps early childbearing , and large numbers of children for women . This would have meant that there were a relatively small proportion of available workers to the number of mouths to feed . This have made it difficult to produce a surplus that would allow demographic growth and more complex societies to develop . From the formation of the Kingdom of Alba in the tenth century , to before the Black Death reached the country in 1349 , estimates based on the amount of farmable land , suggest that population may have grown from half a million to a million . Although there is no reliable documentation on the impact of the plague , there are many anecdotal references to abandoned land in the following decades . If the pattern followed that in England , then the population may have fallen to as low as half a million by the end of the fifteenth century . Compared with the situation after the redistribution of population in the later clearances and the industrial revolution , these numbers would have been relatively evenly spread over the kingdom , with roughly half living north of the Tay . Perhaps ten per cent of the population lived in one of many burghs that grew up in the later Medieval period , mainly in the east and south . It has been suggested that they would have had a mean population of about 2 @,@ 000 , but many would be much smaller than 1 @,@ 000 and the largest , Edinburgh , probably had a population of over 10 @,@ 000 by the end of the era .
= = = Social structure = = =
The organisation of society is obscure in the early part of the period , for which there are few documentary sources . Kinship probably provided the primary unit of organisation and society was divided between a small aristocracy , whose rationale was based around warfare , a wider group of freemen , who had the right to bear arms and were represented in law codes , above a relatively large body of slaves , who may have lived beside and become clients of their owners . By the thirteenth century there are have sources that allow greater stratification in society to be seen , with layers including the king and a small elite of mormaers above lesser ranks of freemen and what was probably a large group of serfs , particularly in central Scotland . In this period the feudalism introduced under David I meant that baronial lordships began to overlay this system , the English terms earl and thane became widespread . Below the noble ranks were husbandmen with small farms and growing numbers of cottars and gresemen with more modest landholdings .
The combination of agnatic kinship and feudal obligations has been seen as creating the system of clans in the Highlands in this era . Scottish society adopted theories of the three estates to describe its society and English terminology to differentiate ranks . Serfdom disappeared from the records in the fourteenth century and new social groups of labourers , craftsmen and merchants , became important in the developing burghs . This led to increasing social tensions in urban society , but , in contrast to England and France , there was a lack of major unrest in Scottish rural society , where there was relatively little economic change .
= = Culture = =
= = = Language and culture = = =
Modern linguists divide Celtic languages into two major groups , the P @-@ Celtic , from which the Brythonic languages : Welsh , Breton , Cornish and Cumbric derive , and the Q @-@ Celtic , from which come the Goidelic languages : Irish , Manx and Gaelic . The Pictish language remains enigmatic , since the Picts had no written script of their own and all that survives are place names and some isolated inscriptions in Irish ogham script . Most modern linguists accept that , although the nature and unity of Pictish language is unclear , it belonged to the former group . Historical sources , as well as place name evidence , indicate the ways in which the Pictish language in the north and Cumbric languages in the south were overlaid and replaced by Gaelic , Old English and later Norse in this period . By the High Middle Ages the majority of people within Scotland spoke the Gaelic language , then simply called Scottish , or in Latin , lingua Scotica . The Kingdom of Alba was overwhelmingly an oral society dominated by Gaelic culture . Our fuller sources for Ireland of the same period suggest that there would have been filidh , who acted as poets , musicians and historians , often attached to the court of a lord or king , and passed on their knowledge and culture in Gaelic to the next generation .
In the Northern Isles the Norse language brought by Scandinavian occupiers and settlers evolved into the local Norn , which lingered until the end of the eighteenth century and Norse may also have survived as a spoken language until the sixteenth century in the Outer Hebrides . French , Flemish and particularly English became the main language of Scottish burghs , most of which were located in the south and east , an area to which Anglian settlers had already brought a form of Old English . In the later part of the twelfth century , the writer Adam of Dryburgh described lowland Lothian as " the Land of the English in the Kingdom of the Scots " . At least from the accession of David I , Gaelic ceased to be the main language of the royal court and was probably replaced by French , as evidenced by reports from contemporary chronicles , literature and translations of administrative documents into the French language . After this " de @-@ gallicisation " of the Scottish court , a less highly regarded order of bards took over the functions of the filidh and they would continue to act in a similar role in the Highlands and Islands into the eighteenth century . They often trained in bardic schools , of which a few , like the one run by the MacMhuirich dynasty , who were bards to the Lord of the Isles , existed in Scotland and a larger number in Ireland , until they were suppressed from the seventeenth century . Members of bardic schools were trained in the complex rules and forms of Gaelic poetry . Much of their work was never written down and what survives was only recorded from the sixteenth century .
In the late Middle Ages , Middle Scots , often simply called English , became the dominant language of the country . It was derived largely from Old English , with the addition of elements from Gaelic and French . Although resembling the language spoken in northern England , it became a distinct dialect from the late fourteenth century onwards . It began to be adopted by the ruling elite as they gradually abandoned French . By the fifteenth century it was the language of government , with acts of parliament , council records and treasurer 's accounts almost all using it from the reign of James I onwards . As a result , Gaelic , once dominant north of the Tay , began a steady decline . Lowland writers began to treat Gaelic as a second class , rustic and even amusing language , helping to frame attitudes towards the highlands and to create a cultural gulf with the lowlands .
= = = Education = = =
The establishment of Christianity brought Latin to Scotland as a scholarly and written language . Monasteries served as major repositories of knowledge and education , often running schools and providing a small educated elite , who were essential to create and read documents in a largely illiterate society . In the High Middle Ages new sources of education arose , with song and grammar schools . These were usually attached to cathedrals or a collegiate church and were most common in the developing burghs . By the end of the Middle Ages grammar schools could be found in all the main burghs and some small towns . Early examples including the High School of Glasgow in 1124 and the High School of Dundee in 1239 . There were also petty schools , more common in rural areas and providing an elementary education . Some monasteries , like the Cistercian abbey at Kinloss , opened their doors to a wider range of students . The number and size of these schools seems to have expanded rapidly from the 1380s . They were almost exclusively aimed at boys , but by the end of the fifteenth century , Edinburgh also had schools for girls , sometimes described as " sewing schools " , and probably taught by lay women or nuns . There was also the development of private tuition in the families of lords and wealthy burghers . The growing emphasis on education cumulated with the passing of the Education Act 1496 , which decreed that all sons of barons and freeholders of substance should attend grammar schools to learn " perfyct Latyne " . All this resulted in an increase in literacy , but which was largely concentrated among a male and wealthy elite , with perhaps 60 per cent of the nobility being literate by the end of the period .
Until the fifteenth century , those who wished to attend university had to travel to England or the continent , and just over a 1 @,@ 000 have been identified as doing so between the twelfth century and 1410 . Among these the most important intellectual figure was John Duns Scotus , who studied at Oxford , Cambridge and Paris and probably died at Cologne in 1308 , becoming a major influence on late Medieval religious thought . After the outbreak of the Wars of Independence , with occasional exceptions under safe conduct , English universities were closed to Scots and continental universities became more significant . Some Scottish scholars became teachers in continental universities . At Paris this included John De Rate and Walter Wardlaw in the 1340s and 1350s , William de Tredbrum in the 1380s and Laurence de Lindores in the early 1500s . This situation was transformed by the founding of the University of St Andrews in 1413 , the University of Glasgow in 1450 and the University of Aberdeen in 1495 . Initially these institutions were designed for the training of clerics , but they would increasingly be used by laymen who would begin to challenge the clerical monopoly of administrative post in the government and law . Those wanting to study for second degrees still needed to go elsewhere and Scottish scholars continued to visit the continent and English universities reopened to Scots in the late fifteenth century . The continued movement to other universities produced a school of Scottish nominalists at Paris in the early sixteenth century , of which John Mair was probably the most important figure . He had probably studied at a Scottish grammar school , then Cambridge , before moving to Paris , where he matriculated in 1493 . By 1497 the humanist and historian Hector Boece , born in Dundee and who had studied at Paris , returned to become the first principal at the new university of Aberdeen . These international contacts helped integrate Scotland into a wider European scholarly world and would be one of the most important ways in which the new ideas of humanism were brought into Scottish intellectual life .
= = = Literature = = =
Much of the earliest Welsh literature was actually composed in or near the country now called Scotland , in the Brythonic speech , from which Welsh would be derived , include The Gododdin and the Battle of Gwen Ystrad . There are also religious works in Gaelic including the Elegy for St Columba by Dallan Forgaill , c . 597 and " In Praise of St Columba " by Beccan mac Luigdech of Rum , c . 677 . In Latin they include a " Prayer for Protection " ( attributed to St Mugint ) , c. mid @-@ sixth century and Altus Prosator ( " The High Creator " , attributed to St Columba ) , c . 597 . In Old English there is The Dream of the Rood , from which lines are found on the Ruthwell Cross , making it the only surviving fragment of Northumbrian Old English from early Medieval Scotland . Before the reign of David I , the Scots possessed a flourishing literary elite that produced texts in both Gaelic and Latin , a tradition that survived in the Highlands into the thirteenth century . It is possible that more Middle Irish literature was written in Medieval Scotland than is often thought , but has not survived because the Gaelic literary establishment of eastern Scotland died out before the fourteenth century . In the thirteenth century , French flourished as a literary language , and produced the Roman de Fergus , the earliest piece of non @-@ Celtic vernacular literature to survive from Scotland .
The first surviving major text in Early Scots literature is John Barbour 's Brus ( 1375 ) , composed under the patronage of Robert II and telling the story in epic poetry of Robert I 's actions before the English invasion till the end of the war of independence . Much Middle Scots literature was produced by makars , poets with links to the royal court , which included James I ( who wrote The Kingis Quair ) . Many of the makars had a university education and so were also connected with the Kirk . However , Dunbar 's Lament for the Makaris ( c.1505 ) provides evidence of a wider tradition of secular writing outside of Court and Kirk , now largely lost . Before the advent of printing in Scotland , writers such as Robert Henryson , William Dunbar , Walter Kennedy and Gavin Douglas have been seen as leading a golden age in Scottish poetry . In the late fifteenth century , Scots prose also began to develop as a genre . Although there are earlier fragments of original Scots prose , such as the Auchinleck Chronicle , the first complete surviving work includes John Ireland 's The Meroure of Wyssdome ( 1490 ) . There were also prose translations of French books of chivalry that survive from the 1450s , including The Book of the Law of Armys and the Order of Knychthode and the treatise Secreta Secetorum , an Arabic work believed to be Aristotle 's advice to Alexander the Great . The landmark work in the reign of James IV was Gavin Douglas 's version of Virgil 's Aeneid , the Eneados , which was the first complete translation of a major classical text in an Anglian language , finished in 1513 , but overshadowed by the disaster at Flodden .
= = = Art = = =
In the early middles ages , there were distinct material cultures evident in the different linguistic groups , federations and kingdoms within what is now Scotland . Pictish art can be seen in the extensive survival of carved stones , particularly in the north and east of the country , which hold a variety of recurring images and patterns , as at Dunrobin ( Sutherland ) and Aberlemno stones ( Angus ) . It can also be seen in elaborate metal work that largely survives in buried hordes like the St Ninian 's Isle Treasure . Irish @-@ Scots art from the Kingdom of Dál Riata is much more difficult to identify , but may include items like the Hunterston brooch , which with other items like the Monymusk Reliquary , suggest that Dál Riata was one of the places , as a crossroads between cultures , where the Insular style developed . Insular art is the name given to the common style that developed in Britain and Ireland after the conversion of the Picts and the cultural assimilation of Pictish culture into that of the Scots and Angles , and which became highly influential in continental Europe , contributing to the development of Romanesque and Gothic styles . It can be seen in elaborate jewellery , often making extensive use of semi @-@ precious stones , in the heavily carved High crosses found most frequently in the Highlands and Islands , but distributed across the country and particularly in the highly decorated illustrated manuscripts such as the Book of Kells , which may have been begun , or wholly created on Iona . The finest era of the style was brought to an end by the disruption to monastic centres and aristocratic life of the Viking raids in the late eighth century .
Scotland adopted the Romanesque in the late twelfth century , retaining and reviving elements of its style after the Gothic had become dominant elsewhere from the thirteenth century . Much of the best Scottish artwork of the High and Late Middle Ages was either religious in nature or realised in metal and woodwork , and has not survived the impact of time and of the Reformation . However , examples of sculpture are extant as part of church architecture , including evidence of elaborate church interiors like the sacrament houses at Deskford and Kinkell and the carvings of the seven deadly sins at Rosslyn Chapel . From the thirteenth century , there are relatively large numbers of monumental effigies like the elaborate Douglas tombs in the town of Douglas . Native craftsmanship can be seen in items like the Bute mazer and the Savernake Horn , and more widely in the large number of high quality seals that survive from the mid thirteenth century onwards . Visual illustration can be seen in the illumination of charters , and occasional survivals like the fifteenth century Doom painting at Guthrie . Surviving copies of individual portraits are relatively crude , but more impressive are the works or artists commissioned from the continent , particularly the Netherlands , including Hugo van Der Goes 's altarpiece for the Trinity College Church in Edinburgh and the Hours of James IV of Scotland .
= = = Architecture = = =
Medieval vernacular architecture utilised local building materials , including cruck constructed houses , turf walls and clay , with a heavy reliance on stone . As burghs developed there were more sophisticated houses for the nobles , burgesses and other inhabitants . By the end of the period some were stone built with slate roofs or tiles . Medieval parish church architecture was typically simpler than in England , with many churches remaining simple oblongs , without transepts and aisles , and often without towers . From the eleventh century there were influences from English and continental European designs and grander ecclesiastical buildings were built in the Romanesque style , as can be seen at Dunfermline Abbey and Elgin Cathedral , and later the Gothic style as at Glasgow Cathedral and in the rebuilding of Melrose Abbey . From the early fifteenth century the introduction of Renaissance styles included the selective return of Romanesque forms , as in the nave of Dunkeld Cathedral and in the chapel of Bishop Elphinstone 's Kings College , Aberdeen ( 1500 – 09 ) . Many of the motte and bailey castles introduced into Scotland with feudalism in the twelfth century and the castles " enceinte " , with a high embattled curtain wall that replaced those still in occupation , were slighted during the Wars of Independence . In the late Middle Ages new castles were built , some on a grander scale as " livery and maintenance " castles , to house retained troops . Gunpowder weaponry fundamentally altered the nature of castle architecture , with existing castles being adapted to allow the use of gunpowder weapons by the incorporation of " keyhole " gun ports , platforms to mount guns and walls being adapted to resist bombardment . Ravenscraig , Kirkcaldy , begun about 1460 , is probably the first castle in the British Isles to be built as an artillery fort , incorporating " D @-@ shape " bastions that would better resist cannon fire and on which artillery could be mounted . The largest number of late medieval fortifications in Scotland built by nobles were of the tower house design. primarily aimed to provide protection against smaller raiding parties , rather than a major siege . Extensive building and rebuilding of royal palaces in the Renaissance style probably began under James III and accelerated under James IV . Linlithgow was first constructed under James I , under the direction of master of work John de Waltoun and was referred to as a palace , apparently the first use of this term in the country , from 1429 . This was extended under James III and began to correspond to a fashionable quadrangular , corner @-@ towered Italian signorial palace , combining classical symmetry with neo @-@ chivalric imagery .
= = = Music = = =
In the late twelfth century , Giraldus Cambrensis noted that " in the opinion of many , Scotland not only equals its teacher , Ireland , but indeed greatly outdoes it and excels her in musical skill " . He identified the Scots as using the cithara , tympanum and chorus , although what exactly these instruments were is unclear . Bards probably accompanied their poetry on the harp , and can also be seen in records of the Scottish courts throughout the Medieval period . Scottish church music from the thirteenth century was increasingly influenced by continental developments , with figures like the musical theorist Simon Tailler studying in Paris , before returned to Scotland where he introduced several reforms of church music . Scottish collections of music like the thirteenth century ' Wolfenbüttel 677 ' , which is associated with St Andrews , contain mostly French compositions , but with some distinctive local styles . The captivity of James I in England from 1406 to 1423 , where he earned a reputation as a poet and composer , may have led him to take English and continental styles and musicians back to the Scottish court on his release . In the late fifteenth century a series of Scottish musicians trained in the Netherlands before returning home , including John Broune , Thomas Inglis and John Fety , the last of whom became master of the song school in Aberdeen and then Edinburgh , introducing the new five @-@ fingered organ playing technique . In 1501 James IV refounded the Chapel Royal within Stirling Castle , with a new and enlarged choir and it became the focus of Scottish liturgical music . Burgundian and English influences were probably reinforced when Henry VII 's daughter Margaret Tudor married James IV in 1503 .
= = National identity = =
In the High Middle Ages the word " Scot " was only used by Scots to describe themselves to foreigners , amongst whom it was the most common word . They called themselves Albanach or simply Gaidel . Both " Scot " and Gaidel were ethnic terms that connected them to the majority of the inhabitants of Ireland . At the beginning of the thirteenth century , the author of De Situ Albanie noted that : " The name Arregathel [ Argyll ] means margin of the Scots or Irish , because all Scots and Irish are generally called ' Gattheli ' . " Scotland came to possess a unity which transcended Gaelic , French and Germanic ethnic differences and by the end of the period , the Latin , French and English word " Scot " could be used for any subject of the Scottish king . Scotland 's multilingual Scoto @-@ Norman monarchs and mixed Gaelic and Scoto @-@ Norman aristocracy all became part of the " Community of the Realm " , in which ethnic differences were less divisive than in Ireland and Wales . This identity was defined in opposition to English attempts to annexe the country and as a result of social and cultural changes . The resulting antipathy towards England dominated Scottish foreign policy well into the fifteenth century , making it extremely difficult for Scottish kings like James III and James IV to pursue policies of peace towards their southern neighbour . In particular the Declaration of Arbroath asserted the ancient distinctiveness of Scotland in the face of English aggression , arguing that it was the role of the king to defend the independence of the community of Scotland . This document has been seen as the first " nationalist theory of sovereignty " .
The adoption of Middle Scots by the aristocracy has been seen as building a shared sense of national solidarity and culture between rulers and ruled , although the fact that north of the Tay Gaelic still dominated may have helped widen the cultural divide between highlands and lowlands . The national literature of Scotland created in the late medieval period employed legend and history in the service of the crown and nationalism , helping to foster a sense of national identity , at least within its elite audience . The epic poetic history of the Brus and Wallace helped outline a narrative of united struggle against the English enemy . Arthurian literature differed from conventional versions of the legend by treating Arthur as a villain and Mordred , the son of the king of the Picts , as a hero . The origin myth of the Scots , systematised by John of Fordun ( c . 1320 @-@ c . 1384 ) , traced their beginnings from the Greek prince Gathelus and his Egyptian wife Scota , allowing them to argue superiority over the English , who claimed their descent from the Trojans , who had been defeated by the Greeks . The image of St. Andrew , martyred while bound to an X @-@ shaped cross , first appeared in the Scotland during the reign of William I and was again depicted on seals used during the late thirteenth century ; including on one particular example used by the Guardians of Scotland , dated 1286 . Use of a simplified symbol associated with Saint Andrew , the saltire , has its origins in the late fourteenth century ; the Parliament of Scotland decreed in 1385 that Scottish soldiers should wear a white Saint Andrew 's Cross on their person , both in front and behind , for the purpose of identification . Use of a blue background for the Saint Andrew 's Cross is said to date from at least the fifteenth century . The earliest reference to the Saint Andrew 's Cross as a flag is to be found in the Vienna Book of Hours , circa 1503 .
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= Rhys Williams ( Torchwood ) =
Rhys Alun Williams , portrayed by Kai Owen , is a fictional character in the BBC television programme Torchwood , a spin @-@ off from the long @-@ running series Doctor Who . The character is introduced in the premiere episode as the co @-@ habiting boyfriend of principal character Gwen Cooper . Initially a recurring character , Rhys ' role is increased after the second series ; actor Kai Owen is given star billing from the show 's third series — a five @-@ part serial subtitled Torchwood : Children of Earth — onwards . The character has gone on to appear in expanded universe material such as the Torchwood novels and audiobooks , comic books and radio plays .
Throughout the first series ( 2006 ) , Rhys is initially unaware of Gwen 's vocation as a Torchwood agent , believing her to work in generic special forces . Gwen 's relationship with Rhys languishes while she is unable to communicate fully with him , but in the early part of series two ( 2008 ) he discovers the truth , and from thereon in their relationship is revitalised ; the two enter a marriage based on honesty later in the series . In the third series ( 2009 ) Rhys becomes directly involved in assisting the Torchwood team in lieu of a fourth team member . In the show 's fourth series — a 2011 BBC / Starz co @-@ production — Rhys again finds himself having to assist Torchwood , though he would rather live a domestic life with Gwen and their daughter Anwen .
The original intention of the writers had been to kill off Rhys at the end of the first series , but series creator Russell T Davies found it necessary to keep the show grounded through Rhys as Gwen evolved as a character . Producer Richard Stokes stated that " without him , it simply becomes a sci @-@ fi show about sci @-@ fi people , running around and hunting aliens . " Following from the first series the production team decided to make Rhys less of a " sap " whilst continuing to use him as a contrast to Torchwood 's activities and its charismatic leader Jack Harkness . Whilst early response to the character was mixed — the character was parodied as " Barry Backstory " — subsequent reviews praised the character 's larger role in later episodes .
= = Appearances = =
= = = Television = = =
Rhys is introduced in the first episode of the series ( 2006 ) as the unspectacular boyfriend of police constable Gwen Cooper ( Eve Myles ) . When Gwen takes a new job with the Torchwood Institute 's Cardiff branch as an alien hunter , she is forced to keep it a secret . Over the course of the first series Rhys shows increasing irritation with Gwen 's evasiveness and long hours , and her ease and readiness to lie to him . Unknown to Rhys , Gwen establishes a sexual relationship with Owen Harper ( Burn Gorman ) to help herself deal with her secret double @-@ life . She confesses the affair after it ends in " Combat " but drugs Rhys with an amnesia pill so he will not remember her confession . Rhys is murdered by Bilis Manger ( Murray Melvin ) in " End of Days " , but this event is erased from history after the Torchwood team reset time by opening the space @-@ time rift located in Cardiff .
The series two premiere ( 2008 ) establishes that Rhys became engaged to Gwen between the first and second series . After Rhys becomes suspicious of her behaviour and her friendship with her boss Captain Jack ( John Barrowman ) in " Meat " , Gwen reveals to him the truth about her responsibilities with Torchwood . Rhys then becomes involved in a mission to uncover and destroy an alien meat @-@ trading racket , and ends up taking a bullet to protect Gwen 's life . Because she enjoys finally being able to be honest with Rhys , Gwen cannot bring herself to drug him for a second time , and so demands that Jack allow Rhys keep his memories of Torchwood . Rhys and Gwen marry in the episode " Something Borrowed " . Following the wedding , in the episode " Adrift " , Rhys brings up the issue of starting a family with Gwen , though she dismisses the idea , arguing that it would be impossible to have children with her job . During the events of " Fragments " and series finale " Exit Wounds " , Rhys plays a particular role in the team 's campaign against the returned Captain John Hart ( James Marsters ) and the insane Gray ( Lachlan Nieboer ) , helping Gwen rescue the others after they are caught in an exploding building and subsequently working with Gwen 's former colleague Andy Davidson ( Tom Price ) to help keep the attacking alien Weevils out of the police station .
Rhys is referenced , but does not appear onscreen , in the Doctor Who crossover episode " The Stolen Earth " ( 2008 ) ; Gwen speaks to him over the phone during a global emergency . Rhys becomes a main character in the third series of Torchwood , a five @-@ part miniseries called Children of Earth airing in 2009 . When aliens called the 456 announce their plans to visit to Earth , the government attempts to assassinate Torchwood to cover up a conspiracy . Rhys becomes a fugitive from the government because of his marriage to Gwen . The pair flee to London via cargo lorry and Rhys is delighted to discover Gwen is pregnant . He is with the Torchwood team when they relocate to a London warehouse and takes a role in their mission , hiding with the recordings showing corruption within Downing Street . In the last episode of the series he returns to Cardiff with Gwen , and helps Gwen do one last favour for her deceased coworker Ianto ( Gareth David @-@ Lloyd ) by helping his niece and nephew evade capture , and with them many other neighbourhood children . The series ' dénouement , set six months later , shows Rhys still at Gwen 's side , awaiting the arrival of their child .
Series four , Miracle Day ( 2011 ) , begins by showing Rhys living in seclusion alongside Gwen and their daughter , Anwen . His rural idyll is shattered when CIA agent Rex Matheson ( Mekhi Phifer ) extradites Jack and Gwen to America — believing them to be connected to a phenomenon where humans can no longer die — whilst forcing Rhys to stay in Wales . With the aid of computer expert Esther Drummond ( Alexa Havins ) , Gwen is able to establish communications with Rhys in the episode " Dead of Night " . Whilst on a mission in Los Angeles , Gwen asks Rhys to remove her father Geraint ( William Thomas ) from a hospital which she believes to be unsafe . Rhys subsequently has Geraint sent to an " overflow camp " , unaware that it contains a facility for burning the severely injured alive , and in " The Categories of Life " and " The Middle Men " has to go undercover to help rescue his father @-@ in @-@ law . After escaping from the facility with Geraint , Rhys is briefly held hostage in an attempt to force Gwen to surrender Jack Harkness , but is rescued by Andy and his team . In " The Gathering " , Rhys figures out the antipodal connection between Buenos Aires and Shanghai , which directs the Torchwood team to their final mission . Because of Rhys ' violent disposition towards murderer @-@ paedophile Oswald Danes ( Bill Pullman ) , Gwen fears that he may enact vigilante justice and so takes the latter to Shanghai to protect her husband . In the series finale , Rhys gains entry to the overflow camp where Geraint has been recaptured in order to sit by his side as " Miracle Day " ends and death is restored . After Esther 's funeral , he is hopeful that Jack will not reform Torchwood .
= = = Literature = = =
Rhys appears in all three Torchwood novels in the first wave published by BBC Books in January 2007 , set between episodes of Torchwood series one . These novels expand on the difficult period in Gwen and Rhys ' relationship — whilst his appearances in Another Life , and Border Princes , are relatively minor , he has a more significant role in Slow Decay , where he unwittingly brings himself into danger by taking an alien diet pill . Reviewer Patrick Holm feels that the success of these novels lies in the fact that they help readers empathise with characters such as Rhys . Rhys makes cameo appearances in Something in the Water ( set between " Kiss Kiss Bang Bang " and " Meat " ) and Trace Memory , and has a significant role in The Twilight Streets , ( released March 2008 ) which depicts an alternate future where Gwen and Rhys start a new Torchwood to make a safe world for their son after the Torchwood Team are destroyed fighting sentient particles known as the dark . Three more Torchwood books were released in October 2008 in which Rhys has an involved role . In Pack Animals Rhys assists Gwen in her investigation and becomes part of a car chase , SkyPoint sees them inadvertently discover an alien presence whilst flathunting and Almost Perfect , the first novel set after " Exit Wounds " , depicts Rhys speed dating undercover . Rhys makes further appearances in later Torchwood novels Bay of the Dead , The House that Jack Built , and Consequences , all set between " Exit Wounds " and Children of Earth .
Rhys appeared occasionally in the Torchwood Magazine comic strip during its publication between January 2008 and December 2010 . In part three of the serialised ten part comic Rift War he aids Gwen in her Torchwood duties by helping care for an infant alien left stranded in Cardiff . A scene in Gareth David @-@ Lloyd 's comic " Shrouded " , published in May 2010 , includes a scene set after Children in Earth which shows Gwen cradling her young child ; as Gwen is busy , Rhys is required to team up with Captain John Hart to save the timeline . Non @-@ fiction tie @-@ in The Torchwood Archives gives an " insider 's look " into the Torchwood world , including Gwen 's domestic life with Rhys . The book includes unpublished photographs of Gwen and Rhys used as set dressing in the TV series and also provides some background information on Rhys ' friends and his working life .
= = = Audio drama = = =
Rhys makes an appearance in the Torchwood radio play " The Dead Line " ( 2009 ) , where he assists Gwen with her investigations into the phone @-@ line induced comas . He also has a central role investigating a mystery in the audio book Ghost Train ( 2011 ) , read by Kai Owen . With Gwen dead and Jack missing Rhys is left alone to figure out the strange goings on involving cargo trains . Rhys also appears in " The Devil and Miss Carew " ( 2011 ) , one of three additional radio plays set between " Exit Wounds " and Children of Earth , which shows his reaction to the death of his elderly Uncle Bryn . In this play Rhys rescues Gwen from a woman under the influence of a malevolent devil like entity .
= = Characterisation = =
Rhys is a " down to earth trucker " , who functions as Gwen Cooper 's normality base . At the start of the series he believes alien interference to be a result of hallucinations induced by psychotropic drugs in the water supply and that his girlfriend 's job is nothing more unusual than generic " special ops " . Writer Stephen James Walker feels that Rhys " originally didn 't look to have much to him initially but really came into his own as Series One progressed " , attributing this to the " spot @-@ on performance of the perfectly cast Kai Owen . " The original intention of the writers had been for Rhys to die at the end of series one , but Richard Stokes explains that it was overruled by show creator Russell T Davies , who felt that without Rhys , the show 's main link to the real world would be lost . Executive Producer Julie Gardner expands on this by stating that " It 's a show where you 've got to contrast the ordinary everyday with the extraordinary and ( with ) Gwen going home to Rhys and then going to work in an underground secret base ... it 's right to have that balance . " Actor Kai Owen attributes part of his character 's success to his on @-@ screen rapport with actress Eve Myles .
After reprisal from death , Davies felt further development was necessary for the character to continue as part of the drama ; one of the first decisions the production team made was that " we can 't make this guy look like a sap any longer . He 's got to be made aware of what 's going on . " The events of the episode " Meat " , in which Rhys learns the real nature of Gwen 's job , are seen by Davies as a " rite of passage " for the couple . Director Colin Teague highlights Rhys ' patience in relation to Gwen noting that " he puts up with an awful lot from his wife to be " . The second series also explores Rhys 's insecurities and jealousies towards series protagonist Captain Jack Harkness , for whom a mutual sexual tension with Gwen was evident in the first series . Both Stephen James Walker and episode writer Catherine Tregenna felt that " the triangle of relationships between Rhys , Gwen and Jack " comprise " the most interesting narrative territory explored in ' Meat ' " . Although actor Kai Owen feels that " Rhys will always have a little bit of a gripe about Jack " , he concedes that " he respects him and he 'll like him for looking after Gwen " . Walker comments favourably on the interaction between Jack and Rhys in " Meat " in both its antagonistic and comedic forms , citing the scene in the truck where Rhys questions Jack as particularly effective . The two function as unusual literary foils for one another , insofar as their relationships with Gwen are concerned . In her critical essay Gwen 's Evil Stepmother : Concerning Gloves and Magic Slippers , Valerie Estelle Frankel compares Rhys to Jack , likening the former to a " sweet , kind handsome prince " and the latter to a " compelling trickster . " Whilst Eve Myles feels that " Jack highlights how ordinary Rhys is " , she states that it is precisely this ordinariness which makes Rhys a benefit to Gwen 's strength of character .
The plot of Children of Earth results in Rhys becoming more directly involved with the Torchwood team 's activities , and actor Kai Owen also receives star billing for the first time . Whilst Gwen by the third series has become a more militant character , Rhys retains his everyman status and takes on the role of audience surrogate ; press material describes him as " the ordinary guy in the street " and " the normal person 's eyes and ears " who " says what he thinks about the situations Torchwood find themselves in , bringing the reality back to them " . Paul Collins comments of the significance of Rhys having the first dialogue in the serial , remarking that this is Torchwood 's " determination to establish its domestic credentials before subverting them " . Rhys becomes a reluctant hero ; Kai Owen states that he " would rather not get involved if he had the choice " , but when faced with the life @-@ or @-@ death situations in the serial " he doesn 't run away from it " because the character has " seen so many things " . This , in Owen 's eyes , makes the Rhys seen in Children of Earth a " very brave hero who has grown in stature " . Rhys retains core character status for the fourth series , Torchwood : Miracle Day . Whilst Kai Owen explains that Rhys will always be at the forefront of " Gwen 's troubles or fights or adventures " because of his concern for her , he remains unafraid to tell her when she has become too consumed by her job . Davies links the relationship between Gwen and Rhys in the fourth series to the show 's continued exploration of human sexuality , stating that " open sexuality has to include everything " including " a husband / wife great big crime @-@ fighting team ... happily in love " .
= = Reception = =
Rhys ' incidental role in the series was initially mocked in The Register 's 2006 one @-@ off Torchwood parody Under Torch Wood ( in the style of Dylan Thomas ' Under Milk Wood ) , in which he is described as " Barry Backstory , who is dreaming of future episodes where he gets a bigger part . " However , as the character has been developed on screen and given a bigger role , he has attracted more positive commentary from reviewers . Ben Rawson @-@ Jones of Digital Spy describes his role in the episode " Meat " as " forming a clever contrast with the activities of Torchwood " . He praised the verisimilitude of Rhys ' relationship with Gwen , describing their domestic argument as " a unique spin on the kitchen sink melodrama usually seen in EastEnders " which delivers " a real impact and emotional honesty due to the wonderfully earnest performances from Kai Owen and Eve Myles " . Jack Kibble @-@ White of Den of Geek states that " in the main having Rhys run alongside Captain Jack and the rest worked well " and he cites the character 's wedding to Gwen as a series highlight . TV Squad 's Jason Hughes feels that the character 's marriage to Gwen is " handled in a painfully honest way " and serves as " a true definition of " love " written with subtlety and perfection " . Alan Stanley Blair enjoyed the rapport between Owen and Price ( PC Andy ) in the episode " Exit Wounds " stating , that it " was also an interesting dynamic " and that the two " could potentially carry their own sitcom " , a view corroborated by AfterElton 's Steven Frank .
Dan Martin of The Guardian singles out the scene where Gwen and Rhys become stowaways in Children of Earth as " just lovely " and " a credit to both actors , particularly Kai Owen , who has finally made Rhys likable " , whilst IGN writer Asham Haque also feels that Rhys ' " meatier role " provides " some great sequences " for the couple . Rawson @-@ Jones speaks favourably on Owen 's role in the overall ensemble opining that he , along with Barrowman , Myles and David @-@ Lloyd managed to guide the audience through the serial with " panache and verve " . The Chicago Tribune 's Maureen Ryan feels that the initiated Rhys is key to the show , and is a " very enjoyable character " , describing his appeal to government PA Lois Habiba to pay for his and Gwen 's dinner as " priceless " . Speaking of the show 's fourth series premiere , Simon Brew highlights the central returning trio of Barrowman , Myles and Owen as the show 's most engaging actors , and further describes Owen 's performance as mixing " humour with an earnest , and a real sense of drive " .
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= Willard Libby =
Willard Frank Libby ( December 17 , 1908 – September 8 , 1980 ) was an American physical chemist noted for his role in the 1949 development of radiocarbon dating , a process which revolutionized archaeology and palaeontology . For his contributions to the team that developed this process , Libby was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1960 .
A 1927 chemistry graduate of the University of California at Berkeley , from which he received his doctorate in 1933 , he studied radioactive elements and developed sensitive Geiger counters to measure weak natural and artificial radioactivity . During World War II he worked in the Manhattan Project 's Substitute Alloy Materials ( SAM ) Laboratories at Columbia University , developing the gaseous diffusion process for uranium enrichment .
After the war , Libby accepted professorship at the University of Chicago 's Institute for Nuclear Studies , where he developed the technique for dating organic compounds using carbon @-@ 14 . He also discovered that tritium similarly could be used for dating water , and therefore wine . In 1950 , he became a member of the General Advisory Committee ( GAC ) of the Atomic Energy Commission ( AEC ) . He was appointed a commissioner in 1954 , becoming its sole scientist . He sided with Edward Teller on pursuing a crash program to develop the hydrogen bomb , participated in the Atoms for Peace program , and defended the administration 's atmospheric nuclear testing .
Libby resigned from the AEC in 1959 to become Professor of Chemistry at University of California , Los Angeles ( UCLA ) , a position he held until his retirement in 1976 . In 1962 , he became the Director of the University of California statewide Institute of Geophysics and Planetary Physics ( IGPP ) . He started the first Environmental Engineering program at UCLA in 1972 , and as a member of the California Air Resources Board , he worked to develop and improve California 's air pollution standards .
= = Early life and career = =
Willard Frank Libby was born in Grand Valley , Colorado , on December 17 , 1908 , the son of farmers Ora Edward Libby and his wife Eva May ( née Rivers ) . He had two brothers , Elmer and Raymond , and two sisters , Eva and Evelyn . Libby began his education in a two @-@ room Colorado schoolhouse . When he was five , Libby 's parents moved to Santa Rosa , California . He attended Analy High School , near Sebastopol , from which he graduated in 1926 . Libby , who grew to be 6 feet 2 inches ( 188 cm ) tall , played tackle on the high school football team .
In 1927 he entered the University of California at Berkeley , where he received his B.S. in 1931 , and his Ph.D. in 1933 , writing his doctoral thesis on the " Radioactivity of ordinary elements , especially samarium and neodymium : method of detection " under the supervision of Wendell Mitchell Latimer . Independently of the work of George de Hevesy and Max Pahl , he discovered that the natural long @-@ lived isotopes of samarium primarily decay by emission of alpha particles .
Libby was appointed Instructor in the Department of Chemistry at the University of California , in 1933 . He became an assistant professor of Chemistry there in 1938 . He spent the 1930s building sensitive Geiger counters to measure weak natural and artificial radioactivity . In 1940 , Libby married Leonor Hickey , a physical education teacher . They had twin daughters , Janet Eva and Susan Charlotte , who were born in 1945 . He joined Berkeley 's chapter of Alpha Chi Sigma in 1941 . That year he was awarded a Guggenheim Fellowship , and elected to work at Princeton University .
= = Manhattan Project = =
On December 8 , 1941 , the day after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor brought the United States into World War II , Libby volunteered his services to Nobel Prize laureate Harold Urey . Urey arranged for Libby to be given leave from the University of California and to join him at Columbia University to work on the Manhattan Project , the wartime project to develop atomic bombs , at what became its Substitute Alloy Materials ( SAM ) Laboratories . During his time in the New York City area , Libby was a resident of Leonia , New Jersey .
Over the next three years , Libby worked on the gaseous diffusion process for uranium enrichment . An atomic bomb required fissile material , and the fissile uranium @-@ 235 made up only 0 @.@ 7 percent of natural uranium . The SAM Laboratories therefore had to find a way of separating kilograms of it from the more abundant uranium @-@ 238 . Gaseous diffusion worked on the principle that a lighter gas diffuses through a barrier faster than a heavier one at a rate inversely proportional to its molecular weight . But the only known gas containing uranium was the highly corrosive uranium hexafluoride , and a suitable barrier was hard to find .
Through 1942 , Libby and his team studied different barriers and the means to protect them from corrosion from the uranium hexafluoride . The most promising type was a barrier made of powdered nickel developed by Edward O. Norris of the Jelliff Manufacturing Corporation and Edward Adler from the City College of New York , which became known as the " Norris @-@ Adler " barrier by late 1942 .
In addition to developing a suitable barrier , the SAM Laboratories also had to assist in the design of a gaseous separation plant , which became known as K @-@ 25 . Libby helped with the engineers from Kellex to produce a workable design for a pilot plant . Libby conducted a series of tests that indicated that the Norris @-@ Adler barrier would work , and he remained confident that with an all @-@ out effort , the remaining problems with it could be solved . Although doubts remained , construction work began on the K @-@ 25 full @-@ scale production plant in September 1943 .
As 1943 gave way to 1944 , many problems remained . Tests began on the machinery at K @-@ 25 in April 1944 without a barrier . Attention turned to a new process developed by Kellex . Finally , in July 1944 , Kellex barriers began to be installed in K @-@ 25 . K @-@ 25 commenced operation in February 1945 , and as cascade after cascade came online , the quality of the product increased . By April 1945 , K @-@ 25 had attained a 1 @.@ 1 % enrichment . Uranium partially enriched in K @-@ 25 was fed into the calutrons at Y @-@ 12 to complete the enrichment process .
Construction of the upper stages of the K @-@ 25 plant was cancelled , and Kellex was directed to instead design and build a 540 @-@ stage side feed unit , which became known as K @-@ 27 . The last of K @-@ 25 's 2 @,@ 892 stages commenced operation in August 1945 . On August 5 , K @-@ 25 starting producing feed enriched to 23 percent uranium @-@ 235 . K @-@ 25 and K @-@ 27 achieved their full potential only in the early postwar period , when they eclipsed the other production plants and became the prototypes for a new generation of plants . Enriched uranium was used in the Little Boy bomb employed in the bombing of Hiroshima on August 6 , 1945 . Libby brought home a stack of newspapers and told his wife , " This is what I 've been doing . "
= = Radiocarbon dating = =
With the war over , Libby accepted an offer from the University of Chicago of a professorship in the Chemistry Department at the new Institute for Nuclear Studies . He returned to his pre @-@ war studies of radioactivity . In 1939 , Serge Korff had discovered that cosmic rays generated neutrons in the upper atmosphere . These interact with nitrogen @-@ 14 in the air to produce carbon @-@ 14 :
1n + 14N → 14C + 1p
The half @-@ life of carbon @-@ 14 is 5 @,@ 730 ± 40 years . Libby realized that when plants and animals die they cease to ingest fresh carbon @-@ 14 , thereby giving any organic compound a built @-@ in nuclear clock . He published his theory in 1946 , and expanded on it in his monograph Radiocarbon Dating in 1955 . He also developed sensitive radiation detectors that could use the technique . Tests against sequoia with known dates from their tree rings showed radiocarbon dating to be reliable and accurate . The technique revolutionised archaeology , palaeontology and other disciplines that dealt with ancient artefacts . In 1960 , he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry " for his method to use carbon @-@ 14 for age determination in archaeology , geology , geophysics , and other branches of science " . He also discovered that tritium similarly could be used for dating water , and therefore wine .
= = Atomic Energy Commission = =
Atomic Energy Commission ( AEC ) Chairman Gordon Dean appointed Libby to its influential General Advisory Committee ( GAC ) in 1950 . In 1954 , he was appointed an AEC commissioner by President Dwight D. Eisenhower on the recommendation of Dean 's successor , Lewis Strauss . Libby and his family moved from Chicago to Washington , D.C. He brought with him a truckload of scientific equipment , which he used to establish a laboratory at the Carnegie Institution there to continue his studies of amino acids . Staunchly conservative politically , he was one of the few scientists who sided with Edward Teller rather than Robert Oppenheimer during the debate on whether it was wise to pursue a crash program to develop the hydrogen bomb . As a commissioner , Libby played an important role in promoting Eisenhower 's Atoms for Peace program , and was part of the United States delegation at the Geneva Conferences on Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy in 1955 and 1958 .
As the only scientist among the five AEC commissioners , it fell to Libby to defend the Eisenhower administration 's stance on atmospheric nuclear testing . He argued that the dangers of radiation from nuclear tests were less than that from chest X @-@ rays , and therefore less important than the risk of having an inadequate nuclear arsenal , but his arguments failed to convince the scientific community or reassure the public . In January 1956 , he publicly revealed the existence of Project Sunshine , a series of research studies to ascertain the impact of radioactive fallout on the world 's population that he had initiated in 1953 while serving on the GAC . By 1958 , even Libby and Teller were supporting limits on atmospheric nuclear testing .
= = UCLA = =
Libby resigned from the AEC in 1959 , he became Professor of Chemistry at University of California , Los Angeles ( UCLA ) , a position he held until his retirement in 1976 . He taught honors freshman chemistry . In 1962 , he became the Director of the University of California statewide Institute of Geophysics and Planetary Physics ( IGPP ) , a position he also held until 1976 . His time as director encompassed the Apollo space program and the lunar landings . In 1966 he divorced Leonor and married Leona Woods Marshall , a distinguished nuclear physicist who was one of the original builders of Chicago Pile @-@ 1 , the world 's first nuclear reactor . She joined him at UCLA as a professor of environmental engineering in 1973 . Through this second marriage he acquired two stepsons , the children of her first marriage . He started the first Environmental Engineering program at UCLA in 1972 . As a member of the California Air Resources Board , he worked to develop and improve California 's air pollution standards . He established a research program to investigate heterogeneous catalysis with the idea of reducing emissions from motor vehicles through more complete fuel combustion . The election of Richard Nixon as president in 1968 generated speculation that Libby might be appointed as Presidential Science Advisor . There was a storm of protest from scientists who felt that Libby was too conservative , and the offer was not made .
Although Libby retired and became a professor emeritus in 1976 , he remained professionally active as a member of the National Academy of Sciences , American Academy of Arts and Sciences , and the American Philosophical Society , until his death in 1980 . In addition to the Nobel Prize , he received numerous honours and awards , including Columbia University 's Chandler Medal in 1954 , the Remsen Memorial Lecture Award in 1955 , the Bicentennial Lecture Award from the City College of New York and the Nuclear Applications in Chemistry Award in 1956 , the Franklin Institute 's Elliott Cresson Medal in 1957 , the American Chemical Society 's Willard Gibbs Award in 1958 , the Priestley Medal from Dickinson College and the Albert Einstein Medal in 1959 , the Geological Society of America 's Arthur L. Day Medal in 1961 , the Gold Medal of the American Institute of Chemists in 1970 , and the Lehman Award from the New York Academy of Sciences in 1971 . He was elected a member of the National Academy of Sciences in 1950 . Analy High School library has a mural of Libby , and a Sebastopol city park and a nearby highway are named in his honor .
Libby died at the UCLA Medical Center in Los Angeles on September 8 , 1980 , from a blood clot in his lung complicated by pneumonia . His papers are in the Charles E. Young Research Library at the UCLA . Seven volumes of his papers were edited by Leona and Rainer Berger and published in 1981 .
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= Clement of Alexandria =
Titus Flavius Clemens ( Greek : Κλήμης ὁ Ἀλεξανδρεύς ; c . 150 – c . 215 ) , known as Clement of Alexandria to distinguish him from the earlier Clement of Rome , was a Christian theologian who taught at the Catechetical School of Alexandria . A convert to Christianity , he was an educated man who was familiar with classical Greek philosophy and literature . As his three major works demonstrate , Clement was influenced by Hellenistic philosophy to a greater extent than any other Christian thinker of his time , and in particular by Plato and the Stoics . His secret works , which exist only in fragments , suggest that he was also familiar with pre @-@ Christian Jewish esotericism and Gnosticism . In one of his works he argued that Greek philosophy had its origin among non @-@ Greeks , claiming that both Plato and Pythagoras were taught by Egyptian scholars . Among his pupils were Origen and Alexander of Jerusalem .
Clement is regarded as a Church Father , like Origen . He is venerated as a saint in Coptic Christianity , Ethiopian Christianity and Anglicanism . He was previously revered in the Roman Catholic Church , but his name was removed from the Roman Martyrology in 1586 by Pope Sixtus V on the advice of Baronius .
= = Biography = =
Neither Clement 's birthdate or birthplace is known with any degree of certainty . It is conjectured that he was born in around 150 . According to Epiphanius Scholasticus , he was born in Athens , but there is also a tradition of an Alexandrian birth .
His parents were pagans , and Clement was a convert to Christianity . In the Protrepticus he displays an extensive knowledge of Greek mythology and mystery religions , which could only have arisen from the practice of his family 's religion .
Having rejected paganism as a young man due to its perceived moral corruption , he travelled in Greece , Asia Minor , Palestine and Egypt . Clement 's journeys were primarily a religious undertaking . In Greece , he encountered an Ionian theologian , who has been identified as Athenagoras of Athens ; while in the east , he was taught by an Assyrian , sometimes identified with Tatian , and a Jew , who was possibly Theophilus of Caesarea .
In around 180 , Clement reached Alexandria , where he met Pantaenus , who taught at the Catechetical School of Alexandria . Eusebius suggests that Pantaenus was the head of the school , but it is controversial whether the institutions of the school were formalized in this way before the time of Origen . Clement studied under Pantaenus , and was ordained to the priesthood by Pope Julian before 189 . Otherwise , virtually nothing is known of Clement 's life in Alexandria . He may have been married , a conjecture supported by his writings .
During the Severian persecutions of 202 – 203 , Clement left Alexandria . In 211 , Alexander of Jerusalem wrote a letter commending him to the Church of Antioch , which may imply that Clement was living in Cappadocia or Jerusalem at that time . The date and location of his death are unknown .
= = Theological works = =
= = = Trilogy = = =
Three of Clement 's major works have survived in full , and they are collectively referred to as the trilogy :
the Protrepticus ( Exhortation ) – written c . 195 .
the Paedagogus ( Tutor ) – written c . 198 .
the Stromata ( Miscellanies ) – written c . 198 – c . 203 .
= = = = Protrepticus = = = =
The Protrepticus is , as its title suggests , an exhortation to the pagans of Greece to adopt Christianity , and within it Clement demonstrates his extensive knowledge of pagan mythology and theology . It is chiefly important due to Clement 's exposition of religion as an anthropological phenomenon . After a short philosophical discussion , it opens with a history of Greek religion in seven stages . Clement suggests that at first , men mistakenly believed the Sun , the Moon and other heavenly bodies to be gods . The next development was the worship of the products of agriculture , from which he contends the cults of Demeter and Dionysus arose . Man then paid reverence to revenge , and deified human feelings of love and fear , among others . In the following stage , the poets Hesiod and Homer attempt to enumerate the Gods ; Hesiod 's Theogony giving the number of twelve . Finally , men proclaimed other men , such as Asclepius and Heracles , deities . Discussing idolatry , Clement contends that the objects of primitive religion were unshaped wood and stone , and idols thus arose when such natural items were carved . Following Plato , Clement is critical of all forms of visual art , suggesting that artworks are but illusions and " deadly toys " .
Clement criticizes Greek paganism in the Protrepticus on the basis that its deities are both false and poor moral examples , and he attacks the mystery religions for their obscurantism and trivial rituals . In particular , the worshippers of Dionysus are ridiculed for their ritual use of children 's toys . He suggests at some points that the pagan deities are based on humans , but at others that they are misanthropic demons , and he cites several classical sources in support of this second hypothesis . Clement , like many pre @-@ Nicene fathers , writes favourably about Euhemerus and other rationalist philosophers , on the grounds that they at least saw the flaws in paganism . However , his greatest praise is reserved for Plato , whose apophatic views of God prefigure Christianity .
The figure of Orpheus is prominent throughout the narrative , and Clement contrasts his song , representing pagan superstition , with the divine Logos of Christ . According to Clement , through conversion to Christianity alone can man fully participate in the Logos , which is universal truth .
= = = = Paedagogus = = = =
This work 's title , translatable as " tutor " , refers to Christ as the teacher of all mankind , and it features an extended metaphor of Christians as children . It is not simply instructional : the author intends to show how the Christian should respond to the Love of God authentically . Clement , following Plato ( Republic 4 : 441 ) , divides life into three elements : character , actions and passions . The first having been dealt with in the Protrepticus , he devotes the Paedagogus to reflections on Christ 's role in teaching us to act morally and to control our passions . Despite its explicitly Christian nature , Clement 's work draws on Stoic philosophy and pagan literature ; Homer alone is cited over sixty times in the work .
Although Christ , like man , is made in the image of God , he alone shares the likeness of God the Father . Christ is both sinless and apathetic , and thus by striving to imitate Christ , man can achieve salvation . To Clement , sin is involuntary , and thus irrational [ αλόγον ] , removed only through the wisdom of the Logos . God 's guidance of us away from sin is thus a manifestation of God 's universal love for mankind . The word play on λόγος and αλόγον is characteristic of Clement 's writing , and may be rooted in the Epicurean belief that relationships between words are deeply reflective of relationships between the objects they signify .
Clement argues for the equality of sexes , on the grounds that salvation is extended to all of mankind equally . Unusually , he suggests that Christ is neither male or female , and that God the Father has both male and female aspects : the eucharist is described as milk from the breast ( Christ ) of the Father . He is supportive of women playing an active role in the leadership of the church , and provides a list of women he considers inspirational , which includes both Biblical and Classical Greek figures . It has been suggested that Clement 's progressive views on gender as set out in the Paedagogus were influenced by Gnosticism . However , later in the work , he argues against the Gnostics that faith , not esoteric knowledge [ γνῶσις ] , is required for salvation . According to Clement , it is through faith in Christ that we are enlightened and come to know God .
