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= Guinea pig =
The guinea pig ( Cavia porcellus ) , also called the cavy or domestic guinea pig , is a species of rodent belonging to the family Caviidae and the genus Cavia . Despite their common name , these animals are not in the Suidae , or pig family , nor do they originate from Guinea . They originated in the Andes , and earlier studies based on biochemistry and hybridization suggest they are domesticated descendants of a closely related species of cavy such as Cavia aperea , C. fulgida , or C. tschudii and , therefore , do not exist naturally in the wild . Recent studies applying molecular markers , in addition to studying the skull and skeletal morphology of current and mummified animals , revealed that the ancestor is most likely Cavia tschudii .
The domestic guinea pig plays an important role in the folk culture of many Indigenous South American groups , especially as a food source , but also in folk medicine and in community religious ceremonies . Since the 1960s , efforts have been made to increase consumption of the animal outside South America .
In Western societies , the domestic guinea pig has enjoyed widespread popularity as a household pet since its introduction by European traders in the 16th century . Their docile nature ; friendly , even affectionate responsiveness to handling and feeding ; and the relative ease of caring for them , continue to make guinea pigs a popular pet . Organizations devoted to competitive breeding of guinea pigs have been formed worldwide , and many specialized breeds of guinea pig , with varying coat colors and compositions , are cultivated by breeders .
Biological experimentation on guinea pigs has been carried out since the 17th century . The animals were frequently used as model organisms in the 19th and 20th centuries , resulting in the epithet " guinea pig " for a test subject , but have since been largely replaced by other rodents such as mice and rats . They are still used in research , primarily as models for human medical conditions such as juvenile diabetes , tuberculosis , scurvy , and pregnancy complications .
= = History = =
The guinea pig was first domesticated as early as 5000 BC for food by tribes in the Andean region of South America ( the present @-@ day southern part of Colombia , Ecuador , Peru , and Bolivia ) , some thousands of years after the domestication of the South American camelids . Statues dating from circa 500 BC to 500 AD that depict guinea pigs have been unearthed in archaeological digs in Peru and Ecuador . The Moche people of ancient Peru worshipped animals and often depicted the guinea pig in their art . From about 1200 AD to the Spanish conquest in 1532 , selective breeding resulted in many varieties of domestic guinea pigs , which form the basis for some of the modern domestic breeds . They continue to be a food source in the region ; many households in the Andean highlands raise the animal , which subsists on the family 's vegetable scraps . Folklore traditions involving guinea pigs are numerous ; they are exchanged as gifts , used in customary social and religious ceremonies , and frequently referenced in spoken metaphors . They also play a role in traditional healing rituals by folk doctors , or curanderos , who use the animals to diagnose diseases such as jaundice , rheumatism , arthritis , and typhus . They are rubbed against the bodies of the sick , and are seen as a supernatural medium . Black guinea pigs are considered especially useful for diagnoses . The animal also may be cut open and its entrails examined to determine whether the cure was effective . These methods are widely accepted in many parts of the Andes , where Western medicine is either unavailable or distrusted .
Spanish , Dutch , and English traders brought guinea pigs to Europe , where they quickly became popular as exotic pets among the upper classes and royalty , including Queen Elizabeth I. The earliest known written account of the guinea pig dates from 1547 , in a description of the animal from Santo Domingo ; because cavies are not native to Hispaniola , the animal was earlier believed to have been introduced there by Spanish travelers . However , based on more recent excavations on West Indian islands , the animal must have been introduced by ceramic @-@ making horticulturalists from South America to the Caribbean around 500 BC , and it was present in the Ostionoid period , for example , on Puerto Rico , long before the advent of the Spaniards . The guinea pig was first described in the West in 1554 by the Swiss naturalist Conrad Gessner . Its binomial scientific name was first used by Erxleben in 1777 ; it is an amalgam of Pallas ' generic designation ( 1766 ) and Linnaeus ' specific conferral ( 1758 ) . The earliest known illustration of a domestic guinea pig is a painting ( artist unknown ) in the collection of the National Portrait Gallery in London , dated to 1580 , which shows a girl in typical Elizabethan dress holding a tortoise @-@ shell guinea pig in her hands ; she is flanked by her two brothers , one of whom holds a pet bird . The picture dates from the same period as the oldest recorded guinea pig remains in England , which are a partial cavy skeleton found at Hill Hall ( Essex ) , an Elizabethan manor house , and dated to around 1575 .
= = Name = =
The scientific name of the common species is Cavia porcellus , with porcellus being Latin for " little pig " . Cavia is New Latin ; it is derived from cabiai , the animal 's name in the language of the Galibi tribes once native to French Guiana . Cabiai may be an adaptation of the Portuguese çavia ( now savia ) , which is itself derived from the Tupi word saujá , meaning rat . Guinea pigs are called quwi or jaca in Quechua and cuy or cuyo ( plural cuyes , cuyos ) in the Spanish of Ecuador , Peru , and Bolivia . Ironically , breeders tend to use the more formal " cavy " to describe the animal , while in scientific and laboratory contexts , it is far more commonly referred to by the more colloquial " guinea pig " .
How the animals came to be called " pigs " is not clear . They are built somewhat like pigs , with large heads relative to their bodies , stout necks , and rounded rumps with no tail of any consequence ; some of the sounds they emit are very similar to those made by pigs , and they also spend a large amount of time eating . They can survive for long periods in small quarters , like a ' pig pen ' , and were thus easily transported on ships to Europe .
The animal 's name alludes to pigs in many European languages . The German word for them is Meerschweinchen , literally " little sea pig " , which has been translated into Polish as świnka morska , into Hungarian as tengerimalac , and into Russian as морская свинка . This derives from the Middle High German name merswin . This originally meant " dolphin " and was used because of the animals ' grunting sounds ( which were thought to be similar ) . Many other , possibly less scientifically based explanations of the German name exist . For example , sailing ships stopping to reprovision in the New World would pick up stores of guinea pigs , which provided an easily transportable source of fresh meat . The French term is cochon d 'Inde ( Indian pig ) or cobaye ; the Dutch call it Guinees biggetje ( Guinean piglet ) or cavia ( while in some Dutch dialects it is called Spaanse rat ) ; and in Portuguese , the guinea pig is variously referred to as cobaia , from the Tupi word via its Latinization , or as porquinho da Índia ( little Indian pig ) . This is not universal ; for example , the common word in Spanish is conejillo de Indias ( little rabbit of the Indies ) . The Chinese refer to them as 豚鼠 ( túnshǔ , ' pig mouse ' ) , and sometimes as Netherlands pig ( 荷蘭豬 , hélánzhū ) or Indian mouse ( 天竺鼠 , tiānzhúshǔ ) . The Japanese word for guinea pig is " モルモット " ( morumotto ) , which derives from the name of another mountain @-@ dwelling rodent , the marmot ; this is what guinea pigs were called by the Dutch traders who first brought them to Nagasaki in 1843 .
The origin of " guinea " in " guinea pig " is harder to explain . One proposed explanation is that the animals were brought to Europe by way of Guinea , leading people to think they had originated there . " Guinea " was also frequently used in English to refer generally to any far @-@ off , unknown country , so the name may simply be a colorful reference to the animal 's exotic appeal . Another hypothesis suggests the " guinea " in the name is a corruption of " Guiana " , an area in South America , though the animals are not native to that region . A common misconception is that they were so named because they were sold for the price of a guinea coin ; this hypothesis is untenable , because the guinea was first struck in England in 1663 , and William Harvey used the term " Ginny @-@ pig " as early as 1653 . Others believe " guinea " may be an alteration of the word coney ( rabbit ) ; guinea pigs were referred to as " pig coneys " in Edward Topsell 's 1607 treatise on quadrupeds .
= = Traits and environment = =
Guinea pigs are large for rodents , weighing between 700 and 1 @,@ 200 g ( 1 @.@ 5 and 2 @.@ 6 lb ) , and measuring between 20 and 25 cm ( 8 and 10 in ) in length . They typically live an average of four to five years , but may live as long as eight years . According to the 2006 Guinness World Records , the longest living guinea pig survived 14 years , 10 @.@ 5 months .
In the 1990s , a minority scientific opinion emerged proposing that caviomorphs , such as guinea pigs , chinchillas , and degus , are not rodents and should be reclassified as a separate order of mammals ( similar to lagomorphs ) . Subsequent research using wider sampling has restored consensus among mammalian biologists that the current classification of rodents as monophyletic is justified .
= = = Natural habitat = = =
C. porcellus is not found naturally in the wild ; it is likely descended from some closely related species of cavies , such as C. aperea , C. fulgida , and C. tschudii , which are still commonly found in various regions of South America . Some species of cavy identified in the 20th century , such as C. anolaimae and C. guianae , may be domestic guinea pigs that have become feral by reintroduction into the wild . Wild cavies are found on grassy plains and occupy an ecological niche similar to that of cattle . They are social , living in the wild in small groups which consist of several females ( sows ) , a male ( boar ) , and the young ( which in a break with the preceding porcine nomenclature are called pups ) . They move together in groups ( herds ) eating grass or other vegetation , and do not store food . While they do not burrow or build nests , they frequently seek shelter in the burrows of other animals , as well as in crevices and tunnels formed by vegetation . They tend to be most active during dawn and dusk , when it is harder for predators to spot them .
= = = Domestic habitat = = =
Domesticated guinea pigs thrive in groups of two or more ; groups of sows , or groups of one or more sows and a neutered boar are common combinations . Guinea pigs learn to recognize and bond with other individual guinea pigs , and testing of boars shows their neuroendocrine stress response is significantly lowered in the presence of a bonded female when compared to the presence of unfamiliar females . Groups of boars may also get along , provided their cage has enough space , they are introduced at an early age , and no females are present . Domestic guinea pigs have developed a different biological rhythm from their wild counterparts , and have longer periods of activity followed by short periods of sleep in between . Activity is scattered randomly over the day ; aside from avoidance of intense light , no regular circadian patterns are apparent .
Domestic guinea pigs generally live in cages , although some owners of large numbers of guinea pigs dedicate entire rooms to their pets . Cages with solid or wire mesh floors are used , although wire mesh floors can cause injury and may be associated with an infection commonly known as bumblefoot ( ulcerative pododermatitis ) . " Cubes and Coroplast " ( or C & C ) style cages are now a common choice . Cages are often lined with wood shavings or a similar material . Bedding made from red cedar ( Eastern or Western ) and pine , both softwoods , were commonly used in the past , but these materials are now believed to contain harmful phenols ( aromatic hydrocarbons ) and oils . Safer beddings made from hardwoods ( such as aspen ) , paper products , and corn cob materials are other alternatives . Guinea pigs tend to be messy within their cages ; they often jump into their food bowls or kick bedding and feces into them , and their urine sometimes crystallizes on cage surfaces , making it difficult to remove . After its cage has been cleaned , a guinea pig typically urinates and drags its lower body across the floor of the cage to mark its territory . Male guinea pigs may also mark their territory in this way when they are taken out of their cages .
Guinea pigs do not generally thrive when housed with other species . Housing of guinea pigs with other rodents such as gerbils and hamsters may increase instances of respiratory and other infections , and such rodents may act aggressively toward the guinea pig . Larger animals may regard guinea pigs as prey , though some ( such as dogs ) can be trained to accept them . Opinion is divided over the cohousing of guinea pigs and domestic rabbits . Some published sources say that guinea pigs and rabbits complement each other well when sharing a cage . However , as lagomorphs , rabbits have different nutritional requirements , so the two species cannot be fed the same food . Rabbits may also harbor diseases ( such as respiratory infections from Bordetella and Pasteurella ) , to which guinea pigs are susceptible . Even the dwarf rabbit is much stronger than the guinea pig and may cause intentional or inadvertent injury .
= = = Behavior = = =
Guinea pigs can learn complex paths to food , and can accurately remember a learned path for months . Their strongest problem @-@ solving strategy is motion . While guinea pigs can jump small obstacles , they are poor climbers , and are not particularly agile . They startle extremely easily , and either freeze in place for long periods or run for cover with rapid , darting motions when they sense danger . Larger groups of startled guinea pigs " stampede " , running in haphazard directions as a means of confusing predators . When excited , guinea pigs may repeatedly perform little hops in the air ( known as " popcorning " ) , a movement analogous to the ferret 's war dance . They are also very good swimmers .
Like many rodents , guinea pigs sometimes participate in social grooming , and they regularly self @-@ groom . A milky @-@ white substance is secreted from their eyes and rubbed into the hair during the grooming process . Groups of boars often chew each other 's hair , but this is a method of establishing hierarchy within a group , rather than a social gesture . Dominance is also established through biting ( especially of the ears ) , piloerection , aggressive noises , head thrusts , and leaping attacks . Non @-@ sexual simulated mounting for dominance is also common among same @-@ sex groups .
Guinea pig sight is not as good as that of a human , but they have a wider angle of vision ( about 340 ° ) and see in partial color ( dichromacy ) . They have well @-@ developed senses of hearing , smell , and touch . Vocalization is the primary means of communication between members of the species . These are the most common sounds made by the guinea pig :
A " wheek " is a loud noise , the name of which is onomatopoeic , also known as a whistle . An expression of general excitement , it may occur in response to the presence of its owner or to feeding . It is sometimes used to find other guinea pigs if they are running . If a guinea pig is lost , it may wheek for assistance. listen
A bubbling or purring sound is made when the guinea pig is enjoying itself , such as when being petted or held . It may also make this sound when grooming , crawling around to investigate a new place , or when given food. listen
A rumbling sound is normally related to dominance within a group , though it can also come as a response to being scared or angry . In these cases , the rumble often sounds higher and the body vibrates shortly . While courting , a male usually purrs deeply , swaying and circling the female in a behavior called " rumblestrutting " . A low rumble while walking away reluctantly shows passive resistance. listen
Chutting and whining are sounds made in pursuit situations , by the pursuer and pursuee , respectively. listen
A chattering sound is made by rapidly gnashing the teeth , and is generally a sign of warning . Guinea pigs tend to raise their heads when making this sound .
Squealing or shrieking is a high @-@ pitched sound of discontent , in response to pain or danger. listen
Chirping , a less @-@ common sound , likened to bird song , seems to be related to stress , or when a baby guinea pig wants to be fed . Very rarely , the chirping will last for several minutes. listen
= = Breeding = =
The guinea pig is able to breed year @-@ round , with birth peaks usually coming in the spring ; as many as five litters can be produced per year . The gestation period lasts from 59 – 72 days , with an average of 63 – 68 days . Because of the long gestation period and the large size of the pups , pregnant females may become large and eggplant @-@ shaped , although the change in size and shape varies . Unlike the offspring of most other rodents , which are altricial at birth , newborn pups are well @-@ developed with hair , teeth , claws , and partial eyesight ; they are immediately mobile , and begin eating solid food immediately , though they continue to suckle . Litters yield one to six pups , with an average of three ; the largest recorded litter size is 17 .
In smaller litters , difficulties may occur during labour due to oversized pups . Large litters result in higher incidences of stillbirth , but because the pups are delivered at an advanced stage of development , lack of access to the mother 's milk has little effect on the mortality rate of newborns . Cohabitating females assist in mothering duties if lactating .
Guinea pigs also practice alloparental care , in which a female may adopt the pup or pups of another . This might take place if the original parents die or are for some reason separated from them . This behavior is common , and is seen in many other animal species such as the elephant .
Male and female guinea pigs do not differ in external appearance apart from general size . The position of the anus is very close to the genitals in both sexes . Female genitals are distinguished by a Y @-@ shaped configuration formed from a vulvar flap , while the male genitals may look similar , with the penis and anus forming a like shape , the penis will protrude if pressure is applied to the surrounding hair . The male 's testes may also be visible externally from scrotal swelling .
Males reach sexual maturity at 3 – 5 weeks ; females can be fertile as early as four weeks and can carry litters before they are adults . Females that have never given birth may develop irreversible fusing of the pubic symphysis , a joint in the pelvis , due to calcification which may occur between six and 10 months of age . If they become pregnant after this has happened , the birth canal will not widen sufficiently ; this may lead to dystocia and death as they attempt to give birth . Calcification of the female 's pubic symphysis ( if not bred ) is a common myth . The reason for potential calcification is a metabolic disease , like ochronosis . A healthy , normal female guinea pig 's pubic symphysis does not calcify . Females can become pregnant 6 – 48 hours after giving birth , but it is not healthy for a female to be thus constantly pregnant .
Toxemia of pregnancy is common and kills many pregnant females . Signs of toxemia include anorexia , lack of energy , excessive salivation , a sweet or fruity breath odor due to ketones , and seizures in advanced cases . Pregnancy toxemia appears to be most common in hot climates . Other serious complications of pregnancy can include a prolapsed uterus , hypocalcaemia , and mastitis .
= = Diet = =
Grass is the guinea pig 's natural diet . Their molars are particularly suited for grinding plant matter , and grow continuously throughout the animal 's life . Most grass @-@ eating mammals are quite large and have a long digestive tract ; while guinea pigs have much longer colons than most rodents , they must also supplement their diet by coprophagy , the eating of their own feces . However , they do not consume all their feces indiscriminately , but produce special soft pellets , called cecotropes , which recycle B vitamins , fiber , and bacteria required for proper digestion . The cecotropes ( or caecal pellets ) are eaten directly from the anus , unless the guinea pig is pregnant or obese . They share this behaviour with rabbits . In geriatric boars or sows ( the condition is rarer in young ones ) , the muscles which allow the softer pellets to be expelled from the anus for consumption can become weak . This creates a condition known as anal impaction , which prevents the boar from redigesting cecotropes , though harder pellets may pass through the impacted mass . The condition may be temporarily alleviated by carefully expelling the impacted feces .
Guinea pigs benefit from feeding on fresh grass hay , such as timothy hay , in addition to food pellets which are often based from timothy . Alfalfa is also a popular food choice ; most guinea pigs will eat large amounts of alfalfa when offered it , though some controversy exists over the feeding of alfalfa to adult guinea pigs . Some pet owners and veterinary organizations have advised that , as a legume rather than a grass hay , alfalfa consumed in large amounts may lead to obesity , as well as bladder stones due to excess calcium , in any but pregnant and very young guinea pigs . However , published scientific sources mention alfalfa as a source for replenishment of protein , amino acids , and fiber .
Like humans , but unlike most other mammals , guinea pigs cannot synthesize their own vitamin C and must obtain this vital nutrient from food . If guinea pigs do not ingest enough vitamin C , they can suffer from potentially fatal scurvy . Guinea pigs require about 10 mg of vitamin C daily ( 20 mg if pregnant ) , which can be obtained through fresh , raw fruits and vegetables ( such as broccoli , apple , cabbage , carrot , celery , and spinach ) or through dietary supplements . Healthy diets for guinea pigs require a complex balance of calcium , magnesium , phosphorus , potassium , and hydrogen ions ; adequate amounts of vitamins E , A , and D are also necessary . Imbalanced diets have been associated with muscular dystrophy , metastatic calcification , difficulties with pregnancy , vitamin deficiencies , and teeth problems . Guinea pigs tend to be fickle eaters when it comes to fresh fruits and vegetables , having learned early in life what is and is not appropriate to consume , and their habits are difficult to change after maturity . They do not respond well to sudden changes in diet ; they may stop eating and starve rather than accept new food types . A constant supply of hay or other food is generally recommended , as guinea pigs feed continuously and may develop habits such as chewing on their own hair if food is not present . Because guinea pigs ' teeth grow constantly , they routinely gnaw , lest their teeth become too large for their mouths , a common problem in rodents . Guinea pigs also chew on cloth , paper , plastic , and rubber .
A number of plants are poisonous to guinea pigs , including bracken , bryony , buttercup , charlock , deadly nightshade , foxglove , hellebore , hemlock , lily of the valley , mayweed , monkshood , privet , ragwort , rhubarb , speedwell , toadflax ( both Linaria vulgaris and Linaria dalmatica ) , and wild celery . Additionally , any plant which grows from a bulb ( e.g. , tulip or onion ) is normally considered poisonous , as well as ivy and oak tree leaves .
= = Health = =
Common ailments in domestic guinea pigs include respiratory tract infections , diarrhea , scurvy ( vitamin C deficiency , typically characterized by sluggishness ) , abscesses due to infection ( often in the neck , due to hay embedded in the throat , or from external scratches ) , and infections by lice , mites , or fungus .
Mange mites ( Trixacarus caviae ) are a common cause of hair loss , and other symptoms may also include excessive scratching , unusually aggressive behavior when touched ( due to pain ) , and , in some instances , seizures . Guinea pigs may also suffer from " running lice " ( Gliricola porcelli ) , a small , white insect which can be seen moving through the hair ; their eggs , which appear as black or white specks attached to the hair , are sometimes referred to as " static lice " . Other causes of hair loss can be due to hormonal upsets caused by underlying medical conditions such as ovarian cysts .
Foreign bodies , especially small pieces of hay or straw , can become lodged in the eyes of guinea pigs , resulting in excessive blinking , tearing , and in some cases an opaque film over the eye due to corneal ulcer . Hay or straw dust can also cause sneezing . While it is normal for guinea pigs to sneeze periodically , frequent sneezing may be a symptom of pneumonia , especially in response to atmospheric changes . Pneumonia may also be accompanied by torticollis and can be fatal .
Because the guinea pig has a stout , compact body , it more easily tolerates excessive cold than excessive heat . Its normal body temperature is 101 – 104 ° F ( 38 – 40 ° C ) , so its ideal ambient air temperature range is similar to a human 's , about 65 – 75 ° F ( 18 – 24 ° C ) . Consistent ambient temperatures in excess of 90 ° F ( 32 ° C ) have been linked to hyperthermia and death , especially among pregnant sows . Guinea pigs are not well suited to environments that feature wind or frequent drafts , and respond poorly to extremes of humidity outside of the range of 30 – 70 % .
Guinea pigs are prey animals whose survival instinct is to mask pain and signs of illness , and many times health problems may not be apparent until a condition is severe or in its advanced stages . Treatment of disease is made more difficult by the extreme sensitivity guinea pigs have to most antibiotics , including penicillin , which kill off the intestinal flora and quickly bring on episodes of diarrhea and in some cases , death .
Similar to the inherited genetic diseases of other breeds of animal ( such as hip dysplasia in canines ) , a number of genetic abnormalities of guinea pigs have been reported . Most commonly , the roan coloration of Abyssinian guinea pigs is associated with congenital eye disorders and problems with the digestive system . Other genetic disorders include " waltzing disease " ( deafness coupled with a tendency to run in circles ) , palsy , and tremor conditions .
= = Pets = =
= = = Handling , temperament and socialization = = =
If handled correctly early in life , guinea pigs become amenable to being picked up and carried , and seldom bite or scratch . They are timid explorers and often hesitate to attempt an escape from their cage even when an opportunity presents itself . Still , they show considerable curiosity when allowed to walk freely , especially in familiar and safe terrain . Guinea pigs that become familiar with their owner will whistle on the owner 's approach ; they will also learn to whistle in response to the rustling of plastic bags or the opening of refrigerator doors , where their food is most commonly stored . In Switzerland , owning a single guinea pig is considered harmful to its well @-@ being and forbidden by law .
= = = Appearance , coat and grooming = = =
Domesticated guinea pigs occur in many breeds , which have been developed since their introduction to Europe and North America . These varieties vary in hair and color composition . The most common varieties found in pet stores are the English shorthair ( also known as the American ) , which have a short , smooth coat , and the Abyssinian , whose coat is ruffled with cowlicks , or rosettes . Also popular among breeders are the Peruvian and the Sheltie ( or Silkie ) , both straight longhair breeds , and the Texel , a curly longhair . Grooming of guinea pigs is primarily accomplished using combs or brushes . Shorthair breeds are typically brushed weekly , while longhair breeds may require daily grooming .
= = = Clubs and associations = = =
Cavy clubs and associations dedicated to the showing and breeding of guinea pigs have been established worldwide . The American Cavy Breeders Association , an adjunct to the American Rabbit Breeders ' Association , is the governing body in the United States and Canada . The British Cavy Council governs cavy clubs in the United Kingdom . Similar organizations exist in Australia ( Australian National Cavy Council ) and New Zealand ( New Zealand Cavy Council ) . Each club publishes its own standard of perfection and determines which breeds are eligible for showing .
= = = Allergies to pet guinea pigs = = =
Allergic symptoms , including rhinitis , conjunctivitis , and asthma , have been documented in laboratory animal workers who come into contact with guinea pigs . Allergic reactions following direct exposure to guinea pigs in domestic settings have also been reported . Two major guinea pig allergens , Cav p I and Cav p II , have been identified in guinea pig fluids ( urine and saliva ) and guinea pig dander . People who are allergic to guinea pigs are usually allergic to hamsters and gerbils , as well . Allergy shots can successfully treat an allergy to guinea pigs , although treatment can take up to 18 months .
= = Cultural and media influence = =
As a result of their widespread popularity , especially in households with children , guinea pigs have shown a presence in culture and media . Some noted appearances of the animal in literature include the short story " Pigs Is Pigs " by Ellis Parker Butler , which is a tale of bureaucratic incompetence . Two guinea pigs held at a railway station breed unchecked while humans argue as to whether they are " pigs " or " pets " for the purpose of determining freight charges . Butler 's story , in turn , inspired the Star Trek : The Original Series episode " The Trouble With Tribbles " , written by David Gerrold . In the Golden Hamster Saga books , two guinea pigs named Enrico and Caruso are modern @-@ day thespians ( named after Enrico Caruso ) who serve as secondary characters , and often irritate the main character , Freddy Auratus , who strongly dislikes their acting antics .
= = = In children 's literature = = =
The Fairy Caravan , a novel by Beatrix Potter , and Michael Bond 's Olga da Polga series for children , both feature guinea pigs as the protagonist . Another appearance is in The Magician 's Nephew by C. S. Lewis : in the first ( chronologically ) of his The Chronicles of Narnia series , a guinea pig is the first creature to travel to the Wood between the Worlds . In Ursula Dubosarsky 's Maisie and the Pinny Gig , a little girl has a recurrent dream about a giant guinea pig , while guinea pigs feature significantly in several of Dubosarsky 's other books , including the young adult novel The White Guinea Pig and The Game of the Goose .
= = = In film and television = = =
Guinea pigs have also been featured in film and television . In the TV movie Shredderman Rules , the main character and the main character 's crush both have guinea pigs which play a minor part in the plot . A guinea pig named Rodney , voiced by Chris Rock , was a prominent character in the 1998 film Dr. Dolittle , and Linny the Guinea pig is a co @-@ star on Nick Jr . ' s Wonder Pets . Guinea pigs were used in some major advertising campaigns in the 1990s and 2000s , notably for Egg Banking plc , Snapple , and Blockbuster Video . The Blockbuster campaign is considered by some guinea pig advocates to have been a factor in the rise of caging guinea pigs and rabbits together . In the South Park season 12 episode " Pandemic 2 : The Startling " , giant guinea pigs dressed in costumes rampage over the Earth . The 2009 Walt Disney Pictures movie G @-@ Force features a group of highly intelligent guinea pigs trained as operatives of the U.S. government . A video game based on the movie was also released . A guinea pig named Bugsy appears in the 2008 film Bedtime Stories . A guinea pig named Cashew features prominently in the second season of the U.S. adaptation of House of Cards .
= = Scientific research = =
The use of guinea pigs in scientific experimentation dates back at least to the 17th century , when the Italian biologists Marcello Malpighi and Carlo Fracassati conducted vivisections of guinea pigs in their examinations of anatomic structures . In 1780 , Antoine Lavoisier used a guinea pig in his experiments with the calorimeter , a device used to measure heat production . The heat from the guinea pig 's respiration melted snow surrounding the calorimeter , showing that respiratory gas exchange is a combustion , similar to a candle burning . Guinea pigs played a major role in the establishment of germ theory in the late 19th century , through the experiments of Louis Pasteur , Émile Roux , and Robert Koch . Guinea pigs have been launched into orbital space flight several times , first by the USSR on the Sputnik 9 biosatellite of March 9 , 1961 – with a successful recovery . China also launched and recovered a biosatellite in 1990 which included guinea pigs as passengers .
In English , the term ' guinea pig ' is commonly used as a metaphor for a subject of scientific experimentation , or any experiment or test in modern times . This dates back to the early 20th century ; the Oxford English Dictionary notes its first usage in this capacity in 1913 . In 1933 , Consumers Research founders F. J. Schlink and Arthur Kallet wrote a book entitled 100 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 Guinea Pigs , extending the metaphor to consumer society . The book became a national bestseller in the United States , thus further popularizing the term , and spurred the growth of the consumer protection movement . The negative connotation of the term was later employed in the novel The Guinea Pigs by Czech author Ludvík Vaculík as an allegory for Soviet totalitarianism . Guinea pigs were popular laboratory animals until the later 20th century ; about 2 @.@ 5 million guinea pigs were used annually in the U.S. for research in the 1960s , but that total decreased to about 375 @,@ 000 by the mid @-@ 1990s . As of 2007 , they constitute about 2 % of the current total of laboratory animals . In the past , they were widely used to standardize vaccines and antiviral agents ; they were also often employed in studies on the production of antibodies in response to extreme allergic reactions , or anaphylaxis . Less common uses included research in pharmacology and irradiation . Since the middle 20th century , they have been replaced in laboratory contexts primarily by mice and rats . This is in part because research into the genetics of guinea pigs has lagged behind that of other rodents , although geneticists W. E. Castle and Sewall Wright made a number of contributions to this area of study , especially regarding coat color . In 2004 , the U.S. ' s National Human Genome Research Institute announced plans to sequence the genome of the domestic guinea pig .
The guinea pig was most extensively implemented in research and diagnosis of infectious diseases . Common uses included identification of brucellosis , Chagas disease , cholera , diphtheria , foot @-@ and @-@ mouth disease , glanders , Q fever , Rocky Mountain spotted fever , and various strains of typhus . They are still frequently used to diagnose tuberculosis , since they are easily infected by human tuberculosis bacteria . Because guinea pigs are one of the few animals which , like humans and other primates , cannot synthesize vitamin C , but must obtain it from their diet , they are ideal for researching scurvy . From the accidental discovery in 1907 that scurvy could be induced in guinea pigs , to their use to prove the chemical structure of the " ascorbutic factor " in 1932 , the guinea pig model proved a crucial part of vitamin C research .
Complement , an important component for serology , was first isolated from the blood of the guinea pig . Guinea pigs have an unusual insulin mutation , and are a suitable species for the generation of anti @-@ insulin antibodies . Present at a level 10 times that found in other mammals , the insulin in guinea pigs may be important in growth regulation , a role usually played by growth hormone . Additionally , guinea pigs have been identified as model organisms for the study of juvenile diabetes and , because of the frequency of pregnancy toxemia , of pre @-@ eclampsia in human females . Their placental structure is similar to that of humans , and their gestation period can be divided into trimesters that resemble the stages of fetal development in humans .
Guinea pig strains used in scientific research are primarily outbred strains . Aside from the common American or English stock , the two main outbred strains in laboratory use are the Hartley and Dunkin @-@ Hartley ; these English strains are albino , although pigmented strains are also available . Inbred strains are less common and are usually used for very specific research , such as immune system molecular biology . Of the inbred strains that have been created , the two still used with any frequency are , following Sewall Wright 's designations , " Strain 2 " and " Strain 13 " .
Hairless breeds of guinea pigs have been used in scientific research since the 1980s , particularly for dermatological studies . A hairless and immunodeficient breed was the result of a spontaneous genetic mutation in inbred laboratory strains from the Hartley stock at the Eastman Kodak Company in 1979 . An immunocompetent hairless breed was also identified by the Institute Armand Frappier in 1978 , and Charles River Laboratories has reproduced this breed for research since 1982 . Cavy fanciers then began acquiring hairless breeds , and the pet hairless varieties are referred to as " skinny pigs " .
= = As food = =
= = = South America = = =
Guinea pigs ( called cuy , cuye , or curí ) were originally domesticated for their meat in the Andes . Traditionally , the animal was reserved for ceremonial meals by indigenous people in the Andean highlands , but since the 1960s , it has become more socially acceptable for consumption by all people . It continues to be a major part of the diet in Peru and Bolivia , particularly in the Andes Mountains highlands ; it is also eaten in some areas of Ecuador ( mainly in the Sierra ) and Colombia . Because guinea pigs require much less room than traditional livestock and reproduce extremely quickly , they are a more profitable source of food and income than many traditional stock animals , such as pigs and cattle ; moreover , they can be raised in an urban environment . Both rural and urban families raise guinea pigs for supplementary income , and the animals are commonly bought and sold at local markets and large @-@ scale municipal fairs . Guinea pig meat is high in protein and low in fat and cholesterol , and is described as being similar to rabbit and the dark meat of chicken . The animal may be served fried ( chactado or frito ) , broiled ( asado ) , or roasted ( al horno ) , and in urban restaurants may also be served in a casserole or a fricassee . Ecuadorians commonly consume sopa or locro de cuy , a soup dish . Pachamanca or huatia , a process similar to barbecueing , is also popular , and is usually served with corn beer ( chicha ) in traditional settings .
Peruvians consume an estimated 65 million guinea pigs each year , and the animal is so entrenched in the culture that one famous painting of the Last Supper in the main cathedral in Cusco shows Christ and the 12 disciples dining on guinea pig . The animal remains an important aspect of certain religious events in both rural and urban areas of Peru . A religious celebration known as jaca tsariy ( " collecting the cuys " ) is a major festival in many villages in the Antonio Raimondi province of eastern Peru , and is celebrated in smaller ceremonies in Lima . It is a syncretistic event , combining elements of Catholicism and pre @-@ Columbian religious practices , and revolves around the celebration of local patron saints . The exact form the jaca tsariy takes differs from town to town ; in some localities , a sirvinti ( servant ) is appointed to go from door to door , collecting donations of guinea pigs , while in others , guinea pigs may be brought to a communal area to be released in a mock bullfight . Meals such as cuy chactado are always served as part of these festivities , and the killing and serving of the animal is framed by some communities as a symbolic satire of local politicians or important figures . In the Tungurahua and Cotopaxi provinces of central Ecuador , guinea pigs are employed in the celebrations surrounding the feast of Corpus Christi as part of the Ensayo , which is a community meal , and the Octava , where castillos ( greased poles ) are erected with prizes tied to the crossbars , from which several guinea pigs may be hung . The Peruvian town of Churin has an annual festival which involves dressing guinea pigs in elaborate costumes for a competition .
Andean immigrants in New York City raise and sell guinea pigs for meat , and some ethnic restaurants in major United States cities serve cuy as a delicacy . Peruvian research universities , especially La Molina National Agrarian University , began experimental programs in the 1960s with the intention of breeding larger @-@ sized guinea pigs . Subsequent university efforts have sought to change breeding and husbandry procedures in South America , to make the raising of guinea pigs as livestock more economically sustainable . In the 1990s and 2000s , the university began exporting the larger breed guinea pigs to Europe , Japan , and the United States in the hope of increasing human consumption outside of these countries in northern South America .
= = = Sub @-@ Saharan Africa = = =
Many efforts have also been made to promote guinea pig husbandry in developing countries of West Africa , where they occur more widely than generally known because they are usually not covered by livestock statistics . However , it has not been known when and where the animals have been introduced to Africa . In Cameroon , they are widely distributed . In the Democratic Republic of the Congo , they can be found both in peri @-@ urban environments as well as in rural regions , for example , in South Kivu . They are also frequently held in rural households in Iringa Region of southwestern Tanzania .
= = = Western culture = = =
Nevertheless , as a food source , guinea pigs are generally considered taboo in other countries in America and Europe . In reality television , guinea pig meat has been consumed as an exotic dish by such Western celebrity chefs as Andrew Zimmern ( for his show Bizarre Foods ) , Anthony Bourdain in No Reservations , and Jeff Corwin in his show Extreme Cuisine .
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= Jimmy Speirs =
James Hamilton Speirs ( 22 March 1886 – 20 August 1917 ) , commonly known as Jimmy Speirs , was a Scottish footballer who represented his country on one occasion , scored the winning goal in the 1911 FA Cup Final , and received the Military Medal during the First World War .
Born in Glasgow , he was one of six children , and worked as a clerk while playing youth football for Annandale . He started his adult football career with local junior team Maryhill , where he played for less than a season , before he moved to Rangers in 1905 . He spent three years with the club , but won only the Glasgow Merchants ' Charity Cup , before he joined a third Glasgow side Clyde . After one season , he left Clyde and Scotland , and joined Bradford City for their second season in the First Division . His greatest success came in his second season with Bradford , when he was the club 's captain and goalscorer in their FA Cup Final victory of 1911 , in a team featuring eight Scottish @-@ born players .
He spent another two seasons with Bradford City , before he joined Leeds City , but after two seasons , the First World War broke out . League football continued for one more season , at the end of which Speirs returned to Glasgow . Married with two young children , Speirs would have been exempt from conscription , but he volunteered to join the Queen 's Own Cameron Highlanders in 1915 . He was promoted to lance corporal , corporal and sergeant , and won the Military Medal for bravery in the field , but was killed during the Battle of Passchendaele in August 1917 , at the age of 31 .
= = Early life = =
Jimmy Speirs was born on 22 March 1886 in the Govan area of Glasgow , Scotland , to James Hamilton Speirs senior and Janet Shields Speirs ( née McLean ) . He was the fifth of six children , following the births of siblings Maggie , Archibald , Annie and John . The youngest of the family was Robert , born in 1888 . By 1901 , the family had moved to nearby Govanhill , and Jimmy worked as a clerk . It was in Govanhill that Speirs ' football ability was first shown , when he played in the junior football circuit on the black ash pitches of Glasgow , for Annandale , during summer tournaments .
= = Football career = =
= = = Scotland = = =
An inside forward , Speirs moved to Maryhill in the Glasgow Junior League in 1905 . Maryhill , whose Lochburn Park ground was five miles north of Speirs ' home , were among the top sides in the junior leagues , and lifted 13 trophies in eight seasons at the turn of the 20th century . The 1904 – 05 team contained six junior internationals , and the side won three titles that season . Speirs ' first recorded scoring appearance was on 29 April 1905 , when his two goals helped Maryhill beat Parkhead 2 – 0 . Speirs scored again in a 3 – 3 draw against Ashfield in the Glasgow Junior Cup final , and scored the only goal of the replay to help Maryhill win the competition . Maryhill also won the Glasgow Merchants ' Charity Cup and the league title although it is unknown if Speirs played in the cup final or picked up a league winners medal .
At the end of the season , Speirs and junior international John McFie both moved across Glasgow to First Division side Rangers , who had finished second to city rivals Celtic after losing out in a title play @-@ off . Speirs did not make his full debut until 25 September 1905 , when Rangers lost 5 – 0 to Heart of Midlothian at Ibrox . Speirs scored his first Rangers goal two weeks later during the next league game in a 4 – 1 win away to Port Glasgow . In his first season , Speirs scored a hat @-@ trick in a 7 – 1 Scottish Cup first round victory over Second Division Arthurlie , and won the Glasgow Merchants ' Charity Cup , during which he scored twice in both the semi @-@ final and final . However , Rangers could only finish fourth in the league , with Celtic retaining the title . Rangers improved to third place the following season as Speirs finished joint top scorer with 13 goals , but Celtic again were league winners . Celtic also defeated Rangers 3 – 0 in the Scottish Cup in front of 60 @,@ 000 fans . Rangers ' only trophy that season was the successful defence of the Merchants ' Charity Cup , but Speirs did not play . In 1907 – 08 , Celtic once again finished top , with Rangers in third , and knocked their rivals out of the Scottish Cup . The two teams also met in the final of the Glasgow Cup , with Celtic winning in the second replay . Speirs was limited to 13 games , none of which Rangers lost , and he left after playing 62 matches , from which he scored 29 goals . During his final days with Rangers , he also won his only cap for Scotland , in a 2 – 1 win over Wales on 7 March 1908 . Speirs won a representative cap 11 days later , when he played and scored for Glasgow during an inter @-@ city fixture with Sheffield . The game finished 2 – 2 .
In the summer of 1908 , after three years with Rangers , Speirs moved to another Glasgow @-@ based club , Clyde , which also played in the First Division . Clyde 's Shawfield Park ground was three miles from Speirs ' home in Govanhill , in the Rutherglen area of the city , where Speirs ' grandparents and father lived . Clyde had finished 17th in 1907 – 08 , one point ahead of bottom side Port Glasgow . Speirs played only 14 league games for Clyde but helped them to their highest league position of third , three points behind winners Celtic . Clyde also lost to Celtic in the Scottish Cup semi @-@ final , following a replay . It was Speirs ' only season with Clyde , during which he scored a total of 10 goals from 20 appearances .
= = = Bradford City = = =
Speirs left his native Scotland during the summer of 1909 , to head for Yorkshire and sign for Bradford City , under the management of his countryman Peter O 'Rourke . It would be City 's second season in the First Division following their promotion in 1907 – 08 , and O 'Rourke wanted to strengthen his side after they narrowly avoided relegation in their first season in the top flight . He assembled a team which contained several Scottish players , and also brought in England international outside right Dicky Bond . Speirs made his debut on the opening day of the 1909 – 10 season , as City lost 1 – 0 to Manchester United . His first goal came three months later , in a 3 – 1 victory over Sunderland , during the middle of a ten @-@ game undefeated spell . Speirs played in all 38 games during his first season , scoring six times , as City finished seventh . He also played in both the club 's FA Cup games that season , scoring in a 4 – 2 victory over Notts County in the first round .
It was the following season when Speirs wrote his name in the club 's record books , with his performance in the same competition . He played 25 league games , scoring seven goals , to help City to fifth place , a position which the club has not yet bettered . The club also reached the FA Cup Final in the same season , with Speirs playing in all but one of the games along the way , scoring in a 2 – 1 second round victory over Norwich City . Speirs , along with Frank Thompson and George Robinson , was censured by the Football Association following a scramble for the match ball at the end of the semi @-@ final victory against Blackburn Rovers . Speirs was captain of the side and in the days up to the final he wrote to his opposite number , Colin Veitch . The contents of his letter are not known , but in his reply , Veitch said Speirs had " expressed in sound terms the true spirit of comradeship , and the proper sentiments one would expect to see associated with the sportsman , and the sport " . Speirs led out a team which contained eight Scots for the final at the Crystal Palace on 22 April 1911 against Newcastle United . The game ended in a 0 – 0 draw , in what was described as a " decidedly dull and uneventful game " . The final replay was played four days later at Old Trafford , Manchester , with City making one change to the team , bringing in Bob Torrance for fellow Scottish defender Willie Gildea . After 15 minutes , Speirs scored what turned out to be the only goal of the game to win the cup . Robinson shot at goal , but the wind caught the ball , which was headed on by Frank Thompson . Speirs himself headed the ball at goal , and Newcastle 's goalkeeper Jimmy Lawrence was distracted by City striker Frank O 'Rourke and the ball rolled into the net . Speirs lifted the newly @-@ cast trophy , which had been made by Bradford jewellers Fattorinis , and displayed it on the club 's victory parade later that evening in Bradford . The following day , Speirs was pictured on the front page of the Daily Mirror newspaper , holding the cup .
The club 's attempt to defend the victory came to an end after six consecutive clean sheets , when they were defeated 3 – 2 by Barnsley with Speirs scoring one of the goals . However , he was limited to ten league games , not playing from September until March , and finished the season with seven goals . They included his second senior hat @-@ trick during a 5 – 1 victory over Sheffield Wednesday on 30 March 1912 . Speirs started the following season , but after playing 13 of the first 15 games , he left . He had played 96 games in total , scoring 33 goals .
= = = Leeds City = = =
Speirs joined neighbours Leeds City , which played in the Second Division , for a fee of £ 1 @,@ 400 in December 1912 , becoming one of Herbert Chapman 's first signings . Speirs ' debut came on 28 December in a 3 – 2 defeat to Fulham , and although his first goal did not come until his fifth game against Bradford ( Park Avenue ) , Speirs finished second highest scorer with 10 goals , behind Billy McLeod . Their goals helped Leeds finish in sixth position , 10 points off the promotion places . The following season , Leeds came closer to promotion , but despite Speirs , as captain , scoring 12 goals and McLeod netting 27 , they came fourth , two points behind Park Avenue in the second promotion spot . Despite the outbreak of the First World War in June 1914 , league football continued , but Leeds lost their first four games of the season and were unable to recover , finishing a lowly 15th . Speirs scored the only goal of the West Riding Cup final against Hull City on 11 November 1914 to give what was Leeds City 's only ever trophy before the club was expelled from the league in 1919 and subsequently dissolved . League football was suspended at the end of the season , and the last game of Speirs ' career was a 2 – 0 defeat to Barnsley on 24 April 1915 . He played 73 league games for Leeds , scoring 32 goals .
In total , Speirs had played 226 league games , a further 30 Scottish and English FA Cup games , and several other appearances in other cup competitions . During his career , he scored 92 league goals , and 12 senior cup goals .
= = First World War = =
At the end of the 1914 – 15 season , Speirs returned to his native Glasgow and enlisted in the Queen 's Own Cameron Highlanders on 17 May 1915 . Conscription was a year away , from which Speirs would have been exempt because he was married with two young children . Private S / 18170 Speirs was posted to the regiment 's headquarters in Inverness where he joined the 3rd Battalion , a reserve battalion , for training . He was appointed to the position of Lance Corporal while on training , and after the British troops suffered heavy casualties , Speirs was posted overseas on 29 May 1916 . The following month , he was promoted to the position of Corporal . Later the same year , he wounded his elbow , from either a gunshot or shrapnel injury . In April 1917 , Speirs took part in the Second Battle of Arras , for which he was awarded the Military Medal for bravery in May 1917 , before he was promoted to Sergeant in June . The following month , he returned home to Scotland on leave , but he soon returned to France and was killed during the Battle of Passchendaele on or about 20 August 1917 , aged 31 . He is buried at Dochy Farm New British Cemetery , near Ypres in Belgium .
= = Personal life and legacy = =
Speirs married Elizabeth Lennox Maben , known as Bessie , on 24 October 1906 in Maben 's father 's home in Glasgow . On 11 December 1907 , the couple 's first child , James Hamilton Speirs , was born . Speirs , who had still been recorded as a clerk at the time of the wedding , was now listed as a spirit dealer 's stocktaker . Their second child , Elizabeth Maben Speirs , known as Betty , was born on 6 August 1912 .
Speirs was also a freemason . He was initiated into The Lodge Saint Vincent Sandyford No 553 , based in Glasgow , on 11 March 1908 , just four days after he had made his only Scottish appearance . When his football career took him away from Glasgow , Speirs maintained links with the lodge . He became a Master Mason , then a life member on 12 February 1913 .
Following Speirs ' death , Bessie remarried during the 1920s and moved to the south of England with Betty and her new husband . His son remained in Scotland but later emigrated to Canada . In 2003 , his family auctioned Speirs ' 1911 FA Cup winning medal with his Military Medal and service medal . The FA Cup medal was sold for £ 26 @,@ 210 , a record for a cup medal . His daughter 's family 's descendants now live in Kent .
Bradford City fan Mark Lawn bought Speirs ' FA Cup winning medal . Lawn later became chairman of the football club and allowed the medal to be shown , alongside that of Frank Thompson , in the club 's museum . Speirs ' medals formed part of an exhibition to celebrate Bradford City 's centenary in 2003 at Bradford Industrial Museum and have also been on show at Imperial War Museum North , in Greater Manchester , as part of an exhibition linking sport and war .
= = Playing honours = =
Annandale
Glasgow Junior Cup : 1905
Rangers
Glasgow Merchants ' Charity Cup : 1906
Bradford City
FA Cup : 1911
Leeds City
West Riding Cup : 1914
= = Playing statistics = =
Senior competitions only .
League refers to either Scottish Football League or The Football League appearances . Cup refers to either Scottish Cup or FA Cup appearances .
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= Super Metroid =
Super Metroid is an action @-@ adventure video game published by Nintendo , developed by its Research & Development 1 ( R & D1 ) division , and programmed by Intelligent Systems for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System . It was released in Japan on March 19 , 1994 , in North America on April 18 , and in Europe and Australia on July 28 . The game was directed and written by Yoshio Sakamoto , and produced by Makoto Kano , with Gunpei Yokoi serving as general manager . It is the third game in the Metroid series .
Super Metroid is a direct sequel to Metroid II : Return of Samus ( 1991 ) . The player controls bounty hunter Samus Aran as she attempts to retrieve a Metroid larva stolen by the Space Pirate leader Ridley . The gameplay focuses on exploration , with the player searching for power @-@ ups that are used to reach previously inaccessible areas . It introduces new concepts to the series , such as the inventory screen , an automapping facility , and the ability to fire in all directions .
Super Metroid received critical acclaim , and is widely considered by many critics and gamers to be one of the greatest video games of all time , owing to its use of atmosphere , gameplay , audio , cinematic elements and graphics . While the game sold poorly in Japan , it fared better in North America and Europe . Super Metroid became popular among players for speedrunning , and its gameplay and design influenced other games , including Shadow Complex and Axiom Verge . The game was followed by the 2002 release of Metroid Fusion and Metroid Prime , ending the series ' eight @-@ year hiatus . Since 2007 , Super Metroid has been released for the Virtual Console service on the Wii , the Wii U , and the New Nintendo 3DS .
= = Gameplay = =
Super Metroid is an 2D , side @-@ scrolling action @-@ adventure game , which primarily takes place on the fictional planet Zebes — a large , open @-@ ended world with areas connected by doors and elevators . The player controls Samus Aran as she searches the planet for a Metroid that was stolen by Ridley , the leader of the Space Pirates . Samus can run , jump , crouch , and fire a weapon in eight directions ; she can also perform other actions , such as wall jumping — jumping from one wall to another in rapid succession to reach higher areas . The " Moon Walk " ability , named after the popular dance move of the same name , allows Samus to walk backwards while firing or charging her weapon . The heads @-@ up display shows Samus ' health , the supply mode for reserve tanks , icons that represent weapons , and an automap that shows her location and its surroundings .
Throughout the course of the game , the player collects power @-@ ups that enhance Samus ' armor and weaponry , as well as grant her special abilities , allowing Samus to access areas that were previously inaccessible . The Morph Ball allows Samus to curl into a ball , roll into tight places and plant bombs ; the Spring Ball adds an ability to jump while in Morph Ball form . The Speed Booster can be used to run at high speeds , and can crash onto barriers and enemies . The Space Jump allows Samus to jump infinite times to cover great distances , and the Hi @-@ Jump Boots allow for a higher jump . The Grapple Beam can be used to swing across open areas . The X @-@ ray Scope is used to see items and passages through walls and other surfaces .
Super Metroid features an inventory screen , in which the player can enable and disable weapons and abilities , combine Samus ' weapon beams , or replenish her health by using acquired reserve tanks ; when the supply mode is set to " auto " , the reserve tanks are automatically used if Samus ' health is depleted . The save system from Metroid II : Return of Samus returns in Super Metroid , which allows the player to save and resume the game at any of the save points scattered around the planet . The player can also save the game at Samus ' gunship , which fully recharges her health and ammunition as well . Super Metroid has three endings based on the time taken to complete the game , which determine whether Samus poses with or without her suit . The best ending is achieved when the game is completed under three hours .
= = Plot = =
Super Metroid opens with a narrative by bounty hunter Samus Aran . Samus describes how a Metroid larva hatched from an egg and immediately imprinted upon her , believing her to be its mother . She brought the larva to Ceres Space Colony , where scientists believed that they could harness its power . Just after she left the colony , she received a distress call and returned to find the scientists dead and the larva stolen by Ridley — the leader of the Space Pirates . Samus escapes from the space colony when its self @-@ destruct sequence is activated , and follows Ridley to the planet Zebes . There , she searches for the stolen larva in a network of caves , and finds that the Space Pirates rebuilt and expanded their base on Zebes .
Along the way , Samus defeats four of the Space Pirate bosses , including Kraid and Ridley , and arrives in Tourian — the heart of the Space Pirate base . There , she encounters the Metroid larva , which has now grown to an enormous size . It attacks Samus and nearly drains all of her energy before it realizes who she is , and then departs . Samus recharges her energy and confronts Mother Brain , the biomechanical creature that controls the base 's systems and all the enemy forces on Zebes . Mother Brain nearly kills Samus , but is then attacked by the Metroid larva , which drains it of its energy and transfers it back to Samus . Mother Brain recovers and destroys the Metroid in retaliation , but is in turn defeated by Samus with the Hyper Beam — an extremely powerful weapon created from the energy given to her by the Metroid . Afterward , a planetary self @-@ destruct sequence begins , which Samus narrowly escapes . If the player rescues the Dachora and the Etecoons — the creatures Samus encountered earlier in the game — during the escape , they are shown leaving the planet in the distance .
= = Development = =
Super Metroid was developed by Nintendo R & D1 with a staff of 15 people managed by Gunpei Yokoi . The game was directed and written by Yoshio Sakamoto , and produced by Makoto Kano . Intelligent Systems , who co @-@ developed the original Metroid with R & D1 , handled the programming for Super Metroid . The game , which was released almost a decade after the original Metroid game , took half a year to gain approval for the initial idea , and actual development of the game took two more years to complete . When asked why the game took so long to make , Sakamoto responded , " We wanted to wait until a true action game was needed . [ ... ] And also to set the stage for the reappearance of Samus Aran . " Previously visited areas were added to Super Metroid to add a sense of familiarity that would satisfy players of previous Metroid games .
The developers ' primary goal was to make the game a " good action game " . They wanted the game to have a large map , but found it difficult to organize the amount of graphic data involved . Coming up with several ideas , the developers decided to break the game up into many mini @-@ adventures . New weapons are introduced to the Metroid series in Super Metroid , including the Grapple Beam , used to latch a laser beam onto the ceiling . The game is the first in the series to let Samus fire in all directions while moving , and it is among the first open world games to offer the player a mapping facility . The feature shows the outlines of rooms , locations of important rooms , and dots for special items . Shortly before the game 's release , the Entertainment Software Rating Board , a self @-@ regulating organization , was formed in response to the increasing violence found in games such as 1992 's Mortal Kombat . When asked whether he thought that recent game violence controversy would cause any negative backlash for Super Metroid , Sakamoto stated , " We don 't think there 's too much violence in the game . " Using Samus as an example , he explained that her purpose is to maintain peace in the galaxy , claiming , " It 's not violence for the sake of violence . " The game was demonstrated at the Winter 1994 Consumer Electronics Show , and was named the best SNES game at the show by GamePro . Super Metroid was distributed on a 24 @-@ megabit cartridge , making it the largest SNES game at the time of its release . The game 's opening dialogue was voiced by Dan Owsen .
= = = Music = = =
The music for Super Metroid was composed by Kenji Yamamoto and Minako Hamano , and uses 16 @-@ bit versions of music from previous games . According to Yamamoto , he came up with the game 's theme by humming it to himself while riding his motorcycle from work . In addition to composing music , Yamamoto served as a sound programmer and created sound effects for the game . These simultaneous roles allowed him " to produce distinct Metroid music with a sound programmer ’ s ear , with a sound effect creator ’ s ear , and with the approach methodology and theory of a composer . " The arrangements and remixes of the game 's themes were used in Metroid Prime and its sequels , because Yamamoto wanted " to satisfy old Metroid fans . It 's like a present for them . "
Most of the tracks from Super Metroid were released in an album , Super Metroid : Sound in Action , on June 22 , 1994 . Published by Sony Records under the catalog number SRCL @-@ 2920 , it contained 38 tracks and covers a duration of 58 : 49 . The album also include the original Metroid tracks composed by Hirokazu Tanaka , and additional tracks arranged by Yoshiyuki Ito and Masumi Ito .
= = = Release = = =
Super Metroid was released by Nintendo in Japan on March 19 , 1994 ; in North America on April 18 , 1994 ; and in Europe on July 28 , 1994 . It was re @-@ released in Japan on September 30 , 1997 , as a downloadable game for the Nintendo Power flash memory cartridge . It became available as a Wii Virtual Console title in North America on August 20 , 2007 , in Japan on September 20 , 2007 , and in Europe on October 12 , 2007 . In Super Smash Bros. Brawl , Super Metroid is also one of the trial games available in the " Masterpieces " section , which uses Virtual Console technology to emulate older hardware and have time constraints . Super Metroid was released for the Wii U Virtual Console on May 15 , 2013 ; it was initially available during the trial campaign for a cheaper price , and it was reverted to its regular price on June 13 , 2013 . Users who own the Wii Virtual Console version of the game will be able to get the Wii U Virtual Console version for a reduced price . The New Nintendo 3DS Virtual Console version was released on April 14 , 2016 .
= = Reception = =
Super Metroid was met with widespread critical acclaim . Chris Slate of the Game Players video game magazine thoroughly enjoyed Super Metroid , claiming that it " easily lives up to everyone 's high expectations " . He was satisfied with how Nintendo mixed complex gameplay with " state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art " graphics and sound . Slate found the newly added auto @-@ mapping feature something that players really needed , saying that it was the only feature in Super Metroid that the original Metroid should have had . Concluding his review , Slate stated , " Action fans can 't afford to miss Super Metroid . [ ... ] You 'll want to play through again and again even after you 've beaten it . " Nintendo Power mentioned that the game " may well be the best action adventure game ever " , calling it the " wave of the future " . They praised the game 's graphics , sound , and controls , while their only negative comment was , " Even 100 megabits of Metroid wouldn 't be enough . " Electronic Gaming Monthly gave Super Metroid their " Game of the Month " award , comparing it favorably to the original Metroid and applauding the graphics , the many weapons and items available , and the music . Each of the four reviewers gave it scores of nine out of ten . GamePro criticized that the controls are often awkward or difficult and that many of the power @-@ ups are either lifted from other SNES games or simple upgrades of other power @-@ ups in the game , but praised the game 's massive size along with the auto @-@ mapping feature , saying it " makes a potentially frustrating game accessible to a far wider audience . " GamesRadar was pleased with the game 's " phenomenal " soundtrack , complimenting it as " one of the best videogame scores of all time " .