In the second book , Clement provides practical rules on living a Christian life . He argues against overindulgence in food and in favour of good table manners . While prohibiting drunkenness , he promotes the drinking of alcohol in moderation following 1 Timothy 5 : 23 . Clement argues for a simple way of life in accordance with the innate simplicity of Christian monotheism . He condemns elaborate and expensive furnishings and clothing , and argues against overly passionate music and perfumes . But Clement does not believe in the abandoning of worldly pleasures and argues that the Christian should be able to express his joy in God 's creation through gaiety and partying . He opposes the wearing of garlands , because the picking of the flowers ultimately kills a beautiful creation of God , and the garland resembles the crown of thorns . Clement treats sex at some length . He argues that both promiscuity and sexual abstinence are unnatural , and that the main goal of human sexuality is procreation . Homosexuality , prostitution , concubinage , adultery and coitus with pregnant women should all be avoided as they will not act towards the generation of legitimate offspring .
The third book continues along a similar vein , condemning cosmetics on the grounds that it is our souls , not our bodies , that we should seek to beautify . Clement also opposes the dyeing of men 's hair and male depilation as effeminacy . He advises choosing one 's company carefully , to avoid being corrupted by immoral people , and while arguing that material wealth is no sin in itself , it is too likely to distract one from the infinitely more important spiritual wealth which is found in Christ . The work finishes with selections of scripture supporting Clement 's argument , and following a prayer , the lyrics of a hymn .
= = = = Stromata = = = =
The contents of the Stromata , as its title suggests , are miscellaneous . Its place in the trilogy is disputed – Clement initially intended to write the Didasculus , a work which would complement the practical guidance of the Paedagogus with a more intellectual schooling in theology . The Stromata is less systematic and ordered than Clement 's other works , and it has been theorized by André Méhat that it was intended for a limited , esoteric readership . Although Eusebius wrote of eight books of the work , only seven undoubtably survive . Photius , writing in the 9th century , found various text appended to manuscripts of the seven canonical books , which lead Daniel Heinsius to suggest that the original eighth book is lost , and he identified the text purported to be from the eighth book as fragments of the Hypopotoses .
The first book starts on the topic of Greek philosophy . Consistent with his other writing , Clement affirms that philosophy had a propaedeutic role for the Greek , similar to the function of the law for the Jews . He then embarks on a discussion of the origins of Greek culture and technology , arguing that most of the important figures in the Greek world were foreigners , and ( erroneously ) that Jewish culture was the most significant influence on Greece . In an attempt to demonstrate the primacy of Moses , Clement gives an extended chronology of the world , wherein he dates the birth of Christ to 25 April or May , 4 @-@ 2 B.C. , and the creation of the world to 5592 B.C. The books ends with a discussion on the origin of languages and the possibility of a Jewish influence on Plato .
The second book is largely devoted to the respective roles of faith and philosophical argument . Clement contends that while both are important , the fear of God is foremost , because through faith one receives divine wisdom . To Clement , scripture is an innately true primitive philosophy which is complemented by human reason through the Logos . Faith is voluntary , and the decision to believe is a crucial fundamental step in becoming closer to God . It is never irrational , as it is founded on the knowledge of the truth of the Logos , but all knowledge proceeds from faith , as first principles are unprovable outside a systematic structure .
The third book covers asceticism . He discusses marriage , which is treated similarly in the Paedagogus . Clement rejects the Gnostic opposition to marriage , arguing that only men who are uninterested in women should remain celibate , and that sex is a positive good if performed within marriage for the purposes of procreation . However it has not always been so : the Fall occurred because Adam and Eve succumbed to their desire for each other , and copulated before the allotted time . He argues against the idea that Christians should reject their family for an ascetic life , which stems from Luke 14 : 25 – 27 , contending that Jesus would not have contradicted the precept to " Honour thy Father and thy Mother " ( Exodus 20 : 12 ) , one of the Ten Commandments . Clement concludes that asceticism will only be rewarded if the motivation is Christian in nature , and thus the asceticism of non @-@ Christians such as the gymnosophists is pointless .
Clement begins the fourth book with a belated explanation of the disorganized nature of the work , and gives a brief description of his aims for the remaining three or four books . The fourth book focuses on martyrdom . While all good Christians should be unafraid of death , Clement condemns those who actively seek out a martyr 's death , arguing that they do not have sufficient respect for God 's gift of life . He is ambivalent whether any believing Christian can become a martyr by virtue of the manner of their death , or whether martyrdom is reserved for those who have lived exceptional lives . Marcionites cannot become martyrs , because they do not believe in the divinity of God the Father – their sufferings are in vain . There is then a digression to the subject of theological epistemology . According to Clement , there is no way of empirically testing the existence of God the Father , because the Logos has revelatory , not analysable meaning , although Christ was an object of the senses . God had no beginning , and is the universal first principle .
The fifth book returns to the subject of faith . Clement argues that truth , justice and goodness can be seen only by the mind , not the eye ; faith is a way of accessing the unseeable . He stresses that knowledge of God can only be achieved through faith once ones moral faults have been corrected . This parallels Clement 's earlier insistence that martyrdom can only be achieved by those who practice their faith in Christ through good deeds , not those who simply profess their faith . God transcends matter entirely , and thus the materialist cannot truly come to know God . Although Christ was God incarnate , it is our spiritual , not physical comprehension of him which is important .
In the beginning of the sixth book , Clement intends to demonstrate that the works of Greek poets were derived from the prophetic books of the Bible . In order to reinforce his position that the Greeks were inclined towards plagiarism , he cites numerous instances of such inappropriate appropriation by classical Greek writers , reported second @-@ hand from On Plagiarism , an anonymous 3rd century BC work sometimes ascribed to Aretades . Clement then digresses to the subject of sin and hell , arguing that Adam was not perfect when created , but given the potential to achieve perfection . He espouses broadly universalist doctrine , holding that Christ 's promise of salvation is available to all , even those condemned to hell .
The final extant book begins with a description of the nature of Christ , and that of the true Christian , who aims to be as similar as possible to both the Father and the Son . Clement then criticizes the simplistic anthropomorphism of most ancient religions , quoting Xenophanes ' famous description of African , Thracian and Egyptian deities . The Greek gods may also have had their origins in the personification of material objects : Ares representing iron , and Dionysus wine . Prayer , and the relationship between love and knowledge are then discussed . 1 Corinthians 13 : 8 seems to contradict the characterization of the true Christian as one who knows ; but to Clement knowledge vanishes only in that it is subsumed by the universal love expressed by the Christian in his reverence for his Creator . Following Socrates , he argues that vice arises from a state of ignorance , not from intention . The Christian is a " labourer in God 's vineyard " , responsible both for his own path to salvation and that of his neighbor . The work ends with an extended passage against the contemporary divisions and heresies within the church .
= = = Other works = = =
Besides the great trilogy , Clement 's only other extant work is the treatise Salvation for the rich , also known as Who is the Rich Man who is Saved ? . Having begun with a scathing criticism of the corrupting effects of money and misguided servile attitudes towards the wealthy , Clement discusses the implications of Mark 10 : 25 . The rich are either unconvinced by the promise of eternal life , or unaware of the conflict between the possession of material and spiritual wealth , and the good Christian has a duty to guide them towards a better life through the Gospel . Jesus ' words are not to be taken literally – we should seek the supercelestial [ ὑπερουράνιος ] meaning in which the true route to salvation is revealed . The holding of material wealth in itself is not a wrong , as long as it is used charitably , but men should be careful not to let their wealth dominate their spirit . It is more important to give up sinful passions than external wealth . If the rich man is to be saved , all he must do is to follow the two commandments , and while material wealth is of no value to God , it can be used to alleviate the suffering of our neighbor .
Other known works exist in fragments alone , including the four eschatological works in the secret tradition : Hypotyposes , Excerpta ex Theodoto , Eclogae Propheticae and the Adumbraetiones . These cover Clement 's celestial hierarchy , a complex schema in which the universe is headed by the Face of God , below which lie seven protoctists , followed by archangels , angels and humans . According to Jean Daniélou , this schema is inherited from a Judaeo @-@ Christian esotericism , followed by the Apostles , which was only imparted orally to those Christians who could be trusted which such mysteries . The proctocists are the first beings created by God , and act as priests to the archangels . Clement identifies them both as the " Eyes of the Lord " and with the Thrones . Clement characterizes the celestial forms as entirely different from anything earthly , although he argues that members of each order only seem incorporal to those of lower orders . According to the Eclogae Propheticae , every thousand years every member of each order moves up a degree , and thus men can become angels . Even the protoctists can be elevated , although their new position in the hierarchy is not clearly defined . The apparent contradiction between the fact that there can be only seven protoctists but also a vast number of archangels to be promoted to their order is problematic . The commonest modern explanation is that the number seven is not meant to be taken literally , but has a principally numerological significance .
We know the titles of several lost works because of a list in Eusebius ' Ecclesiastical History , 6 @.@ 13 @.@ 1 @-@ 3 . They include the Outlines , in eight books , and Against Judaizers . Others are known only from mentions in Clement 's own writings , including On Marriage and On Prophecy , although few are attested by other writers and it is difficult to separate works which he intended to write from those which were actually completed .
The Mar Saba letter was attributed to Clement by Morton Smith , but there remains much debate today over whether it is an authentic letter from Clement , an ancient pseudepigraph or a modern forgery . If authentic , its main significance would be in its relating that the apostle Mark came to Alexandria from Rome and there wrote a more spiritual gospel , which he entrusted to the church in Alexandria on his death : if genuine , the letter pushes back the tradition related by Eusebius connecting Mark with Alexandria by a century .
= = Legacy = =
Eusebius is the first writer to provide an account of Clement 's life and works , in the Church History . There are two separate sections of the work dedicated to Clement ( 5 @.@ 11 and 6 @.@ 11 ) , the latter of which seems decidedly out of place , and Valesius argued that this was evidence that Eusebius never revised his work . Eusebius provides a list of Clement 's works , biographical information , and an extended quotation from the Stromata .
Photios I of Constantinople writes against Clement 's theology in the Bibliotheca , although he is appreciative of Clement 's learning and the literary merits of his work . In particular , he is highly critical of the Hypotyposes , a work of biblical exegesis of which only a few fragments have survived . Photius compared Clement 's treatise , which like his other works was highly syncretic , featuring ideas of Hellenistic , Jewish and Gnostic origin , unfavourably against the prevailing orthodoxy of the 9th century . Among the particular ideas Photius deemed heretical were :
His belief that matter and thought are eternal , and thus did not originate from God , contradicting the doctrine of Creatio ex nihilo .
His belief in cosmic cycles predating the creation of the world , following Heraclitus , which is extra @-@ Biblical in origin .
His belief that Christ , as Logos , was in some sense created , contrary to John 1 but following Philo .
His ambivalence towards docetism , the heretical doctrine that Christ 's earthly body was an illusion .
His belief that Eve was created from Adam 's sperm after he ejaculated during the night .
His belief that Genesis 6 : 2 implies that angels indulged in coitus with human women . In Orthodox Catholic theology , angels are considered sexless .
Down to the seventeenth century he was venerated as a saint in Catholicism . His name was to be found in the martyrologies , and his feast fell on the fourth of December . But when the Roman Martyrology was revised by Pope Clement VIII his name was dropped from the calendar on the advice of Cardinal Baronius . Benedict XIV maintained this decision of his predecessor on the grounds that Clement 's life was little known , that he had never obtained public cultus in the Church , and that some of his doctrines were , if not erroneous , at least suspect . Thus Clement is not revered as a saint in contemporary Roman Catholicism , nor is he considered a saint in much of Eastern Orthodox Christianity . Clement 's veneration is somewhat limited ; he is commemorated nonetheless in Anglicanism . As well , the Universal Catholic Church 's cathedral in Dallas is dedicated to him .
As one of the earliest of the Church fathers whose works have survived , he is the subject of a significant amount of recent academic work , mainly focusing on the relationship between his thought and non @-@ Christian philosophy and his influence on Origen .
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= W. H. Auden =
Wystan Hugh Auden ( / ˈwɪstən ˈhjuː ˈɔːdən / ; 21 February 1907 – 29 September 1973 ) was an English poet , who later became an American citizen . He is best known for love poems such as " Funeral Blues , " poems on political and social themes such as " September 1 , 1939 " and " The Shield of Achilles , " poems on cultural and psychological themes such as The Age of Anxiety , and poems on religious themes such as " For the Time Being " and " Horae Canonicae . " He was born in York , grew up in and near Birmingham in a professional middle @-@ class family . He attended English independent ( or public ) schools and studied English at Christ Church , Oxford . After a few months in Berlin in 1928 – 29 he spent five years ( 1930 – 35 ) teaching in English public schools , then travelled to Iceland and China in order to write books about his journeys . In 1939 he moved to the United States and became an American citizen in 1946 . He taught from 1941 to 1945 in American universities , followed by occasional visiting professorships in the 1950s . From 1947 to 1957 he wintered in New York and summered in Ischia ; from 1958 until the end of his life he wintered in New York ( in Oxford in 1972 – 73 ) and summered in Kirchstetten , Austria .
Auden 's poetry was noted for its stylistic and technical achievement , its engagement with politics , morals , love , and religion , and its variety in tone , form and content . He came to wide public attention at the age of twenty @-@ three , in 1930 , with his first book , Poems , followed in 1932 by The Orators . Three plays written in collaboration with Christopher Isherwood in 1935 – 38 built his reputation as a left @-@ wing political writer . Auden moved to the United States partly to escape this reputation , and his work in the 1940s , including the long poems " For the Time Being " and " The Sea and the Mirror , " focused on religious themes . He won the Pulitzer Prize in Poetry for his 1947 long poem The Age of Anxiety , the title of which became a popular phrase describing the modern era . In 1956 – 61 he was Professor of Poetry at Oxford ; his lectures were popular with students and faculty and served as the basis of his 1962 prose collection The Dyer 's Hand .
From around 1927 to 1939 Auden and Isherwood maintained a lasting but intermittent sexual friendship while both had briefer but more intense relations with other men . In 1939 Auden fell in love with Chester Kallman and regarded their relation as a marriage ; this ended in 1941 when Kallman refused to accept the faithful relation that Auden demanded , but the two maintained their friendship , and from 1947 until Auden 's death they lived in the same house or apartment in a non @-@ sexual relation , often collaborating on opera libretti such as The Rake 's Progress , for music by Igor Stravinsky .
Auden was a prolific writer of prose essays and reviews on literary , political , psychological and religious subjects , and he worked at various times on documentary films , poetic plays , and other forms of performance . Throughout his career he was both controversial and influential , and critical views on his work ranged from sharply dismissive , treating him as a lesser follower of W. B. Yeats and T. S. Eliot , to strongly affirmative , as in Joseph Brodsky 's claim that he had " the greatest mind of the twentieth century " . After his death , some of his poems , notably " Funeral Blues " , " Musée des Beaux Arts " , " Refugee Blues " , " The Unknown Citizen " , and " September 1 , 1939 " , became known to a much wider public than during his lifetime through films , broadcasts , and popular media .
= = Life = =
= = = Childhood = = =
Auden was born in York , England , to George Augustus Auden , a physician , and Constance Rosalie Auden , née Bicknell , who had trained ( but never served ) as a missionary nurse . He was the third of three sons ; the eldest , George Bernard Auden , became a farmer , while the second , John Bicknell Auden , became a geologist . Auden , whose grandfathers were both Church of England clergymen , grew up in an Anglo @-@ Catholic household that followed a " High " form of Anglicanism with doctrine and ritual resembling those of Roman Catholicism . He traced his love of music and language partly to the church services of his childhood . He believed he was of Icelandic descent , and his lifelong fascination with Icelandic legends and Old Norse sagas is evident in his work .
In 1908 his family moved to Homer Road , Solihull , near Birmingham , where his father had been appointed the School Medical Officer and Lecturer ( later Professor ) of Public Health . Auden 's lifelong psychoanalytic interests began in his father 's library . From the age of eight he attended boarding schools , returning home for holidays . His visits to the Pennine landscape and its declining lead @-@ mining industry figure in many of his poems ; the remote decaying mining village of Rookhope was for him a " sacred landscape " , evoked in a late poem , " Amor Loci " . Until he was fifteen he expected to become a mining engineer , but his passion for words had already begun . He wrote later : " words so excite me that a pornographic story , for example , excites me sexually more than a living person can do . "
= = = Education = = =
Auden attended St Edmund 's School , Hindhead , Surrey , where he met Christopher Isherwood , later famous in his own right as a novelist . At thirteen he went to Gresham 's School in Norfolk ; there , in 1922 , when his friend Robert Medley asked him if he wrote poetry , Auden first realised his vocation was to be a poet . Soon after , he " discover ( ed ) that he ( had ) lost his faith " ( through a gradual realisation that he had lost interest in religion , not through any decisive change of views ) . In school productions of Shakespeare , he played Katherina in The Taming of the Shrew in 1922 , and Caliban in The Tempest in 1925 , his last year at Gresham 's . His first published poems appeared in the school magazine in 1923 . Auden later wrote a chapter on Gresham 's for Graham Greene 's The Old School : Essays by Divers Hands ( 1934 ) .
In 1925 he went up to Christ Church , Oxford , with a scholarship in biology ; he switched to English by his second year . Friends he met at Oxford include Cecil Day @-@ Lewis , Louis MacNeice , and Stephen Spender ; these four were commonly though misleadingly identified in the 1930s as the " Auden Group " for their shared ( but not identical ) left @-@ wing views . Auden left Oxford in 1928 with a third @-@ class degree .
Auden was reintroduced to Christopher Isherwood in 1925 by his fellow student A. S. T. Fisher . For the next few years Auden sent poems to Isherwood for comments and criticism ; the two maintained a sexual friendship in intervals between their relations with others . In 1935 – 39 they collaborated on three plays and a travel book .
From his Oxford years onward , Auden 's friends uniformly described him as funny , extravagant , sympathetic , generous , and , partly by his own choice , lonely . In groups he was often dogmatic and overbearing in a comic way ; in more private settings he was diffident and shy except when certain of his welcome . He was punctual in his habits , and obsessive about meeting deadlines , while choosing to live amidst physical disorder .
= = = Britain and Europe , 1928 – 38 = = =
In late 1928 , Auden left Britain for nine months , going to Berlin , partly to rebel against English repressiveness . In Berlin , he first experienced the political and economic unrest that became one of his central subjects .
On returning to Britain in 1929 , he worked briefly as a tutor . In 1930 his first published book , Poems ( 1930 ) , was accepted by T. S. Eliot for Faber and Faber , and the same firm remained the British publisher of all the books he published thereafter . In 1930 he began five years as a schoolmaster in boys ' schools : two years at the Larchfield Academy in Helensburgh , Scotland , then three years at the Downs School in the Malvern Hills , where he was a much @-@ loved teacher . At the Downs , in June 1933 , he experienced what he later described as a " Vision of Agape " , while sitting with three fellow @-@ teachers at the school , when he suddenly found that he loved them for themselves , that their existence had infinite value for him ; this experience , he said , later influenced his decision to return to the Anglican Church in 1940 .
During these years , Auden 's erotic interests focused , as he later said , on an idealised " Alter Ego " rather than on individual persons . His relationships ( and his unsuccessful courtships ) tended to be unequal either in age or intelligence ; his sexual relations were transient , although some evolved into long friendships . He contrasted these relationships with what he later regarded as the " marriage " ( his word ) of equals that he began with Chester Kallman in 1939 , based on the unique individuality of both partners .
From 1935 until he left Britain early in 1939 , Auden worked as freelance reviewer , essayist , and lecturer , first with the G.P.O. Film Unit , a documentary film @-@ making branch of the post office , headed by John Grierson . Through his work for the Film Unit in 1935 he met and collaborated with Benjamin Britten , with whom he also worked on plays , song cycles , and a libretto . Auden 's plays in the 1930s were performed by the Group Theatre , in productions that he supervised to varying degrees .
His work now reflected his belief that any good artist must be " more than a bit of a reporting journalist " . In 1936 , Auden spent three months in Iceland where he gathered material for a travel book Letters from Iceland ( 1937 ) , written in collaboration with Louis MacNeice . In 1937 he went to Spain intending to drive an ambulance for the Republic in the Spanish Civil War , but was put to work broadcasting propaganda , a job he left to visit the front . His seven @-@ week visit to Spain affected him deeply , and his social views grew more complex as he found political realities to be more ambiguous and troubling than he had imagined . Again attempting to combine reportage and art , he and Isherwood spent six months in 1938 visiting China amid the Sino @-@ Japanese War , working on their book Journey to a War ( 1939 ) . On their way back to England they stayed briefly in New York and decided to move to the United States . Auden spent late 1938 partly in England , partly in Brussels .
Many of Auden 's poems during the 1930s and after were inspired by unconsummated love , and in the 1950s he summarised his emotional life in a famous couplet : " If equal affection cannot be / Let the more loving one be me " ( " The More Loving One " ) . He had a gift for friendship and , starting in the late 1930s , a strong wish for the stability of marriage ; in a letter to his friend James Stern he called marriage " the only subject . " Throughout his life , Auden performed charitable acts , sometimes in public ( as in his 1935 marriage of convenience to Erika Mann that provided her with a British passport to escape the Nazis ) , but , especially in later years , more often in private . He was embarrassed if they were publicly revealed , as when his gift to his friend Dorothy Day for the Catholic Worker movement was reported on the front page of The New York Times in 1956 .
= = = United States and Europe , 1939 – 73 = = =
Auden and Isherwood sailed to New York City in January 1939 , entering on temporary visas . Their departure from Britain was later seen by many as a betrayal , and Auden 's reputation suffered . In April 1939 , Isherwood moved to California , and he and Auden saw each other only intermittently in later years . Around this time , Auden met the poet Chester Kallman , who became his lover for the next two years ( Auden described their relation as a " marriage " that began with a cross @-@ country " honeymoon " journey ) . In 1941 Kallman ended their sexual relationship because he could not accept Auden 's insistence on mutual fidelity , but he and Auden remained companions for the rest of Auden 's life , sharing houses and apartments from 1953 until Auden 's death . Auden dedicated both editions of his collected poetry ( 1945 / 50 and 1966 ) to Isherwood and Kallman .
In 1940 – 41 , Auden lived in a house at 7 Middagh Street in Brooklyn Heights , that he shared with Carson McCullers , Benjamin Britten , and others , which became a famous centre of artistic life , nicknamed " February House " . In 1940 , Auden joined the Episcopal Church , returning to the Anglican Communion he had abandoned at thirteen . His reconversion was influenced partly by what he called the " sainthood " of Charles Williams , whom he had met in 1937 , and partly by reading Søren Kierkegaard and Reinhold Niebuhr ; his existential , this @-@ worldly Christianity became a central element in his life .
After Britain declared war on Germany in September 1939 , Auden told the British embassy in Washington that he would return to the UK if needed . He was told that , among those his age ( 32 ) , only qualified personnel were needed . In 1941 – 42 he taught English at the University of Michigan . He was called for the draft in the United States Army in August 1942 , but was rejected on medical grounds . He had been awarded a Guggenheim Fellowship for 1942 – 43 but did not use it , choosing instead to teach at Swarthmore College in 1942 – 45 . In mid @-@ 1945 , after the end of World War II in Europe , he was in Germany with the U. S. Strategic Bombing Survey , studying the effects of Allied bombing on German morale , an experience that affected his postwar work as his visit to Spain had affected him earlier . On his return , he settled in Manhattan , working as a freelance writer , a lecturer at The New School for Social Research , and a visiting professor at Bennington , Smith , and other American colleges . In 1946 he became a naturalised citizen of the US .
Auden began summering in Europe in 1948 , first in Ischia , Italy , where he rented a house , then , starting in 1958 , in Kirchstetten , Austria , where he bought a farmhouse , and , he said , shed tears of joy at owning a home for the first time . In 1956 – 61 , Auden was Professor of Poetry at Oxford University where he was required to give three lectures each year . This fairly light workload allowed him to continue to winter in New York , where he now lived at 77 St. Mark 's Place in Manhattan 's East Village , and to summer in Europe , spending only three weeks each year lecturing in Oxford . He now earned his income mostly from readings and lecture tours , and by writing for The New Yorker , The New York Review of Books , and other magazines . In 1972 , Auden moved his winter home from New York to Oxford , where his old college , Christ Church , offered him a cottage , while he continued to summer in Austria . He died in Vienna in 1973 and was buried in Kirchstetten .
= = Work = =
Auden published about four hundred poems , including seven long poems ( two of them book @-@ length ) . His poetry was encyclopaedic in scope and method , ranging in style from obscure twentieth @-@ century modernism to the lucid traditional forms such as ballads and limericks , from doggerel through haiku and villanelles to a " Christmas Oratorio " and a baroque eclogue in Anglo @-@ Saxon meters . The tone and content of his poems ranged from pop @-@ song clichés to complex philosophical meditations , from the corns on his toes to atoms and stars , from contemporary crises to the evolution of society .
He also wrote more than four hundred essays and reviews about literature , history , politics , music , religion , and many other subjects . He collaborated on plays with Christopher Isherwood and on opera libretti with Chester Kallman , and worked with a group of artists and filmmakers on documentary films in the 1930s and with the New York Pro Musica early music group in the 1950s and 1960s . About collaboration he wrote in 1964 : " collaboration has brought me greater erotic joy . . . than any sexual relations I have had . "
Auden controversially rewrote or discarded some of his most famous poems when he prepared his later collected editions . He wrote that he rejected poems that he found " boring " or " dishonest " in the sense that they expressed views he had never held but had used only because he felt they would be rhetorically effective . His rejected poems include " Spain " and " September 1 , 1939 " . His literary executor , Edward Mendelson , argues in his introduction to Selected Poems that Auden 's practice reflected his sense of the persuasive power of poetry and his reluctance to misuse it . ( Selected Poems includes some poems that Auden rejected and early texts of poems that he revised . )
= = = Early work , 1922 – 39 = = =
= = = = Up to 1930 = = = =
Auden began writing poems at thirteen , mostly in the styles of 19th @-@ century romantic poets , especially Wordsworth , and later poets with rural interests , especially Thomas Hardy . At eighteen he discovered T. S. Eliot and adopted an extreme version of Eliot 's style . He found his own voice at twenty when he wrote the first poem later included in his collected work , " From the very first coming down " . This and other poems of the late 1920s tended to be in a clipped , elusive style that alluded to , but did not directly state , their themes of loneliness and loss . Twenty of these poems appeared in his first book Poems ( 1928 ) , a pamphlet hand @-@ printed by Stephen Spender .
In 1928 he wrote his first dramatic work , Paid on Both Sides , subtitled " A Charade " , which combined style and content from the Icelandic sagas with jokes from English school life . This mixture of tragedy and farce , with a dream play @-@ within @-@ a @-@ play , introduced the mixed styles and content of much of his later work . This drama and thirty short poems appeared in his first published book Poems ( 1930 , 2nd edition with seven poems replaced , 1933 ) ; the poems in the book were mostly lyrical and gnomic mediations on hoped @-@ for or unconsummated love and on themes of personal , social , and seasonal renewal ; among these poems were " It was Easter as I walked , " " Doom is dark , " " Sir , no man 's enemy , " and " This lunar beauty . "
A recurrent theme in these early poems is the effect of " family ghosts " , Auden 's term for the powerful , unseen psychological effects of preceding generations on any individual life ( and the title of a poem ) . A parallel theme , present throughout his work , is the contrast between biological evolution ( unchosen and involuntary ) and the psychological evolution of cultures and individuals ( voluntary and deliberate even in its subconscious aspects ) .
= = = = 1931 – 35 = = = =
Auden 's next large @-@ scale work was The Orators : An English Study ( 1932 ; revised editions , 1934 , 1966 ) , in verse and prose , largely about hero @-@ worship in personal and political life . In his shorter poems , his style became more open and accessible , and the exuberant " Six Odes " in The Orators reflect his new interest in Robert Burns . During the next few years , many of his poems took their form and style from traditional ballads and popular songs , and also from expansive classical forms like the Odes of Horace , which he seems to have discovered through the German poet Hölderlin . Around this time his main influences were Dante , William Langland , and Alexander Pope .
During these years , much of his work expressed left @-@ wing views , and he became widely known as a political poet although he was privately more ambivalent about revolutionary politics than many reviewers recognised , and Mendelson argues that he expounded political views partly out of a sense of moral duty and partly because it enhanced his reputation , and that he later regretted having done so . He generally wrote about revolutionary change in terms of a " change of heart " , a transformation of a society from a closed @-@ off psychology of fear to an open psychology of love .
His verse drama The Dance of Death ( 1933 ) was a political extravaganza in the style of a theatrical revue , which Auden later called " a nihilistic leg @-@ pull . " His next play The Dog Beneath the Skin ( 1935 ) , written in collaboration with Isherwood , was similarly a quasi @-@ Marxist updating of Gilbert and Sullivan in which the general idea of social transformation was more prominent than any specific political action or structure .
The Ascent of F6 ( 1937 ) , another play written with Isherwood , was partly an anti @-@ imperialist satire , partly ( in the character of the self @-@ destroying climber Michael Ransom ) an examination of Auden 's own motives in taking on a public role as a political poet . This play included the first version of " Funeral Blues " ( " Stop all the clocks " ) , written as a satiric eulogy for a politician ; Auden later rewrote the poem as a " Cabaret Song " about lost love ( written to be sung by the soprano Hedli Anderson , for whom he wrote many lyrics in the 1930s ) . In 1935 , he worked briefly on documentary films with the G.P.O. Film Unit , writing his famous verse commentary for Night Mail and lyrics for other films that were among his attempts in the 1930s to create a widely accessible , socially conscious art .
= = = = 1936 – 39 = = = =
In 1936 Auden 's publisher chose the title Look , Stranger ! for a collection of political odes , love poems , comic songs , meditative lyrics , and a variety of intellectually intense but emotionally accessible verse ; Auden hated the title and retitled the collection for the 1937 US edition On This Island ) . Among the poems included in the book are " Hearing of harvests " , " Out on the lawn I lie in bed " , " O what is that sound " , " Look , stranger , on this island now " ( later revised versions change " on " to " at " ) , and " Our hunting fathers " .
Auden was now arguing that an artist should be a kind of journalist , and he put this view into practice in Letters from Iceland ( 1937 ) a travel book in prose and verse written with Louis MacNeice , which included his long social , literary , and autobiographical commentary " Letter to Lord Byron " . In 1937 , after observing the Spanish Civil War he wrote a politically engaged pamphlet poem Spain ( 1937 ) ; he later discarded it from his collected works . Journey to a War ( 1939 ) a travel book in prose and verse , was written with Isherwood after their visit to the Sino @-@ Japanese War . Auden 's last collaboration with Isherwood was their third play , On the Frontier , an anti @-@ war satire written in Broadway and West End styles .
Auden 's shorter poems now engaged with the fragility and transience of personal love ( " Danse Macabre " , " The Dream " , " Lay your sleeping head " ) , a subject he treated with ironic wit in his " Four Cabaret Songs for Miss Hedli Anderson " ( which included " Tell Me the Truth About Love " and the revised version of " Funeral Blues " ) , and also the corrupting effect of public and official culture on individual lives ( " Casino " , " School Children " , " Dover " ) . In 1938 he wrote a series of dark , ironic ballads about individual failure ( " Miss Gee " , " James Honeyman " , " Victor " ) . All these appeared in Another Time ( 1940 ) , together with poems including " Dover " , " As He Is " , and " Musée des Beaux Arts " ( all written before he moved to America in 1939 ) , and " In Memory of W. B. Yeats " , " The Unknown Citizen " , " Law Like Love " , " September 1 , 1939 " , and " In Memory of Sigmund Freud " ( written in America ) . The elegies for Yeats and Freud are partly anti @-@ heroic statements , in which great deeds are performed , not by unique geniuses whom others cannot hope to imitate , but by otherwise ordinary individuals who were " silly like us " ( Yeats ) or of whom it could be said " he wasn 't clever at all " ( Freud ) , and who became teachers of others , not awe @-@ inspiring heroes .
= = = Middle period , 1940 – 57 = = =
= = = = 1940 – 46 = = = =
In 1940 Auden wrote a long philosophical poem " New Year Letter " , which appeared with miscellaneous notes and other poems in The Double Man ( 1941 ) . At the time of his return to the Anglican Communion he began writing abstract verse on theological themes , such as " Canzone " and " Kairos and Logos " . Around 1942 , as he became more comfortable with religious themes , his verse became more open and relaxed , and he increasingly used the syllabic verse he had learned from the poetry of Marianne Moore .
Auden 's work in this era addresses the artist 's temptation to use other persons as material for his art rather than valuing them for themselves ( " Prospero to Ariel " ) and the corresponding moral obligation to make and keep commitments while recognising the temptation to break them ( " In Sickness and Health " ) . From 1942 through 1947 he worked mostly on three long poems in dramatic form , each differing from the others in form and content : " For the Time Being : A Christmas Oratorio " , " The Sea and the Mirror : A Commentary on Shakespeare 's The Tempest " ( both published in For the Time Being , 1944 ) , and The Age of Anxiety : A Baroque Eclogue ( published separately in 1947 ) . The first two , with Auden 's other new poems from 1940 to 1944 , were included in his first collected edition , The Collected Poetry of W. H. Auden ( 1945 ) , with most of his earlier poems , many in revised versions .
= = = = 1947 – 57 = = = =
After completing The Age of Anxiety in 1946 he focused again on shorter poems , notably " A Walk After Dark " , " The Love Feast " , and " The Fall of Rome " . Many of these evoked the Italian village where he summered in 1948 – 57 , and his next book , Nones ( 1951 ) , had a Mediterranean atmosphere new to his work . A new theme was the " sacred importance " of the human body in its ordinary aspect ( breathing , sleeping , eating ) and the continuity with nature that the body made possible ( in contrast to the division between humanity and nature that he had emphasised in the 1930s ) ; his poems on these themes included " In Praise of Limestone " ( 1948 ) and " Memorial for the City " ( 1949 ) . In 1949 Auden and Kallman wrote the libretto for Igor Stravinsky 's opera The Rake 's Progress , and later collaborated on two libretti for operas by Hans Werner Henze .
Auden 's first separate prose book was The Enchafèd Flood : The Romantic Iconography of the Sea ( 1950 ) , based on a series of lectures on the image of the sea in romantic literature . Between 1949 and 1954 he worked on a sequence of seven Good Friday poems , titled " Horae Canonicae " , an encyclopaedic survey of geological , biological , cultural , and personal history , focused on the irreversible act of murder ; the poem was also a study in cyclical and linear ideas of time . While writing this , he also wrote " Bucolics , " a sequence of seven poems about man 's relation to nature . Both sequences appeared in his next book , The Shield of Achilles ( 1955 ) , with other short poems , including the book 's title poem , " Fleet Visit " , and " Epitaph for the Unknown Soldier " .
In 1955 – 56 Auden wrote a group of poems about " history " , the term he used to mean the set of unique events made by human choices , as opposed to " nature " , the set of involuntary events created by natural processes , statistics , and anonymous forces such as crowds . These poems included " T the Great " , " The Maker " , and the title poem of his next collection Homage to Clio ( 1960 ) .
= = = Later work , 1958 – 73 = = =
In the late 1950s Auden 's style became less rhetorical while its range of styles increased . In 1958 , having moved his summer home from Italy to Austria , he wrote " Good @-@ bye to the Mezzogiorno " ; other poems from this period include " Dichtung und Wahrheit : An Unwritten Poem " , a prose poem about the relation between love and personal and poetic language , and the contrasting " Dame Kind " , about the anonymous impersonal reproductive instinct . These and other poems , including his 1955 – 66 poems about history , appeared in Homage to Clio ( 1960 ) . His prose book The Dyer 's Hand ( 1962 ) gathered many of the lectures he gave in Oxford as Professor of Poetry in 1956 – 61 , together with revised versions of essays and notes written since the mid @-@ 1940s .
Among the new styles and forms in Auden 's later work were the haiku and tanka that he began writing after translating the haiku and other verse in Dag Hammarskjöld 's Markings . A sequence of fifteen poems about his house in Austria , " Thanksgiving for a Habitat " ( written in various styles that included an imitation of William Carlos Williams ) appeared in About the House ( 1965 ) , together with other poems that included his reflection on his lecture tours , " On the Circuit " . In the late 1960s he wrote some of his most vigorous poems , including " River Profile " and two poems that looked back over his life , " Prologue at Sixty " and " Forty Years On " . All these appeared in City Without Walls ( 1969 ) . His lifelong passion for Icelandic legend culminated in his verse translation of The Elder Edda ( 1969 ) . Among his later themes was the " religionless Christianity " he learned partly from Dietrich Bonhoeffer , the dedicatee of his poem " Friday 's Child . "
A Certain World : A Commonplace Book ( 1970 ) was a kind of self @-@ portrait made up of favourite quotations with commentary , arranged in alphabetical order by subject . His last prose book was a selection of essays and reviews , Forewords and Afterwords ( 1973 ) . His last books of verse , Epistle to a Godson ( 1972 ) and the unfinished Thank You , Fog ( published posthumously , 1974 ) include reflective poems about language ( " Natural Linguistics " ) and about his own ageing ( " A New Year Greeting " , " Talking to Myself " , " A Lullaby " [ " The din of work is subdued " ] ) . His last completed poem was " Archaeology " , about ritual and timelessness , two recurring themes in his later years .
= = = Reputation and influence = = =
Auden 's stature in modern literature has been contested . Probably the most common critical view from the 1930s onward ranked him as the last and least of the three major twentieth @-@ century British poets , Yeats , Eliot , Auden , while a minority view , more prominent in recent years , ranks him as the highest of the three . Opinions have ranged from those of Hugh MacDiarmid , who called him " a complete wash @-@ out , " F. R. Leavis who wrote that Auden 's ironic style was " self @-@ defensive , self @-@ indulgent or merely irresponsible " , and Harold Bloom who wrote " Close thy Auden , open thy [ Wallace ] Stevens , " to the obituarist in The Times ( London ) , who wrote : " W. H. Auden , for long the enfant terrible of English poetry . . . emerges as its undisputed master . "
Critical estimates were divided from the start . Reviewing Auden 's first book , Poems ( 1930 ) , Naomi Mitchison wrote " If this is really only the beginning , we have perhaps a master to look forward to . " But John Sparrow , recalling Mitchison 's comment in 1934 , dismissed Auden 's early work as " a monument to the misguided aims that prevail among contemporary poets , and the fact that ... he is being hailed as ' a master ' shows how criticism is helping poetry on the downward path . "
Auden 's clipped , satiric , and ironic style in the 1930s was widely imitated by younger poets such as Charles Madge , who wrote in a poem " there waited for me in the summer morning / Auden fiercely . I read , shuddered , and knew . " He was widely described as the leader of an " Auden group " that comprised his friends Stephen Spender , Cecil Day @-@ Lewis , and Louis MacNeice . The four were mocked by the poet Roy Campbell as if they were a single undifferentiated poet named " Macspaunday . " Auden 's propagandistic poetic plays , including The Dog Beneath the Skin and The Ascent of F6 , and his political poems such as " Spain " gave him the reputation as a political poet writing in a progressive and accessible voice , in contrast to Eliot ; but this political stance provoked opposing opinions , such as that of Austin Clarke who called Auden 's work " liberal , democratic , and humane " , and John Drummond , who wrote that Auden misused a " characteristic and popularizing trick , the generalized image " , to present ostensibly left @-@ wing views that were in fact " confined to bourgeois experience . "
Auden 's departure for America in 1939 was debated in Britain ( once even in Parliament ) , with some seeing his emigration as a betrayal . Defenders of Auden such as Geoffrey Grigson , in an introduction to a 1949 anthology of modern poetry , wrote that Auden " arches over all " . His stature was suggested by book titles such as Auden and After by Francis Scarfe ( 1942 ) and The Auden Generation by Samuel Hynes ( 1977 ) .
In the US , starting in the late 1930s , the detached , ironic tone of Auden 's regular stanzas became influential ; John Ashbery recalled that in the 1940s Auden " was the modern poet " . Auden 's formal influences were so pervasive in American poetry that the ecstatic style of the Beat Generation was partly a reaction against his influence . From the 1940s through the 1960s , many critics lamented that Auden 's work had declined from its earlier promise ; Randall Jarrell wrote a series of essays making a case against Auden 's later work , and Philip Larkin 's " What 's Become of Wystan ? " ( 1960 ) had a wide impact .
The first full @-@ length study of Auden was Richard Hoggart 's Auden : An Introductory Essay ( 1951 ) , which concluded that " Auden 's work , then , is a civilising force . " It was followed by Joseph Warren Beach 's The Making of the Auden Canon ( 1957 ) , a disapproving account of Auden 's revisions of his earlier work . The first systematic critical account was Monroe K. Spears ' The Poetry of W. H. Auden : The Disenchanted Island ( 1963 ) , " written out of the conviction that Auden 's poetry can offer the reader entertainment , instruction , intellectual excitement , and a prodigal variety of aesthetic pleasures , all in a generous abundance that is unique in our time . "
Auden was one of three candidates recommended by the Nobel Committee to the Swedish Academy for the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1963 and six recommended for the 1964 prize . By the time of his death in 1973 he had attained the status of a respected elder statesman , and a memorial stone for him was placed in Poets ' Corner in Westminster Abbey in 1974 . The Encyclopaedia Britannica writes that " by the time of Eliot 's death in 1965 ... a convincing case could be made for the assertion that Auden was indeed Eliot 's successor , as Eliot had inherited sole claim to supremacy when Yeats died in 1939 . " With some exceptions , British critics tended to treat his early work as his best , while American critics tended to favour his middle and later work .
Another group of critics and poets has maintained that unlike other modern poets , Auden 's reputation did not decline after his death , and the influence of his later writing was especially strong on younger American poets including John Ashbery , James Merrill , Anthony Hecht , and Maxine Kumin . Typical later evaluations describe him as " arguably the [ 20th ] century 's greatest poet " ( Peter Parker and Frank Kermode ) , who " now clearly seems the greatest poet in English since Tennyson " ( Philip Hensher ) .
Public recognition of Auden 's work sharply increased after his " Funeral Blues " ( " Stop all the clocks " ) was read aloud in the film Four Weddings and a Funeral ( 1994 ) ; subsequently , a pamphlet edition of ten of his poems , Tell Me the Truth About Love , sold more than 275 @,@ 000 copies . After 11 September 2001 his 1939 poem " September 1 , 1939 " was widely circulated and frequently broadcast . Public readings and broadcast tributes in the UK and US in 2007 marked his centenary year .
= = Published works = =
The following list includes only the books of poems and essays that Auden prepared during his lifetime ; for a more complete list , including other works and posthumous editions , see W. H. Auden bibliography .
In the list below , works reprinted in the Complete Works of W. H. Auden are indicated by footnote references .
Books
Poems ( London , 1930 ; second edn . , seven poems substituted , London , 1933 ; includes poems and Paid on Both Sides : A Charade ) ( dedicated to Christopher Isherwood ) .
The Orators : An English Study ( London , 1932 , verse and prose ; slightly revised edn . , London , 1934 ; revised edn. with new preface , London , 1966 ; New York 1967 ) ( dedicated to Stephen Spender ) .
The Dance of Death ( London , 1933 , play ) ( dedicated to Robert Medley and Rupert Doone ) .
Poems ( New York , 1934 ; contains Poems [ 1933 edition ] , The Orators [ 1932 edition ] , and The Dance of Death ) .
The Dog Beneath the Skin ( London , New York , 1935 ; play , with Christopher Isherwood ) ( dedicated to Robert Moody ) .
The Ascent of F6 ( London , 1936 ; 2nd edn . , 1937 ; New York , 1937 ; play , with Christopher Isherwood ) ( dedicated to John Bicknell Auden ) .
Look , Stranger ! ( London , 1936 , poems ; US edn . , On This Island , New York , 1937 ) ( dedicated to Erika Mann )
Letters from Iceland ( London , New York , 1937 ; verse and prose , with Louis MacNeice ) ( dedicated to George Augustus Auden ) .
On the Frontier ( London , 1938 ; New York 1939 ; play , with Christopher Isherwood ) ( dedicated to Benjamin Britten ) .
Journey to a War ( London , New York , 1939 ; verse and prose , with Christopher Isherwood ) ( dedicated to E. M. Forster ) .
Another Time ( London , New York 1940 ; poetry ) ( dedicated to Chester Kallman ) .
The Double Man ( New York , 1941 , poems ; UK edn . , New Year Letter , London , 1941 ) ( Dedicated to Elizabeth Mayer ) .
For the Time Being ( New York , 1944 ; London , 1945 ; two long poems : " The Sea and the Mirror : A Commentary on Shakespeare 's The Tempest " , dedicated to James and Tania Stern , and " For the Time Being : A Christmas Oratorio " , in memoriam Constance Rosalie Auden [ Auden 's mother ] ) .
The Collected Poetry of W. H. Auden ( New York , 1945 ; includes new poems ) ( dedicated to Christopher Isherwood and Chester Kallman ) .
The Age of Anxiety : A Baroque Eclogue ( New York , 1947 ; London , 1948 ; verse ; won the 1948 Pulitzer Prize for Poetry ) ( dedicated to John Betjeman ) .
Collected Shorter Poems , 1930 – 1944 ( London , 1950 ; similar to 1945 Collected Poetry ) ( dedicated to Christopher Isherwood and Chester Kallman ) .
The Enchafèd Flood ( New York , 1950 ; London , 1951 ; prose ) ( dedicated to Alan Ansen ) .
Nones ( New York , 1951 ; London , 1952 ; poems ) ( dedicated to Reinhold and Ursula Niebuhr )
The Shield of Achilles ( New York , London , 1955 ; poems ) ( won the 1956 National Book Award for Poetry ) ( dedicated to Lincoln and Fidelma Kirstein ) .
Homage to Clio ( New York , London , 1960 ; poems ) ( dedicated to E. R. and A. E. Dodds ) .
The Dyer 's Hand ( New York , 1962 ; London , 1963 ; essays ) ( dedicated to Nevill Coghill ) .
About the House ( New York , London , 1965 ; poems ) ( dedicated to Edmund and Elena Wilson ) .
Collected Shorter Poems 1927 – 1957 ( London , 1966 ; New York , 1967 ) ( dedicated to Christopher Isherwood and Chester Kallman ) .
Collected Longer Poems ( London , 1968 ; New York , 1969 ) .
Secondary Worlds ( London , New York , 1969 ; prose ) ( dedicated to Valerie Eliot ) .
City Without Walls and Other Poems ( London , New York , 1969 ) ( dedicated to Peter Heyworth ) .
A Certain World : A Commonplace Book ( New York , London , 1970 ; quotations with commentary ) ( dedicated to Geoffrey Grigson ) .
Epistle to a Godson and Other Poems ( London , New York , 1972 ) ( dedicated to Orlan Fox ) .
Forewords and Afterwords ( New York , London , 1973 ; essays ) ( dedicated to Hannah Arendt ) .
Thank You , Fog : Last Poems ( London , New York , 1974 ) ( dedicated to Michael and Marny Yates ) .
Film scripts and opera libretti
Coal Face ( 1935 , closing chorus for GPO Film Unit documentary ) .
Night Mail ( 1936 , narrative for GPO Film Unit documentary , not published separately except as a program note ) .
Paul Bunyan ( 1941 , libretto for operetta by Benjamin Britten ; not published until 1976 ) .
The Rake 's Progress ( 1951 , with Chester Kallman , libretto for an opera by Igor Stravinsky ) .
Elegy for Young Lovers ( 1956 , with Chester Kallman , libretto for an opera by Hans Werner Henze ) .
The Bassarids ( 1961 , with Chester Kallman , libretto for an opera by Hans Werner Henze based on The Bacchae of Euripides ) .
Runner ( 1962 , documentary film narrative for National Film Board of Canada )
Love 's Labour 's Lost ( 1973 , with Chester Kallman , libretto for an opera by Nicolas Nabokov , based on Shakespeare 's play ) .
Musical collaborations
Our Hunting Fathers ( 1936 , song cycle written for Benjamin Britten )
An Evening of Elizabethan Verse and its Music ( 1954 recording with the New York Pro Musica Antiqua , director Noah Greenberg ; Auden spoke the verse texts )
The Play of Daniel ( 1958 , verse narration for a production by the New York Pro Musica Antiqua , director Noah Greenberg )
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= There 's a Riot Goin ' On =
There 's a Riot Goin ' On is the fifth studio album by American band Sly and the Family Stone , released on November 20 , 1971 , by Epic Records . It was recorded during 1970 and 1971 at Record Plant Studios in Sausalito , California , with sessions dominated by band frontman Sly Stone during a period of drug use and inter @-@ group tension . The album embraced a darker and more challenging sound than the psychedelic soul style of the group 's previous records , making use of hard funk rhythms , primitive drum machines , and a unconventional mixing techniques . Originally intended to be issued as Africa Talks to You , the record was retitled There 's a Riot Goin ' On in response to Marvin Gaye 's album What 's Going On ( 1971 ) , released five months before .
There 's a Riot Goin ' On entered the Billboard Pop Album and Soul Album charts at number one upon its release , while the album 's lead single , " Family Affair " ( 1971 ) , topped the Pop Singles chart . By 2001 , it had sold one million copies and been certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) . Received with ambivalence upon its release , the album is now praised as one of the greatest and most influential recordings of all @-@ time , and ranked at or near the top of many publications ' " best album " lists . In 2003 it was ranked number 99 on Rolling Stone magazine 's list of the 500 greatest albums of all time .
= = Background = =
Having achieved great success with their 1969 album Stand ! and performance at Woodstock , Sly & the Family Stone were due to have submitted an album of new recordings to Epic Records by 1970 . However , Sly Stone , the group 's creative head and multi @-@ instrumentalist , missed several recording deadlines , worrying CBS executive Clive Davis , and a Greatest Hits album was released in an eighteen @-@ month stretch during which the band released no new material . Relationships within the band were deteriorating , with friction between the Stone brothers and bassist Larry Graham . Epic executives requested more product , and the Black Panther Party , with which Stone had become associated , was demanding he make his music more militant and reflective of the black power movement , that he replace Greg Errico and Jerry Martini with black instrumentalists , and replace manager David Kapralik . After moving to Los Angeles , California in late 1969 Stone and his bandmates began to use cocaine and PCP heavily rather than recording music . During this time Sly & the Family Stone released only one single , " Thank You ( Falettinme Be Mice Elf Agin ) " / " Everybody Is a Star " , issued in December 1969 . Although " Star " was a positive song in the vein of their previous hit " Everyday People " ( 1968 ) , " Thank You " featured a darker political theme .
By 1970 Stone had become erratic and moody , missing nearly a third of the band 's concert dates . He hired streetwise friends Hamp " Bubba " Banks and J.B. Brown as his personal managers , and these enlisted gangsters Edward " Eddie Chin " Elliott and Mafioso J.R. Valtrano as his bodyguards . Stone assigned these individuals to handle his business dealings , find drugs and protect him from those he considered enemies , among them his own bandmates and staff . A rift developed between Sly and the rest of the band , which led to drummer Gregg Errico 's departure in early 1971 .
Speculation arose as to the release of new studio material . In a December 24 , 1970 article for Rolling Stone magazine , journalist Jon Landau wrote ;
Stone 's intention of a darker , more conceptual work was influenced by drug use and the events that writer Miles Marshall Lewis called " the death of the sixties " ; political assassinations , police brutality , the decline of the civil rights movement and social disillusionment . According to The Austin Chronicle , " slowed down , [ Sly 's ] quest for post @-@ stardom identity mirrored black America 's quest for post @-@ Sixties purpose . "
= = Recording and production = =
Sly Stone mostly worked on There 's a Riot Goin ' On alone in a studio that he had built for himself at The Plant Studios , also known as The Record Plant , in Sausalito , California , or at his home studio in the loft of his Bel Air mansion . He would often lie down in the bed and record his vocals with a wireless microphone system . According to the other Family Stone members , most of the album was performed by him alone , overdubbing and sometimes using a drum machine . Other band members contributed by overdubbing alone with Sly instead of playing together as before . For " Family Affair " and some other selections Stone enlisted several other musicians including Billy Preston , Ike Turner , and Bobby Womack instead of his bandmates , and several female vocalists mostly omitted from the final mix .
The album 's muddy , gritty sound was due in part to this overdubbing and erasing and mixing techniques nearly drowned out undubbed sounds . Miles Marshall Lewis stated " Never before on a Sly and the Family Stone album were songs open to so much interpretation , and even more so , dripping with cynicism . On the other hand you can hardly hear what he 's saying for most of the album . Like Radiohead 's Kid A or even the Rolling Stones ' Exile on Main St. more recent to the time , a murkiness in the mix of the record inhibits complete comprehension of the words . " Stone felt that the rhythm box made unrealistic sounds if used as designed , so he resorted to overdubbing the drum sounds manually , again contributing to the difficult mix .
In the fall of 1971 Stone delivered the final mixes to the CBS Records offices , relieving the worried Clive Davis . CBS issued " Family Affair " as the first single , the band 's first in nearly two years . It became their fourth and final number @-@ one pop hit . A somber , electric piano @-@ based record , sung by Sly and sister Rose Stone , Sly delivering his part in a low , relaxed tone . It is one of the earliest hit recordings to use a drum machine - the first was probably another Sly Stone production , Little Sister 's " Somebody 's Watching You " .
= = Music and lyrics = =
Stone reworked 1969 's " Thank You " single as a slower , closing track , " Thank You For Talking to Me Africa " which , according to Allmusic 's Matthew Greenwald was a blues and gospel influenced examination of urban tension and the end of the 1960s , " perhaps the most frightening recording from the dawn of the 1970s , capturing all of the drama , ennui , and hedonism of the decade to come with almost a clairvoyant feel . " " Africa Talks to You " is a nine @-@ minute funk jam written in response to Sly Stone 's backlash from estranged fans and friends , record industry associates , and the media . According to biographer Eddie Santiago , the lyrics cynically portray " fame and its cold retrogression into perceived insanity " , with a chorus that reflects " Sly 's feelings on being cut down in his prime like a tree in the forest . "
" Smilin ' " is a hymn to getting high , introduced by a " slow , wispy soul that sounds like it 's drifting in from a distant radio somewhere " . Jurek wrote , " Sister Rose 's voice is all sweet , and at first so is Sly 's , but as the horns and bassline come stepping in , Sly 's voice gets heavy and is distorting in places deliberately . The delicate keyboard lines , luxuriant and in the pocket as they are , cannot keep the voice contained . There 's a minimal instrumental break in the tune and it suddenly fades just as it emerged . "
The album 's title track is silent and listed as zero minutes and zero seconds long . For many years it was speculated that this cryptic track listing and the title of the album referred to a July 27 , 1970 riot in Chicago , Illinois for which Sly & the Family Stone had been blamed . The band was to play a free show in Grant Park ( Chicago ) but the crowd became restless before the band began and started rioting . Over a hundred people were injured , including several police officers , and the reason given to the press was that the band was late and / or refused to perform . The original LP jacket featured a photo collage with a picture of the band @-@ shell in Grant Park overlaid with a photo of a police car . However in 1997 Sly Stone said that the " There 's a Riot Goin ' On " track had no running time simply because " I felt there should be no riots . "
= = Artwork = =
The original cover art for Riot featured a red , white , and black American flag with suns in place of the stars . No other text or titles appear on the cover , although Epic executives added a " Featuring the Hit Single ' Family Affair ' " sticker to the LP for commercial viability and identification purposes . Family Stone A & R director Steve Paley took the photograph . Three of the custom flags were created : one for Sly , one for Epic Records , and one for Paley . The album was later reissued with a more conventional cover featuring a photograph of Sly in concert , titles and text .
In an interview with Jonathan Dakss Stone explained the album cover 's concept , stating " I wanted the flag to truly represent people of all colors . I wanted the color black because it is the absence of color . I wanted the color white because it is the combination of all colors . And I wanted the color red because it represents the one thing that all people have in common : blood . I wanted suns instead of stars because stars to me imply searching , like you search for your star . And there are already too many stars in this world . But the sun , that 's something that is always there , looking right at you . Betsy Ross did the best she could with what she had . I thought I could do better . "
The outer album sleeve features a photo collage , by artist Lynn Ames , depicting American cultural images of the early 1970s . Featured on this collage were color photos and black & whites of the Family Stone , the Capitol , a grinning boy in plaid pants , the American flag with a peace sign in place of the stars , the Marina City twin towers of Chicago , a Department of Public Works caution sign , a piece of the Gettysburg Address , the tail end of a gas guzzler , drummer Buddy Miles , the Lincoln Memorial , soul musician Bobby Womack , a bulldog , several anonymous smiling faces , and Sly 's pit bull , Gun .
= = Reception = =
There 's a Riot Goin ' On was met with divided reaction from fans and music critics who were not used to the album 's sound and lyrical content . Los Angeles Times writer Robert Hilburn expressed a mixed response towards the band 's stylistic change from " soulflavored " songs such as " Everyday People " and " Hot Fun in the Summertime " , stating " there is little on the album that is worth your attention " . Other major music publications praised this new direction : in his review for Rolling Stone magazine , music journalist Vince Aletti wrote that " At first I hated it for its weakness and its lack of energy and I still dislike these qualities . But then I began to respect the album 's honesty " . Aletti cited it as " one of the most important fucking albums this year " and " the new urban music ... not about dancing to the music , in the streets . It 's about disintegration , getting fucked up , nodding , maybe dying . There are flashes of euphoria , ironic laughter , even some bright stretches but mostly it 's just junkie death , oddly unoppressive and almost attractive in its effortlessness " . A columnist for Hit Parader magazine gave Riot a favorable review , and stated that the album has " a lot that makes Sly the in @-@ person rave that he is . "
In his consumer guide for The Village Voice , critic Robert Christgau gave There 's a Riot Goin ' On an " A- " , which he later revised to " A + " , Christgau noted that " what 's expressed is the bitterest ghetto pessimism " and complimented its " subtle production techniques and jarring song compositions " , while citing it as " one of those rare albums whose whole actually does exceed the sum of its parts " . There 's a Riot Goin ' On was included on several music publications ' " End of the Year " lists and critics ' polls , including The Village Voice 's Pazz & Jop albums list at number seven . The album achieved commercial success with two hit singles and debuting at number @-@ one on the Billboard Pop Albums and Soul Albums chart . In his book Mystery Train : Images of America in Rock ' n ' Roll Music , published four years following the album 's release , music critic and writer Greil Marcus called There 's a Riot Goin ' On " Muzak with its finger on the trigger . "
= = Legacy = =
There 's a Riot Goin ' On has since been viewed by critics as one of the greatest and most influential albums . Christgau wrote in 2007 : " Sly Stone had ' Made It ' . But its temptations and contradictions ate him up . The result was the prophetic 1971 There 's a Riot Goin ' On , recorded in anarchic , druggy torpor over a year , or was it two , Stone didn 't know the difference . Its taped @-@ over murk presaging Exile on Main St. , its drum @-@ machine beats throwing knuckleballs at Miles and JB , it was darker than the Velvet Underground and Nico and funkier than shit , yet somehow it produced two smash hits , including the stark , deep " Family Affair " . In a retrospective review , Zeth Lundy of PopMatters called There 's a Riot Goin ' On " a challenging listen , at times rambling , incoherent , dissonant , and just plain uncomfortable " with " some episodic moments of pop greatness to be found " and viewed it as a radical departure from the band 's previous work :
In 1994 There 's a Riot Going On was ranked number 14 in Colin Larkin 's Top 50 Soul Albums . Larkin described the album as " unlike anything heard before in black music " . A 2003 article for Rolling Stone commented ; " Sly and the Family Stone created a musical utopia : an interracial group of men and women who blended funk , rock and positive vibes ... Sly Stone ultimately discovered that his utopia had a ghetto , and he brilliantly tore the whole thing down on There 's a Riot Goin ' On , which does not refute the joy of his earlier music . " In addition to being featured near the top of several major publications ' " best album " lists , There 's a Riot Goin ' On was also ranked at number 99 on Rolling Stone 's 2003 list of the 500 Greatest Albums of All Time , one of four Sly & the Family Stone entries to be included on the list ; it is the second highest of the band 's entries , preceded by Greatest Hits ( # 60 ) , and followed by Stand ! ( # 118 ) and Fresh ( # 186 ) . Pitchfork Media named it the fourth best album of the 1970s
= = Influence = =
Along with its critical recognition , There 's a Riot Goin ' On is considered one of the first instances of the funk music later popularized by George Clinton and Funkadelic , the Ohio Players , and similar acts . There 's a Riot Goin ' On , as well as the follow @-@ ups Fresh and Small Talk , are considered among the first and best examples of the matured version of funk music , after prototypical instances of the sound in Sly & the Family Stone 's 1960s work . The album 's sound also influenced Miles Davis and Herbie Hancock to crossover to jazz @-@ funk . Riot 's songs have been extensively covered and sampled . Artists who have covered or reworked songs from Riot include Iggy Pop , John Legend , Lalah Hathaway , Ultramagnetic MC 's , De La Soul , Beastie Boys and Gwen Guthrie . Funk music genre in general had great influence on pioneering hip hop acts such as Afrika Bambaataa , DJ Kool Herc and many others .
Dave Rosen of Ink Blot magazine said that the album sounds unique , ironically in view of its vast influence ; " Sly employed the unconventional ( and possibly entirely original ) technique of mixing live drums with what was at the time a primitive drum machine ... The introspective , yet political lyrics , the hard and dirty funk grooves , the inspirational , yet depressing songs — all of these elements would come to influence not only peers like Marvin Gaye and James Brown , but two generations of rappers and funkateers who paid homage to Sly 's vision by making his samples and beats an essential backbone of their own innovations . Sly 's Riot is still goin ' on . " In his book There 's a Riot Goin ' On , author Miles Marshall Lewis described There 's a Riot Goin ' On in retrospect as " one of the most powerful and haunting albums to inspire the hip hop movement . "
= = Track listing = =
= = = Original LP = = =
All songs written , produced and arranged by Sylvester Stewart for Stone Flower Productions .
Side one
" Luv n ' Haight " – 4 : 01
" Just Like a Baby " – 5 : 12
" Poet " – 3 : 01
" Family Affair " – 3 : 06
" Africa Talks to You ' The Asphalt Jungle ' " – 8 : 45
" There 's a Riot Goin ' On " – 0 : 00
Side two
" Brave & Strong " – 3 : 28
" ( You Caught Me ) Smilin ' " – 2 : 53
" Time " – 3 : 03
" Spaced Cowboy " – 3 : 57
" Runnin ' Away " – 2 : 51
" Thank You for Talkin ' to Me Africa " – 7 : 14
= = = CD reissue = = =
Bonus tracks for 2007 Epic / Legacy limited edition compact disc reissue . The title track , which was originally no time , was placed at four seconds for the reissue and was accompanied by previously unreleased bonus material .
" Runnin ' Away " ( mono single version ) – 2 : 44
" My Gorilla Is My Butler " ( instrumental ) – 3 : 11
" Do You Know What ? " ( instrumental ) – 7 : 16
" That 's Pretty Clean " ( instrumental ) – 4 : 12
= = Charts = =
= = = Album = = =
= = = Singles = = =
= = Personnel = =
= = = Musicians = = =
Larry Graham – bass , backing vocals
Greg Errico – drums
Gerry Gibson – drums
Bobby Womack – guitar
Freddie Stone – guitar
Ike Turner – guitar
Sly Stone – arrangements , drums , drum programming , keyboard programming , synthesizers , guitar , bass , keyboards , vocals
Billy Preston – keyboards
Jerry Martini – tenor saxophone
Cynthia Robinson – trumpet
Rose Stone – vocals , keyboards
Little Sister – backing vocals
= = = Production = = =
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= 31st / 51st Battalion ( Australia ) =
The 31st / 51st Battalion was an infantry battalion of the Australian Army , which served during World War II . Raised for service as part of the Militia in 1943 through the amalgamation of two previously existing battalions , the 31st / 51st Battalion undertook garrison duties in Dutch New Guinea in 1943 – 44 before taking part in the Bougainville Campaign in 1944 – 45 . Following the end of the war , the battalion served in the Pacific overseeing the transfer of Japanese prisoners of war and re @-@ establishing law and order until mid @-@ 1946 when it returned to Australia and was disbanded .
= = History = =
= = = Formation = = =
The 31st / 51st Battalion was formed on 12 April 1943 at Yatlee , near Cairns , Queensland , by the amalgamation of two previously existing Queensland @-@ based Militia infantry battalions : the 31st and 51st Battalions . Upon establishment , the battalion adopted the territorial title of the " Kennedy / Far North Queensland Regiment " , in order to perpetuate the designations of its two predecessor units . Although the battalion officially adopted the brown and yellow rectangular Unit Colour Patch of the 31st Battalion , members of the new battalion that had previously served with the 51st were authorised to wear its brown over light blue circular colour patch . Reinforcements to the unit were allocated the colour patch based upon the territorial area from which they had been recruited .
The amalgamation came about due to a shortage of manpower in the Australian economy which had occurred as a result of an over mobilisation of Australia 's military forces in the early years of the war . In an attempt to rectify this situation , the Australian government made the decision to release Militia personnel who had previously been employed in " essential industries " back into the civilian workforce . As a result of this , both the 31st and 51st Battalions , which had large numbers of personnel drawn from the agricultural sector , were well below their authorised establishments , and so it was decided that they would be merged to form a complete battalion .
= = = Merauke = = =
Assigned to the 11th Brigade , 3rd Division , in May the newly formed battalion undertook amphibious training and intensive physical activities such as route marches around Yorkeys Knob , Queensland , in preparation for deployment overseas . In June – July 1943 , under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Geoffrey Brock , the battalion was deployed to Merauke , in Dutch New Guinea as part of Merauke Force . They departed from Cairns on board the TSS Canberra on 20 June , arriving at Thursday Island on 24 June . From there they were transferred to Horn Island before boarding the MV Van de Ljin and arriving at Merauke on 16 July 1943 .
From July 1943 until August 1944 the battalion undertook long range patrols in the surrounding area and established outposts along the coast to the north @-@ west . During this time the patrols from the 31st / 51st were involved in two major actions against the Japanese . The first came on 22 December 1943 near Japero , when a small patrol of nine men on board the Rosemary , a small diesel trawler , surprised a Japanese patrol consisting of two 40 @-@ foot ( 12 m ) barges . In the fighting that followed , between 20 to 30 Japanese were killed for the loss of one Australian killed and five wounded . The second action came on 30 January 1944 when a waterborne force of about 200 Japanese was contacted and engaged by a 14 @-@ man detachment at an outpost near the start of the Eilanden River , about 250 miles ( 400 km ) from Merauke . Anchoring about 150 yards ( 140 m ) from the outpost , the Japanese were engaged with fire from Bren light machine @-@ guns , small arms and anti @-@ tank rifles . Initially taken by surprise , the Japanese lost about men 60 killed before withdrawing about 400 yards ( 370 m ) out to sea and engaging the outpost with heavy machine @-@ guns and mortars . Nevertheless , only three Australians were slightly injured as a result of the contact , receiving burns to their hands from their overheated Bren guns .
On 24 July 1944 , the battalion was gazetted as an Australian Imperial Force unit , meaning that it could be sent outside of the bounds imposed upon Militia units as set out in the Defence Act ( 1903 ) . Shortly afterwards , they received orders that they would be withdrawn back to Australia in preparation for employment in combat elsewhere in the Pacific theatre . In early August 1944 , Lieutenant Colonel Philip Parbury took over command of the battalion , relieving Major Bernard Callinan who had been acting in the role after Brock was taken ill and later died in December 1943 . On 8 August the battalion embarked to return to Australia . Upon arrival , the men were given a brief period of leave before the battalion concentrated at Strathpine , Queensland , where they received reinforcements and undertook further training . They remained there for four months before departing for Bougainville on 6 December 1944 , under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Joseph Kelly .
= = = Bougainville = = =
The 31st / 51st Battalion arrived at Torokina on Bougainville four days later and , along with the rest of the 11th Brigade , they began an offensive campaign which saw them involved in heavy combat with the Japanese . They were committed to the fighting in three periods . The first , between December 1944 and February 1945 , saw the battalion take Tsimba Ridge , cross the Genga River and capture Downs Ridge . Later , in March and April 1945 , they undertook long range patrols in the central sector of the island in the vicinity of the Numa Numa Trail . Their final commitment came between May and July 1945 when the battalion was switched to the northern sector , where they took part in the fighting around the Bonis Peninsula . As a part of this phase , the battalion fought along the Ratsua front and undertook a disastrous amphibious landing at Porton Plantation .
Conceived as a company @-@ level effort to outflank the significant Japanese defences that were holding up the advance from Ratsua , the operation was plagued by poor planning , inadequate resources , intelligence failures and strategic and tactical errors at all levels . After landing at the wrong beach on 8 June , and finding themselves caught in a tight box of Japanese defensive positions , the 190 men from ' A ' and ' C ' Companies , under Captain Henry Downs , were unable to advance inland . One of the landing craft ran aground and supplies began to dwindle . In an effort to link up with the beleaguered company , ' D ' Company , which was holding the line along the Ratsua front , attempted to breakthrough the Japanese lines . Although some patrols were able to penetrate to within 500 yards ( 460 m ) of Porton , they were unable to get any closer .
Eventually the order to withdraw was given from 11th Brigade headquarters . During the subsequent evacuation , two more landing craft ran aground and although one managed to float free , the other remained stuck hard on a reef . Over the course of the next couple of days , the men in the landing craft were subjected to heavy Japanese attack and it was not until 11 June that rescue efforts were completed . The battalion lost 23 men killed or missing , presumed dead , while a further 106 were wounded in the operation .
Following the failure of the landing at Porton Plantation , the planned Australian advance into the Bonis Peninsula was called off , and the Australians focused their main effort on Bougainville towards the capture of Buin in the south . The effort in the north was reduced to that of a holding action as further resources were transferred out of the sector . Nevertheless , the 31st / 51st Battalion continued to undertake patrols along the Ratsua front , during which they suffered further casualties , until they were withdrawn from combat operations on 28 June . They were subsequently moved back to Torokina .
= = = Disbandment = = =
Following the cessation of hostilities on 15 August 1945 , the battalion undertook garrison duties on Nauru and Ocean Island . In this role they helped to maintain law and order and investigate war crimes , oversaw the transfer of over 4 @,@ 000 Japanese prisoners of war to Bougainville and maintained a military administration until 1 November 1945 when civil control was re @-@ established . A short time later , the detachment on Ocean Island was withdrawn back to Nauru .
In December 1945 , most of the battalion ( except one platoon ) was withdrawn to New Britain to rejoin the 11th Brigade . In February 1946 , the platoon that had remained on Nauru arrived in Rabaul . As the demobilisation process began , the 31st / 51st stayed on New Britain until May when they received orders to return to Australia . On 15 April Lieutenant Colonel Donald Lamb took over as battalion commander . As personnel were discharged or transferred to other units for further service , the battalion 's numbers declined until eventually , on 4 July 1946 , the battalion was disbanded .
Throughout the course of the war , the 31st / 51st Battalion lost 61 men killed and 168 wounded . The majority of these came during the fighting on Bougainville where 41 men were killed in action , seven were posted as missing in action ( presumed killed ) and 12 died of wounds . Members of the battalion received the following decorations : one Distinguished Service Order , one Distinguished Conduct Medal , three Military Crosses , 10 Military Medals , one British Empire Medal and 27 Mentions in Despatches .
Both the 31st and 51st Battalions were later re @-@ raised as separate units when Australia 's part @-@ time military was re @-@ raised in 1948 under the guise of the Citizen Military Forces . Later , they became company @-@ level formations of the Pentropic 2nd Battalion , Royal Queensland Regiment , in 1960 . A further re @-@ organisation saw the units split again in 1965 and re @-@ raised as battalion @-@ level formations under their old numerical designations . They have remained separate since then .
= = Battle honours = =
For their involvement in World War II , the 31st / 51st Battalion received the following battle honours :
Tsimba Ridge , Bonis – Porton , South @-@ West Pacific 1943 – 45 , Liberation of Australian New Guinea .
= = Commanding officers = =
The following officers served as commanding officer of the 31st / 51st Battalion :
Lieutenant Colonel Geoffrey Brock ( 1943 ) ;
Lieutenant Colonel Philip Parbury ( 1944 ) ;
Lieutenant Colonel Joseph Kelly ( 1944 – 1946 ) ;
Lieutenant Colonel Donald Lamb ( 1946 ) .
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= Briton @-@ class corvette =
The Briton class was a group of three wooden screw corvettes built for the Royal Navy in the late 1860s . All three ships of the class only served overseas during their brief service lives . Between them , they were assigned to the China , East Indies , African , North American , and the Pacific Stations . All three were regarded as obsolete 15 years after they were completed , and they were sold in 1886 – 87 .
= = Design and description = =
The Briton @-@ class corvettes were designed by Sir Edward Reed , the Director of Naval Construction , as lengthened versions of the Eclipse @-@ class sloops . Like the smaller ships , they had a ram @-@ style bow to reduce weight forward by elimination of the knee above the stem . Similarly , he shortened the counter at the stern to save weight .
The ships were 220 feet ( 67 @.@ 1 m ) long between perpendiculars and had a beam of 36 feet ( 11 @.@ 0 m ) . Forward , the ships had a draught of 12 feet 9 inches ( 3 @.@ 9 m ) , but aft they drew 16 ft 3 in ( 5 @.@ 0 m ) . They displaced from 1 @,@ 730 to 1 @,@ 860 long tons ( 1 @,@ 760 to 1 @,@ 890 t ) and had a burthen of 1 @,@ 322 tons . The hull was built entirely from wood except for iron crossbeams . Their crew consisted of 220 officers and enlisted men .
Two different types of engines and boilers were used with this class . HMS Druid , the first ship completed , had a two @-@ cylinder horizontal steam engine driving a single 15 @-@ foot ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) propeller . Four rectangular boilers provided steam to the engine at a working pressure of 30 psi ( 207 kPa ; 2 kgf / cm2 ) . The engine produced a total of 2 @,@ 272 indicated horsepower ( 1 @,@ 694 kW ) which gave her a maximum speed of about 13 @.@ 066 knots ( 24 @.@ 198 km / h ; 15 @.@ 036 mph ) during sea trials . In contrast , the two later ships had a two @-@ cylinder horizontal compound expansion steam engine , driving a single 15 @-@ foot or 14 @-@ foot @-@ 9 @-@ inch ( 4 @.@ 50 m ) propeller . Six cylindrical boilers provided steam to the engines at a working pressure of 60 – 64 psi ( 414 – 441 kPa ; 4 – 4 kgf / cm2 ) . The engines produced between 2 @,@ 149 and 2 @,@ 275 indicated horsepower ( 1 @,@ 603 and 1 @,@ 696 kW ) which gave the two ships a maximum speed over 13 knots ( 24 km / h ; 15 mph ) . Briton and Thetis carried 255 long tons ( 259 t ) of coal , while Druid carried an additional 30 long tons ( 30 t ) . Although no information is available on their range , Admiral G. A. Ballard estimated that Druid had only about two @-@ thirds the range of her sisters , despite the additional coal that she carried , due to the greater efficiency of the compound expansion engines .
The class was ship rigged and had a sail area of 15 @,@ 000 square feet ( 1 @,@ 394 m2 ) . The lower masts were made of iron , but the other masts were wood . The ships were poor sailors and their best speed under sail alone was about 11 knots ( 20 km / h ; 13 mph ) . Ballard attributed their poor performance under sail to the drag of the propeller , which could neither be hoisted out of the water , nor feathered . He also attributed their sluggish steering under sail to interference with the flow of water to the rudder by the fixed propeller . The first two ships were re @-@ rigged as barques after their first commission .
The first two ships were initially armed with a mix of 7 @-@ inch and 64 @-@ pounder 71 cwt rifled muzzle @-@ loading guns . The eight 64 @-@ pounder guns were mounted on the broadside while the two 7 @-@ inch ( 178 mm ) guns were mounted on the forecastle and poop as chase guns . The 16 @-@ calibre 7 @-@ inch gun weighed 6 @.@ 5 long tons ( 6 @.@ 6 t ) and fired a 112 @-@ pound ( 50 @.@ 8 kg ) shell . It was credited with the nominal ability to penetrate 7 @.@ 7 @-@ inch ( 196 mm ) armour . After the completion of their first commissions , the two ships were rearmed with a total of fourteen lighter 64 @-@ cwt 64 @-@ pounder guns , two of which replaced the 7 @-@ inch guns as chase guns . Thetis , the last ship completed , was given this armament from the beginning .
= = Ships = =
Druid was the last ship to be built at Deptford Dockyard . The ship was initially assigned to the Cape of Good Hope Station , where she remained for two years before being transferred to the North America and West Indies Station . Druid was refitted upon her return home in December 1876 , which included rearmament . The ship recommissioned in February 1879 and returned to the North American Station . She returned home in September 1882 and was paid off . Druid was laid up in the Medway until she was sold for scrap in 1886 .
Briton was the first of the trio to be commissioned and was assigned to the East Indies Station in 1871 . She remained there for four and a half years , mostly engaged on the suppression of the slave trade . The ship was refitted and rearmed upon her return home and Briton remained in reserve until recommissioned in 1881 for service on the Cape Station . She was transferred back to the East Indies after two years on the Cape . Her crew was relieved in 1884 by another sent out from Britain and the ship remained on station until she was sold , less her armament , in Bombay in 1887 .
The construction of Thetis followed her sisters after a two @-@ year delay and she was initially assigned to the China Station in 1873 . She was transferred to the East Indies after a year on station and returned home in 1877 where she was refitted . Two years later , the ship was assigned to the Pacific Station until she was ordered home in 1883 . Thetis was paid off after her arrival and was sold in 1887 .
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= Enamorada de Ti =
Enamorada de Ti ( English : In Love with You ) is the second remix album by American Tejano singer Selena . It was released posthumously on 3 April 2012 through Capitol Latin and Q @-@ Productions . Enamorada de Ti was produced by Sergio Lopes , Leslie Ahrens , Andres Castro , Moggie Canazio , Cesar Lemons and Chilean record producer Humberto Gatica . Gatica had the idea of modernizing songs recorded by Selena into today 's popular music genres . Selena 's family had already been working on a similar idea , but they set it aside in favor of Enamorada de Ti , which had gained the approval of Capitol Latin . The selection of artists to sing duets with Selena began in late summer 2011 . Gatica and Selena 's family chose American singer and actress Selena Gomez , Puerto Rican singer Don Omar , Samuel " Samo " Parra from the Mexican rock band Camila , Mexican singer Cristian Castro , Spanish DJ mixer Juan Magan , and the Carlos Santana band , while the remaining songs selected were remixed .
Recording sessions began shortly after the selected artists had been chosen . Once Selena 's family released confirmation of a duets album in January 2012 , it quickly caught media attention . Gomez used her Twitter account to promote the album 's release , a move that Gatica praised . Castro and Samo performed their respective duets from the album during the 2012 Latin Billboard Music Awards . The duet version of " Amor Prohibido " was released digitally on iTunes on 7 February 2012 . It peaked at number eight on the US Billboard Latin Pop Airplay chart . Other songs on the album , including the title track ( duet with Magan ) , " Como la Flor " ( duet with Castro ) , " Bidi Bidi Bom Bom " ( duet with Gomez ) , and " Fotos y Recuerdos " ( duet with Omar ) , entered the Billboard Latin digital charts for the first time since their original release in the 1990s .
Enamorada de Ti debuted and peaked at number one on the US Billboard Top Latin Albums and Latin Pop Albums charts . It remained at number one on the latter for two consecutive weeks . After debuting and peaking at number 135 on the Billboard 200 chart , the recording slipped off the chart and never returned , as sales declined . Enamorada de Ti peaked at number 56 on the Mexican Albums Chart . The album received a mixed response from music critics , many of whom preferred the original recordings . Carlos Quintana of About.com named Enamorada de Ti one of the " Best Latin Music Albums of the Year , So Far " and one of the " Most Popular Albums of the Year " in 2012 .
= = Quintanilla family project = =
In 2008 , Selena 's brother and former principal record producer A.B. Quintanilla III , known as A.B. , was planning to quit music and leave the Kumbia All @-@ Starz , the successor of Kumbia Kings . Their father and manager , Abraham Quintanilla , Jr . , told A.B. that he did not want him to quit music , saying that his dream was that his children would continue in the music industry and never give up . In 2009 , after performing to an enthusiastic crowd in Bolivia , A.B. decided to continue recording music .
A.B. and Abraham then planned to release an album featuring Selena , who was murdered in 1995 by her " friend " and ex @-@ employee Yolanda Saldivar . Their aim was to update Selena 's music for the modern music industry . They intended to take vocals from five previously unreleased songs that Selena had recorded before signing a recording contract with Capitol Latin ( then EMI Latin ) in 1989 . The vocals would then be combined into new songs to create a full @-@ length album , as if Selena were still alive .
They announced their forthcoming project in the Spanish media , stating that they were choosing ten songs for the album and that it would be released in the fall of 2011 or early in 2012 . In the end they created several more songs than they had planned . When asked if the album might be released in March 2012 , marking the 17th anniversary of Selena 's death , Abraham said that it was a possibility . Many media outlets called it a remix album . Abraham told the press that it would be released in five volumes , with ten tracks on each .
The projected album was to include five previously unreleased a cappella songs , which were remastered and remixed . Some of the songs in the album were to be duets with Tejano artists , who donated their time to record new tracks featuring Selena . The song " Soy Amiga " ( " I 'm A Friend " ) , which first appeared in 1986 on Selena 's third LP record , Alpha , was transformed from a Spanish ballad into a modern cumbia recording . The album 's central themes would be Abraham 's influence on his children 's love of music , and bringing Selena 's music " back to life " . Abraham began negotiating with Capitol Latin to help distribute and market the album throughout the United States .
= = Production = =
In the fall of 2011 , Chilean record producer Humberto Gatica and Capitol Latin senior vice president Sergio Lopes had the idea of turning Selena 's songs into duets in popular music genres . In contrast to the Quintanilla family project , which had been using only Tejano artists , Gatica and Lopes wanted a diverse group . Forty @-@ six artists and eight producers showed an interest in working on the project , and Gatica held a press conference with the Quintanilla family for their input . Abraham chose Selena Gomez to record " Bidi Bidi Bom Bom " because of her live cover of the song during several of her concerts . Selena 's sister Suzette Quintanilla , formerly drummer of Selena y Los Dinos , chose Samuel " Samo " Parra from the Mexican band Camila , saying that she chose him because she was a huge fan of Camila . Puerto Rican reggaeton singer Don Omar , Mexican singer Christian Castro , Spanish DJ mixer Juan Magan , and the Carlos Santana band were chosen by Capitol Latin . Other artists , such as Cuban American rapper Pitbull , Mexican singers Paulina Rubio and Thalía , Colombian singer Carlos Vives , and Cuban singer Gloria Estefan , were rejected for unspecified reasons , and many other artists could not part take in the project because of scheduling conflicts .
After meeting with the Quintanilla family , Lopes observed young fans at the Selena Museum in Corpus Christi , Texas , and their crying became his inspiration for the album . During pre @-@ production , Lopes extracted Selena 's vocals from studio recordings and created a " live album " version using other musicians , such as English singer @-@ songwriter Sting , Mexican guitarist Carlos Santana , American blues rock singer John Mayer , and Puerto Rican singer Luis Miguel . Recording sessions took place in ten different recording studios : Artco Recording Studios in Mexico ; East West Recording Studios in Los Angeles ; Miami Beat Studios in Miami ; Move Studios in Los Angeles ; NRG Studios in Los Angeles ; Ocean Way Recording Studios in Los Angeles ; On the Groove Studios in Miami ; Saai Studios in Miami ; The Village Studios in Los Angeles ; and Vanquish Studios in Davie , Florida .
= = Songs = =
Samo , who sang in " Amor Prohibido " , told the Ecuadoran newspaper El Telégrafo that he had always dreamed of recording a duet with Selena and that " Amor Prohibido " was one of his favorite songs . He said he felt the " presence of Selena " as soon as he put his headphones on and began recording . Joey Guerra of the San Antonio Express @-@ News believed that the lead single " proved a solid preview for the album " and that its " wistful lyrics work nicely as a duet with Samo " . Guerra described the song as a " gentle pop @-@ rock arrangement " and felt that this arrangement might have been how it was intended . Nilan Lovelace of Reporter Magazine called the remix version of " Amor Prohibido " an " album favorite " and believed it to be the type of music that Selena would be recording today .
The duet with Gomez in " Bidi Bidi Bom Bom " had a mixed reception . The Belfast Telegraph wrote that Gomez had done an " amazing job " . At the Billboard Latin Music Awards in Miami , A.B. told E ! that Gomez gave a " fantastic vocal performance on the record " . Gomez told JustJared.com , " I was completely honored when they asked me to be on the tribute CD and when I went into the studio to record they actually had her vocals in the booth that she was in , so I felt like she was singing right next to me , it gave me chills ! It was incredible and it was a great experience and it was a great song . " Domingo Banda of the Semana News called " Bidi Bidi Bom Bom " a " standout track " . Guerra , however , wrote that the new version of " Bidi Bidi Bom Bom " was " virtually the same arrangement as the original . It would have been more effective reshaped as a poppy club track . " He found Gomez ' vocals " curiously lackluster " , as if she was " scared of the song " and " intimidated by her idol " . Lovelace commented that it was " obvious that Spanish isn 't Gomez ' first language , and comes in a distant second " , and that " Gomez ' odd voice " came across as sometimes " much higher and very squeaky when speaking Spanish " , concluding that it " doesn ’ t match the rest of the song and momentarily brings everything to a halt " .
Guerra wrote that the remix of " No Me Queda Más " , which includes a classical piano in its introduction , " is given a soft piano arrangement that highlights [ Selena 's ] rich , throaty delivery but ultimately pales compared to the original " . Guerra noted that Suzette 's vocals had been removed from " Tus Desprecios " and thought that the new , " somber arrangement " failed to complement the " sassy " lyrics . Banda praised the recording 's use of choirs and piano and the way the rhythm of the " Tus Desprecius " remix complemented Selena 's voice .
Banda liked Christian Castro 's interpretation of " Como la Flor " in his duet , as did Carlos Quintana from About.com , who also admired its " bolero @-@ ranchero " arrangements . Guerra described " Como La Flor " as " an elegant mariachi pairing " , praising Castro 's blending and rhythm but finding the duet less emotionally powerful than the original . Lovelace gave a negative assessment of " Como La Flor " , believing Castro to be a poor choice for it .
Enrique Lopetegui of the San Antonio Current described " Fotos y Recuerdos " as a " reggaeton @-@ ish " remix . Guerra saw it as " stuck in a battle between cumbia and reggaeton rhythms " , noticing a slightly faster tempo . He wrote that " Ya No " " exhibits some punch " , but he preferred the original to the new , " Santana @-@ esque " version . Quintana praised the electric guitar of " Ya No " and its " tropical beat " in the background . Banda commented that the track blended Tejano cumbia and electronic sounds , and he praised its new guitar chords . In " Techno Cumbia 2012 " , Guerra liked the " playful guitar " but found nothing else praiseworthy . He found the interpretation of " El Chico del Apartamento 512 " acceptable but lacking in force , and suggested that Gomez might have fared better on this track . Banda called " El Chico del Apartamento 512 " a " relaxed reggae " track .
The title track , " Enamorada de Ti " , received a favorable review from Guerra , who believed that its merengue version " manages to work up a considerable sweat " . Calling it a " tropical rhythm " , Banda noted that it is the earliest @-@ recorded track on the album . Lopetegui considered it " crowd @-@ pleasing " . Lovelace thought it " enjoyable " , saying that the merengue mix version " adds a lively , tropical tone to the original slow tempo love song " , but he added that it " seems awkwardly paired when it comes to collaborating artists , who often clash with Selena 's voice and the overall sound " . Of the acoustic bonus tracks , Guerra wrote that they are " unlikely highlights , the new instrumentation gives them all a nice edge and highlights Selena 's burgeoning vocal prowess " . Banda was more positive , listing them as recommended tracks that he found to be reminiscent of live Selena recordings .
= = Release = =
Latina magazine released a snippet of the acoustic track of " Cobarde " on 30 March 2012 . Enamorada de Ti was released on 3 April 2012 through Capitol Latin and Q @-@ Productions . A deluxe edition of the album was released through Wal @-@ Mart on the same day , with three additional acoustic tracks . On iTunes , the Juan Magan remix of " Is It the Beat ? " was added as a bonus track . Verizon Wireless made an acoustic version of " Amor Prohibido " available as a ringtone .
The album debuted at number one on the US Top Latin Albums and Latin Pop Albums charts . It debuted and peaked at number 135 on Billboard 200 and at number 117 on the Billboard Comprehensive Albums chart . It was number one on the Latin Pop Albums chart for two consecutive weeks . On the week ending 8 April 2012 , it peaked at number 57 on Top 100 Mexico . It knocked Ednita Nazario 's Desnuda ( 2012 ) off the top of both Top Latin Albums and Latin Pop Albums . Carlos Quintana of About.com named Enamorada de Ti one of the " Best Latin Music Albums of the Year , So Far " and one of the " Most Popular Albums of the Year " in 2012 . The album was the 65th best @-@ selling Latin album of 2012 , and the 19th best @-@ selling Latin pop album of 2012 .
The lead single , " Amor Prohibido " , was released digitally on 28 February 2012 . It peaked at number 39 on the Latin Tropical Airplay chart , number 23 on Hot Latin Tracks , number 8 on Latin Pop Songs , and number 8 on Latin Regional Mexican Digital Songs . It also reached singles music charts in Colombia , Ecuador , Venezuela and Peru . The second single to be released digitally was the duet version of " Como La Flor " , with Christian Castro . It was released in Colombia on 14 August 2012 .
Because of the commercial success of Enamorada de Ti , Capitol Latin confirmed a trilogy of Selena remix / duet albums . In May 2012 , Capitol Latin confirmed an English @-@ language followup . By February 2012 , Canadian singer Michael Bublé was confirmed as one of many other artists who expressed interest in recording a duet with Selena . In late August 2012 , fans were asked to fill out a survey from the official Selena Facebook page , inviting them to choose three Latin singers and three non @-@ Latin singers they would like to see recording a duet with Selena on the follow @-@ up album . Guerra suggested La Mafia 's Oscar de la Rosa , Jennifer Lopez , Blake Shelton , Drake , Bruno Mars and Beyoncé Knowles .
= = Promotion = =
Several music and talk shows , including E ! , the Cristina Show , Sábado Gigante , El Gordo y la Flaca and Acceso Total , competed in releasing the news to their viewers . Gomez earned praise from Gatica by using her Twitter account to tell her fans about the album 's release . Castro and Samo performed their respective duets from the album during the 2012 Latin Billboard Music Awards . Quintana of About.com wrote , " they delivered one of the most touching performances of the night with the songs ' Como La Flor ' and ' Amor Prohibido ' " . Capitol Latin created a website to promote the album .
= = Critical reception = =
Enamorada de Ti received mixed reviews . A writer for Semana News called the duets " unique collaborations " . Domingo Banda , also writing for Semana News , said that Selena 's voice sounded very much alive and vibrant again . Enrique Lopetegui of the San Antonio Current wrote that diehard Selena fans " will take the new pop duet of ' Amor Prohibido ' with Camila 's Samo over the cheesy cumbia original anytime " . Lopetegui described " Cobarde " , " Si Una Vez " , and " No Quiero Saber " as " unplugged " because of their " superb acoustic guitar [ s ] " . Furthermore , Lopetegui complimented the technology used in the album to " change the tempo of Selena 's original track without changing the pitch , and her duet with Christian Castro is proof of technology put to good use " . He found " Fotos y Recuerdos " and the title track " unbearable " , however , and advised his readers to be prepared to skip them .
Stephen Thomas Erlewine from AllMusic wrote that Enamorada de Ti gave a good idea of how Selena might have sounded in 2012 . Erlewine commented that " Amor Prohibido " , as updated for the album , " ha [ d ] much of its overly stiff drum machines stripped away , replaced with warmer studio musicians " . Far from making Selena sound contemporary , he thought that all the remixed songs " are rooted in the ' 90s and sound that way " , even if " fresher " than many other posthumous Selena releases . Guerra wrote that Enamorada de Ti included " reworked gems " , but he believed that it felt rushed and dated . Unlike the remixes , he found the originals " still fresh almost two decades later " . He disapproved of the acoustic and the slowing down of the music 's arrangements . Guerra concluded that Selena 's legacy " deserves better than this half @-@ hearted attempt " , and that better duet partners and producers ( he named René Pérez Joglar from Calle 13 , RedOne , Ximena Sariñana , and Cachorro López ) could have made Enamorada de Ti " a fascinating tribute to Selena " .
Quintana from About.com believed the duets on Enamorada de Ti underlined the " timeless appeal " of Selena 's music . He observed that the album is musically diverse , with examples of bolero ( " No Me Queda Mas " ) , ranchera ( " Como La Flor " ) , cumbia ( " Techno Cumbia " ) , reggaeton ( " Fotos y Recuerdo " ) , Latin pop ( " Amor Prohibido " ) and merengue ( " Enamorada de Ti " ) . Quintana was unsurprised by the excitement of Selena fans , calling Enamorada de Ti a " very experimental project " that " introduces a new sound to the music [ of Selena ] " . He concluded that the experiment was worthwhile and that the album is a good introduction to Selena 's repertoire . Lovelace of Reporter Magazine found Gomez ' " awkward " and " squeaky " voice unsuitable and believed that Castro was not the right choice for " Como La Flor " . " If you 're new to Spanish @-@ speaking music , " he wrote , " you 'll enjoy the mixes . If not , avoid them at all cost . " Then , however , he judged all the songs except " Como La Flor " , " Bidi Bidi Bom Bom " , and the title track to be " excellent ... catchy and appropriate 2012 @-@ spin " . Sugey Palomares of Latina called Enamorada de Ti a " groundbreaking and emotional musical project " .
= = Track listing = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits are taken from the album 's liner notes .
Instruments
Technical and production
= = Chart positions = =
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= Paul McCartney =
Sir James Paul McCartney , MBE ( born 18 June 1942 ) is an English singer @-@ songwriter , multi @-@ instrumentalist , and composer . With John Lennon , George Harrison , and Ringo Starr , he gained worldwide fame with the rock band the Beatles , one of the most popular and influential groups in the history of pop music . His songwriting partnership with Lennon is one of the most celebrated of the 20th century . After the band 's break @-@ up , he pursued a solo career and formed Wings with his first wife , Linda , and Denny Laine .
McCartney has been recognised as one of the most successful composers and performers of all time . More than 2 @,@ 200 artists have covered his Beatles song " Yesterday " , more than any other copyrighted song in history . Wings ' 1977 release " Mull of Kintyre " is one of the all @-@ time best @-@ selling singles in the UK . A two @-@ time inductee into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame ( as a member of the Beatles in 1988 , and as a solo artist in 1999 ) , and a 21 @-@ time Grammy Award winner , McCartney has written , or co @-@ written , 32 songs that have reached number one on the Billboard Hot 100 , and as of 2009 he has 25 @.@ 5 million RIAA @-@ certified units in the United States . McCartney , Lennon , Harrison and Starr received MBEs in 1965 , and in 1997 , McCartney was knighted for services to music .
McCartney has released an extensive catalogue of songs as a solo artist and has composed classical and electronic music . He has taken part in projects to promote international charities related to such subjects as animal rights , seal hunting , land mines , vegetarianism , poverty , and music education . He has married three times and is the father of five children .
= = Early life = =
James Paul McCartney was born on 18 June 1942 in Walton Hospital , Liverpool , England , where his mother , Mary Patricia ( née Mohin ; 1909 – 1956 ) , had qualified to practise as a nurse . His father , James ( " Jim " ) McCartney ( 1902 – 1976 ) , was absent from his son 's birth due to his work as a volunteer firefighter during World War II . Paul has one younger brother , Michael ( born 7 January 1944 ) . Though the children were baptised in their mother 's Catholic faith , their father was a former Protestant turned agnostic , and religion was not emphasised in the household .
McCartney attended Stockton Wood Road Primary School in Speke from 1947 until 1949 , when he transferred to Joseph Williams Junior School in Belle Vale because of overcrowding at Stockton . In 1953 , with only three others out of ninety examinees , he passed the 11 @-@ Plus exam , meaning he could attend the Liverpool Institute , a grammar school rather than a secondary modern school . In 1954 , he met schoolmate George Harrison on the bus from his suburban home in Speke . The two quickly became friends ; McCartney later admitted : " I tended to talk down to him because he was a year younger . "
McCartney 's mother Mary was a midwife and the family 's primary wage earner ; her earnings enabled them to move into 20 Forthlin Road in Allerton , where they lived until 1964 . She rode a bicycle to her patients ; McCartney described an early memory of her leaving at " about three in the morning [ the ] streets ... thick with snow " . On 31 October 1956 , when McCartney was fourteen , his mother died of an embolism . McCartney 's loss later became a point of connection with John Lennon , whose mother , Julia , had died when he was seventeen .
McCartney 's father was a trumpet player and pianist , who had led Jim Mac 's Jazz Band in the 1920s . He kept an upright piano in the front room , encouraged his sons to be musical and advised Paul to take piano lessons , but Paul preferred to learn by ear . He gave Paul a nickel @-@ plated trumpet for his fourteenth birthday , but when rock and roll became popular on Radio Luxembourg , McCartney traded it for a £ 15 Framus Zenith ( model 17 ) acoustic guitar , since he wanted to be able to sing while playing . He found it difficult to play guitar right @-@ handed , but after noticing a poster advertising a Slim Whitman concert and realising that Whitman played left @-@ handed , he reversed the order of the strings . McCartney wrote his first song , " I Lost My Little Girl " , on the Zenith , and composed another early tune that would become " When I 'm Sixty @-@ Four " on the piano . American rhythm and blues influenced him , and Little Richard was his schoolboy idol ; " Long Tall Sally " was the first song McCartney performed in public , at a Butlins holiday camp talent competition .
= = Career = =
= = = 1957 – 60 : The Quarrymen = = =
At the age of fifteen , McCartney met Lennon and his band , the Quarrymen , at the St Peter 's Church Hall fête in Woolton on 6 July 1957 . The Quarrymen played a mix of rock and roll and skiffle , a type of popular music with jazz , blues and folk influences . The band invited McCartney to join soon afterwards as a rhythm guitarist , and he formed a close working relationship with Lennon . Harrison joined in 1958 as lead guitarist , followed by Lennon 's art school friend Stuart Sutcliffe on bass , in 1960 . By May 1960 the band had tried several names , including Beatals , Johnny and the Moondogs and the Silver Beetles . They adopted the name the Beatles in August 1960 and recruited drummer Pete Best shortly before a five @-@ engagement residency in Hamburg .
= = = 1960 – 70 : The Beatles = = =
Informally represented by Allan Williams , the Beatles ' first booking was for a residency in Hamburg , starting in 1960 . In 1961 , Sutcliffe left the band and McCartney reluctantly became their bass player . They recorded professionally for the first time while in Hamburg , credited as the Beat Brothers , as the backing band for English singer Tony Sheridan on the single " My Bonnie " . This brought them to the attention of Brian Epstein , a key figure in their subsequent development and success . He became their manager in January 1962 . Ringo Starr replaced Best in August , and the band had their first hit , " Love Me Do " , in October , becoming popular in the UK in 1963 , and in the US a year later . Their fans ' hysteria became known as " Beatlemania " , and the press sometimes referred to McCartney as the " cute Beatle " .
In August 1965 , the Beatles released the McCartney composition " Yesterday " , featuring a string quartet . Included on the Help ! LP , the song was the group 's first recorded use of classical music elements and their first recording that involved only a single band member . " Yesterday " became the most covered song in popular music history . Later that year , during recording sessions for the album Rubber Soul , McCartney began to supplant Lennon as the dominant musical force in the band . Musicologist Ian MacDonald wrote , " from [ 1965 ] ... [ McCartney ] would be in the ascendant not only as a songwriter , but also as instrumentalist , arranger , producer , and de facto musical director of the Beatles . " Critics described Rubber Soul as a significant advance in the refinement and profundity of the band 's music and lyrics . Considered a high point in the Beatles catalogue , both Lennon and McCartney said they had written the music for the song " In My Life " . McCartney said of the album , " we 'd had our cute period , and now it was time to expand . " Recording engineer Norman Smith stated that the Rubber Soul sessions exposed indications of increasing contention within the band : " the clash between John and Paul was becoming obvious ... [ and ] as far as Paul was concerned , George [ Harrison ] could do no right — Paul was absolutely finicky . "
In 1966 , the Beatles released the album Revolver . Featuring sophisticated lyrics , studio experimentation , and an expanded repertoire of musical genres ranging from innovative string arrangements to psychedelic rock , the album marked an artistic leap for the Beatles . The first of three consecutive McCartney A @-@ sides , the single " Paperback Writer " preceded the LP 's release . The Beatles produced a short promotional film for the song , and another for its B @-@ side , " Rain " . The films , described by Harrison as " the forerunner of videos " , aired on The Ed Sullivan Show and Top of the Pops in June 1966 . Revolver also included McCartney 's " Eleanor Rigby " , which featured a string octet . According to Gould , the song is " a neoclassical tour de force ... a true hybrid , conforming to no recognizable style or genre of song " . Except for some backing vocals , the song included only McCartney 's lead vocal and the strings arranged by producer George Martin .
The band gave their final commercial concert at the end of their 1966 US tour . Later that year , McCartney completed his first musical project apart from the group — a film score for the UK production The Family Way . The score was a collaboration with Martin , who used two McCartney themes to write thirteen variations . The soundtrack failed to chart , but it won McCartney an Ivor Novello Award for Best Instrumental Theme .
Upon the end of the Beatles ' performing career , McCartney sensed unease in the band and wanted them to maintain creative productivity . He pressed them to start a new project , which became Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band , widely regarded as rock 's first concept album . Inspired to create a new persona for the group , to serve as a vehicle for experimentation and to demonstrate to their fans that they had musically matured , McCartney invented the fictional band of the album 's title track . As McCartney explained , " We were fed up with being the Beatles . We really hated that fucking four little mop @-@ top approach . We were not boys we were men ... and [ we ] thought of ourselves as artists rather than just performers . "
Starting in November 1966 , the band adopted an experimental attitude during recording sessions for the album . According to engineer Geoff Emerick , " the Beatles were looking to go out on a limb , both musically and sonically ... we were utilising a lot of tape varispeeding and other manipulation techniques ... limiters and ... effects like flanging and ADT . " Their recording of " A Day in the Life " required a forty @-@ piece orchestra , which Martin and McCartney took turns conducting . The sessions produced the double A @-@ side single " Strawberry Fields Forever " / " Penny Lane " in February 1967 , and the LP followed in June . McCartney 's " She 's Leaving Home " was an orchestral pop song . MacDonald described the track as " [ among ] the finest work on Sgt. Pepper — imperishable popular art of its time " . Based on an ink drawing by McCartney , the LP 's cover included a collage designed by pop artists Peter Blake and Jann Haworth , featuring the Beatles in costume as the Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band , standing with a host of celebrities . The heavy moustaches worn by the Beatles reflected the growing influence of hippie style trends on the band , while their clothing " spoofed the vogue in Britain for military fashions " , wrote Gould . Scholar David Scott Kastan described Sgt. Pepper as " the most important and influential rock @-@ and @-@ roll album ever recorded " .
Epstein 's death in August 1967 created a void , which left the Beatles perplexed and concerned about their future . McCartney , stepping in to fill that void , gradually became the de facto leader and business manager of the group Lennon had once led . His first creative suggestion after this change of leadership was to propose that the band move forward on their plans to produce a film for television , which was to become Magical Mystery Tour . The project was " an administrative nightmare throughout " , according to Beatles ' historian Mark Lewisohn . McCartney largely directed the film , which brought the group their first unfavourable critical response . However , the film 's soundtrack was more successful . It was released in the UK as a six @-@ track double extended play disc ( EP ) , and as an identically titled LP in the US , filled out with five songs from the band 's recent singles . The only Capitol compilation later included in the group 's official canon of studio albums , the Magical Mystery Tour LP achieved $ 8 million in sales within three weeks of its release , higher initial sales than any other Capitol LP up to that point .