The former British video game publication Super Play , which had three editors review the game , also enjoyed it . The magazine 's Zy Nicholson noted that the game was better than his favorite game , Mega Man X , describing Super Metroid as " more of an experience than a game " . Comparing the game to the 1986 film Aliens , Nicholson felt that the game was best experienced when played in the dark with the volume turned up . He found the game so compulsive that he was tempted to play " without eating or sleeping " . The publication 's Tony Mott named the game 's atmosphere its best aspect , calling the game a mix of Turrican ( 1990 ) , Aliens , Exile ( 1989 ) , and Nodes of Yesod ( 1985 ) . Appreciating the game 's controls , Mott applauded Nintendo 's ability to create a refined gameplay . He concluded his review by calling Super Metroid " undoubtedly the best game I 've played this year so far " , predicting that anyone who plays the game would be " playing a game destined for classic status " . The third reviewer , James Leach , agreed with Nicholson and Mott that Super Metroid was what Mega Man X should have been . Concluding his review , Leach wrote that Super Metroid contained everything he looked for in a video game : " playability , hidden tricks , powerful weapons and steamingly evil baddies " . After summarizing the reviews , the magazine 's verdict was , " We all love this game . Super Metroid is absolutely marvelous and you should own it . "
IGN called Super Metroid 's Virtual Console version a " must @-@ own " , commenting that although the game was released nine months after the Wii launched , they felt that it was worth the wait . For players who have never played Super Metroid , IGN claims that they owe themselves as gamers to " finally find out about what you 've been missing all these years " . In his review for GameSpot , Frank Provo found it " absolutely astonishing that Nintendo let 13 years go by before making Super Metroid readily available again " , but considered the most important thing was that players " can now play this masterpiece without having to track down the original Super Nintendo Entertainment System cartridge or fumble with legally questionable emulators " . Despite admitting that the Virtual Console version was essentially " nothing more than a no @-@ frills , emulated version of a 13 @-@ year @-@ old SNES game " that was no longer cutting @-@ edge , he was still pleased with it and reiterated his belief that Super Metroid is " one of the best 2D action adventure games ever produced " .
When Super Metroid launched in Japan , GamesRadar 's Andy Robinson noted that it was released " at the wrong place , at the wrong time " . Struggling against more commercially popular games , such as Donkey Kong Country in 1994 , along with the launch of the PlayStation and Sega Saturn video game consoles , Super Metroid sold poorly in Japan . With the help of strong marketing from Nintendo , Super Metroid sold better in North America and Europe , and a year after its release , Nintendo placed it on their Player 's Choice marketing label .
= = = Awards and accolades = = =
Super Metroid received several awards and honors . Electronic Gaming Monthly named it Game of the Month for May 1994 , gave it an Editors ' Choice award , awarded it as the Best Action Game of 1994 , and named it the Best Game of All Time in 2003 . In IGN 's yearly Top 100 Games of All Time lists , Super Metroid was ranked 3rd ( 2003 ) , 10th ( 2005 ) , 4th ( 2006 ) , and 7th ( 2007 ) . GamePro listed Super Metroid as one of the 15 Retro Games for the Wii You Must Play . Super Metroid was placed 1st on GamesRadar 's list of the Best Super Nintendo Games of All Time , beating out Chrono Trigger ( 2nd ) and The Legend of Zelda : A Link to the Past ( 3rd ) . Super Metroid was also named the best Super NES game of all time by ScrewAttack , beating out The Legend of Zelda : A Link to the Past ( 2nd ) and Final Fantasy VI ( 3rd ) . Classic Game Room 's CGR Undertow series named Super Metroid the best Super NES game of all time as well , beating out The Legend of Zelda : A Link to the Past ( 2nd ) and Super Mario World ( 3rd ) . Nintendo Power named Super Metroid the best game in the Metroid series , beating out Metroid Prime ( 2nd ) and Metroid : Zero Mission ( 3rd ) .
= = Legacy = =
After Super Metroid 's release , there would not be another sequel for eight years , as none of the games in the Metroid series up to this point had enjoyed the level of success that the Mario and The Legend of Zelda franchises had . Yokoi , who had involved in producing the first two Metroid games , left Nintendo after the commercial failure of the Virtual Boy , and died in 1997 in a car accident . During the series ' hiatus , fans eagerly awaited a Metroid title for the Nintendo 64 . Sakamoto considered creating an N64 title , but was not interested in being part of its development , mainly because of the console 's controller . Nintendo approached another company to make an N64 Metroid , but the offer was declined because the developers thought they could not make a game that could equal Super Metroid 's standards . Mario and The Legend of Zelda series creator Shigeru Miyamoto said that Nintendo " couldn 't come up with any concrete ideas " on the N64 game . Super Metroid 's co @-@ developer Intelligent Systems considered continuing the series on the Game Boy Color , but the idea was dropped due to the handheld 's technical limitations .
In 2002 , two new Metroid games were released by Nintendo , marking the return of the series after an eight @-@ year hiatus . The games were Metroid Fusion , a 2D side @-@ scroller developed for the Game Boy Advance by Nintendo R & D1 , the same team that developed Super Metroid ; and Metroid Prime , a first @-@ person action @-@ adventure game developed for the GameCube by Retro Studios — Nintendo 's first @-@ party developer based in Austin , Texas , and the first Metroid game to feature 3D computer graphics . Both Fusion and Prime garnered critical acclaim , with the latter winning several Game of the Year awards . After Metroid Prime , three more games in the first @-@ person perspective and a pinball spin @-@ off were released , including its sequel , Metroid Prime 2 : Echoes .
As Super Metroid gave players awards based on how long it took them to complete the game , it has become a popular choice for speedruns , a style of play in which the player intends to complete the game as quickly as possible for the purpose of competition . With the releases of Super Metroid and Konami 's 1997 game Castlevania : Symphony of the Night , the formula on exploration and weapon upgrading elements these games presented would form the foundations of the " Metroidvania " genre . The gameplay and design of Super Metroid influenced other games , such as Chair Entertainment 's Shadow Complex , and Tom Happ 's Axiom Verge . Marty Sliva of IGN writes that The Swapper , a puzzle @-@ platform game developed by Facepalm Games , is " just might be the closest thing to Super Metroid 's atmosphere that I ’ ve ever played . "
Several ROM hacks of Super Metroid have been released by fans , which added new features that are not included in the original game . Super Metroid : Redesign , created by " drewseph " in 2006 , features new items , expanded areas and modified physics . In 2011 , a Japanese hacker " SB " released a ROM hack titled Metroid : Super Zero Mission , which intends to combine elements from Super Metroid and the later @-@ released Metroid : Zero Mission .
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= Al @-@ Talaba SC =
Al @-@ Talaba Sport Club ( Students Sport Club , Arabic : نادي الطلبة الرياضي ) is an Iraqi sports club based in Al @-@ Rusafa , Baghdad . Its football team competes in the Iraqi Premier League , the top flight of Iraqi football . Founded as Al @-@ Jameaa Football Club in 1969 , the club changed its name to Al @-@ Talaba in 1977 . The club 's home stadium is Al @-@ Talaba Stadium .
Al @-@ Talaba have won five league titles , with the most recent being in the 2001 – 02 season . They also achieved two FA Cups and three Umm Al @-@ Ma 'arik Cups , one of the four clubs that won it the most of any Iraqi club . The club also became the runners @-@ up of the 1995 Asian Cup Winners ' Cup . Al @-@ Talaba have won two international club competitions : the 1984 Bangalore Championship and the 2005 Damascus International Championship .
Since it was first established , Al @-@ Talaba was owned by the University of Baghdad . From 1975 to 1993 , Al @-@ Talaba became owned by the National Union of Iraqi Students . Since 1993 , the club is owned by the Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research and the minister is the honorary president of the club .
= = History = =
= = = Early years ( 1964 – 1980 ) = = =
In 1964 , the University of Baghdad formed a football club made of the best football @-@ playing students in the university , under the name of Montakhab Jameaat Baghdad , to compete in the Universities of Iraq League . The first president of the club was Hassan Kanah and the first technical staff consisted of the manager , Ghani Askar , and his two assistants , Moayad Al @-@ Badri and Sami Al @-@ Saffar . The first competition that the team played in was the 1964 Republic Championship .
The sports club was founded on 17 December 1969 under the name of Al @-@ Jameaa , which translates to The University , to represent the University of Baghdad in official Iraqi competitions . By a special resolution from the Iraq Football Association , the team 's first participation was in Iraq Division One ( second level ) without needing to compete in either the second or third divisions . In their first season , 1970 – 71 , the team under the management of Thamir Muhsin finished top of Division One and were promoted to the League of the Institutes . However , in the 1971 – 72 League of the Institutes season , they finished in last place and were relegated back to Division One .
After three seasons , Muhsin left the club and Jamal Salih became the new manager , leading the team to promotion in the 1974 – 75 season . He introduced some players from Montakhab Jameaat Baghdad , who won the 1975 Universities League , to strengthen the team . After finishing eighth in 1976 , Al @-@ Talaba were the runners @-@ up in the 1976 – 77 season , five points behind the league leaders , Al @-@ Zawra 'a . Halfway through the 1977 – 78 season , on 27 December 1977 , the club changed its name from Al @-@ Jameaa to Al @-@ Talaba , which translates to The Students . They finished eighth in that season .
In 1978 , Jamal Salih was sacked by the board and was replaced with Abdul Wahab Abdul Qadir , who led the team through the 1978 – 79 season , their first as Al @-@ Talaba , in which they finished third in the league behind Al @-@ Shorta and Al @-@ Zawra 'a . For the first time , an Al @-@ Talaba player was among the league 's top three goalscorers with Hussein Saeed scoring six goals and Haris Mohammed scoring five . In 1979 , Al @-@ Talaba participated in the University Games , but failed to win the competition .
In the 1979 – 80 Iraqi National League , under the management of Khalaf Hassan , Al @-@ Talaba finished in third place again with 27 points . Two of their most significant wins that season were beating the eventual league champions , Al @-@ Shorta , 2 – 0 in the second round of matches on 26 September 1979 and beating Al @-@ Tayaran 1 – 0 in the 20th round on 24 April 1980 . In the 1979 – 80 Iraq FA Cup , Al @-@ Talaba reached the final for the first time but they were defeated on 8 February 1980 by Al @-@ Jaish 4 – 2 on penalties after drawing 1 – 1 .
= = = Golden years ( 1980 – 1986 ) = = =
Under the management of Ammo Baba , known as the " Sheikh of Coaches " , Al @-@ Talaba won their first Premier League title in the 1980 – 81 season ( while it was known as the National League ) . They finished the season as the league leaders with 17 points and had the goal difference of + 14 , the same amount of points and goal difference as Al @-@ Shorta , but Al @-@ Talaba were awarded the title on number of wins as they eight wins and Al @-@ Shorta had six . Hussein Saeed was the top goalscorer of the league with eleven goals .
Before the last round of matches , Al @-@ Talaba had 17 points and Al @-@ Shorta had 15 . Al @-@ Talaba winning in the last round and Al @-@ Shorta losing or drawing would secure the title for Al @-@ Talaba but , in the last match , they lost 1 – 2 against Al @-@ Tayaran and Al @-@ Shorta won 3 – 0 against Al @-@ Zawra 'a to create a tie on points and goal difference , Al @-@ Shorta had scored more goals than Al @-@ Talaba and therefore were expected to be crowned champions , but the Iraq FA ruled that the greater number of wins should take precedence and declared Al @-@ Talaba as champions . This was a controversial decision at the time as it was the first time such a phenomenon had happened in Iraqi football .
After achieving their first league title , Al @-@ Talaba succeeded in winning it again in the 1981 – 82 season under Jamal Salih in his second term as team manager . They finished the season as the league leaders with 34 points , two points ahead of second @-@ placed Al @-@ Tayaran . Hussein Saeed was the second top goalscorer with eleven goals behind Al @-@ Zawra 'a's Thamir Yousif , who scored fourteen .
In the 1982 – 83 season , Akram Salman was appointed as the team 's new manager . Al @-@ Talaba started the season with confidence having won the league in the last two seasons , but finished in second place , only one point behind the league leaders , Salahaddin . Salahaddin were undefeated in the league while Al @-@ Talaba had a single loss , by 2 – 0 loss to Al @-@ Sinaa in the second round of matches . The championship was decided in the last match of the season when Al @-@ Talaba met Salahaddin with only one point between them , so Salahaddin needed a win or a draw to secure the title . Al @-@ Talaba scored first and dominated the match until , in the last thirty minutes , Salahaddin managed to equalise . The score remained 1 – 1 , which won Salahaddin the championship for the first time in their history . Hussein Saeed was the top goalscorer with 17 goals , eight goals ahead of another Al @-@ Talaba player , Rahim Hameed .
Al @-@ Talaba again finished second in the 1983 – 84 , with 36 points , three behind league leaders , Al @-@ Jaish . In 1984 , Al @-@ Talaba won its first international club competition , the 1984 Bangalore Championship , winning four games and drawing one out of the five games they played in the tournament , which was hosted in Bangalore , India .
The 1984 – 85 Iraqi National League was abandoned halfway through due to a perceived decline in public interest , described as becoming " non @-@ existent " , after the performances of the Iraq national football team in the 1986 FIFA World Cup qualification ( AFC ) and winning the 1985 Arab Nations Cup and the 1985 Pan Arab Games . Al @-@ Talaba were in third place with 21 points before the stoppage . They then participated in the Al @-@ Rasheed Cup which was set up by Al @-@ Rasheed after the abandonment of the league . The Al @-@ Rasheed Cup contained twelve of the fourteen top division clubs as well as four lower division clubs . Al @-@ Talaba reached the quarterfinals of the tournament but were knocked out by the eventual winners Al @-@ Rasheed .
After Al @-@ Rasheed was promoted to the top division , most of Iraq 's national team players signed for them , which made it difficult for the other teams to compete . Even so , in the 1985 – 86 Iraqi National League and under the management of Yahya Alwan , Al @-@ Talaba won their third league title against all expectations . They finished the season with 25 points , two points ahead of the favourites Al @-@ Rasheed . On 27 December 1985 , one of the most important matches of the season , which could have decided the championship , was played between Al @-@ Talaba and Al @-@ Rasheed in front of 50 @,@ 000 spectators at the Al @-@ Shaab Stadium . The match ended in a 1 – 0 win for Al @-@ Talaba with the goal being from a penalty taken by Hussein Saeed in the 63rd minute . Saeed was the season 's joint top goalscorer along with Ahmed Radhi and Rahim Hameed . Al @-@ Talaba participated in the 1986 Asian Club Championship after 14 years of stoppage , where they reached the final round but finished last in the table with a single point . Al @-@ Talaba also participated in the Saddam International Tournament in 1986 , hosted in Baghdad , but finished third in their group and failed to reach the semi @-@ finals . By winning the league , Al @-@ Talaba qualified for the 1986 Al @-@ Muthabara Cup but were defeated 2 – 1 by Al @-@ Rasheed .
= = = Ups and downs ( 1986 – 1992 ) = = =
Due to managerial changes and instability , the 1986 – 87 Iraqi National League ended with Al @-@ Talaba in sixth place , having totaled 49 points , under the consecutive management of Ahmed Subhi , Yahya Alwan and Jamal Salih . The season after , Al @-@ Talaba under the management of Yousif Abdul @-@ Ameer finished in eighth place with only 30 points . This was their worst National League performance since 1975 – 76 .
Al @-@ Talaba returned to winning ways under the management of Jamal Ali in the 1988 – 89 season , which was played in a different format to previous seasons . They finished fourth in the Baghdad Group , just ahead of Al @-@ Shorta , to qualify for the final tournament , where they finished second in Group 1 , behind Al @-@ Zawraa , to qualify for the semi @-@ finals . In the semi @-@ finals , Al @-@ Talaba defeated Al @-@ Tayaran 6 – 5 on penalties after a 1 – 1 draw . In the final , Al @-@ Talaba faced their rivals , Al @-@ Rasheed , at the Al @-@ Shaab Stadium . The match ended 1 – 1 at full time with their goal scored by Ali Hussein . It went to penalties where Hussein Saeed missed his penalty and enabled Al @-@ Rasheed to win 5 – 4 . That season , Al @-@ Talaba also finished as runners @-@ up in the Al @-@ Intisar Cup , behind Al @-@ Quwa Al @-@ Jawiya .
In the 1989 – 90 Iraqi National League , which returned to the normal league format , Al @-@ Talaba finished in sixth place with 31 points , having won twelve matches , drawn seven and lost seven . In the cup , they reached the fifth round when they won at home to Al @-@ Sulaikh 1 – 0 and lost 3 – 1 away . This was Hussein Saeed 's final season with Al @-@ Talaba before he retired . In the next season , under the management of the club 's first and only foreign coach , Eddie Firmani , and Yahya Alwan , they finished second with 41 points .
In the 1991 – 92 season , Al @-@ Talaba finished in fourth place with 55 points . The vice @-@ president of Al @-@ Talaba , Salim Rasheed , organised a competition called the Umm Al @-@ Ma 'arik Cup in which only the top six teams in the league could participate with all the matches being played at the Al @-@ Shaab Stadium . Al @-@ Talaba won their first match against Al @-@ Shorta 1 – 0 and lost their second match against Al @-@ Quwa Al @-@ Jawiya 1 – 0 , qualifying them for the semi @-@ finals where they lost to Al @-@ Zawra 'a 1 – 0 after an early goal by Mohammed Jassim Mahdi . In the third @-@ place match , Al @-@ Talaba faced Al @-@ Karkh whom they defeated 4 – 3 on penalties after a 2 – 2 draw . The 1991 Umm Al @-@ Ma 'arik Cup ended with Al @-@ Zawra 'a as winners .
= = = Stability and Asian prominence ( 1992 – 2001 ) = = =
During the longest season in Iraqi football , the 1992 – 93 season , when every club played 69 matches , Al @-@ Talaba had Yahya Alwan as their manager in the first stage of the league , in which they won 14 matches , drawn seven and lost two , 1 – 0 against Kirkuk and the same score against Samarra . They completed the stage in third place with 35 points . Before the start of the second stage , Al @-@ Talaba signed Ayoub Odisho as their new manager , and he led them through the second stage to have exactly the same statistics as the first one , finishing with 70 points and in second place . In the third stage , the team won 18 matches , drew four and lost only once against Al @-@ Khutoot . After 69 matches , Al @-@ Talaba finished top of the league with 110 points , having scored 130 goals and conceded 34 . In the 1992 Umm Al @-@ Ma 'arik Cup which was organised by the Iraq FA , Al @-@ Talaba finished the group stage as the Group Two leaders with four points . In the semi @-@ finals , they had to face Al @-@ Zawra 'a in a match which was considered a replay of the 1991 semi @-@ final which Al @-@ Zawra 'a won 1 – 0 . In this match , Al @-@ Talaba won 3 – 2 with a golden goal in the 100th minute during extra time . In the final against Al @-@ Quwa Al @-@ Jawiya , the match ended in a 0 – 0 draw which led to extra time when Alaa Kadhim scored the winning goal in the 104th minute . In the 1992 – 93 Iraq FA Cup , Al @-@ Talaba reached the final after defeating Haifa , Salahaddin , Salam and Samarra . In the final , they lost to Al @-@ Zawra 'a 2 – 1 .
After almost achieving a treble in the 1992 – 93 season , Al @-@ Talaba were managed by Hussein Saeed in the first half of the 1993 – 94 season and Ayoub Odisho in the second ; they finished in third place with 75 points . In the 1993 Umm Al @-@ Ma 'arik Cup , they came second in the Group One table behind Al @-@ Quwa Al @-@ Jawiya . In the semi @-@ finals , Al @-@ Talaba met Al @-@ Zawra 'a for the third time in a row and won 3 – 1 . In the final , they faced Al @-@ Quwa Al @-@ Jawiya for the second time and defeated them 2 – 1 at the Al @-@ Shaab Stadium , winning their second successive Umm Al @-@ Ma 'arik Cup under the management of Saeed . In the 1993 – 94 Iraq FA Cup , Al @-@ Talaba again faced Al @-@ Zawra 'a in the final but lost by the same score as in the previous season , 2 – 1 . In the 1994 – 95 Iraqi National League , Al @-@ Talaba finished fourth with 105 points , two points behind Al @-@ Quwa Al @-@ Jawiya in second place and Najaf in third . In the last round , Al @-@ Talaba faced Al @-@ Zawra 'a needing a win to finish second , but they lost 2 – 1 . In the fourth edition of the Umm Al @-@ Ma 'arik Cup , Al @-@ Talaba reached the final against Al @-@ Quwa Al @-@ Jawiya but lost 4 – 3 on penalties after a 0 – 0 draw .
In the 1995 – 96 season , Al @-@ Talaba finished in sixth place with 31 points , having won eight matches , drawn seven and lost seven . They reached the final of the 1995 Umm Al @-@ Ma 'arik Cup , coming up against Al @-@ Quwa Al @-@ Jawiya for the fourth time in a row in this competition , and Al @-@ Talaba won with a single goal scored by Abdul @-@ Wahab Abu Al @-@ Hail , achieving their third Umm Al @-@ Ma 'arik Cup success . After Al @-@ Zawra 'a achieved a double in the 1993 – 94 season , the Iraq FA chose the FA Cup runners @-@ up , Al @-@ Talaba , as Iraq 's representative in the 1995 Asian Cup Winners ' Cup . Under the management of Ayoub Odisho , they defeated Al @-@ Gharafa in the first leg in Doha 5 – 3 and lost in the second leg 1 – 0 at the Al @-@ Shaab Stadium . In the second round , they came up against Yangiyer and lost 2 – 1 in Tashkent before they turned it around to win 2 – 0 in Baghdad with goals from Muhannad Mohammed and Qahtan Chathir . In the quarter @-@ finals , Al @-@ Talaba won their first leg against Bahman in Tehran 1 – 0 with a goal by Sabah Jeayer . At the Al @-@ Shaab Stadium , Bahman won 1 – 0 for a 1 – 1 draw on aggregate . The match went to a golden goal decider which was scored by Chathir . Al @-@ Talaba had now qualified for the semi @-@ finals where they were drawn to meet Kazma SC of Kuwait but Kazma withdrew from the tournament , refusing to play against Al @-@ Talaba because of political tensions between Iraq and other Persian Gulf countries , including Saudi Arabia and Kuwait , in the aftermath of the 1991 Gulf War . The AFC directed Al @-@ Talaba to play against Al @-@ Riyadh of Saudi @-@ Arabia but they too withdrew for the same reason , and that meant Al @-@ Talaba had a walkover through the semi @-@ finals . In the final , Al @-@ Talaba faced Bellmare Hiratsuka in Kanagawa where they were beaten 2 – 1 after the winning goal was scored in the 81st minute by Hidetoshi Nakata .
In 1996 , the league was renamed to the Iraqi Premier League , and Al @-@ Talaba finished third in the 1996 – 97 Iraqi Premier League , winning 17 matches , drawing nine and losing four . They reached the round of 16 in the 1996 – 97 Iraq FA Cup and didn 't get past the group stage in the 1996 Umm Al @-@ Ma 'arik Cup . Under the management of Ayoub Odisho , in the 1997 – 98 season , Al @-@ Talaba finished in fifth place with 61 points , one point behind fourth placed Najaf FC . In the 1997 Umm Al @-@ Ma 'arik Cup , they reached the semi @-@ finals but were defeated by Najaf 3 – 1 on penalties . In the third place match against Al @-@ Zawra 'a , Al @-@ Talaba were beaten 7 – 0 which is the most goals ever conceded in a match by Al @-@ Talaba .
In the 1998 – 99 season , now under the management of Akram Salman , Al @-@ Talaba finished in second place , only one point behind the league leaders , Al @-@ Zawra 'a , with 75 points . In the 1998 – 99 Iraq FA Cup , they reached the final after beating Al @-@ Shorta in the semi @-@ finals . They were defeated by Al @-@ Zawra 'a in the final 1 – 0 . Because of Al @-@ Zawra 'a achieving the double , the 1999 Al @-@ Muthabara Cup was played between Al @-@ Zawra 'a and the league and cup runners @-@ up , Al @-@ Talaba , where they were defeated for the third time that season by Al @-@ Zawra 'a , who won 5 – 4 on penalties after a 2 – 2 draw . In the 1998 Umm Al @-@ Ma 'arik Cup , Al @-@ Talaba reached the semi @-@ finals where they were beaten by Al @-@ Naft . In the third @-@ place match , Al @-@ Talaba defeated Al @-@ Mina 'a 3 – 1 . In the 1998 – 99 Asian Cup Winners ' Cup , they managed to reach the semi @-@ finals where they lost to Al @-@ Ittihad and they then lost the third @-@ place play @-@ off to Kashima Antlers . Al @-@ Talaba finished fourth in the 1999 – 2000 season with 100 points . They also finished in the same position in the 2000 – 01 season with 60 points . They finished in fourth place in the 1999 Umm Al @-@ Ma 'arik Cup after a 3 – 0 loss against Al @-@ Karkh in the third @-@ place play @-@ off . They qualified for the 2000 – 01 Asian Cup Winners ' Cup but were knocked out in the first round by Al @-@ Sadd on away goals . In addition , they reached the final of the 2000 Al @-@ Quds International Championship , but lost to Al @-@ Zawra 'a by 4 – 3 on penalties after a 1 – 1 draw .
= = = Thair Ahmed era ( 2001 – 2007 ) = = =
Al @-@ Talaba participated in the 2001 Al @-@ Wehdat Arabian Championship before the start of the 2001 – 02 season ; they played four games , winning one , drawing two and losing one , finishing third in the tournament . After eight years without winning the league and six years without any trophy , Thair Ahmed led Al @-@ Talaba to the 2001 – 02 championship with 91 points from 29 wins , four draws and five losses . They started the season by defeating Kirkuk FC 8 – 0 at Al Karkh Stadium , which is one of the biggest wins by Al @-@ Talaba , and ended it with a 6 – 0 win over Duhok at Al @-@ Shaab Stadium . They reached the final of the 2001 – 02 Umm Al @-@ Ma 'arik Cup , after defeating Al @-@ Karkh 1 – 0 in the semi @-@ finals , against Al @-@ Shorta where they lost with a single goal after extra time . Younis Mahmoud was the top goalscorer of the tournament . Al @-@ Talaba also won their first @-@ ever Iraq FA Cup that season , after meeting Al @-@ Shorta again in the final and defeating them with Qusay Hashim 's late 85th @-@ minute goal . Al @-@ Talaba also won the 2001 Baghdad Cup by defeating Al @-@ Zawra 'a 2 – 1 and won the 2002 Al @-@ Muthabara Cup against the league runners @-@ up , Al @-@ Quwa Al @-@ Jawiya , 2 – 1 after extra time .
Al @-@ Talaba finished as runners @-@ up in the 2002 – 03 season , finishing two points behind champions Al @-@ Shorta . In the 2002 – 03 Umm Al @-@ Ma 'arik Cup , they reached the final but were defeated 1 – 0 by Al @-@ Shorta . Al @-@ Talaba 's Ahmad Salah was named the best player of the tournament . They retained the Iraq FA Cup by defeating Al @-@ Mina 'a 1 – 0 with Alaa Kadhim 's goal in the closing minutes and then defeating Al @-@ Shorta in the final 1 – 0 at the Franso Hariri Stadium with Ahmad Salah 's goal in the 26th minute .
In the wake of the 2003 invasion of Iraq , all of Al @-@ Talaba 's matches in the 2003 – 04 season were postponed and then cancelled , except two games which they won against Al @-@ Sinaa before the league was abandoned for the season . Al @-@ Talaba were the runners @-@ up of the 2003 Baghdad Championship , defeating Al @-@ Shorta 2 – 1 in the semi @-@ finals and losing to Al @-@ Zawra 'a 5 – 4 on penalties after a 2 – 2 draw in the final , a match that saw three red cards in total . In the 2002 – 03 AFC Champions League , Al @-@ Talaba finished third in Group D with three points from three games after one win and two losses .
Al @-@ Talaba participated in the 2003 – 04 Arab Champions League , reaching the proper group stage where they finished in third place with three points . Before the start of the 2004 – 05 season , Al @-@ Talaba participated in the 2004 Damascus International Championship . They played three games in the tournament , winning two and losing one , being knocked out in the group stage . They also participated in the 2004 Tishreen Cup , one week after they were knocked out of the Damascus International Championship . In the Tishreen Cup , they finished top of their group to qualify for the semi @-@ finals . They defeated Tishreen SC 1 – 0 to reach the final , which they lost by 3 – 2 to fellow Iraqi club Al @-@ Zawra 'a . In the 2004 – 05 Iraqi Premier League , Al @-@ Talaba finished the first phase as leaders of Group Three with 28 points , having won eight matches , drawn four and lost four . They also became leaders of Group Two in the second phase with eight points , ahead of Al @-@ Naft who had seven points , after winning two matches and drawing two . In the semi @-@ finals , Al @-@ Talaba came up against Al @-@ Quwa Al @-@ Jawiya ; they were beaten in the first leg 1 – 0 and drew the second leg 2 – 2 . Al @-@ Talaba won the third @-@ place play @-@ off against Al @-@ Zawra 'a 4 – 2 on penalties after a 1 – 1 draw .
Al @-@ Talaba maintained their performance in the 2005 – 06 Iraqi Premier League by finishing the first phase as the leaders of Group Four with 24 points from seven wins , three draws and two losses . In the second phase , they finished in second place with seven points behind Al @-@ Quwa Al @-@ Jawiya , who had the same number of points but a better goal difference of + 4 against Al @-@ Talaba 's + 1 . In the last match of the second phase , Al @-@ Talaba faced Al @-@ Quwa Al @-@ Jawiya with a chance to retain the league leadership , but they lost 3 – 1 . From 2 – 9 September 2005 , Al @-@ Talaba participated in the 2005 Damascus International Championship , reaching the final against fellow Iraqi club Al @-@ Zawra 'a . Al @-@ Talaba won 5 – 4 on penalties . In the 2005 – 06 Arab Champions League , Al @-@ Talaba won their first round tie against Al @-@ Shabab by 3 – 1 in the first leg and 4 – 1 in the second leg . They faced Al @-@ Qadisiyah in the second round and were defeated 1 – 0 in the first leg and 2 – 1 in the second leg to be eliminated the competition .
On 30 November 2006 , the club 's president , Hadeeb Majhoul , was kidnapped by an unknown terrorist group in Baghdad and , after three days , his body was found in the morgue . The administrative board elected the team 's striker at the time , Alaa Kadhim , as the new interim president until the club 's elections in which he won with 93 votes out of 97 existing on 15 March 2007 . Alaa Khadim was the club 's player @-@ president through 2006 – 07 . Aged 35 at the end of the season , he retired from playing in order to focus on administrating the club .
Before the start of the 2006 – 07 season , Al @-@ Talaba participated in the 2006 Shabab Al @-@ Ordon Arab Championship , a tournament organised by Shabab Al @-@ Ordon Club . Al @-@ Talaba played three matches in the tournament and drew all three of them , being knocked out in the group stage . In the 2006 – 07 Iraqi Premier League , Al @-@ Talaba finished the first phase in second place with 13 points , behind Al @-@ Zawra 'a with 14 points , with three wins , four draws , and one loss . Al @-@ Talaba managed to finish second in the elite stage with eight points from two wins , two draws and one loss , just ahead of Karbalaa with seven points . In the semi @-@ finals , Al @-@ Talaba lost to Al @-@ Quwa Al @-@ Jawiya 2 – 0 and then lost 2 – 1 to Najaf FC in the third @-@ place play @-@ off .
= = = Instability and crisis ( 2007 – 2013 ) = = =
Before the start of the 2007 – 08 season , Al @-@ Talaba participated in the 2007 Press Club Championship , hosted in Syria . Al @-@ Talaba drew both of their group stage matches , finishing second in their group to qualify for the semi @-@ finals . In the semi @-@ final , they lost 3 – 1 against Nawair SC and were knocked out . Al @-@ Talaba considered withdrawing from the 2007 – 08 Iraqi Premier League due to a financial crisis that led to their players not being paid all their salaries on time , but eventually decided not to withdraw . Under the management of Karim Saddam , Nabil Zaki and Karim Salman , Al @-@ Talaba finished in fifth place in the first phase of the league with 36 points , having won nine matches , drew nine , and lost four . They played poorly in the second phase , ending the phase in third place in their group with seven points with only one win , four draws , and three losses . They were knocked out in the round of 32 in the 2007 – 08 Arab Champions League , losing 4 – 0 on aggregate to USM Alger . In the 2008 – 09 Iraqi Premier League , with Abdul Ghani Shahad as Al @-@ Talaba 's manager , they finished in third place in their group with 47 points , only three points behind Najaf FC , with 14 wins , five draws , and five losses .
In the 2009 – 10 Iraqi Premier League , under the management of Radhi Shenaishil , Al @-@ Talaba finished as the leaders of Group B in the first stage with 68 points , having won 19 matches , drew 11 , and lost four . They withdrew in the twelfth round due to a ruling from the Iraqi Olympic Committee where they were set to face Baghdad that awarded the win . In the elite stage , Al @-@ Talaba ended up in second place of Group One as the best runners @-@ up of the three groups where they had ten points , the same amount of points as the first place , Al @-@ Zawra 'a , but they had the goals difference of + 2 and Al @-@ Talaba the goals difference of + 1 . If either Al @-@ Quwa Al @-@ Jawiya had beaten Naft Al @-@ Janoob or Al @-@ Shorta had beaten Najaf FC , Al @-@ Talaba would not have qualified for the semi @-@ finals , but Jawiya drew 0 – 0 and Al @-@ Shorta drew 2 – 2 . In the semi @-@ finals , Al @-@ Talaba won 1 – 0 to Erbil in the first leg and drew with no goals in the second leg . They lost in the final to Duhok SC with a late goal in the 82nd minute .
With Yahya Alwan as their manager , Al @-@ Talaba had one of the worst seasons in their history in the 2010 – 11 Iraqi Premier League , finishing the season in eighth place of the Southern group with 38 points , only one point away from relegation , with nine wins , eleven draws , and six losses . In the 2011 AFC Cup , Al @-@ Talaba finished in third place in their group with five points , having won one match , drew two , and lost three , therefore they were knocked out at the group stage . In the 2011 – 12 Iraqi Premier League , Al @-@ Talaba with Jamal Ali , Khalaf Hassan , and Karim Salman as their consecutive managers , finished the season in fourth place with 68 points , winning in 19 matches , drawing in 11 , and losing in eight .
In the 2012 – 13 Iraqi Premier League , under the management of Nazar Ashraf , Al @-@ Talaba returned to their poor performance of the 2010 – 11 season , finishing in the 14th place with 35 points , only one point away from relegation , with only nine wins , eight draws , and 17 losses . They saved the club from being relegated in the 33rd round against Al @-@ Naft where they won 2 – 1 and also because of Al @-@ Kahraba 's loss to Zakho in the last round . Al @-@ Talaba passed the round of 32 of the 2012 – 13 Iraq FA Cup where they were up against Al @-@ Zawra 'a , drawing 0 – 0 in the first leg and winning 3 – 1 in the second leg before it was abandoned .
= = = Recent history ( 2013 – ) = = =
Al @-@ Talaba finished the 2013 – 14 Iraqi Premier League , under the management of Abdul @-@ Wahab Abu Al @-@ Hail , in eighth place with 31 points from 22 matches . The season after , Al @-@ Talaba finished in fifth place of Group Two with four wins , five draws , and seven losses before Abu Al @-@ Hail was sacked . In that season , they also participated in a friendly cup , the 2015 Baghdad Cup , which was played between the big four clubs of Baghdad . The mini @-@ tournament started at the semi @-@ final stage and each match was only 30 minutes long . Al @-@ Talaba were knocked out in the semi @-@ final by Al @-@ Zawra 'a , 4 – 2 on penalties after a 0 – 0 draw .
In June 2015 , the board signed Ayoub Odisho as the team 's new manager , 18 years after he first held the post in 1998 . The team also signed Younis Mahmoud , an Al @-@ Talaba Hall of Famer and the captain of the Iraq national team , twelve years after he left the club in 2004 , with a free contract to get ready for the 2015 – 16 season . The team finished the group stage in fourth place of Group One with 27 points with seven wins , six draws and four losses , getting qualified to the final stage , where they finished in third place with three wins , three draws and a loss .
= = Stadiums = =
In the 1980s , a stadium to hold 8 @,@ 000 spectators was built at Hai Al @-@ Qahira in Baghdad to host Al @-@ Talaba 's home matches . Al @-@ Talaba currently hold their training sessions at the University of Baghdad Stadium in Jadraya , Baghdad , 15 km away from their main stadium .
In early 2014 , the owner of the club , the Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research gave the project of building a new sports city to the Spanish company TriArena . They are constructing a main football stadium with a capacity of 16 @,@ 000 spectators and an area of 71 @,@ 150 m ² . The project also includes two tennis courts , a basketball court , a volleyball court , a fustal pitch , a handball court , a hotel , restaurants , and a covered swimming pool . Al @-@ Talaba is defined as a sports club , not just a football one , and it has supported other sports at minor level only in the past . The foundation stone was laid by the former minister of higher education and scientific research , Ali al @-@ Adeeb , in February 2014 . The cost of the project is estimated to be $ 84 million and the duration of construction was expected to be 30 months , meaning that by 2017 the Al @-@ Talaba Sports City should be open . Due to the financial crisis in Iraq , the the project was scratched after spending $ 4 million on designs .
= = Rivalries = =
Al @-@ Talaba is one of the four " Popular Teams " in Baghdad , the others being Al @-@ Zawra 'a , Al @-@ Quwa Al @-@ Jawiya and Al @-@ Shorta . All the four Popular Teams have rivalries with each other . Al @-@ Talaba 's arch rivals are Al @-@ Zawra 'a and Al @-@ Quwa Al @-@ Jawiya because of their constant battles to win the Iraqi Premier League over the years .
= = Statistics = =
= = = Recent seasons = = =
The season @-@ by @-@ season performance of the club over the recent years :
As of 21 May 2016 . Rank |
= Rank in the league ; P =
Played ; W |
= Win ; D =
Draw ; L |
= Loss ; F =
Goals for ; A |
= Goals against ; GD =
Goal difference ; Pts |
= Points ; Cup =
Iraq FA Cup.in |
= Still in competition ; — =
Not attended ; 1R |
= 1st round ; 2R =
2nd round ; 3R |
= 3rd round ; R16 =
Round of sixteen ; QF |
= Quarterfinals ; SF =
Semifinals .
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= Homer 's Phobia =
" Homer 's Phobia " is the fifteenth episode of the eighth season of the American animated television series The Simpsons . It first aired on the Fox network in the United States on February 16 , 1997 . In the episode , Homer dissociates himself from new family friend John after discovering that John is gay . Homer fears that John will have a negative influence on his son Bart and decides to ensure Bart 's heterosexuality by taking him hunting .
It was the first episode written by Ron Hauge and was directed by Mike B. Anderson . George Meyer pitched " Bart the homo " as an initial idea for an episode while show runners Bill Oakley and Josh Weinstein were planning an episode involving Lisa " discovering the joys of campy things " . Oakley and Weinstein combined the two ideas and they eventually became " Homer 's Phobia " . Fox censors originally found the episode unsuitable for broadcast because of its controversial subject matter , but this decision was reversed after a turnover in the Fox staff . Filmmaker John Waters guest @-@ starred , providing the voice of the new character , John .
" Homer 's Phobia " was the show 's first episode to revolve entirely around gay themes and received a positive critical response both for its humor and anti @-@ homophobia message . It won four awards , including an Emmy Award for Outstanding Animated Program ( For Programming One Hour or Less ) and a GLAAD Media Award for " Outstanding TV – Individual Episode " .
= = Plot = =
Needing money to pay for a repair after Bart damages the gas line , the Simpson family visits " Cockamamie 's " , an offbeat collectibles shop , hoping that it will purchase one of the family 's heirlooms ( an " authentic " civil war doll which turns out to be a decorative liquor bottle ) . Homer meets John , the antiques dealer , who explains that much of the merchandise is there because of its camp value . Bart and Lisa take an instant liking to John , and Homer invites him to the Simpsons ' house to see the campy items that the family owns . The next morning , Homer tells Marge that he likes John and suggests they invite him and " his wife " over for a drink some time . Marge tries to hint repeatedly to an oblivious Homer that John is gay , and when she eventually can 't she tells him face to face and Homer is horrified . Homer 's attitude towards John changes completely , and he turns against him , refusing to join his tour of Springfield . The rest of the family joins John and has a good time , but Homer is upset with the family upon their return . The rest of the Simpson family continue to enjoy John 's company , especially Bart , who starts wearing Hawaiian shirts and dancing in a woman 's wig . This makes Homer uneasy , and he begins to fear Bart is gay .
Homer endeavors to make Bart more masculine by forcing him to look at a cigarette billboard featuring scantily clad women in hopes Bart will be attracted to girls , but instead Bart gets the urge to smoke " anything slim . " Homer then escorts him to see a steel mill to show Bart a manly environment ; however , much to his surprise and dismay , the entire workforce is gay , and during their breaks they turn the mill into " The Anvil " , a gay disco . A desperate Homer insists on taking Bart deer hunting with Moe and Barney . When they cannot find any deer , they decide instead to go to " Santa 's Village " and shoot the reindeer in the corral , despite a tearful Bart being reluctant to do so . This backfires when the reindeer attack them . John , with the help of Lisa and Marge , uses a Japanese Santa Claus robot to scare off the reindeer and save the hunting party . Homer accepts John , more or less , and tells Bart , who is still unaware of his father 's concerns , that any way he lives his life is fine with him . After Lisa informs Bart that Homer thinks he is gay , Bart is stunned . The episode ends with everyone driving off in John 's car .
Just before the end credits a dedication to the steelworkers of America is shown , reading " Keep reaching for that rainbow ! "
= = Production = =
The original concept for the episode came from a few lines of show ideas written by George Meyer . One of them read " Bart the homo " , and Ron Hauge was selected to write the episode , with the story stemming from that line . The idea of using filmmaker John Waters as a guest star had been around for a while . Many of the staff were fans of his work , and showrunners Bill Oakley and Josh Weinstein had planned to use him in an episode called " Lisa and Camp " , which revolved around Lisa " discovering the joys of campy things " . Their idea was combined with Meyer 's and it became this episode . The episode was originally titled " Bart Goes to Camp " , but was renamed because the joke was too oblique . Mike B. Anderson directed the episode , telling The Gold Coast Bulletin : " When I read the script I was enthralled , not only because of the visual possibilities , but also because the story felt very solid . It was engaging and surprising and I really put heart into that episode . "
Waters accepted his invitation to be a guest star instantly , stating that if it was good enough for the actress Elizabeth Taylor , who appeared in the season four episodes " Lisa 's First Word " and " Krusty Gets Kancelled " , it was good enough for him . He joked , however , about a negative reaction if his character would be made to look like fitness personality Richard Simmons . John 's design was based largely on Waters ' own appearance ; for animation reasons , Waters moustache was changed from straight to curvy , so that it did not look like a mistake . As thanks for his performance , the show 's staff sent Waters an animation cel from the episode , which he now has hanging in his office .
According to Oakley , the Fox censor objected to " Homer 's Phobia " being aired . The normal procedure is for an episode 's script to be sent to the censor and then faxed back with a list of lines and words that should be substituted . However this episode came back with two pages of notes about almost every single line in the show . The censors stated that they did not like the use of the word " gay " , or the discussion of homosexuality at all , and closed with a paragraph which stated that " the topic and substance of this episode are unacceptable for broadcast " . Usually the censor notes are ignored as the offending lines and problems are dealt with after the episode has been animated . In this case the entire episode was deemed a problem , so it could not be solved in this way . The staff asked Waters if he thought the gay community would find the episode offensive . Homer 's use of the word " fag " to insult John was his only problem , so the writers changed it to " queer " . The censor problems ultimately came to nothing as when the episode came back from animation in South Korea , the then @-@ Fox president had just been fired and replaced , with the censors being replaced as well . The new censors sent back merely one line : " acceptable for broadcast " .
The " gay steel mill " scene was written by Steve Tompkins . He first pitched that Homer and Bart would encounter longshoremen , but it was too much work to animate the lading of ships , so a steel mill was used instead . Tompkins also wrote a different third act for the episode , which was never produced . Instead of Homer , Bart , Barney and Moe going deer hunting and ending up at " Santa 's Village " they would go back to the steel mill . There , Homer would attempt to prove his heterosexuality by having a human tractor pulling contest with some of the steel mill workers . It was decided that it " didn 't really service the story " and was dropped .
= = Cultural references = =
The episode features numerous cultural references . The song " Gonna Make You Sweat ( Everybody Dance Now ) " by C + C Music Factory is played twice during the episode : first as the steel mill transforms into a disco , and second over the closing credits . Homer 's record collection includes music by The New Christy Minstrels and The Wedding of Lynda Bird Johnson , the albums Loony Luau and Ballad of the Green Berets by Staff Sgt. Barry Sadler . The song that John picks out and he and Homer dance to is " I Love the Nightlife " by Alicia Bridges , and the song that Bart dances to is " The Shoop Shoop Song ( It 's in His Kiss ) " by Betty Everett . When John is introduced there is a plastic pink flamingo lying in the background , a reference to John Waters 's film Pink Flamingos . Items in John 's store include several buttons endorsing political campaigns of Richard Nixon , Dan Quayle and Bob Dole as well as an issue of TV Guide owned by Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis which features the title characters from the sitcom Laverne & Shirley on the cover . When John takes the Simpson family on a driving tour of Springfield 's shopping district , he points out a store where he claims that the Mexican film actress Lupe Vélez bought the toilet she drowned in . This is a reference to the urban legend that Velez was found dead with her head in the toilet the night of her suicide in 1944 .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings and awards = = =
In its original American broadcast , " Homer 's Phobia " finished tied for 47th place in the weekly ratings for the week of February 10 – 16 , 1997 with a Nielsen rating of 8 @.@ 7 . It was the fourth @-@ highest @-@ rated show on the Fox Network that week . The episode won the Emmy Award for Outstanding Animated Program ( For Programming One Hour or Less ) in 1997 . Mike Anderson won the Annie Award for Best Individual Achievement : Directing in a TV Production , and the WAC Award for Best Director for Primetime Series at the 1998 World Animation Celebration . Gay and Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation called it " a shining example of how to bring intelligent , fair and funny representations of our community onto television " and awarded it the GLAAD Media Award for Outstanding TV – Individual Episode . Several of the episode 's animation cels were selected for display at the Silver K Gallery in Melbourne , Australia in 2001 .
= = = Critical reviews and analysis = = =
" Homer 's Phobia " has been cited as a significant part of The Simpsons ' exploration of lesbian , gay , bisexual , and transgender ( LGBT ) themes . The series made several references to homosexuality before the episode aired . In the 1990 episode " Simpson and Delilah " , the character Karl ( voiced by Harvey Fierstein ) kisses Homer , while the recurring character Waylon Smithers is often shown to be in love with his boss , Montgomery Burns , initially suggestively and since then more overtly . However , " Homer 's Phobia " was the first episode to revolve entirely around homosexual themes . Two later episodes that explored LGBT issues were " Three Gays of the Condo " and " There 's Something About Marrying " .
When the episode aired , the production team received " very few " complaints about its content , with most of the response being positive . Alan Frutkin gave the episode a positive write @-@ up in the LGBT @-@ interest magazine The Advocate , calling it " vintage Simpsons . " Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood stated in their book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , that : " Only The Simpsons could do this so tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek that nobody could get in a tizzy about it . Very good indeed . " In the book Leaving Springfield , Matthew Henry praised the episode 's critiquing of " the most common misconception about homosexuality : namely that gayness is somehow contagious " , as well as its other themes . Catharine Lumby of the University of Sydney cited the episode as an example of good satire as it " managed to explore a lot of [ homosexual ] issues in quite a deep way [ ... ] without being overtly political " , which she claimed , along with the episode 's humor , made its anti @-@ homophobia message more successful than that of other gay @-@ themed shows like Queer as Folk . In his review of The Simpsons – The Complete Eighth Season DVD , Todd Gilchrist said that " Homer 's Phobia " " certainly qualifies as one of the all @-@ time greatest episodes . "
It was placed fifth on Entertainment Weekly 's top 25 The Simpsons episode list . In 2003 , USA Today published a top 10 chosen by the webmaster of The Simpsons Archive , which had this episode listed in tenth place , and it was again placed tenth on AskMen.com 's " Top 10 : Simpsons Episodes " list . IGN.com ranked John Waters 's performance as the ninth @-@ best guest appearance in the show 's history , with TV Guide naming him the third @-@ best film related guest star . In a 2008 article , Entertainment Weekly named Waters as one of the 16 best Simpsons guest stars . John Patterson of The Guardian wrote that Waters ' appearance " felt to me like a summit meeting between the most influential pop @-@ culture figures of the last 25 years . "
In 2002 , Off the Telly writers Steve Williams and Ian Jones named " Homer 's Phobia " one of the five worst episodes of The Simpsons , stating that it " leaves such a nasty taste in the mouth " , as Homer is " quite simply a bastard " throughout the course of the episode . The pair concluded by saying " this is a side of the show we 'd not seen before , nor particularly wanted to see . " In June 2003 , Igor Smykov sued the Russian television channel REN TV on claims that The Simpsons , along with Family Guy , were " morally degenerate and promoted drugs , violence and homosexuality . " As evidence , " Homer 's Phobia " was shown to the judge to prove that The Simpsons promoted homosexuality , and thus should not be aired again on the channel . The case was thrown out after one day .
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= April 23 , 1998 Albanian – Yugoslav border ambush =
On the morning of April 23 , 1998 a band of Kosovo Liberation Army ( KLA ) fighters was ambushed by a much smaller group of Yugoslav Army ( VJ ) border guards near the Košare outpost , just west of Dečani . The fighters had been trying to smuggle weapons and supplies into Kosovo via northern Albania . Nineteen were killed in the ensuing attack , and a further two were captured . The VJ did not sustain any casualties . Some of the militants retreated back to Albania , while others managed to break through the ambush and make it past the Yugoslav border , into Kosovo . Following the clash , the VJ confiscated a large quantity of arms that the militants had been transporting .
Villagers in northern Albania and western Kosovo reported hearing explosions in the vicinity of the ambush and seeing helicopters flying overhead for much of the following day . Albanian officials later alleged that two of these helicopters had violated the country 's airspace , and Albania moved elite army units to the Yugoslav border in response . Yugoslav authorities accused Albania of backing the KLA . In response to the ambush , U.S. officials indicated that they would push for sanctions to be re @-@ implemented against Yugoslavia , and said they would look to freeze the country 's assets overseas . Some Albanian sources alleged that the men had not been ambushed , rather they were abducted and killed by Yugoslav security forces . Such claims could not be verified by Western journalists , and later that year , Amnesty International affirmed that the men were killed in an ambush while smuggling weapons across the border .
= = Background = =
Following World War II , Kosovo was given the status of an autonomous province within the Socialist Republic of Serbia , one of six constitutional republics of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia . After the death of Yugoslavia 's long @-@ time leader Josip Broz Tito in 1980 , Yugoslavia 's political system began to unravel . In 1989 , Belgrade revoked Kosovo 's autonomy . Kosovo , a province inhabited predominantly by ethnic Albanians , was of great historical and cultural significance to Serbs , who had formed a majority there before the mid @-@ 19th century , but by 1990 represented only about 10 percent of the population . Alarmed by their dwindling numbers , the province 's Serbs began to fear that they were being " squeezed out " by the Albanians , and ethnic tensions worsened . As soon as Kosovo 's autonomy was abolished , a minority government run by Serbs and Montenegrins was appointed by Serbian President Slobodan Milošević to oversee the province , enforced by thousands of heavily armed paramilitaries from Serbia @-@ proper . Albanian culture was systematically repressed and hundreds of thousands of Albanians working in state @-@ owned companies lost their jobs .
In 1996 , a ragtag group of Albanian nationalists calling themselves the Kosovo Liberation Army ( KLA ) began attacking the Yugoslav Army ( Serbo @-@ Croatian : Vojska Jugoslavije ; VJ ) and the Serbian Ministry of Internal Affairs ( Serbo @-@ Croatian : Ministarstvo unutrašnjih poslova ; MUP ) in Kosovo . Their goal was to separate the province from the rest of Yugoslavia , which following the secession of Slovenia , Croatia , Macedonia and Bosnia @-@ Herzegovina in 1991 – 92 , was just a rump federation consisting of Serbia and Montenegro . At first , the KLA carried out hit @-@ and @-@ run attacks ( 31 in 1996 , 55 in 1997 , and 66 in January and February 1998 alone ) . It quickly gained popularity among young Kosovo Albanians , many of whom rejected the non @-@ violent resistance to Yugoslav authorities advocated by the politician Ibrahim Rugova and favoured a more aggressive approach . The organization received a significant boost in 1997 , when an armed uprising in neighbouring Albania led to thousands of weapons from the Albanian Army 's depots being looted . Many of these weapons ended up in the hands of the KLA , which already had substantial resources due its involvement in the trafficking of drugs , weapons and people , as well as through donations from the Albanian diaspora . Cross @-@ border arms smuggling flourished ; the unit charged with securing the Yugoslav border was the 549th Motorized Brigade , under the command of General Božidar Delić .
The KLA 's popularity skyrocketed after the VJ and MUP attacked the compound of KLA leader Adem Jashari in March 1998 , killing him , his closest associates and most of his family . The attack motivated thousands of young Kosovo Albanians to join the ranks of the KLA , fueling the Kosovar uprising that eventually erupted in the spring of 1998 .
= = Timeline = =
= = = Clash = = =
According to Delić , at 05 : 45 on the morning of April 23 , soldiers of the 53rd Border Battalion of the 549th Motorized Brigade encountered a group of 150 – 200 militants near the Košare outpost attempting to illegally enter Kosovo via northern Albania , just west of Dečani . Rebels had been massing at the Albanian – Yugoslav border for some time in anticipation of a renewed VJ offensive . Yugoslav authorities stated that the militants were " armed infiltrators " who had been undergoing training in military camps in Albania , and were attempting to smuggle weapons into Kosovo . According to Delić , the border patrol was greatly outnumbered by the militants . Armed with howitzers and rocket launchers , the patrol ambushed the armed group , sparking an intense exchange of fire . Clashes reportedly lasted all night , and the Kosovo Albanian residents of the border village of Batuša reported artillery fire and helicopters flying overhead the following day .
The VJ reported suffering no casualties in the clash . Nineteen militants were killed , one was wounded and a further two were captured . It was the single deadliest war @-@ related incident in Kosovo since the attack against Jashari 's compound the previous month . Initial reports suggested that anywhere between 16 and 23 militants had been killed . Nine of the fallen militants were from the village of Erec , near Dečani , about 9 @.@ 7 kilometres ( 6 @.@ 0 mi ) from the Albanian border . Delić identified the captured militants as Gazmend Tahiraj ( an English professor from Erec ; b . 1970 ) and Ibër Metaj ( an agricultural technician from Erec ; b . 1961 ) . The remaining militants either managed to break through the ambush and reach Kosovo , or fled back to Albania , according to Delić . Footage taken by the military , and later broadcast on Yugoslav television , showed a field strewn with guns , ammunition and the bodies of three militants . The VJ reported seizing 4 tonnes ( 3 @.@ 9 long tons ; 4 @.@ 4 short tons ) of weapons and ammunition , including 120 cases of landmines .
= = = Aftermath = = =
During Milošević 's trial at the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia , Delić testified that an investigative judge from Niš visited the Košare outpost shortly after fighting had ceased , and conducted an on @-@ site investigation . Journalists were not allowed to visit the site due to " security concerns " . On April 24 , Western reporters saw VJ personnel digging mortar positions south of Dečani , about 24 kilometres ( 15 mi ) from the Albanian border . The troops said they had been exchanging gunfire with the rebels over the previous two days .
The U.S. State Department acknowledged that it had received reports of " myriad deaths " along the Albanian border . State Department spokesman James Rubin called the situation in Kosovo " quite troubling , extremely dangerous . " U.S. officials said they would push for a freeze on Yugoslavia 's overseas assets and an international ban on foreign trade with the country in response to the violence . In turn , the Yugoslav military issued a statement requesting that the West put pressure on Kosovo Albanian leaders " to give up and denounce terrorism if they truly wanted a peaceful and political solution to Kosovo 's problems . " The statement also accused Albania of " training , infiltrating and illegally arming the terrorists , " and demanded that the West pressure the country to desist from such activities . Albania denied supporting the KLA insurgency , and alleged that two Yugoslav helicopters had violated its airspace . Yugoslavia denied that there had been any violations . Consequently , the Albanian Army and police were placed on high alert , and the country stationed elite troops along its border .
On April 27 , nine of the fallen militants were buried in Erec . Some 400 ethnic Albanians attended their funerals . The dead ranged in age from seventeen to forty @-@ five years old . Villagers claimed that some of the dead had been arrested days before their deaths and thus could not have been ambushed , as the Yugoslav authorities claimed . Such claims could not be independently verified by Western reporters . In a 1998 report , Amnesty International affirmed that the 19 men had been killed in an ambush while trying to smuggle weapons into Kosovo .
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= Ryan Gosling =
Ryan Thomas Gosling ( born November 12 , 1980 ) is a Canadian actor , musician , and producer . He began his career as a child star on the Disney Channel 's Mickey Mouse Club ( 1993 – 95 ) and went on to appear in other family entertainment programs including Are You Afraid of the Dark ? ( 1995 ) and Goosebumps ( 1996 ) . He starred in the television series Breaker High ( 1997 – 98 ) as Sean Hanlon and Young Hercules ( 1998 – 99 ) as the title role . His first starring role was as a Jewish neo @-@ Nazi in The Believer ( 2001 ) , and he then built a reputation for starring in independent films such as Murder by Numbers ( 2002 ) , The Slaughter Rule ( 2002 ) , and The United States of Leland ( 2003 ) .
Gosling came to the attention of a wider audience in 2004 with a leading role in the romantic drama The Notebook , for which he won four Teen Choice Awards and an MTV Movie Award . His performance as a drug @-@ addicted teacher in Half Nelson ( 2006 ) was nominated for an Academy Award and his performance as a socially inept loner in Lars and the Real Girl ( 2007 ) was nominated for a Golden Globe Award . Also in 2007 , he starred in the courtroom thriller Fracture . After a three @-@ year acting hiatus , Gosling starred in Blue Valentine , earning him a second Golden Globe nomination . 2011 proved to be a landmark year for Gosling as he co @-@ starred in three mainstream films – the romantic comedy @-@ drama Crazy , Stupid , Love , the political drama The Ides of March and the action thriller Drive – and received two Golden Globe nominations . In 2013 , he starred in the crime thriller Gangster Squad , the generational drama The Place Beyond the Pines , and the violent revenge film Only God Forgives . His directorial debut Lost River was released in 2014 . In 2015 , he joined an ensemble cast for the financial drama The Big Short .