In January 1968 , EMI filmed the Beatles for a promotional trailer intended to advertise the animated film Yellow Submarine , loosely based on the imaginary world evoked by McCartney 's 1966 composition . Though critics admired the film for its visual style , humour and music , the soundtrack album issued seven months later received a less enthusiastic response . By late 1968 , relations within the band were deteriorating . The tension grew during the recording of their self @-@ titled double album , also known as the " White Album " . Matters worsened the following year during the Let It Be sessions , when a camera crew filmed McCartney lecturing the group : " We 've been very negative since Mr. Epstein passed away ... we were always fighting [ his ] discipline a bit , but it 's silly to fight that discipline if it 's our own " .
In March 1969 , McCartney married Linda Eastman , and in August , the couple had their first child , Mary , named after his late mother . For Abbey Road , the band 's last recorded album , Martin suggested " a continuously moving piece of music " , urging the group to think symphonically . McCartney agreed , but Lennon did not . They eventually compromised , agreeing to McCartney 's suggestion : an LP featuring individual songs on side one , and a long medley on side two . In October 1969 , a rumour surfaced that McCartney had died in a car crash in 1966 and been replaced by a lookalike , but this was quickly refuted when a November Life magazine cover featured him and his family , accompanied by the caption " Paul is still with us " .
On 10 April 1970 , in the midst of business disagreements with his bandmates , McCartney announced his departure from the group . He filed suit for the band 's formal dissolution on 31 December 1970 . More legal disputes followed as McCartney 's attorneys , his in @-@ laws John and Lee Eastman , fought Lennon 's , Harrison 's , and Starr 's business manager , Allen Klein , over royalties and creative control . An English court legally dissolved the Beatles on 9 January 1975 , though sporadic lawsuits against their record company EMI , Klein , and each other persisted until 1989 . They are widely regarded as one of the most popular and influential acts in the history of rock music .
Prior to , and for a while after leaving the group , McCartney suffered from a deep depression as a result of the band 's break @-@ up . He spent days in bed and drank excessively : " I nearly had a breakdown , " he said . " I was going crazy . " Biographer Howard Sounes writes that " McCartney sank into whisky @-@ soaked oblivion , [ and ] only Linda knew how to save him . " She helped him pull out of that emotional crisis by praising his work as a songwriter and convincing him to continue writing and recording . In her honor , he later wrote " Maybe I 'm Amazed " , explaining that with the Beatles breaking up , " that was my feeling : Maybe I 'm amazed at what 's going on ... Maybe I 'm a man and maybe you 're the only woman who could ever help me ; Baby won 't you help me understand ... Maybe I 'm amazed at the way you pulled me out of time , hung me on the line , Maybe I 'm amazed at the way I really need you . " He added that " every love song I write is for Linda . "
= = = 1970 – 81 : Wings = = =
After the Beatles ' break @-@ up in 1970 , McCartney continued his musical career with his first solo release , McCartney , a US number @-@ one album . Apart from some vocal contributions from Linda , McCartney is a one @-@ man album , with Paul providing compositions , instrumentation and vocals . In 1971 , he collaborated with Linda and drummer Denny Seiwell on a second album , Ram . A UK number one and a US top five , Ram included the co @-@ written US number @-@ one hit single " Uncle Albert / Admiral Halsey " . Later that year , ex @-@ Moody Blues guitarist Denny Laine joined the McCartneys and Seiwell to form the band Wings . McCartney had this to say on the group 's formation : " Wings were always a difficult idea ... any group having to follow [ the Beatles ' ] success would have a hard job ... I found myself in that very position . However , it was a choice between going on or finishing , and I loved music too much to think of stopping . " In September 1971 , the McCartneys ' daughter Stella was born , named in honour of Linda 's grandmothers , both of whom were named Stella .
Following the addition of guitarist Henry McCullough , Wings ' first concert tour began in 1972 with a debut performance in front of an audience of seven hundred at the University of Nottingham . Ten more gigs followed as they travelled across the UK in a van during an unannounced tour of universities , during which the band stayed in modest accommodation and received pay in coinage collected from students , while avoiding Beatles songs during their performances . A seven @-@ week , 25 @-@ show tour of Europe followed , during which the band played solely Wings and McCartney solo material except for a few covers , including the Little Richard hit " Long Tall Sally " , the only song McCartney played during the tour that had previously been recorded by the Beatles . McCartney wanted the tour to avoid large venues ; most of the small halls they played had capacities of fewer than 3 @,@ 000 people . Of his first two post @-@ Beatles tours , McCartney said , " The main thing I didn 't want was to come on stage , faced with the whole torment of five rows of press people with little pads , all looking at me and saying , ' Oh well , he is not as good as he was . ' So we decided to go out on that university tour which made me less nervous ... by the end of that tour I felt ready for something else , so we went into Europe . "
In March 1973 , Wings achieved their first US number @-@ one single , " My Love " , included on their second LP , Red Rose Speedway , a US number one and UK top five . Paul 's collaboration with Linda and former Beatles producer Martin resulted in the song " Live and Let Die " , which was the theme song for the James Bond film of the same name . Nominated for an Academy Award , the song reached number two in the US and number nine in the UK . It also earned Martin a Grammy for his orchestral arrangement . Music professor and author Vincent Benitez described the track as " symphonic rock at its best " .
After the departure of McCullough and Seiwell in 1973 , the McCartneys and Laine recorded Band on the Run . The album was the first of seven platinum Wings LPs . It was a US and UK number one , the band 's first to top the charts in both countries and the first ever to reach Billboard magazine 's charts on three separate occasions . One of the best @-@ selling releases of the decade , it remained on the UK charts for 124 weeks . Rolling Stone named it Album of the Year for 1974 , and in 1975 it won Grammy Awards for Best Contemporary / Pop Vocal and Best Engineered Album . In 1974 , Wings achieved a second US number @-@ one single with the title track . The album also included the top @-@ ten hits " Jet " and " Helen Wheels " , and earned the 413th spot on Rolling Stone 's list of the 500 Greatest Albums of All Time .
Wings followed Band on the Run with the chart @-@ topping albums Venus and Mars ( 1975 ) and Wings at the Speed of Sound ( 1976 ) . In 1975 , they began the fourteen @-@ month Wings Over the World Tour , which included stops in the UK , Australia , Europe and the US . The tour marked the first time McCartney performed Beatles songs live with Wings , with five in the two @-@ hour set list : " I 've Just Seen a Face " , " Yesterday " , " Blackbird " , " Lady Madonna " and " The Long and Winding Road " . Following the second European leg of the tour and extensive rehearsals in London , the group undertook an ambitious US arena tour that yielded the US number @-@ one live triple LP Wings over America .
In September 1977 , the McCartneys had a third child , a son they named James . In November , the Wings song " Mull of Kintyre " , co @-@ written with Laine , was quickly becoming one of the best @-@ selling singles in UK chart history . The most successful single of McCartney 's solo career , it achieved double the sales of the previous record holder , " She Loves You " , and went on to sell 2 @.@ 5 million copies and hold the UK sales record until the 1984 charity single , " Do They Know It 's Christmas ? "
London Town ( 1978 ) spawned a US number @-@ one single ( " With a Little Luck " ) , and was Wings ' best @-@ selling LP since Band on the Run , making the top five in both the US and the UK . Critical reception was unfavourable , and McCartney expressed disappointment with the album . Back to the Egg ( 1979 ) featured McCartney 's collaboration with a rock supergroup dubbed " the Rockestra " . Credited to Wings , the band included Pete Townshend , David Gilmour , Gary Brooker , John Paul Jones and John Bonham . Though certified platinum , critics panned the album . Wings completed their final concert tour in 1979 , with twenty shows in the UK that included the live debut of the Beatles songs " Got to Get You into My Life " , " The Fool on the Hill " and " Let it Be " .
In 1980 , McCartney released his second solo LP , the self @-@ produced McCartney II , which peaked at number one in the UK and number three in the US . As with his first album , he composed and performed it alone . The album contained the song " Coming Up " , the live version of which , recorded in Glasgow , Scotland , in 1979 by Wings , became the group 's last number @-@ one hit . By 1981 , McCartney felt he had accomplished all he could creatively with Wings and decided he needed a change . The group disbanded in April 1981 following disagreements over royalties and salaries .
= = = 1982 – 90 = = =
In 1982 McCartney collaborated with Stevie Wonder on the Martin @-@ produced number @-@ one hit " Ebony and Ivory " , included on McCartney 's Tug of War LP , and with Michael Jackson on " The Girl Is Mine " from Thriller . " Ebony and Ivory " was McCartney 's record 28th single to hit number one on the Billboard 100 . The following year , he and Jackson worked on " Say Say Say " , McCartney 's most recent US number one as of 2014 . McCartney earned his latest UK number one as of 2014 with the title track of his LP release that year , " Pipes of Peace " .
In 1984 , McCartney starred in the musical Give My Regards to Broad Street , a feature film he also wrote and produced which included Starr in an acting role . Disparaged by critics , Variety described the film as " characterless , bloodless , and pointless " . Roger Ebert awarded it a single star and wrote , " you can safely skip the movie and proceed directly to the soundtrack " . The album fared much better , reaching number one in the UK and producing the US top @-@ ten hit single " No More Lonely Nights " , featuring David Gilmour on lead guitar . In 1985 , Warner Brothers commissioned McCartney to write a song for the comedic feature film Spies Like Us . He composed and recorded the track in four days , with Phil Ramone co @-@ producing . McCartney participated in Live Aid , performing " Let it Be " , but technical difficulties rendered his vocals and piano barely audible for the first two verses , punctuated by squeals of feedback . Equipment technicians resolved the problems and David Bowie , Alison Moyet , Pete Townshend and Bob Geldof joined McCartney on stage , receiving an enthusiastic crowd reaction .
McCartney collaborated with Eric Stewart on Press to Play ( 1986 ) , with Stewart co @-@ writing more than half the songs on the LP . In 1988 , McCartney released Choba B CCCP , released only in the Soviet Union , which contained eighteen covers ; recorded over the course of two days . In 1989 , he joined forces with fellow Merseysiders Gerry Marsden and Holly Johnson to record an updated version of " Ferry Cross the Mersey " , for the Hillsborough disaster appeal fund . That same year , he released Flowers in the Dirt ; a collaborative effort with Elvis Costello that included musical contributions from Gilmour and Nicky Hopkins . McCartney then formed a band consisting of himself and Linda , with Hamish Stuart and Robbie McIntosh on guitars , Paul " Wix " Wickens on keyboards and Chris Whitten on drums . In September 1989 , they launched the Paul McCartney World Tour , his first in over a decade . The following year , he released the triple album , Tripping the Live Fantastic , which contained select performances from the tour . In 1990 , the US publication Amusement Business presented McCartney with an award for the highest grossing show of the year ; his two performances at Berkeley earned over $ 3 @.@ 5 million . He performed for the largest paying stadium audience in history on 21 April 1990 , when 184 @,@ 000 people attended his concert at Maracanã Stadium in Rio de Janeiro , Brazil .
= = = 1991 – 2000 = = =
McCartney ventured into orchestral music in 1991 , when the Royal Liverpool Philharmonic Society commissioned a musical piece by him to celebrate its sesquicentennial . He collaborated with composer Carl Davis , producing Liverpool Oratorio . The performance featured opera singers Kiri Te Kanawa , Sally Burgess , Jerry Hadley and Willard White , with the Royal Liverpool Philharmonic Orchestra and the choir of Liverpool Cathedral . Reviews were negative . The Guardian was especially critical , describing the music as " afraid of anything approaching a fast tempo " , and adding that the piece has " little awareness of the need for recurrent ideas that will bind the work into a whole " . The paper published a letter McCartney submitted in response in which he noted several of the work 's faster tempos and added , " happily , history shows that many good pieces of music were not liked by the critics of the time so I am content to ... let people judge for themselves the merits of the work . " The New York Times was slightly more generous , stating , " There are moments of beauty and pleasure in this dramatic miscellany ... the music 's innocent sincerity makes it difficult to be put off by its ambitions " . Performed around the world after its London premiere , the Liverpool Oratorio reached number one on the UK classical chart , Music Week .
In 1991 , McCartney performed a selection of acoustic @-@ only songs on MTV Unplugged and released a live album of the performance titled Unplugged ( The Official Bootleg ) . During the 1990s , McCartney collaborated twice with Youth of Killing Joke as the musical duo " the Fireman " . The two released their first electronica album together , Strawberries Oceans Ships Forest , in 1993 . McCartney released the rock album Off the Ground in 1993 . The subsequent New World Tour followed , which led to the release of the Paul Is Live album later that year .
Starting in 1994 , McCartney took a four @-@ year break from his solo career to work on Apple 's Beatles Anthology project with Harrison , Starr and Martin . He recorded a radio series called Oobu Joobu in 1995 for the American network Westwood One , which he described as " widescreen radio " . Also in 1995 , Prince Charles presented him with an Honorary Fellowship of the Royal College of Music — " kind of amazing for somebody who doesn 't read a note of music " , commented McCartney .
In 1997 , McCartney released the rock album Flaming Pie . Starr appeared on drums and backing vocals in " Beautiful Night " . Later that year , he released the classical work Standing Stone , which topped the UK and US classical charts . In 1998 , he released Rushes , the second electronica album by the Fireman . In 1999 , McCartney released Run Devil Run . Recorded in one week , and featuring Ian Paice and David Gilmour , it was primarily an album of covers with three McCartney originals . He had been planning such an album for years , having been previously encouraged to do so by Linda , who had died of cancer in April 1998 .
He did an unannounced performance at the benefit tribute , " Concert for Linda , " his wife of 29 years who died a year earlier . It was held at the Royal Albert Hall in London on 10 April 1999 , and was organised by two of her close friends , Chrissie Hynde and Carla Lane . Also during 1999 , he continued his experimentation with orchestral music on Working Classical . In 2000 , he released the electronica album Liverpool Sound Collage with Super Furry Animals and Youth , using the sound collage and musique concrète techniques that had fascinated him in the mid @-@ 1960s . He contributed the song " Nova " to a tribute album of classical , choral music called A Garland for Linda ( 2000 ) , dedicated to his late wife .
= = = 2000 – 10 = = =
Having witnessed the 11 September 2001 attacks from the JFK airport tarmac , McCartney was inspired to take a leading role in organising the Concert for New York City . His studio album release in November that year , Driving Rain , included the song " Freedom " , written in response to the attacks . The following year , McCartney went out on tour with a band that included guitarists Rusty Anderson and Brian Ray , accompanied by Paul " Wix " Wickens on keyboards and Abe Laboriel , Jr. on drums . They began the Driving World Tour in April 2002 , which included stops in the US , Mexico and Japan . The tour resulted in the double live album Back in the US , released internationally in 2003 as Back in the World . The tour earned a reported $ 126 @.@ 2 million , an average of over $ 2 million per night , and Billboard named it the top tour of the year .
In July 2002 , McCartney married Heather Mills . In November , on the first anniversary of George Harrison 's death , McCartney performed at the Concert for George . He participated in the National Football League 's Super Bowl , performing " Freedom " during the pre @-@ game show for Super Bowl XXXVI in 2002 and headlining the halftime show at Super Bowl XXXIX in 2005 . The English College of Arms honoured McCartney in 2002 by granting him a coat of arms . His crest , featuring a Liver bird holding an acoustic guitar in its claw , reflects his background in Liverpool and his musical career . The shield includes four curved emblems which resemble beetles ' backs . The arms ' motto is Ecce Cor Meum , Latin for " Behold My Heart " . In 2003 , the McCartneys had a child , Beatrice Milly .
In July 2005 , he performed at the Live 8 event in Hyde Park , London , opening the show with " Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band " ( with U2 ) and closing it with " Drive My Car " ( with George Michael ) , " Helter Skelter " , and " The Long and Winding Road " . In September , he released the rock album Chaos and Creation in the Backyard , for which he provided most of the instrumentation . In 2006 , McCartney released the classical work Ecce Cor Meum . The rock album Memory Almost Full followed in 2007 . In 2008 , he released his third Fireman album , Electric Arguments . Also in 2008 , he performed at a concert in Liverpool to celebrate the city 's year as European Capital of Culture . In 2009 , after a four @-@ year break , he returned to touring and has since performed over 80 shows . More than forty @-@ five years after the Beatles first appeared on American television during The Ed Sullivan Show , he returned to the same New York theatre to perform on Late Show with David Letterman . On 9 September 2009 , EMI reissued the Beatles catalogue following a four @-@ year digital remastering effort , releasing a music video game called The Beatles : Rock Band the same day .
McCartney 's enduring fame has made him a popular choice to open new venues . In 2009 , he played three sold @-@ out concerts at the newly built Citi Field — a venue constructed to replace Shea Stadium in Queens , New York . These performances yielded the double live album Good Evening New York City later that year . In 2010 , McCartney opened the Consol Energy Center in Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania .
= = = 2011 – present = = =
In July 2011 , McCartney played two sold @-@ out concerts at the new Yankee Stadium . A New York Times review of the first concert reported that McCartney was " not saying goodbye but touring stadiums and playing marathon concerts . " In September 2011 , having been commissioned by the New York City Ballet , McCartney released his first score for dance , a collaboration with Peter Martins called Ocean 's Kingdom . Also in 2011 , McCartney married Nancy Shevell . He released Kisses on the Bottom , a collection of standards , in February 2012 ; that same month the National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences honoured him as the MusiCares Person of the Year , two days prior to his performance at the 54th Grammy Awards .
McCartney remains one of the world 's top draws . He played to over 100 @,@ 000 people total during two performances in Mexico City in May , the shows grossing nearly $ 6 million . In June 2012 , McCartney closed Queen Elizabeth 's Diamond Jubilee Concert held outside Buckingham Palace , performing a set that included " Let It Be " and " Live and Let Die " . He closed the opening ceremony of the 2012 Summer Olympics in London on 27 July , singing " The End " and " Hey Jude " and inviting the audience to join in on the coda . Having donated his time , he received £ 1 from the Olympic organisers .
On 12 December , McCartney performed with three former members of Nirvana ( Krist Novoselic , Dave Grohl , and Pat Smear ) during the closing act of 12 @-@ 12 @-@ 12 : The Concert for Sandy Relief , seen by approximately two billion people worldwide . On 28 August 2013 , McCartney released the title track of his upcoming studio album New , which came out in October 2013 .
A primetime entertainment special celebrating the legacy of seven @-@ time Grammy @-@ winning group the Beatles and their groundbreaking first performance on The Ed Sullivan Show , featuring Paul McCartney and Ringo Starr , was taped 27 January 2014 at the Ed Sullivan Theater with a 9 February 2014 CBS airing . The show , titled The Night That Changed America : A Grammy Salute to The Beatles , featured 22 classic Beatles songs as performed by various artists , including McCartney and Starr .
On 19 May 2014 , it was reported that McCartney had been bedridden by an unspecified virus on doctor 's orders , and had to cancel a sold @-@ out concert tour of Japan scheduled to begin later in the week . The tour would have included a stop at the famed Budokan Hall . McCartney also had to push his June US dates to October , as part of his doctor 's order to take it easy to make a full recovery . However , he resumed the tour with a high @-@ energy three hour appearance in Albany , New York , on 5 July 2014 . On 14 August 2014 , McCartney performed the final concert at Candlestick Park in San Francisco , California before its demolition . It was the same venue that the Beatles played their final concert in 1966 .
In 2014 , McCartney wrote and performed " Hope for the Future , " the ending song for the video game Destiny . In November 2014 , a 42 @-@ song tribute album titled The Art of McCartney was released , which features a wide range of artists covering McCartney 's solo and Beatles work . Also that year , McCartney collaborated with American recording artist Kanye West on the single " Only One " , released on 31 December .
In January 2015 , McCartney collaborated with Kanye West and Barbadian singer Rihanna on the single " FourFiveSeconds " . They released a music video for the song in January and performed it live at the 57th Annual Grammy Awards on 8 February 2015 . McCartney is a featured guest on West 's 2015 single " All Day " , which also features Theophilus London and Allan Kingdom .
On 15 February 2015 , McCartney appeared and performed with Paul Simon for the Saturday Night Live 40th Anniversary Special . McCartney and Simon performed the first verse of " I 've Just Seen a Face " on acoustic guitars , and McCartney later performed " Maybe I 'm Amazed . " McCartney shared lead vocals on the Alice Cooper @-@ led Hollywood Vampires supergroup 's cover of his song " Come and Get It " which appears on their debut album , released 11 September 2015 .
On 31 March 2016 , McCartney announced the upcoming release , on 10 June , of his career @-@ spanning collection Pure McCartney . The set includes songs from throughout McCartney 's solo career and his work with Wings and the Fireman , and will be available in three different formats ( 2 @-@ CD , 4 @-@ CD , 4 @-@ LP and Digital ) . The 4 @-@ CD version will include 67 tracks , the majority of which were top 40 hits .
In 2017 , McCartney will appear in the movie Pirates of the Caribbean : Dead Men Tell No Tales .
= = Musicianship = =
Largely a self @-@ taught musician , McCartney 's approach was described by musicologist Ian MacDonald as " by nature drawn to music 's formal aspects yet wholly untutored ... [ he ] produced technically ' finished ' work almost entirely by instinct , his harmonic judgement based mainly on perfect pitch and an acute pair of ears ... [ A ] natural melodist — a creator of tunes capable of existing apart from their harmony " . McCartney commented , " I prefer to think of my approach to music as ... rather like the primitive cave artists , who drew without training . "
= = = Bass guitar = = =
McCartney 's skill as a bass player has been acknowledged by other bassists , including Sting , Dr. Dre bassist Mike Elizondo , and Colin Moulding of XTC . Best known for primarily using a plectrum or pick , McCartney occasionally plays fingerstyle . He does not use slapping or muting techniques . He was strongly influenced by Motown artists , in particular James Jamerson , who McCartney called a hero for his melodic style . He was also influenced by Brian Wilson , as he commented : " because he went to very unusual places " . Another favourite bassist of his is Stanley Clarke .
During McCartney 's early years with the Beatles , he primarily used a Höfner 500 / 1 bass , though in 1965 , he began sporadically using a Rickenbacker 4001S for recording . While typically using Vox amplifiers , by 1967 he had also begun using a Fender Bassman for amplification . During the late 1980s and early 1990s , he used a Wal 5 @-@ String , which he said made him play more thick @-@ sounding basslines , in contrast to the much lighter Höfner , which inspired him to play more sensitively , something he considers fundamental to his playing style . He changed back to the Höfner around 1990 for that reason . He uses Mesa Boogie bass amplifiers while performing live .
MacDonald identified " She 's a Woman " as the turning point when McCartney 's bass playing began to evolve dramatically , and Beatles biographer Chris Ingham singled out Rubber Soul as the moment when McCartney 's playing exhibited significant progress , particularly on " The Word " . Bacon and Morgan agreed , calling McCartney 's groove on the track " a high point in pop bass playing and ... the first proof on a recording of his serious technical ability on the instrument . " MacDonald inferred the influence of James Brown 's " Papa 's Got a Brand New Bag " and Wilson Pickett 's " In the Midnight Hour " , American soul tracks from which McCartney absorbed elements and drew inspiration as he " delivered his most spontaneous bass @-@ part to date " .
Bacon and Morgan described his bassline for the Beatles song " Rain " as " an astonishing piece of playing ... [ McCartney ] thinking in terms of both rhythm and ' lead bass ' ... [ choosing ] the area of the neck ... he correctly perceives will give him clarity for melody without rendering his sound too thin for groove . " MacDonald considered the track the Beatles ' best B @-@ side , stating that its " clangorously saturated texture resonates around McCartney 's [ bassline ] " , which MacDonald described as " so inventive that it threatens to overwhelm the track " . MacDonald also indicated the influence of Indian classical music in " exotic melismas in the bass part " . McCartney identified Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band as containing his strongest and most inventive bass playing , particularly on " Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds " .
= = = Acoustic guitar = = =
McCartney primarily flatpicks while playing acoustic guitar , though he also uses elements of fingerpicking . Examples of his acoustic guitar playing on Beatles tracks include " Yesterday " , " I 'm Looking Through You " , " Michelle " , " Blackbird " , " I Will " , " Mother Nature 's Son " and " Rocky Raccoon " . McCartney singled out " Blackbird " as a personal favourite and described his technique for the guitar part in the following way : " I got my own little sort of cheating way of [ fingerpicking ] ... I 'm actually sort of pulling two strings at a time ... I was trying to emulate those folk players . " He employed a similar technique for " Jenny Wren " . He played an Epiphone Texan on many of his acoustic recordings , but also used a Martin D @-@ 28 .
= = = Electric guitar = = =
McCartney played lead guitar on several Beatles recordings , including what MacDonald described as a " fiercely angular slide guitar solo " on " Drive My Car " , which McCartney played on an Epiphone Casino . McCartney said of the instrument , " if I had to pick one electric guitar it would be this . " He contributed what MacDonald described as " a startling guitar solo " on the Harrison composition " Taxman " and the " shrieking " guitar on " Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band " and " Helter Skelter " . MacDonald also praised McCartney 's " coruscating pseudo @-@ Indian " guitar solo on " Good Morning Good Morning " . McCartney also played lead guitar on " Another Girl " . While in Wings , McCartney tended to leave electric guitar work to other group members , though he played most of the lead guitar on Band on the Run . In 1990 , when asked who his favourite guitar players were he included Eddie Van Halen , Eric Clapton and David Gilmour , stating , " but I still like Hendrix the best " . He has primarily used a Gibson Les Paul for electric work , particularly during live performances .
= = = Vocals = = =
Often renowned as one of the greatest singers in pop music , McCartney was ranked the 11th greatest singer of all time by The Rolling Stone , voted the 8th greatest singer ever by the NME readers and number 10 by the Music Radar readers in the list of ' the 30 greatest lead singers of all time ' . He is known for his belting power , versatility and wide tenor vocal range , spanning over four octaves . Heavily influenced by Little Richard , McCartney 's vocals would cross several musical genres throughout his career . On " Call Me Back Again " , according to Benitez , " McCartney shines as a bluesy solo vocalist " while MacDonald called " I 'm Down " " a rock @-@ and @-@ roll classic " that " illustrates McCartney 's vocal and stylistic versatility " . MacDonald described " Helter Skelter " as an early attempt at heavy metal , and " Hey Jude " as a " pop / rock hybrid " , pointing out McCartney 's " use of gospel @-@ style melismas " in the song and his " pseudo @-@ soul shrieking in the fade @-@ out " . Benitez identified " Hope of Deliverance " and " Put It There " as examples of McCartney 's folk music efforts while musicologist Walter Everett considered " When I 'm Sixty @-@ Four " and " Honey Pie " attempts at vaudeville . MacDonald praised the " swinging beat " of the Beatles ' twenty @-@ four bar blues song , " She 's a Woman " as " the most extreme sound they had manufactured to date " , with McCartney 's voice " at the edge , squeezed to the upper limit of his chest register and threatening to crack at any moment . " MacDonald described " I 've Got a Feeling " as a " raunchy , mid @-@ tempo rocker " with a " robust and soulful " vocal performance and " Back in the U.S.S.R. " as " the last of [ the Beatles ' ] up @-@ tempo rockers " , McCartney 's " belting " vocals among his best since " Drive My Car " , recorded three years earlier . McCartney also teasingly tried out classical singing , namely singing various renditions of " Besame Mucho " with the rest of The Beatles . He 'd continue wildly experimenting with various musical and vocal styles throughout his post @-@ Beatles career as a solo artist , " Monkberry Moon Delight " being named by Pitchfork 's Jayson Greene as " an absolutely unhinged vocal take , Paul gulping and sobbing right next to your inner ear " , adding that " it could be a latter @-@ day Tom Waits performance " .
Over the years , McCartney has been named a significant vocal influence by a number of renowned artists , including Chris Cornell , Billy Joel , Steven Tyler , Brad Delp and Axl Rose .
= = = Keyboards = = =
McCartney played piano on several Beatles songs , including " Every Little Thing " , " She 's a Woman " , " For No One " , " A Day in the Life " , " Hello , Goodbye " , " Hey Jude " , " Lady Madonna " , " Let It Be " and " The Long and Winding Road " . MacDonald considered the piano part in " Lady Madonna " as reminiscent of Fats Domino , and " Let It Be " as having a gospel rhythm . MacDonald called McCartney 's Mellotron intro on " Strawberry Fields Forever " an integral feature of the song 's character . McCartney played a Moog synthesizer on the Beatles song " Maxwell 's Silver Hammer " and the Wings track " Loup ( 1st Indian on the Moon ) " . Ingham described the Wings songs " With a Little Luck " and " London Town " as " full of the most sensitive pop synthesizer touches " .
= = = Drums = = =
McCartney played drums on the Beatles ' songs " Back in the U.S.S.R. " , " Dear Prudence " , " Martha My Dear " , " Wild Honey Pie " and " The Ballad of John and Yoko " . He also played all the drum parts on his first and second solo albums McCartney and McCartney II , as well as on the Wings album Band on the Run and most of the drums on his solo LP Chaos and Creation in the Backyard . McCartney also played drums on Paul Jones ' rendition of " And the Sun Will Shine " in 1968 . Using the pseudonym Paul Ramon , which he had first used during the Beatles first tour in Scotland in 1960 , McCartney played drums on Steve Miller Band 's 1969 tracks " Celebration Song " and " My Dark Hour " .
= = = Tape loops = = =
In the mid @-@ 1960s , when visiting artist friend John Dunbar 's flat in London , McCartney brought tapes he had compiled at then @-@ girlfriend Jane Asher 's home . They included mixes of various songs , musical pieces and comments made by McCartney that Dick James made into a demo for him . Heavily influenced by American avant @-@ garde musician John Cage , McCartney made tape loops by recording voices , guitars and bongos on a Brenell tape recorder and splicing the various loops . He referred to the finished product as " electronic symphonies " . He reversed the tapes , speeded them up , and slowed them down to create the desired effects , some of which the Beatles later used on the songs " Tomorrow Never Knows " and " The Fool on the Hill " .
= = = Early influences = = =
McCartney 's earliest musical influences include Little Richard , Elvis Presley , Buddy Holly , Carl Perkins , and Chuck Berry . When asked why the Beatles did not include Presley on the Sgt. Pepper cover , McCartney replied , " Elvis was too important and too far above the rest even to mention ... so we didn 't put him on the list because he was more than merely a ... pop singer , he was Elvis the King . " McCartney stated that for his bassline for " I Saw Her Standing There " , he directly quoted Berry 's " I 'm Talking About You " .
McCartney called Little Richard an idol , whose falsetto vocalisations inspired McCartney 's own vocal technique . McCartney said he wrote " I 'm Down " as a vehicle for his Little Richard impersonation . In 1971 , McCartney bought the publishing rights to Holly 's catalogue , and in 1976 , on the fortieth anniversary of Holly 's birth , McCartney inaugurated the annual " Buddy Holly Week " in England . The festival has included guest performances by famous musicians , songwriting competitions , drawing contests and special events featuring performances by the Crickets .
= = Lifestyle = =
= = = Creative outlets = = =
While at school during the 1950s , McCartney thrived at art assignments , often earning top accolades for his visual work . However , his lack of discipline negatively affected his academic grades , preventing him from earning admission to art college . During the 1960s , he delved into the visual arts , explored experimental cinema , and regularly attended film , theatrical and classical music performances . His first contact with the London avant @-@ garde scene was through artist John Dunbar , who introduced McCartney to art dealer Robert Fraser . At Fraser 's flat he first learned about art appreciation and met Andy Warhol , Claes Oldenburg , Peter Blake , and Richard Hamilton . McCartney later purchased works by Magritte , using his painting of an apple for the Apple Records logo . McCartney became involved in the renovation and publicising of the Indica Gallery in Mason 's Yard , London , which Barry Miles had co @-@ founded and where Lennon first met Yoko Ono . Miles also co @-@ founded International Times , an underground paper that McCartney helped to start with direct financial support and by providing interviews to attract advertiser income . Miles later wrote McCartney 's official biography , Many Years From Now ( 1997 ) .
McCartney became interested in painting after watching artist Willem de Kooning work in de Kooning 's Long Island studio . McCartney took up painting in 1983 , and he first exhibited his work in Siegen , Germany , in 1999 . The 70 @-@ painting show featured portraits of Lennon , Andy Warhol and David Bowie . Though initially reluctant to display his paintings publicly , McCartney chose the gallery because events organiser Wolfgang Suttner showed genuine interest in McCartney 's art . In September 2000 , the first UK exhibition of McCartney 's paintings opened , featuring 500 canvases at the Arnolfini Gallery in Bristol , England . In October 2000 , McCartney 's art debuted in his hometown of Liverpool . McCartney said , " I 've been offered an exhibition of my paintings at the Walker Art Gallery ... where John and I used to spend many a pleasant afternoon . So I 'm really excited about it . I didn 't tell anybody I painted for 15 years but now I 'm out of the closet " . McCartney is lead patron of the Liverpool Institute for Performing Arts , a school in the building formerly occupied by the Liverpool Institute for Boys .
When McCartney was a child , his mother read him poems and encouraged him to read books . His father invited Paul and his brother Michael to solve crosswords with him , to increase their " word power " , as McCartney said . In 2001 , McCartney published Blackbird Singing , a volume of poems and lyrics to his songs for which he gave readings in Liverpool and New York City . In the foreword of the book , he explains : " When I was a teenager ... I had an overwhelming desire to have a poem published in the school magazine . I wrote something deep and meaningful — which was promptly rejected — and I suppose I have been trying to get my own back ever since " . His first children 's book was published by Faber & Faber in 2005 , High in the Clouds : An Urban Furry Tail , a collaboration with writer Philip Ardagh and animator Geoff Dunbar . Featuring a squirrel whose woodland home is razed by developers , it had been scripted and sketched by McCartney and Dunbar over several years , as an animated film . The Observer labelled it an " anti @-@ capitalist children 's book " .
In 1981 , McCartney asked Geoff Dunbar to direct a short animated film called Rupert and the Frog Song ; McCartney was the writer and producer , and he also added some of the character voices . In 1992 , he worked with Dunbar on an animated film about the work of French artist Honoré Daumier , which won them a BAFTA award . In 2004 , they worked together on the animated short film Tropic Island Hum . The accompanying single , " Tropic Island Hum " / " We All Stand Together " , reached number 21 in the UK .
McCartney also produced and hosted The Real Buddy Holly Story , a 1985 documentary featuring interviews with Keith Richards , Phil and Don Everly , the Holly family , and others . In 1995 , he made a guest appearance on the Simpsons episode " Lisa the Vegetarian " and directed a short documentary about the Grateful Dead .
In 2015 , it was revealed that McCartney turned down an offer to play the role of father to Helen Baxendale 's character Emily in Friends .
= = = Business = = =
Since the Rich List began in 1989 , McCartney has been the UK 's wealthiest musician , with an estimated fortune of £ 730 million in 2015 . In addition to an interest in Apple Corps and MPL Communications , an umbrella company for his business interests , he owns a significant music publishing catalogue , with access to over 25 @,@ 000 copyrights , including the publishing rights to the musicals Guys and Dolls , A Chorus Line , Annie and Grease . He earned £ 40 million in 2003 , the highest income that year within media professions in the UK . This rose to £ 48 @.@ 5 million by 2005 . McCartney 's 18 @-@ date On the Run Tour grossed £ 37 million in 2012 .
McCartney signed his first recording contract , as a member of the Beatles , with Parlophone Records , an EMI subsidiary , in June 1962 . In the United States , the Beatles recordings were distributed by EMI subsidiary Capitol Records . The Beatles re @-@ signed with EMI for another nine years in 1967 . After forming their own record label , Apple Records , in 1968 , the Beatles ' recordings would be released through Apple although the masters were still owned by EMI . Following the break @-@ up of the Beatles , McCartney 's music continued to be released by Apple Records under the Beatles ' 1967 recording contract with EMI which ran until 1976 . Following the formal dissolution of the Beatles ' partnership in 1975 , McCartney re @-@ signed with EMI worldwide and Capitol in the US , Canada and Japan , acquiring ownership of his solo catalogue from EMI as part of the deal . In 1979 , McCartney signed with Columbia Records in the US and Canada — reportedly receiving the industry 's most lucrative recording contract to date , while remaining with EMI for distribution throughout the rest of the world . McCartney returned to Capitol in the US in 1985 , remaining with EMI until 2006 . In 2007 , McCartney signed with Hear Music , becoming the label 's first artist . He remains there as of 2012 's Kisses on the Bottom .
In 1963 , Dick James established Northern Songs to publish the songs of Lennon – McCartney . McCartney initially owned 20 % of Northern Songs , which became 15 % after a public stock offering in 1965 . In 1969 , James sold a controlling interest in Northern Songs to Lew Grade 's Associated Television ( ATV ) after which McCartney and John Lennon sold their remaining shares although they remained under contract to ATV until 1973 . In 1972 , McCartney re @-@ signed with ATV for seven years in a joint publishing agreement between ATV and McCartney Music . Since 1979 , MPL Communications has published McCartney 's songs . McCartney and Yoko Ono attempted to purchase the Northern Songs catalogue in 1981 , but Grade declined their offer and decided to sell ATV in its entirety to businessman Robert Holmes à Court . Michael Jackson subsequently purchased ATV in 1985 . In 1995 , Jackson merged his catalogue with Sony for a reported £ 59 @,@ 052 @,@ 000 ( $ 95 million ) , establishing Sony / ATV Music Publishing , in which he retained half @-@ ownership . McCartney has criticised Jackson 's purchase and handling of Northern Songs over the years . Now formally dissolved , in 1995 it became absorbed in the Sony / ATV catalogue . McCartney receives writers ' royalties which together are 33 ⅓ percent of total commercial proceeds in the US , and which vary elsewhere between 50 and 55 percent . Two of the Beatles ' earliest songs — " Love Me Do " and " P.S. I Love You " — were published by an EMI subsidiary , Ardmore & Beechwood , before signing with James . McCartney acquired their publishing rights from Ardmore in the mid @-@ 1980s , and they are the only two Beatles songs owned by MPL Communications .
= = = Drugs = = =
McCartney first used drugs in the Beatles ' Hamburg days , when they often used Preludin to maintain their energy while performing for long periods . Bob Dylan introduced them to marijuana in a New York hotel room in 1964 ; McCartney recalls getting " very high " and " giggling uncontrollably " . His use of the drug soon became habitual , and according to Miles , McCartney wrote the lyrics " another kind of mind " in " Got to Get You into My Life " specifically as a reference to cannabis . During the filming of Help ! , McCartney occasionally smoked a joint in the car on the way to the studio during filming , and often forgot his lines . Director Richard Lester overheard two physically attractive women trying to persuade McCartney to use heroin , but he refused . Introduced to cocaine by Robert Fraser , McCartney used the drug regularly during the recording of Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band , and for about a year total but stopped because of his dislike of the unpleasant melancholy he felt afterwards .
Initially reluctant to try LSD , McCartney eventually did so in late 1966 , and took his second " acid trip " in March 1967 , with Lennon , after a Sgt. Pepper studio session . He later became the first Beatle to discuss the drug publicly , declaring , " It opened my eyes ... [ and ] made me a better , more honest , more tolerant member of society . " He made his attitude about cannabis public in 1967 , when he , along with the other Beatles and Epstein , added his name to a July advertisement in The Times , which called for its legalisation , the release of those imprisoned for possession , and research into marijuana 's medical uses .
In 1972 , a Swedish court fined McCartney £ 1 @,@ 000 for cannabis possession . Soon after , Scottish police found marijuana plants growing on his farm , leading to his 1973 conviction for illegal cultivation and a £ 100 fine . As a result of his drug convictions , the US government repeatedly denied him a visa until December 1973 . Arrested again for marijuana possession in 1975 , in Los Angeles , Linda took the blame , and the court soon dismissed the charges . In January 1980 , when Wings flew to Tokyo for a tour of Japan , customs officials found approximately 8 ounces ( 200 g ) of cannabis in his luggage . They arrested McCartney and brought him to a local jail while the Japanese government decided what to do . After ten days , they released and deported him without charge . In 1984 , while McCartney was on holiday in Barbados , authorities arrested him for possession of marijuana and fined him $ 200 . Upon his return to England , he stated : " cannabis is ... less harmful than rum punch , whiskey , nicotine and glue , all of which are perfectly legal ... I don 't think ... I was doing anyone any harm whatsoever . " In 1997 , he spoke out in support of decriminalisation of the drug : " People are smoking pot anyway and to make them criminals is wrong . " He did however , decide to quit cannabis in 2015 , citing a desire to set a good example for his grandchildren .
= = = Vegetarianism and activism = = =
Since 1975 , McCartney has been a vegetarian ; he and his wife Linda were vegetarians for most of their 30 @-@ year marriage . They decided to stop consuming meat after Paul saw lambs in a field as they were eating a meal of lamb . Soon after , the couple became outspoken animal rights activists . In his first interview after Linda 's death , he promised to continue working for animal rights , and in 1999 he spent £ 3 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 to ensure Linda McCartney Foods remained free of genetically engineered ingredients . In 1995 , he narrated the documentary Devour the Earth , written by Tony Wardle . McCartney is a supporter of the animal @-@ rights organisation People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals . He has appeared in the group 's campaigns and , in 2009 , he narrated a short factory farm exposé titled " Glass Walls " . McCartney has also supported campaigns headed by the Humane Society of the United States , Humane Society International , World Animal Protection , and the David Shepherd Wildlife Foundation .
Following McCartney 's marriage to Mills , he joined her in a campaign against land mines , becoming a patron of Adopt @-@ A @-@ Minefield . He wore an anti @-@ landmines T @-@ shirt during some of the Back in the World tour shows . In 2006 , the McCartneys travelled to Prince Edward Island to raise international awareness of seal hunting . The couple debated with Danny Williams , Newfoundland 's then Premier , on Larry King Live , stating that fishermen should stop hunting seals and start seal @-@ watching businesses instead . McCartney also supports the Make Poverty History campaign .
McCartney has participated in several charity recordings and performances , including the Concerts for the People of Kampuchea , Ferry Aid , Band Aid , Live Aid , Live 8 , and the recording of " Ferry Cross the Mersey " . In 2004 , he donated a song to an album to aid the " US Campaign for Burma " , in support of Burmese Nobel Prize winner Aung San Suu Kyi . In 2008 , he donated a song to Aid Still Required 's CD , organised as an effort to raise funds to assist with the recovery from the devastation caused in Southeast Asia by the 2004 tsunami .
In 2009 , McCartney wrote to Tenzin Gyatso , the 14th Dalai Lama , asking him why he was not a vegetarian . As McCartney explained , " He wrote back very kindly , saying , ' my doctors tell me that I must eat meat ' . And I wrote back again , saying , you know , I don 't think that 's right ... I think he 's now being told ... that he can get his protein somewhere else ... It just doesn 't seem right — the Dalai Lama , on the one hand , saying , ' Hey guys , don 't harm sentient beings ... Oh , and by the way , I 'm having a steak . ' "
In 2012 , McCartney joined the anti @-@ fracking campaign Artists Against Fracking .
Save the Arctic is a campaign to protect the Arctic and an international outcry and a renewed focus concern on oil development in the Arctic , attracting the support of more than five million people . This includes McCartney , Archbishop Desmond Tutu and 11 Nobel Peace Prize winners .
In 2014 , McCartney narrated a video for People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals , titled " Glass Walls " , which was harshly critical of slaughterhouses , the meat industry , and their effect on animal welfare .
In 2015 , following British prime minister David Cameron 's decision to give Members of Parliament a free vote on amending the law against fox hunting , McCartney was quoted : " The people of Britain are behind this Tory government on many things but the vast majority of us will be against them if hunting is reintroduced . It is cruel and unnecessary and will lose them support from ordinary people and animal lovers like myself . "
= = = Meditation = = =
In August 1967 , McCartney met the Maharishi Mahesh Yogi at the London Hilton and later went to Bangor in North Wales to attend a weekend initiation conference , where he and the other Beatles learned the basics of Transcendental Meditation . He said , " The whole meditation experience was very good and I still use the mantra ... I find it soothing . " In 2009 , McCartney and Starr headlined a benefit concert at Radio City Music Hall , raising three million dollars for the David Lynch Foundation to fund instruction in Transcendental Meditation for at @-@ risk youth .
= = = Football = = =
McCartney has publicly professed support for Everton , and also shown favour for Liverpool . In 2008 , he ended speculation about his allegiance when he said , " Here 's the deal : my father was born in Everton , my family are officially Evertonians , so if it comes down to a derby match or an FA Cup final between the two , I would have to support Everton . But after a concert at Wembley Arena I got a bit of a friendship with Kenny Dalglish , who had been to the gig and I thought ' You know what ? I am just going to support them both because it 's all Liverpool . ' "
= = Personal relationships = =
= = = Girlfriends = = =
= = = = Dot Rhone = = = =
McCartney 's first serious girlfriend in Liverpool was Dot Rhone , whom he met at the Casbah club in 1959 . According to Spitz , Rhone felt that McCartney had a compulsion to control situations . He often chose clothes and make @-@ up for her , encouraging her to grow her hair out like Brigitte Bardot 's , and at least once insisting she have it re @-@ styled , to disappointing effect . When McCartney first went to Hamburg with the Beatles , he wrote to Rhone regularly , and she accompanied Cynthia Lennon to Hamburg when they played there again in 1962 . The couple had a two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ year relationship , and were due to marry until Rhone 's miscarriage ; according to Spitz , McCartney , now " free of obligation " , ended the engagement .
= = = = Jane Asher = = = =
McCartney first met British actress Jane Asher on 18 April 1963 , when a photographer asked them to pose at a Beatles performance at the Royal Albert Hall in London . The two began a relationship , and in November of that year he took up residence with Asher at her parents ' home at 57 Wimpole Street , London . They had lived there for more than two years before the couple moved to McCartney 's own home in St. John 's Wood , in March 1966 . He wrote several songs while living at the Ashers ' , including " Yesterday " , " And I Love Her " , " You Won 't See Me " and " I 'm Looking Through You " , the latter three having been inspired by their romance . They had a five @-@ year relationship and planned to marry , but Asher broke off the engagement after she discovered he had become involved with Francie Schwartz .
= = = Wives = = =
= = = = Linda Eastman = = = =
Linda Eastman was a music fan who once commented , " all my teen years were spent with an ear to the radio . " At times , she skipped school to see artists such as Fabian , Bobby Darin and Chuck Berry . She became a popular photographer with several rock groups , including the Jimi Hendrix Experience , the Grateful Dead , the Doors and the Beatles , whom she first met at Shea Stadium in 1966 . She commented , " It was John who interested me at the start . He was my Beatle hero . But when I met him the fascination faded fast , and I found it was Paul I liked . " The pair first properly met in 1967 at a Georgie Fame concert at The Bag O 'Nails club , during her UK assignment to photograph rock musicians in London . As Paul remembers , " The night Linda and I met , I spotted her across a crowded club , and although I would normally have been nervous chatting her up , I realised I had to ... Pushiness worked for me that night ! " Linda said this about their meeting : " I was quite shameless really . I was with somebody else [ that night ] ... and I saw Paul at the other side of the room . He looked so beautiful that I made up my mind I would have to pick him up . " The pair married in 1969 . About their relationship , Paul said , " We had a lot of fun together ... just the nature of how we are , our favourite thing really is to just hang , to have fun . And Linda 's very big on just following the moment . " He added , " We were crazy . We had a big argument the night before we got married , and it was nearly called off ... [ it 's ] miraculous that we made it . But we did . "
The two collaborated musically after the Beatles ' break @-@ up , forming Wings in 1971 . They faced derision from some fans and critics , who questioned her inclusion . She was nervous about performing with Paul , who explained , " she conquered those nerves , got on with it and was really gutsy . " Paul defended her musical ability : " I taught Linda the basics of the keyboard ... She took a couple of lessons and learned some bluesy things ... she did very well and made it look easier than it was ... The critics would say , ' She 's not really playing ' or ' Look at her — she 's playing with one finger . ' But what they didn 't know is that sometimes she was playing a thing called a Minimoog , which could only be played with one finger . It was monophonic . " He went on to say , " We thought we were in it for the fun ... it was just something we wanted to do , so if we got it wrong — big deal . We didn 't have to justify ourselves . " Former Wings guitarist McCullough said of collaborating with Linda , " trying to get things together with a learner in the group didn 't work as far as I was concerned . "
They had four children — Linda 's daughter Heather ( legally adopted by Paul ) , Mary , Stella and James — and remained married until Linda 's death from breast cancer at age 56 in 1998 . After her death , Paul stated in the Daily Mail , " I got a counsellor because I knew that I would need some help . He was great , particularly in helping me get rid of my guilt [ about wishing I 'd been ] perfect all the time ... a real bugger . But then I thought , hang on a minute . We 're just human . That was the beautiful thing about our marriage . We were just a boyfriend and girlfriend having babies . "
= = = = Heather Mills = = = =
In 2002 , McCartney married Heather Mills , a former model and anti @-@ landmines campaigner . In 2003 , the couple had a child , Beatrice Milly , named in honour of Mills ' late mother , and one of McCartney 's aunts . They separated in April 2006 and divorced acrimoniously in March 2008 . In 2004 , he commented on media animosity toward his partners : " [ the British public ] didn 't like me giving up on Jane Asher ... I married [ Linda ] , a New York divorcee with a child , and at the time they didn 't like that " .
= = = = Nancy Shevell = = = =
McCartney married New Yorker Nancy Shevell in a civil ceremony at Old Marylebone Town Hall , London , on 9 October 2011 . The wedding was a modest event attended by a group of about 30 relatives and friends . The couple had been dating since November 2007 . Shevell is vice @-@ president of a family @-@ owned transportation conglomerate which owns New England Motor Freight . She is a former member of the board of the New York Metropolitan Transportation Authority .
= = = Beatles = = =
= = = = John Lennon = = = =
Though McCartney had a strained relationship with Lennon , they briefly became close again in early 1974 , and played music together on one occasion . In later years , the two grew apart . While McCartney would often phone Lennon , he was apprehensive about the reception he would receive . During one call , Lennon told him , " You 're all pizza and fairytales ! " In an effort to avoid talking only about business , they often spoke of cats , babies or baking bread .
On 24 April 1976 , the two were watching an episode of Saturday Night Live together at Lennon 's home in the Dakota , during which Lorne Michaels made a $ 3 @,@ 000 cash offer for the Beatles to reunite . While they seriously considered going to the SNL studio a few blocks away , they decided it was too late . This was their last time together . VH1 fictionalised this event in the 2000 television film Two of Us . McCartney 's last telephone call to Lennon , days before Lennon and Ono released Double Fantasy , was friendly ; he said this about the call : " [ It is ] a consoling factor for me , because I do feel it was sad that we never actually sat down and straightened our differences out . But fortunately for me , the last phone conversation I ever had with him was really great , and we didn 't have any kind of blow @-@ up . "
= = = = = Reaction to Lennon 's murder = = = = =
On 9 December 1980 , McCartney followed the news that Lennon had been murdered the previous night , his death creating a media frenzy around the surviving members of the band . That evening , as he was leaving an Oxford Street recording studio surrounded by reporters who asked him for his reaction , he responded : " It 's a drag " . The press quickly criticised him for what appeared to be a superficial response . He later explained , " When John was killed somebody stuck a microphone at me and said : ' What do you think about it ? ' I said , ' It 's a dra @-@ a @-@ ag ' and meant it with every inch of melancholy I could muster . When you put that in print it says , ' McCartney in London today when asked for a comment on his dead friend said , " It 's a drag " . ' It seemed a very flippant comment to make . " He described his first exchange with Ono after the murder , and his last conversation with Lennon :
I talked to Yoko the day after he was killed , and the first thing she said was , " John was really fond of you . " The last telephone conversation I had with him we were still the best of mates . He was always a very warm guy , John . His bluff was all on the surface . He used to take his glasses down , those granny glasses , and say , " it 's only me . " They were like a wall you know ? A shield . Those are the moments I treasure .
In 1983 , McCartney said , " I would not have been as typically human and standoffish as I was if I knew John was going to die . I would have made more of an effort to try and get behind his " mask " and have a better relationship with him . " He said that he went home that night , watched the news on television with his children and cried most of the evening . In 1997 , he admitted the ex @-@ Beatles were nervous at the time that they might also be murdered . He told Mojo magazine in 2002 that Lennon was his greatest hero . In 1981 , McCartney sang backup on Harrison 's tribute to their ex @-@ bandmate , " All Those Years Ago " , which featured Starr on drums . McCartney released " Here Today " in 1982 , a song Everett described as " a haunting tribute " to McCartney 's friendship with Lennon .
= = = = George Harrison = = = =
Discussing his relationship with McCartney , Harrison said , " Paul would always help along when you 'd done his ten songs — then when he got ' round to doing one of my songs , he would help . It was silly . It was very selfish , actually ... There were a lot of tracks , though , where I played bass ... because what Paul would do — if he 'd written a song , he 'd learn all the parts for Paul and then come in the studio and say ( sometimes he was very difficult ) : ' Do this ' . He 'd never give you the opportunity to come out with something . "
After Harrison 's death in November 2001 , McCartney issued a statement outside his home in St. John 's Wood , calling him " a lovely guy and a very brave man who had a wonderful sense of humour " . He went on to say , " We grew up together and we just had so many beautiful times together – that 's what I am going to remember . I 'll always love him , he 's my baby brother . " On the first anniversary of his death , McCartney played Harrison 's " Something " on a ukulele at the Concert for George . He also performed " For You Blue " and " All Things Must Pass " , and played the piano on Eric Clapton 's rendition of " While My Guitar Gently Weeps " .
= = = = Ringo Starr = = = =
Starr once described McCartney as " pleasantly insincere " , though the two generally enjoy each other 's company , and at least once went on holiday together in Greece . Starr recalled , " We couldn 't understand a word of the songs the hotel band were playing , so on the last night Paul and I did a few rockers like " What 'd I Say " . There was at times discord between them as well , particularly during sessions for the White Album . As Apple 's Peter Brown recalled , " it was a poorly kept secret among Beatle intimates that after Ringo left the studio Paul would often dub in the drum tracks himself ... [ Starr ] would pretend not to notice " . In August 1968 , the two got into an argument over McCartney 's critique of Starr 's drum part for " Back in the U.S.S.R. " , which contributed to Starr temporarily leaving the band . Starr later commented on working with McCartney : " Paul is the greatest bass player in the world . But he is also very determined ... [ to ] get his own way ... [ thus ] musical disagreements inevitably arose from time to time . "
McCartney and Starr collaborated on several post @-@ Beatles projects starting in 1973 , when McCartney contributed instrumentation and backing vocals for " Six O 'Clock " , a song McCartney wrote for Starr 's album Ringo . McCartney played a kazoo solo on another track from the album , " You 're Sixteen " . Starr appeared ( as a fictional version of himself ) in McCartney 's 1984 film Give My Regards to Broad Street , and played drums on most tracks of the soundtrack album , which includes re @-@ recordings of several McCartney @-@ penned Beatles songs . Starr played drums and sang backing vocals on " Beautiful Night " from McCartney 's 1997 album , Flaming Pie . The pair collaborated again in 1998 , on Starr 's Vertical Man , which featured McCartney 's backing vocals on three songs , and instrumentation on one . In 2009 , the pair performed " With a Little Help from My Friends " at a benefit concert for the David Lynch Foundation . They collaborated on Starr 's album Y Not in 2010 . McCartney played bass on " Peace Dream " , and sang a duet with Starr on " Walk with You " . On 7 July 2010 , Starr was performing at Radio City Music Hall in New York with his All @-@ Starr Band in a concert celebrating his seventieth birthday . After the encores , McCartney made a surprise last @-@ minute appearance , coming out and performing the Beatles ' song " Birthday " backed by members of Starr 's band . On 26 January 2014 McCartney and Starr performed " Queenie Eye " from McCartney 's new album New at the 56th Annual Grammy Awards .
= = Legacy = =
= = = Achievements = = =
McCartney was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1988 as a member of the Beatles and again as a solo artist in 1999 . In 1979 , the Guinness Book of World Records recognised McCartney as the " most honored composer and performer in music " , with 60 gold discs ( 43 with the Beatles , 17 with Wings ) and , as a member of the Beatles , sales of over 100 million singles and 100 million albums , and as the " most successful song writer " , he wrote jointly or solo 43 songs which sold one million or more records between 1962 and 1978 . In 2009 , Guinness World Records again recognised McCartney as the " most successful songwriter " having written or co @-@ written 188 charted records in the United Kingdom , of which 91 reached the top 10 and 33 made it to number one .
McCartney has written , or co @-@ written 32 number @-@ one singles on the Billboard Hot 100 : twenty with the Beatles ; seven solo or with Wings ; one as a co @-@ writer of " A World Without Love " , a number @-@ one single for Peter and Gordon ; one as a co @-@ writer on Elton John 's cover of " Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds " ; one as a co @-@ writer on Stars on 45 's " Medley " ; one as a co @-@ writer with Michael Jackson on " Say Say Say " ; and one as a co @-@ writer with Stevie Wonder on " Ebony and Ivory " . As of 2009 , he has 15 @.@ 5 million RIAA certified units in the United States as a solo artist plus another 10 million with Wings .
Credited with more number ones in the UK than any other artist , McCartney has participated in twenty @-@ four chart topping singles : seventeen with the Beatles , one solo , and one each with Wings , Stevie Wonder , Ferry Aid , Band Aid , Band Aid 20 and " The Christians et al . " He is the only artist to reach the UK number one as a soloist ( " Pipes of Peace " ) , duo ( " Ebony and Ivory " with Wonder ) , trio ( " Mull of Kintyre " , Wings ) , quartet ( " She Loves You " , the Beatles ) , quintet ( " Get Back " , the Beatles with Billy Preston ) and as part of a musical ensemble for charity ( Ferry Aid ) .
" Yesterday " is the most covered song in history with more than 2 @,@ 200 recorded versions , and according to the BBC , " the track is the only one by a UK writer to have been aired more than seven million times on American TV and radio and is third in the all @-@ time list ... [ and ] is the most played song by a British writer [ last ] century in the US " . His 1968 Beatles composition , " Hey Jude " , is also a career highlight . It achieved the highest sales in the UK that year , topping the US charts for nine weeks , longer than any other Beatles single . It was also the longest single released by the band , and at seven minutes eleven seconds , the longest ever number one to that point . " Hey Jude " is the best @-@ selling Beatles single , achieving sales of over five million copies soon after its release .
In July 2005 , McCartney 's performance of " Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band " with U2 at Live 8 became the fastest @-@ released single in history . Available within forty @-@ five minutes of its recording , hours later it had achieved number one on the UK Official Download Chart .
= = = Awards and honours = = =
1971 Academy Award winner ( as a member of the Beatles )
21 @-@ time Grammy Award winner :
12 as a member of the Beatles
Six as a solo artist
Two as a member of Wings
One as part of a joint collaboration
Two @-@ time inductee – Rock and Roll Hall of Fame :
Class of 1988 as a member of the Beatles
Class of 1999 as a solo artist
Member of the Order of the British Empire .
Planet 4148 named " McCartney " ( International Astronomical Union 's Minor Planet Center ) .
1997 : Knighted by Queen Elizabeth II for services to music .
2000 : Fellowship into the British Academy of Songwriters , Composers and Authors .
2008 : BRIT Award for Outstanding Contribution to Music
2008 : Honorary Doctor of Music degree from Yale University .
2010 : Gershwin Prize for his contributions to popular music .
2010 : Kennedy Center Honors .
2012 : Star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame .
2012 : Légion d 'Honneur for his services to music .
2012 : MusiCares Person of the Year
= = Discography = =
= = Tours = =
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= Battle of Fort Washington =
The Battle of Fort Washington was a battle fought in New York on November 16 , 1776 during the American Revolutionary War between the United States and Great Britain . It was a British victory that gained the surrender of the remnant of the garrison of Fort Washington near the north end of Manhattan Island . It was one of the worst Patriot defeats .
After defeating the Continental Army under Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief General George Washington at the Battle of White Plains , the British Army forces under the command of Lieutenant General William Howe planned to capture Fort Washington , the last American stronghold on Manhattan . General Washington issued a discretionary order to General Nathanael Greene to abandon the fort and remove its garrison – then numbered at 1 @,@ 200 men but later to grow to 3 @,@ 000 – to New Jersey . Colonel Robert Magaw , commanding the fort , declined to abandon it as he believed it could be defended from the British . Howe 's forces attacked the fort before Washington reached it to assess the situation .
Howe launched his attack on November 16 . He led an assault from three sides : the north , east and south . Tides in the Harlem River prevented some troops from landing and delayed the attack . When the British moved against the defenses , the southern and western American defenses fell quickly . Patriot forces on the north side offered stiff resistance to the Hessian attack , but they too were eventually overwhelmed . With the fort surrounded by land and sea , Colonel Magaw chose to surrender . A total of 59 Americans were killed and 2 @,@ 837 were taken as prisoners of war .
After this defeat , most of Washington 's army was chased across New Jersey and into Pennsylvania , and the British consolidated their control of New York and eastern New Jersey .
= = Background = =
= = = Construction and defenses = = =
During the American Revolutionary War , Fort Washington was located at the highest point of the island of Manhattan , along a large outcropping of Manhattan schist near its northernmost tip . Along with Fort Lee , located just across the Hudson River atop the New Jersey Palisades , the twin forts were intended to protect the lower Hudson from British warships .
In June 1776 , American Patriot officers Henry Knox , Nathanael Greene , William Heath , and Israel Putnam examined the terrain on which Fort Washington would be located ; they agreed that if the fort was properly fortified , it would be practically impossible to take . Later in June , the Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of the Continental Army , George Washington , inspected the location and determined that the area was the key to defense of the lower Hudson . Shortly after Washington 's survey , troops from Pennsylvania began construction on the fort under the supervision of Rufus Putnam .
They first prepared a cheval de frise to prevent British ships from sailing up the Hudson and outflanking the American position . For more than a month , the troops transported boulders from the heights of Manhattan to the edge of the river , where they loaded them into a collection of hulks and cribs made of timber and stretched it across the river . When the cheval de frise was finished , they began work on the fort . Little soil covered the rocky surface , so men had to haul soil up from the low ground . They were unable to dig the customary ditches or trenches around the fort . The fort was built in the shape of a pentagon with five bastions . The main walls were made of earth , constructed with ravelins with openings for guns from every angle . The fort enclosed a total of three to four acres . The troops built an abbattis around the fort . After the barracks were finished in September , all the troops in the area were placed under the command of Major General William Heath . Washington established his headquarters near the fort .
Supporting the fort were numerous defenses . Batteries were placed on Jeffrey 's Hook , which extended into the Hudson , on Cox 's Hill looking over Spuyten Duyvil Creek , at the north end of Manhattan controlling the King 's Bridge and Dyckman 's Bridge over the Harlem River and along Laurel Hill which was to the east of the Fort and went along the Harlem River ( see also Fort Tryon Park ) . To the south of the fort were three lines of defense . The lines went through the hills and were made of trenches and foxholes . The first line was supported by a second line about 0 @.@ 33 mi ( 0 @.@ 5 km ) to the north , and a third line was planned to be built 0 @.@ 25 mi ( 0 @.@ 4 km ) north of the second .
= = = Movements = = =
British General William Howe , after first gaining control of western Long Island in the Battle of Long Island at the end of August 1776 , launched an invasion of Manhattan on September 15 . His northward progress was checked the next day in the Battle of Harlem Heights , after which he sought to flank the strong American position on the north of the island . After an abortive landing attempt on October 11 , Howe began landing troops in southern Westchester County , New York on October 18 , intending to cut off the Continental Army 's avenue of retreat . Washington , aware of the danger , withdrew most of his troops north to White Plains . He left a garrison of 1 @,@ 200 men at Fort Washington under the command of Colonel Robert Magaw ; this force was inadequate to fully defend the extensive works . In order to monitor the American garrison in the fort , Howe left Hugh Percy and a small force below Harlem Heights .
On the morning of October 27 , sentries informed Magaw that Percy 's troops were launching an attack supported by two frigates sailing up the Hudson . Magaw ordered an attack on the frigates , and both British ships were badly damaged by the guns from Fort Lee and Fort Washington . The frigates could not elevate their own guns to the height of the American positions . The British towed away the frigates , but an artillery duel continued for some time between British and American gunners .
On November 8 , about two dozen American soldiers drove off a slightly larger Hessian company from a forward redoubt . The Hessians held higher ground with better cover and had the advantage of artillery support throughout this minor skirmish , but were still unable to maintain their position . The Colonials had a single man wounded while the Hessians lost at least two men killed and others wounded . After burning and looting the temporary structures on the site , the victors occupied it until dark when they returned to their main lines . By the next day the Hessians had reoccupied the spot but were quickly driven off again by a larger American force . This time the Hessians left ten dead with , again , a single American wounded .
Because of these minor successes , Magaw became overconfident ; he boasted of being able to hold the fort through a siege to the end of December . On November 2 , Magaw 's adjutant , William Demont , deserted to the British ; he gave them all of the details of the fort . Percy sent the information on to Howe , who had defeated Washington a few days earlier at the Battle of White Plains . During the weeks between Washington 's northward retreat and the British assault on the fort , reinforcements continued to trickle into the fort , increasing the size of the garrison to nearly 3 @,@ 000 men .
= = = Plans and preparations = = =
Washington had considered abandoning Fort Washington , but he was swayed by Nathanael Greene , who believed the fort could be held and that it was vital to do so . Greene argued that holding the fort would keep open communications across the river and might dissuade the British from attacking New Jersey . Magaw and Putnam concurred with Greene . Washington deferred to Greene and did not abandon the fort .
On November 4 , Howe ordered his army south toward Dobbs Ferry . Rather than pursue the American forces in the highlands , and possibly prompted by the intelligence acquired by the defection of Demont , Howe had decided to attack Fort Washington . Washington responded by dividing his army . Seven thousand troops were to remain east of the Hudson under the command of Charles Lee to prevent a British invasion of New England ; General William Heath with 3 @,@ 000 men was to guard the Hudson Highlands to prevent any further British advance north , and Washington with 2 @,@ 000 men was to go to Fort Lee . On the 13th , Washington and his army reached Fort Lee .
Howe 's plan of attack was to storm the fort from three directions while a fourth force feinted ; by then it had received reinforcements and was garrisoned by 3 @,@ 000 men . Hessian troops under the command of Wilhelm von Knyphausen would attack the fort from the north , Percy was to lead a brigade of Hessians and several British battalions from the south , and Lord Cornwallis with the 33rd Regiment of Foot and General Edward Mathew with the light infantry were to attack from the east . The feint was to be by the 42nd Highlanders , who were to land on the east side of Manhattan , south of the fort . Before attacking , Howe sent Lieutenant Colonel James Patterson under a flag of truce on November 15 to deliver a message that if the fort did not surrender , the entire garrison would be killed . Magaw said the Patriots would defend the fort to the " last extremity " .
= = Battle = =
= = = Initial fighting = = =
Before dawn on November 16 , the British and Hessian troops moved out . Knyphausen and his troops were ferried across the Harlem River on flatboats and landed on Manhattan . The flatboatmen then turned down the river to ferry Mathew 's troops across the river . However , due to the tide , they were unable to get close enough to the shore to bring the British troops across . Thus , Knyphausen 's troops were forced to halt their advance and wait until Mathew could cross . Around 7 : 00 a.m. , Hessian guns opened fire on the American battery on Laurel Hill , and the British frigate Pearl began to fire at the American entrenchments . Also , south of the Fort , Percy had his artillery open fire on the fort itself . Percy 's artillery aimed at Magaw 's guns which had damaged the British ships several weeks before .
By noon , Knyphausen and his Hessians restarted their advance . As soon as the tide was high enough , Mathew and his troops , accompanied by Howe , were ferried across the Harlem River . They landed under heavy fire from the American artillery on the Manhattan shore . The British troops charged up the hillside and dispersed the Americans until they reached a redoubt defended by some Pennsylvania Volunteer companies . After brief fighting , the Americans turned and ran towards the fort .
To the north of the fort , the Hessian right , commanded by Johann Rall , moved up the steep hillside south of Spuyten Duyvil Creek against almost no resistance from the Americans . The Hessians began to bring up their artillery . At this point , the main body of Hessians , 4 @,@ 000 men , under Knyphausen began to advance down the Post Road , which ran between Laurel Hill and the hill Rall was on . The Hessians crossed swampy land and when they approached the wooded hillside near the fort , they were fired upon by 250 riflemen of the Maryland and Virginia Rifle Regiment under the command of Lt. Col. Moses Rawlings . Rawlings ' men hid behind rocks and trees and darted from place to place to shoot at the Hessians as they tried to advance through the fallen trees and rocks . The first and second charges by the Hessians were repulsed by Rawlings ' riflemen .
Around the same time , to the south , Percy advanced with some 3 @,@ 000 men . Percy advanced in two columns with his brigade of Hessians on the left and Percy himself leading the right . About 200 yards from the American lines Percy halted the advance , waiting for the feint by Stirling to take place . Facing Percy was Alexander Graydon and his company . Graydon 's superior was Lambert Cadwalader , Magaw 's second in command , who was in charge of holding the three defensive lines south of Fort Washington . After hearing that there was a landing on the shore in his rear , Cadwalader sent 50 men to oppose it . The 50 men ran into the feint by Col. Stirling 's 42nd Foot of 700 men . Where Stirling landed happened to be the least defended area of the American defenses , and when Cadwalader heard how many men were there , he sent another 100 men to reinforce the 50 he had sent earlier . The British landing parties spread out , looking for a path through the rough terrain on the landing spot . The Americans took up a position on a hilltop and began firing at the British troops who were still crossing the river , killing or wounding 80 men . The British troops charged the American position , dispersing them .
Upon hearing the shooting , Percy ordered his troops to continue their advance . British artillery fire forced Graydon in the first defensive line to fall back to the second line , where Washington , Greene , Putnam and Hugh Mercer were located . The four were encouraged to leave Manhattan , which they did immediately , sailing across the river to Fort Lee . Magaw realized that Cadwalader was in danger of being surrounded and sent orders for him to withdraw toward the fort . Cadwalader 's force was pursued by Percy 's troops at the same time the troops opposing Stirling 's landing were also being chased back to the fort . Stirling 's troops , landed in the rear of Cadwalader , paused , believing that there were troops in the entrenchments . Some of the retreating Americans engaged Stirling , giving most of the rest of the American troops enough time to escape .
= = = Collapse = = =
With the collapse of Magaw 's outer lines to the south and east of the fort , the general American retreat towards the perceived safety of the fort took place . To the south , the third defensive line had never been completed so Cadwalader had nowhere left to retreat to except the fort . To the north , the riflemen under Rawlings still held , but barely , as there were fewer riflemen than before and because the increased amount of firing had jammed some of the men 's weapons , some of the men were forced to push boulders down the hill at the attacking Hessians . The American battery at Fort Washington was silenced by Pearl . By this time , the riflemen 's fire had almost ceased , and the Hessians slowly advanced up the hill and engaged the Americans in hand @-@ to @-@ hand fighting . Overpowering the Americans , the Hessians reached the top of the hill and swarmed into the redoubt with a bayonet charge , capturing it quickly .
Washington , who was watching the battle from the other side of the river , sent a note to Magaw asking him to hold out until nightfall , thinking that the troops could be evacuated during the night . By this time , the Hessians had taken the ground between the fort and the Hudson River . Johann Rall was given the honor of requesting the American surrender by Knyphausen . Rall sent Captain Hohenstein , who spoke English and French , under a flag of truce to call for the fort 's surrender . Hohenstein met with Cadwalader , and Cadwalader requested that Magaw be given four hours to consult with his officers . Hohenstein denied the request and gave the Americans a half hour to decide . As Magaw was consulting with his officers , Washington 's messenger , Captain John Gooch arrived , just before the fort was completely surrounded , with Washington 's request to hold out until nightfall . Magaw attempted to get easier terms for his men , who would only be allowed to keep their belongings , but this failed . Magaw announced his decision to capitulate at 3 : 00 pm , and at 4 : 00 pm , the American flag was brought down in the fort , replaced by the British flag . Before the surrender , John Gooch leaped off the side of the fort , tumbled to the bottom of the cliff , evaded musket fire and bayonet stabs , and managed to get onto a boat , arriving at Fort Lee a short while later .
= = Aftermath = =
After the Hessians entered the fort , the American officers attempted to placate the Hessian commander , Captain von Malmburg , who was in charge of the surrender . They invited him into their barracks , and offered him punch , wine , cake , with compliments . As they left the fort , the Hessians stripped the American troops of their baggage and beat some of them . Their officers intervened to prevent further injuries or deaths . The British captured thirty @-@ four cannon , two howitzers , along with many tents , blankets , tools and much ammunition .
The British and Hessians suffered 84 killed and 374 wounded . The Americans lost 59 killed , had 96 wounded casualties , and 2 @,@ 838 men captured . Under the usual treatment of prisoners of war in the American Revolutionary War , only 800 survived their captivity to be released 18 months later in a prisoner exchange ; nearly three @-@ quarters of the prisoners died .
Three days after the fall of Fort Washington , the Patriots abandoned Fort Lee . Washington and the army retreated through New Jersey and crossed the Delaware River into Pennsylvania northwest of Trenton , pursued as far as New Brunswick , New Jersey by British forces . After about one month , on the night of December 25 – 26 , 1776 , Washington crossed the Delaware and defeated the Hessian garrison under the command of Rall at Trenton . Washington went on to defeat the British next at Princeton , which revived the morale of the American army and the colonies affected by the fall of Fort Washington .
After seven years , on November 25 , 1783 , with the peace treaty signed , General Washington and Governor George Clinton triumphantly reclaimed Fort Washington as they marched toward lower Manhattan after the last British forces had left New York .
The site of Fort Washington is now in Bennett Park in the Washington Heights neighborhood of Manhattan , just north of the George Washington Bridge . The location of its walls are demarcated by stones placed in the park , and there is a commemorative plaque .
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= Thirty Flights of Loving =
Thirty Flights of Loving is a first @-@ person adventure video game developed by Brendon Chung 's indie video game studio , Blendo Games . It was released in August 2012 for Microsoft Windows , and in November 2012 for OS X. The game employs a modified version of id Software 's 1997 @-@ era id Tech 2 engine — originally used for Quake 2 — and incorporates music composed by Idle Thumbs member Chris Remo . It follows three people as they prepare for an alcohol heist and the aftermath of the operation .
The game is a non @-@ direct sequel to Gravity Bone ( 2008 ) and features the same main character — an unnamed spy . It was developed as part of the Kickstarter campaign for the revival of the Idle Thumbs podcast and included a free copy of its predecessor . Thirty Flights of Loving received generally favorable reviews from video game media outlets , scoring 88 out of 100 on aggregate website Metacritic . A follow @-@ up , Quadrilateral Cowboy , was released on July 25 , 2016 .
= = Gameplay = =
Thirty Flights of Loving is a first @-@ person adventure video game that is estimated to take about 15 minutes on average to complete . Using the WASD keys and mouse , the player controls the main character , an unnamed spy who participates in an alcohol @-@ smuggling operation . The player works alongside non @-@ playable characters Anita , a demolitions expert , and Borges , a forger . The game follows the group as they prepare for a heist and experience its aftermath . The robbery is omitted from the game , although it is revealed that it went wrong .
Unlike Gravity Bone , Thirty Flights of Loving employs non @-@ linear storytelling , forcing the player to piece together the narrative . During gameplay , objectives and guidance are provided through the player 's interactions with objects . The player has little control over the game mechanics and is only able to move freely and pick up objects as needed to progress . Several optional actions , such as drinking alcohol , are available at several stages of the game .
= = = Story = = =
Thirty Flights of Loving begins with the player walking through a small corridor where individual gameplay elements such as movement and key allocations are explained . After walking through a bar and several more corridors , Anita and Borges are introduced . All three characters then exit on a plane . A smash cut skips the narrative forward to a scene with Anita and Borges lying shot in a room full of crates . The player character lifts Borges and takes him outside to what looks to be an airport . The player is then taken to a dark room with Anita sitting on a chair , peeling and eating oranges . After walking through another corridor , Anita , Borges , and the player join a wedding .
Anita and the player get drunk on a table while the rest of the characters start dancing and flying across the room . Then the player is taken again to the room where Anita was peeling oranges , and then back to the room where both she and Borges were lying shot . The player is then shown leaving the airport carrying Borges on a luggage cart . They arrive at a small place where the gunfight sequence takes place , followed by the motorcycle ride sequence , which ends with a crash that leads the player into a museum . In this area , there are several plaques showing the game 's name and credits . The player leaves the area and goes into a new one where Bernoulli 's principle about low and high air pressures is explained . Then , the player is again moved to the motorcycle sequence , where the game ends .
= = Development = =
Thirty Flights of Loving was developed by Brendon Chung 's video game studio Blendo Games . Chung , who worked as a level designer for Pandemic Studios , has contributed to the development of Full Spectrum Warrior and Lord of the Rings : Conquest . Thirty Flights of Loving was created using a modified version of KMQuake II , a port of id Software 's id Tech 2 , the graphics engine for Quake 2 . It incorporates a gameplay enhancement add @-@ on named Lazarus , developed by David Hyde and Mad Dog . Chung acknowledged that although he has worked with newer , " powerful and flexible " engines , he preferred the older engine because it was released as an open @-@ source platform , " so you can redistribute it for free . "
The game was first conceived as a prototype to Gravity Bone , and was scrapped because it was " too dialogue heavy . " However , Chung revived the idea after being contacted by Idle Thumbs to develop a game for their Kickstarter campaign . The main development phase , in which content creation took place , was finished within three months . Several more months were spent polishing the game and fixing software bugs . Chung brought multiple existing assets from Gravity Bone to develop Thirty Flights of Loving , and used a diverse set of tools to create the elements of the game . Blender was picked for the creation of models , while Audacity and Adobe Photoshop were used for audio and texture work . Another tool , GtkRadiant , was used to create the game 's levels .
Chung developed Thirty Flights of Loving 's environment as a way to present the criminal nature of the group . He intentionally avoided the use of voice @-@ overs , and instead modeled the environment to bridge " the disconnect between the player 's knowledge and the player 's character 's knowledge . " Characters Anita and Borges were to be introduced using dialogue , but this was removed . However , montages were later added after Idle Thumbs ' crew expressed concerns that the characters ' relationships were unclear . Chung included a system to automate the generation of non @-@ playable characters to replace the process of manually scripting every person in the game . He explained that although it allows characters to " randomly wander near waypoints , " the software is " occasionally glitchy and behaves badly around staircases . " This automation code was originally developed for a surveillance game prototype " that never panned out . "
A first @-@ person meal simulator was designed for Thirty Flights of Loving . The sequence included the main characters " enjoy [ ing ] street noddles . " However , the idea was scrapped and replaced with the motorcycle ride featured in the final version . The gunfight scene portrayed in the game was supposed to have a " musical rhythm , " inspired by the film Koyaanisqatsi and Baraka . The last level of the game is modeled from the French National Museum of Natural History . Chung explained that when developing levels , he first spends time researching and " learning how things work . " He elaborated that researching is important in " how it gives specificity and grounding " to a game . Thirty Flights of Loving is the seventh " Citizen Abel " game developed by Chung . The first two games were coded in 1999 , while the following three were written between 2000 and 2004 . The sixth game in the series , Gravity Bone ( 2008 ) , became the first to be published . On the Tone Control podcast , he spoke about how every game he has produced , including Thirty Flights of Loving , takes place in the same shared universe .
Thirty Flights of Loving includes references and Easter eggs , as did Gravity Bone . Films such as Three Days of the Condor and The Conversation , film directors Steven Soderbergh and Quentin Tarantino , games such as Zork and Saints Row : The Third , and animated shows like Animaniacs and TaleSpin are referenced in the campaign . Unlike most of Chung 's previous games , Thirty Flights of Loving was not framed around a certain musical composition . It incorporates music composed by Idle Thumbs member Chris Remo , while additional audio was provided by Jared Emerson @-@ Johnson and A.J. Locascio . It makes use of Soundsnap 's sound library .
= = Release = =
Thirty Flights of Loving was announced in February 2012 as part of the Kickstarter campaign for Idle Thumbs ' podcast . The Idle Thumbs team talked to Chung about a possible sequel to Gravity Bone , which was offered as one of the rewards of their Kickstarter campaign . Those who supported the campaign received Thirty Flights of Loving before its official release on August 2012 . They also gained access to an exclusive " Goldblum mode " that was not part of the general release . It replaced the character model with ones resembling actor Jeff Goldblum . The game , alongside a free copy of Gravity Bone , was made available to early supporters in July 2012 and to the general public a month later via Steam . A Mac OS X release followed in November 2012 .
= = Reception = =
Thirty Flights of Loving received generally favorable reviews upon release . On Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , the game received an average score of 88 out of 100 , based on 10 reviews . Destructoid 's Patrick Hancock awarded the game 9 @.@ 5 out of 10 , stating that " you 'll never look at linear storytelling the same way again . "
GameSpot 's Carolyn Petit wrote that " the pleasure of Thirty Flights of Loving emerges from the things left unshown " , allowing the player to infer and imagine the events , such as the heist itself , that are not otherwise shown . Graham Smith of PC Gamer extolled the minimalist storytelling , asserting that Thirty Flights of Loving " tells a better story in 13 minutes than most games do in 13 hours " . Mark Brown from Wired UK classified the game as a " brassy , super @-@ short , cubic heist drama , " and stated that Chung " spins a memorable yarn , delivers it with confidence and panache [ ... ] with a 15 year old engine , without voice acting , in 20 minutes . "
IGN 's Nathan Meunier said the game " gets off to a fascinating start before completely throwing any and all expectations you might form during its first few minutes into the wood chipper . " British video game magazine Edge found Thirty Flights of Loving to be " an intriguing psychological thriller that feels like Wes Anderson taking on Hitchcock . " The magazine added that the game had a " wonderfully ambiguous " story , crafted by replacing dialogue with " artful framing and shrewd gestures , and booting out cutscenes in favour of prickly jump @-@ cuts . " Greek magazine PC Master praised the game 's storytelling and stated that Thirty Flights of Loving " attempts to blur the lines between gaming and art . " Thirty Flights of Loving was a Narrative Award finalist at the 2013 Independent Games Festival . However , Richard Hofmeier 's Cart Life ( 2011 ) became the winner .
= = Sequel = =
A follow @-@ up to Thirty Flights of Loving , Quadrilateral Cowboy , is being developed by Chung . The game takes place in the same universe as Gravity Bone and Thirty Flights of Loving but is not a direct sequel . It follows a hacker who oversees agents who infiltrate buildings and steal documents . Unlike its predecessors , Quadrilateral Cowboy uses id Software 's id Tech 4 engine — originally used for Doom 3 . According to Chung , the new engine provides " a lot more modern functionality " than the earlier engine used in the first two games .
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= Grey currawong =
The grey currawong ( Strepera versicolor ) is a large passerine bird native to southern Australia and Tasmania . One of three currawong species in the genus Strepera , it is closely related to the butcherbirds and Australian magpie of the family Artamidae . It is a large crow @-@ like bird , around 48 cm ( 19 in ) long on average , with yellow irises , and a heavy bill , and dark plumage with white undertail and wing patches . The male and female are similar in appearance . Six subspecies are recognised and are distinguished by overall plumage colour , which ranges from slate @-@ grey for the nominate from New South Wales and eastern Victoria and subspecies plumbea from Western Australia , to sooty black for the clinking currawong of Tasmania and subspecies halmaturina from Kangaroo Island . All grey currawongs have a loud distinctive ringing or clinking call .
Within its range , the grey currawong is generally sedentary , although it is a winter visitor in the southeastern corner of Australia . Comparatively little studied , much of its behaviour and habits is poorly known . Omnivorous , it has a diet that includes a variety of berries , invertebrates , and small vertebrates . Less arboreal than the pied currawong , the grey currawong spends more time foraging on the ground . It builds nests high in trees , which has limited the study of its breeding habits . Unlike its more common relative , it has adapted poorly to human impact and has declined in much of its range . The habitat includes all kinds of forested areas as well as scrubland in dryer parts of the country .
= = Taxonomy and naming = =
The grey currawong was first described as Corvus versicolor by ornithologist John Latham in 1801 , who gave it the common name of " variable crow " . The specific name versicolor means ' of variable colours ' in Latin . Other old common names include grey crow @-@ shrike , leaden crow @-@ shrike , mountain magpie , black @-@ winged currawong ( in western Victoria ) , clinking currawong ( in Tasmania ) , and squeaker ( in Western Australia ) . The black @-@ winged currawong was known to the Ramindjeri people of Encounter Bay as wati @-@ eri , the word meaning " to sneak " or " to track " . Kiling @-@ kildi was a name derived from the call used by the people of the lower Murray River .
Together with the pied currawong ( S. graculina ) and black currawong ( S. fuliginosa ) , the grey currawong forms the genus Strepera . Although crow @-@ like in appearance and habits , currawongs are only distantly related to true crows , and are instead closely related to the Australian magpie and the butcherbirds . The affinities of all three genera were recognised early on and they were placed in the family Cracticidae in 1914 by ornithologist John Albert Leach after he had studied their musculature . Ornithologists Charles Sibley and Jon Ahlquist recognised the close relationship between the woodswallows and the butcherbirds and relatives in 1985 , and combined them into a Cracticini clade , which later became the family Artamidae .
= = = Subspecies = = =
Six subspecies are spread around Australia . They vary extensively in the colour of their plumage , from grey to sooty black , and the amount of white on their wings , and most were at one time considered separate species :
S. v. versicolor , the nominate race , is known as the grey currawong , and is found in New South Wales , the ACT , and eastern and central Victoria , west to Port Phillip on the coast , and to the Grampians inland .
S. v. intermedia , the grey @-@ brown form of South Australia , is also known as the brown currawong . It is found in the Yorke and Eyre Peninsulas , the Gawler and Mount Lofty Ranges and the eastern areas of the Great Australian Bight . The smallest of the six subspecies , it has a shorter wing and tail . Birds in the southern Eyre Peninsula have darker plumage than those in the northern parts . First described by Richard Bowdler Sharpe in 1877 from a specimen collected in Port Lincoln , its specific name is the Latin adjective intermedia " intermediate " .
S. v. arguta , the darkest race , is from eastern Tasmania and is known as the clinking currawong from its call or locally as the black magpie . Sharpe called it the Tasmanian hill @-@ crow . It was first described by John Gould in 1846 . The specific name is the Latin adjective argūtus " shrill / piercing " , " noisy " or " melodious " . Larger and heavier than the nominate subspecies , it has longer wings , tail , bill , and tarsus .
S. v. melanoptera , known as the black @-@ winged currawong , is from western Victoria 's Mallee region and South Australia west to the Mount Lofty Ranges . It can be difficult to distinguish from the black and pied currawongs at any distance . Of similar size and bill @-@ shape to the nominate subspecies , it has a darker blackish @-@ brown plumage and lacks the white wing markings . Birds from much of western Victoria are intermediates between this and the nominate subspecies , often bearing partial white markings on the wings . Similarly , in the western part of its range in South Australia are intermediate with subspecies to the west and also have some paler patches . Named by John Gould in 1846 , its specific name is derived from the Ancient Greek words melano- " black " and pteron " wings " . American ornithologist Dean Amadon observed that birds from northwestern Victoria were lighter in plumage than those of South Australia , and tentatively classified them as a separate subspecies howei . However , he noted they warranted further investigation , and subsequent authorities have not recognised the populations as separate .
S. v. halmaturina is restricted to Kangaroo Island . A dark @-@ plumaged subspecies , it has a longer narrower bill than the nominate race , and is lighter in weight . The specific name is the adjective halmaturina " of Kangaroo Island " . It was first named by Gregory Mathews in 1912 .
S. v. plumbea is found from western South Australia and the southwestern corner of the Northern Territory westwards into Western Australia . It is colloquially known as " squeaker " from the sound of its call . Named by Gould in 1846 , its specific name is the Latin adjective plumběus " leaden " . Very similar in plumage to the nominate subspecies , it differs in its thicker , more downward curved bill . The base plumage is variable , but tends to be slightly darker and possibly more brown @-@ tinged than the nominate subspecies . Amadon noted that a specimen from the Everard Ranges in northwestern South Australia was larger and paler than other specimens of plumbea . Although he considered these Central Australian birds as a separate subspecies centralia , he conceded very little was known . They have been considered part of plumbea subsequently .
= = Description = =
A larger and more slender bird than its more common relative the pied currawong , the adult grey currawong ranges from 44 to 57 cm ( 17 to 22 in ) in length , with an average of around 52 cm ( 20 in ) ; the wingspan varies from 72 to 85 cm ( 28 to 33 in ) , averaging around 78 cm ( 31 in ) , with an average weight of around 350 g ( 12 oz ) . Adults of the Tasmanian subspecies average around 440 g ( 16 oz ) . The male is on average slightly larger than the female , but the size and weight ranges mostly overlap . It is generally a dark grey bird with white in the wing , undertail coverts , the base of the tail and most visibly , the tip of the tail . It has yellow eyes . The orbital ( eye @-@ ring ) , legs and feet are black , whereas the bill and gape range from greyish black to black . The overall plumage varies according to subspecies . The nominate race versicolor and plumbea are slate @-@ grey in colour , while melanoptera and intermedia are blackish @-@ brown , and arguta of Tasmania and halmaturina a sooty black . The size of the white patch on the wing also varies , being large and easily spotted in versicolor , plumbea , intermedia and arguta , but non @-@ existent or indistinct in melanoptera and halmaturina .
More specifically , the nominate subspecies has a grey forehead , crown , nape , ear @-@ coverts and throat with the face a darker grey @-@ black . The feathers of the throat are longer , giving rise to hackles there . The upperparts and underparts are a brownish @-@ grey and become more brown with age . Towards the belly , the feathers are a paler grey . The wings are grey @-@ brown , and the blackish primaries have white edges which merge to form the prominent white wing markings .
Birds appear to moult once a year in spring or summer , although observations have been limited . Young birds spend about a year in juvenile plumage before moulting into adult plumage at around a year old . Juvenile birds have more brown @-@ tinged and uniform plumage ; the darker colour around the lores and eyes are less distinct . Their blackish bill is yellow @-@ tipped , and the gape is yellow . Their eyes are brownish , but turn yellow early . The exact timing is unknown but likely to be around four months of age .
= = = Voice = = =
Unlike that of the pied currawong , the grey currawong 's call does not sound like its name . It is best known for making a sound variously transcribed as p 'rink , clink , cling , ker @-@ link or tullock , either in flight or when gathered in any numbers . The call has been described as very loud and ringing in the Tasmanian and Kangaroo Island subspecies ; Edwin Ashby wrote that in Tasmania it was akin to the squeaking of a wheelbarrow and Gregory Mathews that it was like the kling of an anvil . Elsewhere , their call has been likened to the screech of ungreased metal grinding in Victoria and South Australia ( races versicolor and melanoptera are noted as similar to each other ) , and as a harsh squeak in Western Australia . The clinking call resembles that of the superb lyrebird , which imitates the currawong call at times .
A softer and more tuneful musical call has been called the toy @-@ trumpet call . It has been reported to foretell rainy weather . The loud bell call resembles the clinking call , and is a clear piping sound . Females and young make an insistent repetitive squawking when begging for food from a parent or mate , similar to the begging call of the Australian magpie , and make a gobbling sound when fed .
= = = Similar species = = =
The grey currawong is unlikely to be confused with other species apart from other currawongs . It is immediately distinguishable from crows and ravens as they have wholly black plumage , a stockier build and white ( rather than yellow ) eyes . However , it can be encountered in mixed @-@ species flocks with the pied currawong . It can be distinguished by its paler plumage , lack of white base to the tail , straighter bill , and very different vocalisations . In northwestern Victoria , the black @-@ winged currawong ( subspecies melanoptera ) has a darker plumage than other grey subspecies , and is thus more similar in appearance to the pied currawong , but its wings lack the white primaries of the latter species . In Tasmania , the black currawong is similar but has a heavier bill and call similar to the pied and lacks the white rump .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
Grey currawongs are found right across the southern part of Australia from the Central Coast region of New South Wales , occurring south of latitude 32 ° S southwards and westwards , from the vicinity of Mudgee in the north and southwest to Temora and Albury onto the Riverina and across most of Victoria and southern South Australia to the fertile south @-@ west corner of Western Australia and the semi @-@ arid country surrounding it . The clinking subspecies is endemic to Tasmania , where it is more common in the eastern parts , but is absent from King and Flinders Islands in Bass Strait . There is an outlying population in the arid area where the Northern Territory meets South Australia and Western Australia . In general , the grey currawong is sedentary throughout its range , although it appears to be resident in the cooler months only in south Gippsland in eastern Victoria and the far south coast of New South Wales .
The grey currawong is found in wet and dry sclerophyll forests across its range , as well as mallee scrubland , and open areas such as parks or farmland near forested areas . It also inhabits pine plantations . Preferences vary between regions ; subspecies versicolor is more common in wetter forests in southeastern mainland Australia , while the Tasmanian subspecies arguta is found most commonly in lowland dry sclerophyll forest . The subspecies melanoptera and intermedia are found mainly in mallee scrublands and woodlands , while in Western Australia , subspecies plumbea is found in various forests and woodlands , such as jarrah ( Eucalyptus marginata ) , karri ( E. diversicolor ) , tuart ( E. gomphocephala ) and wandoo ( E. wandoo ) , as well as paperbark woodlands around swampy areas , and acacia shrublands dominated by summer @-@ scented wattle ( Acacia rostellifera ) and mulga ( Acacia aneura ) with Eremophila understory .
The grey currawong appears to have declined across its distribution ; formerly common , it became scarce in northern Victoria in the 1930s , and in northeastern Victoria in the 1960s . Habitat destruction has seen it decline in southeastern South Australia around Naracoorte and from many areas in the Western Australian Wheatbelt . It also became rare in the Margaret River and Cape Naturaliste regions after 1920 , and vanished from much of the Swan Coastal Plain by the 1940s . One place which has seen an increase in numbers is the Mount Lofty Ranges in the 1960s . The species has never been common in the Sydney Basin and sightings have been uncommon and scattered since the time of John Gould in the early 19th century . The status of the species is uncertain in the Northern Territory , where it may be extinct . It has been classified as critically endangered there pending further information .
= = Behaviour = =
Overall , data on the social behaviour of the grey currawong is lacking , and roosting habits are unknown . It is generally shyer and more wary than its pied relative , but has become more accustomed to people in areas of high human activity in southwest Western Australia . Its undulating flight is rapid and silent . It hops or runs when on the ground . Birds are generally encountered singly or in pairs , but may forage in groups of three to eleven birds . Up to forty birds may gather to harvest a fruit tree if one is found . The black @-@ winged subspecies is seldom seen in groups larger than four or five , while the clinking currawong may form groups of up to forty birds over the non @-@ breeding season .
There is some evidence of territoriality , as birds in the Wheatbelt maintain territories year @-@ round there . The grey currawong has been recorded harassing larger birds such as the wedge @-@ tailed eagle , square @-@ tailed kite and Australian hobby . The species has been observed bathing by shaking its wings in water at ponds , as well as applying clay to its plumage after washing .
Two species of chewing louse have been isolated and described from grey currawongs : ( Menacanthus dennisi ) from subspecies halmaturina on Kangaroo Island in South Australia , and Australophilopterus strepericus from subspecies arguta near Launceston in Tasmania . A new species of spirurian nematode , Microtetrameres streperae isolated from a grey currawong at Waikerie was described in 1977 .
= = = Feeding = = =
The grey currawong is an omnivorous and opportunistic feeder . It preys on many invertebrates , such as snails , spiders and woodlice , and a wide variety of insects including beetles , earwigs , cockroaches , wasps , ants and grasshoppers , and smaller vertebrates , including frogs , lizards such as the bearded dragon as well as skinks , rats , mice , and nestlings or young of Tasmanian nativehen , red wattlebird , eastern spinebill , house sparrow ( Passer domesticus ) , and splendid fairywren ( M. splendens ) , It has been recorded hunting at the nests of the superb fairywren ( Malurus cyaneus ) , and the bell miner ( Manorina melanophrys ) .
A wide variety of plant material is also consumed , including the fruit or berries of Ficus species , Leucopogon species , Exocarpos species , a cycad Macrozamia riedlei , a mistletoe Lysiana exocarpi , Astroloma humifusum , A. pinifolium , Myoporum insulare , Enchylaena tomentosa and Coprosma quadrifida . The grey currawong also eats berries of introduced plants such as Pyracantha angustifolia and P. fortuneana , and Cotoneaster species , and crops such as maize , apples , pears , quince , various stone fruit of the genus Prunus , grapes , tomato , passion flowers , and the nectar of gymea lily ( Doryanthes excelsa ) . On Kangaroo Island , the grey currawong has been identified as the main vector for the spread of bridal creeper ( Asparagus asparagoides ) . Boneseed ( Chrysanthemoides monilifera subspecies monilifera ) , another invasive species readily dispersed in bird droppings , is also consumed by grey currawongs . In Tasmania , A. pinifolium is especially popular , and one observer noted that the normally noisy birds became quiet and sluggish after eating it , prompting him to wonder whether the plant had a narcotic effect on the birds .
Foraging takes place on the ground , or less commonly in trees or shrubs . Most commonly the grey currawong probes the ground for prey , but sometimes chases more mobile animals . It has been recorded removing insects from parked cars , as well as employing the zirkeln method , where it inserts its bill in a crack or under a rock and uses it to lever open a wider space to hunt prey . In one case , a bird was observed holding bark off the branch of a eucalypt and levering open gaps every 4 to 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 5 to 2 in ) with its bill . The grey currawong usually swallows prey whole , although one bird was observed impaling a rodent on a stick and eating parts of it , in the manner of a butcherbird . A field study on road ecology in southwestern Australia revealed that the grey currawong is unusual in inhabiting cleared areas adjacent to roads . However , it was not recorded feeding on roadkill , and moves away from the area in breeding season . It was also commonly hit and killed by vehicles .
= = = Breeding = = =
The breeding habits of the grey currawong are not well known , and the inaccessibility of its nests makes study difficult . The breeding season lasts from August to December . The grey currawong builds a large shallow nest of thin sticks lined with grass and bark high in trees ; generally eucalypts are chosen . It produces a clutch of one to five ( though usually two or three ) rounded or tapered oval eggs , which vary in size and colour according to subspecies . Those of subspecies versicolor average 30 mm × 43 mm ( 1 @.@ 2 in × 1 @.@ 7 in ) in size and are a pale brown or buff with shades of pink or wine tones , and are marked with streaks or splotches of darker brown , purple @-@ brown , slate @-@ grey or even blue @-@ tinged . Those of the black @-@ winged currawong are similarly sized at 30 mm × 41 mm ( 1 @.@ 2 in × 1 @.@ 6 in ) and are buff or flesh @-@ coloured with a purple tint and marked with darker browns or purple @-@ browns . The clinking currawong lays larger and paler eggs of dull white , pale grey or buff with a faint wine @-@ colour tint , and marked with darker tones of purple- , grey- or blue @-@ tinged brown , which average 31 mm × 46 mm ( 1 @.@ 2 in × 1 @.@ 8 in ) . The eggs of the brown currawong are also pale wine @-@ tinted brown , buff , or cream with darker markings of cinnamon , brown or purple @-@ brown , and measure 29 mm × 42 mm ( 1 @.@ 1 in × 1 @.@ 7 in ) . Finally , the western subspecies lays eggs averaging 31 mm × 43 mm ( 1 @.@ 2 in × 1 @.@ 7 in ) in size which are pale shades of red @-@ brown or wine @-@ colour , with darker red @-@ brown markings . In all subspecies , the markings can coalesce over the larger end of the egg to form a darker ' cap ' . The incubation period is poorly known because of the difficulty of observing nests , but one observation suggested around 23 days from laying to hatching . Like all passerines , the chicks are born naked , and blind ( altricial ) , and remain in the nest for an extended period ( nidicolous ) . Both parents feed the young .
Data on nesting success rates is limited ; one study of 35 nests found 28 ( 80 % ) resulted in the fledging of at least one young currawong . Causes of failure included nest collapse by gale @-@ force winds and rain , and harassment and nest raiding by pied currawongs . The incidence of brood parasitism is uncertain . A pair of grey currawongs have been observed feeding a channel @-@ billed cuckoo ( Scythrops novaehollandiae ) chick on one occasion .
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= Jordan Eberle =
Jordan Leslie Eberle ( born May 15 , 1990 ) is a Canadian professional ice hockey right winger and alternate captain currently playing for the Edmonton Oilers of the National Hockey League ( NHL ) . He was selected in the first round , 22nd overall , in the 2008 NHL Entry Draft .
During his four @-@ year junior career with the Regina Pats of the Western Hockey League ( WHL ) , he won the CHL Player of the Year Award in 2010 , the Doc Seaman Trophy as the scholastic player of the year in 2008 and was a two @-@ time First Team East All @-@ Star in 2008 and 2010 . In his second season in the NHL , Eberle was named to the All @-@ Star Game and led the Oilers in goal- and point @-@ scoring .
Internationally , Eberle has competed for Canada in two World Junior Championships , winning gold and silver in 2009 and 2010 , respectively . He was named Tournament MVP and Best Forward at the 2010 World Junior Championships and is tied with Brayden Schenn as Canada 's second all @-@ time leading scorer at the tournament with 26 points . Both are 5 behind Eric Lindros ' 31 points . TSN named him the best Canadian World Junior Player ever , being the only player to have earned points in all 12 career games played , the longest career scoring streak in team history by five games .
= = Hockey career = =
= = = Minor = = =
Eberle played novice with Hockey Regina 's tier @-@ 1 Kings and amassed 216 goals over sixty games in 1999 – 2000 . He went on to play Bantam AAA for the Athol Murray College of Notre Dame in Wilcox , Saskatchewan , as a fourteen @-@ year @-@ old . After being selected by his hometown major junior team , the Regina Pats of the Western Hockey League ( WHL ) , in the seventh round ( 126th overall ) of the 2005 WHL Bantam Draft , Eberle joined the midget ranks with the Calgary Buffaloes of the Alberta Midget Hockey League ( AMHL ) . He won a bronze medal with the Buffaloes at the 2006 Mac 's Midget Hockey Tournament , scoring two goals in the bronze @-@ medal game against the Prince Albert Mintos . He helped his team qualify for the 2006 Telus Cup national midget championship , where the Buffaloes lost a 5 – 4 triple @-@ overtime game in the final against the Mintos . Eberle scored a goal in the losing effort and was awarded the Most Sportsmanlike Award for the tournament .
= = = Regina Pats = = =
Eberle debuted with the Pats in 2006 – 07 , scoring 55 points and a team @-@ high 28 goals as a rookie . He added two goals and seven points in six games against the Swift Current Broncos in the opening round of the 2007 WHL playoffs , but was sidelined for the entirety of the second round against the Medicine Hat Tigers with a virus . Eberle started his second major junior season by earning WHL Player of the Month honours for October 2007 , totaling sixteen goals and 26 points over sixteen games for the Pats . He had missed two games early in the season with tonsillitis , before scoring a hat trick in his return on October 6 , 2007 , against the Moose Jaw Warriors . Eberle later represented Team WHL against Russia in the 2007 ADT Canada @-@ Russia Challenge in late November . Midway through the season , he was chosen to compete in the 2008 CHL Top Prospects Game in Edmonton .
Eberle finished 2007 – 08 with a team @-@ high 42 goals and 75 points . His 42 goals accounted for one @-@ fifth of his team 's scoring and marked the first time a Pats player hit the forty @-@ goal mark since Matt Hubbauer scored 48 in 2001 – 02 . It also tied for fourth in league scoring with Drayson Bowman of the Spokane Chiefs . He was selected to the WHL East First All @-@ Star Team and received the Doc Seaman Trophy as WHL Scholastic Player of the Year ( beating out defenceman Jared Cowen of the Spokane Chiefs ) .
Eberle had started the 2007 – 08 season ranked seventh among WHL skaters in the NHL Central Scouting Bureau 's preliminary rankings for the 2008 NHL Entry Draft . At mid @-@ season , he was ranked 24th among North American skaters , then dropped to 33rd in the NHL CSS 's final rankings . Director of NHL Central Scouting E. J. McGuire described Eberle as a scorer whose strengths are his skating and stickhandling . He was selected in the first round , 22nd overall , by the Edmonton Oilers . Having grown up in Regina , Eberle was a childhood fan of the Oilers , even after his family moved to Calgary at fourteen years old . After being selected , he commented in an interview , " If I had to pick one pick , [ the Oilers ] would have been it . "
Eberle competed in his second ADT Canada – Russia Challenge for Team WHL in 2008 . After completing the 2008 – 09 WHL season with a team @-@ leading 74 points in 61 games , Eberle was signed to a three @-@ year , entry @-@ level contract with the Oilers on March 23 , 2009 .