Gosling 's band , Dead Man 's Bones , released their self @-@ titled debut album and toured North America in 2009 . He is a co @-@ owner of Tagine , a Moroccan restaurant in Beverly Hills , California . He is a supporter of PETA , Invisible Children and the Enough Project and has travelled to Chad , Uganda and eastern Congo to raise awareness about conflicts in the regions .
= = Early life = =
Ryan Thomas Gosling was born in London , Ontario , to Thomas Ray Gosling , a travelling salesman for a paper mill , and Donna , a secretary who qualified as a high school teacher in 2011 . His father is of English , Scottish , and French Canadian descent ; Ryan 's great @-@ great grandfather , George Edward Gosling , was born in Paddington , London , England . Gosling 's parents were Mormons , and Gosling has said that the religion influenced every aspect of their lives . Because of his father 's work , they " moved around a lot " and Gosling lived in both Cornwall , Ontario , and Burlington , Ontario . His parents divorced when he was 13 , and he and his older sister Mandi lived with their mother , an experience Gosling has credited with programming him " to think like a girl " .
Gosling was educated at Gladstone Public School , Cornwall Collegiate and Vocational School and Lester B. Pearson High School . As a child , he watched Dick Tracy and was inspired to become an actor . He " hated " being a child , was bullied in elementary school and had no friends until he was " 14 or 15 " . In the first grade , having been heavily influenced by the action film First Blood , he took steak knives to school and threw them at other children during recess . This incident led to a suspension . He was unable to read and was diagnosed with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder ( ADHD ) , prescribed Ritalin , and placed in a class for special @-@ needs students . Consequently , his mother quit her job and homeschooled him for a year . Gosling has said that homeschooling gave him " a sense of autonomy that I 've never really lost " . Gosling performed from an early age . He showed interest in performing when his sister was a performer . He and his sister sang together at weddings ; he performed with Elvis Perry , his uncle 's Elvis Presley tribute act , and was involved with a local ballet company . Performing boosted his self @-@ confidence as it was the only thing he received praise for . He developed an idiosyncratic accent because , as a child , he thought having a Canadian accent did not sound " tough " . He began to model his accent on that of Marlon Brando . He dropped out of high school at the age of seventeen to focus on his acting career .
= = Acting career = =
= = = Child actor ( 1993 – 1999 ) = = =
In 1993 , at the age of 12 , Gosling attended an open audition in Montreal for a revival of Disney Channel 's Mickey Mouse Club . He was given a two @-@ year contract as a mouseketeer and moved to Orlando , Florida . He appeared on @-@ screen infrequently because other children were considered more talented . Nonetheless , he has described the job as the greatest two years of his life . Fellow cast members included Justin Timberlake , Britney Spears , and Christina Aguilera . Gosling has credited the experience with instilling in them " this great sense of focus . " He became particularly close friends with Timberlake and they lived together for six months during the second year of the show . Timberlake 's mother became Gosling 's legal guardian after his mother returned to Canada for work reasons . Gosling has said that , even though he and Timberlake are no longer in touch , they are still supportive of each other . Following the show 's cancellation in 1995 , Gosling returned to Canada and continued to appear in family entertainment television series including Are You Afraid of the Dark ? ( 1995 ) , Goosebumps ( 1996 ) and starred in Breaker High ( 1997 – 98 ) as Sean Hanlon . At the age of 18 , he moved to New Zealand to film the Fox Kids adventure series Young Hercules ( 1998 – 99 ) as the title character . In 2002 , he told the Vancouver Sun that he initially enjoyed working on the show , but began to care too much about the series , so it was no longer fun for him . He wanted to spend more time sitting with and devising a character as well as play a variety of roles , so he chose to enter film and not accept any more television work .
= = = Move to independent film ( 2000 – 2003 ) = = =
At the age of nineteen , Gosling decided to move into " serious acting " . He was dropped by his agent and initially found it difficult to secure work because of the " stigma " attached to children 's television . After a supporting role in the football drama Remember the Titans , Gosling secured a lead role as a young Jewish neo @-@ Nazi in 2001 's The Believer . Director Henry Bean said he cast Gosling because his Mormon upbringing helped him understand the isolation of Judaism . Kevin Thomas of the Los Angeles Times praised an " electrifying and terrifyingly convincing " performance while Todd McCarthy of Variety felt his " dynamite performance " could " scarcely have been better " . The film won the Grand Jury Prize at the Sundance Film Festival and Gosling has described it as " the film that kind of gift @-@ wrapped for me the career that I have now . " Because of the controversial nature of the film , it was difficult to secure financial backing for a full theatrical release and the film was instead broadcast on Showtime . The film was a commercial failure , grossing just $ 416 @,@ 925 worldwide from a production budget of $ 1 @.@ 5 million .
In 2002 , Gosling co @-@ starred in the psychological thriller Murder by Numbers with Sandra Bullock and Michael Pitt , where Gosling and Pitt portrayed a pair of high school seniors who believe they can commit the perfect murder . Bullock played the detective tasked with investigating the crime . Lisa Schwarzbaum of Entertainment Weekly described him as " a phenomenal talent even in junk like this " while Todd McCarthy of Variety felt that the " strong and " charismatic " young actors were " let down by the screenplay " . The film was a minor commercial success , grossing $ 56 million worldwide from a production budget of $ 50 million . His second screen appearance of 2002 was in The Slaughter Rule with David Morse which explores the relationship between a high school football player and his troubled coach in rural Montana . Gosling has said that the opportunity to work with Morse made him " a better actor " . Stephen Holden of The New York Times described Gosling as " major star material " with a " rawness and an intensity that recall the young Matt Dillon " while Manohla Dargis of the Los Angeles Times was won over by his " raw talent " . The film was released in just three US theatres and grossed $ 13 @,@ 411 . In 2003 , Gosling starred in The United States of Leland as a teenager imprisoned for the murder of a disabled boy . He was drawn to the role because it was unusual to find a character that was " emotionally disconnected for the whole film . " Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times felt that the " gifted actor does everything that can be done with Leland , but the character comes from a writer 's conceits , not from life . " A.O. Scott of The New York Times noted that he " struggles to rescue Leland from the clutches of cliché " while David Rooney of Variety felt that his " one @-@ note , blankly disturbed act has none of the magnetic edge of his breakthrough work in The Believer " . The film grossed $ 343 @,@ 847 in the United States and was not released overseas .
= = = The Notebook and Half Nelson ( 2004 – 2009 ) = = =
Gosling came to the attention of a mainstream audience in 2004 after starring opposite fellow Canadian Rachel McAdams in the romantic drama film The Notebook , a film adaptation of Nicholas Sparks ' novel of the same name , directed by Nick Cassavetes . Gosling portrayed Noah Calhoun and commented on the role : " It gave me an opportunity to play a character over a period of time – from 1940 to 1946 – that was quite profound and formative . " Gosling sought to imbue his character with " quiet strength " and was inspired by the performance of Sam Shepard in Days of Heaven . Shepard co @-@ starred in The Notebook . Filming took place in Charleston , South Carolina , in late 2002 and early 2003 . Although Gosling and McAdams became romantically involved in 2005 , they had a combative relationship on the set . " We inspired the worst in each other , " Gosling has said . " It was a strange experience , making a love story and not getting along with your co @-@ star in any way . " At one point , Gosling asked Cassavetes to " bring somebody else in for my off @-@ camera shot " because he felt McAdams was uncooperative . The New York Times praised the " spontaneous and combustible " performances of the two leads and noted that , " against your better judgment , you root for the pair to beat the odds against them . " Desson Thomson of The Washington Post praised Gosling 's " beguiling unaffectedness " and noted that " it 's hard not to like these two or begrudge them a great love together " . The film grossed over $ 115 million worldwide and , with adjustments for inflation , it remains the most commercially successful film of Gosling 's career as of 2012 . Gosling won four Teen Choice Awards and an MTV Movie Award . Entertainment Weekly has said that the movie contains the All @-@ Time Best Movie Kiss while the Los Angeles Times has included a scene from the film in a list of the 50 Classic Movie Kisses . The Notebook has appeared on many Most Romantic Movies lists .
In 2005 , Gosling appeared as a disturbed young art student in Stay , a psychological thriller film co @-@ starring Naomi Watts and Ewan McGregor . In an uncomplimentary review of the film , Manohla Dargis of The New York Times said that Gosling " like his fans , deserves better . " Todd McCarthy of Variety felt that the " capable " McGregor and Gosling " deliver nothing new from what they 've shown before " . The film grossed $ 8 million worldwide . Gosling was unfazed by the negative reaction : " I had a kid come up to me on the street , 10 years old , and he says , ' Are you that guy from Stay ? What the f--- was that movie about ? ' I think that 's great . I 'm just as proud if someone says , ' Hey , you made me sick in that movie , ' as if they say I made them cry . ” Gosling next starred in 2006 's Half Nelson as a drug @-@ addicted junior high school teacher who forms a bond with a young student . To prepare for the role , Gosling moved to New York for one month before shooting began . He lived in a small apartment in Brooklyn and spent time shadowing an eighth grade teacher . Kenneth Turan of the Los Angeles Times described " a mesmerizing performance ... that shows the kind of deep understanding of character few actors manage . " Ruthe Stein of the San Francisco Chronicle drew comparisons with Marlon Brando and declared that " nobody who cares about great acting will want to miss his performance " . Roger Ebert felt the performance " proves he 's one of the finest actors working in contemporary movies . " He was nominated for an Academy Award . The film grossed $ 4 million at the worldwide box office . In 2007 , he was invited to join the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences .
Gosling played an introvert who falls in love with a sex doll in the 2007 film Lars and the Real Girl . He drew inspiration from James Stewart 's performance in Harvey . Roger Ebert felt " a film about a life @-@ sized love doll " had been turned into " a life @-@ affirming statement of hope " because of " a performance by Ryan Gosling that says things that cannot be said " . Ann Hornaday of The Washington Post described his performance as " a small miracle ... because he changes and grows so imperceptibly before our eyes . " However , Manohla Dargis of The New York Times felt " the performance is a rare miscalculation in a mostly brilliant career . " He was nominated for a Golden Globe Award for Best Actor - Motion Picture Musical or Comedy . The film was a box office failure , failing to recoup its $ 12 million production budget . Gosling starred opposite Anthony Hopkins in the 2007 courtroom thriller Fracture . He originally turned down the role , but changed his mind when Hopkins signed on . Gosling noted that he was drawn to his character , Willie , because he had flaws and seemed like a real person . He spent time shadowing lawyers and observing courtroom proceedings in preparation for the role . Claudia Puig of USA Today declared that " watching a veteran like Hopkins verbally joust with one of the best young actors in Hollywood is worth the price of admission " . Manohla Dargis of The New York Times felt it was a treat to watch " the spectacle of that crafty scene stealer Anthony Hopkins mixing it up with that equally cunning screen nibbler Ryan Gosling ... Each actor is playing a pulp type rather than a fully formed individual , but both fill in the blanks with an alchemical mix of professional and personal charisma . " The film grossed over $ 91 million worldwide .
Gosling was scheduled to begin filming The Lovely Bones in 2007 . However , he left the production two days before filming began because of " creative differences " and was replaced by Mark Wahlberg . Gosling had been cast as the father of the murdered teenage girl and initially felt he was too young for the role . The director Peter Jackson and the producer Fran Walsh persuaded him that he could be aged with hair and make @-@ up changes . Before shooting began , Gosling gained 60 pounds in weight and grew a beard to appear older . Walsh then " began to feel he was not right . It was our blindness , the desire to make it work no matter what . " Gosling later said , " We didn 't talk very much during the preproduction process , which was the problem ... I just showed up on set , and I had gotten it wrong . Then I was fat and unemployed . " He has said the experience was " an important realisation for me : not to let your ego get involved . It 's OK to be too young for a role . "
= = = Widespread recognition ( 2010 – 2012 ) = = =
Following a three @-@ year absence from the big screen , Gosling starred in five movies in 2010 and 2011 . " I ’ ve never had more energy , ” Gosling has said . “ I ’ m more excited to make films than I used to be . I used to kind of dread it . It was so emotional and taxing . But I ’ ve found a way to have fun while doing it . And I think that translates into the films . ” He has also spoken of feeling depressed when not working . In 2010 , he co @-@ starred with Michelle Williams in Derek Cianfrance 's directorial debut , the marital drama Blue Valentine . The low @-@ budget film was mainly improvised and Gosling has said " you had to remind yourself you were making a film " . Mick LaSalle of the San Francisco Chronicle felt he " brings a preternatural understanding of people to his performance " while A.O. Scott of The New York Times found him " convincing as the run @-@ down , desperate , older Dean , and maybe a bit less so as the younger version " . Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly noted that he " plays Dean as a snarky working @-@ class hipster , but when his anger is unleashed , the performance turns powerful . " However , Wesley Morris of The Boston Globe felt the performance was an example of " hipsterism misdirected " . He was nominated for a Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Drama . The film was a box office success , grossing over $ 12 million worldwide from a production budget of $ 1 million . Gosling 's second on @-@ screen appearance of 2010 was in the mystery film All Good Things with Kirsten Dunst , based on a true story . He played the role of New York real @-@ estate heir Robert Durst , who was investigated for the disappearance of his wife ( played by Dunst ) . Gosling found the filming process to be a " dark experience " and did not undertake any promotional duties for the film . When asked if he was proud of the film , he replied , " I 'm proud of what Kirsten does in the movie . " Peter Travers of Rolling Stone felt he " gets so deep into character you can feel his nerve endings . " Mick La Salle of the San Francisco Chronicle found the " chameleonic Gosling is completely convincing as this empty shell of a man " . Betsy Sharkey of the Los Angeles Times felt that the film belonged to Dunst , but noted that Gosling " is good too " . The film grossed $ 644 @,@ 535 worldwide . Also in 2010 , Gosling narrated and produced ReGeneration , a documentary that explores the cynicism in today ’ s youth towards social and political causes .
2011 saw Gosling expand his horizons by appearing in three diverse , high @-@ profile roles . He co @-@ starred in his first comedic role in the romantic comedy @-@ drama Crazy , Stupid , Love , with Steve Carell and Emma Stone . Gosling took cocktail @-@ making classes at a Los Angeles bar in preparation for his role as a smooth @-@ talking ladies ' man . Ann Hornaday of The Washington Post said his " seductive command presence suggests we may have found our next George Clooney " . Peter Travers declared him " a comic knockout " while Claudia Puig of USA Today felt he reveals a " surprising " " knack for comedy . " He was nominated for a Golden Globe Award for Best Actor - Motion Picture Musical or Comedy . The film was a box office success , grossing over $ 142 million worldwide . With adjustments for inflation , it is the second most successful of Gosling 's career . Gosling 's first action role was in Drive , based on a novel by James Sallis . Gosling portrayed a Hollywood stunt performer who moonlights as a getaway driver and he has described the film as a " violent John Hughes movie " : " I always thought if Pretty in Pink had head @-@ smashing it would be perfect " . Roger Ebert compared Gosling to Steve McQueen and stated that he " embodies presence and sincerity ... he has shown a gift for finding arresting , powerful characters [ and ] can achieve just about anything . Joe Morgenstern of the Wall Street Journal pondered " the ongoing mystery of how he manages to have so much impact with so little apparent effort . It 's irresistible to liken his economical style to that of Marlon Brando . " The film was a box office success , grossing $ 70 million worldwide from a production budget of $ 15 million . In his final appearance of 2011 , Gosling co @-@ starred with Philip Seymour Hoffman in the political drama The Ides of March directed by George Clooney , in which he played an ambitious press secretary . Gosling partly decided to do the film to become more politically aware : " I 'm Canadian and so American politics aren 't really in my wheelhouse . " Joe Morganstern of the Wall Street Journal said that Gosling and Hoffman " are eminently well equipped to play variations on their characters ' main themes . Yet neither actor has great material to conjure with in the script . " In a generally tepid review , Kenneth Turan of the Los Angeles Times asserted that it was " certainly involving to see the charismatic Gosling verbally spar with superb character actors like Hoffman and [ Paul ] Giamatti . " Mick LaSalle of the San Francisco Chronicle felt there was " one aspect to the character that Gosling can 't quite nail down , that might simply be outside his sphere , which is idealism . " He was nominated for a Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Drama . The film grossed $ 66 million worldwide .
= = = Mixed critical notices and directorial debut ( 2013 – present ) = = =
In 2013 's Gangster Squad , a crime thriller , Gosling portrayed Sgt. Jerry Wooters , a 1940s LAPD officer who attempts to outsmart mob boss Mickey Cohen ( played by Sean Penn ) . He was reunited with Emma Stone as his love interest , after their earlier pairing in Crazy , Stupid Love . Stone has said she hopes they will find more projects to work together on . A.O. Scott of The New York Times described the film as an excuse for the cast " to earn some money trying out funny voices and suppressing whatever sense of nuance they might possess . " Christy Lemire of the Boston Globe criticized Gosling 's " weird , whispery voice " and his " barely developed , one @-@ note " character . However , Betsy Sharkey of the Los Angeles Times felt that there was " a seductive power " in the scenes shared by Gosling and Stone : " But like too much else in the film , it 's a scenario that is only half played out . " In The Place Beyond the Pines , a generational drama directed by Blue Valentine 's Derek Cianfrance , Gosling portrayed Luke , a motorcycle stunt rider who robs banks to provide for his family . The shoot was described by Gosling as " the best experience I have ever had making a film . " A. O. Scott of the New York Times praised the performance : " Mr. Gosling ’ s cool self @-@ possession — the only thing he was allowed to display in “ Drive ” — is complicated , made interesting , by hints of childlike innocence and vulnerability . " Scott Foundas of The Village Voice was unimpressed : " Gosling 's character verges on parody ... Gosling uses a soft , wounded half @-@ whisper that tells us this is all some kind of put @-@ on ... It 's a close variation on the role Gosling played to stronger effect in Nicolas Winding Refn 's existential Hollywood thriller , Drive , where it was clear the character was meant to be an abstraction . " David Denby of The New Yorker remarked that he " reprises his inexorable @-@ loner routine " . The film has grossed $ 35 million worldwide from a production budget of $ 15 million .
Later that year , Gosling starred in the violent revenge drama Only God Forgives , directed by Drive 's Nicolas Winding Refn . Gosling undertook Muay Thai training in preparation for the role and has described the script as " the strangest thing I ’ ve ever read " . David Edelstein of New York Magazine stated : " Gosling looked like a major actor as a skinhead in The Believer and a star in Half Nelson . Then he stopped acting and started posing . His performance in Only God Forgives ( would God forgive that title ? ) is one long , moist stare " . Peter Debruge of Variety remarked that " the wallpaper emotes more than Ryan Gosling . " Stephen Holden of the New York Times criticized Gosling 's inability " to give his automaton any suggestion of an inner life " . Peter Travers of Rolling Stone commented that Gosling , while " meant to be a blank page for us to write on , often looks merely blank " . Betsy Sharkey of the Los Angeles Times was disappointed by Gosling 's performance : " Gosling moves through " Only God Forgives " like a mannequin waiting to be brought to life ... has never been less dimensional " . Sara Stewart of the New York Post was unimpressed : " Gosling reprises his man @-@ of @-@ few @-@ words persona ... Enough already . "
In early 2013 , Gosling announced that he was taking a break from acting , stating , “ I ’ ve lost perspective on what I ’ m doing . I think it ’ s good for me to take a break and reassess why I ’ m doing it and how I ’ m doing it . And I think this is probably a good way to learn about that . ” Gosling 's directorial debut Lost River competed in the Un Certain Regard section at the 2014 Cannes Film Festival . The " fantasy noir " , written by Gosling , stars Christina Hendricks , Ben Mendelsohn , and Matt Smith . The film received largely unfavorable reviews . Peter Bradshaw of The Guardian found it " insufferably conceited " and remarked that Gosling had lost " any sense of proportion or humility . " Robbie Collin of The Telegraph described Lost River as " mind @-@ bogglingly pleased with itself " while Variety 's Justin Chang dismissed the " derivative " film as a " train @-@ wreck . "
In 2015 , he played a bond salesman in the financial drama The Big Short , a Best Picture nominee at the 2016 Academy Awards . David Sims of The Atlantic felt he was " smarmily funny , somehow simultaneously magnetic and repulsive ; after years wandering the halls of mediocre art cinema , it ’ s wonderful to see him cut loose again . " Peter Travers of Rolling Stone said : " Gosling , a virtuoso of verbal sleaze , talks directly to the camera , and he 's volcanically fierce and funny . " Chris Nashawaty of Entertainment Weekly felt he " oozes smarm and smartass charm . " However , Peter Keogh of the Boston Globe said he was merely " doing a fair imitation of Bradley Cooper . "
In 2016 , Gosling co @-@ starred in the dark detective comedy The Nice Guys , opposite Russell Crowe , and will star in the musical comedy La La Land , opposite Emma Stone . Gosling also filmed an appearance in the upcoming Terrence Malick film Weightless . The film 's co @-@ stars Christian Bale , Cate Blanchett , Rooney Mara , Haley Bennett , Val Kilmer and Michael Fassbender . When asked to provide details of the film or his role , Gosling replied , " I can 't comment . A ' Chatty Cathy ' that one . " Gosling had previously signed on to work with Malick in 2004 on the biographical film Che . However , Malick left the project to direct The New World and Gosling later dropped out with scheduling conflicts . It has been announced that Gosling will play an undisclosed role in the sequel to Blade Runner , which began filming in early July 2016 .
= = Music career = =
In 2007 , Gosling made a solo recording called " Put Me in the Car " available for download on the Internet . Also that year , Gosling and his friend Zach Shields formed the indie rock band Dead Man 's Bones . The two first met in 2005 when Gosling was dating Rachel McAdams and Shields was dating her sister , Kayleen . They initially conceived of the project as a monster @-@ themed musical but settled on forming a band when they realized putting on a stage production would be too expensive . They recorded their self @-@ titled debut album with the Silverlake Conservatory 's Children 's Choir and learned to play all the instruments themselves . Gosling contributed vocals , piano , guitar , bass guitar and cello to the record . The album was released through ANTI- Records on October 6 , 2009 . Pitchfork Media was won over by the " unique , catchy and lovably weird record " while Prefix felt the album was " rarely kitschy and never inappropriate " . However , Spin felt the album " doesn 't reverse the rule that actors make dubious pop musicians " and Entertainment Weekly criticized its " cloying , gothic preciousness " .
In September 2009 , Gosling and Shields had a three @-@ night residency at LA 's Bob Baker Marionette Theater where they performed alongside dancing neon skeletons and glowing ghosts . They then conducted a thirteen @-@ date tour of North America in October 2009 , using a local children 's choir at every show . Instead of an opening act , a talent show was held each night . In September 2010 , they performed at Los Angeles ' FYF Festival . In 2011 , the actor spoke of his intentions to record a second Dead Man 's Bones album . No children 's choir will be featured on the follow @-@ up album because " it 's not very rock ' n ' roll " .
= = Charity work = =
Gosling is supportive of various social causes . He has worked with PETA on a campaign to encourage KFC and McDonald 's to use improved methods of chicken slaughter in their factories , and on a campaign encouraging dairy farmers to stop de @-@ horning cows . Gosling volunteered in Biloxi , Mississippi in 2005 , as part of the clean @-@ up effort following Hurricane Katrina . He is a supporter of Invisible Children Inc , a group that raises awareness about the LRA in Central Africa . In 2005 , Gosling travelled to Darfur refugee camps in Chad . He was a speaker at Campus Progress 's National Conference in 2008 where he discussed Darfur . As part of his work with the Enough Project , he visited Uganda in 2007 and eastern Congo in 2010 .
= = Personal life = =
Gosling previously resided in New York City with his mixed @-@ breed dog , George . He co @-@ owns Tagine , a Moroccan restaurant in Beverly Hills , California . He bought the restaurant on an impulse ; he has said that he spent " all [ his ] money " on it , spent a year doing the renovation work himself , and now oversees the restaurant 's menus .
= = = Relationships = = =
Gosling dated his Murder by Numbers co @-@ star Sandra Bullock for a year from 2002 to 2003 . He also dated his The Notebook co @-@ star Rachel McAdams from mid @-@ 2005 to mid @-@ 2007 , and they briefly reunited in mid @-@ 2008 .
In September 2011 , Gosling began dating his The Place Beyond the Pines co @-@ star Eva Mendes . He has two daughters with Mendes , born in September , 2014 and April , 2016 .
= = Filmography = =
= = = Film = = =
= = = Television = = =
= = Discography = =
With Dead Man 's Bones
2009 : Dead Man 's Bones
Solo
2011 : " You Always Hurt the Ones You Love " – Blue Valentine : Original Motion Picture Soundtrack
= = Awards and nominations = =
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= Neville Page =
Neville Page is a British @-@ American film and television creature and concept designer . Born in England , he was raised in Manchester , and Chicago , Illinois . He was inspired by science fiction , including Star Wars , and makeup artist Rick Baker 's work in An American Werewolf in London . Page moved to Hollywood at the age of 17 , and gained roles as an actor . He graduated with honors in 1990 from the Art Center College of Design with a degree in industrial design , and went on to teach students in Switzerland . He focused his work on design consulting along with business partner Scott Robertson .
Page has worked as a concept designer on films , including Super 8 , Watchmen , Star Trek , TRON : Legacy , Cloverfield , and Avatar . In 2010 his works were featured in an exhibit titled " From Page to Screen : Character and Creature Design of Neville Page " at the Oceanside Museum of Art . He joined the panel of judges on the SyFy television series Face Off for its third season alongside Ve Neill and Glenn Hetrick . His works were again featured at the Oceanside Museum of Art in 2012 in an exhibit titled " The Beauty in the Beast : Crafting Creatures by Neville Page " , which highlighted his designs in films , including Green Lantern , Prometheus , and TRON : Legacy .
= = Early life = =
Neville was born in England , and grew up in Manchester , England . He was later raised in Chicago , Illinois . He grew up around artistic influences ; his parents worked as performers in the circus . From an early age he was motivated to pursue a career in science fiction due to his appreciation for Star Wars . Page was inspired by makeup artist Rick Baker and his film work , including An American Werewolf in London .
At the age of 17 , Page moved to Hollywood to further employment in acting . He gained minor roles on soap operas , including General Hospital . He took coursework at the Art Center College of Design , and in 1989 for a class on product @-@ design he created a machine apparatus similar to that used by the character portrayed by Sigourney Weaver in the film Aliens . He received his degree in industrial design from that institution with honors in 1990 . Following his graduation , Page instructed students at the Switzerland location of the Art Center College of Design . Along with his studio partner Scott Robertson , he began work in the field of design consulting .
= = Career = =
Neville instructs students at the Gnomon School of Visual Effects in Hollywood , in addition to the Art Center College of Design , in Pasadena , California .
He has worked as a concept designer on films , including Watchmen , Star Trek , TRON : Legacy , Cloverfield , and Avatar . Cloverfield director Matt Reeves noted they hired Page to design the " creature " that appears in the film , commenting , " We would go into his office and he would have what I affectionately referred to as his ' Wall of Terror . ' On the wall were all sorts of bits of color , and as you got closer suddenly your interest turned to revulsion because those pictures were like pictures of intestines and eyeballs and pieces of animals . What he was doing was having a biological , evolutionary basis for every aspect of the creature . "
From July through August 2010 , the Oceanside Museum of Art held an exhibition on Page . Titled : " From Page to Screen : Character and Creature Design of Neville Page " , featuring works by Page , including pencil drawings , three @-@ dimensional models , and digital creations . Page said he hoped the exhibit would educate the public about a different facet to filmmaking , " The general public tends to associate films with actors versus people who conceive and design and make the films . What is on display is one small facet of what it takes to make a movie , one of the many gears involved in the mechanism , neither more important nor less ... simply as important . "
Neville has served as a judge on the SyFy television series Face Off . He joined the judging panel on Face Off in season three , which launched in August 2012 . His fellow judges included Ve Neill and Glenn Hetrick . Page returned for the fourth season in 2013 . In October 2012 , Page returned to the Oceanside Museum of Art , with an exhibition titled , " The Beauty in the Beast : Crafting Creatures by Neville Page " . The exhibit which ran for ten weeks featured 45 works by Page from films , including Green Lantern , Prometheus , and TRON : Legacy . He was the creature designer for the 2013 American science fiction action film Star Trek Into Darkness .
= = Reception = =
In the 2011 book Star Wars vs. Star Trek : Could the Empire kick the Federation 's ass ? And other galaxy @-@ shaking enigmas , author Matt Forbeck characterized Neville Page as a " creature guru " . Cloverfield director Matt Reeves spoke highly of his work with Page , " ... he is a genius . " Reeves characterized Page 's work on the " creature " in the film , " It developed in many different ways , and it came down to what Neville was doing , which was amazing . "
The North County Times referred to him observing , " Page is one of the most recognizable artists in the entertainment industry for his iconic designs . " Director of exhibitions and collections at the Oceanside Museum of Art , Teri Sowell , reflected of the exhibition featuring Page 's work to The San Diego Union @-@ Tribune , " These creatures are so embedded in our minds , we take them for granted . It 's really handcrafted art . " Film director J. J. Abrams commented on Page 's work on his film Super 8 , " the designer of the creature , Neville Page , did an amazing job and I think he gave us something that took a ton of iterations but he really nailed it " .
= = Filmography = =
= = = Film = = =
= = = Television = = =
= = Awards and nominations = =
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= Joaquim José Inácio , Viscount of Inhaúma =
Joaquim José Inácio , Viscount of Inhaúma ( 1 August 1808 – 8 March 1869 ) was a naval officer , politician and monarchist of the Empire of Brazil . He was born in the Kingdom of Portugal , and his family moved to Brazil two years later . After Brazilian independence in 1822 , Inhaúma enlisted in the armada ( navy ) of Brazil . Early in his career during the latter half of the 1820s , he participated in the subduing of secessionist rebellions : first the Confederation of the Equator , and then the Cisplatine War , which precipitated a long international armed conflict with the United Provinces of the River Plate .
Throughout the chaos that characterized the years when Emperor Dom Pedro II was a minor , Inhaúma remained loyal to the government . He helped quell a military mutiny in 1831 and was involved in suppressing some of the other rebellions that erupted during that troubled period . He saw action in the Sabinada between 1837 and 1838 , followed by the Ragamuffin War from 1840 until 1844 . In 1849 , after spending two years in Great Britain , Inhaúma was given command of the fleet that was instrumental in subduing the Praieira revolt , the last rebellion in imperial Brazil .
During the 1850s , Inhaúma held a series of bureaucratic positions . He entered politics in 1861 as a member of the Conservative Party . He became a cabinet member and was given the position of navy minister . Inhaúma also became the first person to hold the Ministry of Agriculture portfolio , albeit briefly . The first professional firefighter corps in Brazil was formed during his tenure as agriculture minister . In late 1866 , Inhaúma was appointed commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the fleet engaged in the Paraguayan War . During the fighting , he achieved the rank of admiral , the highest in the Brazilian armada . He was also awarded a noble title , eventually being raised from baron to viscount . In 1868 , he was elected to the national legislature 's lower house , but never assumed office .
Although he successfully prosecuted his operations in the war against Paraguay , Inhaúma 's leadership was encumbered by his hesitating and procrastinating behavior . While in command in the war zone , he became mentally exhausted and contracted an unknown disease . Seriously ill , Inhaúma returned to the national capital in early 1869 and died shortly thereafter . Although historical works have not given much coverage to Inhaúma , some historians regard him among the greatest of the Brazilian navy officers .
= = Early life = =
= = = Birth and education = = =
Joaquim José Inácio was born in Lisbon , Kingdom of Portugal . Although the date on his birth certificate was 30 July 1808 , his mother claimed that the correct birthdate was two days later , on 1 August . He personally affirmed that the later date was accurate , as did his younger brother , who was his biographer . Regardless , some biographers , including Joaquim Manuel de Macedo and Carlos Guilherme Haring , have persisted in citing the date mistakenly entered on the birth certificate .
Joaquim Inácio 's parents were José Vitorino de Barros and Maria Isabel de Barros . In 1808 , the Portuguese Royal family moved to Brazil , then the largest and wealthiest colony of Portugal . Two years later , on 10 July 1810 , José de Barros arrived in the Brazilian capital , Rio de Janeiro . As a crew member of the frigate D. Carlota , he was charged with transporting what remained of the personal property of Prince Regent Dom João , later King Dom João VI to Brazil . José de Barros also brought his family on the voyage , including Joaquim Inácio , who was then one year and eight months old . Joaquim Inácio had an older sister named Maria and six younger siblings ( who were born after the arrival in Brazil ) , among them Bento José de Carvalho and Antônio José Vitorino de Barros .
As was common at the time , Joaquim Inácio began his education at home and was later enrolled in Seminário de São José ( Saint Joseph School ) and after that , in Seminário São Joaquim ( Saint Joachim School ) , which became Pedro II School in 1837 . His teachers included Januário da Cunha Barbosa , who later became one of the leading figures in the Brazilian independence movement . Joaquim Inácio chose to follow his father , a naval officer who achieved the rank of second lieutenant , in his choice of a career . On 20 November 1822 at age 14 , Joaquim Inácio was admitted as aspirante a guarda @-@ marinha ( aspiring midshipman or naval cadet ) at the Navy Academy . On 11 December 1823 , he graduated from the academy , majoring in mathematics , with the rank of guarda @-@ marinha ( midshipman ) . As he had in previous studies at other schools , Joaquim Inácio proved to be a brilliant student . Among his colleagues at the academy was Francisco Manuel Barroso da Silva ( later Baron of Amazonas ) whom he befriended .
= = = Rebellions in north and south = = =
When Prince Dom Pedro ( later Emperor Dom Pedro I ) , son and heir of King João VI , led the movement for the independence of Brazil , Joaquim Inácio was one of several Portuguese @-@ born residents who sided with the Brazilian cause and joined the armada ( as the Brazilian Navy was called in the imperial era ) . On 16 January 1824 , he began his service aboard the D. Pedro I , a ship of the line and flagship of First Admiral Thomas Cochrane , Marquis of Maranhão . Joaquim Inácio did not fight in any battles , as the Portuguese enemy forces had surrendered by that time . His baptism of fire came a few months later with the advent of the Confederation of the Equator , a secessionist rebellion in Brazil 's northeastern provinces . He was given the command of the cutter Independente and aided in the suppression of rebels in Rosário do Itapecuru , a village in the province of Maranhão . The rebellion was over by early 1825 , and on 25 February Joaquim Inácio was promoted to second lieutenant .
In June 1825 , Joaquim Inácio traveled to Brazil 's far south to quell a secessionist rebellion in the province of Cisplatina . The insurgents were aided by the United Provinces of the River Plate ( later Argentina ) , which led to the Cisplatine War . Joaquim Inácio served as first officer aboard the patache Pará , which was stationed in Colônia de Sacramento ( present @-@ day Colonia del Sacramento ) , the second most important town in Cisplatina . By late February 1826 , Sacramento was besieged by enemy forces . Joaquim Inácio was sent ashore and placed in charge of the Santa Rita battery , composed of sailors and cannons from the Brazilian ships . He took an active part in successfully repelling enemy attacks upon Sacramento on 7 February , 26 February and 14 March .
On the night of 10 March 1826 and in the midst of the siege of Sacramento , Joaquim Inácio boarded a small , unarmed boat accompanied by a single army officer and passed unnoticed through a line of nineteen enemy ships under cover of darkness . He reached the main Brazilian fleet on the morning of the next day and requested assistance from Vice @-@ Admiral Rodrigo José Ferreira Lobo , the commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the naval forces operating in the war . Joaquim Inácio returned to Sacramento two days later under heavy enemy fire along with three boats carrying supplies and arms . Although welcomed as a hero in the besieged town , he was passed over for a promotion . Disregard for this achievement was due to his lack of wealth and family connections , a burden which continued to thwart his career for years to come .
= = = Loss of Cisplatina = = =
In February 1827 , Joaquim Inácio was transferred to the crew of the corvette Duquesa de Goiás , in which he was to take part in the invasion of Carmen de Patagones , a village in the northeast of the United Provinces that served as a port for corsairs . The Duquesa de Goiás sank during the expedition , killing several crew members . Joaquim Inácio insisted on being the last officer to leave the vessel . He was next given the command of the schooner Constança . The invasion of Carmen was a complete failure , and the Brazilian land forces were defeated and taken prisoner . On 7 March , while Joaquim Inácio awaited news of the invasion , the Constança and another schooner were surrounded by enemy vessels . After a desperate battle , he was taken captive after refusing to surrender .
The Brazilian prisoners were placed together aboard a brig bound for Buenos Aires , capital of the United Provinces . They suffered severe hardship , starving and almost naked . Under the leadership of Joaquim Inácio , the Brazilians staged an uprising , took control of the ship and made prisoners of their captors . The ship successfully eluded two corvettes and one schooner @-@ brig that had pursued them , and sailed on to Montevideo , capital of Cisplatina , which they reached in safety on 29 August 1827 . Despite Joaquim Inácio 's daring rescue of Brazilian prisoners of war from both the invasion 's land @-@ based forces and from the two schooners , he was reprimanded by the commander @-@ in @-@ chief Vice @-@ Admiral Rodrigo Pinto Guedes , Baron of Rio da Prata ( who had replaced Rodrigo Lobo ) for the loss of the Constança .
Joaquim Inácio returned to Rio de Janeiro in October , his tour of duty having lasted three years . He was then sent back to Cisplatina aboard the frigate Niterói and in December he became the first officer of the barque Grenfell . On 17 February 1828 , he fought in the Battle of Quilmes . During the engagement , the Brazilian barque @-@ brig ( three @-@ masted barque ) Vinte e nove de agosto ran aground and was about to be boarded . Seeing this , Joaquim Inácio positioned the Grenfell near the threatened vessel and protected her until she could be freed by the rising tide . Both ships returned to the battle , which resulted in a Brazilian victory . Brazil 's efforts in the war were ultimately in vain , as it eventually relinquished Cisplatina , which became the independent nation of Uruguay . In July 1829 , Joaquim Inácio again returned to Rio de Janeiro , and on 17 October he was promoted to first lieutenant .
= = Rebellions = =
= = = Further uprisings = = =
On 17 March 1831 , Joaquim Inácio married Maria José de Mariz Sarmento . Her father was an officer in the Portuguese navy whose own father and paternal grandfather had also been military officers . Joaquim Inácio and his wife had several children : Ana Elisa de Mariz e Barros , Joaquim José Inácio , Antônio Carlos de Mariz e Barros and Carlota Adelaide de Mariz e Barros . The couple also had a girl and a boy , named Constança and Manuel respectively , both of whom died in infancy .
A month and a half after Joaquim Inácio 's marriage , Emperor Pedro I abdicated and sailed to Europe . Since the former emperor 's son and heir Dom Pedro II was a minor , a regency was formed , and more than a decade of instability and turmoil ensued . On 6 October 1831 , navy artillerymen , held under suspicion of plotting a mutiny , escaped the presiganga ( prison ship ) in which they had been confined . Joaquim Inácio commanded the schooner Jaguaripe which , along with other vessels , had been guarding the prison ship . Seeing that the artillerymen had set sail for Rio de Janeiro , Joaquim Inácio and a few men took a boat to warn the city . They encountered musket fire from the artillerymen , who then changed course for the nearby Ilha das Cobras ( Island of the Snakes ) in the face of strong opposition from the mainland . They were defeated the next day when three columns of men from the Volunteer Soldier @-@ Officers Battalion and Permanent Municipal Guard Corps invaded the island .
In January 1833 , strong winds forced the old and poorly built Jaguaripe aground off Santa Marta beach in the southern province of Santa Catarina , where it sank . Joaquim Inácio was again the last to abandon ship . The entire crew was rescued , though he himself barely survived . Joaquim Inácio and his younger brother Bento José ( who was also a navy officer ) stayed afloat by holding onto a leather basket until reaching the shore . Afterward , Joaquim Inácio was court martialed and absolved of any wrongdoing . On 5 April 1833 , he was given command of the barque @-@ brig Vinte e nove de agosto ( the same ship he had saved in 1828 ) and sailed to the province of Maranhão . The last time he had been in the province was in 1825 . He remained stationed in the provincial capital ( São Luís ) as chief of the port until his return to Rio de Janeiro on 30 December 1836 . He was transferred to the steam barque Urânia in 1837 and later , on 19 July of the same year , to the brig Constança ( a different vessel than the schooner he lost in 1827 ) .
Joaquim Inácio departed Rio de Janeiro on 11 August 1837 for Salvador , capital of the province of Bahia . He had been charged with delivering the prisoner Bento Gonçalves ( leader of the rebellion known as the Ragamuffin War that had ravaged Rio Grande do Sul since 1835 ) to a military fortress . On 7 September 1837 , Joaquim Inácio was promoted to captain lieutenant . A couple of months later , the Sabinada rebellion erupted in Salvador . The rebels freed Bento Gonçalves , who escaped back to Rio Grande do Sul . Joaquim Inácio took part in the blockade of that city until the end of the rebellion in March 1838 . His lack of family connections and political influence again stymied his career in 1839 , when he was passed over for a well @-@ deserved promotion .
= = = Restoration of order = = =
On 23 July 1840 , Pedro II was declared of age and Joaquim Inácio was among the naval officers representing the armada in the delegation that greeted the young emperor . The rise of Pedro II to head the central government resulted in a slow , but steady , restoration of order in the country . On 17 December , Joaquim Inácio was named inspetor do arsenal de marinha ( inspector of the navy shipyard ) in Rio Grande , the second most important town in Rio Grande do Sul . The province was still troubled by the Ragamuffin rebellion . He led the sailors manning the trenches surrounding Rio Grande and fought the Ragamuffins when they attacked the town in July 1841 .
The Ragamuffin menace was halted when the government dispatched field marshal ( present @-@ day divisional general ) Luís Alves de Lima e Silva ( then Baron , later Duke of Caxias ) in 1842 . The Baron of Caxias had been the second in command of the Volunteer Soldier @-@ Officers Battalion when it put down the mutiny of navy artillerymen in 1831 . He and Joaquim Inácio established a close , lifelong friendship . Joaquim Inácio was promoted to frigate captain on 15 March 1844 . Soon afterward , Joaquim Inácio was relieved of command , at his own request , after becoming ever more at odds with his superior . On 2 April 1845 , he was assigned command of the frigate Constituição and in October returned to Rio Grande do Sul , which by that time had been pacified . He escorted the Emperor during his tour of the Brazilian southern provinces . Pedro II was favorably impressed with the character of the ship 's captain . Dark @-@ haired and of average height , Joaquim Inácio was joyful and pleasant . He was also hard @-@ working , intelligent and well @-@ learned . In addition to his native Portuguese , he could also speak and write in Latin , English and French .
In August 1846 , Joaquim Inácio sailed the Constituição to Devonport ( then @-@ known as Plymouth Dock ) in the United Kingdom , where the ship was to undergo repairs . He paid a visit there to the elderly Thomas Cochrane , Marquis of Maranhão , who queried him regarding Brazil 's state of affairs . Joaquim Inácio returned to Brazil in May 1847 and was assigned to bureaucratic tasks . In April 1848 , he was stationed , again at the helm of the Constituição , in Bahia province . Later that year , the Praieira revolt erupted in the nearby province of Pernambuco . In early November , Joaquim Inácio assumed the command of the fleet protecting Recife , capital of Pernambuco . He sent many of his sailors ashore to aid in the town 's defense . Recife was attacked by rebels on 2 February 1849 . The insurgent attackers were defeated , and soon afterward the last rebellion of Brazil 's imperial era came to an end . Joaquim Inácio , who fought in the streets with his men , later remarked : " It was not a battle , but a diabolical hunt from which I have escaped by miracle . " He was awarded with a promotion to captain of sea and war on 14 March .
= = Bureaucratic positions and politics = =
= = = Navy commissions = = =
On 26 May 1850 , Joaquim Inácio was appointed inspector of the naval shipyard at Rio de Janeiro . He played no role in the Platine War that pitted the Empire against the Argentine Confederation ( the successor state of the United Provinces of the River Plate ) , which lasted from late 1851 until early 1852 . He spent that period in the capital overseeing the construction and repair of several sailing vessels and steamships for the Brazilian armada . He was promoted to chief of division ( modern @-@ day rear admiral ) on 3 March 1852 .
Throughout the 1850s , Joaquim Inácio was assigned to a succession of mostly bureaucratic positions . After being removed from the office of inspector on 8 November 1854 , eleven days later he was named captain of the port of Rio de Janeiro ( for both the city and province ) . From 1854 until 1860 , he was appointed a member of various navy boards that dealt with matters ranging from promotions and equipment purchases to war spoils and standardization of naval uniforms . On 2 November 1855 , Joaquim Inácio was named adjutant ( equivalent to adjutant general ) to the navy minister . On 2 December 1856 , he was promoted to chief of fleet ( modern vice admiral ) and made a Fidalgo Cavaleiro da Casa Imperial ( Knight Nobleman of the Imperial Household ) , which raised him to a position ranking above the members of chivalry orders and below the titled nobles ( barons , counts , etc . ) . Joaquim Inácio also became a member and vice @-@ president of the naval council ( an advisory board ) on 24 July 1858 .
As had also been the case with his predecessors , the rank of adjutant was seen by Joaquim Inácio as an embarrassment . Inside the armada administration , it denoted the most important office , as it was filled by an officer who acted as the navy minister 's direct representative in the armada . Even so , the title of " adjutant " was itself perceived as demeaning . Joaquim Inácio later complained : " In what part of the world ... does the navy minister have a general officer as an adjutant ? What is an adjutant , other than a young officer who transmits orders , and even messages , he receives from his chief ? " He concluded : " Thus the title of adjutant cannot encumber an officer who supervises the armada 's discipline and answers for it " . His request to have the designation for the position changed to a more appropriate title was ignored . He also felt slighted that many of his proposals to the navy boards regarding improvements were not acted on , and on 21 November 1860 , he asked to be removed from all positions .
= = = Conservative politician = = =
Freed from the demands of his former commissions , Joaquim Inácio spent his time translating Jean @-@ Félicité @-@ Théodore Ortolan 's Et Diplomatie De La Mer ( The Diplomacy of the Sea ) from French into Portuguese . He was a cultured person whose penchants included poetry . He was also interested in plays and he was an elected member of the Dramatic Conservatory ( which sponsored the national theater ) from 8 June 1856 . Joaquim Inácio was very religious and he often mentioned God and Catholic saints in his letters . During the Paraguayan War in the late 1860s , upon learning that he was being mocked and criticized by the Paraguayans for his religious devotion , Joaquim Inácio merely replied : " Leave me my beliefs and let them call me whatever they want . " He was an enthusiastic member of the Santa Casa de Misericórdia ( Holy House of Mercy ) , a charitable organization in Rio de Janeiro . When the national capital was ravaged by yellow fever in 1854 , he went from door to door asking for donations to help the sick .
Despite his staunch Catholicism , Joaquim Inácio became a freemason , joining the Loja Integridade Maçônica ( Freemasonry Integrity Lodge ) in 1828 . He eventually rose to the highest ranks of that lodge , becoming Deputy Grand Master in 1863 . He was also accorded membership in other Brazilian lodges , became an honorary member of Portuguese Freemasonry and was a representative of the Grand Orient de France in Brazil . Freemasonry opened new venues for Joaquim Inácio , providing him with connections and influence he had previously lacked and which were essential to advancing his political career . On 2 March 1861 , his friend Caxias , also a freemason and staunch Catholic , became prime minister . He invited Joaquim Inácio , who became a member of the Conservative Party , to assume the naval ministry 's portfolio . It was commonplace in Brazil for high @-@ ranking military officers to engage in politics .
He served as the first head of the newly created Ministry of Agriculture , Commerce and Public Works from 2 March 1861 until 21 April . Although created by a decree of 1856 ( following a suggestion made by Joaquim Inácio in 1851 ) , the first professional firefighter corps in Brazil was effectively formed under his tenure at the head of the Ministry of Agriculture . The cabinet resigned on 24 May 1862 after losing its majority in the Chamber of Deputies ( the national legislature 's lower house ) . Joaquim Inácio returned to his position on the naval council on 2 July and left that post when he became a member of the Supreme Military and Justice Council on 2 October 1864 .
= = Paraguayan War = =
= = = Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief = = =
In December 1864 , the dictator of Paraguay , Francisco Solano López , ordered an invasion of the Brazilian province of Mato Grosso ( currently the state of Mato Grosso do Sul ) , triggering the Paraguayan War . Four months later , Paraguayan troops invaded Argentine territory in preparation for an attack on Rio Grande do Sul . The invasions resulted in an alliance between Brazil , Argentina and Uruguay . Following the resignation of Caxias 's government in 1862 , successor cabinets were headed by the Progressive League , the rival of the Conservative Party . As a Conservative , Joaquim Inácio found himself largely sidelined . He humorously commented that the Progressives " have not lifted my excommunication by giving me a better ration of soup [ i.e. , any command of importance ] , thus I shall remain on a diet . " In October 1865 , Joaquim Inácio was sent to the north of Brazil , charged with recruiting volunteers , but soon resigned that commission and opted to devote his time to the Holy House of Mercy .
The allies invaded Paraguay in April 1866 , but their advance by land was blocked by fortifications at Humaitá and naval forces faced the obstacle of entrenched defenses along the Paraguay River . The Progressive cabinet decided to create a unified command over Brazilian land and naval forces operating in Paraguay . It entrusted the command to Caxias , who in turn requested that Joaquim Inácio head the Brazilian fleet in Paraguay . On 22 December , Joaquim Inácio replaced his close friend Vice @-@ Admiral Joaquim Marques Lisboa ( then @-@ Baron and later Marquis of Tamandaré ) as fleet commander . For the sake of appearances , the new position was nominally pro tempore , since Tamandaré had virtually been forced to resign . On 5 February 1867 , Joaquim Inácio was promoted to vice @-@ admiral ( equivalent to present @-@ day squadron vice @-@ admiral ) , and sixteen days later he was made permanent commander @-@ in @-@ chief .
The allied objective was to encircle Humaitá and force its capitulation by siege . On 15 August 1867 , under heavy fire , Brazilian warships forced the passage of Curupayty , an outer line of defense of Humaitá . Joaquim Inácio commanded from the bridge of the ironclad Brasil , which engaged in the operation . Joaquim Inácio was afterwards awarded the noble title of Barão de Inhaúma ( Baron of Inhaúma ) on 27 September . The name came from Inhaúma , a region ( now a neighborhood ) near the city of Rio de Janeiro . His wife had grown up there , and he himself owned a coffee farm in the area . Those landowners , including the Baron of Inhaúma , who produced coffee ( the most valuable Brazilian export commodity ) were the wealthiest and most influential people in Brazil 's southeast . They were owners of slaves , and many of them formed the core of the Conservative Party ( the ultraconservative wing called saquarema ) and were connected to each other through family and political ties .
= = = Operations on the Paraguay River = = =
After Inhaúma had punched through the defenses at Curupayty , he encountered three large chains stretched across the river at Humaitá that prevented further progress upriver beyond the fortress . He anchored his ships in a cove that became known as Porto Elisiário ( Elisiário Port ) . For six months , the Brazilian warships remained stationed between Curupayty and Humaitá , bombarding both strongholds without causing any serious damage . The encirclement of Humaitá could not be completed until the Allies gained full control of the river . The Allied commander @-@ in @-@ chief , Argentine president Bartolomé Mitre , had pressed Inhaúma for months to execute that goal . The Brazilian had , however , developed second thoughts about the enterprise and procrastinated . He believed — unfairly — that Mitre would welcome the destruction of Brazil 's warships , severely weakening the Empire militarily and geopolitically .
There were other factors that prompted Inhaúma to have second thoughts . The level of the river had fallen and as the encirclement on land had not been completed , even " if the Brazilian ships did manage to get past the batteries they could well become stranded , with little or no fuel and possibly no supporting Allied troops on the banks " . Inhaúma also argued that the ironclads were too large and had limited manoeuvrability in the narrow channel at Humaitá , being better suited to seagoing operations than on a river . He preferred to wait for the shallow @-@ draft monitors that were under construction in Rio de Janeiro .
After a year in Paraguay , Inhaúma had also become ill with a lingering disease ( not positively identified , although malaria is suspected ) and had fallen into depression , becoming what historian Francisco Doratioto themed " no more than a ghost of an admiral " . By January 1868 Humaitá had been completely cut off from land reinforcement and the shallow @-@ draft monitors had arrived . Both Inhaúma and his officers balked at putting the new vessels into action . It was Inhaúma 's son @-@ in @-@ law , Captain of Sea and War Delfim Carlos de Carvalho ( soon Baron of Passagem ) who volunteered to lead a squadron . On 19 February , the Brazilian ironclads successfully made a passage up the Paraguay River under heavy fire , gaining full control of the river and thus isolating Humaitá from resupply by water .
On 2 March 1868 , parties of Paraguayans in canoes camouflaged by foliage and brush boarded Brazilian ironclads anchored in Tayí . The imperiled vessels dispatched a boat to warn Inhaúma , who was aboard the flagship Brasil downriver at Elisiário Port . By the time he arrived , the Brazilians had locked themselves inside their ships and the Paraguayans had taken control of the decks . Inhaúma ordered the Brasil and two other vessels to open fire , decimating the Paraguayans and saving the ironclads . A day later he was raised from baron to viscount by Pedro II . On 25 July , the allies occupied Humaitá after the Paraguayans had abandoned it and retreated further upriver .
= = = Illness and death = = =
Unknown to Inhaúma and only a few days before the fall of Humaitá , the Progressive cabinet in Rio de Janeiro had resigned following a political crisis . The Emperor called the Conservatives , under the leadership of Joaquim Rodrigues Torres , Viscount of Itaboraí , back into power on 16 July 1868 . During the Progressive administration , Inhaúma had developed a trusting friendship with the able , young Navy Minister Afonso Celso de Assis Figueiredo ( later Viscount of Ouro Preto ) . The return of the Conservatives resulted in Inhaúma 's election to the Chamber of Deputies as a representative for the province of Amazonas , although he would never assume office . In the new political climate , Inhaúma was also considered a contender for a senatorial chair representing the province of Rio de Janeiro .
Meanwhile , Caxias had organized an assault on the new Paraguayan defenses which López had thrown up along the Pikysyry , south of Asunción ( Paraguay 's capital ) . This stream afforded a strong defensive position which was anchored by the Paraguay River and by the swampy jungle of the Chaco region . Caxias had a road cut through the supposedly impenetrable Chaco , located on the other side of the Paraguayan River where the Allied army was camped . The Brazilian ships carried the Allied troops across the river , where they moved over the road which had been finished in December . The Allied forces outflanked the Paraguayan lines and attacked from the rear . The combined allied forces annihilated the Paraguayan army and on 1 January 1869 Asunción was occupied .
Inhaúma reached the Paraguayan national capital on 3 January 1869 , increasingly sick and depressed . He lamented in his private journal that the conflict " cannot be called a war but a killing of people , extermination of the Paraguayan nation . " Inhaúma temporarily transferred his command to his son @-@ in @-@ law , the Baron of Passagem , on 16 January . On 28 January , Inhaúma was officially discharged from that post and promoted to admiral , the highest rank in the armada . Having received permission from the Conservative cabinet to depart , he left for Rio de Janeiro on 8 February , arriving ten days later . Although welcomed " with the greatest demonstrations of enthusiasm " , Inhaúma was so weak that he had to be carried from the docks to his carriage . Alfredo d 'Escragnolle Taunay , Viscount of Taunay in his memoirs said that Pedro II , upon learning of Inhaúma 's arrival , refused to pay a visit to him . It had become common for officers to claim sickness so that they could withdraw from the war . The Emperor soon realized that Inhaúma was indeed very ill and asked for daily updates on his condition .
Inhaúma 's health steadily deteriorated , and he died on 8 March at around 04 : 30 in the morning . According to historian Eugênio Vilhena de Morais , malaria was the cause of death . His coffin was placed in a carriage reserved for the funerals of members of the imperial family . It was escorted by three cavalry squadrons and followed by three hundred carriages , while onlookers crowded both sides of the streets along the procession 's route . Tamandaré and the future Viscount of Ouro Preto were among the pallbearers . He was buried in the São Francisco Xavier cemetery ( popularly known as Caju Cemetery ) in Rio de Janeiro .
= = Legacy = =
Soon after his death , the Viscount of Inhaúma was hailed as " one of the greatest figures of the Brazilian armada " in the Brazilian Senate . He was extremely popular in the armada and was fondly called " Uncle Joaquim " by his subordinates . The Brazilian navy 's slang phrase , " andar na Inácia " , which meant to behave correctly , was derived from his name . Since 1870 , no comprehensive biography of Inhaúma has been published , even though he , according to Francisco Eduardo Alves de Almeira , " is , and always will be , important to the navy of Brazil for his example as a modest and dedicated chief . " The Inhaúma @-@ class corvette , built in the 1980s and 1990s , was named after him . Despite the scant attention paid him in historical literature , there are some historians who share a highly positive view of Inhaúma . Américo Jacobina Lacombe said that he was " one of the greatest names in our [ Brazilian ] military history " . Max Justo Guedes regarded him among the greatest imperial navy officers , and Adolfo Lumans considered him one of the greatest navy officers in Brazilian history .
= = Titles and honors = =
= = = Titles of nobility = = =
Fidalgo Cavaleiro da Casa Imperial ( Knight Nobleman of the Imperial Household ) on 2 December 1856 .
Baron of Inhaúma ( without Greatness ) on 27 September 1867 .
Viscount of Inhaúma ( Grandee ) on 3 March 1868 .
= = = Other titles = = =
Member of the Brazilian Historic and Geographic Institute .
Member of the Supreme Military and Justice Council .
Provedor interino ( interim steward ) of the Santa Casa de Misericórdia ( Holy House of Mercy ) in Rio de Janeiro city .
= = = Honors = = =
Grand Cross of the Brazilian Order of the Rose .
Grand Cross of the Brazilian Order of Saint Benedict of Aviz .