Competing for a roster spot with the Oilers in the 2009 training camp , Eberle was one of the final cuts . He was returned to the Pats on September 27 , 2009 , and reeled off 25 points in twelve games to be named WHL Player of the Month for September and October . He was named to Team WHL for the 2009 Subway Super Series ( formerly known as the ADT Canada – Russia Challenge ) and was selected as an alternate captain to Pats teammate Colten Teubert for Game 5 . Eberle finished the 2009 – 10 WHL season second in league scoring with 106 points in 57 games ( one point behind Brandon Kozun of the Calgary Hitmen in eight fewer games ) and was a unanimous selection to his second WHL East First All @-@ Star Team in three years . He was the first member of the Pats to score 50 goals and record 100 points since Ronald Petrovický during the 1997 – 98 season . Eberle finished his career with the Pats seventh all @-@ time in franchise goal scoring with 155 and twelfth in points with 310 . Eberle was named the Regina Pats Player of the Year , Most Sportsmanlike Player and the Most Popular player after the 2009 – 10 season . Despite the Pats ' disappointing season as a team , Eberle was selected as the winner of the Four Broncos Memorial Trophy as WHL Player of the Year , defeating Western Conference nominee Craig Cunningham of the Vancouver Giants . He was later named CHL Player of the Year , beating out the Ontario Hockey League ( OHL ) and Quebec Major Junior Hockey League ( QMJHL ) nominees Tyler Seguin and Mike Hoffman , respectively . It marked the third time a Pats player won the award , after Ed Staniowski in 1975 and Doug Wickenheiser in 1980 .
In recognition of his outstanding junior hockey career , the Pats retired Eberle 's number 7 on December 5 , 2012 .
= = = Edmonton Oilers = = =
Soon after signing a professional contract with the Oilers in 2009 , Eberle was assigned to the teams ' minor league affiliate , the Springfield Falcons of the American Hockey League ( AHL ) , for the remainder of the 2008 – 09 season . He scored his first professional goal in his third game with the Falcons , a 4 – 3 loss to the Portland Pirates , on March 29 , 2009 . He went on to tally three goals and nine points in nine games . Eberle was again assigned to the Falcons after finishing the 2009 – 10 season with the Pats . He notched six goals and 14 points in the Falcons ' last 11 games of the regular season .
Eberle made his NHL debut with the Oilers on October 7 , 2010 , against the Calgary Flames . He recorded his first goal , on the penalty kill in the third period , deking past defenceman Ian White on a two @-@ on @-@ one before scoring on a backhand deke past goaltender Miikka Kiprusoff . The goal was later voted by fans as the NHL 's Goal of the Year on the League 's Facebook page , as well as Play of the Year on The Sports Network 's website . He later added an assist on the powerplay , taking a shot that deflected off teammate Shawn Horcoff 's shinpads . The Oilers went on to win the game 4 – 0 . Eberle was named the first star of the game . Later in the season , Eberle suffered a high ankle sprain after colliding with opposing forward Aleš Kotalík during a game against the Flames on January 1 , 2011 . While sidelined with the injury , he underwent an unrelated emergency appendectomy four days later . Missing 13 games with his ankle injury , he returned to action in early February . During a game against the Vancouver Canucks late in the season , on April 5 , Eberle received a hit to the head from opposing forward Raffi Torres . While Eberle was not injured on the play , Torres received a four @-@ game suspension for the hit . Eberle finished the season with 43 points ( 18 goals and 25 assists ) in 69 games , leading his team in scoring and ranking sixth among league rookies . Though the Oilers finished with the worst record in the NHL for the second straight year , expectations remained high in Edmonton for the future of the team , as Eberle 's success as a rookie was matched by the performance of fellow first @-@ year forwards Taylor Hall and Magnus Pääjärvi .
During his second NHL season , Eberle sustained a sprained knee after colliding with Dallas Stars forward Jamie Benn during a game on January 7 , 2012 . At the time of the injury , Eberle was among the league 's top scorers and six points behind the league 's leader . Despite his success , he was left off the 2012 NHL All @-@ Star Game roster , which was selected while he was sidelined . Several members within the Oilers organization were outspoken regarding the omission , including captain Shawn Horcoff and Head Coach Tom Renney , to which the League replied that Eberle would have been selected had he not been injured . By January 19 , Eberle returned to the Oilers lineup after missing four games . Five days later , he was nonetheless named as an All @-@ Star replacement for the injured Mikko Koivu . Eberle was selected to Team Chara as part of the All @-@ Star Fantasy Draft and went on to record an assist in the squad 's 12 – 9 win against Team Alfredsson . The following month , Eberle recorded his 100th career NHL point on February 21 , 2012 , with a goal and two assists in a 6 – 1 victory over the Calgary Flames . He finished his second NHL season leading with a team @-@ leading 34 goals , 42 assists and 76 points . Among league scorers , he ranked 16th in goals and points . The Oilers continued to struggle as a team , however , and finished 14th in the Western Conference with 32 wins and 74 points .
On April 23 , 2012 , Eberle was nominated for the Lady Byng Memorial Trophy , along with Florida Panthers Brian Campbell and New York Islanders Matt Moulson .
On August 30 , 2012 , Eberle signed a six @-@ year , $ 36 million contract extension with the Oilers .
During the 2012 – 13 NHL lockout , Eberle played for the Oklahoma City Barons of the AHL and at the time the lockout was resolved , Eberle was leading the League with 25 goals and 51 points . This led Eberle to become AHL Player of the Month for two consecutive months .
On February 11 , 2016 , Eberle scored his first career hat @-@ trick against the Toronto Maple Leafs . All three goals were assisted by Connor McDavid . This also happened to be the final hat @-@ trick scored at Rexall Place .
= = International play = =
Eberle represented Alberta at the 2007 Canada Games in Whitehorse , Yukon . He notched two goals and an assist in the bronze medal game against British Columbia in Alberta 's 4 – 3 win . He finished the tournament with six goals and five assists in five games played to place eighth in tournament scoring . Several months later , Eberle played for Team Canada 's under @-@ 18 team at the 2007 Ivan Hlinka Memorial Tournament , but failed to register a point as Canada was kept from a medal . He continued with the national under @-@ 18 team the following year at the 2008 IIHF World U18 Championships in Russia . He began the tournament by earning player of the game honours with a two @-@ goal effort in the first round @-@ robin game against Germany — a 9 – 2 win for Canada . He later notched two goals and an assist in an 8 – 0 gold medal game win to help Canada to their first tournament championship in five years . Eberle finished the tournament with ten points in seven games , second in team scoring to Cody Hodgson .
In his third WHL season , Eberle was selected to the Team Canada 's under @-@ 20 team for the 2009 World Junior Championships in Ottawa . In the semi @-@ finals , on January 3 , 2009 , Eberle was named player of the game after scoring two goals and the shootout @-@ winner against Russia in a 6 – 5 win . Eberle dramatically scored his second goal of the night with just 5 @.@ 4 seconds left in regulation to force extra time and the eventual shootout , in which he shot first and scored . Defeating Sweden 5 – 1 in the final , Eberle helped Canada to a record @-@ tying fifth straight gold medal and was named by the coaching staff as one of the team 's best three players . At the conclusion of the tournament , Eberle was third in tournament scoring with 13 points ( six goals , seven assists ) .
The following year , Eberle was named to his second national junior team for the 2010 World Junior Championships in his hometown Regina , Saskatchewan . He was selected as an alternate captain to Patrice Cormier along with fellow returnees Colten Teubert , Alex Pietrangelo and Stefan Della Rovere . He was named player of the game against Switzerland in the second game of the round @-@ robin — a 6 – 0 win — with a five @-@ point game ( one goal , four assists ) . Two games later , he notched two goals in regulation ( one of which began a two @-@ goal comeback late in the third period ) and one in the shootout against the United States in the final game of the round @-@ robin to earn his second player of the game honour of the tournament . Canada later met the United States again in the gold medal game . Down 5 – 3 with three minutes to go in regulation , Eberle scored twice to force overtime . His tying goal with 1 : 35 left made him Canada 's all @-@ time leading goal scorer in the tournament with 14 goals , passing John Tavares ' mark set the previous year . Canada eventually lost in overtime , earning silver and ending their five @-@ year gold medal streak .
At the conclusion of the tournament , Eberle finished tied for the tournament lead in goals with André Petersson of Sweden and was second in points to Derek Stepan of the United States . He was voted as the Most Valuable Player and Top Forward . He was also named to the tournament All @-@ Star Team by the media and named one of Canada 's top three players by the coaches . Three days after the gold medal game , Regina Mayor Pat Fiacco proclaimed January 8 , 2010 , as " Jordan Eberle and Colten Teubert Day " in the city for their efforts in the tournament .
On April 16 , 2010 , Eberle was named to Team Canada as an alternate for the 2010 IIHF World Championship in Germany . After injuries to Ryan Smyth and Steve Stamkos in the preliminary round , he debuted with Canada 's men 's team on May 14 , 2010 , versus Norway . Eberle scored a goal and assisted on three others to earn the Player of the Game Award in a 12 – 1 Canadian victory . He played in three more games without any points as Canada finished in seventh place with a loss to Russia in the quarter @-@ final .
Following his NHL rookie season , Eberle joined the Canadian men 's team for the second consecutive year for the 2011 IIHF World Championship in Slovakia . During the preliminary round , Eberle scored a goal in a contest against Switzerland to be named player of the game . In a game against the United States during the qualifying round , Eberle scored in a shootout , helping Canada to a 4 – 3 win , while also temporarily tying them for the lead in their pool . Canada went on to top their pool , but lost 2 – 1 in the quarter @-@ final against Russia for the second consecutive year . Scoring four times over seven tournament games ( no assists ) , Eberle tied for second in team goal @-@ scoring , behind John Tavares .
At the 2015 World Championships , where Canada won the gold medal for the first time since 2007 with a perfect 10 @-@ 0 record , Eberle finished second in scoring with 5 goals and 8 assists , one point behind tournament leader Jason Spezza .
= = Personal life = =
Eberle was born to Darren and Lisa Eberle in Regina , Saskatchewan . His dad coached him on his minor hockey teams growing up . He has two sisters , Ashley and Whitney , and a younger brother , Dustin . He attended high school at the Athol Murray College of Notre Dame in Wilcox , Saskatchewan , before moving to Calgary , Alberta , at age 15 with his parents and three siblings . He returned to Regina to play junior hockey for the Regina Pats and attended Archbishop M.C. O 'Neill High School during the hockey season . He went on to graduate from Bishop O 'Byrne Senior High School in Calgary in June 2008 .
Eberle has a cousin , Derek Eberle , who also played junior for the Pats from 1990 to 1993 . His brother Dustin was drafted by the Pats in the 12th round , 248th overall , of the 2007 WHL Bantam Draft .
Eberle has been in a relationship with his girlfriend Lauren since 2007 .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Regular season and playoffs = = =
= = = International = = =
= = Awards = =
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= Kylie Gauci =
Kylie Gauci ( born 1 January 1985 ) is an Australian Paralympic 2 @-@ point wheelchair basketball player . She participated in the 2004 Summer Paralympics in Athens , where she won a silver medal ; in the 2008 Summer Paralympics in Beijing , where she won a bronze medal , and the 2012 Summer Paralympics in London , where she won a second silver medal . Gauci represented Australia at the 2002 , 2006 and 2010 World Championships , and was named to the World All Star 5 at the World Championships in Amsterdam in 2006 . She has played over 180 international games .
Playing with the Hill 's Hornets , Gauci was named the Women 's National Wheelchair Basketball League ( WNWBL ) ' s Most Valuable Player ( MVP ) 2 Pointer and named to the All Star Five on five consecutive occasions . In 2006 she switched to the North 's Bears , now known as the Stacks Goudkamp Bears , and was named MVP 2 Pointer and All Star Five six times in a row .
= = Personal = =
Gauci was born on 1 January 1985 . She was born with lumbar sacral agenesis , meaning that she is missing the lower part of her spine . In 2008 and 2009 , she was the Australian Paralympic Committee 's New South Wales Assistant . As of 2012 , she lives in Rooty Hill , New South Wales .
= = Basketball = =
Gauci is an Australian Paralympic wheelchair basketball 2 @-@ point player . She began competing in 1996 when she was eleven years old , and was inspired to play for the Australia women 's national wheelchair basketball team after watching their performance at the 2000 Sydney Paralympics . She enjoys the physical aspects of the game : " I 'm a big fan of the big hits in rugby league . The aggression in wheelchair basketball is not as fierce , but it 's as close as I 'm likely to get . " Her 2008 national team coach Gerry Hewson said , " She 's got a really good outside game and she can get inside and mix it with the best . "
While still a member of the New South Wales women 's junior representative team , Gauci played with a New South Wales State team in a warm @-@ up game against the Australia women 's national wheelchair basketball team in the lead up to the 2000 Summer Paralympics .
In financial year 2012 / 13 , the Australian Sports Commission gave her a A $ 20 @,@ 000 grant as part of their Direct Athlete Support program . She received $ 17 @,@ 000 in 2010 / 11 and again in 2011 / 12 and $ 5 @,@ 571 @.@ 42 in 2009 / 10 . In 2012 , she had a scholarship with the New South Wales Institute of Sport .
= = = Club = = =
She played for the Hills Hornets in 2000 , when they finished second in the Women 's National Wheelchair basketball League ( WNWBL ) final , losing 51 – 50 to the Victorian Women . With the Hornets , she was named the WNWBL 's Most Valuable Player ( MVP ) 2 Pointer and named to the All Star Five in 2001 , 2002 , 2003 , 2004 and 2005 . In 2006 she switched to the North 's Bears , now known as the Stacks Goudkamp Bears , and was named 2 Pointer MVP and All Star Five in 2006 , 2007 , 2008 , 2009 , 2010 and 2011 .
Since 2008 , she has played for the Wenty WheelKings in the National Wheelchair Basketball League ( NWBL ) . She also plays for the Stacks Goudkamp Bears in the WNWBL . In 2012 , as a member of the Stacks Goudkamp Bears , she was the WNWBL 's MVP 2 Pointer and named to the All Star Five for the twelfth year running . Her team finished second , losing 77 – 54 to the Victoria Dandenong Rangers in the WNWBL 's championship game .
= = = National team = = =
Gauci first played for the Australian junior national team when she was fourteen years old . She joined the national team , known as the Gliders , in 2002 , when she was 17 years old . She played in a four @-@ game test series in Canberra against Japan in March , the first Australian hosted international for the team since the 2000 Summer Paralympics . She was then selected to play at the 2002 World Cup event in Japan .
Gauci represented Australia as a member of the Gliders at the 2002 , 2006 and 2010 World Championships , where they finished fourth each time . She was named to the World All Star 5 at the World Championships in Amsterdam in 2006 . She was selected to participate in a national team training camp in 2010 , and was a member of the team that played in the Osaka Cup in 2009 . She has played over 180 international games .
= = = = Paralympics = = = =
Gauci competed with the team at the 2004 Summer Paralympics in Athens and 2008 Summer Paralympics in Beijing , where she won a silver and bronze medal respectively . The 2004 Games were her debut Games . She also played in the 2012 Summer Paralympics . In the group stage , the Australia women 's national wheelchair basketball team at the 2012 Summer Paralympics posted wins against Brazil , Great Britain , and the Netherlands , but lost to the Canada . This was enough to advance the Gliders to the quarter @-@ finals , where they beat Mexico . The Gliders then defeated the United States by a point to set up a final clash with Germany . The Gliders lost 44 – 58 , and earned a silver medal . Gauci scored 15 points with 4 rebounds . She was the only player on her team to score a three @-@ point field goal in the whole series , scoring two of them .
= = Statistics = =
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= 1986 Chalfant Valley earthquake =
The 1986 Chalfant Valley earthquake struck southern Mono County near Bishop and Chalfant , California at 07 : 42 : 28 Pacific Daylight Time on July 21 . With a moment magnitude of 6 @.@ 2 and a maximum Mercalli intensity of VI ( Strong ) , the shock injured two people and caused property damage estimated at $ 2 @.@ 7 million in the affected areas . There was a significant foreshock and aftershock sequence that included a few moderate events , and was the last in a series of three earthquakes that affected southern California and the northern Owens Valley in July 1986 .
Strong motion stations at the Long Valley Dam and an instrumented building in Bishop captured light to moderate readings from the event . The faulting reached the surface of the ground , but the maximum amount of measurable slip was limited to about 11 centimeters ( 4 @.@ 3 in ) of strike @-@ slip motion along the White Mountain Fault Zone . Other destructive and surface @-@ rupturing earthquakes , as well as large volume volcanic eruptions , have occurred in the area . Although the series of shocks occurred within the White Mountain seismic gap , the region continues to have potential for a very large earthquake .
= = Preface = =
July 1986 was an unusually active month for moderate to strong earthquakes in California , with three events occurring in less than two weeks , each with mild to moderate effects . The first of these shocks came on July 8 with a M6.0 event on the Banning fault near Palm Springs and the second event occurred off the coast of Oceanside as a M5.8 shock on July 13 . While the earthquake off the southern California coast occurred in an area thought to be capable of generating a tsunami , the earthquake near Palm Springs occurred on a portion of the southern San Andreas Fault system that has been designated a seismic gap , and is a likely location for a very large earthquake . The same seismic gap theory ( regarding the potential for a future large earthquake ) had also been presented for the White Mountains area near Chalfant .
= = Tectonic setting = =
The Owens Valley , located at the western boundary of the Basin and Range Province , is confined by the Sierra Nevada mountain range to the west and the White @-@ Inyo Mountains to the east . The valley was brought about by active tectonics over the last 2 – 4 million years , and was the scene of a very large earthquake in 1872 that generated surface rupture from Lone Pine in the south to as far north as Big Pine , a distance of approximately 100 kilometers ( 62 mi ) . Other large , surface rupturing events in 1915 , 1932 , and 1954 delineate the Eastern California – Central Nevada seismic zone .
As no large earthquake has occurred between the southern extent of the 1932 Cedar Mountain earthquake 's rupture and the northern extent of the 1872 Lone Pine earthquake 's rupture in the south ( a distance of 130 km ( 81 mi ) ) , the zone has been labeled the White Mountain seismic gap . The 1934 M6.3 Excelsior Mountains earthquake and the 1986 Chalfant Valley event were several smaller earthquakes that have occurred within the gap , and both generated limited surface faulting and some surface cracking in the Volcanic Tableland , which was created .7 mya from a major volcanic eruption that also formed the Long Valley Caldera northwest of Bishop . An estimated 500 cubic kilometers of material ( tephra ) produced in the event covers the northern Owens Valley as a rocky landform . The surface of the layered plateau is known as Bishop Tuff and features fumarole mounds and hundreds of north @-@ south oriented fault scarps , many of which are visible on topographic maps , via aerial photography , and satellite imagery .
= = Foreshocks = =
The University of Nevada , Reno ( UNR ) and the United States Geological Survey ( USGS ) both operated seismograph networks in the region where the Chalfant Valley earthquake sequence occurred . The data that was captured was transmitted in real time to Reno , Nevada and Menlo Park , California and was digitized for later examination . The foreshock activity was found to have begun eighteen days prior to the main event on July 3 , with the onset of a 3 @.@ 5 event ( local magnitude ) . Activity increased on July 18 with several doublets then reduced again in the hours prior to the primary M5.7 ( intensity V ( Moderate ) ) foreshock on July 20 . All forty events that were recorded by the UNR and USGS stations before that event were within 2 km ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) its epicenter , and another 132 events that were considered to be its aftershocks were documented in the remaining 24 hours leading up to the mainshock . One of these events , just over two hours after the primary foreshock , reached M4.7 with an intensity of IV ( Light ) .
= = Earthquake = =
The mainshock occurred at 07 : 42 : 26 on July 21 and caused the most damage in the sequence of events . The shock measured 6 @.@ 2 Mw as measured by the International Seismological Centre and originated at a depth of approximately 10 @.@ 8 kilometers ( 6 @.@ 7 mi ) . The focal mechanisms of the three largest events ( the July 20 foreshock , the mainshock , and the largest aftershock ) were primarily strike @-@ slip with a minor amount of normal @-@ slip and were especially well @-@ constrained due to the dense array of seismometers in the area that were operated by the UNR and the USGS . The primary foreshock 's preferred fault plane solution indicated left @-@ lateral slip on a fault striking N25 ° E , but neither the mainshock nor the largest aftershock conformed with their right @-@ lateral slip striking N25 ° W and N15 ° W respectively .
= = = Damage = = =
In Bishop , windows were shattered and ceiling tiles fell in several buildings , and a portion of the brick facade at the First Sierra bank building fell onto the sidewalk . A Burger King restaurant had part of its ceiling come down . Northwest of Bishop , a portion of U.S. Route 395 was blocked temporarily by a landslide . Campers were briefly trapped at the Pleasant Valley Reservoir when a 150 ft ( 46 m ) section of an access road was destroyed as a result of land movement . Both injuries that were reported occurred to the north in Chalfant Valley ( minor cuts and injuries from falling objects ) where 53 mobile homes were knocked off their foundations and two homes were destroyed . Nearly all the buildings in that small town were affected , with water and sewer lines broken there as well .
Many of the mobile homes were able to be remounted on their foundations , but 18 – 20 of the homes were unable to be repaired . The overall damage from the event was compared with the other events in southern California . While the Oceanside shock caused $ 200 @,@ 000 in damage , the Palm Springs event caused an estimated $ 8 million in damage . Damage in from the Chalfant Valley event was estimated at $ 2 @.@ 7 million .
= = = Surface faulting = = =
Ground fractures that were deemed to be tectonic in nature were documented on about 10 @.@ 5 kilometers ( 6 @.@ 5 mi ) of the White Mountain Fault Zone from Silver Creek to Piute Creek . The cracks trended 350 ° and a maximum right @-@ lateral slip of about 11 centimeters ( 4 @.@ 3 in ) was measured , though other vertical ( downslope ) or extensional movement was also seen , especially on the 150 m ( 500 ft ) -thick surface of the Bishop Tuff in the Volcanic Tableland . There , the largest displacements were seen in the vicinity of Casa Diablo Mountain . The cracks were found primarily in loose sand , which made measurements difficult .
= = = Strong motion = = =
The foreshock , mainshock , and the two largest aftershocks were recorded by strong motion stations that were operated by the California Strong Motion Instrumentation Program ( CSMIP ) and the USGS . A total of 36 seismograms were captured from 11 stations , including a two story steel frame building , the Long Valley Dam , and several free field stations . The Chalfant strong motion station recorded the largest horizontal accelerations for the foreshock , mainshock , and the July 21 M5.6 aftershock of .28g , .46g , and .17g. The instruments at the building on North Main street in Bishop recorded all four shocks and indicated .25g at ground level and .4g on the roof , both during the mainshock . The station at the earthen Long Valley Dam had produced many quality recordings since being put into operation in 1979 and saw mainshock accelerations of .09g on bedrock , and .24g on an upper abutment .
= = Aftershocks = =
The day of the main event two aftershocks occurred ( 5 @.@ 6 at 14 : 51 and 5 @.@ 4 at 22 : 07 ) but the initial shock was V ( Moderate ) on the Mercalli intensity scale and the second event was felt only . Ten days following the mainshock on July 31 , a stronger aftershock occurred with a local magnitude of 5 @.@ 8 and a maximum Mercalli intensity of VI ( Strong ) . That aftershock was felt in California and western Nevada , broke windows and knocked items of shelves in Bishop , and light fixtures were damaged at the National Weather Service office .
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= Sibyl de Neufmarché =
Sibyl de Neufmarché , Countess of Hereford , suo jure Lady of Brecknock ( c . 1100 – after 1143 ) , was a Cambro @-@ Norman noblewoman , heiress to one of the most substantial fiefs in the Welsh Marches . The great @-@ granddaughter of Gruffydd ap Llywelyn , king of Wales , Sibyl was also connected to the nobility of England and Normandy . Sibyl inherited the titles and lands of her father , Bernard de Neufmarché , Lord of Brecon , after her mother , Nest ferch Osbern , had declared her brother Mahel to have been illegitimate . Most of these estates passed to Sibyl 's husband , Miles de Gloucester , 1st Earl of Hereford , as her dowry . Their marriage had been arranged personally by King Henry I of England in the spring of 1121 . Sibyl , with her extensive lands , was central to the King 's plans of consolidating Anglo @-@ Norman power in south @-@ east Wales by the merging of her estates with those of Miles , his loyal subject on whom he relied to implement Crown policy .
As an adult , Sibyl lived through King Stephen 's turbulent reign , known to history as the Anarchy , in which her husband played a pivotal role . Following Miles ' accidental death in 1143 , Sibyl entered a religious life at Llanthony Secunda Priory , Gloucestershire , England , which she had endowed up to six years previously . Sibyl is buried at the priory , founded by Miles in 1136 .
= = Family = =
= = = Ancestry = = =
Sibyl was born in about 1100 in Brecon Castle , Brecon , Wales , the only daughter of Marcher Lord Bernard de Neufmarché , Lord of Brecon , and Nest ferch Osbern . Nest was the daughter of Osbern FitzRichard and Nest ferch Gruffydd . Sybil 's maternal great @-@ grandparents were Gruffydd ap Llywelyn , king of Wales , and Ealdgyth ( Edith of Mercia ) . Ealdgyth , the daughter of Ælfgar , Earl of Mercia , was briefly Queen consort of England by her second marriage to Harold Godwinson , the last Anglo @-@ Saxon king of England , who was killed at the Battle of Hastings .
Sibyl 's father , Bernard , was born at the castle of Le Neuf @-@ Marché @-@ en @-@ Lions , on the frontier between Normandy and Beauvais . Bernard was a knight who had fought under English kings William I , William Rufus and Henry I. According to historian Lynn H Nelson , Bernard de Neufmarché was " the first of the original conquerors of Wales " . He led the Norman army at the Battle of Brecon in 1093 , during which Rhys ap Tewdwr was killed . Kingship in Wales ended with Rhys ' death , and allowed Bernard to confirm his hold on Brycheiniog , becoming the first ruler of the lordship of Brecon . The title and lands would remain in his family 's possession until 1521 . The name Neufmarché , Novo Mercato in Latin , is anglicised into ' Newmarket ' or ' Newmarch ' .
= = = Inheritance = = =
Sibyl had two brothers , Philip , who most likely died young , and Mahel . Nest had Mahel disinherited by swearing to King Henry I of England that Mahel had been fathered by another man . According to Giraldus Cambrensis , this was done out of vengeance when Mahel had multilated Nest 's lover , a knight whose identity is not disclosed . In the 19th century , Bernard Bolingbroke Woodward proposed that , after Bernard 's death , Nest " disgraced herself with an intrigue " with one of his soldiers . Mahel , who had by this time inherited Bernard 's estates , disapproved of the liaison to such an extent that he killed Nest 's lover . Nest 's revenge was to have Mahel disinherited by claiming that Bernard was not Mahel 's father . The maritagium ( marriage charter ) arranged by King Henry I in 1121 for the marriage between Sibyl and her future husband Miles , however , makes it clear that Bernard was still alive when it was written ; showing Bernard Bolingbroke Woodward 's version of the story to diverge from the known facts . Author Jennifer C. Ward suggests that , although the marriage charter recorded that King Henry was acting at the request of Bernard , Nest , and the barons , it was probable he had put considerable pressure on the Neufmarchés to disinherit Mahel in favour of Sibyl and , thereby , Miles . Nevertheless , whatever the timing or reason , the outcome of Nest 's declaration was that Sibyl ( whom Nest acknowledged as Bernard 's child ) became the sole lawful heiress to the vast Lordship of Brecon , one of the most important and substantial fiefs in the Welsh Marches . Henry 's maritagium referred specifically to Sibyl 's parents ' lands as " comprising Talgarth , the forest of Ystradwy , the castle of Hay , the whole land of Brecknock , up to the boundaries of the land of Richard Fitz Pons , namely up to Brecon and Much Cowarne , a vill in England " ; the fees and services of several named individuals were also granted as part of the dowry . This made her suo jure Lady of Brecknock on her father 's death , and one of the wealthiest heiresses in south Wales .
= = Marriage = =
Sometime in April or May 1121 , Sibyl married Miles ( or Milo ) FitzWalter de Gloucester , who on his father 's death in 1129 , became sheriff of Gloucester , and Constable of England . The marriage was personally arranged by King Henry I , to whom Miles was a trusted royal official . A charter written in Latin ( the maritagium ) , which dates to 10 April / 29 May 1121 , records the arrangements for the marriage of Sibyl and Miles . Historian C. Warren Hollister found the charter 's wording telling , noting that " the king gave the daughter as if he were making a grant of land " : " Know that I [ King Henry I ] have given and firmly granted to Miles of Gloucester Sibyl , daughter of Bernard de Neufmarché , together with all the lands of Bernard her father and of her mother after their deaths … " . Her parents ' lands would be conveyed to Miles after their deaths or earlier during " their life if they so wish " . Henry also commanded that the fief 's tenants were to pay Miles liege homage as their lord .
By arranging a series of matrimonial alliances , similar to that between Sibyl and Miles , King Henry I of England transformed " the map of territorial power in south @-@ east Wales " . Such arrangements were mutually advantageous . Hollister describes Miles ' marriage to Sibyl as having been a " crucial breakthrough in his career " . The new lords , in similar positions to Miles , were the King 's own loyal vassals , on whom he could rely to implement royal policy . Sibyl 's father died sometime before 1128 ( most probably in 1125 ) , and Miles came into possession of her entire inheritance , which when merged with his own estates , formed one honour .
= = = Children = = =
Together Sibyl and Miles had eight children :
Margaret of Hereford ( 1122 / 1123- 6 April 1197 ) , married Humphrey II de Bohun , by whom she had children . She received the office of constable of England and exercised lordship of Herefordshire as a widow until her death .
Roger Fitzmiles , 2nd Earl of Hereford ( before 1125- 22 September 1155 ) . Roger 's marriage settlement with Cecily FitzJohn ( her first marriage ) , daughter of Payn FitzJohn and Sibyl de Lacy , was ratified by King Stephen in 1137 . The marriage was childless as were Cecily 's subsequent marriages .
Walter de Hereford ( died 1159 / 60 ) , whether he married is unknown ; however , Walter departed for Palestine on Michaelmas 1159 , and died shortly afterwards without leaving legitimate issue
Henry Fitzmiles ( died c.1162 ) , married a woman named Isabella , surname unknown ; Henry died without legitimate issue .
Mahel de Hereford ( died 1164 ) , no record of marriage ; died without legitimate issue .
William de Hereford ( died 1166 ) , no record of marriage ; died without legitimate issue .
Bertha of Hereford ( c.1130- ) , married William de Braose , 3rd Lord of Bramber , by whom she had issue .
Lucy of Hereford , Lady of Blaen Llyfni and Bwlch y Dinas ( died 1219 / 20 ) , married Herbert FitzHerbert of Winchester , by whom she had issue .
= = The Anarchy = =
After Henry I 's death in 1135 , the throne of England was seized by Stephen of Blois , a grandson of William I of England . Henry 's daughter , Empress Matilda ( Maud ) , also claimed the throne , and had the support of the Marcher Lords . On the death of her husband , the Holy Roman Emperor , Henry V , in 1125 , Matilda had returned to England for the first time in 16 years . At the insistence of her father , the barons ( including Stephen ) swore to uphold Matilda 's rights as his heir . Matilda married Geoffrey of Anjou in 1128 . They lived together in France , having three sons ; the eldest of whom was to become King Henry II of England . Initially , Miles supported Stephen . In about 1136 , Stephen granted Sibyl 's husband the entire honour of Gloucester and Brecknock , and appointed him Constable of Gloucester Castle , whereby Miles became known as one of Stephen 's " henchmen " .
Llanthony Priory had been established near Crucorney , in the Vale of Ewyas , in 1118 ; Wales ' earliest Augustine monastery . Miles ' father , Walter de Gloucester , had retired there by 1126 . The unrest that had been simmering in Wales during the last years of Henry 's reign , boiled over in 1135 on his death . The area around the priory returned to Welsh rule , coming under such “ hostile mollestation ” from the Welsh that the non @-@ Welsh canons decided to leave . Miles established a new Priory for them in Gloucester , England , which they called Llanthony Secunda , in 1136 . Sometime after 1137 , Sibyl , together with her husband , made a further endowment to Llanthony Secunda .
Miles transferred his allegiance to Empress Matilda , on her return to England in 1139.Matthew 2002 , pp. 95 , 96 According to Professor Edmund King , Miles ' decision to support Matilda was guided by expediancy rather than principle , and the necessity of joining forces with Matilda 's illegitimate half @-@ brother , the powerful Robert , Earl of Gloucester , who was the overlord of some of Miles ' fiefs . Stephen stripped Miles of the title ' Constable of England ' in punishment for having deserted him . On 25 July 1141 , in gratitude for his support and military assistance and , according to historian R.H.C. Davis , possibly to compensate Miles for having appeared to have lost the constableship , Matilda invested him as 1st Earl of Hereford . He also received St. Briavels Castle and the Forest of Dean . At the time Matilda was the de facto ruler of England , Stephen having been imprisoned at Bristol following his capture the previous February after the Battle of Lincoln . Sibyl was styled Countess of Hereford , until Miles ' unexpected death over two years later . In 1141 , Miles received the honour of Abergavenny from Brien FitzCount , the ( likely illegitimate ) son of Duke Alan IV of Brittany . This was in appreciation of the skilled military tactics Miles had deployed which had spared Brien 's castle of Wallingford during King Stephen 's besiegement in 1139 / 1140 . Matilda gave her permission for the transfer .
During the Anarchy , which the period of Stephen 's reign as King of England was to become known , life was greatly disrupted in her husband 's lands . Sibyl would have doubtless suffered as a result , especially after Miles ' decision to support Matilda 's claim to the throne and to oppose Stephen . When Matilda was defeated at Winchester in late 1141 , Miles was compelled to return to Gloucester in disgrace : " weary , half @-@ naked and alone " . In November of that same year , Stephen was released from prison and restored to the English throne .
Sibyl 's distress would have been heightened in 1143 after the Bishop of Hereford , Robert de Bethune placed an interdict upon Hereford , blocked all the cathedral 's entrances with thorns , and excommunicated Miles . In order to raise money to pay his troops and to assist Matilda financially , Miles had imposed a levy on all the churches in his earldom , an act which the bishop had regarded as unlawful . When the bishop protested and threatened Miles with excommunication , Miles in response , sent his men to plunder the diocese of its resources . In retaliation against Miles ' earlier attacks on the royalist city of Worcester and the castles of Hereford and Wallingford , King Stephen bestowed the title " Earl of Hereford " on Robert de Beaumont , 2nd Earl of Leicester ; Miles , however , never surrendered the earldom nor the title to Robert de Beaumont .
= = Widowhood and death = =
While on a deer @-@ hunting expedition in his own Forest of Dean , Sibyl 's husband was accidentally shot in the chest by an arrow which killed him on 24 December 1143 . He had been involved in legal proceedings against the bishop 's jurisdiction when he died . Their eldest son , Roger succeeded him in the earldom . In protest against his father 's excommunication , Roger remained an outspoken enemy of the Church until close to the end of his life when he entered a Gloucester monastery as a monk . After her husband 's death , Sibyl entered a religious life at Llanthony Secunda Priory , Gloucester , which she had previously endowed . Sibyl was buried in the same priory , the dates of death and burial unrecorded .
= = Sibyl 's legacy = =
Upon the childless death of Roger in 1155 , the Earldom of Hereford fell into abeyance until 1199 when King John bestowed the title on Henry de Bohun , Sibyl 's grandson through her eldest daughter , Margaret . As her sons all died without legitimate offspring , Sibyl 's three daughters became co @-@ heirs to the Brecon honour , with Bertha , the second daughter , passing Sibyl 's inheritance on ( through marriage ) to the de Braoses , thereby making them one of the most powerful families in the Welsh Marches .
The Brecknock lordship would eventually go to the de Bohuns , by way of Eleanor de Braose . Eleanor , a descendant of Sibyl 's through Bertha of Hereford , married Humphrey de Bohun , son of the 2nd Earl of Hereford . Eleanor and Humphrey 's son , Humphrey de Bohun , succeeded his grandfather to the titles in 1275 .
Through the advantageous marriages of her daughters , Sibyl was an ancestress of many of England and Ireland 's noblest families including among others , the de Bohun 's , de Beauchamps , Mortimers , Fitzalans , de Burghs , de Lacy 's , and Bonvilles . Four of her descendants , Humphrey de Bohun , 4th Earl of Hereford , Elizabeth de Burgh , 4th Countess of Ulster , Eleanor de Bohun , and Mary de Bohun married into the English royal family , while another , Anne Mortimer was the grandmother of Yorkist kings Edward IV and Richard III . By way of Edward 's daughter , Elizabeth of York , every monarch of England and , subsequently , the United Kingdom , from Henry VIII up to and including Elizabeth II , descended from Sibyl de Neufmarché , as did the various royal sovereigns of Europe who shared a common descent from Mary , Queen of Scots .
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= Prithu =
According to Hindu mythology , Prithu ( Sanskrit : पृथु , Pṛthu , lit . " large , great , important , abundant " ) is a sovereign ( chakravartin ) , named in the Vedic scriptures and considered an Avatar ( incarnation ) of the preserver god — Vishnu . He is also called Pruthu , Prithi and Prithu Vainya , literally , Prithu — the son of Vena . Prithu is " celebrated as the first consecrated king , from whom the earth received her ( Sanskrit ) name Prithvi . " He is mainly associated with the legend of his chasing the earth goddess , Prithvi , who fled in the form of a cow and eventually agreed to yield her milk as the world 's grain and vegetation . The epic Mahabharata and text Vishnu Purana describes him as a part Avatar ( incarnation ) of Vishnu .
= = Legends = =
The birth of Prithu is without female intervention . Thus being a ayonija ( " born without ( the participation ) of the yoni " ) , Prithu is untouched by desire and ego and can thus control his senses to rule dutifully upholding Dharma .
The Mahabharata traces Prithu 's lineage from Vishnu.The Almighty Vishnu created a human named Virajas to rule the earth and bring order to the Humans . Virajas lost his desire to rule the earth after beholding Vishnu and became an ascetic . Virajas ' son was Krittimat , who became an ascetic . Krittimat 's son was Kardama . Kardama 's son was Ananga and Ananga 's son was Atibala . Atibala , also called Anga , conquered the earth and ruled well . Atibala married Mrityu 's daughter , Sunita and had a son named Vena . Vena 's son would be Prithu .
The Bhagavata Purana and Vishnu Purana tells the story of Prithu : King Vena , from the lineage of the pious Dhruva , was an evil king , who neglected Vedic rituals . Thus the rishis ( sages ) killed him , leaving the kingdom without an heir and in famine due to the anarchy of Vena . So , the sages churned Vena 's body , out of which first appeared a dark dwarf hunter , a symbol of Vena 's evil . Since the sins of Vena had gone away as the dwarf , the body was now pure . On further churning , Prithu emerged from right arm of the corpse . To end the famine by slaying the earth and getting her fruits , Prithu chased the earth ( Prithvi ) who fled as a cow . Finally , cornered by Prithu , the earth states that killing her would mean the end of his subjects too . So Prithu lowered his weapons and reasoned with the earth and promised her to be her guardian . Finally , Prithu milked her using Manu as a calf , and received all vegetation and grain as her milk , in his hands for welfare of humanity . Before Prithu 's reign , there was " no cultivation , no pasture , no agriculture , no highway for merchants " , all civilization emerged in Prithu 's rule . By granting life to the earth and being her protector , Prithu became the Earth 's father and she accepted the patronymic name " Prithvi " . However , the Manu Smriti considers Prithvi as Prithu 's wife and not his daughter , and thus suggests the name " Prithvi " is named after her husband , Prithu .
The Vayu Purana records that when born , Prithu stood with a bow , arrows and an armour , ready to destroy the earth , which was devoid of Vedic rituals . Terrified , the earth fled in form of a cow and finally submitted to Prithu 's demands , earning him the title chakravartin ( sovereign ) . Prithu is the first king , recorded to earn the title . The creator @-@ god Brahma is described to have recognized Prithu as an avatar of Vishnu , as one of Prithu 's birthmark was Vishnu 's chakram ( discus ) on his hand and thus Prithu was " numbered amongst the human gods " . According to Oldham , the title Chakravarti may be derived from this birthmark , and may not be indicative of universal dominion . Prithu was worshipped as an incarnation of Vishnu in his lifetime and now is considered a Nāga demi @-@ god . Shatapatha Brahmana ( Verse 3 @.@ 5 @.@ 4 . ) calls him the first anointed king and Vayu Purana calls him adiraja ( " first king " ) .
The epic Mahabharata states that Vishnu crowned Prithu as the sovereign and entered the latter 's body so that everyone bows to the king as to god Vishnu . Now , the king was " endowed with Vishnu 's greatness on earth " . Further , Dharma ( righteousness ) , Shri ( goddess of wealth , beauty and good fortune ) and Artha ( purpose , material prosperity ) established themselves in Prithu .
= = = Reign = = =
Prithu became the first true king . He became a Kshatriya after he healed the Brahmanas of their wounds , inflicted by Prithu 's tyrannical father , Vena . After acquiring many presents from the gods , Prithu conquered and ruled the earth as well as the Devas , Asuras , Yakshas , Rakshasas and Nagas in all glory . It was where the Satya Yuga reached its pinnacle . Prithu liberated his father Vena , from the hell called Pūt , hence all sons are called Putras . Practicing detachment , Prithu ruled according to the Vedas and the Dandaneeti .
His capital is believed to be somewhere in modern @-@ day Haryana . Prithu used his Kshatriya power to make the earth yield its riches . Hence the earth is called Prithvi , daughter of Prithu . Prithu , by mere fiat of will , created millions of men , elephants , chariots and horses . During his reign , there was no decreptitude , no calamity , no famine , no disease , no agriculture and no mining . Prithu enjoyed popularity amongst his subjects , hence all kings are called Rajas . Cows yielded buckets of rich milk when they were touched . Trees and lotuses always had honey in them . People were healthy and happy and had no fear of thieves or wild animals . Nobody died of accidents . Kusha grass was golden in colour . Fruits were always sweet and ripe and nobody went hungry . People lived in houses or caves or trees or wherever they liked . For the first time , civilization and commerce came into existence .
Prithu himself shattered many mountains with his arrows and made the earth even . He had divine powers of creating or disappearing any mundane object with his mental power ; ability to play musical instruments , sing and act . His chariot could travel over land , water and air with complete ease . Mountains made way for Prithu on his chariot and his flagstaff was never entangled when Prithu travelled through dense forests as the trees made way for him . Prithu practised charity and donated colossal amounts of gold to the Brahmanas .
Prithu appointed Shukracharya , the son of Bhrigu and Garga , the son of Angirasa as his preceptors . The Valakhilyas , a group consisting of 60 @,@ 000 thumb sized ascetics and known for their genius , became Prithu 's counsellors .
The Atharvaveda credits him of the invention of ploughing and thus , agriculture . He is also described as one who flattened the Earth 's rocky surface , thus encouraging agriculture , cattle @-@ breeding , commerce and development of new cities on earth . In a hymn in Rigveda , Prithu is described as a rishi ( seer ) . D. R. Patil suggests that the Rigvedic Prithu was a vegetarian deity , associated with Greek god Dionysus and another Vedic god Soma .
Bhagavata Purana further states that Prithu performed ninety @-@ nine ashwamedha yagnas ( horse @-@ sacrifices ) , but Indra , kings of the demi @-@ gods , disturbed Prithu 's hundredth one . The yagya was abandoned , Vishnu gave Prithu his blessings and Prithu forgave Indra for the latter 's theft of the ritual @-@ horse . It also states that the Four Kumaras , the four sage @-@ incarnations of Vishnu , preached Prithu about devotion to Vishnu . After governing his kingdom for a long time , Prithu left with his wife Archi , to perform penance in the forest in his last days . He experienced Samadhi and voluntarily gave up his body in the forest , and Archi went Sati on his funeral pyre .
= = = Wives and children = = =
Apart from Prithvi who is sometimes considered the daughter or wife of Prithu , Prithu has a wife called Archi and five sons . Archi , emerged from Vena 's body , along with Prithu and is considered as an avatar of goddess Lakshmi , the wife of Vishnu . Prithu 's son Vijitswa , became the sovereign and controlled the middle of the kingdom . Prithu 's other sons , Haryarksha , Dhumrakesha , Vrika and Dravina ruled the east , south , west and north of kingdom respectively .
= = Symbolism = =
O 'Flaherty interprets the myth of Prithu — his transformation from a hunter who chased the earth @-@ cow to the herdsman @-@ farmer — as a transition in Vedic or Hindu people from eating beef to having cow 's milk and cultivated vegetables and grain instead of beef . David Shulman compares Prithu with the Vedic deity Rudra @-@ Shiva . Prithu , like Rudra , is an ideal king , but with a violent side . Prithu 's actions of chasing the earth @-@ cow as a hunter and finally milking her , display this terrifying side of the king . Both , Prithu and Rudra , are closely associated with sacrifice .
= = Celebration in Indian society = =
Chinese scholar Hiuen Tsang ( c . 640 AD ) records the existence of the town Pehowa , named after Prithu , " who is said to be the first person that obtained the title Raja ( king ) " . Another place associated with Prithu is Prithudaka ( lit . " Prithu 's pool " ) , a town on banks of Sarasvati river , where Prithu is believed to have performed the Shraddha of his father . The town is referred as the boundary between Northern and central India and referred to by Patanjali as the modern Pehowa .
Shriman Narayan , one of the protagonists of Indian Panchayati Raj movement , tracing its origin , writes : " It is believed that the system was first introduced by King Prthu while colonizing the Doab between the Ganges and Jamuna . "
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= Robinson Crusoe economy =
A Robinson Crusoe economy is a simple framework used to study some fundamental issues in economics . It assumes an economy with one consumer , one producer and two goods . The title " Robinson Crusoe " is a reference to the novel of the same name authored by Daniel Defoe in 1719 .
As a thought experiment in economics , many international trade economists have found this simplified and idealized version of the story important due to its ability to simplify the complexities of the real world . The implicit assumption is that the study of a one agent economy will provide useful insights into the functioning of a real world economy with many economic agents . This article pertains to the study of consumer behaviour , producer behaviour and equilibrium as a part of microeconomics . In other fields of economics , the Robinson Crusoe economy framework is used for essentially the same thing . For example , in public finance the Robinson Crusoe economy is used to study the various types of public goods and certain aspects of collective benefits . It is used in growth economics to develop growth models for underdeveloped or developing countries to embark upon a steady growth path using techniques of savings and investment .
In the Robinson Crusoe economy , there is only one individual – Robinson Crusoe himself . He acts both as a producer to maximise profits , as well as consumer to maximise his utility . The possibility of trade can be introduced by adding another person to the economy . This person is Crusoe 's friend , Man Friday . Although in the novel he plays the role of Crusoe 's servant , in the Robinson Crusoe economy he is considered as another actor with equal decision making abilities as Crusoe . Along with this , conditions of Pareto Efficiency can be analysed by bringing in the concept of the Edgeworth box .
The basic assumptions of the Robinson Crusoe economy are as follows :
The island is cut off from the rest of the world ( and hence cannot trade )
There is only a single economic agent ( Crusoe himself )
All commodities on the island have to be produced or found from existing stocks
= = Framework = =
Robinson Crusoe is assumed to be shipwrecked on a deserted island . Similar to the choices that households ( suppliers of labour ) face , Crusoe has only two activities to participate in – earn income or pass his time in leisure .
The income generating activity in this case is gathering coconuts . As usual , the more time he spends in leisure , the less food he has to eat , and conversely , the more time he spends gathering coconuts , the less time he has for leisure . This is depicted in figure 1 .
= = Production function and indifference curves = =
Crusoe 's indifference curves depict his preferences for leisure and coconuts while the production function depicts the technological relationship between how much he works and how many coconuts he gathers . If the axes depicting coconut collection and leisure are reversed and plotted with Crusoe 's indifference map and production function , figure 2 can be drawn :
The production function is concave in two dimensions and quasi @-@ convex in three dimensions . This means that the longer Robinson works , the more coconuts he will be able to gather . But due to diminishing marginal returns of labour , the additional number of coconuts he gets from every additional hour of labour is declining .
The point at which Crusoe will reach an equilibrium between the number of hours he works and relaxes can be found out when the highest indifference curve is tangent to the production function . This will be Crusoe 's most preferred point provided the technology constraint is given and cannot be changed . At this equilibrium point , the slope of the highest indifference curve must equal the slope of the production function .
Recall that the Marginal rate of substitution is the rate at which a consumer is ready to give up one good in exchange for another good while maintaining the same level of utility . Additionally , an input 's marginal product is the extra output that can be produced by using one more unit of the input , assuming that the quantities of no other inputs to production change . Then ,
MPL
= MRSLeisure , Coconuts
where ,
MPL =
Marginal Product of Labour , and
MRSLeisure , Coconuts = Marginal rate of substitution between Leisure and Coconuts
= = Crusoe 's multifaceted role = =
Suppose Crusoe decides to stop being a producer and consumer simultaneously . He decides he will produce one day and consume the next . His two roles of consumer and producer are being split up and studied separately to understand the elementary form of consumer theory and producer theory in microeconomics . For dividing his time between being a consumer and producer , he must set up two collectively exhaustive markets , the coconut market and the labour market . He also sets up a firm , of which he becomes the sole shareholder . The firm will want to maximise profits by deciding how much labour to hire and how many coconuts to produce according to their prices . As a worker of the firm , Crusoe will collect wages , as a shareholder , he will collect profits and as a consumer , he will decide how much of the firm 's output to purchase according to his income and the prevailing market prices . Let 's assume that a currency called " Dollars " has been created by Robinson to manage his finances . For simplicity , assume that PriceCoconuts = $ 1 @.@ 00 . This assumption is made to make the calculations in the numerical example easy because the inclusion of prices will not alter the result of the analysis . For more details , refer to Numéraire commodities .
= = = Producer = = =
Assume that when the firm produces C amount of total coconuts , <formula> represents its profit level . Also assume that when the wage rate at which the firm employs labour is w , L amount of labour will be employed . Then ,
<formula>
<formula>
The above function describes iso @-@ profit lines ( the locus of combinations between labour and coconuts that produce a constant profit of Π ) . Profits can be maximised when the marginal product of labour equals the wage rate ( marginal cost of production ) . Symbolically ,
MPL = w
Graphically , the iso @-@ profit line must be tangent to the production function .
The vertical intercept of the iso @-@ profit line measures the level of profit that Robinson Crusoe 's firm will make . This level of profit , Π , has the ability to purchase Π dollars worth of coconuts . Since PriceCoconuts is $ 1 @.@ 00 , Π number of coconuts can be purchased . Also , the firm will declare a dividend of Π dollars . This will be given to the firm 's sole shareholder , Crusoe himself .
= = = Consumer = = =
As a consumer , Crusoe will have to decide how much to work ( or indulge in leisure ) and hence consume . He can choose to not work at all , since he has an endowment of Π dollars from being a shareholder . Let us instead consider the more realistic case of him deciding to work for a few hours . His labour consumption choice can be illustrated in figure 4 :
Note that labour is assumed to be a ' bad ' , i.e. , a commodity that a consumer doesn 't like . Its presence in his consumption basket lowers the utility he derives . On the other hand , coconuts are goods . This is why the indifference curves are positively sloped . The maximum amount of labour is indicated by L ' . The distance from L ' to the chosen supply of labour ( L * ) gives Crusoe 's demand for leisure .
Notice Crusoe 's budget line . It has a slope of w and passes through the point ( 0 , Π ) . This point is his endowment level i.e. , even when he supplies 0 amount of labour , he has Π amount of coconuts ( dollars ) to consume . Given the wage rate , Crusoe will choose how much to work and how much to consume at that point where ,
MRSLeisure , Coconuts = w
= = Equilibrium = =
At equilibrium , the demand for coconuts will equal the supply of coconuts and the demand for labour will equal the supply of labour .
Graphically this occurs when the diagrams under consumer and producer are superimposed . Notice that ,
MRSLeisure , Coconuts
= w
MPL =
w
- = > MRSLeisure , Coconuts = MPL
This ensures that the slopes of the indifference curves and the production set are the same .