Commander of the Brazilian Order of Christ .
Grand Cross of the Portuguese Order of the Immaculate Conception of Vila Viçosa .
Grand Officer of the French Légion d 'honneur .
= = Endnotes = =
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= So God Made a Farmer =
" So God Made a Farmer " was a speech given by radio broadcaster Paul Harvey at the 1978 Future Farmers of America convention . The speech was first published in 1986 in Harvey 's syndicated column . The speech borrowed a few phrases from a 1975 article written by Harvey in the Gadsden Times , which was itself inspired by parts of a 1940 definition of a dirt farmer published in The Farmer @-@ Stockman . The 1940 article was copied verbatim by Tex Smith in a letter to the editor in the Ellensburg Daily Record in 1949 . The speech was given as an extension of the Genesis creation narrative referring to God 's actions on the 8th day of creation . Harvey described the characteristics of a farmer in each phrase , ending them with the recurring " So God Made a Farmer " .
The speech was used in a commercial by Ram Trucks during the fourth quarter of Super Bowl XLVII . The ad featured photographs of rural America set to a narration of a portion of Harvey 's speech . In a collaboration with the FFA , Dodge agreed to donate $ 100 @,@ 000 for every 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 views that the YouTube video of the ad received up to $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 . This goal was reached in less than five days .
= = The speech = =
Paul Harvey , a radio host who died in 2009 , delivered the speech at an FFA convention in 1978 . His speech began as a continuation of the Genesis creation narrative referring to the actions God took on the 8th day . In it , Harvey stated that God needed a caretaker for the land he created . The speech continues with God expressing the characteristics needed by the person he is creating :
" I need somebody with arms strong enough to wrestle a calf and yet gentle enough to deliver his own grandchild ; somebody to call hogs , tame cantankerous machinery , come home hungry , have to await lunch until his wife 's done feeding visiting ladies , then tell the ladies to be sure and come back real soon , and mean it . "
Multiple passages setting out characteristics of the sort end with the same refrain , by which the speech is now known : " So God made a farmer . "
Harvey 's " So God Made a Farmer " speech was characterized , according to The Atlantic , by its " folksy timbre " . The New York Times spoke further on elements of his speaking style in its 2009 obituary : " his style was stop @-@ and @-@ go , with superb pacing and silences that rivaled Jack Benny ’ s . He spoke directly to the listener , with punchy sentences , occasional exclamations of “ Good heavens ! ” or “ Oh , my goodness ! ” and pauses that squeezed out the last drop of suspense : the radio broadcaster ’ s equivalent of the raised eyebrow or the knowing grin . " Bob Greene described the opening phrase of the speech as " seemingly simple , and devastatingly direct " .
The speech also ran in Paul Harvey 's syndicated newspaper column in 1986 . Both the sound recording of the speech and the text of the article have been federally registered with the U.S. Copyright Office by Paulynne , Inc . , Paul Harvey 's company that is now owned by his son . In an introduction , Harvey claimed , in a typical rhetorical flourish , that he had found the essay in his mailbag . :
" This next arrived unsigned in my mailbag . I 've tried but cannot trace its source . A farmer , perhaps ; more likely a farmer 's wife . I 've embellished the essay in places and cropped it in others but I hope the sense of it remains intact . "
= = = Prior versions = = =
Paul Harvey ran a similar article in the column " A Point of View " for the Gadsden Times on August 26 , 1975 . Entitled " What it is to be a farmer " , the article did not contain the concept of God creating the farmer seen in his 1978 speech , but he still described the characteristics of a farmer . Many of the same phrases made their way into his 1978 speech . The 1975 column was largely similar to a definition of a dirt farmer given by Boston B. Blackwood from Hartshorne , Oklahoma in a 1940 copy of The Farmer @-@ Stockman . This was copied verbatim in a September 10 , 1949 letter to the editor of the Ellensburg Daily Record written by Tex Smith from Ellensburg , Washington . Both the 1940 and 1975 columns share elements not included in the speech such as the statement that a farmer 's wife won 't let him starve . In the " So God Made a Farmer " speech and Harvey 's 1986 column , only two phrases and a few words remain from Blackwood 's 1940 piece including the phrase , " can shape an axe handle from a persimmon sprout " .
= = Super Bowl XLVII commercial = =
The speech was used in a two @-@ minute Ram Trucks Super Bowl commercial entitled " Farmer " in Super Bowl XLVII . The ad featured a voiceover of Harvey 's speech set to still photographs taken by ten photographers including William Albert Allard and Kurt Markus . Created by The Richards Group , the ad ran during the fourth quarter . It was noted for its religious imagery . The ad , like another Chrysler Super Bowl XLVII ad featuring Oprah Winfrey , advertised the brand without focusing on the vehicle . This was similar to ads run by Chrysler in Super Bowl XLVI and Super Bowl XLV .
The ad was made in collaboration with the National FFA Organization and the National FFA Foundation and with permission from Harvey 's company , Paulynne , Inc . , and Ram agreed to donate up to $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 to the foundation based on the views received by the YouTube video . The goal , which was based on $ 100 @,@ 000 for every 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 views , was reached in less than 5 days .
= = = Reception = = =
The ad received mostly positive reviews . Slate called it the " most striking Super Bowl ad " but also criticized it for being similar in concept to a 2011 YouTube video by Farms.com. While the Slate review was criticizing its originality , Farms.com released a statement reflecting their approval of the ad . While liveblogging the Super Bowl commercials for the Wall Street Journal , Cindy Gallop referred to it as the " Great American Super Bowl Commercial " . Dale Buss , of Forbes , wrote " Chrysler managed to insert just enough of its vehicles and brands in each spot so as to make their inclusion seem part of the fabric of the paean , not at all intrusive , thereby lending the kind of authenticity to Ram and Jeep that fuels long @-@ term brand success " . The ad ranked third in the USA Today Super Bowl Ad Meter . Critics noted that the ad focused on the family farm despite the industrialization of agriculture in America . A Latino nonprofit organization called Cuéntame uploaded a remake to its Facebook page that featured more Latinos .
Country music singer James Wesley 's 2013 single " Thank a Farmer " was inspired by the ad .
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= Ohio State Route 228 =
State Route 228 ( SR 228 ) is a short north – south state highway in the U.S. state of Ohio . The southern terminus of the state route is at State Route 19 ( SR 19 ) nearly five and a half miles ( 8 @.@ 9 km ) north of Republic . Its northern terminus is at SR 101 approximately 5 @.@ 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 9 km ) southwest of Clyde .
The state highway was established in 1924 . It serves as a connector between SR 19 and SR 101 east and northeast of where the two routes intersect . SR 19 jogs west from SR 228 's southern terminus , and SR 101 traverses in a southwest @-@ to @-@ northeast fashion , creating a tight angle between the two routes . SR 778 serves a similar purpose to SR 228 to the west and southwest of the junction of SR 19 and SR 101 .
= = Route description = =
SR 228 is located entirely within Adams Township in Seneca County . It is not included in the National Highway System . SR 228 has a AADT of 320 .
The short connector route begins where SR 19 and County Road 32 ( CR 32 ) meet , an intersection in which SR 19 forms the southern and western legs and CR 32 approaches from the east . The route passes through mostly farmland . After that , SR 228 arrives at its endpoint at the intersection of SR 101 , where it crosses southwest @-@ to @-@ northeast , and Township Road 180 ( Rowe Road ) continues to the northwest after SR 228 terminates .
= = History = =
SR 228 came into being in 1924 along the routing that it occupies to this day . No significant changes have taken place to the route since its designation . The route was repaved in 1969 , 1983 , and 1995 .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Adams Township , Seneca County .
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= New Guinea Volunteer Rifles =
The New Guinea Volunteer Rifles ( NGVR ) was an infantry battalion of the Australian Army . It was initially raised as a unit of the Militia from white Australian and European expatriates in New Guinea upon the outbreak of the Second World War in 1939 , before being activated for full @-@ time service following the Japanese landings in early 1942 . NGVR personnel then helped rescue survivors of Lark Force from Rabaul in February and March 1942 . Between March and May , the NGVR monitored the Japanese bases which had been established in the Huon Gulf region , being the only Allied force in the area until the arrival of Kanga Force at Wau in May . The battalion subsequently established observation posts overlooking the main approaches and reported on Japanese movements .
Later , it inflicted significant casualties on the Japanese in a series of raids , and led them to believe that they faced a much larger opposing force . On 29 June , the NGVR and the newly arrived 2 / 5th Independent Company carried out a highly successful attack on the Japanese garrison in Salamaua , killing at least 113 men . When the focus shifted to the Milne Bay and Kokoda Track battles of August and September , the NGVR continued to man its posts overlooking the Japanese base areas . The Japanese were subsequently defeated in the Battle of Wau in January and February 1943 , relieving the pressure on the NGVR . The battalion was disbanded in April 1943 due to attrition .
In the years immediately following the war the Australian Army considered re @-@ establishing a military presence in Papua New Guinea ( PNG ) , although there was some opposition among white settlers to the raising of native units . As an interim measure , the re @-@ establishment of the NGVR was approved in July 1949 . The unit reformed as the Papua New Guinea Volunteer Rifles ( PNGVR ) on 16 March 1951 , initially as a whites @-@ only reserve unit of the Citizen Military Forces ( CMF ) . In March 1951 a PNGVR detachment assisted in relief operations following the eruption of Mount Lamington , which killed 3 @,@ 466 people and left more than 5 @,@ 000 homeless . Between 1951 and 1953 PNGVR elements were established in all the main centres of Papua New Guinea .
Meanwhile , in addition to its other responsibilities the PNGVR fostered the raising of the regular Pacific Islands Regiment ( PIR ) and Headquarters Area Command Papua New Guinea . During the mid @-@ 1960s the enlistment of Papua New Guinean and Chinese personnel had finally been authorised , with the unit evolving into a multi @-@ racial battalion . By 1969 only one @-@ fifth of PNGVR members were Europeans . Yet amid concerns about the ability of the fledgling nation of PNG to finance a large military capability on its own , and with the need to maintain a CMF @-@ type unit in the army of an independent PNG being questionable , the PNGVR was ultimately disbanded in 1973 , shortly before independence , leaving the PIR as the only infantry unit in the new Papua New Guinea Defence Force .
= = History = =
= = = Second World War = = =
= = = = Formation = = = =
By 1939 the eastern half of the island of New Guinea was divided into the territories of Papua in the south , and the former German colony of New Guinea in the north , both of which were administered by Australia . Due to the provisions of the League of Nations mandate under which German New Guinea had been entrusted to Australia in 1920 following its capture during the First World War , little in the way of defensive preparations had been made in the mandated territory , even as global conflict became more likely . Following the outbreak of war in Europe the raising of a Militia battalion in New Guinea , known as the New Guinea Volunteer Rifles ( NGVR ) , was authorised on 4 September 1939 . Early arrangements for the raising of the unit were undertaken by Lieutenant Colonel John Walstab , with the unit 's initial establishment limited to just 21 officers and 400 other ranks . As Superintendent of Police , Walstab 's influence ensured a close link between the police and the NGVR , with the police stores organisation controlling the issue of arms and equipment and police guards manning the NGVR 's store and parade ground .
The men were all white Australian or European expatriates and were drawn from a wide range of civilian occupations , although the majority were longtime residents and included gold miners , planters , traders and government officials . Most had lived in the territory for years , and many were quite old , with men between the ages of 18 and 50 accepted . Yet they were familiar with the terrain and the local inhabitants , even if they were poorly armed and equipped . Due to the paternalistic concerns of the civilian administration regarding native welfare and unease about providing the indigenous population with arms and military training they were not recruited into the NGVR , although they did serve in the Papuan Infantry Battalion ( PIB ) from June 1940 . Enlistment was for a period of two years and was unpaid except for a one pound annual allowance , unless called up for active service . Uniforms consisted of khaki shirts and trousers made from material sent from Australia , while felt hats , bandoliers , leather belts , boots , puttees and brass NGVR shoulder badges were also worn . Weapons included First World War @-@ era .303 rifles and some Vickers and Lewis machine @-@ guns .
= = = = Initial preparations = = = =
On 21 December 1939 , Major Ross Field , a former officer in the Australian Imperial Force ( AIF ) and Director of Public Works at Rabaul , took over command of the unit . A headquarters was subsequently established at Rabaul , while sub @-@ units were located at Wau , Salamaua , Lae and Madang . In the event of war the NGVR would be dispersed at strategic points on the mainland and the islands of the territory . If mobilised , the NGVR would come under the operational command of the 8th Military District which was in the process of being raised under the command of Major General Basil Morris . One of the unit 's first tasks was to provide an armed escort for enemy aliens , mostly Germans and Austrians , who were being deported to Australia by ship to be interned . Contingents departed on 29 September 1939 , 9 November 1939 and 31 May 1940 , with each escort party consisting of a non @-@ commissioned officer and six private soldiers . Meanwhile , on 12 December the compulsory evacuation of all European women and children in Papua and New Guinea was ordered . In June 1940 the NGVR 's establishment was increased to 23 officers and 482 other ranks , although this proved difficult to achieve due to the demands of recruitment for overseas service with the Second Australian Imperial Force , which resulted in a large turn @-@ over of men . At this time contingency plans for the defence of Papua and New Guinea envisioned the deployment of Australian forces to Rabaul and Port Moresby , while the defence of Lae and Salamaua would be left to the NGVR .
The atmosphere in the battalion in the early days was one of enthusiasm , with many of the older members taking a leading role . In April and June two regular instructors from the Australian Instructional Corps were sent to Rabaul in order to improve the standard of training in the unit . By July 1940 it was spread thin , with an authorized strength of 226 men based at Rabaul , 151 at Wau , 85 at Bulolo , 39 at Salamaua and 19 at Madang , for a total establishment of 520 . As the war with Germany and Italy continued in Europe , North Africa and the Middle East , Australian fears of Japanese intentions in Pacific grew . Yet with the bulk of Australian military and naval forces in the Middle East , defensive preparations remained limited . Two brigades from the 8th Division were subsequently dispatched to Singapore and then Malaya in February 1941 , while a Militia battalion would be stationed between Port Moresby and Thursday Island , an AIF battalion would garrison Rabaul on New Britain , and the 8th Division 's third brigade – less the battalion at Rabaul – would be dispersed piecemeal in Timor and Ambon . In July 1941 the 1st Independent Company was deployed to Kavieng on New Ireland in order to protect the airfield , while sections were sent to Namatanai in central New Ireland , Vila in the New Hebrides , Tulagi on Guadalcanal , Buka Passage in Bougainville , and Lorengau on Manus Island to act as observers . In early 1941 volcanic activity in the Rabaul area forced the government to move its administration to Lae , and NGVR 's headquarters also moved at this time .
= = = = Rabaul = = = =
The 2 / 22nd Battalion subsequently began arriving in Rabaul in March and April 1941 , while additional units added to the force . Designated Lark Force , it was directed to garrison the town . Tasks included protecting the airfields at Lakunai and Vunakanau and the seaplane base in Simpson Harbour , as well as forming " an advanced observation line " to provide early warning of Japanese movements . Following its arrival the role of the NGVR in Rabaul became a secondary one , and as a consequence the 80 men stationed there were not mobilised and the detachment was largely subsumed by the AIF battalion instead . Occupying defensive positions around Simpson Harbour the Australians were widely dispersed , with companies at Praed Point , Talili Bay , Lakunai airfield , and another inland at Vunakanau airfield , while other elements covered the coastal approaches , near Vulcan crater . Meanwhile , the NGVR spent the following months preparing defensive positions around Lakunai airfield . Lieutenant Colonel John Scanlan subsequently took over command of Lark Force in October .
Yet with the position increasingly viewed as untenable , the garrison was reinforced with four Lockheed Hudson bombers and ten obsolete CAC Wirraway reconnaissance aircraft from No. 24 Squadron RAAF , and by December had grown to 1 @,@ 400 men . Despite Lark Force being considered too weak to repel the expected Japanese attack , no plans were made for its withdrawal and instead the Japanese were to be made to fight for the island . In September the Administrator of the Mandated Territory , Sir Walter McNicoll , and his staff transferred to Lae . The Japanese began aerial reconnaissance over Rabaul soon after the attack on Pearl Harbor on 7 December , while the compulsory evacuation of all remaining European women and children to relative safety in Australia was ordered on 12 December . Meanwhile , scattered across the islands to the north , the 270 men of the 1st Independent Company were all that lay between Rabaul and the large Japanese base at Truk in the Caroline Islands .
On the mainland the NGVR formed independent detachments at Wau , Salamaua , Bulolo and Lae . By mid @-@ 1941 it had lost many of its youngest and most dedicated members , many of whom had left to join the AIF instead . Those that remained found the difficulties of making the journey from their remote home locations to the training centres increasingly onerous , while many were disappointed by the lack of ammunition and equipment for training . In September NGVR 's headquarters was transferred to Bulolo on the mainland , while Field relinquished command and was replaced by Major ( later Colonel ) Bill Edwards . One of more enthusiastic of the early volunteers , Edwards revitalized the unit on the goldfields and many new recruits came in . By December , with war against Japan seemingly imminent the strength of the NGVR was 12 officers and 284 other ranks in total , with just 170 to 180 men on the mainland . On 8 December 1941 , the day after war began in the Pacific , Morris was authorised to place the battalion on full @-@ time duty , although only a small number were ultimately called up at this time .
Meanwhile , Australian defences in Papua remained limited and were centred on Port Moresby , consisting of approximately 1 @,@ 000 only partially trained Militia from the 49th Battalion , two six @-@ inch coastal guns , a 3 @.@ 7 @-@ inch anti @-@ aircraft battery and a few Consolidated PBY Catalina flying boats , in addition to the locally recruited PIB which was still forming . However , with the Japanese soon expected to attempt to seize Rabaul and Port Moresby the remainder of the 30th Brigade was brought forward , with the 39th and 53rd Battalions arriving in Port Moresby on 3 January . Yet despite such measures , Australian unpreparedness and the speed of the coming Japanese advance meant that the NGVR was destined to provide the only armed resistance in New Guinea until the middle of 1942 .
The first air attacks on Rabaul began on 4 January 1942 . Within days the Japanese had succeeded in destroying the bulk of the defending aircraft , while further attacks targeted shipping in the harbour and shore installations . Scanlan considered he would need an entire brigade to defend Rabaul , yet with an invasion imminent all he could do was redeploy some of his limited force , while the remaining aircraft were withdrawn to Lae and the airfields cratered . The Japanese South Seas Force of approximately 5 @,@ 300 men under the command of Major General Tomitarō Horii landed at Rabaul in the early hours of 23 January 1942 . Attached to Lark Force , the NGVR detachment was positioned on the northern flank of the defensive line around Simpson Harbour with A Company , 2 / 22nd Battalion , manning medium machine @-@ gun and mortar positions at Vulcan Island . Defending a 1 @,@ 600 @-@ metre ( 1 @,@ 700 yd ) section of beach , one of the detachments subsequently engaged a Japanese force after dawn as they came ashore by barge , inflicting a number of casualties on them before being forced to withdraw .
Outnumbered , Lark Force was quickly overrun in the ensuing fighting , with the Japanese completing the capture of the town within 24 hours . Australian losses were heavy , with 28 men killed and most of the defenders captured . The survivors withdrew into the interior , moving south across New Britain to the Open Bay and Wide Bay areas , and west , for eventual evacuation . In total more than 400 servicemen and civilians escaped . Only 11 NGVR soldiers were among them . Many were less fortunate . 160 wounded and sick Australian soldiers , including a number of NGVR personnel , were captured and subsequently murdered by the Japanese at Tol Plantation in Wide Bay . Later , the Japanese naval prison ship Montevideo Maru was sunk off the west coast of Luzon in the South China Sea on 1 July 1942 after she was hit by three torpedoes fired by the submarine USS Sturgeon , resulting in the loss of 1 @,@ 035 lives , most of them Australian civilians and prisoners of war from Rabaul . Among those killed were 36 men from the NGVR .
= = = = Salamaua – Lae – Wau = = = =
The battalion was finally mobilised on 21 January 1942 . The same day 60 Japanese aircraft simultaneously attacked Lae , Salamaua and Bulolo . Realising the Japanese occupation of the north coast settlements of the Huon Gulf was imminent , McNicoll declared a state of emergency , handing over control to the NGVR second @-@ in @-@ command , Major Edmund Jenyns . With a Japanese landing at Lae expected and with the NGVR on full @-@ time duty , all civilians departed on 24 January . Four days later McNicoll returned to Australia , effectively ending civil administration in New Guinea . Only six RAAF signallers and five or six soldiers from the NGVR remained to report Japanese movements . Meanwhile , other NGVR groups defended strategic points in the area , and from mid @-@ February the NGVR detachment from Wau joined the Salamaua platoon , with the company concentrating at Mubo under Captain Douglas Umphelby .
Ill @-@ equipped and wearing an assortment of clothing and uniforms , their webbing was mostly of First World War vintage leather . Lacking helmets and entrenching tools , they carried packs and haversacks weighing in excess of 40 to 50 pounds ( 18 to 23 kg ) . With an average age of 35 years , most of the men had lived New Guinea for a considerable period of time . Highly individualistic and with limited military training , they lacked the coherence of a formed unit , while many brought their native labour lines with them to share the burden . The men readied themselves to fight a guerrilla war from the hinterland against the expected invasion , as well as preparing to destroy key infrastructure to deny it to the Japanese . Meanwhile , another company formed at Lae under Captain Hugh Lyon for the same purpose . Both companies were ordered to commence a demolition campaign in the event of a Japanese landing , although Wau airfield was to be left intact for the time being . NGVR personnel also helped rescue 217 survivors of Lark Force from Rabaul in February and March 1942 .
On 8 March 1942 approximately 3 @,@ 000 Japanese naval troops landed unopposed at Lae forcing the NGVR detachment to withdraw west towards Nadzab , while another battalion from the South Sea 's Force landed further south at Salamaua the same day . After observing the landings the NGVR detachment skirmished with the Japanese and attempted to demolish the airfield before withdrawing across the Francisco River , destroying the bridge across the river mouth as they went . The Japanese subsequently occupied Salamaua , and after leaving a section at the river the NGVR detachment moved south to Mubo . Although in the panic which followed Morris had initially ordered Edwards to prevent the Japanese from crossing the mountains , this failed to recognise the reality of the situation and subsequently proved unrealistic . Unable to be resupplied and lacking modern weapons and equipment , and with relatively few men and no prospect of reinforcement , the NVGR lacked the strength to block any Japanese movement inland . Although Morris was concerned about the possible loss of the Bulolo Valley , with Port Moresby threatened he was unable to reinforce the NGVR at Wau . Yet the Japanese chose to consolidate their position instead . Meanwhile , the NGVR was ordered to destroy the airfield at Wau and carry out a demolition campaign in the Bulolo Valley . Edwards rashly authorised the destruction of the two power stations in the valley and bridges at Bulolo and Wau , and despite there being no indication of a Japanese move towards Wau , the order was completed nonetheless . At Lae the primary concern of the Japanese was to get the airfield operational .
From its position at Mubo Umphelby 's company was subsequently ordered to maintain observation over the town and to block any Japanese movement towards Wau . A number of supply dumps and observation posts had been prepositioned in the hinterland and these were utilised for the task , while two Vickers machine @-@ guns were subsequently set up to cover the narrow approach up the Bitoi River valley to Mubo . The company included a number of men who possessed an intimate knowledge of the difficult terrain in the area , and despite limited equipment and supply deficiencies , they were subsequently able to provide invaluable intelligence to the Australian high command . Meanwhile , after the fall of Lae Lyon 's company had been stationed in the Markham Valley to the west , and was tasked with observing Japanese movements from that direction .
Although the Japanese were slow to move inland , a party of 60 soldiers subsequently destroyed the NGVR stores dump at Komiatum on 18 March before returning to Salamaua . Around Lae the Japanese remained confined to the township over the following weeks , focusing on making the airfield operational and establishing workshops and supply dumps in the area . Between March and May , with a strength of just 500 men , the NGVR monitored the Japanese bases which had been established in the Huon Gulf region , being the only Allied force in the area until the arrival of Kanga Force at Wau in May 1942 . The battalion then established observation posts and camps overlooking the main approaches and reported on Japanese movements and shipping , and called in airstrikes , while planning their own offensive . Later , it inflicted significant casualties on the Japanese in a series of raids , and led them to believe that they faced a much larger opposing force .
Following the bombing of Port Moresby in early February the civil administration in Papua had also been replaced by military control , with the Australian New Guinea Administrative Unit ( ANGAU ) formed to administer both Papua and New Guinea in a unified military government , following their hurried amalgamation . Regardless , the NGVR remained the only Allied unit operating on the north coast and goldfields over this period . It subsequently assisted the evacuation of many European civilians from the war @-@ zone , with many being flown out , while others moved by ship or overland to Port Moresby . As the sole representative of government authority , the NGVR also assumed responsibility for several thousand indentured native labourers recruited from the outlying districts who had been left without support and were unable to return to their homes . The NGVR subsequently established camps and fed them , and they became the first of many carriers and labourers enlisted to support the Allies during the fighting that followed . Meanwhile , the Japanese took Finschhafen on 10 March and occupied Bougainville later that month . Yet Morris was now finally in a position to begin reinforcing the NGVR . A platoon of reinforcements intended for the 2 / 1st Independent Company subsequently reached Port Moresby in late March following the loss of New Britain and New Ireland and they were sent over the Bulldog Track to support the NGVR instead .
Edwards next sent an NGVR scout section to find out what the Japanese were doing in Salamaua in late March . Although they were subsequently detected the Japanese failed to find them ; however , with the local inhabitants facing reprisals for assisting the Australians , the NGVR withdrew to avoid further consequences for them . Similar posts were subsequently established along the Markham Valley and at Heath 's Plantation , closer to Lae to observe Japanese movements . Elsewhere , Lorengau on Manus Island was subsequently captured by the Japanese on 8 April . Meanwhile , minor skirmishing occurred in April and May in the Markham Valley as the Japanese attempted to challenge the NGVR presence in the area . The NGVR continued its role of observing the Japanese , with Port Moresby instructing that no operations were to be undertaken against Lae or Salamua without orders , and that reinforcements were soon be sent to the area . On 23 April a Japanese fighting patrol of approximately 65 men from Salamaua moved on Komiatum , challenging NGVR control of the area . The Japanese subsequently discovered the NGVR stores there and ejected a small group of Australians guarding the village . Although the fighting continued for most of the day and resulted in three Japanese killed and several others wounded , the village was subsequently destroyed along with the NGVR stores . The NGVR detachment was then forced to withdraw to Mubo , while the Japanese returned to Salamaua . Following the capture of Madang on 1 May by the Japanese , the inland towns of Wau and Bulolo in the Morobe District were the only major centres in New Guinea still in Allied hands .
The Battle of the Coral Sea between 4 and 8 May effectively removed the threat of a Japanese invasion of Port Moresby . Meanwhile , a force consisting of the 2 / 5th Independent Company under Major Paul Kneen and supporting units had been tasked with undertaking a limited guerrilla offensive to harass and destroy Japanese personnel and equipment in the Lae and Salamaua area and the Markham Valley . Designated Kanga Force under the command of Major Norman Fleay , the first elements flew into Wau from Port Moresby on 23 May to reinforce the NGVR . Kanga force consisted of two companies of the NGVR split between the Markham Valley and Mubo , a platoon from the 2 / 1st Independent Company , and the 2 / 5th Independent Company with the force subsequently in position nine days later . Kanga force 's main problem was one of logistics . Supplies for Kanga Force were either flown in , depending on aircraft availability , or shipped to the mouth of the Lakekamu River in small craft , transported up the river to Bulldog in canoes and then carried over the Bulldog Track by native porters .
By early June , Kanga Force was largely concentrated at Wau , although there were elements of the 2 / 1st and 2 / 5th spread out as far as Bulwa , and elements of the NGVR at Mapos . The NGVR was still watching the Salamaua sector from Mubo , whilst other elements were covering the inland routes from the Markham and Wampit Rivers . As Fleay attempted to juggle his forces and relieve the exhausted NGVR detachments , his orders were clarified and work began on planning a number of raids in the area . Fleay considered there were 2 @,@ 000 Japanese in Lae and 250 in Salamaua . In comparison , he had just 700 men , of whom only 450 were fit for operations , with the force too small to meet the many possible Japanese threats . The threat of an overland advance required him to defend the numerous tracks through the Bulolo Valley , while the threat of an air invasion required him to defend likely landing zones at Wau , Bulolo , Bulwa and Otibanda , meaning that Fleay had even less resources to achieve his mission . He assessed that the only course of action available was to maintain a large force in the Bulolo Valley to defend the overland route to Papua , while conducting a number of raids in the area in order to inflict casualties on the Japanese and forestall any advance . These would be concentrated in three areas : on the Japanese force at Heath 's Plantation , where they formed an obstacle to any large @-@ scale movement against Lae ; on the Lae area to destroy the aircraft , dumps and installations located there , and to test the defences with a view to larger scale operations in the future ; and on the Salamaua area to destroy the wireless station , aerodrome and dumps .
Initial raids would subsequently be undertaken at Salamaua and Heath 's Plantation , led by Major Paul Kneen and Captain Norman Winning from the 2 / 5th Independent Company . Targeting the aerodrome and 300 @-@ strong Japanese garrison Winning planned the assault on Salamaua with Umphelby from the NGVR , following careful reconnaissance by NGVR scouts under Sergeant Jim McAdam . Early in the morning of 29 June 1942 , 71 members of the NGVR and the 2 / 5th Independent Company carried out a highly successful attack , killing at least 113 men and destroying a number of installations including the radio station and supply dumps for the loss of only three men slightly wounded . In addition , the Australians captured a small amount of enemy equipment and a number of documents , including marked maps , sketches , and Japanese orders . The simultaneous raid on Heath 's Plantation at Lae was carried out by 58 men , mainly from the 2 / 5th Independent Company . Although also successful , surprise was lost after watchdogs warned the Japanese of their approach , and Kneen was subsequently killed and two men were wounded , while Japanese losses included 42 killed . Following the raids , the Japanese sent patrols of up to 90 men into the foothills in the hinterland around Salamaua , destroying the camp at Butu and reinforcements were moved from the garrison at Lae to Kela village . Meanwhile , reconnaissance reports indicated that the Japanese had been forced to draw on their garrison at Lae to reinforce their perimeter at Salamaua during early July in an attempt to prevent further raids .
In retaliation Japanese aircraft subsequently bombed Wau , Bulolo and Skindiwai on 2 July , killing a number of Australians , destroying some houses and buildings , and driving many native carriers into the bush . Meanwhile , the Japanese garrison at Salamaua continued to be reinforced , with NGVR scouts estimating that another 200 soldiers had arrived since the raid , with the force there growing to between 400 and 500 men . Strong patrols were subsequently observed searching the tracks around the town for the Australians . Although the morale of the NGVR remained high , the effect of continuous operations in the harsh terrain with only limited logistic and medical support took their toll , with many falling ill to fever and tropical disease . The number of fit men decreased steadily . On 5 July Fleay restricted Kanga force activities to patrolling and observation . Finally the Japanese moved on Mubo , defended by just 64 men from the NGVR and 2 / 5th Independent Company occupying the high ground overlooking the village and the airstrip , with a lightly equipped force of 136 Japanese marines from the Sasebo 5th Special Naval Landing Party crossing the Francisco River on the morning 21 July . Approaching Mubo around 17 : 00 the Japanese clashed with the Australians and were scattered . With the Japanese trapped in the river valley , the Australians opened fire with four Vickers machine @-@ guns , three Lewis guns and three Brens , inflicting between 50 and 60 casualties , including 12 killed , without loss . The Japanese were subsequently forced to withdraw towards Salamaua , carrying their dead and wounded . The same day the Japanese launched a simultaneous thrust up the Markham Valley against the 2 / 5th Independent Company .
With a seaborne movement blocked , the Japanese again attempted to move against Port Moresby overland in July . Following a landing near Gona , on the north coast of New Guinea , on the night of 21 / 22 July , Japanese forces attempted to advance south overland through the mountains of the Owen Stanley Range to seize Port Moresby as part of a strategy of isolating Australia from the United States , resulting in a series of battles during the Kokoda Track campaign . From that point the importance of Kanga Force 's operations around Salamaua and Wau declined , with the direct threat posed by the landings dictating that the limited forces and supplies available to the Australians be concentrated on Port Moresby . Lieutenant General Sydney Rowell took over command of New Guinea Force from Morris on 12 August at the height of the fighting . The 2 / 6th Independent Company had arrived in Port Moresby on 7 August and it had been planned to send them forward to Wau to reinforce Kanga Force . However , with the Japanese threat against Port Moresby growing increasingly serious they were held in reserve there instead , while Kanga Force would be required to continue to hold on with the limited resources available to them . Meanwhile , as food was not getting through to Kanga Force , the soldiers of the NGVR became increasingly dependent on local supplies . Japanese air raids against their supply dumps , intimidation of the local inhabitants , large scale desertions of native carriers , and the inherent difficulty of getting supplies forward to feed those carriers that remained combined to threaten to stop their operations altogether .
The Japanese subsequently staged a landing at Milne Bay on the eastern tip of New Guinea on the evening of 25 August 1942 to reduce the Allied airfields that had been established there , further straining the limited resources available to Rowell and preventing him from reinforcing Kanga Force . Yet despite some success the landing force was subsequently destroyed by the Australians with the survivors forced to evacuate by sea on 4 – 5 September . During this time Horii 's South Seas Detachment had continued to make strong progress along the Kokoda Track , although the outnumbered Australian opposition was becoming increasingly effective . By 16 September the Japanese had reached Ioribaiwa , in sight of Port Moresby itself . However , following a heavy defeat at Guadalcanal , Horrii was ordered onto the defensive . The Japanese subsequently began to withdraw from Kokoda on 24 September to establish a defensive position on the north coast , but were closely followed by the Australians who recaptured Kokoda on 2 November . Further fighting continued into November and December as Australian and United States forces assaulted the Japanese beachheads , in what later became known as the Battle of Buna – Gona . Gona was captured on 9 December 1942 and Buna on 3 January 1943 . The Japanese subsequently began to abandon Sanananda on 13 January following an unsuccessful Australian assault the day before . Mopping up operations were completed on 22 January .
Meanwhile , the privations of operating around Mubo and in the Markham Valley continued to take their toll on the Australians , and by early August the bulk of the men forward of Bulolu and Wau were commandos . The NGVR had been exhausted by their exertions during the fighting and few now remained , with a small group from the 2 / 5th Independent Company relieving the NGVR scouts for their observation role . Indeed , by September 1942 the NGVR was no longer recognisable as a unit . As the first phase of irregular warfare in the Salamaua – Lae – Wau region came to a close by the end of August , the Japanese occupied Mubo from where they were positioned to seize Wau and the Bulolo Valley , but had not yet moved up the Markham Valley in strength . The Australians were subsequently forced to abandon Wau and the Bulolo Valley , and were preparing to hold a position at the head of the Bulldog Track . While the focus of the campaign in New Guinea shifted to the Milne Bay and Kokoda Track battles in August and September 1942 the NGVR continued to man its posts overlooking the Japanese base areas , patrolling extensively . The Allies remained concerned about the defence of the important air installation at Wau and were keen to secure the crest of the Owen Stanleys in that area . Consequently , the 2 / 7th Independent Company was flown into Wau in October 1942 to reinforce Wau . Anticipating an attack by the Japanese , General Thomas Blamey ordered the 17th Brigade from Milne Bay to reinforce Wau and relieve Kanga Force , and on 16 January 1943 the Japanese launched an offensive against Wau , known as the Battle of Wau .
= = = = Disbandment = = = =
The Japanese were subsequently defeated at Wau in January and February 1943 , relieving the pressure on the NGVR . Following this , as problems with supply and sickness reduced Fleay 's effectiveness , Kanga Force was broken up on 23 April 1943 with its individual units becoming part of the 3rd Division , which left Wau to begin the Salamaua @-@ Lae campaign to drive the Japanese from Salamaua . Meanwhile , ANGAU had expanded its activities on the goldfields , restoring military administration and the organisation of the supply and supervision of native carriers supporting Allied forces . By this time NGVR was believed to contain 300 men ; however , most were suffering ill health following months of guerrilla fighting , and many were experiencing ill affects due to their age . Having suffered heavy attrition , and with no further reinforcements available in New Guinea , the unit was finally disbanded in April 1943 . As a part @-@ time volunteer unit , the NGVR was unique in the history of PNG , yet due to their military training , their knowledge of New Guinea and its people , and their experiences in the early days of the war , many of its surviving members became part of ANGAU , while others remained as coastwatchers or in other capacities attached to AIF divisions and Z and M Special Units , continuing to serve until the end of hostilities in 1945 . As the Allies moved onto the offensive in New Guinea they planned to neutralise and bypass the Japanese base at Rabaul as part of their advance . During the Admiralty Islands campaign a small number of Australians from the NGVR and ANGAU were assigned to the US @-@ led Brewer Force during a reconnaissance @-@ in @-@ force on the Japanese @-@ held island of Los Negros between 29 February and 4 March 1944 . For their actions the unit was awarded a Distinguished Unit Citation by the United States .
Due to the nature of the early campaign in New Guinea the NGVR never fought as a formed unit , with it sub @-@ units scattered and forced to fight independently instead . Its men had come from many walks of life , and while some were too old to join the AIF , or were medically unfit or employed in restricted occupations , they acquitted themselves well in the harsh terrain , with only limited equipment and support , often developing their own tactics . The battalion played an important role in the period to late May 1942 by maintaining contact with the Japanese , as well as demonstrating to the native population in the Salamaua – Wau – Lae region that the Australians had not been forced out of the area . They provided early warning of Japanese troop and aircraft movements , and succeeded in preventing the Japanese from utilising the Bulldog Track as an avenue of approach to Port Moresby . The NGVR also aided the deployment of Kanga Force and later supported US forces on Manus . As part of Kanga Force they also denied the Japanese the vital airfields at Wau and Bulolo , which would have brought Port Moresby within the effective range of Japanese bombers . They also initiated the organisation of New Guinean labour which was to provide a vital contribution to the success of the Allied campaign in New Guinea . While records are incomplete , approximately 600 to 850 men are believed to have served with the unit . A roll of honour in the Shrine of Memories in ANZAC Square , Brisbane lists the names of 95 men who were killed or died serving with the unit during the war .
= = = Post war = = =
= = = = Re @-@ establishment = = = =
In the years immediately following the war the Australian Army considered re @-@ establishing a military presence in PNG , although there was some opposition among the colonial administration and white settlers to the raising of native units , echoing previous concerns . As an interim measure , the re @-@ establishment of the NGVR was approved in July 1949 , re @-@ forming as a whites @-@ only reserve unit of the Citizen Military Forces ( CMF ) . Volunteers were first called for in September 1950 , with initial arrangements for the new unit begun by Lieutenant Colonel N.R. McLeod . Later , two non @-@ commissioned officers arrived from Northern Command in October 1950 , forming part of a small regular cadre which would support the administration of the unit and assist with its training . In February 1951 a small group of Australian officers and non @-@ commissioned officers arrived to assist with raising the unit , and the re @-@ raising of the Pacific Islands Regiment ( PIR ) . The unit was subsequently raised as the Papua New Guinea Volunteer Rifles ( PNGVR ) on 16 March 1951 , with the enlistment of the first recruits beginning in Port Moresby soon after .
The PNGVR was intended to maintain sub @-@ units capable of providing advice on topography , native customs and personalities , provision of guides and interpreters , and assistance in the organisation and training of irregular native forces . The unit would also form the basis for the future expansion of forces in PNG if required , and be of limited assistance to civic action projects . It would also provide detachments to protect vulnerable points and counter small @-@ scale raids , and be capable of being used in border @-@ type or counter @-@ insurgency operations in support of regular forces following further training . The initial recruits were Australians , most of whom had served as officers or non @-@ commissioned officers during the war . The first resident commanding officer was Lieutenant Colonel E.F. Madden . Conditions of service were the same as for CMF units in Australia , while PNGVR members were paid the same as their Australian Regular Army ( ARA ) counterparts . Recruits were required to complete 12 days home training and a camp of 14 days each year , but could also undertake additional training periods if they wished .
= = = = Peace @-@ time service = = = =
In March 1951 a small PNGVR detachment assisted in relief operations following the eruption of Mount Lamington which killed 3 @,@ 466 people and left more than 5 @,@ 000 homeless . By the end of 1951 detachments had been raised at Port Moresby , Lae , Wau and Rabaul . Initially the battalion included a headquarters company and two under strength rifle companies , with A Company based in Lae and B Company in Rabaul . Meanwhile , the raising of a locally recruited regular battalion manned by indigenous personnel and trained and commanded by Australian officers and non @-@ commissioned officers had been authorised in November 1950 , and in March 1951 the PIR was reformed with an initial strength of one battalion . In addition to its other responsibilities the PNGVR fostered the raising of the PIR and HQ Area Command Papua New Guinea . The PNGVR would augment the PIR in wartime , and the two units would later regularly train together . However , due to the terms of the UN trusteeship under which the territory had been entrusted to Australia it was decided from the outset that neither unit would serve outside PNG .
Yet the PNGVR did not live up to initial expectations , and it remained significantly under strength . By May 1952 it numbered just eight officers and 140 other ranks , yet Rowell , by then the Chief of the General Staff , decided against disbanding the battalion " ... when there is the nucleus of a unit there " . In assessing the unit 's achievements , while only 0 @.@ 24 per cent of the population of Brisbane belonged to the CMF at the time , the PNGVR had succeeded in recruiting 2 @.@ 14 percent of the white population of the territories . The problem of raising a CMF unit in PNG was largely one of scale due to the small number of eligible men to recruit from , the absence of National Service intakes to swell its numbers , and the lack of suitable accommodation and training facilities . The role initially envisioned for the PNGVR proved overly ambitious , and it was subsequently redefined to being one of the provision of officers and non @-@ commissioned officers for an expanded PIR during wartime .
Between 1951 and 1953 PNGVR elements were established in all the main centres in PNG . A platoon was subsequently formed at Samarai in December 1953 , while further detachments were later established at Madang , Wewak , Goroka , Mount Hagen , Banz , Kainantu and Kavieng . A third rifle company was later raised , with C Company being formed at Goroka in 1957 . In May 1958 , for the first time since the Second World War soldiers of the unit participated in joint exercises with the PIR in the Goldie River – Kokoda Track area . Such exercises subsequently became a regular activity between the two units , while PNGVR detachments regularly marched with the PIR on Anzac Day and Queen 's Birthday celebrations . As part of the annual training program soldiers of the unit undertook two weeks in concentrated exercises and training every year , initially at Goldie River . Meanwhile , the arms and equipment issued to the unit progressively improved . Unlike the rest of the CMF , the PNGVR was not reorganised along pentropic lines in 1960 and remained relatively unchanged .
The unit expanded in the early 1960s with additional resources becoming available and increased recruitment , and by 1962 Administration Company and D Company had been added to the establishment , both of which were based in Port Moresby . Yet the small European population and the rapid turnover of staff in local industries continued to limit the manpower available , while the Army preferred to recruit permanent residents such as planters and traders , who represented an even smaller minority . In order to increase the number of personnel available arrangements were made to allow CMF members who started their training in Australia and then transferred their civilian employment to PNG to continue to serve with the PNGVR , while those who completed their time in PNG were similarly able to complete their training upon their return to Australia .
In 1962 the battle honours won by the NGVR during Second World War were awarded to the PNGVR so that the history of the former unit could be perpetuated . As the fighting in West New Guinea between Indonesia and the Dutch reached its height , concerns about the security of the border grew . By January 1963 the unit had grown to 550 men , all of them white . However , in 1964 the enlistment of Papua New Guinean and Chinese personnel had finally been authorised , with the unit evolving into a multi @-@ racial battalion . A large number of Papua New Guineans subsequently applied to join the unit . The strength of the unit increased rapidly as a result , and an additional platoon was subsequently raised at Kainantu the same year . A camp was subsequently built at Ambra , near Mount Hagen , and the first integrated camp was held there in November 1964 . Yet the cost of flying men to Ambra proved prohibitive and from 1966 annual camps were held at Lae , initially at a wartime facility on the Bumbu River , and later at Igam Barracks . Papua New Guinea Command was formed in 1965 , ending the link with Headquarters Northern Command in Brisbane . During this time CMF officers from Australia began visiting PNG to gain experience in operating in tropical conditions with the PNGVR and PIR , with the first group arriving in October 1965 .
The Cold War and growing Australian concern about Indonesian intentions during the Indonesia – Malaysia confrontation saw increasing defence resources allocated to PNG during the 1960s , including the raising of a second PIR battalion in 1965 . As part of this process in March 1966 it was announced that the PNGVR would be reorganised as a full battalion on the Tropical Warfare Establishment , with its strength expanded to 750 men of all ranks , while it would also receive a range of new weapons and equipment , including new heavy barrelled 7 @.@ 62 mm L1A1 Self @-@ Loading Rifles , M60 machine @-@ guns and 81 mm mortars . Support Company was subsequently raised in Port Moresby to replace the infantry company there , and included a mortar platoon , anti @-@ tank platoon , signals platoon and an assault pioneer platoon . Meanwhile , the Wewak detachment was redesignated D Company , and took over control of the Madang platoon . In 1968 the construction of the new Ingam Barracks was completed at Lae , and Headquarters PNGVR was subsequently moved there from Murray Barracks in Port Moresby . By 1969 only one @-@ fifth of PNGVR members were Europeans . On 17 May 1969 , PNGVR was presented with the Queen 's and Regimental Colours at Igam Barracks in Lae by the Administrator , Sir David Osborne Hay . A platoon was later raised at the University of Papua New Guinea ( UPNG ) in April 1970 . In July 1971 Second Lieutenant Pascal Idok of the UPNG detachment subsequently became the first Papua New Guinean to be commissioned into the PNGVR .
= = = = Disbandment = = = =
Yet as relations with Indonesia improved and the Vietnam War came to an end , the changing strategic circumstances in the Asia @-@ Pacific saw the unit establishment reduced to 440 all ranks during the early 1970s , while in the lead up to Papua New Guinean independence in 1975 consideration was given to disbanding the unit . Although unknown to the unit at the time , the PNGVR held its last annual training camp in August 1973 at Finschhafen , with 350 soldiers from detachments across the country participating . Amid concerns about the ability of the economy of the fledgling nation of Papua New Guinea to finance a large military capability on its own , and with the need to maintain a CMF @-@ type unit in the army of an independent PNG being questionable , the PNGVR was ultimately disbanded on 1 December 1973 , leaving the PIR as the only infantry unit in the new Papua New Guinea Defence Force . Although the decision to disband the unit was much debated within the Army at the time — and strongly resisted by the PNGVR Association — it had been felt that training a volunteer force without the considerable assistance of the ARA that had previously been available would be impossible after independence , while the possible destabilising effect a locally recruited unit might have was also a concern as the regional bases of the PNGVR might have provided a source of power in areas disaffected by the central government in Port Moresby . The PNGVR Queen 's and Regimental Colours were subsequently laid up at the Australian War Memorial on Anzac Day 1974 .
= = Battle honours = =
The NGVR was awarded the following battle honours :
Second World War : Rabaul , Wau , South West Pacific 1942 – 43 .
= = Commanding officers = =
The following officers commanded the NGVR :
Second World War
Lieutenant Colonel C.R. Field ( 1939 – 41 )
Lieutenant Colonel W.M. Edwards ( 1941 – 43 )
Post War
Lieutenant Colonel N.R. McLeod ( 1950 )
Lieutenant Colonel E. F. Madden ( 1951 – 53 )
Lieutenant Colonel T.W. Young ( 1953 – 55 )
Lieutenant Colonel J.K. Lynch ( 1955 – 57 )
Lieutenant Colonel W.H. Wansley ( 1957 )
Major D.H.C. Lloyd ( 1957 )
Lieutenant Colonel J.K. Murdoch ( 1958 – 60 )
Lieutenant Colonel R.T. Eldridge ( 1960 – 62 )
Lieutenant Colonel R.D. Newman ( 1962 – 65 )
Lieutenant Colonel M.A. Bishop ( 1965 – 68 )
Lieutenant Colonel K.E. Gallard ( 1968 – 71 )
Lieutenant Colonel W.A. Harrington ( 1971 – 72 )
Lieutenant Colonel P. Cole ( 1972 – 73 )
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= Tropical Storm Andrea ( 2013 ) =
Tropical Storm Andrea brought flooding to Cuba , the Yucatan Peninsula , and portions of the East Coast of the United States in June 2013 . The first tropical cyclone and named storm of the annual hurricane season , Andrea originated from an area of low pressure in the eastern Gulf of Mexico on June 5 . Despite strong wind shear and an abundance of dry air , the storm strengthened while initially heading north @-@ northeastward . Later on June 5 , it re @-@ curved northeastward and approached the Big Bend region of Florida . Andrea intensified and peaked as a strong tropical storm with winds at 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) on June 6 . A few hours later , the storm weakened slightly and made landfall near Steinhatchee , Florida later that day . It began losing tropical characteristics while tracking across Florida and Georgia . Andrea transitioned into an extratropical cyclone over South Carolina on June 7 , though the remnants continued to move along the East Coast of the United States , until being absorbed by another extratropical system offshore Maine on June 10 .
Prior to becoming a tropical cyclone , the precursor to Andrea dropped nearly 12 inches ( 300 mm ) of rainfall on the Yucatán Peninsula . In Cuba , the storm brought flooding , especially in Pinar del Río Province . Over 1 @,@ 000 people fled their homes , mainly along the Cuyaguateje River . A tornado was also spawned in the area , damaging three homes . In Florida , the storm brought heavy rainfall to some areas , causing localized flooding . There were nine tornadoes in Florida , the worst of which touched down in The Acreage and downed power lines and trees , causing significant roof damage to several houses ; there was also one injury . After Andrea transition into an extratropical storm , the remnants that also spawned one tornado in North Carolina , though damage was minor . Additionally , minor flooding was reported in some areas of the Northeastern United States . Three fatalities occurred due to weather @-@ related traffic accidents in Virginia and New Jersey . There was a direct death reported after a surfer in South Carolina went missing and was presumed to have drowned . The remnants of Andrea also brought gusty winds to Atlantic Canada , causing thousands of power outages in Nova Scotia and New Brunswick .
= = Meteorological history = =
At the end of May 2013 , a broad and diffuse cyclonic disturbance developed over eastern Mexico and northern Central America , incorporating the remnants of eastern Pacific Hurricane Barbara . As a tropical wave approached from the east , an inverted trough developed on the northern edge of the active region on June 2 , setting the stage for the formation of a weak surface low pressure system over the southern Gulf of Mexico the next day . The National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) began monitoring the system in their Tropical Weather Outlooks , bulletins issued every six hours regarding the probability of tropical cyclone formation within 48 hours . A nearby upper trough created unfavorable conditions for tropical cyclogenesis , subjecting the low to wind shear and abundant dry air that kept it indistinct and disorganized . On June 5 , the environment became less hostile , and the system began to improve in structure .
On June 5 , a Hurricane Hunters flight found a closed center and winds of 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) . In response , the NHC initiated advisories on Tropical Storm Andrea later that day , while centered about 310 miles ( 500 km ) southwest of St. Petersburg , Florida . Due to somewhat unfavorable conditions , significant strengthening was initially considered unlikely . Early on June 6 , deep convection was displaced well to the east and southeast of the center as a result of wind shear up to 29 mph ( 47 km / h ) . Despite this , Andrea intensified to attain peak winds of 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) at 1200 UTC that day . Thereafter , unfavorable conditions , including dry air entrainment caused the storm to weaken slightly . At 2200 UTC on June 6 , Andrea made landfall in Dixie County , Florida about 10 miles ( 15 km ) south of Steinhatchee . Simultaneously , the storm attained its minimum barometric pressure of 992 mbar ( 29 @.@ 3 inHg ) .
After moving inland on June 6 , the NHC noted that extratropical transition was likely within 24 hours and that it " could occur sooner if the convective structure does not improve . " By later on June 7 , most of the convection became displaced to the northwest due to dry air . Around that time , the storm began accelerating northeastward at 26 mph ( 42 km / h ) due to an approaching mid @-@ latitude trough . Based on ground observations and Doppler radar , the system transitioned into an extratropical cyclone at 1800 UTC on June 7 , while located over northeastern South Carolina . The remaining thunderstorms around Andrea became indistinguishable from those associated with a frontal zone over North Carolina . Due to a policy created in response to Hurricane Sandy , the NHC continued to issue advisories on the remnants of Andrea as it remained a threat to the East Coast of the United States . On June 8 , it moved rapidly northeastward across the Mid @-@ Atlantic and New England . Because gale @-@ force winds were located well to the southeast of the center , the NHC ceased advisories on the remnants of Andrea . Upon reaching the Gulf of Maine , the extratropical remnants of Andrea were absorbed by another extratropical low pressure area around 0000 UTC on June 9 .
= = Preparations = =
Multiple tropical cyclone warnings and watches were posted along both the Atlantic and Gulf coasts of the United States in association with Tropical Storm Andrea . At 2200 UTC on June 5 , a tropical storm warning was issued from Boca Grande to the mouth of the Ochlockonee River in Florida . Additionally , a tropical storm watch was put into effect for Flagler Beach , Florida to Surf City , North Carolina . At 0900 UTC on June 6 , the tropical storm warning was extended from the mouth of the Ochlockonee River to Indian Pass , Florida . Simultaneously , another tropical storm warning was issued from Flagler Beach , Florida to Cape Charles Light in Virginia . Early on June 7 , the tropical storm warning on the Gulf Coast of Florida was expanded to include Boca Grande to the Steinhatchee River in Florida , before being canceled a few hours later . At 0900 UTC on June 7 , the tropical storm warning from Flagler Beach to Surf City was modified to Altamaha River , Georgia to Cape Charles Light . Throughout that day , the tropical storm warning was progressively retracted northward , with the southern terminal being at the Savannah River in Georgia at 1200 UTC , the Santee River in South Carolina at 1500 UTC , the Little River Inlet in South Carolina at 1800 UTC , and finally Surf City at 2100 UTC . Early on June 8 , all tropical cyclone warings and watches were discontinued .
The United States Coast Guard urged marine interests and boaters in Florida , Georgia , and South Carolina to take precaution to protect their lives and vessels . In Florida , the Gulf Islands National Seashore closed their campground and a beach front road . Additionally , several states parks were closed and campers were evacuated . At Pensacola Beach , condominium associations asked residents to remove furniture from high balconies due to the anticipation of strong winds . A state of emergency was issued for Taylor County , where two shelters were opened .
= = Impact = =
Becoming a tropical storm on June 5 , Andrea marked the fourth consecutive season with a named storm in the month of June , following Hurricane Alex in 2010 , Tropical Storm Arlene in 2011 , and Hurricane Chris and Tropical Storm Debby in 2012 . This was over a month earlier than the 1966 – 2009 average date of the first named storm , July 9 .
The precursor disturbance to Andrea dropped nearly 12 inches ( 300 mm ) of rain on the Yucatán Peninsula in a 24 @-@ hour period . In Cuba , the Civil Defense issued a weather alarm for Pinar del Río Province from June 5 to June 6 . There was also a lower @-@ level " alert " in the adjacent provinces of Artemisa and Mayabeque . Over 1 @,@ 000 people fled their homes due to flooding , especially along the Cuyaguateje River in Pinar del Río Province . The city of Las Martinas received more than 10 inches ( 250 mm ) of rainfall in 24 hours ; a few other locations reported over 8 inches ( 200 mm ) of rain . Of the 24 dams in Pinar del Río Province , six had already filled by June 5 . The disturbance spawned a tornado in that area , which damaged three homes .
= = = Florida = = =
Along the Florida coast , storm surge produced by Andrea remained relatively minor , with surge heights ranging from 2 – 4 ft ( 0 @.@ 61 – 1 @.@ 22 m ) across the state 's Gulf coast . These measurements peaked in Cedar Key , where a station documented a storm surge height of 4 @.@ 08 ft ( 1 @.@ 24 m ) ; the same station recorded a storm tide height of 6 @.@ 26 ft ( 1 @.@ 91 m ) . The highest wind measurement was at a mesonet site in Davis Islands , which observed sustained winds of 47 mph ( 76 km / h ) . A total of 10 tornadoes were spawned in Florida . Near Myakka City , a tornado damaged the roofs of three single family homes , six pole barns , and four outbuildings . One horse and six chickens were killed , and another horse and two dogs were injured . Significant piles of debris and downed power lines covered State Road 70 in Myakka City . Damage was estimated at $ 50 @,@ 000 . Another twister spawned in Sun City Center downed trees and damaged lanais , fascia and shingles . Damage reached approximately $ 36 @,@ 000 .
Andrea dropped locally heavy rainfall in some areas of West Central Florida , with a Community Collaborative Rain , Hail and Snow Network ( CoCoRaHS ) station observing 6 @.@ 17 inches ( 157 mm ) inches of precipitation near Chiefland . Minor street flooding was reported in several counties . Near the city of Coachman , the weight of saturated leaves on the roof of a dog kennel at the Pinellas County Humane Society caused a large section of the roof to collapse . In East Central Florida , the storm produced about 2 – 3 inches ( 51 – 76 mm ) of rain , with isolated totals of 5 – 6 inches ( 130 – 150 mm ) over a three @-@ day period in Orange , Osceola , and Volusia counties . In North Florida , the storm spawned a tornado at the Naval Station Mayport in Jacksonville . A number of " non @-@ critical " structures suffered minor impact , while other buildings experienced damaged roofs and broken windows . Strong winds were also observed in the area , with gusts up to 83 mph ( 134 km / h ) at the Jacksonville Beach Pier ; this was the strongest wind gust associated with the storm . Another tornado was spawned on Amelia Island in Fernandina Beach , though it caused minimal damage .
Of the ten tornadoes in Florida , three were spawned in the southern portions of the state . In The Acreage , an EF @-@ 1 tornado caused minor to moderate roof damage to several homes , mainly in the form of shingles and roof covering torn off . Numerous trees were uprooted or snapped near the trunk , along with several branches falling ; this resulted in broken windows in several homes . At one home , the garage door was damaged , causing the door to blow in , which in turn led to the roof being damaged above the garage . An 85 @-@ year @-@ old woman was injured after being struck by a falling branch of an oak tree , which broke through her bedroom window . A few vehicles were moved from their original locations , while a 30 feet ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) boat was flipped on its side . Another tornado in Belle Glade damaged an awning and downed trees and several power lines . Further south , a tornado touched down in Broward County and entered Palm Beach County before lifting back up ; it resulted in no damage .
A convective band associated with Tropical Storm Andrea moved slowly across South Florida , prompting flash flood warnings for Broward and Miami @-@ Dade County Counties . Precipitation peaked at 14 @.@ 27 inches ( 362 mm ) in North Miami Beach , 13 @.@ 96 inches ( 355 mm ) of which fell in a 24 @-@ hour period . Roads became impassable in the Waterways community in Aventura , leaving over 50 vehicles disabled . In nearby Golden Beach , hundreds of people became stranded in their vehicles , according to city officials . At the Biscayne Bay Campus of Florida International University , 11 @.@ 71 inches ( 297 mm ) of rain was observed . A number of stalled vehicles and impassable roads were reported in North Miami , while 24 families were forced to evacuate due to flooding . Further north in Broward County , the city of Hollywood was particularly hard hit , with 9 inches ( 230 mm ) of rain observed . Several vehicles became disabled after retention ponds overflowed .
= = = Elsewhere in North America = = =
Along the coast of Alabama , 13 swimmers were rescued due to strong rip currents . In Georgia , the storm brought gusty winds to the coast , reaching 32 mph ( 51 km / h ) at Fort Pulaski . Wind damage was minor , limited to mostly downed trees and power lines in several counties ; in Chatham County , a falling tree struck a house . Generally light rainfall was reported across much of southern and eastern Georgia , though up to 5 @.@ 34 inches ( 136 mm ) fell near Richmond Hill . In Chatham County , a portion of U.S. Route 25 was temporarily closed due to flooding . Along the coast of South Carolina , a storm surge of 3 @.@ 55 feet ( 1 @.@ 08 m ) was observed in Beaufort County . A surfer in Horry County went missing and was later presumed to have drowned . In several counties along the coast or just inland , trees and power lines were downed . Andrea dropped light rainfall in the state , peaking at 4 @.@ 9 inches ( 120 mm ) near Cordova .
The storm brought significant amounts of rainfall to North Carolina in short periods of time , with a peak amount of 7 @.@ 41 inches ( 188 mm ) near Cameron . In Raleigh , 5 @.@ 14 inches ( 131 mm ) of rain fell in 24 hours , which broke the highest daily precipitation record for the city . Additionally , this total exceeded the average rainfall amount for the month of June . Many streams , creeks , and river overflowed in eastern North Carolina , resulting in numerous street closures in several counties . The Crabtree Valley Mall in Raleigh was closed after the parking lots became inundated . A number of low @-@ lying and creek @-@ side communities in Apex , Cary , Clayton , Durham , and Raleigh were flooded . A tornado was spawned near Varnamtown , where it downed several trees and damaged a large storage building .
The storm produced over 5 inches ( 130 mm ) of rain in southeastern Virginia , with up to 7 @.@ 73 inches ( 196 mm ) in Williamsburg . Several roads in Accomack County were left impassable due to high water . One indirect death occurred due to a car accident in southwestern Virginia on June 7 . In Maryland , rainfall in the eastern portion of the state was generally between 3 and 6 inches ( 76 and 152 mm ) . Poor drainage in some areas resulted in multiple road closures in Caroline and Talbot counties , the latter of which reported about 20 roads shutdown . Radar estimates of precipitation in Delaware were between 2 and 4 inches ( 51 and 102 mm ) , while 5 @.@ 19 inches ( 132 mm ) was observed in Smyrna . Flash flooding occurred in areas of poor drainage , causing several road closures , especially in central Delaware . Radar estimates of precipitation in eastern Pennsylvania ranged from 2 to 4 inches ( 51 to 102 mm ) , with a peak of 4 @.@ 09 inches ( 104 mm ) in Langhorne . There , the Neshaminy Creek reached 9 feet ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) above flood stage . In Delaware County , flooding was reporting along the Chester Creek .
Heavy rainfall was reported in New Jersey , amounting to more than 5 in ( 130 mm ) in Oceanport . The heavy precipitation resulted in traffic jams and caused flooding along the Millstone and Raritan rivers . Three car accidents were blamed on the storm , two of which were fatal . Numerous roads flooded across the state , leading to several high @-@ water rescues . Overflowing rivers and streams in Bergen and Union counties flooded low @-@ lying and poor drainage areas . The Rockaway River at Boonton reached 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) above flood stage from the afternoon of June 8 until the following morning . Winds of 35 mph ( 55 km / h ) downed some trees and power lines , leaving 500 – 2 @,@ 000 residences without power . A plane traveling from Palm Beach , Florida to Boston , Massachusetts had to make an emergency landing at Newark Liberty International Airport after being struck by lightning . In New York , 4 @.@ 77 inches ( 121 mm ) fell at Central Park in New York City in only a few hours , causing flash flooding in some areas . Train 3 on the New York City Subway briefly suspended service from 96th Street station to the 148th Street station .
In Connecticut , the storm dropped up to 6 @.@ 64 inches ( 169 mm ) in Gales Ferry , causing flash flooding in Fairfield and New London counties . About 3 to 5 inches ( 76 to 127 mm ) of precipitation fell throughout Rhode Island , flooding many streets , several basements , and stranding a number of cars , particularly in Providence County . An exit ramp of Interstate 95 in Providence was flooded with 1 @.@ 5 feet ( 0 @.@ 46 m ) of water . An estimated 3 and 5 inches ( 76 and 127 mm ) of precipitation fell in eastern Massachusetts . A number of roads were inundated in Bristol County , including Routes 24 and 79 and the ramps onto Interstate 95 . Many cars were stranded in about 2 feet ( 0 @.@ 61 m ) of water in Fall River . Several basements were flooded in New Bedford , while several streets were flooded or left impassable . Elsewhere in New England , light rainfall was observed in Maine , New Hampshire , and Vermont .
As a post @-@ tropical cyclone , Andrea brought rain and gale @-@ force winds to Atlantic Canada . Officials closed the Confederation Bridge to high @-@ profile vehicles due to the blustery conditions . More than 4 @,@ 000 customers in Nova Scotia and parts of New Brunswick lost power as the storm moved through on June 8 .
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= Triple H =
Paul Michael Levesque ( born July 27 , 1969 ) , better known by his ring name Triple H ( an abbreviation of his previous debut name Hunter Hearst Helmsley ) , is an American professional wrestler , corporate executive , and actor . He is the Executive Vice President of Talent , Live Events , & Creative of WWE , creator of WWE NXT , and the founder and senior producer of NXT . He is married into the McMahon family , which maintains majority ownership of WWE . In addition to his corporate role , Levesque makes regular appearances on WWE television as an authority figure and former wrestler .
Levesque entered several bodybuilding contests after graduating high school in 1987 . He commenced his professional wrestling career in the International Wrestling Federation ( IWF ) in 1992 , under the ring name Terra Ryzing , and won his first championship , the IWF Heavyweight Championship . He joined World Championship Wrestling ( WCW ) in 1994 , where he was soon repackaged as Jean @-@ Paul Lévesque , a French Canadian aristocrat . In 1995 , Levesque moved to the World Wrestling Federation ( WWF , now WWE ) , where he became Hunter Hearst Helmsley and , later , Triple H. In 1997 , Triple H co @-@ founded the influential D @-@ Generation X stable , which became a major element of the WWF 's " Attitude Era " . After winning his first WWF Championship and beginning a storyline marriage with Stephanie McMahon in 1999 , Triple H became a regular main event wrestler ( in 2003 , Levesque married McMahon in real life ) . Over the next two decades , he would win a total of 14 world championships and lead stables The McMahon @-@ Helmsley Faction , Evolution , and The Authority , with whom he continues to perform . From 2010 onwards , Triple H began wrestling on a part @-@ time basis as he took on a greater behind @-@ the @-@ scenes role within WWE .
In the course of his career , Levesque has held a total of 25 championships , including nine WWF / E Championships and five World Heavyweight Championships . He is the seventh Triple Crown Champion and the second Grand Slam Champion in WWF / E history . Triple H was also the winner of the 1997 King of the Ring tournament , and the 2002 and 2016 Royal Rumbles . He has headlined WrestleMania , WWE 's flagship pay @-@ per @-@ view , seven times , thus tying Hulk Hogan 's record .
Outside of professional wrestling , he has made numerous guest appearances in film and on television , including the lead role in the WWE Studios production The Chaperone .
= = Early life = =
Levesque was born in Nashua , New Hampshire . He watched wrestling for the first time when he was five , a match involving Chief Jay Strongbow . Levesque began to take up bodybuilding at the age of 14 , because he wanted to look like professional wrestlers . Levesque attended Nashua South High School , where he played baseball and basketball . Following his graduation from high school in 1987 , Levesque continued to enter several bodybuilding competitions , and was crowned Mr. Teenage New Hampshire in 1988 at the age of 19 . While working as a manager at Gold 's Gym in Nashua , New Hampshire , Levesque was introduced to world champion powerlifter , Ted Arcidi , who at the time was employed with the WWE . Eventually , after numerous attempts , Levesque persuaded Arcidi to introduce him to former pro wrestler and trainer , Killer Kowalski , who owned and ran a professional wrestling training school based in Malden , Massachusetts . In early 1992 , Levesque enrolled in Kowalski 's wrestling school , where he began to train as a professional wrestler .
= = Professional wrestling career = =
= = = Early career ( 1992 – 1994 ) = = =
Levesque was trained to wrestle by Killer Kowalski at his school in Malden , Massachusetts . His class mates included fellow future WWF wrestlers Chyna and Perry Saturn . Levesque made his professional debut on March 24 , 1992 in Kowalski 's promotion , the International Wrestling Federation ( IWF ) , performing as Terra Ryzing . In July 1992 , Levesque defeated Mad Dog Richard to win the IWF Heavyweight Championship .
Levesque wrestled for various promotions on the East Coast independent circuit until 1994 . During this period , he was managed by John Rodeo .
= = = World Championship Wrestling ( 1994 – 1995 ) = = =
In early 1994 , Levesque signed a one @-@ year contract with World Championship Wrestling ( WCW ) . In his first televised match , Levesque debuted as a villain named Terror Risin ' , defeating Keith Cole . His ring name was soon modified to Terra Ryzing , which he used until mid @-@ 1994 , when he was renamed Jean @-@ Paul Lévesque . This gimmick referred to his surname 's French origins and he was asked to speak with a French accent , as he could not speak French . During this time , he began using his finishing maneuver , the Pedigree .
Levesque had a brief feud with Alex Wright that ended at Starrcade 1994 with Wright pinning him . Between late 1994 and early 1995 , Levesque briefly teamed with Lord Steven Regal , whose upper class British persona was similar to Levesque 's character . The team was short @-@ lived , however , as Levesque left for the World Wrestling Federation ( WWF ) in January 1995 after WCW turned down his request to be promoted as a singles competitor .
= = = World Wrestling Federation / Entertainment / WWE = = =
= = = = The Connecticut Blueblood ( 1995 – 1997 ) = = = =
In a modified version of his gimmick in WCW , Levesque started his WWF career as a " Connecticut Blueblood " . According to Levesque , JJ Dillion originally gave him the name of Reginald DuPont Helmsley , but Levesque asked for a name to play with the first letters ; management ultimately agreed to his suggestion of Hunter Hearst Helmsley . He appeared in taped vignettes , in which he talked about how to use proper etiquette , up until his wrestling debut on the April 30 , 1995 episode of Wrestling Challenge . He made his WWF pay @-@ per @-@ view debut at SummerSlam , where he defeated Bob Holly . In the fall of 1995 , Levesque began a feud with the hog farmer Henry O. Godwinn , culminating in an infamous Hog Pen match at In Your House 5 : Seasons Beatings , where Levesque was victorious .
Although he was highly promoted in the first few months after his debut , Levesque 's career stalled during 1996 , starting off with a feud with Duke " The Dumpster " Droese following a loss during the Free for All at 1996 Royal Rumble . Up until that event , his angle included appearing on television each week with a different female valet ( which included Playboy Playmates Shae Marks and Tylyn John ) . Sable was his valet at WrestleMania XII , and after his loss to The Ultimate Warrior , as part of the storyline , he took his aggressions out on her . The debuting Marc Mero – her real @-@ life husband – came to her rescue , starting a feud between the two wrestlers .
On June 1 , 1996 , Helmsley appeared on an episode of Superstars in a match against Marty Garner . When Levesque attempted to perform the Pedigree , Garner mistook the maneuver for a double underhook suplex and tried to jump up with the move , causing him to land squarely on top of his head and suffer neck damage . Garner sued the WWF , eventually settling out of court and later discussed the incident in an appearance on The Montel Williams Show .
Levesque was known backstage as one of the members of The Kliq , a stable of wrestlers including ; Shawn Michaels , Kevin Nash , Sean Waltman and Scott Hall , who were known for influencing Vince McMahon and the WWF creative team . It has been claimed that he was scheduled to win the 1996 King of the Ring tournament , but the victory was instead awarded to Stone Cold Steve Austin after the Madison Square Garden Incident , in which the Kliq broke character after a match to say goodbye to the departing Nash and Hall . Despite the punishment , Helmsley did have success following the MSG Incident . Mr. Perfect became his manager and he won the Intercontinental Championship for the first time on October 21 , 1996 , defeating Marc Mero . When Mr. Perfect left the WWF , his departure was explained to be a result of Helmsley turning his back on his manager as soon as he won the Intercontinental Championship . Levesque held the belt for nearly four months before dropping it to Rocky Maivia on the February 13 , 1997 special episode of Monday Night Raw , called Thursday Raw Thursday . For a very brief time , Helmsley was accompanied by Mr. Hughes , who was his storyline bodyguard . After losing the Intercontinental title , he feuded with Goldust , defeating him at WrestleMania 13 . During their feud , Chyna debuted as his new bodyguard .
= = = = D @-@ Generation X ( 1997 – 1999 ) = = = =
Helmsley was being highlighted again in 1997 , winning the 1997 King of the Ring tournament by defeating Mankind in the finals . Later that year , Shawn Michaels , Helmsley , Chyna and Rick Rude formed D @-@ Generation X ( DX ) . This stable became known for pushing the envelope , as Michaels and Helmsley made risqué promos – using the catchphrase " Suck It " and a " crotch chop " hand motion , – and sarcastically derided Bret Hart and Canada . By that point , Helmsley had fully dropped the " blueblood snob " gimmick , appearing in T @-@ shirts and leather jackets . During this period , his ring name was shortened to simply Triple H. Even after the DX versus Hart Foundation storyline ended , Helmsley continued to feud with the sole remaining Hart family member Owen Hart over the European Championship . This ended in a match between the two at WrestleMania XIV , with the stipulation that Chyna had to be handcuffed to then @-@ Commissioner Sgt. Slaughter . Helmsley won after Chyna threw powder into Slaughter 's eyes , momentarily " blinding " him and allowing her to interfere in the match .
After WrestleMania , Michaels was forced into temporary retirement due to a legitimate back injury sustained at the Royal Rumble , with Triple H taking over the leadership position in DX , claiming that his now @-@ former associate had " dropped the ball " . He introduced the returning X @-@ Pac the night after WrestleMania and joined forces with The New Age Outlaws . As 1998 went along , DX became more popular , turning the group from villains to fan favorites . During this time , Levesque adopted an entrance gimmick of asking the crowd " Are you ready ? I said , are you ready ? " , followed by a parody of rival promotion WCW 's ring announcer Michael Buffer 's famous catch @-@ phrase , " Let 's get ready to rumble " , substituting the word " rumble " with the DX slogan , " suck it " . Also during this time , he began a feud with the leader of the Nation of Domination and rising WWF villain , The Rock . This storyline rivalry eventually led to a feud over the Intercontinental Championship , which Triple H won in a ladder match at SummerSlam . He did not hold the title long , however , as he was sidelined with a legitimate knee injury . When The Rock won the WWF Championship at Survivor Series , the rivalry between the two continued , as DX fought The Corporation stable , of which The Rock was the main star . Triple H received a shot at the WWF Championship on the January 25 , 1999 Raw Is War in an " I Quit " match against The Rock , but the match ended when Triple H was forced to quit or see his aide Chyna chokeslammed by Kane . This began a new angle for Triple H , as Chyna betrayed him by attacking him after the match and joining The Corporation .
At WrestleMania XV , Triple H lost to Kane after Chyna interfered on his behalf , and she was thought to have rejoined DX . Later on in the night , he betrayed his long @-@ time friend and fellow DX member X @-@ Pac by helping Shane McMahon retain the European Championship and joined The Corporation. turning heel in the process . In April , he started to move away from his DX look , taping his fists for matches , sporting new and shorter wrestling trunks , and adopting a shorter hairstyle . Levesque 's gimmick changed as he fought to earn a WWF Championship opportunity . After numerous failed attempts at winning the championship , Triple H and Mankind challenged then WWF Champion Stone Cold Steve Austin to a triple threat match at SummerSlam , which featured Jesse " The Body " Ventura as the special guest referee . Mankind won the match by pinning Austin . The following night on Raw Is War , Triple H defeated Mankind to win his first WWF Championship .
Triple H dropped the WWF Championship to Mr. McMahon on the September 16 , 1999 episode of SmackDown ! before regaining it at Unforgiven in a Six @-@ Pack Challenge that included Davey Boy Smith , Big Show , Kane , The Rock , and Mankind . He defeated Stone Cold Steve Austin at No Mercy before dropping the title to Big Show at Survivor Series . Triple H then continued his feud with Mr. McMahon by marrying his daughter , Stephanie McMahon . He then defeated McMahon at Armageddon . As a result of the feud , an angle with Triple H and Stephanie began which carried the WWF throughout the next seventeen months ; together they were known as The McMahon @-@ Helmsley Faction .
= = = = McMahon @-@ Helmsley Era ( 2000 – 2001 ) = = = =
By January 2000 , Triple H had dubbed himself " The Game " , implying that he was on top of the wrestling world ( as in not merely the " best in the game " , but that he was in fact " the game " ) and was nicknamed " The Cerebral Assassin " by Jim Ross ( " The Game " nickname was originally intended for Owen Hart , with Triple H adopting the nickname in honor of Owen ) . On the January 3 episode of Raw Is War , Triple H defeated Big Show to win his third WWF championship .
Triple H feuded with Mick Foley in early 2000 . They both fought at the Royal Rumble in a Street Fight Match for the WWF Championship , which Triple H won after performing two Pedigrees on Foley . The feud ended at No Way Out in a Hell in a Cell , where Triple H retained the title and forced Foley to retire . Triple H pinned The Rock at WrestleMania 2000 to retain the title , but lost it at Backlash to The Rock , thus ending his reign at 118 days . He regained it three weeks later , in an Iron Man match at Judgment Day , only to lose it back to The Rock at King of the Ring . Triple H then entered a storyline with Chris Jericho , who upset Triple H by defeated him for the WWF Championship on the April 17 episode of Raw Is War before the title was returned to Triple H because of a fast count made by referee Earl Hebner , and Jericho 's reign is not being recognized . Their feud culminated in a Last Man Standing match at Fully Loaded which was won by Triple H. Afterwards , Triple H entered a feud with Kurt Angle , initially over the WWF Championship , but then as a love triangle between himself , Angle , and Stephanie . Both Triple H and Angle wrestled for the WWF Championship against The Rock at SummerSlam , but The Rock retained the title after Angle received a legit concussion during a botched Pedigree on a commentary table by Triple H. The feud culminated at Unforgiven , where Triple H defeated Angle with a Pedigree after a low blow from McMahon .
After a brief run as a face that saw him defeating Chris Benoit at No Mercy , Triple H reverted to his heel persona and restarted his feud with Stone Cold Steve Austin when it emerged that Triple H had paid off Rikishi to run down Austin at Survivor Series , causing him to take a year off . While in the storyline Triple H said he had done it in order to shield Austin from the WWF Championship and end his career , in reality Austin 's previous neck injuries started bothering him again , forcing him to have surgery . In November 2000 , Triple H and Austin had a match at Survivor Series that ended when Triple H tried to trick Austin into coming into the parking lot to run him over again , only to have Austin lift his car up with a forklift and flip the car onto its roof 10 feet high . Triple H returned a few weeks later to attack Austin , and their feud continued into 2001 and ended in a Three Stages of Hell match in which Triple H defeated Austin . In 2001 , Triple H also feuded with The Undertaker , who defeated him at WrestleMania X @-@ Seven . The night after WrestleMania , Triple H interfered in a steel cage match between Austin ( who had just won the WWF Championship ) and The Rock where he joined forces with Austin and double teamed on The Rock , forming a tag team called The Two @-@ Man Power Trip . Triple H then defeated Chris Jericho for his third Intercontinental Championship on the April 5 SmackDown ! , and won it for a fourth time two weeks later by defeating Jeff Hardy . Triple H then became a world tag team champion by winning the WWF Tag Team Championship for the first time at Backlash when he and Austin defeated Kane and The Undertaker in a " Winner Take All " tag team match . As Triple H was still Intercontinental Champion , the win made him a double champion .
During the May 21 , 2001 episode of Raw Is War , he suffered a legitimate and career @-@ threatening injury . In the night 's main event , he and Austin were defending the WWF Tag Team Championship against Chris Jericho and Chris Benoit . At one point , Jericho had Austin trapped in the Walls of Jericho and Triple H ran in to break it up , but just as he did , he suffered a tear in his left quadriceps muscle , causing it to come completely off the bone . Despite his inability to place any weight on his leg , Triple H was able to complete the match . He even allowed Jericho to put him in the Walls of Jericho , a move that places considerable stress on the quadriceps . The tear required an operation , which was performed by orthopedic surgeon Dr. James Andrews . This injury brought an abrupt end to the McMahon @-@ Helmsley Era , as the rigorous rehabilitation process kept Triple H out of action for over eight months , completely missing The Invasion storyline .
= = = = Evolution ( 2002 – 2005 ) = = = =
Triple H returned to Raw as a face on January 7 , 2002 at Madison Square Garden . He won the Royal Rumble and received an Undisputed WWF Championship match at WrestleMania X8 , where Triple H defeated Chris Jericho for the Undisputed WWF Championship . After holding the title for a month , Triple H dropped it to Hulk Hogan at Backlash . Triple H then became exclusive to the SmackDown ! roster due to the WWF draft lottery and continued to feud with Jericho , culminating in a Hell in a Cell match at Judgment Day , which Triple H won . On the June 6 , 2002 episode of SmackDown ! , Triple H defeated Hogan in a # 1 contender match for the Undisputed WWF Championship at the King of the Ring against The Undertaker , but was unsuccessful at the event .
In the interim , between the Royal Rumble and WrestleMania , the McMahon @-@ Helmsley Faction was brought to an official on @-@ screen conclusion . By the time he returned , Triple H 's on @-@ screen marriage to Stephanie McMahon was faltering , so Stephanie faked a pregnancy in order to get him back on her side . When he learned that it was fake , he dumped her publicly on Raw when they were supposed to renew their wedding vows . Stephanie aligned with Jericho afterward , but she was forced to leave after losing a triple threat match on Raw the night after WrestleMania when she was pinned by Triple H. The divorce , and thus the storyline , was finalized at Vengeance .
Meanwhile , Shawn Michaels had made his return to WWE and joined the New World Order ( nWo ) . Michaels and Kevin Nash planned to bring Triple H over to Raw in order to put him into the group . Mr. McMahon , however , disbanded the nWo following several backstage complications and brought in Eric Bischoff as the Raw general manager . One of Bischoff 's first intentions was to follow up on the nWo 's plan and bring Triple H over to the Raw roster . Triple H went to the Raw brand , reuniting with Michaels , but on July 22 he turned on Michaels by performing a Pedigree on him during what was supposed to be a DX reunion , turning heel once again . The following week , Triple H smashed Michaels ' face into a car window to prove that Michaels was weak . These events led to the beginning of a long storyline rivalry between the former partners and an eventual " Unsanctioned Street Fight " at SummerSlam , in which Michaels came out of retirement to win . Afterwards , however , Triple H attacked him with a sledgehammer and Michaels was carried out of the ring .
Before September 2 , 2002 , WWE recognized only one world champion , the Undisputed WWE Champion , for both the Raw and SmackDown ! brands . After SummerSlam , then Undisputed WWE Champion Brock Lesnar became exclusive to SmackDown ! , leaving Raw without a world champion . Raw general manager Eric Bischoff then awarded Triple H the Big Gold Belt ( which had been used for the NWA World Heavyweight Championship and WCW World Heavyweight Championship ) making him the first World Heavyweight Champion . Triple H retained his title against Rob Van Dam at Unforgiven when Ric Flair hit Van Dam with a sledgehammer .
In October 2002 , Triple H would begin a controversial feud with Kane , leading to a match at No Mercy on October 20 in which both Kane 's Intercontinental Championship and Triple H 's World Heavyweight Championship were at stake . In the weeks preceding the match , Triple H claimed that , several years earlier , Kane had an unrequited relationship with a woman named Katie Vick . He went on to claim that , after Vick was killed in a car crash , Kane ( the driver ) raped her corpse . Triple H later threatened to show video footage of Kane committing the act in question ; however , the footage that finally aired showed Triple H ( dressed as Kane ) simulating necrophilia with a mannequin in a casket ; Kane 's tag team partner The Hurricane responded the following week by showing a video of Triple H ( rather , someone wearing a Triple H series of masks ) getting an enema . The angle was very unpopular with fans , and was de @-@ emphasised before the title match . Triple H went on to defeat Kane at No Mercy , unifying the two titles .
Triple H eventually lost the World Heavyweight Championship to Shawn Michaels in the first Elimination Chamber match at Survivor Series . He defeated Van Dam to earn a title shot at Armageddon with Michaels as the special guest referee . He regained the title from Michaels in a Three Stages of Hell match at Armageddon .
In January 2003 , Triple H formed a stable known as Evolution with Ric Flair , Randy Orton , and Batista . Triple H and Flair challenged Rob Van Dam and Kane for the World Tag Team Championship , but they lost the match . The group was pushed on Raw from 2003 to 2004 and the height of their dominance occurred after Armageddon , where every member of Evolution left the pay @-@ per @-@ view holding a title . Triple H held the World Heavyweight Championship for most of 2003 , defending it at a match against Booker T at WrestleMania XIX in an angle with racist undertones . He lost the title after 280 days in September 2003 at Unforgiven to Bill Goldberg , in a match with the stipulation that had Goldberg lost , he would have to retire . After a failed attempt to win back the title from Goldberg in a rematch at the Survivor Series , he finally regained the championship against Goldberg in a triple threat match at Armageddon which also involved Kane . At the 2004 Royal Rumble , Triple H and Shawn Michaels fought in a Last Man Standing match to a double countout , so Triple H retained the title as a result . Triple H dropped the title to Chris Benoit at WrestleMania XX , and he was unable to reclaim the championship from Benoit in subsequent rematches , including a rematch from WrestleMania between Triple H , Benoit , and Shawn Michaels at Backlash .
He then ended his feud with Michaels , defeating him in a Hell in a Cell match at Bad Blood , which became the longest Hell in a Cell match in history . After another failed attempt , losing to Benoit at Vengeance , he focused on Eugene , beating him at SummerSlam . Triple H then regained the title from former associate Randy Orton at Unforgiven . Following a triple threat World Heavyweight title defense against Benoit and Edge on the November 29 , 2004 episode of Raw , the World Heavyweight Championship became vacant for the first time . At New Year 's Revolution , Triple H won the Elimination Chamber to begin his tenth world title reign . At WrestleMania 21 , Triple H lost the championship to Batista , and subsequently lost two rematches at Backlash and Vengeance . After Vengeance , Triple H took a hiatus from WWE due to suffering from minor neck problems .
After four @-@ month hiatus , Triple H returned to Raw on October 3 , 2005 as part of WWE Homecoming . He teamed with fellow Evolution member Flair to defeat Chris Masters and Carlito . After the match , Triple H turned on Flair hitting Flair with a sledgehammer , sparking a feud between the duo . Flair defeated Triple H in a steel cage match at Taboo Tuesday for Flair 's Intercontinental Championship . Subsequently , Triple H defeated Flair in a non @-@ title Last Man Standing match at Survivor Series to end their feud .
= = = = D @-@ Generation X reunion ( 2006 – 2007 ) = = = =
Although Triple H failed to win the Royal Rumble match at the Royal Rumble , another championship opportunity arose for Triple H in the Road to WrestleMania Tournament . He won the tournament , granting him a match for the WWE Championship at WrestleMania 22 , where Triple H and John Cena fought in the main event for the title , which Triple H lost via submission . Later that month at Backlash , Triple H was involved in another WWE Championship match , fighting Edge and Cena in a triple threat match , where he lost again . Angered at his loss , a bloodied Triple H used his sledgehammer to attack both Edge and Cena and then performed a number of DX crotch chops . Triple H unsuccessfully attempted to win the WWE title from Cena on numerous occasions , blaming his shortcomings on Vince McMahon , which eventually led to a feud between the McMahons and Triple H.
Shawn Michaels returned on the June 12 episode of Raw and soon reunited with Triple H to reform D @-@ Generation X , turning Triple H into a fan favorite once again for the first time since 2002 . DX defeated The Spirit Squad at Vengeance in a 5 @-@ on @-@ 2 handicap match . They continued their feud with Mr. McMahon , Shane McMahon and The Spirit Squad for several weeks . They then defeated The Spirit Squad again on the July 18 , 2006 episode of Saturday Night 's Main Event in a 5 @-@ on @-@ 2 elimination match . They then again defeated the McMahons at SummerSlam , withstanding the attack of several wrestlers who assaulted them before the match aas directed by Mr. McMahon . At Unforgiven , D @-@ Generation X then defeated the McMahons and ECW World Champion Big Show in a 3 @-@ on @-@ 2 handicap Hell in a Cell match . During the match , DX embarrassed Vince by shoving his face in between Big Show 's buttocks , and DX won when Triple H broke a sledgehammer over the shoulders of Mr. McMahon after Michaels performed a Sweet Chin Music on him .
At Cyber Sunday during DX 's feud with Rated @-@ RKO , special guest referee Eric Bischoff allowed the illegal use of a weapon to give Rated @-@ RKO the win . At Survivor Series , DX got their revenge when their team defeated Edge and Orton 's team in a clean sweep during their five @-@ on @-@ five elimination match . In January 2007 , at New Year 's Revolution , DX and Rated @-@ RKO fought to a no contest after Triple H suffered a legitimate torn right quadriceps ( similar to the one he suffered in 2001 in his other leg ) 15 minutes into the match . Surgery was successfully performed on January 9 , 2007 by Dr. James Andrews .
= = = = WWE Champion ( 2007 – 2009 ) = = = =
Triple H made his return at SummerSlam , where he defeated King Booker . Two months later at No Mercy , Triple H was originally scheduled to face Umaga in a singles match . However , at the start of the night , Triple H decided to challenge newly named WWE Champion Randy Orton , reigniting his rivalry with Orton that had been interrupted following his injury . Triple H won the match , winning his eleventh world championship and sixth WWE Championship , and then defended his title against Umaga in his regularly scheduled match after Mr. McMahon declared the match to be for the WWE title . After that McMahon gave Orton a rematch against Triple H in a Last Man Standing match in the main event , and Triple H lost after failing to beat the ten count when Orton hit his RKO onto the announcer 's table . Triple H 's title reign at No Mercy is the fifth shortest reign in WWE history , only lasting through the duration of the event . After winning the Raw Elimination Chamber match at No Way Out , Triple H gained a WWE Championship match by outlasting five other men , last eliminating Jeff Hardy after a Pedigree on a steel chair . However , at WrestleMania XXIV , Orton retained after punting Triple H and pinning John Cena following Triple H 's Pedigree on Cena . A month later , at Backlash , Triple H won the title in a fatal four @-@ way elimination match against Orton , Cena , and John " Bradshaw " Layfield , tying the record for most WWE Championship reigns with The Rock . Triple H then retained the title against Orton at Judgment Day in a steel cage match and again at One Night Stand in a Last Man Standing match . Orton suffered a legitimate collarbone injury during the match , thus ending the feud prematurely .
Triple H then went on to defeat cleanly John Cena to successfully defend the WWE Championship at Night of Champions . On the June 23 episode of Raw , Triple H was drafted to the SmackDown brand as a part of the 2008 WWE draft , in the process making the WWE Championship exclusive to SmackDown . He defended the championship over the summer by defeating the likes of Edge at The Great American Bash and The Great Khali at SummerSlam , and was the only champion to retain his title at Unforgiven 's Championship Scramble matches . After this , he successfully defended it against Jeff Hardy both at No Mercy and Cyber Sunday .
At Survivor Series , Triple H was scheduled to defend the championship against Vladimir Kozlov and Jeff Hardy , but Hardy was kept out of the match after a scripted attack and injury . During the match , SmackDown general manager Vickie Guerrero announced that Edge had returned and introduced him into the contest . Hardy interfered and hit Triple H with a steel chair meant for Edge , thus costing him the title after a 210 days reign and resulting in Edge winning his sixth world title . After failing to regain the title at Armageddon , Triple H entered seventh in the 2009 Royal Rumble , but was last eliminated by Randy Orton . In February at Elimination Chamber , Triple H won the WWE Championship in the SmackDown Elimination Chamber match , setting the record for most reigns at eight . That record stood until 2011 when John Cena won his ninth WWE Championship .
On the February 16 episode of Raw , Triple H made an appearance aiding Stephanie and Shane McMahon , after they were attacked by Randy Orton . On the February 20 episode of SmackDown , Triple H was interviewed by Jim Ross ; in the interview , footage was shown highlighting the events that occurred on the February 16 episode of Raw . Ross asked Triple H how he felt seeing that footage , in response , he broke character ( after 5 years of marriage ) by admitting that Vince McMahon is his father @-@ in @-@ law , that Shane is his brother @-@ in @-@ law , and that Stephanie is his wife , thus creating a rivalry between Triple H and Orton . On the February 23 episode of Raw , Triple H confronted Orton , before attacking him , Ted DiBiase , and Cody Rhodes ( a group known as The Legacy ) with a sledgehammer and chasing them from the arena . At WrestleMania XXV , Triple H defeated Orton to retain the title . He , with Shane McMahon and Batista , then faced Orton and The Legacy in a six @-@ man tag match for the WWE Championship at Backlash . He lost the title to Orton after trying to stop Batista from hitting Cody Rhodes with a chair , allowing Orton to hit the RKO and punt to the head . After six weeks off of TV , selling the injury , he lost a Three Stages of Hell title match to Orton at The Bash . At Night of Champions , he again lost a title match to Orton , this time a triple threat match , also involving John Cena .
= = = = DX 's final run and various feuds ( 2009 – 2010 ) = = = =
On the August 10 episode of Raw , Triple H met with Michaels at an office cafeteria in Texas where Michaels was working as a chef ; throughout the show , Triple H tried to convince Michaels to return to WWE from hiatus . After several incidents ( including grease grill burgers on fire and Michaels shouting at a little girl ) , Michaels agreed to team with Triple H to face The Legacy at SummerSlam , superkicked the girl , and quit his chef job . On the August 17 episode of Raw , Triple H and Michaels officially reunited as DX , but as they were in the process of their in @-@ ring promo , The Legacy attacked them both . Their first match after reuniting was against The Legacy at SummerSlam , which they won . At Breaking Point , however , they lost to The Legacy in the first ever Submissions Count Anywhere match in WWE history .
At Hell in a Cell , DX defeated The Legacy in a Hell in a Cell match . DX unsuccessfully challenged John Cena for the WWE Championship in a triple threat match at Survivor Series , after which they remained friends and partners . On December 13 at TLC : Tables , Ladders and Chairs , DX defeated Jeri @-@ Show ( Chris Jericho and Big Show ) to win the Unified WWE Tag Team Championship in a Tables , Ladders , and Chairs match . This was their first tag team championship reign together .
On December 21 , Triple H announced that Hornswoggle was the new DX mascot . This came about after Hornswoggle sued DX for emotional and physical distress due to them not allowing him to join DX . After being taken to court where they were ruled guilty by a jury and judge consisting of dwarves , Michaels told Triple H that Hornswoggle could be the mascot . Triple H agreed to it only if the charges were dropped , which Hornswoggle agreed to . On January 11 , 2010 episode of Raw , Mike Tyson , who was the Raw guest host for the night , teamed with Jericho to face DX ; however , at the end of the bout , Tyson turned on Jericho and aligned himself with Triple H and Michaels . On the February 8 episode of Raw , DX lost the Unified Tag Team Championship to ShoMiz ( The Miz and Big Show ) in a triple threat elimination tag match , also involving The Straight Edge Society ( CM Punk and Luke Gallows ) . On the March 1 episode of Raw , they lost a rematch for the title . This was their last televised match before Michaels retired . Michaels and Triple H had a non @-@ wrestling reunion at the 2010 Tribute to the Troops .
On February 21 , Triple H eliminated then WWE Champion Sheamus from the Elimination Chamber match , though he did not win the title himself . Sheamus attacked him weeks later , setting up a match at WrestleMania XXVI , which Triple H won . Also at WrestleMania , Michaels lost to The Undertaker and was forced to retire . While giving a farewell speech the next night , Sheamus attacked him and set up a rematch at Extreme Rules . Sheamus attacked Triple H at the start of the show , before later winning the match . Triple H then took time off to recover from injuries , completely missing The Nexus storyline . Triple H made an untelevised appearance on October 30 at the WWE Fan Appreciation Event and also at the 2010 Tribute to the Troops .
= = = = Chief Operating Officer ( 2011 – 2013 ) = = = =
On the February 21 , 2011 episode of Raw , Triple H returned to WWE by interrupting the return of The Undertaker and challenging him to a match at WrestleMania XXVII , which later became a No Holds Barred match . A week later , he put Sheamus through the announce table with a Pedigree , in retaliation for Sheamus giving him a ten @-@ month injury . At WrestleMania XXVII , Triple H lost , which extended Undertaker 's undefeated streak to 19 – 0 ; however , Undertaker was carried from the ring on a stretcher whereas Triple H left the ring on his feet .
At the end of the July 18 episode of Raw , Triple H returned on behalf of WWE 's board of directors to relieve his father @-@ in @-@ law Vince McMahon of his duties . This was followed by the announcement that he had been assigned to take over as Chief Operating Officer ( COO ) of the WWE . This was during a storyline where CM Punk had won the WWE Championship and left the company . Though a new champion was crowned , Triple H helped re @-@ sign Punk and upheld both championship reigns . He announced he would referee a match to unify both WWE Championships at SummerSlam . Although he counted a pinfall for CM Punk to win , John Cena 's leg was on the ropes , which would break the pin . Regardless , Triple H 's longtime friend Kevin Nash attacked Punk immediately after the match to allow Alberto Del Rio to become the new champion . Though Nash and Punk demanded a match against each other , Triple H fired Nash for insubordination and booked himself in a No Disqualification match at Night of Champions with his position of COO on the line . He won the match despite interference from John Laurinaitis , Nash , The Miz and R @-@ Truth . After repeated attacks from these wrestlers in various matches , the majority of WWE 's on @-@ screen staff gave Triple H a vote of no confidence . Mr. McMahon returned to relieve him of his duties on Raw , though he remained the COO . He was replaced as general manager of Raw by Laurinaitis , who booked him in a tag team match against Miz and R @-@ Truth at Vengeance . During the match , Nash once again attacked him and did so the following night on the October 24 episode of Raw , hospitalizing him ( kayfabe ) . WWE later announced that Triple H had sustained a fractured vertebra , and would be out of action . He returned on December 12 , as part of the Slammy Awards . On December 18 , he defeated Nash at Tables , Ladders , and Chairs in sledgehammer ladder match , after attacking him with a sledgehammer .
Triple H returned on the January 30 , 2012 episode of Raw to evaluate Laurinaitis ' performance as general manager . Before he could announce the decision , he was interrupted by the returning Undertaker . After initially refusing the rematch as he did not want to tarnish The Undertaker 's legacy , Triple H accepted the challenge after being called a coward who lives in Shawn Michaels ' shadow , on the condition their rematch be contested inside Hell in a Cell . Triple H went on to lose this match at WrestleMania XXVIII .
Triple H returned on the April 30 episode of Raw , when he refused to give in to Brock Lesnar 's unreasonable contract demands , resulting in Lesnar attacking him and storyline breaking his arm . Upon his return two weeks later , Triple H was confronted by Lesnar 's legal representative , Paul Heyman , who announced Lesnar was filing a lawsuit against WWE for breach of contract . After he accosted Heyman , Heyman threatened another lawsuit against Triple H for assault and battery . At the No Way Out in June , Triple H challenged Lesnar , who was not present , to a match at SummerSlam , which Heyman refused on Lesnar 's behalf the following night on Raw . At Raw 1000 , Stephanie McMahon managed to goad Heyman into accepting her husband 's challenge against Lesnar . To anger Triple H , Lesnar broke his best friend Shawn Michaels 's arm on the August 13 episode of Raw . Six days later at SummerSlam , Lesnar defeated Triple H via submission after once again breaking his arm in the storyline .
On the August 27 episode of Raw , Triple H was supposed to address his potential retirement , but did not make a definitive decision . On the December 17 episode of Raw , Triple H made a non @-@ wrestling appearance for the 2012 Slammy Awards debuting with his new haircut .
Triple H returned on the February 25 , 2013 episode of Raw , brawling with Brock Lesnar after he attempted to attack Mr. McMahon . The brawl resulted in Lesnar having his head split open and requiring 18 stitches . The following week , Triple H issued a challenge to Lesnar , requesting a rematch with him at WrestleMania 29 , which Lesnar accepted on the condition that he could choose the stipulation . The following week , after Triple H signed the contract and assaulted Heyman , the stipulation was revealed as No Holds Barred with Triple H 's career on the line . Triple H went on to win the match after hitting Lesnar with a Pedigree onto the steel steps . On the April 15 episode of Raw , Heyman challenged Triple H to face Lesnar in a steel cage match at Extreme Rules , which Triple H accepted the following week . Triple H ended up losing the match at the pay @-@ per @-@ view on May 19 thanks to interference from Heyman , and he also injured his jaw .
The next night on Raw , Triple H wrestled Heyman 's newest client , Curtis Axel . He suffered a storyline concussion and was deemed to have forfeited . Despite being medically cleared to wrestle before the June 3 episode of Raw , Vince and Stephanie McMahon did not allow Triple H to wrestle Axel , citing concerns for his well @-@ being and the safety of his children . In response , Triple H stormed out the arena and vowed to return to the ring the next week on Raw . On that episode , he lost to Axel when McMahon dubiously disqualified him , ordered Axel to leave the ring , then stole the bell and microphone to prevent the match from being restarted .
= = = = The Authority ( 2013 – 2015 ) = = = =
On the August 12 episode of Raw , Triple H announced that he would be the special guest referee of the SummerSlam main event : the WWE Championship match between champion John Cena and Daniel Bryan , before giving original referee Brad Maddox a Pedigree . At the event , after Bryan won the match and the title , Triple H would give Bryan a Pedigree so that Randy Orton could cash in his Money in the Bank and win the title , therefore turning heel for the first time since 2006 . Along with his wife Stephanie , they created The Authority , with The Shield as his enforcers and later Kane joining as the Director of Operations .
Over the coming weeks he set up handicap matches against any wrestlers who questioned his decisions , such as Big Show and Dolph Ziggler , even firing Cody Rhodes in retaliation for the latter 's insolence . On the October 7 episode of Raw , after " firing " Big Show , Show knocked him out in retaliation and was carried out by officials out of the arena . At the 2013 Slammy Awards , Triple H immediately performed a Pedigree on Orton after Bryan shoved him into Stephanie McMahon , despite Orton 's shock .
At WrestleMania XXX , Triple H lost to Bryan , thereby granting Bryan a part in the subsequent title match against Batista and champion Randy Orton . Triple H assaulted Bryan after the match and later attempted to prevent Bryan from winning the title by interfering and recruiting Scott Armstrong as a crooked referee , but these attempts were unsuccessful as Bryan won the title by making Batista submit . In order to end Bryan 's title reign , Triple H reformed Evolution with Orton and Batista on the April 18 episode of SmackDown , but Bryan remained champion due to The Shield turning on The Authority . At Extreme Rules , Evolution lost to The Shield and again at Payback in a No Holds Barred elimination match . On the June 2 episode of Raw , Batista would leave the group after Triple H refused to grant him his shot at the WWE World Heavyweight Championship . Triple H would then resort to " Plan B " , which would be Seth Rollins turning on The Shield and rejoining The Authority .
On the October 27 episode of Raw , Triple H would offer John Cena a chance to join forces with The Authority , which Cena refused . This led to Triple H announcing a five @-@ on @-@ five tag team elimination match for Survivor Series , with a team representing The Authority facing a team captained by Cena . On the November 3 episode of Raw , Mr. McMahon announced that if Team Authority would lose , they would be removed from power . On the November 21 episode of SmackDown , Triple H announced that if Team Cena lost , all of Team Cena , except Cena himself , would be fired . At Survivor Series , Big Show joined The Authority by betraying Cena , but Sting made his WWE debut , attacking crooked referee Scott Armstrong and Triple H , and assisted Dolph Ziggler in pinning Rollins to give Team Cena the victory , putting the Authority out of power .
After being out of power for a month , Rollins coaxed Cena into reinstating The Authority on the December 29 episode of Raw , by holding Raw guest host Edge hostage with Big Show . On the January 19 episode of Raw , Cena would defeat Rollins , Kane and Big Show in a handicap match when Sting distracted The Authority , allowing Cena to pin Rollins and win back the jobs of Ziggler , Ryback and Erick Rowan , who had been fired two weeks previously by Triple H and Stephanie . On January 26 , it was officially announced via WWE.com that Triple H challenged Sting to a " face @-@ to @-@ face " confrontation at Fastlane , which Sting accepted ; at the confrontation , Sting challenged Triple H to a match at WrestleMania 31 , which Triple H accepted . At WrestleMania , Triple H defeated Sting with interference from D @-@ Generation @-@ X , but shook hands with Sting after the match . After his match with Sting , he and Stephanie McMahon were later confronted by The Rock and Ronda Rousey during a promo regarding the record crowd at the event .
Throughout 2015 , Triple H maintained his role as the leader of The Authority , and was involved in mediating issues between Seth Rollins and Kane . Over the summer , Triple H began to test Rollins by having him defend the championship against Roman Reigns , Brock Lesnar , John Cena , and Sting . After Rollins suffered a legitimate severe knee injury at a live event , the WWE World Heavyweight Championship was vacated and it was announced that there would be a tournament to determine a new champion at Survivor Series .
On the November 9 episode of Raw , Triple H offered to give Reigns a bye to the finals of the tournament if he joined The Authority , but Reigns refused . At Survivor Series , Reigns defeated Dean Ambrose in the tournament finals to become WWE World Heavyweight Champion . Triple H came out and attempted to congratulate Reigns , but was instead speared by him . This allowed Sheamus to cash in his Money in the Bank contract and quickly defeat Reigns to win the championship , resulting in Sheamus aligning with The Authority .
= = = = WWE World Heavyweight Champion & Hiatus ( 2015 – Present ) = = = =
The Authority made a rematch between Reigns and Sheamus for the title on the November 30 episode of Raw , with the stipulation that Dean Ambrose and The Usos would lose their Intercontinental Championship and WWE Tag Team Championship title shots if Reigns failed to win the match in under 5 minutes and 15 seconds ( which was the length Reigns ' title reign at Survivor Series ) ; Reigns won by disqualification , allowing Ambrose and The Usos to keep their title shots . At the TLC : Tables , Ladders and Chairs pay @-@ per @-@ view , Sheamus retained the WWE World Heavyweight Championship against Reigns due to interference from The League of Nations . After the match , Reigns " snapped " and viciously attacked Sheamus as well as Triple H , who had come to calm Reigns . Due to the injuries ( kayfabe ) suffered from Reigns , Triple H took a hiatus from television .
Triple H returned at the 2016 Royal Rumble match for the WWE World Heavyweight Championship , as the unannounced 30th entrant . After eliminating the defending champion , Roman Reigns , he then eliminated Dean Ambrose to secure his second Royal Rumble win and 14th world championship overall . After breaking Reigns ' nose in storyline , Triple H was then challenged by Ambrose , whom he defeated at Roadblock to defend the title , before dropping it back to Reigns – who had become the # 1 contender for the WWE World Heavyweight Championship by pinning Dean Ambrose in a triple threat match that also involved Brock Lesnar at Fastlane – at WrestleMania 32 , ending his reign at 70 days .
= = Business career = =
In 2010 , Levesque 's role as an Executive Senior Advisor was officially formalized as he was given an office at WWE headquarters in Stamford , Connecticut . Levesque was named Executive Vice President , Talent and Live events in 2011 . In this role he oversees the talent relations and talent development departments , training of performers and management of worldwide recruitment . Levesque 's role within the company has been under much criticism since 2003 , as many fans and some wrestlers view it as a way to keep him on top on @-@ screen and to give him more television time . Levesque has spoken against this criticism and has denied all of it . Additionally , Levesque has been credited for losing in high profile matches that helped elevate the careers of younger wrestlers including John Cena , Randy Orton , Batista , Jeff Hardy , Brock Lesnar , Daniel Bryan and Roman Reigns .
As the founder of NXT since its inception in 2012 , Levesque has been widely praised for helping cultivate the brand , recruiting fresh new talent , and helping guide the brand to various levels of success including sold @-@ out shows , increased respect for women ’ s wrestling , and international expansion .
In 2013 , his title was elevated to Executive Vice @-@ president of Talent , Live Events and Creative where he also works with WWE creative direction and storylines of WWE 's programming .
In 2013 , Levesque earned a combined salary of just over $ 1 @.@ 5 million ( U.S. ) from his front office job and as a wrestler . He also owns just over $ 1 @.@ 5 million ( U.S. ) in WWE stock .
= = Personal life = =
What began as an on @-@ screen storyline marriage in 2000 blossomed into a real @-@ life romance when Levesque began dating Stephanie McMahon . They married on October 25 , 2003 . They have three daughters . He had previously been in a long @-@ term relationship with former WWF wrestler Chyna . He has a sister named Lynn .
In late 2004 , Levesque released a book titled Making the Game : Triple H 's Approach to a Better Body . Mostly devoted to bodybuilding advice , the book also includes some autobiographical information , memoirs , and opinions .
Levesque is a fan of the band Motörhead ( which has performed three different entrance themes for Triple H over his career ) , and was good friends with lead singer Lemmy . To pay homage to both Lemmy and the band , Triple H wore Lemmy @-@ inspired facial hair during a large portion of his career . After Lemmy died on December 28 , 2015 , Triple H attended his funeral on January 9 , 2016 , where he spoke about the gift of sound that Lemmy and Motörhead have given to him and the friendship they had over the years .
During an interview with ITV London in December 2015 , Levesque said that he is a supporter of the English football team West Ham United FC .
= = = Philanthropy = = =
In 2014 , Levesque along with his wife Stephanie created the " Connor 's Cure " cancer fund in honor of Connor " The Crusher " Michalek , a young WWE fan who died of cancer at the age of eight .
= = Filmography = =
= = In wrestling = =
Finishing moves
Pedigree ( Double underhook facebuster ) – 1995 – present
Pedigree Pandemonium / Pedigree Perfection ( Cutter ) – 1994 – 1995 ; adopted from Diamond Dallas Page
Reverse or inverted Indian deathlock – WCW ; rarely used as regular move in WWF / E
Signature moves
Abdominal stretch
Arm @-@ trap crossface – rarely used
Blatant choke
Chop block
Facebreaker knee smash , often used as a back body drop counter
Figure four leglock
Flowing DDT
High knee
Jumping knee drop , rarely performed from the second / third rope .
Mounted punches
Running clothesline
Running neckbreaker
Short arm clothesline
Sledgehammer shot
Sleeper hold
Spinning spinebuster , often used as a counter to an upcoming opponent
Managers
Chyna
The Court Jester
Hornswoggle
John Rodeo
Mr. Majestic
Mr. Perfect
Ric Flair
Rick Rude
Stephanie McMahon / Stephanie McMahon @-@ Helmsley
Vito Carlucci
Wrestlers managed
Seth Rollins
Snitsky
Nicknames
" The Cerebral Assassin "
" The Connecticut Blue Blood "
" The Game "
" The King of Kings "
Entrance themes
World Wrestling Federation / Entertainment / WWE
" Blue Blood " by Jim Johnston ( April 28 , 1995 – December 15 , 1996 )
" Symphony No. 9 in D minor with the final chorus on Friedrich Schiller 's Ode to Joy , Op. 125 : IV . Presto . Allegro assai . Alla Marcia . Andante maestoso . Allegro energico , ... " by Paul Kletzki & Czech Philmarmonic Orchestra ( December 15 , 1996 – November 10 , 1997 )
" Break It Down " by The DX Band ( November 10 , 1997 – April 5 , 1999 ; June 19 , 2006 – April 2007 ; August 24 , 2009 – March 1 , 2010 ; July 23 , 2012 )
" Corporate Player " by Jim Johnston ( April 25 , 1999 – May 10 , 1999 )
" Higher Brain Pattern " by Jim Johnston ( May 16 , 1999 – June 21 , 1999 )
" My Time " by The DX Band ( June 27 , 1999 – December 10 , 2000 )
" The Kings " by Run @-@ D.M.C ( March 17 , 2000 – July 2000 )
" The Game " by The DX Band ( December 10 , 2000 ; used only once at Armageddon 2000 and sometimes in promos )
" The Game " by Motörhead ( January 8 , 2001 – present )
" King of Kings " by Motörhead ( 2006 , 2011 , August 18 , 2013 – April 3 , 2016 ; used as leader of The Authority )
= = Championships and accomplishments = =
International Sports Hall of Fame
Class of 2015
International Wrestling Federation
IWF Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time )
IWF Tag Team Champions ( 1 time ) – with Perry Saturn
Pro Wrestling Illustrated
Feud of the Year ( 2000 ) vs. Kurt Angle
Feud of the Year ( 2004 ) vs. Chris Benoit
Feud of the Year ( 2009 ) vs. Randy Orton
Feud of the Year ( 2013 ) vs. Daniel Bryan – as a member of The Authority
Match of the Year ( 2004 ) vs. Chris Benoit and Shawn Michaels at WrestleMania XX
Match of the Year ( 2012 ) vs. The Undertaker in a Hell in a Cell match at WrestleMania XXVIII
Most Hated Wrestler of the Decade ( 2000 – 2009 )
Most Hated Wrestler of the Year ( 2003 – 2005 )
Most Hated Wrestler of the Year ( 2013 ) – as a member of The Authority
Most Hated Wrestler of the Year ( 2014 ) – with Stephanie McMahon
Wrestler of the Decade ( 2000 – 2009 )
Wrestler of the Year ( 2008 )
Ranked # 1 of the top 500 singles wrestlers in the PWI 500 in 2000 and 2009
Ranked # 139 of the top 500 singles wrestlers of the " PWI Years " in 2003
World Wrestling Federation / Entertainment / WWE
World Heavyweight Championship ( 5 times )
WWE Tag Team Championship1 ( 1 time ) – with Shawn Michaels
WWF / E World Heavyweight Championship2 ( 9 times )
WWF / E Intercontinental Championship ( 5 times )
WWF European Championship ( 2 times )
WWF Tag Team Championship3 ( 2 times ) – with Stone Cold Steve Austin ( 1 ) and Shawn Michaels ( 1 )
King of the Ring ( 1997 )
Royal Rumble ( 2002 , 2016 )
Road To Wrestlemania Tournament ( 2006 )
Seventh Triple Crown Champion
Second Grand Slam Champion
Slammy Awards ( 3 times )
Best Hair ( 1997 )
Match of the Year ( 2012 ) – vs. The Undertaker in a Hell in a Cell match at WrestleMania XXVIII
OMG Moment of the Year ( 2011 ) – Triple H performing a Tombstone Piledriver on The Undertaker and The Undertaker kicking out at WrestleMania XXVII
Wrestling Observer Newsletter
Best Booker ( 2015 ) with Ryan Ward
Feud of the Year ( 2000 ) vs. Mick Foley
Feud of the Year ( 2004 ) vs. Chris Benoit and Shawn Michaels
Feud of the Year ( 2005 ) vs. Batista
Wrestler of the Year ( 2000 )
Most Disgusting Promotional Tactic ( 2002 ) Accusing Kane of murder and necrophilia ( Katie Vick )
Most Overrated ( 2002 – 2004 , 2009 )
Readers ' Least Favorite Wrestler ( 2002 , 2003 )
Worst Feud of the Year ( 2002 ) vs. Kane
Worst Feud of the Year ( 2006 ) with Shawn Michaels vs. Vince McMahon and Shane McMahon
Worst Feud of the Year ( 2011 ) vs. Kevin Nash
Worst Worked Match of the Year ( 2003 ) vs. Scott Steiner at Royal Rumble
Worst Worked Match of the Year ( 2008 ) vs. Edge and Vladimir Kozlov at Survivor Series
Wrestling Observer Newsletter Hall of Fame ( Class of 2005 )
Other awards
Metal Hammer 's Spirit of Lemmy Award ( 2016 )
1 ^ Triple H 's only reign with the WWE Tag Team Championship was when the championship was unificated with the World Tag Team Championship and it was known as the Unified WWE Tag Team Championship .
2 ^ Triple H 's fifth reign was as Undisputed WWF Champion . His next three were as simply WWE Champion , while his ninth reign was as WWE World Heavyweight Champion .
3 ^ Triple H 's reign with Shawn Michaels was when the title , then known as World Tag Team Championship , was unified with the WWE Tag Team Championship and known as Unified WWE Tag Team Championship .
= = = Luchas de Apuestas record = = =
|
= Ascending cholangitis =
Ascending cholangitis , also known as acute cholangitis or simply cholangitis , is an infection of the bile duct ( cholangitis ) , usually caused by bacteria ascending from its junction with the duodenum ( first part of the small intestine ) . It tends to occur if the bile duct is already partially obstructed by gallstones .