As a result , Crusoe ends up consuming at the same point he would have if he made all the above decisions together . In other words , using the market system has the same outcome as choosing the individual utility maximisation and cost minimisation plans . This is an important result when put into a macro level perspective because it implies that there exists a set of prices for inputs and outputs in the economy such that the profit @-@ maximising behaviour of firms along with the utility @-@ maximizing actions of individuals results in the demand for each good equaling the supply in all markets . This means that a competitive equilibrium can exist . The merit of a competitive equilibrium is that an efficient allocation of resources is achievable . In other words , no economic agent can be made better off without making another economic agent worse off .
= = Production possibilities with two goods = =
Let 's assume that there is another commodity that Crusoe can produce apart from coconuts , for example , fish . Now , Robinson has to decide how much time to spare for both activities , i.e. how many coconuts to gather and how many fish to hunt . The locus of the various combinations of fish and coconuts that he can produce from devoting different amounts of time to each activity is known as the production possibilities set . This is depicted in the figure 6 :
The boundary of the production possibilities set is known as the Production @-@ possibility frontier ( PPF ) . This curve measures the feasible outputs that Crusoe can produce , with a fixed technological constraint and given amount of resources . In this case , the resources and technological constraints are Robinson Crusoe 's labour .
It is crucial to note that the shape of the PPF depends on the nature of the technology in use . Here , technology refers to the type of returns to scale prevalent . In figure 6 , the underlying assumption is the usual decreasing returns to scale , due to which the PPF is concave to the origin . In case we assumed increasing returns to scale , say if Crusoe embarked upon a mass production movement and hence faced decreasing costs , the PPF would be convex to the origin . The PPF is linear with a downward slope in two circumstances :
If the technology for gathering coconuts and hunting fish exhibits constant returns to scale
If there is only one input in production
So in the Robinson Crusoe economy , the PPF will be linear due to the presence of only one input .
= = = Marginal rate of transformation = = =
Suppose that Crusoe can produce 4 pounds of fish or 8 pounds of coconuts per hour . If he devotes Lf hours to fish gathering and Lc hours to gathering coconuts , he will produce 4Lf pounds of fish and 8Lc pounds of coconuts . Suppose that he decides to work for 12 hours a day . Then the production possibilities set will consist of all combinations of fish , F , and coconuts , C , such that
<formula>
<formula>
<formula>
Solve the first two equations and substitute in the third to get ,
<formula>
This equation represents Crusoe 's PPF . The slope of this PPF measures the Marginal rate of transformation ( MRT ) , i.e. , how much of the first good must be given up in order to increase the production of the second good by one unit . If Crusoe works one hour less on hunting fish , he will have 4 less fish . If he devotes this extra hour to collecting coconuts , he will have 8 extra coconuts . The MRT is thus ,
MRT Coconuts , Fish <formula> <formula>
= = = Comparative advantage = = =
Under this section , the possibility of trade is introduced by adding another person to the economy . Suppose that the new worker who is added to the Robinson Crusoe Economy has different skills in gathering coconuts and hunting fish . The second person is called " Friday " .
Friday can produce 8 pounds of fish or 4 pounds of coconuts per hour . If he too decides to work for 12 hours , his production possibilities set will be determined by the following relations :
<formula>
<formula>
<formula>
<formula>
Thus , MRT Coconuts , Fish <formula> <formula>
This means that for every pound of coconuts Friday gives up , he can produce 2 more pounds of fish .
So , we can say that Friday has a Comparative advantage in hunting fish while Crusoe has a comparative advantage in gathering coconuts . Their respective PPFs can be shown in the following diagram :
The joint production possibilities set at the extreme right shows the total amount of both commodities that can be produced by Crusoe and Friday together . It combines the best of both workers . If both of them work to gather coconuts only , the economy will have 144 coconuts in all , 96 from Crusoe and 48 from Friday . ( This can be obtained by setting F = 0 in their respective PPF equations and summing them up ) . Here the slope of the joint PPF is -1 / 2 .
If we want more fish , we should shift that person who has a comparative advantage in fish hunting ( i.e. Friday ) out of coconut gathering and into fish hunting . When Friday is producing 96 pounds of fish , he is fully occupied . If fish production is to be increased beyond this point , Crusoe will have to start hunting fish . Here onward , the slope of the joint PPF is -2 . If we want to produce only fish , then the economy will have 144 pounds of fish , 48 from Crusoe and 96 from Friday . Thus the joint PPF is kinked because Crusoe and Friday have comparative advantages in different commodities . As the economy gets more and more ways of producing output and different comparative advantages , the PPF becomes concave .
= = Pareto efficiency = =
Assume that there are c units of coconut and f units of fish available for consumption in the Crusoe Friday economy . Given this endowment bundle ( c , f ) , the Pareto efficient bundle can be determined at the mutual tangency of Crusoe 's and Friday 's indifference curves in the Edgeworth box along the Pareto Set ( Contract curve ) . These are the bundles at which Crusoe 's and Friday 's Marginal rate of substitution are equal . In a simple exchange economy , the contract curve describes the set of bundles that exhaust the gains from trade . But in a Robinson Crusoe / Friday economy , there is another way to exchange goods – to produce less of one good and more of the other .
From the figure 8 , it is clear that an economy operating at a position where the MRS of either Crusoe or Friday is not equal to the MRT between coconuts and fish cannot be Pareto efficient . This is because the rate at which , say Friday is willing to trade coconuts for fish is different from the rate at which coconuts can be transformed into fish . Thus , there is a way to make Friday better off by rearranging the production pattern .
Thus for Pareto Efficiency ,
MRT Coconuts , Fish = MRSCoconuts , Fish
( for both Crusoe and Friday )
This can be achieved in a competitive market by decentralising production and consumption decisions , i.e. Crusoe and Friday will both solve their own problems of how much to consume and produce independently .
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= New York State Route 458 =
New York State Route 458 ( NY 458 ) is a state highway in the North Country of New York in the United States . It extends for 24 @.@ 42 miles ( 39 @.@ 30 km ) from an intersection with NY 11B in the St. Lawrence County town of Hopkinton to a junction with NY 30 in the Franklin County town of Brighton . The route follows a generally northwest – southeast alignment between the two points , serving only small hamlets as it crosses an otherwise rural area of the North Country . NY 458 was assigned c . 1973 to the former routing of NY 72 east of the Hopkinton hamlet of Nicholville . Prior to being signed as part of NY 72 in 1930 , it was designated as part of NY 56 in the 1920s .
= = Route description = =
NY 458 begins at a junction with NY 11B in Hopkinton at the western fringe of the Lawrence hamlet of Nicholville . The route heads southeast , loosely paralleling the St. Regis River as it proceeds through rural eastern St. Lawrence County . After 3 @.@ 5 miles ( 5 @.@ 6 km ) , it passes into both the Franklin County town of Waverly and Adirondack Park .
Now within the park boundaries , NY 458 crosses over the Lake Ozonia Outlet on its way eastward to the hamlet of St. Regis Falls , the largest community on the entire route . The route crosses the St. Regis River twice and intersects County Route 5 ( CR 5 ) , a connector to the hamlet of Moira 10 miles ( 16 km ) to the north , within St. Regis Falls . At the junction with CR 5 , here named North Main Street but known as Moira – St. Regis Falls Road north of Adirondack Park , the highway turns south to follow South Main Street out of the community .
NY 458 continues southeast through Waverly to the hamlet known as Santa Clara in the town of the same name . The route heads through the hamlet and over the St. Regis for the final time as it approaches Goodnow Mountain , a peak rising roughly 1 @,@ 960 feet ( 600 m ) above sea level . Instead of traversing the mountain , the highway bypasses it to the south . East of the peak , NY 458 turns southeast and begins to parallel the east branch of the St. Regis River . This pairing remains intact through the towns of Santa Clara and Duane to Brighton , where NY 458 ends at NY 30 .
= = History = =
The entirety of modern NY 458 was originally designated as part of NY 56 , a route extending from Massena to Brighton via Winthrop and Nicholville , in the mid @-@ 1920s . NY 56 was realigned in 1927 to continue west from Nicholville to a new terminus in Potsdam . In the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York , NY 56 was renumbered to NY 72 . The portion of NY 72 east of Nicholville remained unchanged until c . 1973 when NY 72 was truncated to its current eastern terminus in Hopkinton . The former routing of NY 72 from Nicholville to Brighton was renumbered to NY 458 .
= = Major intersections = =
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= Indian Head cent =
The Indian Head cent , also known as an Indian Head penny , was a one @-@ cent coin ( $ 0 @.@ 01 ) produced by the United States Bureau of the Mint from 1859 to 1909 . It was designed by James Barton Longacre , the Chief Engraver at the Philadelphia Mint .
From 1793 to 1857 , the cent was a copper coin about the size of a half dollar . As rising copper prices made it impractical to keep striking them , in 1857 the Mint reduced the size of the cent , issuing a new design , the Flying Eagle cent . The new pieces were identical in diameter to modern cents , though somewhat thicker and made of copper @-@ nickel . The design caused production difficulties , and the Mint soon looked to replace the coin . Mint Director James Ross Snowden selected the Indian Head design , and chose a laurel wreath for the reverse that was replaced in 1860 by an oak wreath with a shield . Cents were hoarded during the economic chaos of the American Civil War , when the metal nickel was in short supply . As Mint officials saw that privately issued bronze tokens were circulating , they induced Congress to pass the Coinage Act of 1864 , authorizing a slimmer cent of bronze alloy .
In the postwar period , the cent became very popular and was struck in large numbers in most years . An exception was 1877 , when a poor economy and little demand for cents created one of the rarest dates in the series . With the advent of coin @-@ operated machines in the late 19th and early 20th centuries , even more cents were produced , reaching 100 million for the first time in 1907 . In 1909 , the Indian Head cent was replaced by the Lincoln cent , designed by Victor D. Brenner .
= = Inception = =
The half @-@ dollar @-@ sized large cent was struck from 1793 to 1857 , authorized by the Mint Act of 1792 which defined the " cent " as 1 / 100 dollar . That coin was intended to contain close to a cent 's worth of copper , as people then expected that coins contain close to their face values in metal . Nevertheless , because of the constitutional clause making only gold and silver legal tender , the government would not accept copper cents for taxes or other payments . By the early 1850s , fluctuations in the price of copper led the Mint of the United States ( hereafter Mint ) to seek alternatives , including reducing the size of the cent and experimenting with compositions other than pure copper . The result was the Flying Eagle cent , the same diameter as the later Lincoln cent but somewhat thicker and heavier , composed of 88 % copper and 12 % nickel . The Flying Eagle cent was struck in limited numbers as a pattern coin in 1856 , then for circulation in 1857 and 1858 .
The Flying Eagle cent was issued in exchange for worn Spanish colonial silver coins , which until then had circulated widely in the United States . These " small cents " were also issued in exchange for the copper coins they had replaced . By 1858 , Mint authorities found the piece unsatisfactory in production . The high points on both sides of the coin ( the eagle 's head and the wreath ) opposed each other , and it was difficult to get the design to be brought out fully in the tough copper @-@ nickel alloy . Mint Engraver James B. Longacre , designer of the Flying Eagle cent , was instructed to develop alternative designs . He produced one , showing a slimmer eagle , which would not clash as much with the reverse wreath . Although this would have cured the production problem , the design was not liked . Mint Director James Ross Snowden suggested a head of Columbus as an obverse design , but Longacre felt the public would not approve of a historic figure on an American coin .
In 1858 , the Mint tested new designs for the cent . Between 60 and 100 sets of twelve pattern coins were struck , consisting of the standard Flying Eagle obverse , a " scrawny eagle " pattern , and the Indian Head design , mated with four different wreaths for the reverse . Snowden would make his choice of what design would be struck in 1859 from these patterns ; the sets were also sold to collectors . The Indian Head design was apparently prepared by April , as on the twelfth of that month , a Mr. Howard wrote to Snowden that " I have learned that a new pattern piece for the cent has been struck off at the Mint [ with ] a head resembling that of the three dollar piece and on the reverse a shield at the top of the olive and oak wreath " , and asking to purchase a specimen . Other numismatists also sought pieces : R. Coulton Davis , a Philadelphia druggist with ties to the Mint , wrote to Snowden in June informing him of a favorable story in a Boston newspaper , and Augustus B. Sage wrote to the Mint Director the same month , asking for a specimen for himself , and one for the newly founded American Numismatic Society .
According to Walter Breen , Snowden most likely chose the combination of the Indian Head and the laurel wreath as it was the lowest relief of any of the options , and could be expected to strike well . On November 4 , 1858 , Snowden wrote to Treasury Secretary Howell Cobb about the Indian Head design , and two days later wrote to Longacre , informing him that it was approved . Longacre was to prepare the necessary dies for production , which was to begin on January 1 , 1859 .
= = Design = =
Longacre advocated his Indian Head design in an August 21 , 1858 , letter to Snowden :
From the copper shores of Lake Superior , to the silver mountains of Potosi from the Ojibwa to the Aramanian , the feathered tiara is as characteristic of the primitive races of our hemisphere , as the turban is of the Asiatic . Nor is there anything in its decorative character , repulsive to the association of Liberty … It is more appropriate than the Phrygian cap , the emblem rather of the emancipated slave , than of the independent freeman , of those who are able to say " we were never in bondage to any man " . I regard then this emblem of America as a proper and well defined portion of our national inheritance ; and having now the opportunity of consecrating it as a memorial of Liberty , ' our Liberty ' , American Liberty ; why not use it ? One more graceful can scarcely be devised . We have only to determine that it shall be appropriate , and all the world outside of us cannot wrest it from us .
By numismatic legend , the facial features of the goddess Liberty on the obverse of the Indian Head cent were based on the features of Longacre 's daughter Sarah ; the tale runs that she was at the mint one day when she tried on the headdress of one of a number of Native Americans who were visiting , and her father sketched her . However , Sarah Longacre was 30 years old and married in 1858 , not 12 as in the tale , and Longacre himself stated that the face was based on a statue of Venus in Philadelphia on loan from the Vatican . He did often sketch his elder daughter , and there are resemblances between the depictions of Sarah and the various representations of Liberty on his coins of the 1850s . These tales were apparently extant at the time , as Snowden , writing to Treasury Secretary Howell Cobb in November 1858 , denied that the coin was based " on any human features in the Longacre family " . Lee F. McKenzie , in his 1991 article on Longacre , notes that any artist can be influenced by many things , but calls the story " essentially false " .
Regardless of who posed for Longacre , the facial features of the " Indian " are essentially Caucasian , meaning that a White woman wears the headdress of a Native American man . Longacre had , in 1854 , designed the three @-@ dollar piece with a female with similar features ( also supposedly based on the museum sculpture ) but a more fanciful headdress , and adapted that design for the gold dollar . Officials were aware of this artistic license at the time of issue ; Snowden , in his November 1858 letter to Cobb , characterizes the two earlier coins as " the artists at the Mint evidently not realizing the absurd incongruity of placing this most masculine attribute of the warrior brave on the head of a woman " . Longacre would not be the last to juxtapose the features of a White woman with an Indian headdress reserved for men ; Augustus Saint Gaudens , for the Indian Head eagle ( 1907 ) , produced a similar design . Later issues depict more accurate Indians , including Bela Lyon Pratt 's Indian Head gold pieces ( 1908 ) , the Buffalo nickel ( 1913 ) by James Earle Fraser , who worked from Native American models , and the Oregon Trail Memorial half dollar ( 1926 ) , designed by Fraser and his wife Laura .
Art historian Cornelius Vermeule had mixed emotions about the Indian Head cent : " Longacre enriched the mythology of American coinage in a pleasant if unpretentious fashion . Given his pattern half @-@ dollar designs of 1859 as a yardstick , he could have done worse . " In another comparison , Vermeule suggested , " far from a major creation aesthetically or iconographically , and far less attractive to the eye than the [ flying eagle ] , the Indian head cent was at least to achieve the blessing of popular appeal . The coin became perhaps the most beloved and typically American of any piece great or small in the American series . Great art the coin was not , but it was one of the first products of the United States mints to achieve the common touch . "
= = Production = =
= = = Redesign and surplus ( 1859 – 1861 ) = = =
Production of the Indian Head cent for commerce began at the start of 1859 . As issued for circulation , the pieces differ in some particulars from the pattern 1858 cent of similar design ; Longacre sharpened some details . The pattern coin had the laurel leaves in the reverse wreath in bunches of five leaves ; the issued 1859 cent has them in bunches of six . Cents dated 1858 with the adopted reverse ( with six @-@ leaf bunches ) are known , were most likely struck in 1859 , and are extremely rare .
In 1860 , the reverse of the cent was changed to feature an oak wreath and a narrow shield ; such reverses are also known on 1859 @-@ dated pieces struck as patterns . According to Richard Snow in his guide book to Flying Eagle and Indian Head cents , this was not due to problems with the " Laurel Wreath " reverse design used in 1859 , as full details survive on many extant pieces . Walter Breen , however , suggested that the feathers and curls on the obverse did not strike as well as they would later , and that " this may account for Snowden 's decision to change the design again " . David Lange , in his history of the Mint , states that it was to give the coin , quoting Snowden , " more National character " . All 1859 cents and some from 1860 have the cutoff of Liberty 's bust on the obverse end with a point ; most 1860 cents and all later issues have it rounded .
Tens of millions of Flying Eagle cents had been issued in exchange for the old American coppers and small Spanish silver . The Spanish silver was still flowing into the Mint in early 1859 and , at Snowden 's urging , Congress on March 3 of that year extended the redemption of these foreign coins , legal tender in the US until 1857 , for another two years . Neil Carothers , in his work on small @-@ denomination currency , challenged this decision as unnecessary — deprived of legal tender status , the remaining Spanish silver would have been eliminated through sales to banks for their bullion . Those who brought the old coins to the Mint received cents for them , at first Flying Eagle , and then Indian Head . In the year following the renewal , some forty million Indian Head cents were issued , meaning nearly a hundred million copper @-@ nickel cents had entered commerce since 1857 . As the coin did not circulate in the South and West due to prejudice against base @-@ metal money , they choked commerce . No one had to take them ; no law made them legal tender . At Snowden 's urging Congress in June 1860 ended the exchange . Nevertheless , as Snowden admitted in his annual report that year , there were too many cents in circulation . In October 1860 , The Bankers ' Magazine and Statistical Register reported that there were ten million cents in commerce in New York City above what was needed , and if anyone wished to order in bulk , they could be purchased at a discount .
= = = Shortage and redesign ( 1862 – 1864 ) = = =
The surplus of cents was relieved by the economic chaos engendered by the American Civil War , which began in 1861 . At the end of that year , the banks stopped paying out gold , which thereafter commanded a premium over paper money . These greenbacks , beginning in the following year , were issued in large quantities by the federal government . Silver vanished from commerce in June 1862 , as the price of that metal rose , leaving the cent the sole federal coin that had not entirely vanished from commerce through hoarding . The glut of cents had by then abated , as merchants had stored them away in quantity — one New York City floor collapsed beneath the load . There were other means of making change which passed in the emergency , from postage stamps to privately issued tokens , but the public demand was for the cent — the Philadelphia Mint struck record numbers , and set aside part of the production to be transmitted to other cities . Nevertheless , by July 1862 , the cent , in quantity , could only be purchased at a premium of 4 % in paper money in major cities in the East . The copper @-@ nickel pieces were nicknamed " nickels " , or " nicks " . Presentation of coins in payment carried with it no obligation to make change in the same . Accordingly , with a small quantity of " nicks " , a shopper could make purchases with exact change , without receiving such makeshifts as merchants ' credit slips , that others might not accept at the stated value .
By 1863 , The Bankers ' Magazine reported that the premium for cents in Philadelphia had risen to 20 % . Thereafter , the premium decreased as there was a flood of metal tokens issued by merchants , which were widely accepted . Other war expedients , such as fractional currency , lessened the demand for the cent by taking the place of missing silver coinage . Small quantities of cents circulated among them , though many were still hoarded .
Government officials saw that the public readily accepted the merchant tokens . Many of these tokens were made of bronze , and when , in 1863 , they attempted to restore coins to circulation , the use of bronze coins , which would not contain their face values in metal , was considered . In his annual report submitted October 1 , 1863 , Lincoln Administration Mint Director James Pollock noted that " whilst people expect a full value in their gold and silver coins , they merely want the inferior [ base metal ] money for convenience in making exact payments " . He observed that the private cent tokens had sometimes contained as little as a fifth of a cent in metal , yet had still circulated . He proposed that the copper @-@ nickel cent be replaced with a bronze piece of the same size . Pollock also wanted to eliminate nickel as a coinage metal ; its hard alloys destroyed dies and machinery . On December 8 , Pollock wrote to Treasury Secretary Salmon P. Chase , proposing a bronze cent and two @-@ cent piece .
On March 2 , 1864 , Pollock wrote urgently to Chase , warning him that the Mint was running out of nickel and that demand for cents was at an all @-@ time high . He also informed the Secretary that the United States Assay Commission , composed of citizens and officials who had met the previous month to test the nation 's silver and gold coinage , had recommended the use of French bronze ( 95 % copper with the remainder tin and zinc ) as a coinage metal for the cent and a new two @-@ cent piece . Three days later , Chase sent Pollock 's December letter and draft legislation for bronze one- and two @-@ cent pieces to Maine Senator William P. Fessenden , chairman of the Senate Finance Committee . Fessenden took no immediate action , and on March 16 , Pollock wrote again to Chase , warning that the Mint was going to run out of nickel , much of which was imported . Chase forwarded his letter to Fessenden . Legislation was finally introduced by New Hampshire Senator Daniel Clark on March 22 ; Pollock 's letters were read and apparently influenced proceedings as the Senate passed the bill without debate .
The domestic supply of nickel was at that time produced by a mine at Gap , Pennsylvania , owned by industrialist Joseph Wharton . On March 19 , Pollock wrote to Chase that they had no more nickel , nor was any available from overseas ; " we are thus shut up to the home supply ; from the works of Mr. Wharton " . Opposed to the removal of nickel from the cent , Wharton published a pamphlet in April 1864 proposing coinage of one- , two- , three- , five- , and ten @-@ cent pieces of an alloy of one part nickel to three of copper , doubling the percentage of nickel used in the cent . Despite Wharton 's efforts , on April 20 , a select committee of the House of Representatives endorsed the bill . It was opposed by Pennsylvania 's Thaddeus Stevens , who represented the mining area from which Wharton extracted his nickel . Wharton had spent $ 200 @,@ 000 to develop his mine and ore refinement machinery , Stevens related , and it was unfair to deprive him of the major use of his metal . " Shall we destroy all this property because by coining with another metal more money may be saved to the government ? " Besides , he argued , the copper @-@ nickel alloy for the cent had been approved by Congress , and the new metal , which he termed " brass " , would show rust . He was rebutted by Iowa Congressman John A. Kasson , chairman of the House Committee on Coinage , Weights , and Measures , who stated that the bronze alloy did not resemble brass , and he could not support the proposition that the government is bound to purchase from a supplier because he has spent money in anticipation of sales .
The legislation passed the House , and the Coinage Act of 1864 was signed by President Abraham Lincoln on April 22 , 1864 . The legislation made base metal coins legal tender for the first time : both cents and two @-@ cent pieces were acceptable in quantities of up to ten . The government would not , however , redeem them in bulk . The act also outlawed the private one- and two @-@ cent tokens , and later that year Congress abolished all such issues . The legislation did not allow for the redemption of the old copper @-@ nickel cents ; it had been drafted by Pollock , who was hoping that the seignorage income from issuing the new coins would help finance Mint operations , and he did not want it reduced by the recall of the old pieces . Wharton and his interests were appeased by the passage of a bill for a three @-@ cent piece in 1865 and a five @-@ cent piece in 1866 , both of his proposed alloy , out of which the " nickel " , as the latter coin has come to be known , is still struck . Despite this , Wharton and his nickel interests made repeated attempts to return nickel to the cent , each time failing , both as part of the deliberations over what became the Coinage Act of 1873 , and in the early 1880s .
The copper @-@ nickel cents from early in 1864 were generally bought up by speculators and did not circulate in large numbers . The Mint began producing bronze cents on May 13 , three weeks after the passage of the Coinage Act , and they were released into circulation on May 20 . Dies prepared for copper @-@ nickel pieces were used to strike bronze . Sometime during 1864 , Longacre sharpened his design for use in striking the softer bronze pieces , and also added his initial " L " . It is not known when this was done ; it may have been as early as May , with the new dies used alongside the old . These bronze pieces are often referred to as " 1864 @-@ L " and " 1864 No L " . The " L " is known on 1863 @-@ dated pieces , in both metals , and on 1864 @-@ dated copper @-@ nickel pieces — some of these issues , all extremely rare , were likely struck at a later date . The bronze cent was immediately accepted by the public , and heavy production of the issue soon alleviated the shortage of cents .
= = = Later years ( 1865 – 1909 ) = = =
In the postwar years , the heavy production of cents was scaled back , as hoarding ceased and some of the slack was taken up by other base @-@ metal coins . Nevertheless , the various issues of small coins , at that time not redeemed by the government , caused another glut in commerce , which was not completely broken until the Act of March 3 , 1871 , allowed redemption of cents and other minor coins in lots of $ 20 or more . Pursuant to this act , over thirty million copper @-@ nickel cents , of both the Indian Head and Flying Eagle designs , were redeemed ; the Mint melted these for recoinage . Fifty @-@ five million bronze cents were also sold to the government ; beginning in 1874 , the Mint re @-@ issued these in response to commercial requests for cents , lowering the demand for new coins . Drops in the price of silver brought coins of that metal , hoarded for a decade or more , back into commerce , also decreasing demand . Between 1866 and 1878 , production only occasionally exceeded ten million ; the 1877 coin , with a circulation mintage of 852 @,@ 500 , is a rare date for the series . After 1881 , there were few redemptions of bronze cents , due to high demand for the denomination , though copper @-@ nickel cents continued to be redeemed and melted .
With the discontinuance of the two @-@ cent piece and three @-@ cent silver in 1873 , the cent and the three @-@ cent nickel were the sole survivors of the coins valued at less than five cents . The three @-@ cent nickel , by this time , was unpopular because of its odd denomination and ( with the return of silver coinage ) its similarity in size to the dime . A three @-@ cent postage rate had been one of the reasons why that denomination had begun , in the 1850s ; in the early 1880s the Post Office decreased the basic rate for letters to two cents . This change both increased demand for cents , and decreased the demand for the three @-@ cent nickel , which was abolished in 1890 . In most years of the 1880s , there were large issues of Indian Head cents . The exception was in the mid @-@ 1880s , when poor economic times led to less demand for minor coins . No cents or five @-@ cent nickels were minted after February 1885 until near the end of 1886 . Production of undated dies into which the year of issue could be punched did continue , and during the hiatus in coin production , Chief Engraver Charles E. Barber modified the design , removing light outlines between the lettering on the obverse and the rest of the design , and making other changes . This led to two types for the 1886 Indian Head cent , which may be distinguished : on the Type I , the lowest feather on the obverse points between the I and the C in " AMERICA " , while on the Type II it points between the C and the final A. Snow estimates that 14 million of the mintage of 17 @,@ 654 @,@ 290 were Type I , as were a majority of the 4 @,@ 290 proof strikings .
The economic Panic of 1893 again caused a decrease in the number of cents produced , as coins accumulated in private hands were spent , creating a surplus . Aside from that , the final years of the series before its termination in 1909 were marked by large mintages , with 1907 topping the hundred million mark . A healthy economy in most years fueled demand , as did the increasing popularity of coin @-@ operated machines , some of which could be found at penny arcades . By the early 20th century , the cent was accepted across the nation , but by law production of the cent was limited to the Philadelphia Mint . Treasury officials sought removal of this restriction , and for an increase in the annual appropriation to purchase base metals for production of the cent and nickel — the amount expended had remained the same since 1873 , although demand for cents had greatly increased . By the Act of April 24 , 1906 , the Mint received permission to strike base metal coins at any mint , and the appropriation was quadrupled to $ 200 @,@ 000 . Small quantities of cents were struck at the San Francisco Mint in 1908 and 1909 .
= = Replacement = =
Congress passed legislation in 1890 allowing the Mint to alter designs that had been in use for 25 years without the need for legislative authorization . In 1904 , President Theodore Roosevelt wrote to his Secretary of the Treasury , Leslie Mortier Shaw , complaining that U.S. coinage lacked artistic merit , and enquiring if it would be possible to engage a private artist , such as sculptor Augustus Saint @-@ Gaudens , to prepare new coin designs . At Roosevelt 's instructions , the Mint hired Saint @-@ Gaudens to redesign the cent and the four gold pieces : the double eagle ( $ 20 ) , eagle ( $ 10 ) , half eagle ( $ 5 ) , and quarter eagle ( $ 2 @.@ 50 ) . As the designs of those pieces had remained the same for 25 years , they could be changed without an act of Congress , as could the Indian Head cent .
Saint @-@ Gaudens originally conceived a flying eagle design for the cent , but at Roosevelt 's request , developed it for the $ 20 piece after learning that under the 1873 act , an eagle could not appear on the cent . Writer and friend Witter Bynner recalled that in January 1907 , Saint @-@ Gaudens was seriously ill with cancer , and was carried to his studio for ten minutes a day to critique the work of his assistants on current projects , including the cent . Saint @-@ Gaudens died on August 3 , 1907 , without having submitted another design for the cent .
With the redesign of the four gold denominations completed by 1908 , Roosevelt turned his attention to the cent . The centennial of the birth of assassinated president Abraham Lincoln would occur in February 1909 , and large numbers of privately manufactured souvenirs were already being issued . Many citizens had written to the Treasury Department , proposing a Lincoln coin , and Roosevelt was interested in honoring his fellow Republican . This was a break with previous American numismatic tradition ; before the Lincoln cent , no regularly circulating U.S. coin had featured an actual person ( as opposed to idealized personifications , as of " liberty " ) .
In late 1908 , Roosevelt sat for sculptor Victor David Brenner , who was designing a medal for the Panama Canal Commission . It is uncertain how Brenner was selected to design the coin , but in January 1909 , Mint Director Frank A. Leach hired him to design a Lincoln cent . This went into circulation later in 1909 , putting an end to the Indian Head cent series .
= = Collecting = =
Indian Head cents were popular among coin collectors even in the half @-@ century when they were produced ; since then , with the growth of the hobby , interest has increased . The 1930s introduction of inexpensive coin albums to house the series and encourage collectors to seek a complete set came at a time when the bronze version of the Indian Head cent was still common in pocket change . They were not widely studied until the 1960s ; numismatic writer Tom DeLorey , in his introduction to Snow 's book , ascribes this to prejudice among numismatists who grew up with the Indian Head cent as a common circulation piece . He notes that the 1960 edition of R.S. Yeoman 's A Guide Book of United States Coins ( commonly , the Red Book ) listed only four dates for which there were varieties , one of which , the overdate 1869 / 68 was in error , as the final digit was actually over another 9 . The 2015 edition of the Red Book lists varieties for 11 dates .
Like most other denominations of U.S. coins , the 1873 may be found in two varieties , depending on the appearance of the final digit of the date : the " Close 3 " or " Closed 3 " is from early dies ; but after Chief Coiner A. Loudon Snowden complained that the " 3 " looked too much like an " 8 " , Chief Engraver William Barber modified his work to create the " Open 3 " . Some 1875 pieces have a dot appearing on the letter " N " in " ONE " on the reverse . This may have been a secret mark , added to catch a thief within the Philadelphia Mint .
The Indian Head cent was struck in large quantities and most dates remain inexpensive : Yeoman lists all dates from 1900 to 1908 from Philadelphia at $ 2 in Good @-@ 4 condition . The record holder for the denomination is a proof specimen of the 1864 @-@ L , of which there were an estimated 20 struck ; it sold for $ 161 @,@ 000 in 2012 .
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= Belton House =
Belton House is a Grade I listed country house in Belton near Grantham , Lincolnshire , England . The mansion is surrounded by formal gardens and a series of avenues leading to follies within a larger wooded park . Belton has been described as a compilation of all that is finest of Carolean architecture , the only truly vernacular style of architecture that England had produced since the Tudor period . The house has also been described as the most complete example of a typical English country house ; the claim has even been made that Belton 's principal facade was the inspiration for the modern British motorway signs which give directions to stately homes . Only Brympton d 'Evercy has been similarly lauded as the perfect English country house .
For three hundred years , Belton House was the seat of the Brownlow and Cust family , who had first acquired land in the area in the late 16th century . Between 1685 and 1688 Sir John Brownlow and his wife had the present mansion built . Despite great wealth they chose to build a modest country house rather than a grand contemporary Baroque palace . The contemporary , if provincial , Carolean style was the selected choice of design . However , the new house was fitted with the latest innovations such as sash windows for the principal rooms , and more importantly completely separate areas for the staff . As the Brownlows rose from baronets to barons upward to earls and then once again became barons , successive generations made changes to the interior of the house which reflected their changing social position and tastes , yet the fabric and design of the house changed little .
Following World War I ( a period when the Machine Gun Corps was based in the park ) , the Brownlows , like many of their peers , were faced with mounting financial problems . In 1984 they gave the house away — complete with most of its contents . The recipients of their gift , the National Trust , today fully open Belton to the public . It is in a good state of repair and visited by many thousands of tourists each year .
= = Early history = =
The Brownlow family , a dynasty of lawyers , began accumulating land in the Belton area from approximately 1598 . In 1609 they acquired the reversion of the manor of Belton itself from the Pakenham family , who finally sold the manor house to Sir John Brownlow I in 1619 . The old house was situated near the church in the garden of the present house and remained largely unoccupied , since the family preferred their other houses elsewhere . John Brownlow had married an heiress but was childless . He became attached to two of his more distant blood relations : a great @-@ nephew , also called John Brownlow , and a great @-@ niece , Alice Sherard . The two cousins married each other in 1676 when both were aged 16 ; three years later , the couple inherited the Brownlow estates from their great @-@ uncle together with an income of £ 9 @,@ 000 per annum ( about £ 1 @.@ 24 million in present @-@ day terms ) and £ 20 @,@ 000 in cash ( equivalent to about £ 2 @.@ 76 million now ) . They immediately bought a town house in the newly fashionable Southampton Square in Bloomsbury , and decided to build a new country house at Belton .
Work on the new house began in 1685 . The architect thought to have been responsible for the initial design is William Winde , although the house has also been attributed to Sir Christopher Wren , while others believe the design to be so similar to Roger Pratt 's Clarendon House , London , that it could have been the work of any talented draughtsman . The assumption popular today , that Winde was the architect , is based on the stylistic similarity between Belton and Coombe Abbey , which was remodelled by Winde between 1682 and 1685 . Further evidence is a letter dated 1690 , in which Winde recommends a plasterer who worked at Belton to another of his patrons .
Whoever the architect , Belton follows closely the design of Clarendon House , completed in 1667 . This great London town house ( demolished circa 1683 ) has been one of the most admired buildings of its era due to " its elegant symmetry and confident and common @-@ sensical design " . Sir John Summerson described Clarendon House as " the most influential house of its time among those who aimed at the grand manner " and Belton as " much the finest surviving example of its class " . John and Alice Brownlow assembled one of the finest teams of craftsmen available at the time to work on the project . This dream team was headed by the master mason William Stanton who oversaw the project . His second in command , John Thompson , had worked with Sir Christopher Wren on several of the latter 's London churches , while the chief joiner John Sturges had worked at Chatsworth under William Talman . The wrought @-@ ironworker John Warren worked under Stanton at Denham Place , Buckinghamshire , and the fine wrought iron gates and overthrow at Belton may be his . Thus so competent were the builders of Belton that Winde may have done little more than provide the original plans and drawings , leaving the interpretation to the on @-@ site craftsmen . This theory is further demonstrated by the external appearance of the adjoining stable block . More provincial , and less masterful in proportion , it is known to have been entirely the work of Stanton .
= = Architecture = =
= = = Ethos = = =
The late 17th century in England was a time of great progress in design . Following the austere years of Commonwealth rule , a great flourishing and development in both architecture and the arts began after the restoration of the monarchy in 1660 . Royalist exiles and wealthy young men who made the Grand Tour , returned home with new ideas — often extravagant variations on classical themes . This was , for England , the dawn of the Baroque era . The new wave of architects such as Roger Pratt , John Webb , and Sir Christopher Wren were not just building vast edifices in Renaissance @-@ inspired styles , but also transforming existing older houses . Representative of the utilisation of older houses is Coleshill House in Berkshire , where Pratt transformed the medieval , but now redundant , great hall into a classically inspired entrance hall complete with an imperial staircase . Great Halls were considered redundant now that employers wished to live separately from their servants , and no longer ate with them in a Great Hall . All evidence and odours of cooking and staff were banished from the principal parts of the house . Employers began to live in fine airy rooms , above the ground floor , with privacy from their servants , who were now confined , unless required , to specifically delegated areas — often the ground and uppermost attic floors . This was a period of great social change in British history , and the educated prided themselves on enlightenment and elegance . While Belton is not in the Baroque style , it displays all the traits typical of the new tendencies .
Belton was designed in the restrained almost Palladian @-@ inspired architecture of the time immediately before the full emergence in England of the ornate Baroque . The general form this architecture took was of severely symmetrical , often rectangular houses , with a pediment over the central bays . This almost rigid concept was to influence the design of innumerable houses , including Belton . Later to be known as the Carolean style ( from " Carolus , " the Latin name for the reigning monarch Charles II ) , it was popular with the minor aristocracy and gentry for both their town and country houses until long after Charles II 's death .
Belton is faced with the local Ancaster stone , with a lighter ashlar from Ketton for the quoining . The " H " -shaped plan was a design which became popular in the late Elizabethan period . However , by the late 16th century , domestic architecture had evolved further than the " one room deep " ranges of the earlier " H " plan houses , such as Montacute House . The new layout placed rooms back to back , creating a house two rooms deep . This became known as " double pile " . As at Belton , this permitted rooms to be not just better lit and heated but also better accessed and related to each other , and with the greatest advantage of all — greater privacy . On the construction side , the double room depth allowed the house to be more compact and under one , more easily constructed , roof , thus lowering building costs . Houses now had the appearance of being more solid , with more than just one or two facades .
= = = Design = = =
The plan of the rooms at Belton was passé for a grand house of its time . Following the Restoration and the influx of European ideas , it had become popular for large houses to follow the continental fashion of a suite of state rooms consisting of a withdrawing room , dressing room , and bedroom proceeding from either side of a central saloon or hall . These rooms were permanently reserved for use by a high ranking guest , such as a visiting monarch . While Belton does have a saloon at its centre , enfilades of state rooms of lessening grandeur do not flank it . The possible reason for this unusual layout is that , while the Brownlows possessed great wealth , their title was only a baronetcy , and their fortune was barely a century old . They would have been regarded as gentry , not aristocracy . As a result , building a suite of state rooms would have been in hope rather than anticipation of a royal guest . However , the lack of a fashionable and formal suite of state apartments coupled with the Brownlows ' lack of social credentials did not prevent a visit from King William III to the newly completed house in 1695 . The King occupied the " Best bedchamber " , a large room with an adjoining closet , directly above the saloon , that led directly from the second floor Great Dining Chamber .
This design followed the older style of having reception rooms and bedrooms scattered over the two main floors . The layout used followed Roger Pratt 's theory that guest and family rooms should be quite separate . As a consequence of this philosophy , the family occupied the rooms on the first and second floors of the west and east wings , with the state rooms in the centre . The great staircase , designed to be grand and imposing , rose to the east side of the house , and formed part of the guest 's state route from the Hall and Saloon on the first floor to the principal dining room and bedroom on the second . This older concept is more clearly exemplified at the Elizabethan Hardwick Hall in neighbouring Derbyshire .
The principal entrance hall , reception and family bedrooms were placed on the first floor above a low semi @-@ basement containing service rooms . The two principal entrances to the mansion in the centre of both the north and south facades were accessed by external staircases , originally a single broad flight on the north side and a double staircase on the south . These staircases have since been replaced by simpler designs .
The second floor has a matching fenestration , with windows of equal value to those on the first floor below . The very latest innovation , sash windows , was used on both floors . The semi @-@ basement and attic storey used the more old @-@ fashioned mullioned and transomed windows , indicating the lower status of the occupants of these floors . It was clearly emphasised from without that the two main floors of the house were purely for state and family use , and the staff and service areas were confined to the semi @-@ basement and attic floors . This concept of keeping staff and domestic matters out of sight ( when not required ) was relatively new and had first been employed by Pratt in the design of Coleshill House in Berkshire . The contemporary social commentator of the day Roger North lauded back stairs , of which Belton has two examples ( 5 and 14 on plan ) , as one of the most important inventions of his day .
The principal room is the large Marble Hall ( 1 ) at the centre of the south front ; this hall is the beginning of a grand procession of rooms , and corresponds to the former Great Parlour or Saloon ( 9 ) on the north front . The Marble Hall is flanked by the former Little Parlour ( 11 , now the Tapestry Room ) and the Great Staircase ( 2 ) , while the Saloon is flanked by two withdrawing rooms ( 8 , 10 ) . The bedrooms are arranged in individual suites on both floors of the two wings ( 3 , etc . ) that flank the state centre of the house . The main staircase , set to one side of the Marble Hall , is one of the few things at Belton which is asymmetrically placed . It has a robust plaster @-@ work ceiling incorporating the Brownlow crest by the London plasterer Edward Goudge , " now looked on as ye best master in England in his profession , " William Winde reported in 1690 .
Bodily and spiritual needs were balanced symmetrically within the mansion : the kitchen ( 16 ) and the chapel ( 7 ) were both large two @-@ storied halls , rising from the semi @-@ basement to the first floor . This design not only provided a great and lofty space , but also allowed the servants to worship in the chapel without leaving the service floor , while their employers would worship from a private gallery , complete with fireplace , overlooking the chapel on the first floor .
One of the most Carolean features of the house is the balustrade and cupola surmounting the roof , another element introduced to English architecture by Roger Pratt . The cupola at Belton does not light a lofty domed hall , as is often the case in Europe , but houses a staircase which gives access to a large viewing platform on top of a lead roof , concealed from the ground by the balustrade which tops the more conventional and visible hipped roof . From this vantage point , the owners of Belton could admire the perfect symmetry of their avenues and formal gardens spreading from the house . This feature of the house was removed by the architect James Wyatt when he modernised the house in the 18th century . It was restored to its original form in the 1870s by the 3rd Earl Brownlow .
= = Interior and contents = =
Some of Belton 's many rooms have been altered over the last 300 years both in use and design . One of the principal rooms , the Marble Hall ( 1 ) , the first of the large reception rooms , serves as an entrance hall from the south entrance , and takes its name from a chequer board patterned floor of black and white marble tiles . By the time of Belton 's conception , the great hall was no longer a place for the household to eat , but intended as a grand entrance to the house . The hall was originally hung with 28 portraits of Kings , Queens , and Emperors , from William the Conqueror to William III , intended to give the house an air of dynastic importance . The less numerous and far newer Brownlow family portraits were originally hung in the Great Dining Room immediately above . The room is fully panelled , and parts of the panelling contain lime wood embellishments attributed to Grinling Gibbons . In the early 19th century , this room , and some others , were re @-@ modelled by Jeffry Wyatville , who in addition to graining and painting the panelling to imitate oak inserted fake doors in the panelling to balance real doors already in place .
The second of the principal reception rooms , the Saloon ( 9 ) , opens from the Marble Hall . This large panelled room is on an axis to the avenues of the formal north gardens . Originally known as the Great Parlour , this has always been the chief reception room of the house . It retains its original marble fireplace and has an ornate plaster ceiling which is a Victorian copy of the original ceiling by the Carolean plasterer Edward Goudge . The centrepiece of the room is a large Aubusson carpet made in 1839 for the 1st Earl Brownlow .
Either side of the Saloon are two smaller drawing rooms ( 8 , 10 ) , which would originally have served as private withdrawing rooms from the more public activities which would have taken place in the Marble Hall and Saloon . One of these rooms , now called the Tyrconnel Room ( 10 ) , was transformed into the principal or state bedroom during the occupancy of Lord Tyrconnel in an attempt to create a more fashionable suite of Baroque state rooms on the first floor . After his death in 1754 , it became a Billiard Room , until the 3rd Earl Brownlow had it refurnished more than a century later . Unusually , the floor is painted with the family arms and crest . The date of the floor is not known for certain but the early nineteenth century has been suggested .
The final large reception room on the first floor is the Hondecoeter Room ( 16 ) , so named because of the three huge oil paintings by Melchior d 'Hondecoeter ( 1636 – 1695 ) , depicting scenes of birds in courtyards , which are fitted into the neo @-@ Carolean panelling . The panelling was introduced to the room by the 3rd Earl Brownlow in 1876 , when it was furnished as the principal dining room of the mansion . The room was initially created as a library in 1808 from the upper part of the earlier kitchen which had originally risen two stories . The West staircase ( 14 ) was originally a service stairs , and would have been plainer in decor , but by the late nineteenth century it was in regular use by the family .
Either side of the Marble Hall , lie the Great Staircase ( 2 ) and the Tapestry Room ( 11 ) , which contains a collection of early eighteenth century Mortlake tapestries . The Great Staircase to the east of the Marble Hall is unusually placed at Belton , as in a house of this period one would expect to find the staircase in the hall . The stairs rise in three flights around the west , north , and east walls to the former Great Dining Room above the Marble Hall . Thus the staircase served as an important state procession link between the three principal reception rooms of the house . The Great Dining Room , now the Library , has been greatly altered and all traces of Carolean decoration removed , first by James Wyatt in 1778 when it was transformed into a drawing room with a vaulted ceiling , and again in 1876 , when its use was again changed , this time to a library . The room contains some 6000 volumes , a superb example of book collecting over 350 years . When Lord Tyrconnel died in 1754 a catalogue of his library identified almost 2 @,@ 300 books . Almost all of these remain in the Belton library today . Rupert Gunnis attributed the carved marble chimneypiece depicting two Roman goddesses to Sir Richard Westmacott .
Leading from the Library is the Queen 's Room , the former " Best Bed Chamber " . This panelled room was redecorated in 1841 for the visit of Queen Adelaide , widow of William IV , when its former function as a state bedroom was resurrected . It contains the great canopied Rococo @-@ style bed in which the Queen slept , complete with the royal monogram " AR " ( Adelaide Regina ) embroidered on the bedhead . Other rooms on the second floor are mostly bedrooms , which include the Chinese Room ( directly above the Tyrconnel Room ) with its original hand @-@ painted 18th @-@ century Chinese wallpaper , the Yellow Room ( directly above the Blue Room ) , and the Windsor Bedroom ( directly above the School Room ) , so called following its use by King Edward VIII of the United Kingdom , who became the Duke of Windsor after the abdication crisis of 1936 . Edward visited Belton in the 1930s with his mistress Wallis Simpson , and the 6th Baron Brownlow was heavily involved in the crisis thanks to his position as the King 's Lord @-@ in @-@ waiting . Today , Belton has a permanent exhibition devoted to that event . Another royal visitor , Charles , Prince of Wales , also used the room frequently while a cadet at nearby RAF Cranwell .
= = Gardens and the park = =
In 1690 , Sir John Brownlow was granted permission to enclose an area of 1000 acres ( 4 km ² ) to transform into a park , with a grant to keep deer . There is evidence to suggest that some of this area had been a park since at least 1580 . The park was laid out with avenues , including the still surviving Eastern Avenue which led east from the house . Brownlow also had a large pond or lake dug and planted 21 @,@ 400 ash trees , 9 @,@ 500 oak trees , and 614 fruit trees . It is thought that William Winde may have advised on the layout of the gardens . Closer to the house were a series of more formal gardens , including canal ponds bordered by plantations containing symmetrical walks resembling the " rond @-@ points " ( circular clearings in a garden from which straight paths radiate ) introduced by the landscape gardener André Le Nôtre . By the end of the eighteenth century , these formal parterres had been removed and the canal ponds filled in .
Sir John Brownlow was succeeded at Belton by his brother , who was content to permit Brownlow 's widow , Alice , to remain in occupation . She spent the remainder of her life at Belton arranging advantageous marriages for her five daughters . On her death in 1721 , the house passed to her husband 's nephew ( and her son @-@ in @-@ law ) Sir John Brownlow III ( later Viscount Tyrconnel ) . Tyrconnel , a dilettante of no great intellect , was responsible for many of the architectural features which survive in the park and garden . Between 1742 and 1751 , a series of follies , including a Gothic ruin , a cascade , and a prospect or belvedere known as the Belmount Tower , were constructed for him . When built the tower had two small wings flanking each side , since removed .
= = Later history = =
In 1754 , Belton was inherited by Sir John Cust , the son of previous owner Viscount Tyrconnel 's widowed sister . Cust was a distinguished politician active during the politically turbulent 1760s , and his monument at Belton blames his death at the age of 51 to the " unusual fatigues of his office " . His heir was created Lord Brownlow in 1776 , and Belton was owned by successive Lords Brownlow for the next 200 years .
In the last three decades of the 19th century the 3rd Earl Brownlow spent much time and money restoring Belton , and consequently the house entered the 20th century in a good state of repair and preservation . However , the 20th century was to present Belton and its estate with serious problems . These included the introduction of income tax and death duties which would leave the finances of the Brownlow family severely depleted .
At the beginning of World War I , like many other British landowners , the 3rd Earl Brownlow offered his house and park to the Government for war service . The offer was accepted , and the largest and most drastic changes were made in the park since the time of Viscount Tyrconnel 's folly building . In August 1914 , the house and park were used as the assembly point for the 11th ( Northern ) Division before its deployment . In 1915 , the home depôt and training ground of the Machine Gun Corps were established in the southern part of Belton park . The lie of the land there , where the River Witham passes between the Lower Lincolnshire Limestone and the Upper Lias mudstone , lent itself to the development of the necessary firing ranges close to good communications by way of the Great North Road and the East Coast main line railway station at Grantham . The depôt was closed in 1919 , the site cleared and the land restored to Lord Brownlow in 1920 . Little sign of the Machine Gun Corps 's stay remains in the park , but plaques and inscriptions can be followed from the south gate of Belton park to the memorial gate on the way from there to the town centre and in the north aisle of Grantham parish church .
Belton again saw war service during World War II . From 1942 , part of the Royal Air Force Regiment was housed in nissen huts at the park in a facility named RAF Belton Park . The RAF Regiment had its headquarters at nearby RAF Alma Park , with additional accommodation at nearby RAF Folkingham and RAF North Witham airfields .
The years following World War I were severely testing for the owners of many great estates . The staff both indoor and outdoor , which had previously been plentiful , essential , and cheap , were now in short supply . Millions of men had left private service to join the army , and very few returned . Female domestic staff had been called up for war service in factories , and now realised there was an easier and better paid existence outside of the gates of the great country houses . With both fortunes and staff depleted many owners of country houses now fought a losing battle to retain them .
Belton House remained relatively untouched during this period , largely owing to the failing fortunes of the Brownlow family . The 3rd Earl Brownlow and his Countess lived for only a few months of the year at Belton , where they came for the fox @-@ hunting , and divided the remainder of their time between their house in London and Ashridge , another country house in Hertfordshire . Ashridge , a huge Gothic revival pile , had come to the Brownlows in the 19th century through the Egerton family . It was sold , with its art collection and furnishings , to pay the death duties arising on the death of the 3rd Earl in 1921 . Hence Belton became the Brownlow 's sole country home . Further death duties were incurred in 1927 on the death of the 3rd Earl 's successor , his second cousin Adelbert Cust , 5th Baron Brownlow .
In the ensuing period many thousands of country houses of great architectural value were demolished , or had whole wings razed to the ground . In 1955 alone one house was demolished every five days . In this respect Belton was fortunate to survive at all , as in addition to the family 's problems , the house deteriorated to such an extent that in 1961 the 6th Baron employed the architect Francis Johnson to oversee a large restoration program lasting three years . Not only was the roof repaired but much of the panelling taken down and repaired , and new cornices installed . Also attempts were made to curtail serious infestations of dry rot . By the time of the death of the 6th Baron in 1978 , the resultant death duties , coupled with the rising costs of the upkeep , made Belton too much for the Brownlow family .
= = = National Trust = = =
The seventh Baron attempted to retain the house and estate by opening to the public . An adventure playground was built in the nearby woods to attract families to the house as a tourist attraction . However , the financial difficulties were too great and in January 1984 he transferred ownership of the house , garden and some of the contents to the National Trust , a charitable body experienced in the management of historic properties . The National Trust further purchased at a cost of eight million pounds ( worth about £ 23 million today ) 1 @,@ 317 acres ( 5 @.@ 3 km ² ) of parkland and much of the remaining contents with a grant from the National Heritage Memorial Fund .