Cholangitis can be life @-@ threatening , and is regarded as a medical emergency . Characteristic symptoms include yellow discoloration of the skin or whites of the eyes , fever , abdominal pain , and in severe cases , low blood pressure and confusion . Initial treatment is with intravenous fluids and antibiotics , but there is often an underlying problem ( such as gallstones or narrowing in the bile duct ) for which further tests and treatments may be necessary , usually in the form of endoscopy to relieve obstruction of the bile duct . The word is from Greek chol- , bile + ang- , vessel + -itis , inflammation .
= = Signs and symptoms = =
A person with cholangitis may complain of abdominal pain ( particularly in the right upper quadrant of the abdomen ) , fever , rigors ( uncontrollable shaking ) and a feeling of uneasiness ( malaise ) . Some may report jaundice ( yellow discoloration of the skin and the whites of the eyes ) .
Physical examination findings typically include jaundice and right upper quadrant tenderness . Charcot 's triad is a set of three common findings in cholangitis : abdominal pain , jaundice , and fever . This was assumed in the past to be present in 50 – 70 % of cases , although more recently the frequency has been reported as 15 – 20 % . Reynolds ' pentad includes the findings of Charcot 's triad with the presence of septic shock and mental confusion . This combination of symptoms indicates worsening of the condition and the development of sepsis , and is seen less commonly still .
In the elderly , the presentation may be atypical ; they may directly collapse due to sepsis without first showing typical features . Those with an indwelling stent in the bile duct ( see below ) may not develop jaundice .
= = Causes = =
Bile duct obstruction , which is usually present in acute cholangitis , is generally due to gallstones . 10 – 30 % of cases , however , are due to other causes such as benign stricturing ( narrowing of the bile duct without an underlying tumor ) , postoperative damage or an altered structure of the bile ducts such as narrowing at the site of an anastomosis ( surgical connection ) , various tumors ( cancer of the bile duct , gallbladder cancer , cancer of the ampulla of Vater , pancreatic cancer , cancer of the duodenum ) , anaerobic organisms such as Clostridium and Bacteroides ( especially in the elderly and those who have undergone previous surgery of the biliary system ) . Parasites which may infect the liver and bile ducts may cause cholangitis ; these include the roundworm Ascaris lumbricoides and the liver flukes Clonorchis sinensis , Opisthorchis viverrini and Opisthorchis felineus . In people with AIDS , a large number of opportunistic organisms has been known to cause AIDS cholangiopathy , but the risk has rapidly diminished since the introduction of effective AIDS treatment . Cholangitis may also complicate medical procedures involving the bile duct , especially ERCP . To prevent this , it is recommended that those undergoing ERCP for any indication receive prophylactic ( preventative ) antibiotics .
The presence of a permanent biliary stent ( e.g. in pancreatic cancer ) slightly increases the risk of cholangitis , but stents of this type are often needed to keep the bile duct patent under outside pressure .
= = Diagnosis = =
= = = Blood tests = = =
Routine blood tests show features of acute inflammation ( raised white blood cell count and elevated C @-@ reactive protein level ) , and usually abnormal liver function tests ( LFTs ) . In most cases the LFTs will be consistent with obstruction : raised bilirubin , alkaline phosphatase and γ @-@ glutamyl transpeptidase . In the early stages , however , pressure on the liver cells may be the main feature and the tests will resemble those in hepatitis , with elevations in alanine transaminase and aspartate transaminase .
Blood cultures are often performed in people with fever and evidence of acute infection . These yield the bacteria causing the infection in 36 % of cases , usually after 24 – 48 hours of incubation . Bile , too , may be sent for culture during ERCP ( see below ) . The most common bacteria linked to ascending cholangitis are gram @-@ negative bacilli : Escherichia coli ( 25 – 50 % ) , Klebsiella ( 15 – 20 % ) and Enterobacter ( 5 – 10 % ) . Of the gram @-@ positive cocci , Enterococcus causes 10 – 20 % .
= = = Medical imaging = = =
Given that ascending cholangitis usually occurs in the setting of bile duct obstruction , various forms of medical imaging may be employed to identify the site and nature of this obstruction . The first investigation is usually ultrasound , as this is the most easily available . Ultrasound may show dilation of the bile duct and identifies 38 % of bile duct stones ; it is relatively poor at identifying stones further down the bile duct . Ultrasound can help distinguish between cholangitis and cholecystitis ( inflammation of the gallbladder ) , which has similar symptoms to cholangitis but appears differently on ultrasound . A better test is magnetic resonance cholangiopancreatography ( MRCP ) , which uses magnetic resonance imaging ( MRI ) ; this has a comparable sensitivity to ERCP . Smaller stones , however , can still be missed on MRCP depending on the quality of the hospital 's facilities .
The gold standard test for biliary obstruction is still endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography ( ERCP ) . This involves the use of endoscopy ( passing a tube through the mouth into the esophagus , stomach and thence to the duodenum ) to pass a small cannula into the bile duct . At that point , radiocontrast is injected to opacify the duct , and X @-@ rays are taken to get a visual impression of the biliary system . On the endoscopic image of the ampulla , one can sometimes see a protuberant ampulla from an impacted gallstone in the common bile duct , or the frank extrusion of pus from the common bile duct orifice . On the X @-@ ray images ( known as cholangiograms ) , gallstones are visible as nonopacified areas in the contour of the duct . For diagnostic purposes , ERCP has now generally been replaced by MRCP . ERCP is only used first @-@ line in critically ill patients in whom delay for diagnostic tests is not acceptable ; however , if the index of suspicion for cholangitis is high , an ERCP is typically done to achieve drainage of the obstructed common bile duct .
If other causes rather than gallstones are suspected ( such as a tumor ) , computed tomography and endoscopic ultrasound ( EUS ) may be performed to identify the nature of the obstruction . EUS may be used to obtain biopsy ( tissue sample ) of suspicious masses . EUS may also replace diagnostic ERCP for stone disease , although this depends on local availability .
= = Pathogenesis = =
Bile is produced by the liver , and serves to eliminate cholesterol and bilirubin from the body , as well as emulsifying of fats to make them more soluble in water and aid in their digestion . Bile is formed in the liver by hepatocytes ( liver cells ) and excreted into the common hepatic duct . Part of the bile is stored in the gall bladder because of back pressure ( exerted by the sphincter of Oddi ) , and may be released at time of digestion . The gall bladder also concentrates the bile by absorbing water and dissolved salts from it . All bile reaches the duodenum ( first part of the small intestine ) through the common bile duct and the ampulla of Vater . The sphincter of Oddi , located at the junction of the ampulla of Vater and the duodenum , is a circular muscle that controls the release of both bile and pancreatic secretions into the digestive tract .
The biliary tree is normally relatively free of bacteria because of certain protective mechanisms . The sphincter of Oddi acts as a mechanical barrier . The biliary system normally has low pressure ( 8 to 12 cmH2O ) and allows bile to flow freely through . The continuous forward flow of the bile in the duct flushes bacteria , if present , into the duodenum , and does not allow establishment of an infection . The constitution of bile — bile salts and immunoglobulin secreted by the epithelium of the bile duct also has a protective role .
Bacterial contamination alone in absence of obstruction does not usually result in cholangitis . However increased pressure within the biliary system ( above 20 cmH2O ) resulting from obstruction in the bile duct widens spaces between the cells lining the duct , bringing bacterially contaminated bile in contact with the blood stream . It also adversely affects the function of Kupffer cells , which are specialized macrophage cells that assist in preventing bacteria from entering the biliary system . Finally , increased biliary pressure decreases production of IgA immunoglobulins in the bile . This results in bacteremia ( bacteria in the blood stream ) and gives rise to the systemic inflammatory response syndrome ( SIRS ) comprising fever ( often with rigors ) , tachycardia , increased respiratory rate and increased white blood cell count ; SIRS in the presence of suspected or confirmed infection is called sepsis . Biliary obstruction itself disadvantages the immune system and impairs its capability to fight infection , by impairing the function of certain immune system cells ( neutrophil granulocytes ) and modifying the levels of immune hormones ( cytokines ) .
In ascending cholangitis , it is assumed that organisms migrate backwards up the bile duct as a result of partial obstruction and decreased function of the sphincter of Oddi . Other theories about the origin of the bacteria , such as through the portal vein or transmigration from the colon , are considered less likely .
= = Treatment = =
= = = Fluids and antibiotics = = =
Cholangitis requires admission to hospital . Intravenous fluids are administered , especially if the blood pressure is low , and antibiotics are commenced . Empirical treatment with broad @-@ spectrum antibiotics is usually necessary until it is known for certain which pathogen is causing the infection , and to which antibiotics it is sensitive . Combinations of penicillins and aminoglycosides are widely used , although ciprofloxacin has been shown to be effective in most cases , and may be preferred to aminoglycosides because of fewer side effects . Metronidazole is often added to specifically treat the anaerobic pathogens , especially in those who are very ill or at risk of anaerobic infections . Antibiotics are continued for 7 – 10 days . Drugs that increase the blood pressure ( vasopressors ) may also be required to counter the low blood pressure .
= = = Endoscopy = = =
The definitive treatment for cholangitis is relief of the underlying biliary obstruction . This is usually deferred until 24 – 48 hours after admission , when the patient is stable and has shown some improvement with antibiotics , but may need to happen as an emergency in case of ongoing deterioration despite adequate treatment , or if antibiotics are not effective in reducing the signs of infection ( which happens in 15 % of cases ) .
Endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography ( ERCP ) is the most common approach in unblocking the bile duct . This involves endoscopy ( passing a fiberoptic tube through the stomach into the duodenum ) , identification of the ampulla of Vater and insertion of a small tube into the bile duct . A sphincterotomy ( making a cut in the sphincter of Oddi ) is typically done to ease the flow of bile from the duct and to allow insertion of instruments to extract gallstones that are obstructing the common bile duct ; alternatively or additionally , the common bile duct orifice can be dilated with a balloon . Stones may be removed either by direct suction or by using various instruments , including balloons and baskets to trawl the bile duct in order to pull stones into the duodenum . Obstructions that are caused by larger stones may require the use of an instrument known as a mechanical lithotriptor in order to crush the stone prior to removal . Obstructing stones that are too large to be removed or broken mechanically by ERCP may be managed by extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy . This technique uses acoustic shock waves administered outside the body to break down the stones . An alternative technique to remove very large obstructing stones is electrohydraulic lithotripsy , where a small endoscope known as a cholangioscope is inserted by ERCP to directly visualize the stone . A probe uses electricity to generate shock waves that break down the obstructing stone . Rarely , surgical exploration of the common bile duct ( termed choledochotomy ) , which can be performed with laparoscopy , is required to remove the stone .
Narrowed areas may be bridged by a stent , a hollow tube that keeps the duct open . Removable plastic stents are used in uncomplicated gallstone disease , while permanent self @-@ expanding metal stents with a longer lifespan are used if the obstruction is due to pressure from a tumor such as pancreatic cancer . A nasobiliary drain may be left behind ; this is a plastic tube that passes from the bile duct through the stomach and the nose and allows continuous drainage of bile into a receptible . It is similar to a nasogastric tube , but passes into the common bile duct directly , and allows for serial x @-@ ray cholangiograms to be done to identify the improvement of the obstruction . The decision on which of the aforementioned treatments to apply is generally based on the severity of the obstruction , findings on other imaging studies , and whether the patient has improved with antibiotic treatment . Certain treatments may be unsafe if blood clotting is impaired , as the risk of bleeding ( especially from sphincterotomy ) is increased in the use of medication such as clopidogrel ( which inhibits platelet aggregation ) or if the prothrombin time is significantly prolonged . For a prolonged prothrombin time , vitamin K or fresh frozen plasma may be administered to reduce bleeding risk .
It may be difficult to obtain endoscopic access to the obstruction located higher ( proximal ) up in the biliary system , or when it is due to a stricture in the priorly performed anastomosis between the bile duct ( surgically joining ) with the duodenum or jejunum . When this happens , percutaneous transhepatic cholangiography ( PTC ) may be needed to relieve pressure . This involves identifying the bile duct by ultrasound and then passing a tube through the skin ( percutaneous ) . PTC is generally performed by radiologists . PTC has potential complications , so occasionally further attempts at ERCP by more experienced doctors are preferred .
Continual contamination of bile duct by indwelling stents ( as may occur in chronic conditions like tumor of the head of pancreas ) requires monitoring by repeated radiologic tests and changing of the stents .
= = = Cholecystectomy = = =
Not all gallstones implicated in ascending cholangitis actually originate from the gallbladder , but cholecystectomy ( surgical removal of the gallbladder ) is generally recommended in people who have been treated for cholangitis due to gallstone disease . This is typically delayed until all symptoms have resolved and ERCP or MRCP have confirmed that the bile duct is clear of gallstones . Those who do not undergo cholecystectomy have an increased risk of recurrent biliary pain , jaundice , further episodes of cholangitis , and need for further ERCP or related procedures ; the risk of death is also significantly increased .
= = Prognosis = =
Acute cholangitis carries a significant risk of death , the leading cause being irreversible shock with multiple organ failure ( a possible complication of severe infections ) . Improvements in diagnosis and treatment have led to a reduction in mortality : before 1980 , the mortality rate was greater than 50 % , but after 1980 it was 10 – 30 % . Patients with signs of multiple organ failure are likely to die unless they undergo early biliary drainage and treatment with systemic antibiotics . Other causes of death following severe cholangitis include heart failure and pneumonia .
Risk factors indicating an increased risk of death include older age , female gender , a history of liver cirrhosis , biliary narrowing due to cancer , acute renal failure and the presence of liver abscesses . Complications following severe cholangitis include renal failure , respiratory failure ( inability of the respiratory system to oxygenate blood and / or eliminate carbon dioxide ) , cardiac arrhythmia , wound infection , pneumonia , gastrointestinal bleeding and myocardial ischemia ( lack of blood flow to the heart , leading to heart attacks ) .
= = Epidemiology = =
In the Western world , about 15 % of all people have gallstones in their gallbladder but the majority are unaware of this and have no symptoms . Over ten years , 15 – 26 % will suffer one or more episodes of biliary colic ( abdominal pain due to the passage of gallstones through the bile duct into the digestive tract ) , and 2 – 3 % will develop complications of obstruction : acute pancreatitis , cholecystitis or acute cholangitis . Prevalence of gallstone disease increases with age and body mass index ( a marker of obesity ) . However , risk is also increased in those who lose weight rapidly ( e.g. after weight loss surgery ) due to alterations in the composition of the bile that makes it prone to form stones . Gallstones are slightly more common in women than in men , and pregnancy increases the risk further .
= = History = =
Dr Jean @-@ Martin Charcot , working at the Salpêtrière Hospital in Paris , France , is credited with early reports of cholangitis , as well as his eponymous triad , in 1877 . He referred to the condition as " hepatic fever " ( fièvre hépatique ) . Dr Benedict M. Reynolds , an American surgeon , reignited interest in the condition in his 1959 report with colleague Dr Everett L. Dargan , and formulated the pentad that carries his name . It remained a condition generally treated by surgeons , with exploration of the bile duct and excision of gallstones , until the ascendancy of ERCP in 1968 . ERCP is generally performed by internal medicine or gastroenterology specialists . In 1992 it was shown that ERCP was generally safer than surgical intervention in ascending cholangitis .
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= Eve Torres =
Eve Torres Gracie ( born Eve Marie Torres ; August 21 , 1984 ) is an American model , actress , and former professional wrestler . She is best known for her work with WWE as Eve Torres and has served as an ambassador for the company since April 2014 .
Torres began her career as a model and dancer . She danced for The Southern California Summer Pro League and went on to become a member of the National Basketball Association 's Los Angeles Clippers Spirit Dance Team for the 2006 – 2007 season . She has also appeared on several television shows , including Show Me The Money , Sunset Tan , and Deal or No Deal .
In 2007 , she entered the 2007 Diva Search and won , earning a contract with WWE . Torres first appeared on WWE programming as a backstage interviewer in 2008 , and also appeared in non @-@ wrestling contests such as bikini contests and dance competitions . She later became a full @-@ time wrestler in 2009 , and was involved in feuds with Michelle McCool , Layla and Natalya . She also managed the tag team of Cryme Tyme . After being traded to the Raw brand in late 2009 , she managed Chris Masters before winning the WWE Divas Championship in April 2010 . She held the championship for 69 days , before losing it in June . After acting as the valet for R @-@ Truth in late 2010 , Torres won the Divas Championship for the second time at the 2011 Royal Rumble in January . Her second reign lasted until April 2011 . The following year , she was given the fictional role of " Executive Administrator " of Raw and WWE SmackDown , and later the Assistant General Manager of SmackDown . At Night of Champions , Torres won the Divas Championship , becoming the first person to win it on three occasions , and held the title until January 2013 .
Following her Divas Championship loss , she retired from WWE to focus on her role as an instructor for the Gracie Women Empowered Self @-@ defense program . In 2014 , she appeared on the television series Matador in a recurring guest role .
= = Early life = =
Torres was born in Boston , Massachusetts , but grew up in Denver , Colorado , and has " a Latina background " . She has one younger brother , Phillip , who appeared on Are You Smarter Than a 5th Grader ? in October 2008 and won $ 100 @,@ 000 , and currently hosts TechKnow on Al Jazeera America .
Torres attended the University of Southern California ( USC ) on a full tuition scholarship . During college , she was one of the founding members of the Omega Phi Beta sorority chapter on her campus and held the vice @-@ president position for several years . While in Omega Phi Beta , Torres was awarded for Academic Excellence at the Order of Omega Greek Awards . She graduated with honors and a Grade Point Average above 3 @.@ 5 in May 2006 , with a degree in Industrial and Systems Engineering .
= = Dancing and modeling career = =
While attending the USC , Torres appeared in commercials and music videos . Torres was the co @-@ captain of the USC Fly Girls dance squad and created much of their choreography . She also danced for The Southern California Summer Pro League , the only summer league for National Basketball Association ( NBA ) players , in Long Beach , California . After graduating from college , she began dancing and modeling full @-@ time . After reaching the tryout finals in previous years , Torres became a member of the NBA 's Los Angeles Clippers Spirit Dance Team for the 2006 – 07 season . She also appeared on the game show Show Me The Money .
= = Professional wrestling career = =
= = = World Wrestling Entertainment / WWE = = =
= = = = Diva Search and Ohio Valley Wrestling ( 2007 – 2008 ) = = = =
In May 2007 , Torres entered World Wrestling Entertainment ( WWE ) ' s Diva Search . She was chosen by WWE officials as one of the eight finalists from a group of 50 women . On October 29 , 2007 , in Philadelphia , live on Raw , she was crowned the 2007 WWE Diva Search winner , defeating finalist Brooke Gilbertsen and becoming an official WWE Diva . Following her win , she began training for her wrestling debut in WWE 's then @-@ developmental territory , Ohio Valley Wrestling ( OVW ) .
= = = = Various feuds ( 2008 – 2009 ) = = = =
Vignettes promoting Eve 's debut on SmackDown began airing on January 11 , 2008 . Eve made her official debut on the February 1 , 2008 episode of SmackDown , interviewing former World Heavyweight Champion Batista . During early 2008 , Eve participated in a contest to determine the top Diva on SmackDown , participating in a bikini contest , an obstacle course , and an arm wrestling competition before being eliminated . Eve appeared at WrestleMania XXIV as a Lumberjill in the BunnyMania match between Maria and Ashley against Beth Phoenix and Melina . Eve spent the rest of the year competing in contests , including a dance @-@ off and a bikini contest , before participating in the Halloween Costume Contest on October 26 at the Cyber Sunday pay @-@ per @-@ view , where she was dressed as Raphael from the Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles . On the 800th episode of Raw on November 3 , 2008 , Eve made her televised in @-@ ring debut in a 16 @-@ Diva tag team match , which her team lost , although she never tagged into the match .
Her first main storyline began in early 2009 , when she began a scripted feud with Michelle McCool after McCool attacked her . On the February 6 episode of SmackDown , Eve made her singles match debut in a losing effort against McCool via submission . Their feud continued for the next few months , with them competing against each other in singles and tag team matches . Eve then moved into a feud with Layla in mid @-@ 2009 . After the pair competed in dance and arm wrestling competitions , Eve defeated Layla on the May 29 episode of SmackDown in a singles match . On the June 18 episode of Superstars , Eve pinned Layla once again . After the match , they both shook hands .
Around the same as her scripted rivalry with Layla , Eve became associated with Cryme Tyme ( Shad and JTG ) , appearing in several backstage segments with them . She also began accompanying them to the ring as their manager during their storyline rivalry with The Hart Dynasty ( David Hart Smith , Tyson Kidd , and Natalya ) . Eve and Cryme Tyme participated in multiple six @-@ person mixed tag team matches against The Hart Dynasty , and Eve also faced Natalya in singles matches and tag team matches involving other Divas . Her final match on SmackDown was on October 9 , when she was defeated in a singles match by McCool .
= = = = Divas Champion ( 2009 – 2011 ) = = = =
On October 12 , 2009 , Eve was traded to the Raw brand . On the November 2 episode of Raw , she competed in her first match for the brand ; a battle royal , which was won by Alicia Fox . She then began a storyline romance with Chris Masters in December 2009 , becoming his valet . In January 2010 , the WWE Divas Championship was declared vacant and a tournament was set up to determine the new champion . Eve made it to the semi @-@ finals , before being defeated by the eventual winner , Maryse . At WrestleMania XXVI , Eve was on the losing team in a 10 @-@ Diva tag team match , but the following night on Raw , she pinned Maryse in a rematch to earn the victory for her team .
On the April 5 episode of Raw , Eve won a " Dress to Impress " battle royal to become the number one contender to the Divas Championship , and the following week on Raw , she defeated Maryse to win the championship for the first time . She successfully defended the championship against Maryse at the Over the Limit pay @-@ per @-@ view in May . At the Fatal 4 @-@ Way pay @-@ per @-@ view in June , Eve lost the championship in a fatal four @-@ way match , when Alicia Fox pinned Maryse to win the championship . On the July 5 episode of Raw , Eve invoked her rematch clause against Fox but was unsuccessful after Fox feigned an ankle injury . As a result , she received another rematch at the Money in the Bank pay per @-@ view , but lost again to Fox . In mid @-@ 2010 , she began acting as the valet for R @-@ Truth .
At the Royal Rumble on January 30 , 2011 , the Raw General Manager added Eve to a two @-@ on @-@ one handicap match for the Divas Championship , turning it into a four @-@ way match . Eve pinned Layla to win the match and become a two @-@ time Divas Champion . She retained the championship against Natalya in a Lumberjill match on the February 14 episode of Raw , and against Nikki Bella on the March 7 episode . She held the championship until the April 11 episode of Raw , when she lost it to Brie Bella .
Eve then formed an alliance with Kelly Kelly , and after Kelly won the Divas Championship in June , Eve accompanied her to the ring during her matches . Eve and Kelly began feuding with The Divas of Doom ( Beth Phoenix and Natalya ) , and after Phoenix won the Divas Championship from Kelly , Eve defeated Natalya to earn a match against Phoenix for the championship . She faced Phoenix at the Vengeance pay @-@ per @-@ view , but was unsuccessful in capturing the title . On the October 31 episode of Raw , Eve won a battle royal to become the number one contender to the Divas Championship . She received her championship match at the Survivor Series pay @-@ per @-@ view , but lost a Lumberjill match to Phoenix . She later described the match as her favorite .
= = = = Authority figure ( 2011 – 2013 ) = = = =
Eve moved into a storyline with Zack Ryder in December 2011 , and the pair won a mixed tag team match against Natalya and Tyson Kidd on the December 26 episode of Raw . On the January 9 , 2012 , episode of Raw , Eve agreed to a date with Ryder , beginning a storyline relationship . Eve quickly became involved in the storyline between Ryder , his ally John Cena , and Kane , the latter of whom began targeting Ryder . After injuring Ryder , Kane turned his attention to Eve , and tried to attack her until he was stopped by Cena . On the February 6 episode of Raw , Eve suffered a legitimate broken nose when Beth Phoenix clotheslined her during a match . The following week , John Cena saved Eve from being kidnapped by Kane , and Eve kissed him in thanks . Ryder witnessed it , and she later told Ryder she hoped they could be friends . On the February 20 episode of Raw , Eve turned into a villainess for the first time in her career , after she confessed backstage to The Bella Twins that she had never liked Zack Ryder , and had disingenuously used him for publicity and planned to take advantage of Cena the same way . Cena overheard her revelation and scorned her as she begged for forgiveness . Eve justified her actions by stating she was not a " damsel in distress " and was proud of her beauty allowing her to seduce men . She wrestled her first match as a villainess on the March 2 episode of SmackDown , defeating Natalya . Ryder returned on the March 5 episoder of Raw , confronting Eve over her recent actions , but she managed to seduce him into forgiving her . At WrestleMania XXVIII , Eve and Beth Phoenix lost to Kelly Kelly and Extra correspondent Maria Menounos in a tag team match . Later that night , she accompanied Ryder to the ring for the Team Johnny vs. Team Teddy match , where she distracted Ryder , costing him and Team Teddy the match . Afterwards , Eve delivered a low blow to Ryder .
As a result of her actions during the match , John Laurinaitis appointed Eve the Executive Administrator of Raw and SmackDown . As her first order of business as Executive Administrator , on the April 30 episode of Raw , Eve fired the Bella Twins backstage . Despite her new authority figure role , she continued to participate in matches throughout mid @-@ 2012 . On the August 10 episode of SmackDown , Eve asked SmackDown General Manager Booker T if she could be his assistant , but Kaitlyn was given the job instead . Eve threatened Booker that she would tell the Board of Directors about his discriminatory hiring practices , and was given a match against Kaitlyn the following week to determine who would become his assistant , which Eve won , and got the job .
In August , she began a storyline where she acted friendly and nice , diminishing her heel characteristics . As part of this apparent personality change , she shook hands with her rival Kaitlyn following a match and teamed with her and Layla on the September 10 episode of Raw . At the Night of Champions pay @-@ per @-@ view , Kaitlyn was attacked and injured by a masked figure backstage , and as a result , Eve replaced Kaitlyn in a match against Divas Champion Layla . Eve won the match , becoming the first ever record three time Divas Champion . After Kaitlyn revealed that her attacker was blonde , Eve accused Beth Phoenix , and attacked her on the September 24 episode of Raw . The following week , Eve suspended Phoenix , pending an investigation into Kaitlyn 's attack , howerver Phoenix 's suspension was reversed by Booker T , and Eve blamed Teddy Long for telling her to suspend Phoenix . It was later revealed that Kaitlyn was attacked by Aksana , on Eve 's orders . On the October 8 episode of Raw , Eve defeated Kaitlyn via submission to retain the Divas Championship . Following the match , Eve attempted to re @-@ injure Kaitlyn , but was stopped by Layla . The following week , she defeated Layla to retain the championship . The three @-@ way feud led to a match at the Hell in a Cell pay @-@ per @-@ view , where Eve retained the Divas Championship against Layla and Kaitlyn in a triple threat match . Eve continued to feud with the duo , facing them in tag team matches with multiple partners , and defeating Kaitlyn at Survivor Series to retain the championship . At TLC : Tables , Ladders & Chairs , Eve stopped Kaitlyn from winning a number one contender 's match , and defeated winner Naomi to retain the title later that night . Kaitlyn won a non @-@ title match against Eve , and won the subsequent title match by disqualification on December 18 , however Eve retained the championship . A rematch occurred on the January 7 , 2013 , episode of Raw , in which Eve successfully defended the championship after losing by count @-@ out . The following week , on the special " 20th Anniversary " episode of Raw , Eve lost the Divas Championship to Kaitlyn . Following the loss , Eve immediately quit WWE in the storyline .
In reality , Torres had asked for her release from the company in December 2012 to focus on her role as an instructor for the Gracie Women Empowered Self @-@ defense program . She returned to WWE for one night only , on December 9 , 2013 , presenting the Slammy Award for Diva of the Year to The Bella Twins . Since April 2014 , she has served as an ambassador for the WWE .
= = Other media = =
In August 2008 , Torres , along with fellow WWE Divas Maria and Candice Michelle , appeared on an episode of Sunset Tan . On October 2 , 2008 , Torres and Maria appeared on a special episode of Magic 's Biggest Secrets Finally Revealed . Torres appeared on the November 3 , 2009 episode of Deal or No Deal with Maria and Dolph Ziggler . On July 1 , 2012 , Torres , Kelly Kelly , and Michelle McCool appeared on Extreme Weight Loss . In 2012 , she was part of NBC 's celebrity reality competition series called Stars Earn Stripes ; she won the competition on September 3 , earning over $ 100 @,@ 000 for her charity , the USO . On September 7 , 2012 , Torres appeared on G4 's Attack of the Show for an interview .
Torres , along with Maryse and Michelle McCool , appeared in the January 2009 issue of Muscle & Fitness magazine .
On April 30 , 2012 , it was announced that Torres would be featured in the WWE Studios and Kare Production Project " Les reines du ring " ( English : Queens of the Ring ) , alongside fellow wrestlers The Miz and CM Punk . In mid @-@ 2013 , Torres filmed a role for the film The Scorpion King 4 : Quest for Power , which was released in 2015 . She later earned a role in Matador as Reyna Flores , a journalist reporting on the leading character 's career . The show was cancelled after a single season .
= = = Television = = =
= = = Films = = =
= = Personal life = =
Torres is trained in Brazilian Jiu @-@ Jitsu , and holds a purple belt from the Gracie Jiu @-@ Jitsu Academy based in Torrance , California . Torres also participates in kickboxing . She is a spokeswoman and head instructor for the Gracie Women Empowered Self @-@ defense program .
Torres married Rener Gracie in April 2014 . She gave birth to her first child , a boy , named Raeven Gracie , on September 28 , 2015 .
= = In wrestling = =
Finishing moves
Evesault ( Moonsault )
Handspring standing moonsault
The Heart Breaker ( Snap swinging neckbreaker )
Signature moves
Cross armbreaker
Enzuigiri
Fujiwara armbar , sometimes transitioned into a triangle choke
Hangman 's choke
Schoolgirl roll @-@ up
Somersault senton
Standing moonsault , with theatrics
Straight jacket
Wrestlers managed
Cryme Tyme ( Shad Gaspard and JTG )
Chris Masters
R @-@ Truth
Zack Ryder
Nicknames
" Hoeski "
" The Hellacious Heartbreaker "
Entrance themes
" She Looks Good " by Jim Johnston
= = Championships and accomplishments = =
Pro Wrestling Illustrated
PWI ranked her # 5 of the best 50 female singles wrestlers in the PWI Female 50 in 2010
World Wrestling Entertainment / WWE
WWE Divas Championship ( 3 times )
WWE Diva Search ( 2007 )
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= The Carpet =
" The Carpet " is the fourteenth episode of the second season of the American comedy television series The Office , and the show 's twentieth episode overall . It was written by Paul Lieberstein and directed by Victor Nelli , Jr . The episode first aired on January 26 , 2006 on NBC . The episode guest stars Ken Howard as Ed Truck , and David Koechner as Todd Packer .
The series depicts the everyday lives of office employees in the Scranton , Pennsylvania branch of the fictional Dunder Mifflin Paper Company . In this episode , a disgusting " thing " – implied to be human feces – is left in Michael Scott 's ( Steve Carell ) office , and Michael tries to discover who did it . While his carpet is being replaced , he uses Jim Halpert 's desk , forcing Jim to move away from Pam Beesly ( Jenna Fischer ) into the annex .
" The Carpet " is the first and only episode to feature Howard as Truck . However , the death of the character would serve as the main plot for the third season episode " Grief Counseling " . The episode received largely positive reviews from television critics . Upon its original broadcast , " The Carpet " earned a Nielsen rating of 4 @.@ 6 in the 18 – 49 demographic , being viewed by 8 @.@ 6 million viewers . At the time of its release , it was the second most @-@ downloaded episode of a television show on the iTunes store .
= = Synopsis = =
When someone leaves a disgusting substance on the carpet in Michael Scott 's ( Steve Carell ) office , he spends the day at Jim Halpert 's ( John Krasinski ) desk , relegating Jim to the back room ( referred to as the " Annex " ) to suffer Kelly Kapoor 's ( Mindy Kaling ) constant chattering . She asks Jim to hook her up with Ryan Howard ( B.J. Novak ) . Jim continues to yearn for Pam Beesley ( Jenna Fischer ) , but her groom @-@ to @-@ be , Roy Anderson ( David Denman ) , is in the office replacing the carpet along with Darryl Philbin ( Craig Robinson ) , and Jim is unable to speak with her .
As the day wears on , Michael becomes convinced that what happened to his office is a hate crime and an act of terrorism . Believing it to have been perpetrated by someone in the office , he begins to lose his faith in his employees , whom he considers his friends . Michael tries talking to his former boss Ed Truck ( Ken Howard ) , who tells him that he does not need to have his employees be his friends . But his mood changes drastically when he finds out the prank was carried out by his obnoxious friend Todd Packer ( David Koechner ) . Michael instantly finds the joke hilarious , and his faith in his friends is restored . At the end of the day , Jim is cheered up when he finds that all seven of his voicemail messages were left by Pam throughout the day . Jim is seen driving home , and Pam 's voicemails act as a voice @-@ over , closing out the episode .
= = Production = =
" The Carpet " was written by Paul Lieberstein , who portrays Toby Flenderson on the series , making it his third writing credit after the first season entry " Health Care " and the second season episode " The Client " . The episode was directed by Victor Nelli , Jr . The episode is the first and only to feature Howard as Ed Truck . However , the death of the character would serve as the main plot for the third season episode " Grief Counseling " . Actress Kate Flannery later revealed that , for the old 80s picture of Michael and Ed , Carell had to wear a mullet wig .
Before the episode aired , the cast and crew received news that the show would be renewed for a third season . Jenna Fischer ( Pam ) noted that " It is rare in this business to hear news of a pickup so early " , but that NBC was very pleased with how well the show was doing . It had previously , and erroneously , been advertised that the show would finish its run at the end of March 2006 . Fischer explained that while the season would end – actually in May – the show would continue .
The exact nature of the substance that is deposited on Michael 's carpet is never explicitly made clear . Fischer only described it as " soft [ ... ] smelly [ and ] brown " . In fact , the circumstance in which the substance is viewed by the camera is still ambiguous ; Television Without Pity reviewer M. Giant noted that the viewer only gets " the merest out @-@ of @-@ focus Blair Witch glimpse " of the substance . Fischer also noted that one of the more interesting aspects of the episode was the " you [ the audience ] finally see Pam and Roy getting along . " She explained that this was because Roy and Pam returned from " a romantic vacation in the Poconos . "
Deleted scenes include : Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) believing that a higher power brought Michael to his desk , Angela Martin ( Angela Kinsey ) and Kevin Malone ( Brian Baumgartner ) speculating on the culprit , Jim unable to handle Kelly 's chattering , Jim eating lunch by himself in his car , Michael being unable to complete a sale , Michael stealing a crumpet from Dwight , Dwight and Angela having a secret conversation in the kitchen , and Jim asking Toby Flenderson ( Lieberstein ) how he handled Kelly 's loquaciousness .
= = Cultural references = =
Michael compares that the circumstances of the episode to the components for an audition tape for Fear Factor , an American sports dare reality game show . Michael later bothers Stanley Hudson ( Leslie David Baker ) with an impression of the Popeye cartoon character J. Wellington Wimpy . Dwight makes repeated calls to WEZX Rock 107 , a Scranton radio station that plays classic rock . Michael snidely compares Darryl and Roy 's work to Extreme Makeover : Home Edition , an American reality television series providing home improvements for less fortunate families and community schools .
= = Reception = =
" The Carpet " originally aired on NBC on the January 26 , 2006 . The episode received a 4 @.@ 6 rating / 11 percent share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 . This means that it was seen by 4 @.@ 6 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 11 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . " The Carpet " was viewed by 8 @.@ 6 million viewers . The episode retained 93 percent of its lead @-@ in My Name is Earl audience .
Critical reception to the episode was largely positive . M. Giant of Television Without Pity awarded the episode an " A – " . Brendan Babish of DVD Verdict gave the episode a largely positive review and awarded it an " A – " . He called it " another solid episode " and praised the " guest appearance by Ken Howard of The White Shadow fame . " After the episode aired , several newspapers , including the Los Angeles Times and The Journal Gazette reported on the episode 's success , as well as others in the season , in building the show 's audience . Furthermore , the episode was particularly popular with fans of the series , especially college students . After the episode aired , it was made available on the iTunes online digital store , where , for a time , it was the second most @-@ downloaded episode of a television show .
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= Handley Page Victor =
The Handley Page Victor is a British jet @-@ powered strategic bomber , developed and produced by the Handley Page Aircraft Company , which served during the Cold War . It was the third and final of the V @-@ bombers operated by the Royal Air Force ( RAF ) , the other two V @-@ bombers being the Avro Vulcan and the Vickers Valiant . The Victor had been developed to perform as part of the United Kingdom ’ s airborne nuclear deterrent . In 1968 , the type was retired from the nuclear mission following the discovery of fatigue cracks , which had been exacerbated by the RAF 's adoption of a low @-@ altitude flight profile to avoid interception .
A number of Victors had received modifications to undertake the strategic reconnaissance role , employing a combination of radar , cameras , and other sensors . As the nuclear deterrence mission was given to the Royal Navy 's submarine @-@ launched Polaris missiles in 1969 , a large V @-@ bomber fleet was deemed surplus to requirements . Consequently , many of the surviving Victors were converted into aerial refuelling tankers . During the Falklands War , Victor tankers were notably used in the airborne logistics operation to repeatedly refuel Vulcan bombers on their way to and from the Black Buck raids .
The Victor was the last of the V @-@ bombers to be retired , the final aircraft being removed from service on 15 October 1993 . In its refuelling role , the type had been replaced by the Vickers VC10 and the Lockheed Tristar .
= = Development = =
= = = Origins = = =
The origin of the Victor and the other V bombers is heavily linked with the early British atomic weapons programme and nuclear deterrent policies that developed in the aftermath of the Second World War . The atom bomb programme formally began with Air Staff Operational Requirement OR.1001 issued in August 1946 , which anticipated a government decision in January 1947 to authorise research and development work on atomic weapons , the U.S. Atomic Energy Act of 1946 ( McMahon Act ) having prohibited exporting atomic knowledge , even to countries that had collaborated on the Manhattan Project . OR.1001 envisaged a weapon not to exceed 24 ft 2 in ( 7 @.@ 37 m ) in length , 5 ft ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) in diameter , 10 @,@ 000 lb ( 4 @,@ 500 kg ) in weight , and suitable for release from 20 @,@ 000 ft ( 6 @,@ 100 m ) to 50 @,@ 000 ft ( 15 @,@ 000 m ) .
At the same time , the Air Ministry drew up requirements for bombers to replace the existing piston @-@ engined heavy bombers such as the Avro Lancaster and the new Avro Lincoln which equipped RAF Bomber Command . In January 1947 , the Ministry of Supply distributed Specification B.35 / 46 to aviation companies to satisfy Air Staff Operational Requirement OR.229 for " a medium range bomber landplane capable of carrying one 10 @,@ 000 lb ( 4 @,@ 500 kg ) bomb to a target 1 @,@ 500 nautical miles ( 1 @,@ 700 mi ; 2 @,@ 800 km ) from a base which may be anywhere in the world . " A cruising speed of 500 knots ( 580 mph ; 930 km / h ) at heights between 35 @,@ 000 ft ( 11 @,@ 000 m ) and 50 @,@ 000 ft ( 15 @,@ 000 m ) was specified . The maximum weight when fully loaded ought not to exceed 100 @,@ 000 lb ( 45 @,@ 000 kg ) . The weapons load was to include a 10 @,@ 000 lb " Special gravity bomb " ( i.e. a free @-@ fall nuclear weapon ) , or over shorter ranges 20 @,@ 000 lb ( 9 @,@ 100 kg ) of conventional bombs . No defensive weapons were to be carried , the aircraft relying on its speed and height to avoid opposing fighters .
The similar OR.230 required a " long range bomber " with a 2 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 2 @,@ 300 mi ; 3 @,@ 700 km ) radius of action at a height of 50 @,@ 000 ft ( 15 @,@ 000 m ) , a cruise speed of 575 mph ( 925 km / h ) , and a maximum weight of 200 @,@ 000 lb ( 91 @,@ 000 kg ) when fully loaded . Responses to OR.230 were received from Short Brothers , Bristol , and Handley Page ; however , the Air Ministry recognised that developing an aircraft to meet these stringent requirements would have been technically demanding and so expensive that the resulting bomber could only be purchased in small numbers . As a result , realising that the majority of likely targets would not require such a long range , a less demanding specification for a medium @-@ range bomber , Air Ministry Specification B.35 / 46 was issued . This demanded the ability to carry the same 10 @,@ 000 lb bomb @-@ load to a target 1 @,@ 500 nmi ( 1 @,@ 725 mi , 2 @,@ 800 km ) away at a height of 45 @,@ 000 – 50 @,@ 000 ft ( 13 @,@ 700 – 15 @,@ 200 m ) at a speed of 575 mph .
= = = HP.80 = = =
The design proposed by Handley Page in response to B.35 / 46 was given the internal designation of HP.80. To achieve the required performance , Handley Page 's aerodynamicist Dr. Gustav Lachmann and his deputy , Godfrey Lee developed a crescent @-@ shaped swept wing for the HP.80 ; the sweep and chord of the wing decreased in three distinct steps from the root to the tip , to ensure a constant limiting Mach number across the entire wing and consequently a high cruise speed . Early work on the project included tailless aircraft designs , which would have used wing @-@ tip vertical surfaces instead ; however as the proposal matured a high @-@ mounted , full tailplane was adopted instead . The profile and shaping of the crescent wing was subject to considerable fine @-@ tuning and alterations throughout the early development stages , particularly to counter unfavourable pitching behavior in flight .
The HP.80 and Avro 's Type 698 were chosen as the best two of the proposed designs to B.35 / 46 , and orders for two prototypes of each were placed . It was recognised , however , that there were many unknowns associated with both designs , and an order was also placed for Vickers ' design , which became the Valiant . Although not fully meeting the requirements of the specification , the Valiant design posed little risk of failure and could therefore reach service earlier . The HP.80 's crescent wing was tested on a ⅓ -scale glider , the HP.87 , and a heavily modified Supermarine Attacker , which was given the Handley Page HP.88 designation . The HP.88 crashed on 26 August 1951 after completing only about thirty flights and little useful data was gained during its brief two months of existence . By the time the HP.88 was ready , the HP.80 wing had changed such that the former was no longer representative . The design of the HP.80 had sufficiently advanced that the loss of the HP.88 had little effect on the programme .
Two HP.80 prototypes , WB771 and WB775 , were built . WB771 was broken down at the Handley Page factory at Radlett and transported by road to RAF Boscombe Down for its first flight ; bulldozers were used to clear the route and create paths around obstacles . Sections of the aircraft were hidden under wooden framing and tarpaulins printed with " GELEYPANDHY / SOUTHAMPTON " to make it appear as a boat hull in transit . GELEYPANDHY was an anagram of " Handley Pyge " marred by a signwriter 's error . On 24 December 1952 , piloted by Handley Page 's chief test pilot Hedley Hazelden , WB771 made its maiden flight , which lasted for a total of 17 minutes . Ten days later , the Air Ministry announced the aircraft 's official name to be Victor .
The prototypes performed well ; however , several design failings led to the loss of WB771 on 14 July 1954 , when the tailplane detached whilst making a low @-@ level pass over the runway at Cranfield , causing the aircraft to crash with the loss of the crew . Attached to the fin using three bolts , the tailplane was subject to considerably more stress than had been anticipated , and the three bolts failed due to metal fatigue . Additionally , the prototypes were considerably tail heavy due to the lack of equipment in the nose ; this was remedied by large ballast weights being fitted upon the prototypes . Production Victors had a lengthened nose that also served to move the crew escape door further from the engine intakes . The fin was shortened to eliminate the potential for flutter while the tailplane attachment was changed to a stronger four @-@ bolt fixing .
= = = Victor B.1 = = =
Production B.1 Victors were powered by the Armstrong Siddeley Sapphire ASSa.7 turbojets rated at 11 @,@ 000 lbf ( 49 kN ) , and was initially equipped with the Blue Danube nuclear weapon , re @-@ equipping with the more powerful Yellow Sun weapon when it became available , although Victors also carried U.S.-owned Mark 5 nuclear bombs ( made available under the Project E programme ) and the British Red Beard tactical nuclear weapon . A total of 24 were upgraded to B.1A standard by the addition of Red Steer tail warning radar in an enlarged tailcone and a suite of radar warning receivers and electronic countermeasures ( ECM ) from 1958 to 1960 .
On 1 June 1956 , a production Victor XA917 flown by test pilot Johnny Allam inadvertently exceeded the speed of sound after Allam let the nose drop slightly at a higher power setting . Allam noticed a cockpit indication of Mach 1 @.@ 1 and ground observers from Watford to Banbury reported hearing a sonic boom . The Victor maintained stability throughout the event . Aviation author Andrew Brookes has claimed that Allam broke the sound barrier knowingly to demonstrate the Victor 's superiority to the earlier V @-@ bombers . The Victor was the largest aircraft to have broken the sound barrier at that time .
= = = Victor B.2 = = =
The RAF required a higher ceiling for its bombers , and a number of proposals were considered for improved Victors to meet this demand . At first , Handley Page proposed use of the 14 @,@ 000 lbf ( 62 @.@ 4 kN ) Sapphire 9 engines to produce a " Phase 2 " bomber , to be followed by " Phase 3 " Victors with much greater wingspan ( 137 ft ( 42 m ) ) and powered by Bristol Siddeley Olympus turbojets or Rolls @-@ Royce Conway turbofans . The Sapphire 9 was cancelled , however , and the heavily modified Phase 3 aircraft would have delayed production , so an interim " Phase 2A " Victor was proposed and accepted , to be powered by the Conway and having minimal modifications .
The " Phase 2A " proposal was accepted by the Air Staff as the Victor B.2 , with Conway RCo.11 engines providing 17 @,@ 250 lbf ( 76 @.@ 7 kN ) . The new Conway engines required redesigned enlarged intakes to provide the greater airflow required . The wingtips were extended , increasing the wingspan to 120 ft ( 36 @.@ 6 m ) . The B.2 featured distinctive retractable " elephant ear " intakes not found on the B.1 , located on the rear fuselage forward of the tail fin . These scoops fed ram air to Ram Air Turbines ( RAT ) which could provide electrical power during emergency situations , such as engine failure , during flight .
The first prototype Victor B.2 , serial number XH668 made its maiden flight on 20 February 1959 . It had flown 100 hours by 20 August 1959 , when , while high @-@ altitude engine tests were being carried out by the Aeroplane and Armament Experimental Establishment ( A & AEE ) , it disappeared from radar screens , crashing into the sea off the coast of Pembrokeshire . An extensive search operation was initiated to locate and salvage the wreckage of XH668 to determine the cause of the crash . It took until November 1960 to recover most of the aircraft ; the accident investigation concluded that the starboard pitot head had failed inflight , causing the flight control system to force the aircraft into an unrecoverable dive . Only minor changes were needed to resolve this problem , allowing the Victor B.2 to enter service in February 1962 .
= = = Further development = = =
A total of 21 B.2 aircraft were upgraded to the B.2R standard with Conway RCo.17 engines ( 20 @,@ 600 lbf or 92 kN thrust ) and facilities to carry a Blue Steel stand @-@ off nuclear missile . Their wings were modified to incorporate two " speed pods " or " Küchemann carrots " . These were anti @-@ shock bodies ; bulged fairings that reduced wave drag at transonic speeds ( see area rule ) , which were also used as a convenient place to house chaff dispensers . Handley Page proposed to build a further refined " Phase 6 " Victor , with more fuel and capable of carrying up to four Skybolt ( AGM @-@ 48 ) ballistic missiles on standing airborne patrols , but this proposal was rejected although it was agreed that some of the Victor B.2s on order would be fitted to carry two Skybolts . This plan was abandoned when the U.S. cancelled the whole Skybolt programme in 1963 . With the move to low @-@ level penetration missions , the Victors were fitted with air @-@ to @-@ air refuelling probes above the cockpit and received large underwing fuel tanks .
Nine B.2 aircraft were converted for strategic reconnaissance purposes to replace Valiants which had been withdrawn due to wing fatigue , with delivery beginning in July 1965 . These aircraft received a variety of cameras , a bomb bay @-@ mounted radar mapping system and wing top sniffers to detect particles released from nuclear testing . Designated Victor SR.2 , a single aircraft could photograph the whole of the United Kingdom in a single two @-@ hour sortie . Different camera configurations could be installed in the bomb bay , including up to four F49 survey cameras and up to eight F96 cameras could be fitted to take vertical or oblique daylight photography ; nighttime photography required the fitting of F89 cameras .
= = = Aerial refuelling conversion = = =
The withdrawal of the Valiant fleet because of metal fatigue in December 1964 meant that the RAF had no front line tanker aircraft , so the B.1 / 1A aircraft , now judged to be surplus in the strategic bomber role , were refitted for this duty . To get some tankers into service as quickly as possible , six B.1A aircraft were converted to B ( K ) .1A standard ( later redesignated B.1A ( K2P ) ) , receiving a two @-@ point system with a hose and drogue carried under each wing , while the bomb bay remained available for weapons . Handley Page worked day and night to convert these six aircraft , with the first being delivered on 28 April 1965 , and 55 Squadron becoming operational in the tanker role in August 1965 .
While these six aircraft provided a limited tanker capability suitable for refuelling fighters , the Mk 20A wing hosereels could only deliver fuel at a limited rate , and were not suitable for refuelling bombers . Work therefore continued to produce a definitive three @-@ point tanker conversion of the Victor Mk.1. Fourteen further B.1A and 11 B.1 were fitted with two permanently fitted fuel tanks in the bomb bay , and a high @-@ capacity Mk 17 centreline hose dispenser unit with three times the fuel flow rate as the wing reels , and were designated K.1A and K.1 respectively .
The remaining B.2 aircraft were not as suited to the low @-@ level mission profile that the RAF had adopted for carrying out strategic bombing missions as the Vulcan with its strong delta wing . This , combined with the switch of the nuclear deterrent from the RAF to the Royal Navy ( with the Polaris missile ) meant that the Victors were considered to be surplus to requirements . Hence , 24 B.2 were modified to K.2 standard . Similar to the K.1 / 1A conversions , the wing was trimmed to reduce stress and the bomb aimer 's nose glazing was plated over . During 1982 , the glazing was reintroduced on some aircraft , the former nose bomb aimer 's position having been used to mount F95 cameras in order to perform reconnaissance missions during the Falklands War . The K.2 could carry 91 @,@ 000 lb ( 41 @,@ 000 kg ) of fuel . It served in the tanker role until withdrawn in October 1993 .
= = Design = =
= = = Overview = = =
The Victor was a futuristic @-@ looking , streamlined aircraft , with four turbojet engines buried in the thick wing roots . Distinguishing features of the Victor were its highly swept T @-@ tail with considerable dihedral on the tail planes , and a prominent chin bulge that contained the targeting radar , cockpit , nose landing gear unit and an auxiliary bomb aimer 's position . It was originally required by the specification that the whole nose section could be detached at high altitudes to act as an escape pod , but the Air Ministry abandoned this demand in 1950 .
The Victor had a five @-@ man crew , comprising the two pilots seated side @-@ by @-@ side and three rearward @-@ facing crew , these being the navigator / plotter , the navigator / radar operator , and the air electronics officer ( AEO ) . Unlike the Vulcan and Valiant , the Victor 's pilots sat at the same level as the rest of the crew , thanks to a larger pressurised compartment that extended all the way to the nose . As with the other V @-@ bombers , only the pilots were provided with ejection seats ; the three systems operators relying on " explosive cushions " inflated by a CO2 bottle that would help them from their seats and towards a traditional bail out in the event of high g @-@ loading , but despite this , escape for the three backseaters was extremely difficult .
While assigned to the nuclear delivery role , the Victor was finished in an all @-@ over anti @-@ flash white colour scheme , designed to protect the aircraft against the damaging effects of a nuclear detonation . The white colour scheme was intended to reflect heat away from the aircraft ; paler variations of RAF 's roundels were also applied for this same reason . When the V @-@ bombers were assigned to the low @-@ level approach profile in the 1960s , the Victors were soon repainted in green / grey tactical camouflage to reduce visibility to ground observation ; the same scheme was applied to subsequently converted tanker aircraft .
= = = Armaments and equipment = = =
The Victor 's bomb bay was much larger than that of the Valiant and Vulcan , which allowed heavier weapon loads to be carried at the cost of range . As an alternative to the single " 10 @,@ 000 lb " nuclear bomb as required by the specification , the bomb bay was designed to carry several conventional armaments , including a single 22 @,@ 000 lb ( 10 @,@ 000 kg ) Grand Slam or two 12 @,@ 000 lb ( 5 @,@ 500 kg ) Tallboy earthquake bombs , up to forty @-@ eight 1 @,@ 000 lb ( 450 kg ) bombs or thirty @-@ nine 2 @,@ 000 lb ( 900 kg ) sea mines . One proposed addition to the Victor were underwing panniers capable of carrying a further 28 1 @,@ 000 lb bombs to supplement the main bomb bay , but this option was not pursued .
In addition to a range of free @-@ fall nuclear bombs , later Victor B.2s operated as missile carriers for standoff nuclear missiles such as Blue Steel ; it had been intended for the American Skybolt missile to be introduced ; however , development of Skybolt was cancelled . Target information for Blue Steel could be input during flight , as well in advance of the mission . It was reported that , with intensive work , a B.2 missile carrier could revert to carrying free @-@ fall nuclear weapons or conventional munitions within 30 hours .
Like its sibling V @-@ Bombers , the Victor made use of the Navigational and Bombing System ( NBS ) ; a little @-@ used optical sight had also been installed upon early aircraft . For navigation and bomb @-@ aiming purposes , the Victor employed numerous radar systems . These included the H2S radar , the first airborne ground @-@ scanning radar , and the Green Satin radar . Radar information was inputted into the onboard electromechanical analogue bomb @-@ aiming apparatus . Some of the navigation and targeting equipment was either directly descended from , or shared concepts with , those used on Handley Page 's preceding Halifax bomber . Operationally , the accuracy of the bomb @-@ aiming system proved to be limited to roughly 400 yards , which was deemed sufficient for high @-@ level nuclear strike operations .
= = = Avionics and systems = = =
The Victor had fully duplicated powered controls ; many of the flight controls and flight surfaces were designed with redundancies . Pilot control movements were transmitted via a low @-@ friction mechanical system . This setup was developed to provide , amongst other capabilities , a level of artificial feel to the pilot . Eight separated hydraulic circuits were present on the aircraft , which comprised the alighting gear , flaps , nose flaps , air brakes , bomb doors , wheel brakes , nose @-@ wheel steering , and the ram @-@ air turbine scoops . An AC electrical system and auxiliary power unit were significant additions upon the later Victor B.2 , electrical reliability being noticeably improved .
To evade enemy detection and interception efforts , the Victor was outfitted with an extensive electronic countermeasures ( ECM ) suite which were operated by the air electronics officer ( AEO ) , who had primary responsibility for the aircraft 's electronics and communication systems . The ECM equipment could be employed to disrupt effective use of both active and passive radar in the vicinity of the aircraft , and to provide situational awareness for the crew . Enemy communications could also be jammed , and radar guided missiles of the era were also reportedly rendered ineffective . The Victor B.2 featured an extended area located around the base of the tail fin which contained cooling systems and some of the ECM equipment .
Some of the ECM equipment which initially saw use on the Victor , such as the original chaff dispenser and Orange Putter tail warning radar , had been developed for the earlier English Electric Canberra bomber and were already considered to be near @-@ obsolete by the time the Victor had entered service . Significant improvements and alterations would be made to the avionics and ECM suites , as effective ECMs had been deemed critical to the Victor 's role ; for example , the introduction of the more capable Red Steer tail warning radar . The introduction of the Victor B.2 was accompanied by several new ECM systems , including a passive radar warning receiver , a metric radar jammer and communications jamming equipment . Streamlined fairings on the trailing edges of the wings that could house large quantities of defensive chaff / flares were also new additions . While trials were conducted with terrain @-@ following radar and a side scan mode for the bombing and navigation radar , neither of these functions were integrated into the operational fleet .
= = = Engines = = =
The Victor B.1 was powered by an arrangement of four Armstrong Siddeley Sapphire turbojet engines . The engines were embedded in pairs into the aircraft 's wing root ; because of the high mounted position of the wing , the tail had to adopt a high mounting to maintain clearance of the jet turbulence , however the airbrakes were ideally situated to take advantage of this phenomenon . Difficulties were encountered with the Sapphires when stationed in tropical environments ; several engines were destroyed by the turbine blades striking the outer engine casing . The Victor B.2 adopted the newer Rolls @-@ Royce Conway turbofan ; the Conway at one point held the distinction of being the most powerful non @-@ afterburning engine outside of the Soviet Union , and were significantly more powerful than the preceding Sapphire engines employed upon on the B.1.
The Victor B.2 featured a distinct change in the aircraft 's engine arrangements ; incorporated into the right wing root was a Blackburn Artouste airborne auxiliary power unit ( AAPU ) , effectively a small fifth engine . The AAPU was capable of providing high @-@ pressure air for starting the main engines , and also providing electrical power on the ground or alternatively in the air as an emergency back @-@ up in the event of main engine failures . The AAPU also acted to reduce the need for external specialist support equipment . Turbine @-@ driven alternators , otherwise known as ram air turbines ( RATs ) , had been introduced on the B.2 to provide emergency power in the event of electrical or hydraulic power being lost . Retractable scoops in the rear fuselage would open to feed ram air into the RATs , which would provide sufficient electrical power to operate the flight controls . In the event of engine flameout RATs would assist the crew in maintaining control of the aircraft until the main engines could be relit .
= = = Flight profile = = =
The Victor was commonly described as having good handling and excellent performance , along with favourable low speed flight characteristics . During the flight tests of the first prototype , the Victor proved its aerodynamic performance , flying up to Mach 0 @.@ 98 without handling or buffeting problems ; there were next to no aerodynamic changes between prototype and production aircraft . Production aircraft featured an automated nose @-@ flap operation to counteract a tendency for the aircraft to pitch upwards during low @-@ to @-@ moderate Mach numbers . At low altitude , the Victor typically flew in a smooth and comfortable manner , in part due to its narrowness and flexibility of the crescent wing . One unusual flight characteristic of the early Victor was its self @-@ landing capability ; once lined up with the runway , the aircraft would naturally flare as the wing entered into ground effect while the tail continued to sink , giving a cushioned landing without any command or intervention by the pilot .