The Trust quickly produced a guide book for the 1984 season and opened to the public . A priority was the establishment of a restaurant , which would not only augment the estate 's income , but also encourage people to spend more time at Belton , and travel greater distances to visit . Though the house , its contents and outbuildings were in an adequate state of repair at the time of the gift , they have since become part of an ongoing programme of conservation and restoration . At the same time the National Trust has introduced new features and attractions such as a silver exhibition which displays a collection of silver amassed by the Brownlow family , dating from 1698 . Further revenue is raised from the use of the property as a filming location , and from licensing the Marble Hall for civil weddings . The house is featured in the BBC 's 1988 adaptation of Moondial. and also as " Rosings Park " in the BBC 's 1995 television version of Pride and Prejudice .
= = Owners = =
Until its acceptance by the National Trust , Belton House was always in the ownership of the family of its builder , though the failure of three generations to produce a son and heir caused the ownership to pass sideways and sometimes through the female line .
The owners of Belton are buried in the village of Belton 's parish church close to the house . Their tombs are collectively one of the most complete sets of family memorials in England — continuous generation to generation for almost 350 years . The earliest Brownlow buried here is the founder of the family fortune the lawyer Richard Brownlow ( 1555 – 1638 ) , and one of the most recent is the 6th Baron Brownlow ( 1899 – 1978 ) .
The owners of Belton House have been :
Sir John Brownlow I ( 1594 – 1679 ) Bequeathed Belton to his great @-@ nephew John Brownlow II .
Sir John Brownlow II ( 1659 – 1697 ) . Builder of Belton House
Sir William Brownlow ( 1665 – 1702 ) . Brother of Sir John Brownlow II , permitted his widowed sister @-@ in @-@ law Alice to retain Belton .
Sir John Brownlow III ( 1690 – 1754 ) . Created Viscount Tyrconnel in 1718 . Nephew and son @-@ in @-@ law of Sir John Brownlow II .
Sir John Cust , 3rd Baronet ( 1718 – 1770 ) . Speaker of the House of Commons and nephew of Tyrconnel .
Sir Brownlow Cust ( 1744 – 1807 ) . Created Baron Brownlow in 1776 . Son of Sir John Cust .
John , 2nd Baron Brownlow ( 1779 – 1853 ) . Created 1st Earl Brownlow in 1815 . Son of Sir Brownlow Cust .
John Egerton @-@ Cust , 2nd Earl Brownlow ( 1842 – 1867 ) Grandson of John , 2nd Baron Brownlow .
Adelbert , 3rd ( and last ) Earl Brownlow ( 1844 – 1921 ) . Brother of John , 2nd Earl Brownlow .
Adelbert Salusbury Cockayne Cust , 5th Baron Brownlow ( 1867 – 1927 ) . Second cousin of Adelbert , 3rd Earl Brownlow .
Peregrine Cust , 6th Baron Brownlow ( 1899 – 1978 ) . Son of the 5th Baron Brownlow .
Edward Cust , 7th Baron Brownlow ( born 1936 ) . Son of the 6th Baron Brownlow .
The National Trust ( 1984 onwards ) .
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= Mephisto ( wrestler ) =
Mephisto ( born December 12 , 1968 ) is the ring name of a Mexican luchador enmascarado , or masked professional wrestler and currently works for Consejo Mundial de Lucha Libre ( CMLL ) . His real name is not a matter of official record as he is an enmascarado , which by lucha libre traditions means that his personal life is kept secret from the general public .
Mephisto is the son of Luchador Astro Rey / Kahoz and has previously worked both as Astro Rey Jr. and Kahoz Jr. but has been most successful as Mephisto . Since adopting the Mephisto gimmick he has been associated with the group Los Infernales ( " The Infernal Ones " ) and later on Los Hijos del Averno ( " The Sons of Hell " ) , especially working closely with Averno as his regular tag team partner for years . Mephisto and Averno are considered one of the top teams in Mexico between 2000 and 2010 .
He is currently the leader of Los Hijos del Infierno ( " The Sons of the Inferno " ) that also includes Ephesto and Luciferno . While working as Mephisto he has won multiple CMLL championships and currently holds part of the Mexican National Trios Championship with the other Hijos del Infierno . Previous he has held the CMLL World Tag Team Championship ( 3 times ) , CMLL World Trios Championship , CMLL World Welterweight Championship , Mexican National Light Heavyweight Championship , Mexican National Welterweight Championship , NWA World Welterweight Championship and was the first ever holder of the NWA World Historic Welterweight Championship
= = Personal life = =
The man who would grow up to wrestle as Mephisto was born on December 12 , 1968 in Mexico City , son of Alberto Leonel Hernández López , better known as the Luchador ( professional wrestler ) " Astro Rey " ( Spanish for " Astro King " ) and later on as " Kahoz " . By 1971 his father had started wrestling which meant that the future Mephisto grew up around wrestlers , wanting to become one himself from a very early age .
= = Professional wrestling career = =
After training under his father , and his uncle the luchador known as " El Gallo Giro " , he made his debut as " Kahoz Jr . " , as a tribute to his father 's final wrestling character . From 1988 until 1993 he wrestled as Kahoz Jr. for various promotions in Mexico . His father , however , urged him to change gimmicks to the one that got his father the most fame " Astro Rey Jr . " . As Astro Rey Jr. or simply " Astro Jr . " he travelled the world and wrestled extensively in Mexico and Japan . On March 22 , 1999 Astro Rey Jr. won the Mexican National Welterweight Championship from Arkangel de la Muerte and defended it several times during his 19 month reign . Astro Rey Jr. finally lost the title to Karloff Lagarde Jr. on October 23 , 2000 .
= = = Los Infernales ( 2001 @-@ 2009 ) = = =
Over the summer of 2001 El Satánico , the leader of a team known as Los Infernales ( " The Infernal ones " ) was involved in a storyline with former Infernales team members Último Guerrero , Rey Bucanero , Tarzan Boy who had turned on him . CMLL decided to expand the storyline , teaming El Satánico up with two other wrestlers , both of whom were repackaged to fit with the " infernal " theme of El Satánico . The storyline was that El Satánico used his supposed " satanic powers " to turn the tecnico ( face ) Rencor Latino into one of his " minions " , the rudo ( heel ) known as " Averno " ( " Hell " ) in a televised segment . After this turn was completed they were joined by Mephisto , formerly Kahoz Jr. and Astro Rey Jr . , but unlike Averno , no references to his previous identities were made at the time . Together the three became the new version of Los Infernales and feuded with the splinter group of Infernales consisting of Guerrero , Bucanero , Tarzan Boy and Máscara Mágica over the following year . A year later , September 2002 at the CMLL 68th Anniversary Show , the two groups faced off in a steel cage match to determine who had the rights to the " Los Infernales " name . In the end Satánico made Máscara Mágica submit gaining the rights for his own group as well as taking the mask of Máscara Mágica . After the steel cage match the feud between the two groups more or less ending , the splinter faction changed their name to Los Guerreros del Infierno ( " The Warriors of the Inferno " ) .
On June 23 , 2002 , Los Infernales won the Mexican National Trios Championship from Olímpico , Mr. Niebla and Safari . After they won the championship they began feuding with La Familia de Tijuana ( Nicho el Millonario , Halloween and Damián 666 ) . The trio lost the title to La Familia on September 27 , 2002 but continued feuding into 2003 . When Nicho stopped appearing for CMLL the trios championship was vacated but Los Infernales refused to take them without a match . This storyline led to an eight @-@ team trios title tournament whichLos Infernales did not win . Instead Los Infernales did win a tournament to become the number one contenders for the CMLL World Trios Championship but lost to champions Black Tiger III , Dr. Wagner Jr. and Universo 2000 on August 1 , 2003 . At the end of the year , Averno and Mephisto turned on Satánico but there was little to feuding afterwards they split from the group and ventured out on their own . On February 4 , 2004 Mephisto defeated El Satánico to win the CMLL World Welterweight Championship at CMLL ’ s home at Arena México .
= = = Triada del Terror / Perros del Mal ( 2006 @-@ 2008 ) = = =
Mephisto and Averno defeated Atlantis and Blue Panther for the CMLL World Tag Team Championship in a heated match on April 2 , 2005 . The team would defend the tag team titles several times over the next year in some very well received matches that led to several reporters labeling them as one of the best Mexican tag teams in the 21st century . Their most prominent defense was on the last Arena México show of 2005 when they defeated El Hijo del Santo and Negro Casas in the main event . In early 2006 , they defended their titles against Místico and Black Warrior twice . In the first match , they won by disqualification when Black Warrior interfered in the match after being pinned . In the second match two weeks later , Black Warrior turned on Místico , starting a long @-@ running storyline between the two . On April 14 , 2006 , they lost the tag team championship to the team of Místico and Negro Casas , ending their year @-@ long reign .
In late @-@ 2006 / early @-@ 2007 Mephisto and Averno began teaming regularly with Ephesto ( named after the Greek god Hephaestus ) , who was formerly known as Safari before . He was given an " underworld " character by CMLL and teamed up with Averno and Mephisto to create a regular trio team . The three came to the ring wearing black , hooded robes and were briefly introduced as Los Ku Klux Klan , but soon after dropped the controversial name to become known as La Triada del Terror ( " The Terror Trio " ) . While the team of Mephisto and Averno had been busy defending the CMLL Tag Team titles Mephisto also found time to defend the CMLL World Welterweight title he had worn for over three years , until he was finally defeated by CMLL ’ s rising star Místico on April 10 , 2007 , ending his title reign after days 1 @,@ 141 days . In 2008 Mephisto and Averno were invited to join Perro Aguayo Jr . ' s Perros del Mal ( " The Bad Dogs " ) faction , while Ephesto was not asked to join them . The duo had only been a part of Los Perros del Mal for a short while before Aguayo Jr. and a number of other Perros members decided to leave CMLL . Mephisto and Averno remained with CMLL and teamed up with Ephesto once more as well as El Texano Jr. and El Terrible to form a group called La Jauria del Terror ( " the Hounds of Terror " , playing off the " Perros " name )
= = = Los Hijos del Averno ( 2009 @-@ 2014 ) = = =
Not long after the group changed their name to Los Hijos del Averno ( " The Sons of Hell " ) . On February 15 , 2009 , Mephisto unsuccessfully challenged Místico for the CMLL World Welterweight Championship on a New Japan Pro Wrestling show in Sumo Hall , Tokyo . On May 27 , 2009 Mephisto defeated La Sombra to win the NWA World Welterweight Championship . During Mephisto 's reign , the title was replaced with the NWA World Historic Welterweight Championship . On August 16 , 2010 it was announced that Mephisto was one of 14 men putting their mask on the line in a Luchas de Apuestas steel cage match , the main event of the CMLL 77th Anniversary Show . Mephisto was the second man to leave the steel cage as all three members of Los Hijos del Averno quickly left the cage , keeping their masks safe . The match came down to La Sombra pinning Olímpico to unmask him . On March 13 , 2011 , Mephisto lost the NWA World Historic Welterweight Championship to La Sombra .
In April 2011 El Terrible and El Texano , Jr. split from Los Hijos del Averno to form a new faction with Rey Bucanero called La Fuerza TRT ( " The TRT Power " ) . On July 15 , Los Hijos del Averno defeated La Generación Dorada ( " The Golden Generation " ; Máscara Dorada , La Máscara and La Sombra ) to win the CMLL World Trios Championship . They would lose the title to El Bufete del Amor ( Marco Corleone , Máximo and Rush ) on February 19 , 2012 . Mephisto returned to Japan in January 2013 , when he took part in the three @-@ day Fantastica Mania 2013 event , co @-@ promoted by CMLL and New Japan Pro Wrestling in Tokyo . During the first night on January 18 , he teamed with Gedo and Jado to defeat Atlantis , Jushin Thunder Liger and Tiger Mask in a six man tag team match . The following night , Mephisto and Okumura defeated Diamante and Máscara Dorada in a tag team match . During the third and final night , Mephisto teamed with Euforia and Kazuchika Okada in a six man tag team main event , where they were defeated by Atlantis , Hiroshi Tanahashi and Prince Devitt . On August 13 , Mephisto defeated La Máscara for the Mexican National Light Heavyweight Championship . In January 1 , 2014 , Mephisto defended the Mexican National Light Heavyweight Championship against Atlantis .
In January 2014 , Mephisto returned to Japan to take part in the five @-@ day Fantastica Mania 2014 tour . In the main event of the fourth show on January 18 , he successfully defended the Mexican National Light Heavyweight Championship against Místico . Mephisto participated in the 2014 La Copa Junior VIP tournament in the first qualifying round that took place on the September 26 , 2014 Super Viernes show . Mephisto first defeated Guerrero Maya Jr . , then Shocker and finally Volador Jr. to qualify for the finals On October 10 Mephisto lost in the finals to Máximo .
= = = Los Hijos del Infierno ( 2015 @-@ present ) = = =
With Averno 's exit from CMLL in 2014 Mephisto and Ephesto continued to team up , but never used the name " Hijos del Averno " .Months later they began being introduced as " Los Hijos del Infierno " , ( " The Sons of the Infierno " ) where Mephisto became the leader of the team and they and added a third member , Luciferno , ( formerly known as Hooligan ) . In January 2015 , Mephisto returned to Japan to take part in the Fantastica Mania 2015 tour , during which he joined Bullet Club and successfully defended the Mexican National Light Heavyweight Championship against Stuka Jr . On August 9 , 2015 Los Hijos del Infierno defeated Los Reyes de la Atlantida ( " The Kings of the Atlantis " ; Atlantis , Delta and Guerrero Maya Jr . ) to win the Mexican National Trios Championship , Mephisto 's second Trios title reign and the first team championship for Los Hijos del Infierno . Atlantis defeated Mephisto to win the Mexican National Light Heavyweight Championship on August 24 , 2015 , ending Mephisto 's reign after 741 days . In January 2016 , Mephisto returned to NJPW to take part in the Fantastica Mania 2016 tour , during which no reference was made to his previous association with Bullet Club . In the main event of the final show , Mephisto unsuccessfully challenged Volador Jr. for the NWA World Historic Welterweight Championship . On May 2 , 2016 Mephisto defeated Máscara Dorada to win the CMLL World Welterweight Championship for the second time .
= = In wrestling = =
Finishing moves
Demon Driller ( Double underhook facebuster )
Devil 's Wings ( Lifting double underhook facebuster )
Signature moves
Boston crab
Gedo clutch
= = Championships and accomplishments = =
Consejo Mundial de Lucha Libre
CMLL World Tag Team Championship ( 3 times ) – with Averno
CMLL World Trios Championship ( 1 time ) – with Averno and Ephesto
CMLL World Welterweight Championship ( 2 times , current )
Mexican National Light Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time )
Mexican National Trios Championship ( 2 times , current ) – with El Satánico and Averno ( 1 time ) , with Ephesto and Luciferno ( 1 time , current )
Mexican National Welterweight Championship ( 1 time )
NWA World Welterweight Championship ( 1 time )
NWA World Historic Welterweight Championship ( 1 time )
Pro Wrestling Illustrated
PWI ranked him # 54 of the 500 best singles wrestlers of the PWI 500 in 2006 .
= = = Luchas de Apuestas record = = =
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= Isn 't It a Pity =
" Isn 't It a Pity " is a song by English musician George Harrison from his 1970 solo album All Things Must Pass . It appears in two variations there : one the well @-@ known , seven @-@ minute version ; the other a reprise , titled " Isn 't It a Pity ( Version Two ) " . Harrison wrote the song in 1966 , but it was rejected for inclusion on releases by the Beatles . In many countries around the world , the song was also issued on a double A @-@ side single with " My Sweet Lord " . In America , Billboard magazine listed it with " My Sweet Lord " when the single topped the Hot 100 chart , while in Canada , " Isn 't It a Pity " reached number 1 as the preferred side .
An anthemic ballad and one of Harrison 's most celebrated compositions , " Isn 't It a Pity " has been described as the emotional and musical centrepiece of All Things Must Pass and " a poignant reflection on The Beatles ' coarse ending " . Co @-@ produced by Phil Spector , the recording employs multiple keyboard players , rhythm guitarists and percussionists , as well as orchestration by arranger John Barham . In its extended fadeout , the song references the closing refrain of the Beatles ' 1968 hit " Hey Jude " . Other musicians on the recording include Ringo Starr , Billy Preston , Gary Wright and the band Badfinger , while the reprise version features Eric Clapton on lead guitar .
The song appeared as the closing track on Harrison 's career @-@ spanning compilation Let It Roll ( 2009 ) , and a live version , from his 1991 tour with Clapton , was included on Live in Japan ( 1992 ) . Clapton and Preston performed the song together at the Concert for George tribute in November 2002 . " Isn 't It a Pity " has been covered by numerous artists , including Nina Simone , Matt Monro , Cowboy Junkies , Paul Young , Elliott Smith , Galaxie 500 , Jonathan Wilson and Graham Nash , Tedeschi Trucks Band , and Roberta Flack .
= = Background and composition = =
While no longer the " really tight " social unit they had been throughout the chaos of Beatlemania – or the " four @-@ headed monster " , as Mick Jagger famously called them – the individual Beatles were still bonded by genuine friendship during their final , troubled years as a band , even if it was now more of a case of being locked together at a deep psychological level after such a sustained period of heightened experience . Eric Clapton has described this bond as being just like that of a typical family , " with all the difficulties that entails " . When the band finally split , in April 1970 – a " terrible surprise " for the outside world , in the words of author Mark Hertsgaard , " like the sudden death of a beloved young uncle " – even the traditionally most disillusioned Beatle , George Harrison , suffered a mild bereavement .
Towards the end of May that year , among the dozens of tracks that would be considered and / or recorded for his All Things Must Pass triple album , Harrison returned to a number of unused songs that he had written during the late 1960s . " Isn 't It a Pity " was one of these , having most recently been rejected by the Beatles during the January 1969 Get Back sessions that resulted in their final album , Let It Be . According to Abbey Road engineer Geoff Emerick , however , the song had been offered for inclusion on 1967 's Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band , while Mark Lewisohn , the band 's acknowledged recording historian , has stated that it was first presented during sessions for the previous year 's Revolver . Lewisohn 's opinion appears to tally with a bootlegged conversation from the Get Back sessions , where Harrison reveals that John Lennon had vetoed " Isn 't It a Pity " three years before , and that he ( Harrison ) considered offering the song to Frank Sinatra . ( Harrison had recently met Sinatra in Los Angeles while working there with Apple signing Jackie Lomax . )
Despite its relative antiquity by 1970 , the song 's lyrics lent themselves well to the themes of spiritual salvation and friendship that define All Things Must Pass , being consistent with the karmic subject matter of much of the album . In his 1980 autobiography , Harrison explains : " ' Isn 't It a Pity ' is about whenever a relationship hits a down point ... It was a chance to realise that if I felt somebody had let me down , then there 's a good chance I was letting someone else down . " His lyrics adopt a nonjudgmental tone throughout :
Isn 't it a pity , isn 't it a shame
How we break each other 's hearts , and cause each other pain
How we take each other 's love without thinking any more
Forgetting to give back , now isn 't it a pity .
Harrison biographer Ian Inglis has referred to the song 's " surprisingly complex " lyrics , which in one sense can be seen as a personal observation on a " failed love affair " yet at the same time serve as a comment on " the universal love for , and among , humankind " . This theme had featured in previous Harrison songs such as " Within You Without You " and " While My Guitar Gently Weeps " and would remain prominent in much of his subsequent compositions . The same parallels regarding the universality of love in Harrison 's work has been noted by Dale Allison , author of the first " spiritual biography " on the ex @-@ Beatle ; " When George asks , ' Isn 't It A Pity ? ' , " Allison writes , " the scope of his question is vast : it embraces almost everything . "
Speaking to Billboard editor @-@ in @-@ chief Timothy White in 2000 , Harrison said of " Isn 't It a Pity " : " It 's just an observation of how society and myself were or are . We take each other for granted – and forget to give back . That was really all it was about . "
= = Recording = =
Two contrasting versions of the song were recorded in London in mid 1970 during the sessions for All Things Must Pass , both of which were intended for release , from the outset . According to Harrison , after recording the first version , he had decided he was unhappy with it , and the second version came about by chance " weeks later " , when one of the backing musicians began playing the song during a session . The so @-@ called " Isn 't It a Pity ( Version Two ) " is noticeably slower than the better known , seven @-@ minute " epic " reading of the song . Eric Clapton 's lead guitar fills , phased piano from Tony Ashton , and John Barham @-@ arranged woodwinds dominate Version Two , which is also more in keeping with the Beatles ' earlier attempts on the track ; as with " Ballad of Sir Frankie Crisp " , it features extensive use of the Leslie speaker sound so familiar from the band 's Abbey Road album .
Like the concurrently recorded " My Sweet Lord " , the album 's other " Isn 't It a Pity " betrays the influence of co @-@ producer Phil Spector more so than the comparatively sedate Version Two . It is also the most extreme example of Harrison 's stated intention to allow some of the songs on All Things Must Pass to run longer and feature instrumentation to a greater degree than had been possible within the confines of the more pop @-@ oriented Beatles approach to recording . " Isn 't It a Pity " ( Version One , in its All Things Must Pass context ) starts small and builds – " and it builds and it builds " , NME 's Alan Smith would soon write . Taping of the backing track took place at Abbey Road Studios on 2 June , and judging by Spector 's comments regarding Harrison 's early mixes , the orchestral arrangement was not added until late August at the earliest . The first slide @-@ guitar break on the released recording , quite possibly overdubbed some time after the June sessions also , would adopt a near @-@ identical melody to the one Harrison had vocalised when routining the song for the other Beatles on 26 January 1969 – reflecting a quality admired by Elton John in the latter 's 2002 tribute to Harrison : " All his solos are very melodic – you can almost sing his solos . " Inglis writes that the effect of Harrison 's " elaborate patterns " on slide guitar is to " counterbalance the underlying atmosphere of pessimism with shafts of beauty " , similar to the " notes of light and dark " provided by Pete Drake 's pedal steel on the song " All Things Must Pass " .
Now in the key of G ( two semitones down from the Get Back performance ) , " Isn 't It a Pity " begins " dirge " -like with a two @-@ note pedal point provided by layers of keyboards and acoustic guitars . Only at the one @-@ minute mark , at the start of verse two , does the rhythm section come in , after which the instruments begin to " break out of their metronomic straitjacket to attain an almost ecstatic release " , as Beatles Forever author Nicholas Schaffner put it in 1977 . The " balmy " slide guitar passage , supported by Barham 's string section , follows this second verse , and from that point on – around 2 : 38 – the same , circular chord structure continues for the remaining four @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half minutes of the song . The long fade @-@ out sees what Schaffner termed the " pseudo @-@ symphonic tension " burst into a frenzy of brass and timpani , further bottleneck soloing , and the " What a pity " mantra joined by " Hey Jude " -style " Na @-@ na @-@ na @-@ na " chorus .
One of the most obvious examples of what Rolling Stone magazine 's album reviewer later termed " the music of mountain tops and vast horizons " , " Isn 't It a Pity " featured the largest line @-@ up of musicians found on the album – including three or four keyboard players , a trio of extra rhythm guitarists , the orchestral strings , brass and tympani , and a male choir . Harrison 's former bandmate Ringo Starr and two musicians with well @-@ established links to the Beatles , Klaus Voormann and Billy Preston , were among the participants , on drums , bass and organ , respectively . Members of Apple band Badfinger provided the " felt but not heard " acoustic guitars ( behind Harrison 's ) , consistent with Spector 's criteria for his Wall of Sound technique , while author Bruce Spizer has suggested that Peter Frampton may have been among the rhythm guitarists also . Pianist Gary Wright , who would go on to collaborate regularly with Harrison over the subsequent decades , recalls the session for " Isn 't It a Pity " as being his first with Harrison . Bobby Whitlock , the other main keyboard player on All Things Must Pass , with Wright , recalls playing a " phase @-@ shifted pump organ , or harmonium " on the track . Another possible participant is Maurice Gibb , Starr 's Highgate neighbour at the time , who claimed to have played piano on the song .
= = Release = =
Originally , the intention had been to release " Isn 't It a Pity " as the lead single from All Things Must Pass in October 1970 , until Spector and others persuaded Harrison that " My Sweet Lord " was the most obvious choice . The full , seven @-@ minute " Isn 't It a Pity " was therefore issued as a double A @-@ side with " My Sweet Lord " on 23 November in the United States and Canada ( as Apple 2995 ) , four days before the album 's release there . Reflecting the equal status of the two tracks , both sides of the single 's picture sleeve featured the same Barry Feinstein @-@ shot photo of Harrison , the only differences being the song title below Harrison 's name and the fact that the green Apple Records logo and catalogue number appeared only on the side for " My Sweet Lord " .
The single was phenomenally successful in North America , and around the world . Both songs were listed at number 1 on America 's Billboard Hot 100 chart , for four weeks starting on 26 December . In Canada , " Isn 't It a Pity " was the lead side when the single topped the RPM 100 chart for five weeks , through to mid January 1971 . " Isn 't It a Pity " was issued on All Things Must Pass as the final track on side one of the LP format , providing , in biographer Elliot Huntley 's words , an " elegiac , plaintive song of reconciliation " after the angry " Wah @-@ Wah " . Author Robert Rodriguez writes of the public 's perception of " Isn 't It a Pity " on release : " All Things Must Pass was replete with songs that could easily be interpreted as commentary on the Beatles ' breakup ; though this particular song predated the events of 1969 – 1970 , the subtext [ wasn 't ] diminished in the least . " " Isn 't It a Pity ( Version Two ) " appeared as the penultimate track on side four of the original three @-@ record set , thus serving as what Rodriguez terms " a bookend to a nearly completed journey " .
Despite the song 's commercial success , and its standing as one of the most @-@ covered compositions among Harrison 's post @-@ Beatles output , " Isn 't It a Pity " was omitted from EMI / Capitol 's The Best of George Harrison in November 1976 . It was included on the 2009 compilation Let It Roll : Songs by George Harrison , however . A demo version of the song , recorded during the Get Back sessions , is also available on Let It Roll as an iTunes Store exclusive .
A live version from December 1991 , again with Clapton , appears on the album Live in Japan .
= = Reception = =
" Isn 't It a Pity " remains one of Harrison 's most popular songs with critics and fans alike . AllMusic calls it " deeply moving and powerful " , while in their book on the solo Beatles ' recording history , Eight Arms to Hold You , Chip Madinger and Mark Easter declare : " If any George Harrison song can be called ' majestic ' , ' Isn 't It a Pity ' would be the one . " In his December 1970 album review for the NME , Alan Smith described it as a track that " catches the mood of aching tolerance of pain , which Harrison can do so well " and " a ballad which will stand out from the album with the passing of the years " . While reviewing the song 's pairing with " My Sweet Lord " , Billboard magazine wrote of a " powerhouse two @-@ sided winner " with " equally potent lyric lines and infectious rhythms " .
Simon Leng identifies the song as musically " sumptuous " and praises Harrison 's melody and " unique " use of notes beyond the key signature , as well as John Barham 's " evocative , suspended orchestration " . He notes also the similarity of their combined musical counterbalance with elements of Indian raga , in the number of swaras ( tones ) in both ascending and descending scales . To Leng , " Isn 't It a Pity " is the " pivotal song " , the " essence " of All Things Must Pass , encapsulating the album 's struggle between " gospel ecstasy and the failure of human relationships " . He concludes : " Ever bittersweet , ' Isn 't It a Pity ' records the last dying echoes of the Beatles . "
Writing in the late 1970s , Nicholas Schaffner noted the song 's " towering simplicity " and the " endlessly repetitive fade @-@ out that somehow manages to be hypnotic instead of boring " . Like Leng and Schaffner , a number of commentators have remarked on the significance of " Isn 't It a Pity " in the context of the Beatles ' demise , starting with the song 's length : 7 : 10 – just a second under " Hey Jude " . Ben Gerson , in his 1971 Rolling Stone review , described the song as a " lament ... whose beginning is the broken thirds of John 's ' I Am the Walrus ' and whose end is the decadent , exultant last half of Paul 's ' Hey Jude ' " . Peter Doggett considers " Isn 't It a Pity " a " remarkably non @-@ judgemental commentary on the disintegration of the Beatles ' spirit " .
Elliot Huntley has complained of the song 's enforced period in hibernation : " [ It ] simply beggars belief that the track was rejected by Martin , Lennon and McCartney – three men whose reputations rested on their ability to spot a good tune when they heard one . " Huntley views " Isn 't It a Pity " as worthy of " fully fledged standard " status , with Barham 's " soaring " strings and Harrison 's " sublime " slide guitar combining to take the song " into the heavens , where it stays " . Mojo contributor John Harris highlights the song in his review of one of the few " truly essential " solo albums by a former Beatle , writing : " The faster songs [ on All Things Must Pass ] ( eg Wah Wah ) are delightful ; the slowies ( Isn 't It A Pity , Beware Of Darkness ) simply jaw @-@ dropping . "
Speaking in 2001 during promotion for the 30th anniversary reissue of All Things Must Pass , Harrison named the song among his three favourite tracks on the album , along with " Run of the Mill " and " Awaiting on You All " . In 2010 , AOL Radio listeners voted " Isn 't It a Pity " seventh in a poll to find the ten best post @-@ Beatles George Harrison songs . Both Eric Clapton and Tom Petty have named " Isn 't It a Pity " among their favourite two Harrison compositions , Petty calling the song " a masterpiece " . According to Acclaimed Music , " Isn 't It a Pity " is featured in Bruce Pollock 's 2005 book The 7 @,@ 500 Most Important Songs of 1944 – 2000 , while in 2013 , Holland 's Radio 2 program Het Theater van het Sentiment listed the song at number 1 ( ahead of Lennon 's " Imagine " ) in its " Top 40 Songs by Year " for 1971 .
= = Personnel = =
The musicians who performed on the two All Things Must Pass versions of " Isn 't It a Pity " are believed to be as follows .
= = Cover versions = =
In May 1971 , singer Matt Monro released a UK single of " Isn 't It a Pity " ( produced by George Martin ) .
Nicky Thomas recorded the song for his 1971 album Tell It Like It Is .
Ireland 's 1970 Eurovision Song Contest winner , Dana , covered the song in 1971 , a rendition that has been described as a " poignant " commentary to the political upheaval then gripping Ulster .
The Three Degrees recorded " Isn 't It a Pity " during their period on Roulette Records in 1970 – 72 , later released on the 1995 compilation The Roulette Years .
Nina Simone 's " intense " , eleven @-@ minute reworking of " Isn 't It a Pity " was released on her 1972 album Emergency Ward ! , a statement on the Vietnam War which also includes a cover of " My Sweet Lord " . A six @-@ minute version of " Isn 't It a Pity " was issued on the 51 @-@ track compilation The Essential Nina Simone in 1993 . In his autobiography , Harrison says he was influenced by Simone 's treatment when he came to record his song " The Answer 's at the End " in 1975 .
Galaxie 500 covered the song on their On Fire album in 1989 .
A version by Pete Drake appeared on his eponymous solo album , released in 1997 .
The song appears on Television Personalities ' 1998 album Don 't Cry Baby ... It 's Only a Movie .
In March 2001 , 18th Dye contributed a version of " Isn 't It a Pity " to Snowstorm – A Tribute to Galaxie 500 .
At the Concert for George on 29 November 2002 , a year to the day after Harrison 's death , Eric Clapton and Billy Preston performed the song with backing from Dhani Harrison , Jeff Lynne , Gary Brooker , Jim Keltner , Ray Cooper , Jim Horn , Tom Scott and others .
Jay Bennett and Edward Burch recorded " Isn 't It a Pity " for Songs from the Material World : A Tribute to George Harrison , a multi @-@ artist compilation released in February 2003 .
Classical guitarist Joseph Breznikar recorded a version of the song for his 2003 tribute album George Harrison Remembered : A Touch of Class .
Cowboy Junkies covered the song on their Early 21st Century Blues album in 2005 .
Joel Harrison recorded " Isn 't It a Pity " for his album Harrison on Harrison : Jazz Explanations of George Harrison , released in October 2005 .
A cover version by Les Fradkin was released in 2005 on his Something for George tribute album .
Spanish singer Rafo de la Cuba covered the song in December 2005 .
A version by Paul Young was included on his 2006 album Rock Swings .
Pedro Aznar covered the song as " No Es Una Pena ? " , with Spanish lyrics , on his album Quebrado in 2008 .
In September 2008 , members of Heard of Buffalo performed the song for the Jerry Lewis MDA Telethon .
" Isn 't It a Pity " was among a number of Harrison and Beatle covers recorded or performed by Elliott Smith ; a version appears on the 1998 @-@ 08 @-@ 12 : Hoboken , NJ , USA album .
Soul singer Bettye LaVette covered the song on Interpretations : The British Rock Songbook in 2010 .
David McAlmont and Bernard Butler 's performance of " Isn 't It a Pity " was released on the Live From Leicester Square album in February 2011 .
A version by Jonathan Wilson and Graham Nash appeared on Harrison Covered , a tribute CD accompanying the November 2011 issue of Mojo magazine .
Also in November 2011 , marking the ten @-@ year anniversary of Harrison 's death , Keane recorded a version of the song .
Roberta Flack covered " Isn 't It a Pity " on her album Let It Be Roberta – Roberta Flack Sings The Beatles , released in February 2012 .
My Morning Jacket have included " Isn 't It a Pity " in their live performances ; when playing the song at the Forecastle Festival in July 2012 , they were joined on stage by Dean Wareham of Galaxie 500 .
Local H covered the song on their 2014 album Local H 's Awesome Mix Tape 2
= = Chart positions = =
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= Encounter at Farpoint =
" Encounter at Farpoint " is the first episode and series premiere of the American science fiction television series Star Trek : The Next Generation , which premiered in syndication on September 28 , 1987 . It was written by D. C. Fontana and Gene Roddenberry and directed by Corey Allen . Roddenberry was the creator of Star Trek , and Fontana was a writer on the original series .
The series follows the adventures of the crew of the Starfleet starship Enterprise . In this episode , the crew of the newly built Enterprise examine the mysterious Farpoint Station which the Bandi people are offering to the Federation , while under the gaze of a powerful alien entity that calls itself " Q " ( John de Lancie ) .
The episode was made as a pilot for the new Star Trek series , and was a double length episode at Paramount Television Group 's insistence . After the show was initially announced on October 10 , 1986 , Roddenberry put together a production team which included staff members from the original series such as Robert H. Justman . The show utilized some existing sets and props from the Star Trek films and both Star Trek : The Original Series and Star Trek : Phase II . New actors were hired for the pilot , which in some cases required the character concepts to be redeveloped to better fit the actor . Marina Sirtis and Denise Crosby were hired for the roles of Macha Hernandez and Deanna Troi respectively , but were later switched by Roddenberry and Crosby 's new role renamed to Tasha Yar . DeForest Kelley agreed to appear in a cameo role in the pilot but as a gesture to Roddenberry , he refused to be paid more than the minimum possible salary . The show made its debut in syndication to a mixed critical response , an assessment which was upheld by critics reassessing the episode following the end of the entire series .
= = Plot = =
In 2364 , the newest flagship of the United Federation of Planets , Starfleet 's USS Enterprise , is assigned to travel to Deneb IV for its maiden voyage , both to collect the remaining members of its crew and to open relations with the simple Bandi people who have somehow been able to tap immense energy reserves and construct Farpoint Station , much to the surprise of the Federation . En route , the Enterprise is met by an omnipotent being who identifies himself as Q , a member of the Q Continuum and declares that humanity is being put on trial — posing in appearance as a Grand Inquisitor — and deciding that their actions in their upcoming mission will be used to judge their worthiness and determine their fate as a race . Before letting the ship resume its course , Q warns Captain Picard ( Patrick Stewart ) that he is destined to fail .
As the Enterprise arrives , the awaiting crew members explore the offerings of Farpoint Station and establish relations with their Bandi host , Groppler Zorn ( Michael Bell ) . The crew becomes suspicious when items they desire seem to appear out of nowhere moments later , and are unable to identify the power source that feeds the station . Deanna Troi ( Marina Sirtis ) , an empath , senses a being with powerful yet despairing emotions nearby , and the crew discover a strange labyrinth beneath the station , but Zorn does not offer an explanation . As the Enterprise crew continues its explorations , a large unknown alien craft enters orbit and begins to fire upon an older Bandi settlement near Farpoint Station , and abducts Zorn . Before Picard orders the ship 's phasers to be fired at the craft , Q appears to remind him of humanity 's trial and prompts Picard to send an away team to the alien craft . The away team discovers the craft has passages similar to those under Farpoint and they are able to free Zorn . Their actions cause the alien craft to transform into a jellyfish @-@ like space creature , and Picard is able to deduce the mystery of Farpoint Station . He confirms with the apologetic Zorn that the Bandi found a similar lifeform injured on their planet and , while attempting to care for it , they also exploited its ability to synthesize matter to create Farpoint Station . The creature now in orbit is trying to help free its mate by attacking those who hold it captive .
Though Q goads Picard into punishing the Bandi , Picard refuses , instead ordering the Enterprise to fire a vivifying energy beam onto Farpoint after the station is evacuated . The beam allows the land @-@ bound creature to transform back into its jellyfish @-@ like form , and it flies into orbit to join its fellow being . As the crew watches the reunion of the alien creatures , Q reluctantly tells Picard that they have succeeded in their test , but hints that they will meet again .
= = Production = =
= = = Conception and development history = = =
The new Star Trek series was announced on October 10 , 1986 by the head of Paramount Television Group , Mel Harris . He announced that the creator of Star Trek , Gene Roddenberry , was to be executive producer and lead the creation of the new series . It was the second attempt at creating a new live action television series based on Star Trek for Paramount ; the previous attempt , called Star Trek : Phase II , failed as a television series but led to Star Trek : The Motion Picture . Paramount had pitched ideas to Roddenberry earlier in the year as it was the twentieth anniversary of the original series , but Roddenberry turned them down and initially didn 't want to do a new series . He later said , " It was only when the Paramount people agreed with me and said a sequel was probably impossible anyway that my interest was piqued . "
All four major networks turned down the new Star Trek series , as they were not willing to commit to a twenty @-@ six @-@ hour first season with a guaranteed unchanging time slot as well as a promotional campaign for the show . The team proceeded with the project with the backing of Paramount . Roddenberry began putting together a production crew which included colleagues who had worked with him on the original series , including Robert H. Justman , David Gerrold , and Eddie Milkis . Justman proposed three ideas to the others on October 17 , including families on board the ship , a concept which later became the holodeck and both an android and a Klingon character . One idea discussed by the production team was for Deanna Troi to have three breasts to which writer D. C. Fontana objected .
Fontana , who had previously worked on a number of episodes of the original series , was tasked with writing the script for the pilot . The production team met in full for the first time on February 18 , 1987 , having received the first draft of Fontana 's script a few days earlier . The original premise involved the Enterprise and the USS Starseeker approaching an alien lifeform captured by a race called the Annoi and turned into a weapon . After the Annoi told the Starfleet ships to surrender , the Starseeker opened fire and was destroyed , while Troi contacted the alien and convinced it to crash on a nearby planet so that the Enterprise can help it to free itself along with rescuing other prisoners the Annoi were using as slaves on the surface . Despite numerous changes taking place to the plot before the final version , some of the introductions for various characters made it through to the final version . The plot involving Q was added subsequently to the episode in order to make it longer . Roddenberry was aiming for an hour @-@ long pilot , but Paramount wanted a two @-@ hour show and eventually won out . Other items were also added in order to lengthen the episode , including the saucer separation sequence and the appearance of Admiral Leonard McCoy .
= = = Casting = = =
Roddenberry realized early on that a series with the original crew from Star Trek was unlikely to be practical , nor did he want to recast the roles or have a " retread " crew – a series of different characters in very similar roles to the original series . He explained , " I would hate to think our imagination is so slender that there aren 't other possibilities to think about . " The first casting call was sent out on December 10 , 1986 . While some characters such as Geordi La Forge and Beverly Crusher remain recognizable from their descriptions in the initial casting call , others have clear differences ; " Julien Picard " would lapse into a French accent when he became emotional , and Data was non @-@ Caucasian . Macha Hernandez was a Latino security chief based on Jenette Goldstein 's role in Aliens , while Deanna Troi was to appear " foreign " or more specifically of an Icelandic or Scandinavian nature . Leslie Crusher was listed as a fifteen @-@ year @-@ old girl with a photographic memory , although was quickly changed to a male teenager called Wesley . Justman argued for a female teenager but Roddenberry thought that there would be a greater number of storylines available if the character was male .
Patrick Stewart was cast in the role of Jean @-@ Luc Picard after Justman saw him perform at the University of California , Los Angeles . Roddenberry insisted that he wanted a French actor in the role , but Justman arranged a meeting between Stewart and the production team to introduce the actor , and later Berman supported the casting . Fontana thought that American actor Stephen Macht would be better in the role . Justman wanted Stewart in the show in some capacity , and with Roddenberry still opposing him as Picard , Justman suggested that he might be a good fit instead for Data . Because Roddenberry couldn 't find any actor he preferred more for Picard , he relented and changed his concept of Picard to fit Stewart better . Although Stewart was willing to put on an American accent to portray the role of Picard , the producers asked him to use his natural accent instead . They also tested him with a hairpiece but thought that it looked awful . He was pleased to have received the role , saying that his children were impressed with the new part and praised the mythos of the show saying , " The great strength of ' Star Trek ' is its epic , classic feel . For an actor of my background , it has more richness and depth than you might expect on television . "
Roddenberry 's favorite for Riker was Jonathan Frakes , who went through seven auditions before claiming the role . Despite being the second choice actor for the casting team , he was hired after their first choice was unimpressive in his auditions .
LeVar Burton had worked with Justman on another pilot for a series called Emergency Room and was suggested to apply for the La Forge role . For US audiences he was the most well @-@ known actor in the cast , due to his role in Roots .
Both Gates McFadden and Brent Spiner gained the parts of Beverly Crusher and Data respectively through the normal audition processes . Eric Menyuk had also been considered for the part of Data , and would later be cast as the recurring character of the Traveller in three subsequent episodes . Justman later said that he was the only one out of the production team who preferred Menyuk in the role .
Marina Sirtis auditioned for the role of Macha Hernandez , while Denise Crosby auditioned for the part of Deanna Troi . They both gained the parts with the approval of Berman and Justman , but Roddenberry switched the roles of the actresses as he thought Sirtis would be better suited for the role of the ship 's counselor . Macha Hernandez was re @-@ written to become Tasha Yar to better suit Crosby .
The role of Worf required a black actor in order to make the Klingon make up easier to apply , and was expected to be a recurring character , but following the casting of Michael Dorn and his work in " Encounter at Farpoint " , the role was expanded .
Wil Wheaton was cast as Wesley Crusher despite what he perceived as an awful first callback .
The appearance of DeForest Kelley as Leonard McCoy was kept a secret , with the character only being referred to in scripts as " Admiral " . While Roddenberry had wanted Kelley to appear , he thought that the actor would turn him down . The two had lunch together and Roddenberry suggested the appearance , with Kelley agreeing not only to appear , but also that he wouldn 't take anything more than the Screen Actor 's Guild base salary for the part . He later said , " I just wanted scale , to let it be my way of saying thank @-@ you to Gene for the many good things he has done for me " .
John de Lancie deliberately missed his first audition for Q as he was appearing as a lead in a play at the time , a second audition was arranged during lunchtime so that he could attend . He later said that after he auditioned , " A big guy walked out , put his hands on my shoulder , and said , ' You make my words sound better than they are . ' I said , ' Well , you must be the writer . ' And he said , ' I 'm Gene Roddenberry . ' I had absolutely no idea who that was . "
Colm Meaney was cast in the part of the conn ensign on the ship 's battle bridge , and after a further appearance in the episode " Lonely Among Us " , his character was given the name Miles O 'Brien in season two .
The cast was announced on May 15 , 1987 . There was a certain degree of uncertainty regarding job security during the pilot for the main cast , as they didn 't hear until after production had wrapped that the show had been picked up for a further thirteen episodes .
= = = Filming = = =
Due to what was seen as a low budget for the pilot and series in general , the existing sets and equipment from the Star Trek movies were re @-@ used in the new show . Milkis and Justman were given the task of reviewing the standing sets from the movies on the Paramount lot in order to see what they could use . The duo would later recall that one stage was so completely covered with cat feces due to the volume of cats living on the lot that the pair couldn 't walk on the set . Certain sets were re @-@ used , including a re @-@ dress of the Enterprise 's bridge from Star Trek III : The Search for Spock to act as the Enterprise 's battle bridge in the new series . The main engineering set from Star Trek III became the new main engineering set , albeit with a command console from Star Trek IV added as well as two walls from sickbay from Star Trek III . The rest of the sickbay set became the observation lounge during the first season . Some of the sets contained components from both Star Trek : The Motion Picture and the unfilmed Star Trek : Phase II .
After running tests with a company for computer @-@ generated special effects , it was decided that , for the sake of reliability , Industrial Light & Magic would produce the new models of the Enterprise , at a cost of $ 75 @,@ 000 for a 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) and a 2 feet ( 0 @.@ 61 m ) version . ILM was also integral to the development of the " jump to warp " special effect , which resulted in the company remaining on the show 's end credits through its entire run . Filming of " Encounter at Farpoint " began on the Paramount lot May 29 , 1987 , and wrapped on June 25 . Wil Wheaton noted that during the filming of " Encounter at Farpoint " , most of the cast didn 't believe that the series would last more than a year .
= = Reception = =
The show was broadcast on both 98 independent stations and 112 network affiliates . In several locations , including Dallas , Los Angeles , Seattle and Miami , the stations which were broadcasting " Encounter at Farpoint " gained higher ratings than the four major networks during prime time . Overall , it aired to an audience of 27 million . The show was immediately called the " highest @-@ rated syndicated one @-@ hour drama series on television " .
Jill L. Lanford watched the episode for The Herald Journal , prior to the series premiere . She thought it was a resurrection of a " legend " . She believed the episode itself was reminiscent of classic Star Trek episodes " Arena " and " The Squire of Gothos " , was the " perfect vehicle to introduce the crew " , and a " perfect start " . Don Merrill , writing for TV Guide said that the show was a " worthy successor to the original " . Bob Niedt reviewed " Encounter at Farpoint " for Newhouse News and thought that the show had potential on the back of the episode , but there were problems such as " spots where the dialogue is pedestrian and interactions sputter " . Tom Shales of The Washington Post viewed DeForest Kelley 's cameo as " touching " , but thought that Patrick Stewart was a " grim bald crank who would make a better villain " . He felt Jonathan Frakes " verges on namby @-@ pamby " . Actress Marina Sirtis later recalled the reviews of the show 's debut in 1987 while being interviewed to promote The Next Generation 's fourth film , Star Trek : Nemesis ; saying " they bloody hated us " .
Several reviewers reassessed the episode some time after the series aired . Michelle Erica Green reviewed the episode for TrekNation , and found the episode disappointing with reference to the character of Captain Picard and the female crew members and a lack of sense of fun . Actor Wil Wheaton , also reviewing the episode years later for TV Squad , gave the episode a ' C- ' grade , suggesting that " at the time , Trekkies who were hoping to see the Star Trek that they were used to from the sixties must have been disappointed " . Zack Handlen at The A.V. Club , criticized some of the elements of the episode such as the " long , rather pointless sequence " where the Enterprise undergoes a saucer separation and overall described the episode " more functional than inspiring " . He praised the performance of Patrick Stewart as Captain Picard , describing him as a " damn fine actor " and enjoyed John de Lancie as Q. He gave the episode an overall score of B- . James Hunt , from Den of Geek , re @-@ reviewed the show following the re @-@ release of season one on Blu @-@ ray Disc . He stated , " even if it wasn 't the first episode , it 'd be worth watching " despite it coming from " what could arguably be called the worst season of Star Trek " . Keith DeCandido for Tor.com thought that the pace of the episode was slow , but that both Patrick Stewart and Brent Spiner stood out from the rest of the cast for good reasons . He enjoyed the references to the original series , especially DeForest Kelley 's appearance . He gave it overall a score of four out of ten . The episode was one of a handful of Star Trek programs recommended for viewing to introduce new viewers to the mythos in Jon Wagnar and Jan Lundeen 's 1998 book Deep Space and Sacred Time : Star Trek in the American Mythos .
= = Home media release = =
Star Trek : The Next Generation made its debut on VHS in September 1991 with " Encounter at Farpoint " as a feature length episode on a single tape . It was subsequently released on DVD on region one on March 26 , 2002 . The sound was remastered to Dolby Digital 5 @.@ 1 Surround standards , and a series of interviews with the cast and crew were included on the sixth disc .
" Encounter at Farpoint " was one of the first episodes of the series to be released on Blu @-@ ray Disc . The episode was remastered into high @-@ definition video and involved the original production team in updating some of the special effects in the episode . It was featured on the single disc sampler of the series which was launched prior to any full season box sets in early 2012 , entitled Star Trek : The Next Generation – The Next Level along with two other episodes . " Encounter at Farpoint " was subsequently included in the Blu @-@ ray Disc release of the season one box set .
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= Ceolnoth =
Ceolnoth ( died 870 ) was a medieval English Archbishop of Canterbury . Although later chroniclers stated he had previously held ecclesiastical office in Canterbury , there is no contemporary evidence of this , and his first appearance in history is when he became archbishop in 833 . Ceolnoth faced two problems as archbishop — raids and invasions by the Vikings and a new political situation resulting from a change in overlordship from one kingdom to another during the early part of his archiepiscopate . Ceolnoth attempted to solve both problems by coming to an agreement with his new overlords for protection in 838 . Ceolnoth 's later years in office were marked by more Viking raids and a decline in monastic life in his archbishopric .
= = Archbishop = =
Gervase of Canterbury wrote at the end of the twelfth century that Ceolnoth was Dean of the see of Canterbury previous to being elected to the archiepiscopal see of Canterbury , but this story has no confirmation in contemporary records . There is no sign of him being associated with either Canterbury or Kent , the region where Canterbury is located , prior to his elevation as archbishop . Given the length of his archiepiscopate , he was probably a young man when he was elected to Canterbury . Ceolnoth was consecrated archbishop on 27 July 833 . Upon becoming archbishop , Ceolnoth had to deal with two problems — first the Viking attacks on his archbishopric and the surrounding lands in Kent and second the newly ascendant kings of Wessex who had just gained control of Kent . Previously , the Mercian kings had ruled Kent .
In 836 , Ceolnoth presided , with Wiglaf of Mercia , over a council held at Croft attended by the clergy of the southern part of Britain . This was the last time that the archbishop worked in concert with a Mercian king as , after this , he was an attendee at the Wessex royal court instead of the Mercian . In 838 a council was held at Kingston upon Thames where Ceolnoth made an alliance with the West Saxon kings Egbert and Æthelwulf . This agreement gave control of all of the free minsters under Canterbury 's authority to the king in return for protection from Viking raids . Ceolnoth also ceded the right to influence the election of abbots within Kent to the king . In return , Egbert received the support of Ceolnoth for the succession of Egbert 's son Æthelwulf as king . When Egbert died shortly after this , Æthelwulf succeeded his father and became the first son to follow his father as king of Wessex in almost two centuries . Ceolnoth also recovered control of some lands that had been lost by Canterbury . The end result of this agreement was that the Wessex kings became the secular protectors of the churches and monasteries of the archdiocese of Canterbury .
= = Later life and death = =
During Ceolnoth 's archbishopric , monastic life declined under the pressure of the Viking attacks , and there was a noticeable decline in the quality of the books and other works produced by the scriptoriums . A number of monasteries died out under the pressure of the raids by the invaders , who wintered over in Kent in 851 and 855 . He held councils in 839 and 845 , the second at London . During his later years in office , he was assisted by four clerics , who appear to have been or acted as archdeacons , one of the earliest appearances of this office in England . Ceolnoth is also known to have corresponded with Pope Leo IV .
Archbishop Ceolnoth died on 4 February 870 . Although monastic and secular life suffered during the later part of Ceolnoth 's archbishopric , his agreement with Egbert set the foundation for the co @-@ operation between the archbishops of Canterbury and the kings of England in the future .
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