The Victor has been described as an agile aircraft , atypical for a large bomber aircraft ; in 1958 , a Victor had performed several loops and a barrel roll during practices for a display flight at Farnborough Airshow . Manoeuverability was greatly enabled by the light controls , quick response of the aircraft , and the design of certain flight surfaces such as the infinitely @-@ variable tail @-@ mounted airbrake . The Victor was designed for flight at high subsonic speeds , although multiple instances have occurred in which the sound barrier was broken . During development of the Victor B.2 , the RAF had stressed the concept of tactical manoeuverability , which led to much effort in development being given to increasing the aircraft 's height and range performance .
= = Operational history = =
The Victor was the last of the V bombers to enter service , with deliveries of B.1s to No. 232 Operational Conversion Unit RAF based at RAF Gaydon , Warwickshire before the end of 1957 . The first operational bomber squadron , 10 Squadron , formed at RAF Cottesmore in April 1958 , with a second squadron , 15 Squadron forming before the end of the year . Four Victors , fitted with Yellow Astor reconnaissance radar , together with a number of passive sensors , were used to equip a secretive unit , the Radar Reconnaissance Flight at RAF Wyton . The Victor bomber force continued to build up , with 57 Squadron forming in March 1959 and 55 Squadron in October 1960 . At its height , the Victor was simultaneously operating with six squadrons of RAF Bomber Command .
According to the operational doctrine developed by the RAF , in the circumstance of deploying a large scale nuclear strike , each Victor would have operated entirely independently ; the crews would conduct their mission without external guidance and be reliant upon the effectiveness of their individual tactics to reach and successfully attack their assigned target ; thus great emphasis was placed on continuous crew training during peacetime . Developing a sense of a crew unity was considered highly important ; Victor crews would typically serve together for at least five years , and a similar approach was adopted with ground personnel . In order to maximize the operational lifespan of each aircraft , Victor crews typically flew a single five @-@ hour training mission per week . Each crew member was required to qualify for servicing certificates to independently undertake inspection , refuelling and turnaround operations .
In times of high international tension , the V @-@ bombers would be dispersed and have been maintained at a high state of readiness ; if the order was given to deploy a nuclear strike , Victors at high readiness would have been airborne in under four minutes from the point the order had been issued . British intelligence had estimated that the Soviet 's radar network was capable of detecting the Victor at up to 200 miles away , so to avoid interception , the Victor would follow carefully planned routes to exploit weaknesses in the Soviet detection network . This tactic was employed in conjunction with the Victor 's extensive onboard electronic countermeasures ( ECM ) to increase the chances of evasion . Whilst originally the Victor would have maintained high altitude flight throughout a nuclear strike mission , rapid advances of the Soviet anti @-@ aircraft warfare capabilities ( exemplified by the downing of a U2 from 70 @,@ 000 ft in 1960 ) led to this tactic being abandoned : a low @-@ level high @-@ speed approach supported by increasingly sophisticated ECMs was adopted in its place .
The improved Victor B.2 started to be delivered in 1961 , with the first B.2 Squadron , 139 Squadron forming in February 1962 , and a second , 100 Squadron in May 1962 . These were the only two bomber squadrons to form on the B.2 , as the last 28 Victors on order were cancelled . The prospect of Skybolt ballistic missiles , with which each V @-@ bomber could strike at two separate targets , meant that fewer bombers would be needed , while the government were unhappy with Sir Frederick Handley Page 's resistance to their pressure to merge his company with competitors . While Skybolt 's development would be terminated , Victor B.2s were retrofitted as carrier aircraft for the Blue Steel standoff nuclear missile . The introduction of standoff weapons and the switch to low @-@ level flight in order to evade radar detection was said to be decisive factors in the successful penetration of enemy territory .
In 1964 – 1965 , a series of detachments of Victor B.1As was deployed to RAF Tengah , Singapore as a deterrent against Indonesia during the Borneo conflict , the detachments fulfilling a strategic deterrent role as part of Far East Air Force , while also giving valuable training in low @-@ level flight and visual bombing . In September 1964 , with the confrontation with Indonesia reaching a peak , the detachment of four Victors was prepared for rapid dispersal , with two aircraft loaded with live conventional bombs and held on one @-@ hour readiness , ready to fly operational sorties . However , they were never required to fly combat missions and the high readiness alert finished at the end of the month .
Following the discovery of fatigue cracks , developing due to their low @-@ altitude usage , the B.2R strategic bombers were retired and placed in storage by the end of 1968 . The RAF had experienced intense demand upon its existing aerial refuelling tanker fleet , and its existing fleet of Victor B.1 tankers that had been converted earlier were due to be retired in the 1970s , thus it was decided that the stored Victor B.2Rs would be converted to tankers also . Handley Page prepared a modification scheme that would see the Victors fitted with tip tanks , the structure modified to limit further fatigue cracking in the wings , and ejection seats provided for all six crewmembers . The Ministry of Defence delayed signing the order for conversion of the B2s until after Handley Page went into liquidation . The contract for conversion was instead awarded to Hawker Siddeley , who produced a much simpler conversion than that planned by Handley Page , with the wingspan shortened to reduce wing bending stress and hence extend airframe life .
While the Victor was never permanently based with any units stationed overseas , temporary deployments were frequently conducted , often in a ceremonial capacity or to participate in training exercises and competitions . Victor squadrons were dispatched on several extended deployments to the Far East , and short term deployments to Canada were also conducted for training purposes . At one point during the early 1960s , South Africa showed considerable interest in the acquisition of several bomber @-@ configured Victors ; in the end , the Victor would not serve with any other operator other than the RAF .
Several of the Victor B.2s had been converted for Strategic Reconnaissance mission following the retirement of the Valiant in this capacity . In service , this type was primarily used in surveillance of the Atlantic and Mediterranean Seas , capable of surveying 400 @,@ 000 square miles in an eight @-@ hour mission ; they were also used to sample the fallout from French nuclear tests conducted in the South Pacific . Originally reconnaissance Victors were equipped for visual reconnaissance ; however , it was found to be cheaper to assign Canberra light bombers to this duty and as such the cameras were removed in 1970 . Subsequently , radar @-@ based reconnaissance was emphasised in the type 's role . The reconnaissance Victors remained in use until 1974 when they followed the standard bombers into the tanker conversion line ; a handful of modified Avro Vulcans assumed the maritime radar reconnaissance role in their place .
Two of the V @-@ bombers , the Victor and the Vulcan , played a high @-@ profile role during the 1982 Falklands War . In order to cross the vast distance of the Atlantic Ocean , a single Vulcan required refuelling several times from Victor tankers . A total of three bombing missions were flown against Argentine forces deployed to the Falklands , with approximately 1 @.@ 1 million gal ( 5 million L ) of fuel consumed in each mission . At the time , these missions held the record for the world 's longest @-@ distance bombing raids . The deployment of other assets to the theatre , such as the Hawker Siddeley Nimrod and Lockheed Hercules , required the support of the Victor tanker fleet , which had been temporarily relocated to RAF Ascension Island for the campaign . The Victor also undertook several reconnaissance missions over the South Atlantic . These missions provided valuable intelligence for the retaking of South Georgia by British forces .
Following the invasion of Kuwait by neighbouring Iraq in 1991 , a total of eight Victor K.2s were deployed to Bahrain to provide in @-@ flight refuelling support to RAF and other coalition aircraft during the subsequent 1991 Gulf War . RAF strike aircraft such as the Panavia Tornado would frequently make use of the tanker to refuel prior to launching cross @-@ border strikes inside of Iraq . Shortly after the Gulf War , the remaining Victor fleet was quickly retired in 1993 , at which point it had been the last of the three V @-@ bombers in operational service ; retiring nine years after the last Vulcan , although the Vulcan had survived longer in its original role as a bomber .
= = Variants = =
HP.80
Prototype , two aircraft built .
Victor B.1
Strategic bomber aircraft , 50 built .
Victor B.1A
Strategic bomber aircraft , B.1 updated with Red Steer tail warning radar and ECM suite , 24 converted .
Victor B.1A ( K.2P )
2 point in @-@ flight refuelling tanker retaining bomber capability , six converted .
Victor BK.1
3 point in @-@ flight refuelling tanker ( renamed K.1 after bombing capability removed ) , 11 converted .
Victor BK.1A
3 point in @-@ flight refuelling tanker ( renamed K.1A as for K.1 ) , 14 converted .
Victor B.2
Strategic bomber aircraft , 34 built .
Victor B.2RS
Blue Steel @-@ capable aircraft with RCo.17 Conway 201 engines , 21 converted .
Victor B ( SR ) .2
Strategic reconnaissance aircraft , nine converted .
Victor K.2
In @-@ flight refuelling tanker . 24 converted from B.2 and B ( SR ) .2 .
HP.96
Proposed military transport of 1950 with new fuselage carrying 85 troops . Unbuilt .
HP.97
1950 civil airliner project . Not built .
HP.98
Proposed pathfinder version with remotely operated tail guns and powered by Conway engines . Rejected in favour of Valiant B.2.
HP.101
Proposed military transport version of HP.97. Not built .
HP.104
Proposed " Phase 3 " bomber of 1955 powered by Bristol Olympus or Sapphire engines . Not built .
HP.111
1958 project for military or civil transport , powered by four Conway engines . Capacity for 200 troops in military version or 145 passengers in airliner in a double @-@ decker fuselage .
HP.114
Proposed " Phase 6 " bomber designed for standing patrols carrying two or four GAM @-@ 87 Skybolt ballistic missiles .
HP.123
Proposed military tactical transport based on HP.111 and fitted with blown flaps . Rejected in favour of Armstrong Whitworth AW.681.
= = Operators = =
Royal Air Force
No. 10 Squadron RAF operated B.1 from April 1958 to March 1964 at RAF Cottesmore .
No. 15 Squadron RAF operated B.1 from September 1958 to October 1964 at RAF Cottesmore .
No. 55 Squadron RAF operated B.1 and B.1As from RAF Honington from October 1960 , moving to RAF Marham and receiving B.1 ( K ) A tankers in May 1965 . These were replaced by K.2 in July 1975 , with the squadron continuing to operate Victors in the tanker role until disbanding in October 1993 .
No. 57 Squadron RAF operated B.1As , K.1 & K.2s from March 1959 to 1992 .
No. 100 Squadron RAF operated B.2s at RAF Wittering from May 1962 to September 1968 .
No. 139 ( Jamaica ) Squadron RAF operated B.2s from February 1962 to December 1968 .
No. 214 Squadron RAF operated K.1 tankers from July 1966 to January 1977 .
No. 543 Squadron RAF operated B ( SR ) .2s from December 195 to May 1974 .
No. 232 Operational Conversion Unit RAF .
Radar Reconnaissance Flight RAF Wyton .
= = Accidents and incidents = =
14 July 1954 : WB771 the prototype HP.80 crashed during a test flight at Cranfield , England . All four crewmen died . Witnesses reported the entire tail assembly had " ripped away " at a height of about 100 feet .
16 April 1958 : XA921 a B.1 undertaking Ministry of Supply trials experienced a collapse of the rear bomb bay bulkhead while cycling the bomb bay doors , damaging hydraulic and electrical systems ; the aircraft successfully returned to base . Following the incident , in @-@ service Victors had restrictions put in place on the opening of the bomb doors until Modification 943 was applied to all aircraft .
20 August 1959 : XH668 a B2 of the A & AEE lost a pitot head and dived into the sea off Milford Haven , Pembrokeshire .
19 June 1960 : XH617 a B1A of 57 Squadron caught fire in the air and was abandoned near Diss , Norfolk .
23 March 1962 : XL159 a B2 of the A & AEE stalled and dived into a house at Stubton , Lincolnshire .
14 June 1962 : XH613 a B1A of 15 Squadron lost power on all engines and was abandoned on approach to RAF Cottesmore .
16 June 1962 : XA929 a B1 of 10 Squadron overshot the runway and broke up at RAF Akrotiri following an aborted takeoff .
2 October 1962 : XA934 a B1 of ' A ' Squadron , 232 OCU had an engine fail on takeoff from RAF Gaydon after which two engines failed on approach . The aircraft crashed into a copse several miles from RAF Gaydon . Of the four crew on board only the co @-@ pilot survived .
20 March 1963 : XM714 a B2 of 100 Squadron stalled after takeoff from RAF Wittering .
29 June 1966 : XM716 a SR2 of 543 Squadron was giving a demonstration flight for the press and television at RAF Wyton . The aircraft had made one high @-@ speed circuit and was flying low in a wide arc to return over the airfield when the starboard wing was seen to break away and both it and the rest of the aircraft burst into flames . All four crew were killed . The aircraft was the first SR2 to enter service with the squadron , and released evidence suggests that it was overstressed .
19 August 1968 : Victor K1 XH646 of 214 Squadron collided in midair near Holt , Norfolk in bad weather with a 213 Squadron English Electric Canberra WT325 ; all four crew members of the Victor died
10 May 1973 : XL230 a SR2 of 543 Squadron bounced during landing at RAF Wyton and exploded .
24 March 1975 : Victor K1A XH618 of 57 Squadron was involved in a midair collision with Hawker Siddeley Buccaneer XV156 during a simulated refuelling . The Buccaneer hit the Victor 's tailplane causing the Victor to crash into the sea 95 mi ( 153 km ) east of Sunderland , Tyne and Wear , four crew killed .
29 Sept 1976 : XL513 a K2 of No 55 Squadron aborted take off and overshot the runway at RAF Marham after a bird strike . The crew escaped with no serious injuries . The aircraft caught fire and was damaged beyond repair .
15 October 1982 : XL232 a K2 of No 55 Squadron suffered an uncontained turbine failure early in the take off run . The aircraft was stopped and the crew evacuated the aircraft with no injuries . Debris from the turbine penetrated a fuselage fuel tank , starting an uncontrolled fire , destroying the aircraft and damaging the runway .
19 June 1986 : XL191 a K2 of 57 Squadron undershot approach in bad weather at Hamilton , Ontario .
3 May 2009 : During a " fast taxi " run at Bruntingthorpe Aerodrome , XM715 made an unplanned brief flight , reaching a height of about 30 ft ( 9 m ) at maximum . The aircraft did not have a permit to fly ; however , the Civil Aviation Authority ( CAA ) stated that they would not be conducting an investigation . The co @-@ pilot had failed to reply to the command " throttles back " ; the pilot then had to control the throttles himself , the confusion temporarily disrupting firm control of the aircraft .
= = Survivors = =
A total of five Victors have survived and are on display in museums . None are flightworthy as of 2013 .
Victor B.1A
XH648 : a B.1A ( K.2P ) at the Imperial War Museum Duxford , Cambridgeshire . This is the sole B.1 to survive .
Victor K.2
XH672 : Maid Marian , at the Royal Air Force Museum , Cosford , Shropshire , in the National Cold War Exhibition .
XH673 : Gate guardian at RAF Marham , Norfolk , the Victor 's last home .
XL231 : Lusty Lindy , at the Yorkshire Air Museum , York . The prototype for the B.2 to K.2 conversion . XL231 is one of two Victors currently in taxiable condition .
XM715 : Teasin ' Tina / Victor Meldrew , at the British Aviation Heritage Centre , Bruntingthorpe , Leicestershire . XM715 is also one of two Victors currently in taxiable condition .
= = Specifications ( Handley Page Victor B.1 ) = =
Data from Handley Page Aircraft since 1907
General characteristics
Crew : 5
Length : 114 ft 11 in ( 35 @.@ 05 m )
Wingspan : 110 ft 0 in ( 33 @.@ 53 m )
Height : 28 ft 1 ½ in ( 8 @.@ 57 m )
Wing area : 2 @,@ 406 sq ft ( 223 @.@ 5 m ² )
Empty weight : 89 @,@ 030 lb ( 40 @,@ 468 kg )
Max. takeoff weight : 205 @,@ 000 lb ( 93 @,@ 182 kg )
Powerplant : 4 × Armstrong Siddeley Sapphire A.S.Sa.7 turbojets , 11 @,@ 050 lbf ( 49 @.@ 27 kN ) each
Performance
Maximum speed : 627 mph ( 545 knots , 1 @,@ 009 km / h ) at 36 @,@ 000 ft ( 11 @,@ 000 m )
Range : 6 @,@ 000 mi ( 5 @,@ 217 nmi , 9 @,@ 660 km )
Service ceiling : 56 @,@ 000 ft ( 17 @,@ 000 m )
Armament
Up to 35 × 1 @,@ 000 lb ( 450 kg ) bombs or
1 × Yellow Sun free @-@ fall nuclear bomb
= = Notable appearances in media = =
A 1964 Gerhard Richter painting titled XL 513 depicts Victor K.2 , which was lost in a 1976 accident at RAF Marham .
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= Bart vs. Thanksgiving =
" Bart vs. Thanksgiving " is the seventh episode of The Simpsons ' second season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on November 22 , 1990 . In the episode , Lisa makes a table centerpiece for the Thanksgiving dinner , which Bart accidentally destroys . After he is sent to his room by his parents , Bart runs away from home and stays at a soup kitchen for homeless people . Bart returns home eventually and climbs to the roof of the Simpson family 's house , where he hears Lisa sobbing . He apologizes to her , and the family happily enjoys a meal of leftovers .
The episode was written by George Meyer and directed by David Silverman . Voice actor Greg Berg guest starred as Rory , one of the homeless people at the soup kitchen . The episode features cultural references to Macy 's Thanksgiving Day Parade , and the three poets Allen Ginsberg , Jack Kerouac , and Edgar Allan Poe . Since airing , the episode has received mostly positive reviews from television critics . It acquired a Nielsen rating of 11 @.@ 9 , and was the third highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network the week it aired .
= = Plot = =
It is Thanksgiving and Lisa assembles a decorative centerpiece for the dinner table . The Simpson family sits down to give thanks along with Grampa , Patty , Selma , and Mrs. Bouvier . When Lisa places the centerpiece on the table , she argues with Bart about where it should go since there is no room left for the turkey . In the ensuing fight , Bart accidentally throws the centerpiece into the fireplace and it burns up . Devastated , Lisa runs to her room crying , while Bart is sent to his room by his parents for the incident .
Convinced he has not done anything wrong , Bart decides to run away from home , taking Santa 's Little Helper with him . Walking the streets alone , he visits a breadline that is serving Thanksgiving dinner for homeless people . A television crew led by Kent Brockman is covering the event , and they interview Bart on live television . The family sees the report and calls the police . Homer and Marge start to regret the bad things they said to Bart , who eventually returns home feeling remorseful . However , the situation is worsened when he imagines his family blaming him for everything if he apologized for " ruining " Thanksgiving . Back to the present , he realizes that it was all his own imagination . He climbs up onto the roof of the house to think things out . Hearing Lisa cry because she misses him , Bart calls for her to come onto the roof . He realizes that what he did was wrong and apologizes to her and she accepts and kisses him . Bart rejoins the family to enjoy a meal of Thanksgiving leftovers later .
= = Production = =
The episode was written by George Meyer and directed by David Silverman . It was the first script Meyer wrote on the show , and he thought he made " quite a few mistakes , but it turned out really well overall . " The staff decided to do a Thanksgiving episode after they found out that an episode would air on Thursday , November 22 , 1990 , the date of Thanksgiving that year . The Simpsons had previously aired at 8 : 00 p.m. EST on Sunday night but the Fox network switched its timeslot to the same time on Thursdays at the beginning of the second season . The idea of Bart going up on the roof was suggested by Meyer who used to go up on the roof himself when he had fights with his family .
Voice actor Greg Berg guest starred as Rory , one of the homeless people at the soup kitchen . Marge 's mother , Jackie Bouvier , voiced by Julie Kavner , makes her first physical appearance on The Simpsons in the episode , though she was first referenced in a flashback in the season one episode " Moaning Lisa " . Bill and Marty , voiced by Harry Shearer and Dan Castellaneta , also make their first visual appearances , although they were heard on the radio in previous episodes , including " Bart Gets an " F " " . They are two radio show hosts and DJs on Springfield 's own radio station KBBL . Homer listens to their radio show when he drives to pick up Grampa at the retirement home for the Thanksgiving dinner .
= = Cultural references = =
At the beginning of the episode , Homer and Bart watch Macy 's Thanksgiving Day Parade , an annual United States parade that includes floating helium balloons modeled after famous fictional characters . When Homer and Bart talk about the balloons modeled after Bullwinkle and Underdog , The Simpsons is self @-@ referenced as Homer tells Bart that if the parade " turned every flash @-@ in @-@ pan cartoon character into a balloon , it would be a farce " , after which a giant balloon of Bart can be seen on the television in the background . Not coincidentally , 1990 was the year that Bart was turned into a balloon for the Macy 's Thanksgiving Day Parade . While watching the Thanksgiving football game , Homer says he is cheering for the Dallas Cowboys . Two of the fictional Dallas Cowboys players are named Jay Kogen and Wallace Wolodarsky after two writers on The Simpsons .
The song that plays on the radio during the break in the Thanksgiving football game is " Get Dancing " by Disco @-@ Tex and the Sex @-@ O @-@ Lettes . The game is played at the Pontiac Silverdome , then home to the Detroit Lions , who also play on Thanksgiving . Lisa says the following about her centerpiece : " It 's a tribute to the trailblazing women who made our country great . See , there 's Georgia O 'Keeffe , Susan B. Anthony , and this is Marjory Stoneman Douglas . I 'm sure you haven 't heard of her , but she worked her whole life to preserve the Florida Everglades . " The poem Lisa is seen writing in her room after her centerpiece is destroyed is a reference to Allen Ginsberg 's poem " Howl " . Lisa also keeps a book of Ginsberg 's work on a bookshelf next to Jack Kerouac 's novel On the Road , and a collection of poems by Edgar Allan Poe . Feeling hungry , Bart decides to steal food from the old , rich Mr. Burns , who lives on the corner of Croesus and Mammon , two mythological figures of greed . A member of Burns ' security staff reads the novel Les Misérables .
= = Reception = =
In its original broadcast , " Bart vs. Thanksgiving " finished thirty @-@ seventh in the ratings for the week of November 19 – 25 , 1990 , with a Nielsen rating of 11 @.@ 9 , equivalent to approximately eleven million viewing households . It was the third highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week , following Married ... with Children and In Living Color .
Since airing , the episode has received mostly positive reviews from television critics . The authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , wrote : " Marge 's mother Jackie is particularly nightmarish in her first real appearance . The final sequence on the rooftop with Lisa and Bart is lovely , and Homer 's comment to Marge is a magical wrap @-@ up to a good episode . " DVD Movie Guide 's Colin Jacobson said the episode " maintained a nicely irreverent tone most of the time — irreverent enough to make it amusing , at least , " and added : " The interaction of the Simpson and Bouvier families at dinner was terrific , and Bart ’ s experiences on skid row made their point while they still managed to be pointed and clever . ' Bart vs. Thanksgiving ' was another winner . " Bryce Wilson of Cinema Blend said " Bart vs. Thanksgiving " and " Lisa 's Substitute " , another season two episode , were the first episodes that " asked [ the audience ] to truly care about the characters , and they work beautifully . " Both Dawn Taylor of The DVD Journal and Jacobson thought the most memorable line of the episode was Jackie 's line to Marge : " I have laryngitis and it hurts to talk , so I 'll just say one thing — you never do anything right . " A reviewer for DVD.net , on the other hand , thought the best line was Homer 's " Oh Lord , be honest – are we the most pathetic family in the universe , or what ? " .
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= Angela James =
Angela James ( born December 22 , 1964 ) is a Canadian former ice hockey player who played at the highest levels of senior hockey between 1980 and 2000 . She was a member of numerous teams in the Central Ontario Women 's Hockey League ( COWHL ) from its founding in 1980 until 1998 and finished her career in the National Women 's Hockey League ( NWHL ) . She was named her league 's most valuable player six times . James is also a certified referee in Canada , and a coach . She is currently the Senior Sports Coordinator at Seneca College in Toronto .
Internationally , James played in the first women 's world championship , a 1987 tournament that was unsanctioned . She played with Team Canada in the first IIHF World Women 's Championship in 1990 , setting a scoring record of 11 goals and leading Canada to the gold medal . She played in three additional world championships , winning gold medals in 1992 , 1994 and 1997 . Controversially , she was left off the team for the first women 's Olympic hockey tournament in 1998 . She played her final international tournament in 1999 .
Considered the first superstar of modern women 's hockey , James has been honoured by numerous halls of fame . She was one of the first three women inducted into the International Ice Hockey Federation ( IIHF ) Hockey Hall of Fame in 2008 and one of the first two inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame in 2010 . She was inducted into Canada 's Sports Hall of Fame in 2009 .
= = Early life = =
James was born on December 22 , 1964 , in Toronto , Ontario . She is the daughter of Donna Barrato , a white Canadian from Toronto , and Leo James , a black American from Mississippi who came to Canada to escape racial segregation . She has two half @-@ brothers and two half @-@ sisters on her mother 's side . Her father , who was involved with a Toronto nightclub , estimates she has at least nine half @-@ siblings by him , though James believes the number closer to 15 . Among them is National Hockey League ( NHL ) player Theo Peckham .
A single mother , Donna raised Angela and her two half @-@ sisters with the help of government assistance . They lived in a subsidized townhouse in the Flemingdon Park neighbourhood of Toronto . Donna worked as a bookkeeper and at the concession stand of the local arena . She battled depression and mental illness and her eldest daughter , Cindy , worked two part @-@ time jobs at the age of 16 to help the family meet financial obligations . Angela was closest to her sister Kym , though the two also often fought as children . Her father never had a consistent place in her life growing up and did not provide financial support to the family , but was available if she needed him . As one of few black children in Flemingdon Park , Angela often faced insults , particularly over the fact that she was a mixed @-@ race child with a white mother and sisters . She often got into fights over the slurs , forming a combative attitude she carried into the game of hockey . Her maternal grandparents never accepted Angela as a child , though they treated her sisters well .
Always a tomboy , James quickly developed an interest in sports . Her godfather gave her a baseball bat and glove to celebrate her first holy communion . She excelled at hockey , baseball and synchronized swimming as a young child . Her mother wanted her to focus on swimming due to the lack of opportunities for girls in hockey in the 1970s . Her passion was for hockey , however , and she was constantly playing ball hockey with the neighbourhood boys from the time she was in kindergarten . James first played organized hockey in a Flemingdon Park boys house league at the age of eight , and then only after her mother threatened legal action as officials opposed her inclusion .
James dominated the Flemingdon Park league . She started in the novice ( 7 – 8 year old ) age group , but her skill level was so much higher than her peers that she was moved up to atom and then peewee ( 11 and 12 year olds ) . She led the league in scoring , was named an all @-@ star and was invited to play with the league team at a peewee tournament in Montreal . James ' participation in the Flemingdon Park league ended partway through her second year due to jealousy from the parents of the boys in the league . The president 's son was on James ' team , and was particularly offended that his boy was being overshadowed by a girl . He ordered a change in the league 's policy to forbid girls from playing .
The only feasible option James had for a girls league was at Annunciation , a Catholic organization in Don Mills . Lacking a vehicle to drive to the games , her mother would take her to and from games at various rinks via the bus . The girls ' hockey program was small , requiring that teams be made up of players from all age groups in order to field complete rosters . Skipping the bantam age group entirely , James first played senior hockey with the Newtonbrook Saints . She was 13 at the time , playing against women 16 and older . The Saints were a Senior C team , the fourth highest level of women 's hockey in the Toronto area at the time .
= = Playing career = =
= = = College = = =
Focused on hockey , exposed to drugs and alcohol and frequently getting into fights , James paid little attention to her education and nearly dropped out of school . A vice @-@ principal at Valley Park Middle School , Ross Dixon , encouraged her to pay greater attention to her studies , allowing her to graduate from Overlea High School , now named Marc Garneau Collegiate Institute , and move onto Seneca College in Toronto . James struggled academically in her first year at Seneca , partially because she had rarely been held accountable for failing in her studies in the past , and partly because she was playing two sports at both the college and community level while working part @-@ time jobs to help pay the family 's bills . Seneca 's hockey coach Lee Trempe had several arguments with James before she began to take her studies seriously .
James was a two @-@ sport star for the Seneca Scouts . She joined the softball team in 1983 , playing the outfield and batting cleanup . She was an Ontario Colleges Athletic Association ( OCAA ) all @-@ star and led her school the inaugural OCAA women 's softball championship . She was named an OCAA all @-@ star again 1984 and 1985 , leading Seneca to another provincial championship and a silver medal finish .
Though James always played forward in her community hockey leagues , Trempe converted her to defence so that she could set up the plays and incorporate her teammates into the offensive systems the team used . Despite the change in position , James still led the league in scoring in 1982 – 83 , recording 15 goals and 10 assists in an 8 game season . She was named the OCAA 's most valuable player , but Seneca settled for the silver medal after losing the OCAA finals . Leading the OCAA with 30 points in 10 games in 1983 – 84 , James carried Seneca College to its first championship . She was named an all @-@ star on defence , and again voted the most valuable player . James won both awards again the following season . Seneca repeated as champions in 1984 – 85 while James dominated the OCAA . She again led the league in scoring , setting school and association records with 50 goals and 73 points in just 14 games . Her scoring exploits led a Toronto reporter to call James " the Wayne Gretzky of women 's hockey " .
The OCAA named James its athlete of the year in both 1984 and 1985 for her exploits in hockey and softball . She set OCAA career hockey records of 80 goals and 128 points , which stood through to 1989 when the OCAA disbanded its women 's hockey program due to a lack of competing teams . Seneca College retired her jersey number 8 in 2001 , she was inducted into Seneca Varsity Hall of Fame in 1985 and in 2004 , received the Seneca College Distinguished Alumni Award .
= = = Senior = = =
After one year of Senior C hockey , James moved up to the Toronto Islanders in 1980 , a Senior AA team in the newly founded Central Ontario Women 's Hockey League ( COWHL ) . The league was at the highest level of women 's hockey in southern Ontario at the time , and James established herself as one of the league 's stars within a year . She played the first women 's national championship in 1982 , scoring the tying goal in the third period en route to a 3 – 2 overtime victory over Team Alberta to win the McTeer Cup .
When the Islanders folded in 1982 , James moved to a team in Burlington , where she stayed for three seasons . In 1983 , she led her new team to the national title as Burlington captured the inaugural Abby Hoffman Cup . For James , appearances in the women 's nationals were nearly an annual event , as she played in 12 national championship tournaments .
James changed teams frequently , moving for a variety of reasons . She often changed teams to follow friends or if she did not agree with the coach 's philosophy . Sometimes she moved out of necessity , such as if a team ceased operations . She left Burlington in 1984 – 85 to join Lee Trempe with the Agincourt Canadians for one season , then played with the Brampton Canadettes for another . In 1986 – 87 she again followed Trempe to the Mississauga Warriors , where she stayed for three seasons . James won her first of seven consecutive COWHL scoring titles that season , then was loaned to the Hamilton Golden Hawks for the 1987 Women 's Nationals and helped lead that team to victory .
Changing teams again , James joined the Toronto Aeros in 1989 . The Aeros had formed in 1974 as an outgrowth of the Annunciation team she played with as a child . She led the team to two national championships , in 1991 and 1993 . In the first , she scored the only goal , against future national team teammate Manon Rheaume , in a 1 – 0 victory over Team Quebec . The 1993 – 94 season was a season in which James scored 40 goals and 70 points in 28 games . She continued to switch teams , joining the Toronto Red Wings / Newtonbrook Panthers franchise for a couple seasons before rejoining the Aeros in 1997 . She remained with the team when it was rebranded the Beatrice Aeros in 1998 and joined the newly formed National Women 's Hockey League ( NWHL ) . James scored 38 goals and 55 points in the inaugural NWHL season of 1998 – 99 and was named the league 's most valuable player . The following season , she was named the Western Division 's best forward and on its First All @-@ Star team . The Aeros won their first NWHL title dominating the Sainte @-@ Julie Pantheres in the finals . Also OWHA champions , the Aeros catptured the women 's nationals against Team Quebec . Once the season over , James retired from competitive hockey in 2000 .
= = = International = = =
The Ontario Women 's Hockey Association ( OWHA ) hosted the first women 's world championship in 1987 . The event , which was not sanctioned by the International Ice Hockey Federation ( IIHF ) , featured six participating teams while several nations sent observers . Team Canada was represented by the national champion Hamilton Golden Hawks , with whom James had played with in the national tournament , while " Team Ontario " was represented by her usual club team in Mississauga . While she was eligible to play with either team in the tournament , James suited up for her usual Mississauga team . She led Team Ontario throughout , and after a 5 – 2 semi @-@ final win over the United States , played for the title against Team Canada . Team Canada defeated James ' Team Ontario , 4 – 0 in the final .
The IIHF sanctioned the first official Women 's World Championship , held in 1990 and played in Ottawa . Canada and the United States easily dispatched their European rivals to reach the gold medal final , which Canada won by a 5 – 2 score . James scored the first goal in the tournament 's history , and 11 overall . She tied American Cindy Curley for the tournament lead which , along with The USA 's Krissy Wendell in 2000 , stands as the record for most goals by one player in one tournament , through 2012 .
James appeared in three additional Women 's World Championships , all three of which were won by Canada over the United States . She was named an all @-@ star at forward in the 1992 tournament in Tampere , Finland , where Canada won the gold medal with an 8 – 0 victory . The Americans provided a stronger challenge at the 1994 tournament in Lake Placid , New York . James scored two goals and was named the game 's most valuable player in the final , a 6 – 3 victory . She won her fourth , and final , world championship in 1997 , a 4 – 3 overtime victory .
Reflecting the growth of the game , the 1998 Nagano Games featured the first women 's Olympic hockey tournament . The announcement of Canada 's first Olympic team on December 9 , 1997 , brought a storm of controversy . Head coach Shannon Miller left James off the roster , telling the press that the 32 @-@ year @-@ old James was a " defensive liability " and suggesting she was not a team player . James was devastated at being cut and enraged by Miller 's explanations . Stating she had been " treated like a dog " and " set up and cheated " by Miller , she appealed the decision to Hockey Canada . James also argued Miller 's criticisms were unjustified and that the coach had previously maintained she was playing well . She was the national team 's leading goal scorer in preliminary games that led up to the national team camp .
At the time of the appeal , rumours surfaced that Miller was having an affair with one of her players . While the allegations were unfounded , their timing resulted in James being falsely accused of being their source . Hockey Canada officials determined that the rumours were started by a third party attempting to create controversy . They also rejected James ' appeal , ending her Olympic dream . Neither her teammates nor her opponents could understand how she was left off the team . Canada and the United States met in the final , as expected , but it was the Americans who emerged victorious . Having already defeated Canada 7 – 4 in the preliminary round , the Americans won the gold medal with a 3 – 1 victory . Former teammates argued that James could have made a difference for Canada had she been included .
At the time , James was suffering from the effects of undiagnosed Graves ' disease , a thyroid condition that resulted suffering weight loss and fatigue throughout that camp . She learned of and was treated for her condition following the Olympics , recovering lost weight and strength . The national team , under a new coach , added James back to its roster for the 1999 3 Nations Cup . She was used sparingly , but accepted her diminished role with the team . During the tournament , James made the decision that it would be her last . James ' international career ended in storybook fashion as the championship game , against the United States , went to a shootout . Selected as the first shooter , she scored the winning goal to lead Canada to a 3 – 2 victory . James played in 50 games for Team Canada , scoring 33 goals and 21 assists .
= = Playing style = =
James was a dominant player in the OWHA . Women 's hockey historian Elizabeth Etue attributed James ' success to her skating strength and " dynamic , bullet @-@ like shot " . She was a physical player who helped the women 's game overcome a reputation that it was not a sport where the players were willing to play a " gritty " , tough style . Opponents claimed running into James was like " hitting steel " . Canadian Broadcasting Corporation commentator Robin Brown , who played against James in the OWHA , said of her : " She could do it all . She had end @-@ to @-@ end speed , she had finesse as a stick handler and her slap shot was harder and more accurate than any female player I have ever seen . She was a pure goal scorer like Mike Bossy and aggressive like Mark Messier . In her prime , she was referred to as the ' Wayne Gretzky of women 's hockey ' . " Capable of playing any position , James was primarily a centre during her senior career , but excelled on defence . In one game where her team was without a goaltender , she played the position and recorded a shutout .
= = Coaching and officiating = =
James has been active in many areas of the sport . She gained accreditation as a referee in Canada in 1980 , and has been an active official since . As a referee in a Senior D women 's game in 1986 , James was involved in an altercation with a player that resulted in the player becoming the first woman banned for life from the OWHA . The player became upset at a penalty James assessed , shoved a linesman and punched her . James ultimately gained level IV certification through Hockey Canada and has served as the OWHA 's Referee @-@ in @-@ Chief .
Upon her graduation from Seneca College , James took up coaching . Serving first as an assistant coach , she helped Seneca win the Ontario college championship , its third consecutive title . The school again repeated as champions in 1987 with James as its head coach . She has coached at all age levels of the game , including the national championship . She was an assistant with the gold medal winning Team Ontario at the 1999 Canada Winter Games , and led Ontario to a gold medal at the 2001 under @-@ 18 national championship . Prior to the 2010 @-@ 11 CWHL season , she was named Brampton Thunder head coach but , finding the responsibilities too time consuming , she stepped down in December , 2010 . She believes she can offer the most at the grassroots level of the sport , and has operated both her own hockey school and directed one organized through Seneca College .
= = Honours and legacy = =
James has been called " the first superstar of modern women 's hockey " , and has been hailed as a pioneer who brought the women 's game into the mainstream . Longtime women 's hockey administrator Fran Rider stated that James brought credibility , without which the women 's game would never have gained recognition as an Olympic sport .
An eight @-@ time scoring champion and six @-@ time most valuable player during her senior career , James has been honoured by several organizations . She was named Toronto 's Youth of the Year in 1985 and was presented the city 's Women in Sport Enhancement Award in 1992 . Hockey Canada named her the 2005 recipient of its Female Hockey Breakthrough Award . The Flemingdon Park arena was renamed the Angela James Arena in 2009 , and the Canadian Women 's Hockey League presents the Angela James Bowl to its leading scorer each sseason . She has been inducted into several Halls of Fame , including the Ontario Colleges Athletic Association Hall of Fame in 2005 , and the Black Hockey and Sports Hall of Fame in 2006 .
Reflecting her role as a pioneer of the sport , James was one of the first three women , along with Geraldine Heaney and Cammi Granato , to be inducted into the IIHF Hall of Fame . They were enshrined in 2008 as part of the IIHF 's 100th anniversary celebrations . Canada 's Sports Hall of Fame hailed James as a role model upon inducting her in 2009 . One year later , she joined Granato as the first two women inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame . James described being informed of her election as a day she never thought would happen , adding : " I 'm really honoured to represent the female hockey players from all over the world " .
= = Personal life = =
After earning a diploma in Recreation Facilities Management from Seneca College , James was hired by the school as a sports programmer in 1985 . She continues to work for Seneca and is now a senior sports coordinator at its King campus .
James realized as a teen that she is lesbian . She met her partner , Ange , in 1994 , and the couple formalized their relationship in a commitment ceremony two years later . They have three children . Ange carried their first child in 1999 , Christian , while Angela gave birth to fraternal twins , son Michael and daughter Toni , in 2004 .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Regular season and playoffs = = =
Note : Complete statistics unavailable
= = = International = = =
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= Operation Copperhead =
Operation Copperhead was a small military deception operation run by the British during the Second World War . It formed part of Operation Bodyguard , the cover plan for the invasion of Normandy in 1944 , and was intended to mislead German intelligence as to the location of General Bernard Montgomery . The operation was conceived by Dudley Clarke in early 1944 after he watched the film Five Graves to Cairo . Following the war M. E. Clifton James wrote a book about the operation , I Was Monty 's Double . It was later adapted into a film , with James in the lead role .
The German high command expected Montgomery ( one of the best @-@ known Allied commanders ) to play a key role in any cross @-@ channel bridgehead . Clarke and the other deception planners reasoned that a high @-@ profile appearance outside the United Kingdom would suggest that an Allied invasion was not imminent . An appropriate look @-@ alike was found , M. E. Clifton James , who spent a short time with Montgomery to familiarise himself with the general 's mannerisms . On 26 May 1944 , James flew first to Gibraltar and then to Algiers , making appearances where the Allies knew German intelligence agents would spot him . He then flew secretly to Cairo and remained in hiding until Montgomery 's public appearance in Normandy following the invasion .
The operation did not appear to have any significant impact on German plans and was not reported high up the chain of command . It was executed some time before D @-@ Day , and in the midst of several other Allied deceptions . German intelligence might have suspected a trick , or not attributed much importance to the visit .
= = Background = =
In preparation for the 1944 invasion of Normandy , the Allied nations conducted a complex series of deceptions under the codename Bodyguard . The overall aim of the plan was to confuse the German high command as to the exact location and timing of the invasion . Significant time was spent constructing the First United States Army Group , a notional army to threaten Pas de Calais , along with political and visual deceptions to communicate a fictional Allied battle plan . Copperhead was a small portion of Bodyguard conceived by Dudley Clarke . Earlier in the war Clarke had pioneered the idea of strategic deception , forming a deception department in Cairo named ' A ' Force . Clarke and ' A ' Force were not officially in charge of Bodyguard planning ( a role that fell to the London Controlling Section ) , but because of the location of the deception the Cairo planners organised much of the operation .
On a visit to Naples in January 1944 Clarke had seen the film Five Graves to Cairo , in which actor Miles Mander makes a brief appearance as Bernard Montgomery . The film involves one character impersonating another and Clarke suggested attempting the same trick in real life . He proposed an operation to mislead German commanders as to Montgomery 's location in the days immediately before the Normandy landings ( codenamed Operation Neptune ) .
Montgomery was one of the most prominent Allied commanders and the German high command expected him to be present for any invasion of France . Clarke hoped Montgomery 's apparent presence in Gibraltar and Africa would lend support to the idea that the Allies might be planning landings in Southern France , as part of Operation Vendetta , rather than across the Channel . While in London , in February 1944 , Clarke , the London Controlling Section and Ops ( B ) drafted Copperhead in support of Vendetta .
= = Operation = =
Mander , the actor from Five Graves to Cairo , was located in Hollywood but found to be too tall in real life . Another look @-@ alike was identified but before he could be drafted into the operation he broke a leg in a motorbike accident . Eventually , Lieutenant @-@ Colonel J. V. B. Jervis @-@ Reid , head of Ops ( B ) , spotted a photograph of Meyrick Clifton James in the News Chronicle . James , an Australian , had spent 25 years as an actor before the war , and at the time was assigned to the Royal Army Pay Corps . Colonel David Niven , a well @-@ known British actor , was asked to contact James and offer him a screen test for future army films . When he arrived at the meeting , James was told his true role .
James was not a perfect stand @-@ in for Montgomery . He had lost a finger during the First World War , so a prosthetic had to be made . He had also never flown before , so the London Controlling Section 's Dennis Wheatley took James up for a test flight to make sure he did not suffer from air sickness . Finally , James both drank heavily and smoked cigars , while Montgomery was a teetotaler and disliked smoking . The deception planners were worried that James might be spotted drinking , spoiling the performance . Despite these hitches , and with Montgomery 's approval , the plan went forward . To get into character , James spent some time with the general , posing as a journalist , to study his mannerisms .
Allied deceivers used their double agent network to circulate the idea that Montgomery would command ground forces during the invasion . Then , on 26 May 1944 , James flew overnight from RAF Northolt to Gibraltar , where the Germans maintained an observation post overlooking the airport from across the Spanish border . The plane had to circle for an hour before landing to allow James , who had smuggled a bottle of gin onto the flight , to sober up . He then attended breakfast with the British governor , Sir Ralph Eastwood , before departing again for the airfield . The Allies had arranged for Ignacio Molina Pérez , a Spanish envoy known to be a German spy , to visit Government House . After observing James 's departure , Pérez hurriedly crossed the border to place a call to his German handler .
James then flew to Algiers , where he was publicly paraded through the airport and driven to meet General Maitland Wilson , ostensibly for a meeting to discuss operations against the south of France . Instead , he was moved quietly to a remote villa by ' A ' Force 's Rex Hamer . Rumours suggest this was because James had been spotted smoking and staggering around Algiers , so the deceivers decided to cut his appearances short . Whatever the reason , the next day , out of character , James was flown to Cairo . He was to remain hidden there until the public disclosure of Montgomery 's presence in France . Meanwhile , double agents in North Africa were used to extend the masquerade for a few more days , by hinting Montgomery was still in the region .
= = Impact = =
The impact of Copperhead is unclear . The visit was reported up the German chain of command , and some double agents later received requests for information about Montgomery 's movements . There is no indication that Montgomery 's appearance affected German views of the imminent invasion threat . Writing in 2011 , historian Joshua Levine attributes this to the fact that the deception was carried out ten days before D @-@ Day , arguing that there would be no reason for a flying visit to North Africa to preclude an imminent invasion .
Another factor was that , in early May 1944 , an uncontrolled agent based in Spain ( who sold fictional intelligence to the Germans ) had passed on details of a meeting in Gibraltar between several high @-@ ranking Allied officers . Documents found after the war indicate that the Germans found this information suspect , and may have treated Montgomery 's appearance as equally so . Although double agents received several urgent requests from the Abwehr about his whereabouts it does not appear that this information was passed on to the German command in France . According to captured enemy generals , German intelligence believed that it was Montgomery , though they still guessed that it was a feint . The Bodyguard deception had confused the German command as to Allied intentions and the apparent arrival of Montgomery in Gibraltar added little to the picture .
James did not enjoy the experience . Although he received equivalent pay ( £ 10 per day ) to Montgomery during the operation , it had been a stressful assignment . Following Montgomery 's public appearance on the Normandy beachhead , James flew back to England and resumed his role within the Pay Corps and was warned not to discuss the operation . Dennis Wheatley , in his memoirs , commented that he felt James had been treated " shabbily " for his efforts .
= = Later depictions = =
In 1954 James wrote an account of the operation , entitled I Was Monty 's Double ( published in the United States as The Counterfeit General ) . The British government made no attempt to stop publication , and in 1958 the book was adapted into a film of the same name . James starred , both as himself and Montgomery , alongside John Mills as an intelligence agent .
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= Jurassic Park III =
Jurassic Park III is a 2001 American science fiction adventure film and the third installment in the Jurassic Park film series . The film stars Sam Neill , William H. Macy , Téa Leoni , Alessandro Nivola , Trevor Morgan , and Michael Jeter . It is the first film in the series not to have been directed by Steven Spielberg , nor based on a book by Michael Crichton ( though numerous scenes in the film were ultimately taken from Crichton 's novels Jurassic Park and The Lost World ) . The film takes place on Isla Sorna , off Central America 's Pacific coast , the island featured in the second film , where a divorced couple has tricked Dr. Alan Grant into going in order to help them find their son .
After the success of Spielberg 's Jurassic Park , Joe Johnston expressed interest in directing a sequel . Spielberg instead gave Johnston permission to direct the third film in the series , if there were to be one . Production of Jurassic Park III began on August 30 , 2000 . Despite mixed to negative reviews from critics , the film was successful at the box office , grossing $ 368 million worldwide . A sequel was released in June 2015 .
= = Plot = =
Ben Hildebrand and 12 @-@ year @-@ old Eric Kirby go parasailing around the waters of Isla Sorna . A creature of unknown species attacks and kills the boat crew as it passes through a fog bank . Ben detaches the line ; he and Eric drift towards the island .
Dr. Alan Grant has become famous after his involvement at Jurassic Park . Ellie Sattler is married and has two children . Grant discusses with Sattler how raptors are far more intelligent than they had previously believed . At a dig site , Grant 's assistant , Billy Brennan , demonstrates how he can use a 3D printer to replicate a Velociraptor larynx .
Paul and Amanda Kirby , a wealthy couple , offer Grant funding for his research if he will give them an aerial tour of Isla Sorna . Desperate for research support , Grant reluctantly agrees . He flies there along with Paul , Amanda , Billy , and the Kirbys ' mercenary associates , Udesky , Cooper , and their pilot Nash . On the plane , Grant learns that the Kirbys actually plan to land on the island . When Grant opposes , he is knocked out by Cooper and wakes to the sound of Amanda using a megaphone . This attracts a Spinosaurus , which devours Cooper and causes the plane to crash into the forest . The Spinosaurus devours Nash and destroys the plane . Fleeing , the survivors briefly lose the Spinosaurus , only to encounter a Tyrannosaurus rex . The Spinosaurus returns , but the group escapes while the two carnivores fight each other . The Spinosaurus overpowers the T. rex and kills it .
Grant learns the Kirbys are actually a middle @-@ class divorced couple , who are looking for their son Eric , and Amanda 's boyfriend Ben , who have been missing on the island for eight weeks . Later , the group finds the parasail with Ben 's corpse attached . The group takes the parasail , and then encounter raptor nests . They find an abandoned InGen compound , where Amanda is ambushed by a raptor . The group manages to trap it , but it escapes and contacts the rest of its pack . The group flees into a herd of Corythosaurus and Parasaurolophus , causing a stampede , separating Grant and Udesky from the others . Grant retrieves Billy 's satchel , while Udesky is killed by the raptors .
Grant suspects the raptors are searching for something , while observing two of them communicating . He is then ambushed and cornered by the raptors , but is rescued by Eric , who managed to survive in an overturned water truck . The next day , Grant and Eric hear Paul 's satellite phone ringing and are reunited with the Kirbys and Billy . Paul explains that he gave the phone to Nash before he was devoured , and the group sees the Spinosaurus once again , with the phone ringing from inside the dinosaur . After barely escaping , Grant discovers that Billy took two eggs from the raptor nests and hid them in his satchel to use for funding , which provoked the raptor attacks . He decides to keep the eggs to ensure the group 's survival . The group unknowingly enters a large aviary used to house Pteranodons , which attack the group and fly away with Eric . Billy rescues Eric by using Ben 's parasail , but is then attacked and seemingly killed by the Pteranodons . The rest of the group escapes the aviary , unintentionally leaving the door unlocked . They make their way downriver using a boat .
That night , the group hears the phone ringing buried in feces of the Spinosaurus and retrieve it . As rain falls , Grant tries to contact Sattler , but the Spinosaurus attacks the boat . Grant and Paul scare it off by setting the boat 's fuel on fire . The next day , the group makes their way towards the shoreline , but are surrounded by the raptors once again . The eggs are surrendered to the raptors , while Grant uses the replicated raptor larynx to confuse the pack , who run off with the eggs . The group flees to the coast and find that Sattler had called in the U.S. Marine Corps and the U.S. Navy to rescue them . They discover that Billy , while seriously injured , is still alive . As they leave the island , they see the Pteranodons flying free , and Grant muses they are looking for new nesting grounds .
= = Cast = =
Sam Neill as Dr. Alan Grant , the world @-@ famous paleontologist who survived the incident on Isla Nublar and has since developed an apathetic attitude towards the creatures he once admired .
William H. Macy as Paul Kirby , the owner of a hardware store who poses as a wealthy businessman in order to lure Grant into helping search for his son .
Téa Leoni as Amanda Kirby , Paul 's former wife who accompanies the group to Isla Sorna to search for her son .
Alessandro Nivola as Billy Brennan , a young and over @-@ enthusiastic graduate student from Grant 's dig site at Fort Peck Lake .
Trevor Morgan as Eric Kirby , Paul and Amanda 's 12 @-@ year @-@ old son , stranded on Isla Sorna .
Michael Jeter as Udesky , one of the mercenaries .
John Diehl as Cooper , a mercenary and weapons specialist .
Bruce A. Young as Nash , another of the mercenaries who serves as the group 's pilot .
Laura Dern as Ellie , a paleobotanist who also survived Isla Nublar .
Taylor Nichols as Mark , Ellie 's husband .
Mark Harelik as Ben Hildebrand , Amanda 's boyfriend .
Julio Oscar Mechoso as Enrique Cardoso , the owner and operator of the " Dino @-@ Soar " parasailing service .
Blake Michael Bryan as Charlie , Ellie and Mark 's son .
Sarah Danielle Madison as Cheryl Logan , one of Grant 's graduate students at the dig site .
Linda Park as Hannah , Ellie 's secretary .
= = = Creatures on screen = = =
In a deviation from the previous films , the Spinosaurus is considered the primary antagonist : Johnston stated , " A lot of dinosaurs have a very similar silhouette to the T @-@ Rex ... and we wanted the audience to instantly recognize this as something else . " The silhouette of the Spinosaurus is also on the poster behind the Pteranodon , taking the place of the Tyrannosaurus which had been used in the previous films ' posters . Baryonyx was originally considered to be the " big bad " before Spinosaurus was chosen , and early concept posters reflected this . Within film dialogue , Billy interprets the animal encountered as a Baryonyx or Suchomimus , but Dr. Grant corrects his analysis based on its size and its sail .
Due to new discoveries and theories in the field of paleontology , the portrayal of several dinosaurs differed from that of the previous films . Discoveries suggesting that Velociraptor were feathered prompted the addition of quill @-@ like structures on the head and neck of the males in the film . " We 've found evidence that Velociraptors had feathers , or feather @-@ like structures , and we 've incorporated that into the new look of the raptor " , said paleontologist Jack Horner , the film 's technical adviser .
Spielberg insisted to Johnston that he include Pteranodons in the film , after they had been cut from the previous films for budget reasons . An aquatic reptile was featured in the first draft , but was ultimately removed from the final script . The special effects used for the creatures were a mixture of animatronics and CGI . The following creatures appear in the film :
Ankylosaurus
Brachiosaurus
Ceratosaurus
Compsognathus
Corythosaurus
Parasaurolophus
Pteranodon
Spinosaurus
Stegosaurus
Triceratops
Tyrannosaurus
Velociraptor
= = Production = =
= = = Early development = = =
Joe Johnston had been interested in directing the sequel to Jurassic Park and approached Spielberg , a friend of his , about the project . While Spielberg wanted to direct the first sequel , he agreed that if there was ever a third film , Johnston could direct . The second film , entitled The Lost World : Jurassic Park , included the scene of the Tyrannosaurus rampaging through San Diego . Spielberg had initially wanted the scene to be saved for a third film , but later decided to add it into the second film after realizing that he would probably not direct another film in the series . After the release of the second film in May 1997 , Spielberg was busy with other projects and was asked about the possibility of a third Jurassic Park film ; he responded , " It would give me a tremendous Advil headache just to think about it . "
= = = Pre @-@ production = = =
Universal Pictures announced the film on June 29 , 1998 , with Spielberg acting as a producer . Michael Crichton was reportedly going to collaborate with Spielberg to create a storyline and write a script . The film was set for release in summer 2000 . Spielberg initially devised a story idea that involved Dr. Alan Grant , who was discovered to have been living on one of InGen 's islands . According to Johnston , " He 'd snuck in , after not being allowed in to research the dinosaurs , and was living in a tree like Robinson Crusoe . But I couldn 't imagine this guy wanting to get back on any island that had dinosaurs in it after the first movie . "
In June 1999 , Craig Rosenberg began writing the first draft of the script , which involved teenagers who get marooned on Isla Sorna . Johnston was announced as the film 's director in August 1999 , with Rosenberg still attached . Production was expected to begin in early 2000 . Rosenberg 's draft about teenagers on Isla Sorna was rejected in September 1999 . Although Johnston felt that it was " not a badly written script , " he also said , " It read like a bad episode of Friends " . By December 1999 , new writers had been hired to devise a better story for the film .
The film 's second script involved Pteranodon escaping from Isla Sorna and causing a spate of mysterious killings on the mainland , which was to be investigated by Alan Grant and a number of other characters including Billy Brennan , a naturalist named Simone , a tough military attaché , wealthy Paul Roby , and Roby 's teenage son Miles . Grant 's group crash @-@ lands on the island , while a parallel investigation is being carried out on the mainland . The aviary sequence and laboratory set piece were initially much longer and more complex , including Velociraptor stealthily entering the hatchery as the team spends the night there . Sets , costumes , and props were built for this version .
In February 2000 , filming was reportedly set to begin in Fiordland , New Zealand around the end of the month . Scenes were originally planned to be filmed there for The Lost World : Jurassic Park . In March 2000 , Maui , Hawaii was reportedly chosen instead of New Zealand . Sam Neill signed on to the project in June 2000 , with 18 weeks of filming expected to begin by August 2000 , for a release in July 2001 . Macy originally turned down his role due to scheduling conflicts . Trevor Morgan and Téa Leoni were cast in August 2000 , with Utah 's Dinosaur National Monument and an Oahu military base being considered as possible filming locations . During the pre @-@ production phase , concept artists created advertising for the film using a number of working titles including Jurassic Park : Extinction and Jurassic Park : Breakout .
Five weeks before filming began , Johnston and Spielberg rejected the entire script as they were dissatisfied with it ; $ 18 million had already been spent on the film at that time . Johnston felt that the script 's story was too complicated . The simpler " rescue mission " plot , which had been suggested by David Koepp , was used for the film instead . Alexander Payne and Jim Taylor began rewriting the script in July 2000 .
= = = Filming = = =
Johnston said that the script was never finished during production : " We shot pages that eventually went into the final script but we didn 't have a document " . Principal photography began on August 30 , 2000 , at Dillingham Airfield in Mokulēia , Hawaii . Macy , commenting on the slow pace of filming the script , said " we would do a quarter @-@ page--some days , an eighth of a page . And that would be a full 12 @-@ hour day . "
Filming continued on Oahu until September 9 . Aerial footage of Molokai 's North Shore cliffs was then shot over the next two days , followed by a week of filming in Kauai . Filming concluded in Hawaii on September 20 , 2000 . Production then moved to California . John August was hired to do uncredited work on the script in September 2000 . Scenes were filmed at Occidental College in Los Angeles on October 10 , 2000 .
Scenes were filmed at Center Bay Studios in Los Angeles at the end of October . Other filming locations in California included South Pasadena and a rock quarry in Irwindale . Filming also took place at Universal Studios ' backlot in Los Angeles . Production returned to Hawaii in January 2001 , to film the movie 's ending , which had yet to be written during the previous Hawaiian shoot . The ending was filmed on Kauai 's Pila 'a Beach .
The storyline contains minor scenes from Crichton 's Jurassic Park and The Lost World novels that were ultimately not featured in the film versions , such as the Pteranodon aviary and the use of the boat . Laura Dern 's cameo was shot in a day . In an earlier draft , Neill and Dern 's characters were a couple in the process of splitting up . Johnston said , " I didn 't want to see them as a couple anymore . For one thing , I don 't think they look like a couple . It would be uncomfortable to still see them together . And Laura Dern doesn 't look like she 's aged for the past fifteen years ! " The film 's longest rough cut was approximately 96 minutes , without credits . According to Johnston , " We lost maybe 8 minutes , so it was never really that long . "
= = = Music = = =
Given John Williams was busy writing the music for Spielberg 's own A.I. Artificial Intelligence , he recommended Don Davis to write the Jurassic Park III score . Williams ' original themes were integrated into the score as well as several new ones , such as one for the Spinosaurus that focused on low sounds , with tubas , trombones and timpani . The fight between the Spinosaurus and the Tyrannosaurus , compared by Davis to King Kong fighting a dinosaur in the 1933 film , had a juxtaposition of the Spinosaurus theme with the one Williams wrote for the T. rex . In addition , " Big Hat , No Cattle " , a song by Randy Newman , was used in a restaurant scene .
= = Release = =
Jurassic Park III premiered at the Universal Amphitheater in Los Angeles , California , on July 18 , 2001 , followed two days later by a release in the United States and other countries . The film earned $ 181 @,@ 171 @,@ 875 in the United States and $ 368 @,@ 780 @,@ 809 worldwide , making it the eighth @-@ highest @-@ grossing film of the year worldwide but it is the lowest grossing Jurassic Park film in the entire series . The film was released on VHS and DVD in December 2001 . It was re @-@ released with both sequels in December 2001 as the Jurassic Park Trilogy , and as the Jurassic Park Adventure Pack in November 2005 . The film has also been released as a two @-@ disc DVD set alongside Hulk . In 2011 , the film was released on Blu @-@ ray as part of the Jurassic Park Ultimate Trilogy . The soundtrack was released in July 2001 .
= = Reception = =
Jurassic Park III has received a mostly mixed to negative response from critics and fans alike . Rotten Tomatoes gives the film a 50 % rating based on 163 reviews , with an average rating of 5 @.@ 2 / 10 . The site 's consensus states : " Jurassic Park III is darker and faster than its predecessors , but that doesn 't quite compensate for the franchise 's continuing creative decline . " It also has a 42 out of 100 on Metacritic , indicating " mixed or average reviews " . On both sites , it is the lowest rated film out of the Jurassic Park franchise .
Entertainment Weekly 's Owen Gleiberman , who praised both the previous Jurassic Park films , awarded the third film only a C grade , writing " Jurassic Park III has no pretensions to be anything more than a goose @-@ bumpy fantasy theme @-@ park ride for kids , but it 's such a routine ride . Spielberg 's wizardry is gone , and his balletic light touch as well , and that gives too much of this 90 @-@ minute movie over to the duller @-@ than @-@ dull characters . " Derek Elley of Variety Reviews felt likewise , calling the film " an all @-@ action , helter @-@ skelter , don 't @-@ forget @-@ to @-@ buy @-@ the @-@ computer @-@ game ride that makes the two previous installments look like models of classic filmmaking " . Ben Varkontine of PopMatters called it " not as good a ride as the first " , but " better than the second . " Much of the criticism was leveled at the plot as simply a chase movie with no character development ; Apollo Movie Guide panned the film as being " almost the same as the first movie " with " no need for new ideas or even a script " . Empire magazine gave the film 3 stars out of 5 , commenting that it was " Short , scrappy and intermittently scary " and that the film ultimately " skews young " .
On Ebert and Roeper , Richard Roeper gave it a Thumbs Down , while Roger Ebert awarded a Thumbs Up . In a subsequent review , Ebert called it " the best blockbuster of the Summer " . In his written review , Ebert gave the film three stars and wrote that while the film was not as awe @-@ inspiring as the first film or as elaborate as the second , " it 's a nice little thrill machine . [ ... ] I can 't praise it for its art , but I must not neglect its craft ... "
Early pioneer of the dinosaur @-@ bird connection Robert T. Bakker has quipped that the feathery quills added to the Velociraptor for Jurassic Park III " looked like a roadrunner 's toupee . " However , he conceded that feathers are difficult subjects for computer animation and speculated that Jurassic Park IV 's raptors would have more realistic thorough plumage . As of 2002 , Crichton said he had not seen the film .
= = = Awards and nominations = = =
= = Marketing and merchandise = =
A teaser trailer was released online in September 2000 . Universal avoided excessive early marketing to prevent possible backlash , as it believed that awareness of the film was high enough . Marketing began in April 2001 , three months before the film 's release . The first footage from the film was aired during the second @-@ season finale of Survivor in May 2001 . Promotional partners included Kodak and The Coca @-@ Cola Company . No fast @-@ food promotions took place in the United States , although kids ' meal toys based on the film were offered in Canadian Burger Kings .
Seven video games were released to coincide with the film , as well as a novelization by Scott Ciencin that was aimed at young children . Ciencin also wrote three children 's books to tie in with the film 's events : Jurassic Park Adventures : Survivor , the first book , detailed the eight weeks Eric spent alone on Isla Sorna ; Jurassic Park Adventures : Prey had Eric and Alan returning to Isla Sorna to rescue a group of teenage filmmakers ; Jurassic Park Adventures : Flyers involved Eric and Alan leading the Pteranodon home after they nest in a Universal Studios theme park .
Hasbro released a line of 3 @.@ 75 " action figures in the spring of 2001 to coincide with the release , including electronic dinosaurs , humans , and vehicles . The figures were scaled down from the original Kenner action figures from the pre @-@ Jurassic Park III toy lines . A line of toys were also released through the Lego Studios brand . Playskool released a line of toys aimed at younger children , called Jurassic Park Junior . A smaller die @-@ cast line of toys was also produced , along with clothes . In November 2001 , to promote the film 's upcoming home media release , Universal launched a viral marketing website for Isla Travel , a fictional Isla Sorna travel agency .
= = = Cell phone promotion = = =
For the film 's home media release , Universal and cell @-@ phone company Hop @-@ On partnered to produce " the world 's first @-@ disposable cell phone " , available through an in @-@ package offer upon purchase of the film . The phones were to be delivered for free to customers who responded to a winning promotional card that came with select copies of the film . Approximately 5 @,@ 000 copies of the film contained a winning promotional card ; approximately 1 @,@ 000 of them were redeemed .
However , the promotion was cancelled when the cell phones could not be finished on time . An investigation by the San Francisco Chronicle revealed that sample versions of Hop @-@ On 's cell phones were actually modified Nokia cell phones , as Hop @-@ On was having problems with its own design . Customers who were to receive the cell phones instead received a $ 30 check and a free DVD .
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= Mau Piailug =
Pius " Mau " Piailug ( pronounced / ˈpaɪəs ˈmaʊ piːˈaɪləɡ / ; 1932 – July 12 , 2010 ) was a Micronesian navigator from the Carolinian island of Satawal , best known as a teacher of traditional , non @-@ instrument wayfinding methods for open @-@ ocean voyaging . Mau 's Carolinian navigation system — which relies on navigational clues using the sun and stars , winds and clouds , seas and swells , and birds and fish — was acquired through rote learning passed down through teachings in the oral tradition . He earned the title of master navigator ( palu ) by the age of eighteen , around the time the first American missionaries arrived in Satawal . As he neared middle age , Mau grew concerned that the practice of navigation in Satawal would disappear as his people became acculturated to Western values . In the hope that the navigational tradition would be preserved for future generations , Mau shared his knowledge with the Polynesian Voyaging Society ( PVS ) . With Mau 's help , PVS used experimental archaeology to recreate and test lost Hawaiian navigational techniques on the Hōkūle ‘ a , a modern reconstruction of a double @-@ hulled Hawaiian voyaging canoe .
The successful , non @-@ instrument sailing of Hōkūle ‘ a to Tahiti in 1976 , proved the efficacy of Mau 's navigational system to the world . To academia , Mau 's achievement provided evidence for intentional two @-@ way voyaging throughout Oceania , supporting a hypothesis that explained the Asiatic origin of Polynesians . The success of the Micronesian @-@ Polynesian cultural exchange , symbolized by Hōkūle ‘ a , had an impact throughout the Pacific . It contributed to the emergence of the second Hawaiian cultural renaissance and to a revival of Polynesian navigation and canoe building in Hawaii , New Zealand , Rarotonga and Tahiti . It also sparked interest in traditional wayfinding on Mau 's home island of Satawal . Later in life , Mau was respectfully known as a grandmaster navigator , and he was called " Papa Mau " by his friends with great reverence and affection . He received an honorary degree from the University of Hawaii , and he was honored by the Smithsonian Institution and the Bishop Museum for his contributions to maritime history . Mau 's life and work was explored in several books and documentary films , and his legacy continues to be remembered and celebrated by the indigenous peoples of Oceania .
= = Early life ( 1932 – 1974 ) = =
= = = Satawal , Micronesia = = =
Mau was born Pius Piailug in 1932 , in the village of Weiso on the small coral island of Satawal , in Yap State of the Caroline Islands , a part of the Federated States of Micronesia . Satawal is a wooded island with an area of 1 @.@ 3 square kilometres ( 0 @.@ 50 sq mi ) , located in the Western Pacific Ocean about 800 kilometres ( 500 mi ) south of Guam . Mau 's personal connection to the sea began early in his life , when he was placed in tide pools in his infancy so he could feel the pull of the ocean . At the age of four or five , Mau was chosen by his grandfather Raangipi to study as an apprentice navigator . Mau initially protested his grandfather 's teaching , preferring to spend his time playing on the beach with children his own age . Raangipi trained Mau as a young navigator for many years . Their day would begin at sunrise , when they would eat breakfast together and afterwards , take care of chores before going fishing . During the evening , Mau would join the men in the canoe house as they drank , listening to their stories about navigation and sailing . Raangipi told the young boy that if he chose to become a navigator , Mau could gain respect from his community , eat well , and maintain a position in Satawalese society higher than that of a chief . Encouraged , Mau learned basic navigational clues regarding the " stars , swells , and birds " from Raangipi , but his grandfather died sometime before Mau was fourteen .
After his grandfather died , Mau began training with his father , Orranipui . Mau learned more about navigating by stars ( wofanu ) from his father , and how to fish and build canoes . When his father died before he turned fifteen , Mau was adopted by his aunt and uncle . Sometime around the age of eighteen , Mau 's aunt and uncle sent him to study with Angora , an acclaimed navigator . His studies culminated in his initiation as a master navigator ( palu ) in the Weriyeng school of navigation during the revered pwo ceremony presided over by Angora . It was to be the last pwo held on Satawal for the next fifty years . After the ceremony , Mau lived for a month in the canoe house where he received rigorous lessons from three navigators . When the final training was complete , Mau made his first solo voyage of about 92 kilometres ( 57 mi ) . Because he had a tendency to sail in all weather conditions , he was given the nickname " Mau " , from the Satawalese word maumau , meaning " strong " . After becoming a navigator , Mau married Nemwaeito with whom he raised ten boys and six girls .
Daily life in Mau 's village on Satawal involved harvesting taro and gathering breadfruit and coconut . The Satawalese people also raised chicken and pork and caught fish , their primary source of protein . A freshwater pond served as bathing facilities . Local materials were used to construct outrigger canoes called proa . The island 's isolation helped preserve the lifestyle of the Satawalese people and Mau 's role as a navigator . Even with the arrival of the Germans ( 1890 ) and the Japanese ( 1914 ) in Micronesia , Satawalese culture remained intact . American missionaries who arrived after World War II built the first church and school on Satawal .
In the late 1960s , Mau attempted to verify his navigational knowledge of the wider Pacific by working as a seaman on an inter @-@ island ship run by the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands . From 1969 – 1973 , Mau became friends with Mike McCoy , a Peace Corps volunteer stationed on Satawal . As well as marrying Mau 's niece , McCoy sailed with Mau and they worked together on a project tagging turtles . McCoy became interested in Satawalese navigation , published several articles on the topic and kept in touch with the anthropologist Ben Finney , who was researching Polynesian navigation . When McCoy 's assignment on Satawal ended , he asked Pialug if he wanted to come to Hawaii with him .
= = = Honolulu , Hawaii = = =
Mau first visited Hawaii in 1973 , and McCoy introduced him to Ben Finney . Later , Finney suggested to the Polynesian Voyaging Society that they should try to recruit Mau for their Hōkūle ‘ a project , since no Hawaiian traditional navigators remained . The project goal was to test the hypothesis that Polynesians made intentional non @-@ instrument voyages across the Pacific . Tevake , a renowned Polynesian navigator , had died in 1970 and only six others were known . Navigators were reluctant to release their sacred knowledge to " outsiders . " At the time , Mau was just forty @-@ one years old , and the youngest navigator out of the group . Mau feared that traditional navigation would die in his own culture , just as it had in Hawaii . He had tried to teach the young men of Satawal the skills passed on to him , but he was not optimistic . The members of the younger generation were too busy with school and too attracted to Western culture to undertake the rigorous course of study and apprenticeship . Further , Mau 's people did not seem to care that traditional navigation was dying , and could be lost forever .
= = Later life ( 1975 – 2010 ) = =
= = = Hōkūle ‘ a = = =
With Finney 's help , Mau was awarded a special fellowship at the East @-@ West Center . Mau returned to Honolulu in April 1975 to begin work with the Hawaii @-@ based Polynesian Voyaging Society , eventually navigating the double @-@ hulled canoe , Hōkūle ‘ a , from Hawaii to Tahiti on its maiden voyage in 1976 . Mau trained and mentored Native Hawaiian navigator Nainoa Thompson , who later would become a master navigator . David Henry Lewis , a scholar of Polynesian navigation , documented Mau 's work .
Mau 's first @-@ hand knowledge of traditional navigation had been accumulated in Northern Hemisphere study and sailings , but the voyage to Tahiti required Mau to familiarize himself with the geography and night sky of the Southern Hemisphere . Of this preparation , Finney writes ,
... To prepare Mau Piailug for the voyage , David Lewis briefed him on the geography of the islands in this part of the Pacific and the winds and currents that could be expected along the way , all information that an early Polynesian navigator acquainted with this route would have carried in his head . In addition , to alert Mau of how the elevation of stars above the northern and southern horizons would change as the canoe sailed farther and farther south , we held training sessions in Honolulu 's Bishop Museum planetarium to graphically show how , for example , as one sailed toward Tahiti [ , ] Polaris sank lower and lower on the northern horizon until it disappeared at the equator while the Southern Cross curved higher and higher in the sky . During his first few days of the voyage , Mau received further coaching on the pattern of winds and currents from Rodo Williams , a veteran Tahitian seaman on the crew who the year before had sailed a yacht from Tahiti to Hawaii and could therefore provide Mau with a firsthand account of what he could expect to encounter .
Their collaboration proved successful when , on the thirtieth day at sea on the 1976 voyage , Mau stated soon they would see land , and the next day , Tahiti . A few hours later , they spotted land @-@ based white terns ( Gygis alba ) followed by a diminution of the trade @-@ wind swell . That night they spotted Mataiva . After a brief stopover , with little more than another day 's sailing they made landfall at Tahiti where they were welcomed by 17 @,@ 000 people — half the population of Tahiti .
Nainoa 's ambition was to sail Hōkūle ‘ a to Tahiti as navigator using recreated traditional techniques . He spent years training on his own and with Mau . Mau 's training and mentoring helped Nainoa achieve that goal in the 1980 Tahiti voyage . It marked the first time in over 500 years that a Native Hawaiian had mastered the stars , the seas , the birds , and the winds to guide a sailing canoe from Hawaii to Tahiti and back . The two men joined again for the 1985 – 1987 Voyage of Rediscovery to New Zealand , again with Nainoa as principal navigator and Mau as mentor . The voyage to New Zealand stoked Māori interest in cultural history , navigation techniques , and canoe building . It also brought to life for Māori the stories in their folklore of the great canoe voyages of migration and settlement in Aotearoa ( New Zealand ) . Describing a ceremony held at Waitangi to commemorate the Hawaii – New Zealand voyage of Hōkūle ‘ a , Nainoa writes :
Sir James Henare , the most revered of the elders of Tai Tokerau , got up and said , " You 've proven that it could be done . And you 've also proven that our ancestors did it . ... because the five tribes of Tai Tokerau trace their ancestry from the names of the canoes they arrived in , and because you people from Hawai 'i came by canoe , therefore by our traditions , you must be the sixth tribe of Tai Tokerau .
In 1995 , Mau took part in the Nā ʻOhana Holo Moana voyage of Hōkūle ‘ a to Ra ‘ iātea . Sailing with his son Sesario Sewralur , and Nainoa as sailing master , Mau watched as Nainoa 's students Kaʻau McKenney and Keahi Omai served as navigators . Mau had seen Nainoa succeed in the 1980 and 1985 – 1987 voyages ; finally , in this 1995 voyage , Mau saw proof that the knowledge was carried forward to the next generation . The canoe not only landed successfully at Rarotonga , but the voyage resulted in the lifting of a six @-@ centuries @-@ old taboo on voyaging from Ra ‘ iātea . Hōkūle ‘ a had sailed from Hawaii with sisterships Hawai ‘ iloa and Makali ‘ i ; these canoes rendezvoused at Taputapuatea with other voyaging canoes from across Oceania .
= = = Makali ‘ i = = =
To help preserve Hawaiian culture , Milton " Shorty " Bertelmann and his brother Clay established the nonprofit organization , Nā Kalai Wa ‘ a Moku o Hawai ‘ i on the island of Hawaii in 1992 . Beginning in 1994 , the two brothers helped construct Makali ‘ i , a 54 @-@ foot voyaging canoe , launching it in 1995 . From February to May 1999 , " Shorty " Bertelmann navigated Makali ‘ i to Satawal in a voyage known as “ E Mau – Sailing the Master Home . ” This voyage was to pay homage to master navigator Mau Piailug and to thank him for his teachings . Mau sailed home aboard Makali ‘ i as their honored guest . Makali ‘ i continued her 1999 voyage through half the length of Micronesia . She was the first Hawaiian voyaging canoe to visit the far reaches of Micronesia and her appearance stimulated interest amongst Micronesians in their own cultural history .
= = = Alingano Maisu = = =
On March 18 , 2007 Mau presided over the first pwo ceremony for navigators in fifty @-@ six years on the island of Satawal . Five Native Hawaiians and eleven other people were inducted into pwo as master navigators , including Nainoa Thompson and Mau 's son Sesario Sewralur . The Polynesian Voyaging Society , as part of the 2007 Hōkūle ‘ a " One Ocean , One People " voyage named " Kū Holo Mau , " presented Mau with a canoe named the Alingano Maisu — a gift for his key role in reviving traditional wayfinding navigation in Hawaii . The canoe was built in Kawaihae , Hawaii under the nonprofit organization Nā Kalai Wa ‘ a Moku O Hawai ‘ i . The commitment to build this " gift " for Mau was made by Clay Bertelmann , captain of Makali ‘ i and Hōkūle ‘ a . Maisu was given to Mau on behalf of all the voyaging families and organizations that actively continue to sail and practice the traditions taught by Mau Piailug .
= = = Death = = =
After a long struggle with diabetes , Mau died on his home island of Satawal at 18 : 30 Micronesia time , Monday , July 12 , 2010 . As is the tradition on Satawal , travel between the islands was temporarily suspended in Mau 's honor . Because there is no morgue on the island Mau was buried the following day , and a nightly rosary was held until the memorial service on July 21 at Santa Soledad Church . Mau 's son Henry Yarofalpiy will continue teaching students about their culture , preserving the legacy of his father .
= = Awards = =
Mau was awarded an honorary Doctor of Humane Letters in 1987 by the University of Hawaii . On May 9 , 2000 , he was honored by the Smithsonian Institution at the National Museum of Natural History . At the ceremony , then @-@ secretary Lawrence Small said , " The rebirth of non @-@ instrument navigation came about largely due to this man , Mau Piailug . " The Bishop Museum presented Mau with the Robert J. Pfeiffer Medal on July 12 , 2008 , honoring him for " exceptional dedication to the advancement of maritime affairs and the perpetuation of maritime heritage in Hawaii and the Pacific . " Mau also was honored for his " devotion and outstanding civic leadership " and for exemplifying " the spirit and purpose of the Museum 's founder Charles Reed Bishop " .
= = Legacy = =
The success of Mau 's navigational feats sparked cultural pride in Tahitians , Māori and Hawaiians and connected all Polynesians to stories their forebears told of similar voyages of generations past . The voyage of Hōkūle ‘ a attracted the interest of young students such as Milton " Shorty " Bertelmann and later Nainoa Thompson . Mau not only led Hōkūle ‘ a to Tahiti , but reconnected the people of the Pacific to their cultural roots . Revived interest in preserving traditional culture and navigation methods reinvigorated the art of canoe building and cultural studies in Hawaii , New Zealand , Rarotonga , and Tahiti , as well as Mau 's homeland of Satawal .
Two centuries before Mau and the Hōkūle ‘ a , Captain James Cook , with the help of Tupaia , gained knowledge that otherwise would have been closely held . Before his death in 1779 , Cook hypothesized that Polynesians shared common ancestry ; he even pinned their origin to Asia . However , Cook 's theory did not prevent debate among scholars . Before the Hōkūle ‘ a voyage in 1976 , academic debate about the settlement of Polynesia was divided between several schools of thought .
Norwegian ethnographer Thor Heyerdahl hypothesized that the Pacific was settled by voyages from South America and set out to prove this with his Kon @-@ Tiki expedition . Scholars did not take Heyerdahl 's hypothesis seriously . New Zealander Andrew Sharp proposed the accidental voyaging hypothesis in 1957 which ( erroneously ) argued that Oceania was too vast to have been settled by intentional voyaging , so migrations must have happened by accidental drift voyages . Sharp granted that Polynesians did likely settle the Pacific from Asia , but held the opinion that their crude vessels and navigational tools were not reliable for intentional sailing from Tahiti to Hawaii or New Zealand . He stated that voyages of more than three hundred miles were likely accidental voyages , with landfall at the mercy of wind and current . A 1973 study and computer simulation by Levison , Ward , and Web investigated the probability of Sharp 's hypothesis , but found it improbable .
Finney disagreed with the accidental voyaging portion of Sharp 's hypothesis . To investigate the problem he founded the Polynesian Voyaging Society with Herb Kane and Tommy Holmes in 1973 , intent on building a voyaging canoe to sail from Hawaii to Tahiti to test whether intentional two @-@ way voyaging throughout Oceania could be replicated . With the help of Mau 's navigational knowledge guiding Hōkūle ‘ a , the Polynesian Voyaging Society demonstrated that intentional voyaging was not only possible , but that the ancestors of the Polynesians could have settled the Pacific on similar voyages using non @-@ instrument wayfinding techniques such as Mau 's . Finally , linguistic and archaeological evidence suggests that the history of the Polynesian people does not originate in the east Pacific , but in the west . Recent developments in the field of DNA analysis have unequivocally settled the debate of Polynesian origin . They prove Polynesians share common ancestry with indigenous Taiwanese and East Asians .
= = Wayfinding and navigation = =
= = = Training = = =
Navigator training was historically interwoven with culture and ritual . Great discretion had to be shown in candidate selection so that the knowledge preserved through oral tradition would have the greatest chance of survival . A master navigator 's rank was equal or superior to a village chief 's rank . Prudent navigation relies on no single technique , but instead synthesizes position from multiple inputs . Underway , this constant synthesis makes it easy to spot the navigator — he 's the one with red eyes from sleep deprivation .
For a traditionally trained navigator , these inputs include physical signals from the sea , skies , and stars , memory signals from his knowledge of star , swell , and wind compasses ; and cultural knowledge recorded in chants , dances , and stories . Examples of physical signals include the color , temperature , and taste ( salinity ) of seawater ; floating plant debris ; sightings of land @-@ based seabirds flying out to fish ; cloud type , color , and movement ; wind direction , speed , and temperature ; the direction and nature of ocean swells and waves ; the position of stars in the sky , and his estimation of the speed , current set , and leeway of his sailing craft . The " compass " he carried was not magnetic , but a mental model of where islands are located , and the star points which one could use to navigate between them . This mental model would have taken years of study to build ; dances , chants ( rong ) , and stories help him to recall complex relationships of geography and location . The stars give him highly reliable position information when visible , but navigators such as Mau managed to keep their position and tracks in mind even when blocked by clouds , using other references such as wind and swell as proxies .
Mau 's Carolinian star compass ( pictured ) is the basis for Nainoa 's modern Hawaiian star compass . Apart from the bulk of training which happens at sea , historically boys were taught in the men 's house with pebbles , shells , or pieces of coral , representing stars , laid on the sand in a circular pattern . Which bits of shell or coral are chosen to represent which star or constellation is arbitrary , but generally , larger pieces are used for points of the compass while smaller pieces represent important stars between those points . In Mau 's star compass , these points are not necessarily equidistant . The outer circular formation represents the horizon , with the canoe its center point . The eastern half of the circle depicts reference stars ' rising points on the horizon ( tan ) while the western half depicts their setting points ( tupul ) . Swell patterns of prevailing trade winds are represented by sticks ( not depicted here ) overlaying the star compass in the form of a square . All knowledge is retained by memory with the help of dances , chants , and stories , wherein the stars are enumerated as people or characters in the stories .
= = = Technique = = =
One aspect of the Carolinian method of estimating longitude on inter @-@ island sailings is to visualize the target island relative to a second reference island 's alignment with a succession of selected stars , points of the star compass . This is a refined system of dead reckoning whereby the navigator constantly synthesizes his position relative to the reference island 's location in his mental model . The most remarkable thing about this is that the reference island ( lu pongank ) may be over the horizon , unseen , even imaginary .
In its simplest form the star compass describes thirty @-@ two points at which key stars rise on the eastern horizon and set on the western horizon . North latitude is fairly easy to determine because the North Pole has a zenith star easily seen with the naked eye , called Polaris ( Wuliwulifasmughet ) . Polaris ' height above the horizon ( declination ) indicates the viewer 's southward displacement from Polaris ' nadir — the North Pole . Traveling further north , Polaris appears higher in the sky . Only at the true north pole is Polaris directly overhead at nearly 90 degrees declination . Traveling south toward the equator , Polaris appears to descend toward the northern horizon . At 45 degrees north latitude , Polaris is 45 degrees above the northern horizon . Near the equator , Polaris ' declination approaches zero degrees , but for the viewer just farther south , Polaris will have disappeared below the northern horizon .
Continuing south from the equator , though Polaris is no longer visible , Crux ( Luubw ) , the " Southern Cross , " will have risen above the southern horizon . Traveling further southward , Crux rises higher in the sky . Through Crux 's longest axis , an imaginary line bisecting Gacrux and Acrux points southward toward the southern celestial pole . But the South Pole has no true zenith star from which direct readings of south latitude may be taken . As a proxy , the southern celestial pole lies at the end of that imaginary line extended southward through Gacrux and Acrux , at a distance about 4 @.@ 5 times the distance between them . Nainoa Thompson notes that at Hawaiʻi 's latitude , the distance between Gacrux and the southerly Acrux is equal to Acrux 's declination above the southern horizon .
To steer the canoe in mid @-@ ocean on a consistent course , the navigator selects a star and keeps the canoe pointed toward it . Should it become cloud @-@ blocked , or rise too high in the sky , he selects another star but offsets his reference to remain true to the first , or steers at the same relative angle to the swell as when steering toward the star .
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= Torpedo ... Los ! =
Torpedo ... Los ! ( sometimes Torpedo ... LOS ! ) is a 1963 pop art oil on canvas painting by Roy Lichtenstein . When it was last sold in 1989 , The New York Times described the work as " a comic @-@ strip image of sea warfare " . It formerly held the record for the highest auction price for a Lichtenstein work . Its 1989 sale helped finance the construction of the current home of the Museum of Contemporary Art , Chicago in 1991 .
Like many of Lichtenstein 's works its title comes from the speech balloon in the painting . The work was included in Lichtenstein 's second solo exhibition . The source of the image is a comic book from DC Comics . Lichtenstein has made significant alterations to the original image to change the focus and perspective in addition to significant alteration of the narrative element of the work . The work plays on the background @-@ foreground relationship and the theme of vision that appears in many of Lichtenstein 's works .
= = Background = =
The source of the image is " Battle of the Ghost Ships ? " in DC Comics ' Our Fighting Forces ( October 1962 ) , although the content of the speech balloon is different ( this is edition number 72 according to some sources and 71 ( a ) according to others ) . According to the Lichtenstein Foundation website , Torpedo ... Los ! was part of Lichtenstein 's second solo exhibition at Leo Castelli Gallery of September 28 – October 24 , 1963 , that included Drowning Girl , Baseball Manager , In the Car , Conversation , and Whaam ! . Marketing materials for the show included the lithograph artwork , Crak ! .
On November 7 , 1989 , Torpedo ... Los ! sold at Christie 's for $ 5 @.@ 5 million ( US $ 10 @.@ 5 million in 2016 dollars ) to Zurich dealer Thomas Ammann , which was a record for a work of art by Lichtenstein . The sale was described as the " highpoint " of a night in which Christie 's achieved more than double the total sales prices of any other contemporary art auction up to that date . The seller of the work was Beatrice C. Mayer , the widow of Museum of Contemporary Art , Chicago founder and board member Robert B. Mayer as well as daughter of Sara Lee Corporation founder Nathan Cummings . Prior to the sale the work was part of the Robert B. Mayer Memorial Loan Program and was exhibited at colleges and museums . Torpedo ... Los ! was expected to sell for $ 3 to 4 million at the time . In 1991 , Mayer became one of the key benefactors of the new Museum of Contemporary Art Building .
= = Description = =
Measuring 68 by 80 inches ( 172 @.@ 7 cm × 203 @.@ 2 cm ) , Torpedo ... Los ! is an oil on canvas painting . By enlarging the face of the captain relative to the entire field , Lichtenstein makes him more prominent than in the source . He retained the source 's " clumsiness " in how the secondary figure is presented and replaced the dialogue with a much shorter " cryptic command " . The original source had dialog related to the repeated torpedoing of the same ship , but Lichtenstein cut the entire speech balloon down to two words . He moved the captain 's scar from his nose to his cheek and he made the captain appear more aggressive by depicting him with his mouth wide open , also opting to leave the eye which was not looking through the periscope open . He also made the ship appear to be more technologically sophisticated with a variety of changes . The scar was actually most readily apparent in panels other than the source from the same story .
This work exemplifies Lichtenstein 's theme relating to vision . Lichtenstein uses a " mechanical viewing device " to present his depiction of technically aided vision . The depicted mechanical device , a periscope in this case , forces the vision into a monocular format . In some of his works such as this , monocularity is a strong theme that is directly embodied although only by allusion . Michael Lobel notes that " ... his work proposes a dialectical tension between monocular and binocular modes of vision , a tension that operates on the level of gender as well . " The work is regarded as one in which Lichtenstein exaggerated comic book sound effects in common pop art style .
= = Reception = =
This painting exemplifies Lichtenstein 's use of the background / foreground shift and ironic colloquialisms in critical commands . Although most of Lichtenstein 's war imagery depicts American war themes , this depicts " a scarred German submarine captain at a battle station " . The manner of depiction with the commander 's face pressed against the periscope reflects fusions of industrial art of the 1920s and 1930s . The ironic aspect of this in 1963 is in part due to its temporal displacement referring back to World War II during the much later period of the Cold War . The styling of the balloon content , especially that of the large font characters , is complemented by or complementary to the other traditional visual content of the painting . Lichtenstein 's alterations heightened the sense of urgency in the image , however , they also offset that menace by forming a detached work . A November 1963 Art Magazine review stated that this was one of the " broad and powerful paintings " of the 1963 exhibition at Castelli 's Gallery .
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= Dobroslav Jevđević =
Dobroslav Jevđević ( Serbian Cyrillic : Доброслав Јевђевић , pronounced [ dobroslaʋ jêʋdʑevitɕ ] ; 28 December 1895 – October 1962 ) was a Bosnian Serb politician and self @-@ appointed Chetnik commander ( Serbo @-@ Croatian : vojvoda , вoјвода ) in the Herzegovina region of the Axis @-@ occupied Kingdom of Yugoslavia during World War II . He was a member of the interwar Chetnik Association and the Organisation of Yugoslav Nationalists , a Yugoslav National Party member of the National Assembly , and a leader of the opposition to King Alexander between 1929 and 1934 . The following year , he became the propaganda chief for the Yugoslav government .
Following the Axis invasion of Yugoslavia in April 1941 , he became a Chetnik leader in Herzegovina and joined the Chetnik movement of Draža Mihailović . Jevđević collaborated with the Italians and later the Germans in actions against the Yugoslav Partisans . Although Jevđević recognised the authority of Mihailović , who was aware of and approved of his collaboration with Axis forces , a number of factors effectively rendered him independent of Mihailović 's command , except when he worked closely with Ilija Trifunović @-@ Birčanin , Mihailović 's designated commander in Dalmatia , Herzegovina , western Bosnia and southwestern Croatia .
During the joint Italian – Chetnik Operation Alfa , Jevđević 's Chetniks , along with other Chetnik forces , were responsible for killing between 543 and 2 @,@ 500 Bosnian Muslim and Catholic civilians in the Prozor region in October 1942 . They also participated in one of the largest Axis anti @-@ Partisan operations of the war , Case White , in the winter of 1943 . His Chetniks later merged with other collaborationist forces that had withdrawn towards the west , and were put under the command of the SS General Odilo Globocnik of the Operational Zone of the Adriatic Littoral . Jevđević fled to Italy in the spring of 1945 , where he was arrested by Allied military authorities and detained at a camp in Grottaglie . He was eventually set free , having received considerable Allied support . Yugoslavia 's requests for extradition were ignored . Jevđević moved to Rome and lived under an assumed name . In the years following the war , he collected reports for various western intelligence services and printed anti @-@ communist publications . He resided in Rome until his death in October 1962 .
= = Early life and political career = =
Dobroslav Jevđević was born in the hamlet of Miloševac in Prača , near the town of Rogatica on 28 December 1895 to Dimitrije and Angela Jevđević ( née Kosorić ) . Jevđević 's father was a Serbian Orthodox priest , and the family was of Montenegrin Serb origin . Jevđević was raised in the Christian faith and attended secondary school in Sarajevo . There , he joined the revolutionary organisation known as Young Bosnia and became a friend of Gavrilo Princip , the assassin who killed Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria on 28 June 1914 . The day of the assassination , Jevđević 's father was arrested by the Austro @-@ Hungarian police for his connections with the Serb revolutionary organisation National Defence ( Narodna Odbrana ) . He was charged with high treason , sentenced to death by hanging in April 1916 and executed in Banja Luka .
Jevđević was a successful writer and poet in his youth . He studied law at the universities of Zagreb , Belgrade , and Vienna and spoke Serbian , Italian , German and French . Jevđević 's political career began in 1918 . During the interwar period , he was one of the most influential Serb politicians in Bosnia . He was a member of the Chetnik Association , an aggressively Serb @-@ chauvinist political movement of over 500 @,@ 000 members led by Kosta Pećanac . He was also one of the leaders of the Independent Democratic Party of Yugoslavia ( Samostalna demokratska stranka ; NDS ) and headed the movement 's military wing , the Organisation of Yugoslav Nationalists ( Organizacija Jugoslovenskih Nacionalista ; ORJUNA ) , which terrorised those Serbs in Bosnia , Herzegovina and Croatia who refused to join the party . Jevđević later became a parliamentary candidate of the opposition Yugoslav National Party ( Jugoslovenska nacionalna stranka ; JNS ) in the Kingdom of Yugoslavia . He was elected to the Yugoslav Parliament a total of four times , representing the district of Rogatica then Novi Sad , and was an opposition leader during King Alexander 's dictatorship of 1929 – 34 . His tendency to cooperate with various Yugoslav political factions earned him the reputation of " being willing to sell himself to any political group in return for personal favours or advancement " . In 1935 , he was appointed as the Yugoslav government 's propaganda chief by Prime Minister Bogoljub Jevtić . Jevđević approved of the creation of the Banovina of Croatia in 1939 and advocated a large Serb counterpart that would include most of Bosnia and Herzegovina . In 1941 , his cousin , Colonel Dušan Radović , left Yugoslavia and joined the Royal Air Force .
= = World War II = =
Jevđević fled to Budva following the Axis invasion of Yugoslavia in April 1941 . That month , the Germans and Italians created a puppet state known as the Independent State of Croatia ( Nezavisna Država Hrvatska ; NDH ) , which implemented genocidal policies against Serbs , Jews and Romanis . The Serb population began to resist , and Jevđević became a prominent leader of the Chetnik uprising against NDH authorities in Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1941 .
He was known for his pro @-@ Italian sympathies prior to the war , and Chetnik leader Draža Mihailović jokingly described him as " an Italian who likes Serbs " . Jevđević and pre @-@ war Chetnik leader Ilija Trifunović @-@ Birčanin sought to work with the Italians in the belief that an Italian occupation of both Bosnia and Herzegovina would limit the ability of the NDH to carry out its anti @-@ Serb policies . Jevđević reportedly hoped that the Italians would allow the formation of a Serbian state of Bosnia and Herzegovina under their protection , but they were more interested in obtaining the practical assistance of his Chetniks in fighting the Partisans than helping him achieve his political aims . In the summer of 1941 , Jevđević established links with the Italians .
On 20 October 1941 , Jevđević and Trifunović @-@ Birčanin met and agreed to collaborate with the head of the information division of the Italian 6th Army Corps . In late January 1942 , Jevđević offered to assist the Italians if they occupied Bosnia , and to organise Chetnik detachments to work alongside Italian units in their fight against the communist Partisans . These contacts involved General Lorenzo Dalmazzo , commander of the Italian 6th Corps , and Chetnik leaders Stevo Radjenović , Trifunović @-@ Birčanin , Jezdimir Dangić and Jevđević . In the spring and summer of 1942 , Jevđević and Trifunović @-@ Birčanin regularly toured villages in Goražde , Kalinovik and Foča , encouraging the local civilians and Chetnik detachments to behave loyally towards the Italians . In May 1942 , Jevđević met with German intelligence officers in Dubrovnik and was asked whether he would cooperate in the pacification of Bosnia . Mihailović was aware of and condoned the collaborationist arrangements entered into by Jevđević and Trifunović @-@ Birčanin . Jevđević and Trifunović @-@ Birčanin frequently met with Chetnik commander Momčilo Đujić in Split , and the three men quarreled over how to divide the financial assistance they were receiving from the Italians .
In an internal Chetnik report of June 1942 , Jevđević claimed that the Partisan proletarian brigades contained many " Jews , Gypsies and Muslims " . In July 1942 , he issued a proclamation to the " Serbs of eastern Bosnia and Herzegovina " claiming that :
Tito , the supreme military chief of the Partisans , is a Croat from Zagreb . Pijade , the supreme political chief of the Partisans , is a Jew . Four @-@ fifths of all armed Partisans were supplied to them by Pavelić 's Croatian Army . Two @-@ thirds of their officers are former Croatian officers . The financing of their movement is carried out by the powerful Croatian capitalists of Zagreb , Split , Sarajevo and Dubrovnik . Fifty percent of the Ustaše responsible for the massacres of Serbs are now in their ranks .
Jevđević charged the Partisans with having " destroyed Serb churches and established mosques , synagogues and Catholic temples " . In mid @-@ 1942 , the Chetniks became aware that the Italians were planning to largely withdraw from significant parts of the NDH that they had been occupying in force up to that time . Jevđević and Trifunović @-@ Birčanin told the Italians that in response to this , Mihailović was considering evacuating Serb civilians from Herzegovina to Montenegro and moving Montenegrin Chetniks north to meet the Ustaše , who were expected to unleash a new wave of violence on Serb civilians . Over 22 – 23 July 1942 , Mihailović chaired a conference with Jevđević and Trifunović @-@ Birčanin in Avtovac , Herzegovina . On the second day of the conference , Jevđević and Trifunović @-@ Birčanin traveled to nearby Trebinje where they conferred with Herzegovinian Chetnik leaders Radmilo Grđić and Milan Šantić . The German consulate in Sarajevo reported that this meeting established the ultimate goals and immediate strategy of the Herzegovinian Chetniks as :
( 1 ) the creation of Greater Serbia ; ( 2 ) the destruction of the Partisans ; ( 3 ) the removal of the Catholics and Muslims ; ( 4 ) non @-@ recognition of Croatia ; ( 5 ) no collaboration with the Germans ; and ( 6 ) temporary collaboration with the Italians for weapons , ammunition and food .
Under the auspices of the Italians , the Chetniks thoroughly ethnically cleansed eastern Herzegovina of its Croats and Muslims in July and August 1942 . In response to a massacre of non @-@ Serbs in Foča in August , Jevđević issued a proclamation to the Muslims in eastern Herzegovina demanding that they join the Chetniks in their struggle against the Ustaše . He stated : " I personally believe that in a future state the Muslims have no other choice but to finally and definitely accept Serb nationality and renounce their speculative maneuvering between the Serb and Croat nations , above all because all the lands in which the Muslims live will indisputably and inviolably become part of the Serb state entity . " That month , General Mario Roatta , commander of the Italian 2nd Army , contacted Jevđević and " legalised " 3 @,@ 000 of his Chetniks , formally authorising them to operate in eastern Herzegovina .
In the autumn of 1942 , Jevđević took a radically different approach than other Chetnik leaders and spoke in favour of collaborating with the Muslims to form Muslim Chetnik units in the fight against the Ustaše and the Partisans . He favoured such tolerance in areas where the Muslims were protected by the Germans , and considered it a tactical necessity while stressing that " there can be no true unity with them " . In late September or early October 1942 , Jevđević and Chetnik commander Petar Baćović held talks with Muslim leader Ismet Popovac and agreed to form a Muslim Chetnik organisation . Jevđević then urged the Italian military to occupy all of Bosnia and Herzegovina in order to end Ustaše rule and claimed the support of 80 percent of the population , consisting of Serbs and Muslims . At the same time , he requested that the Germans grant autonomy to Bosnia and Herzegovina until the end of the war , citing that the Muslims were " tested friends of the Germans both in the earlier and in the present era " . Although Jevđević attempted to recruit Muslims while making use of the Bosnian desire for autonomy to support his alliance with the occupying Axis powers , nothing developed from these requests .
= = = Operation Alfa = = =
Towards the end of August 1942 , Mihailović issued directives to Chetnik units , including those operating in the NDH such as Jevđević 's forces , ordering them to prepare for a large scale anti @-@ Partisan operation alongside Italian and NDH troops . In September 1942 , aware that they were unable to defeat the Partisans alone , the Chetniks tried to persuade the Italians to undertake a large operation against the Partisans in western Bosnia . Trifunović @-@ Birčanin met with Roatta on 10 and 21 September and urged him to undertake this operation as soon as possible to clear the Partisans from the Prozor – Livno area and offered 7 @,@ 500 Chetniks as aid on the condition they be given the necessary arms and supplies . He was successful in obtaining some arms and promises of action . The proposed operation , faced with opposition from Ustaše leader Ante Pavelić and a cautious Italian high command , was nearly cancelled , but after Jevđević and Trifunović @-@ Birčanin promised to cooperate with Croat and Muslim anti @-@ Partisan units , it went ahead , with less Chetnik involvement .
In early October 1942 , Jevđević and Baćović , with 3 @,@ 000 Chetniks from Herzegovina and southeast Bosnia , participated in the Italian @-@ led Operation Alfa . This involved a two @-@ pronged thrust towards the town of Prozor . German and NDH troops drove from the north , and Italian and Chetnik forces pushed from the Neretva River . Prozor and some smaller towns were captured by the combined Italian – Chetnik force . Individual Chetnik bands , acting on their own , proceeded to burn a number of Muslim and Catholic villages , and killed between 543 and 2 @,@ 500 non @-@ Serbs in the Prozor area . Their behaviour angered the NDH government and the Italians had to order the Chetniks to withdraw . Some were discharged altogether while others were sent to northern Dalmatia to aid Đujić 's forces . A month after the massacre , Jevđević and Baćović wrote a self @-@ critical report on Prozor to Mihailović , hoping to distance themselves from the actions of the troops .
= = = Case White = = =
In a meeting with Roatta in November 1942 , Jevđević obtained Italian agreement to " legalise " another 3 @,@ 000 Chetniks and recognition of almost all of eastern Herzegovina as a " Chetnik zone " . In return , the Chetniks had to promise not to attack Muslim and Croat civilians and agreed to having an Italian liaison officer embedded in all their formations of regiment strength or more . On 15 November 1942 , Jevđević agreed to support the Italian decision to start arming Muslim anti @-@ Partisan groups . This support almost cost him his life when several Chetniks , who strongly opposed the arming of Croat and Muslim anti @-@ Partisan groups by the Italians , visited Mostar with the intention of assassinating him .
By the end of 1942 , Chetnik – Italian collaboration was routine . Chetnik forces were included in the Italian planning for Case White , a major Axis anti @-@ Partisan offensive which was to be launched on 20 January 1943 . On 3 January , Jevđević participated in an Axis planning conference for Case White in Rome , along with senior German , Italian and NDH commanders . The plans included the 12 @,@ 000 Chetniks under Jevđević 's command , and on 23 February 1943 he concluded an agreement with the Germans that they would not cross the Neretva River and that contact between German and Chetnik troops would be avoided . Early in the operation , Jevđević concluded an agreement for cooperation with the commander of NDH troops in Mostar . Later in the operation Jevđević requested , through the Italians , the assistance of the 7th SS Volunteer Mountain Division Prinz Eugen in defending Nevesinje , which faced severe pressure from Partisan forces that had broken through the Chetnik lines at the Battle of the Neretva River . Although the Italians also made this request themselves , the Germans declined , stating that the division was reserved for other tasks .
After the death of Trifunović @-@ Birčanin in February 1943 , Jevđević , along with Đujić , Baćović , and Radovan Ivanišević , vowed to the Italians to carry on Trifunović @-@ Birčanin 's policies of closely collaborating with them against the Partisans . The Italians were able to exert pressure on Jevđević , as his brother and fiancée were interned in Italy . Mihailović apparently felt that Jevđević had exceeded his authority by attending the Case White planning conference in Rome , and indeed , when the Yugoslav government @-@ in @-@ exile awarded Jevđević the Order of Karađorđe 's Star in early 1943 for his services to the Serb population during the Ustaše massacres of 1941 , Mihailović suppressed the announcement of the award because of the nature of Jevđević 's agreement with the Italians , although the reason may also have been because he was aware of Chetnik revenge killings of Herzegovinian Catholics and Muslims in response to atrocities committed by the Ustaše in Croatia . Tensions between Mihailović and Jevđević became so apparent that Mihailović reportedly threatened to " string [ him ] up from the nearest tree " . In March , Jevđević publicly demanded an end to the Chetnik killing of Croats in Herzegovina .
In June 1943 , Mihailović sent Jevđević to Slovenia to report on the state of Chetnik forces there . Jevđević began developing contacts with the Germans prior to the Italian capitulation in September 1943 . On 3 September , he travelled to Rome via Rijeka and made contact with German intelligence services . This marked the beginning of his collaboration with the Germans . Following the German occupation of NDH territory that had previously been held by the Italians , Jevđević moved to Trieste and stayed at the Hotel Continental . There , he helped organise displaced Chetniks and arranged for them to be returned to the town of Opatija . He stayed in Trieste until January 1944 , when he relocated to Opatija with Chetniks from Trieste who had been placed under his command . He then moved his Chetniks to Ilirska Bistrica , and collaborated with the Germans until the end of the war .
= = = Withdrawal = = =
In December 1944 , Jevđević 's 3 @,@ 000 remaining fighters joined Đujić 's Chetniks , Dimitrije Ljotić 's Serbian Volunteer Corps , and the remnants of Milan Nedić 's Serbian Shock Corps , which were under the command of SS @-@ Obergruppenführer und General der Waffen @-@ SS ( SS General ) Odilo Globocnik , the Higher SS and Police Leader of the Adriatic Littoral . Despite this , they attempted to contact the western Allies in Italy in an effort to secure foreign aid for a proposed anti @-@ communist offensive to restore royalist Yugoslavia . They were all blessed by Serbian Orthodox bishop Nikolaj Velimirović upon his arrival in Slovenia . On 11 April 1945 , a detachment of Jevđević 's Chetniks , along with three regiments of the Serbian Volunteer Corps , marched into south @-@ western Croatia with the aim of linking up with the Montenegrin Volunteer Corps of Pavle Đurišić , which was marching across Bosnia in an attempt to reach Slovenia . The relief effort came too late , because the Montenegrin Volunteer Corps had already been defeated by NDH forces at the Battle of Lijevče Field near Banja Luka , after which Đurišić was captured and killed . The relief force then marched north to Slovenia , where it fought the Partisans before retreating into Austria . These Chetniks were subsequently captured by the Allies and repatriated to Yugoslavia , where they were summarily executed by the Partisans . Jevđević remained highly influential among the Chetniks until the end of the war .
= = Exile and death = =
= = = Release from captivity = = =
In the spring of 1945 , Jevđević fled to Italy , where he was arrested by Allied forces and detained at a camp in Grottaglie . An estimated 10 @,@ 000 Chetniks reportedly followed him and Đujić into the country . Jevđević was interned in Grottaglie for some time along with others , including the former Ustaše commissioner for Banja Luka , Viktor Gutić . During this time , an indictment was issued against him in Sarajevo . It charged that under his command in " the first half of October 1942 in and around Prozor [ the Italians and Chetniks ] butchered and killed 1 @,@ 716 persons of both sexes , of the Croatian and Muslim nations , and plundered and burnt about 500 households " . Jevđević received considerable Allied support in Italy despite being wanted by British authorities in connection with these allegations . On paper , the Chetniks in Italy were listed as " surrendered enemy personnel " , but were largely viewed with sympathy by the Allies , who considered them anti @-@ German . Hence , many Chetnik prisoners were handed British Army uniforms and given non @-@ combatant duties throughout Italy , such as guarding munitions and supplies . In August 1945 , Jevđević became the commander of a camp for disarmed Chetniks in Cesena . He was eventually set free and Yugoslavia 's requests for extradition were ignored .
= = = Intelligence @-@ gathering activities = = =
According to the Central Intelligence Agency ( CIA ) , Jevđević lived in Rome under the aliases " Giovanni St. Angelo " and " Enrico Serrao " . He spent most of his time and money quarrelling with émigré Yugoslav politicians , trying to prove that his collaboration with the Italians was necessary in order to protect the population of Bosnia and Herzegovina from the Partisans and Germans . He became a member of the Association of Free Journalists of Central @-@ Eastern Europe , and served as an informant for the Italian intelligence services between 1946 and 1947 . During this period , he published a confidential periodical called the Royal Yugoslav Intelligence Bulletin which he shared with the Italians . Jevđević also contributed to a number of newspapers , including the Serb nationalist Srbobran . In 1946 , he helped form the Serbian National Committee in Rome and , with help from Achille Marazza , published a pan @-@ Serb and anti @-@ Croat newspaper , Srpske Novine , in Eboli . He also established contacts with Italian neo @-@ fascist groups and with an anti @-@ communist group called the Committee of Nations Oppressed by Russia .
Disagreement over who would lead the 10 @,@ 000 Chetnik exiles in Italy escalated into a feud between Jevđević , Đujić and General Miodrag Damjanović in mid @-@ 1947 . Damjanović had been appointed by Mihailović in March 1945 to lead the Chetniks into northwestern Italy . Jevđević and Đujić refused to accept this and claimed that they were Mihailović 's only successors as leaders of the Chetnik movement .
By 1949 , the CIA claimed that Jevđević 's intelligence material was being used by the Italian Ministry of Interior , the United States Counterintelligence Corps , British Forensic Science Service in Trieste , and French intelligence services in Rome and Paris . His intelligence correspondents included Đujić , who disseminated his intelligence reports to the CIA , Konstantin Fotić , the former Yugoslav ambassador to the United States , and Miro Didek , Croat politician Vladko Maček 's self @-@ styled intelligence representative in Rome . The intelligence reports were mostly collected from refugees fleeing Yugoslavia and arriving in Italy via Trieste and from émigré groups in Italy and Greece . By 1949 , Jevđević claimed to have formed a large network of anti @-@ communist propagandists in Italy and intelligence collection centres in Albania , Bulgaria and Greece . The CIA believed that these claims were exaggerated , if not entirely fictitious . In 1951 , Jevđević began printing an anti @-@ communist , pro @-@ Chetnik publication from an unidentified religious institution in Italy . Issues were regularly mailed to Yugoslav exiles and former Chetniks living in the United States , Canada , Australia and various European countries .
In May and June 1952 , Jevđević visited Canada and addressed the Congress of the Serbian National Defense ( Srpska Narodna Odbrana ) in Niagara Falls regarding developments within Italy 's Serb émigré community . The following year , he and Đujić issued a proclamation in Chicago declaring their intention to organize Chetnik groups against Damjanović , who had since emigrated to Germany . Jevđević later received threatening letters warning him not to go through with such a plan for fear of disuniting the Yugoslav diaspora . Little is known of his activities after 1953 . He continued to live in Rome until his death in October 1962 .
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= First World =
The concept of the First World originated during the Cold War and included countries that were generally aligned with or on friendly terms with the United States ( including all NATO countries ) and were generally identified as non @-@ theocratic democracies with primarily market @-@ based economies . While there is no current consensus on an exact definition of the term , in modern usage , " First World country " generally implies a relatively wealthy , stable and functional non @-@ theocratic democracy with a reasonably well educated population , or just any developed country .
During the Cold War , relationships between the First World and the Second World of Communist states were typically competitive , ideological , and occasionally hostile . Relationships of both these " Worlds " with " Third World " countries ( i.e. all the rest ) were normally positive in theory , while some were quite negative in practice ( such as proxy war between client states ) . Since the dissolution of the Soviet Union and advances in communication technology , relations amongst the " Worlds " are not as rigid , although there are still marked disparities , with the First World generally having more influence , wealth , and access to information and technological innovations than the Second and Third Worlds .
= = Definition = =
After World War II , the world split into two large geopolitical blocs , separating into spheres of communism and capitalism . This led to the Cold War , during which the term First World was often used because of its political , social , and economic relevance . The term itself was first introduced in the late 1940s by the United Nations . Today , the First World is slightly outdated and has no official definition , however , it is generally thought of as the capitalist , industrial , wealthy and developed countries . This definition included Australia , South Korea , Japan , and most of the countries of North America and Western Europe . In contemporary society , the First World is viewed as countries that have the most advanced economies , the greatest influence , the highest standards of living , and the greatest technology . After the Cold War , these countries of the First World included member states of NATO , U.S.- aligned states , neutral countries that were developed and industrialized , and the former British Colonies that were considered developed . It can be defined succinctly as Europe , plus the richer countries of the former British Empire ( USA , Canada , Australia , Singapore , New Zealand , South Africa ) , Japan , and South Korea . Countries were also placed into the First World based on how civilized the country was considered . According to Nations Online , the member countries of NATO after the Cold War included :
Belgium , Canada , Denmark , France , West Germany , Greece , Iceland , Italy , Luxembourg , the Netherlands , Norway , Portugal , Spain , Turkey , the United Kingdom and the United States .
The U.S.-aligned countries included :
Israel , Japan , South Korea and the Philippines
The neutral countries included :
Austria , Finland , Ireland , Sweden and Switzerland .
The former British colonies also included in the First World were :
Australia , New Zealand , Canada , Singapore , South Africa , and the United States .
= = = Variations in definitions = = =
Since the end of the Cold War , the original definition of the term First World is no longer necessarily applicable . There are varying definitions of the First World , however , they follow the same idea . John D. Daniels , past president of the Academy of International Business , defines the First World to be consisting of " high @-@ income industrial countries . " Scholar and Professor George J. Bryjak defines the First World to be the " modern , industrial , capitalist countries of North America and Europe . " L. Robert Kohls , former director of training for the U.S. Information Agency and the Meridian International Center in Washington , D.C. uses First World and " fully developed " as synonyms .
= = = Other indicators = = =
Varying definitions of the term First World and the uncertainty of the term in today 's world leads to different indicators of First World status . In 1945 , the United Nations used the terms first , second , third , and fourth worlds to define the relative wealth of nations ( although popular use of the term fourth world did not come about until later ) . They were defined in terms of Gross National Product ( GNP ) , measured in U.S. dollars , along with other socio @-@ political factors . The first world included the large industrialized , democratic ( free elections , etc . ) nations . The second world included modern , wealthy , industrialized nations , but they were all under communist control . Most of the rest of the world was deemed part of the third world , while the fourth world was considered to be those nations whose people were living on less than US $ 100 annually . If we use the term to mean high income industrialized economies , then the World Bank classifies countries according to their GNI or gross national income per capita . The World Bank separates countries into four categories : high @-@ income , upper @-@ middle @-@ income , lower @-@ middle @-@ income , and low @-@ income economies . The First World is considered to be countries with high @-@ income economies . The high @-@ income economies are equated to mean developed and industrialized countries .
= = Three World Model = =
The terms First World , Second World , and Third World were originally used to divide the world 's nations into three categories . The model did not emerge to its end state all at once . The complete overthrow of the pre – World War II status quo , known as the Cold War , left two superpowers ( the United States and the Soviet Union ) vying for ultimate global supremacy . They created two camps , known as blocs . These blocs formed the basis of the concepts of the First and Second Worlds .
Early in the Cold War era , NATO and the Warsaw Pact were created by the United States and The Soviet Union , respectively . They were also referred to as the Western Bloc and the Eastern Bloc . The circumstances of these two blocks were so different that they were essentially two worlds , however , they were not numbered first and second . The onset of the Cold War is marked by Winston Churchill 's famous " Iron Curtain " speech . In this speech , Churchill describes the division of the West and East to be so solid that it could be called an iron curtain .
In 1952 , the French demographer Alfred Sauvy coined the term Third World in reference to the three estates in pre @-@ revolutionary France . The first two estates being the nobility and clergy and everybody else comprising the third estate . He compared the capitalist world ( i.e. , First World ) to the nobility and the communist world ( i.e. , Second World ) to the clergy . Just as the third estate comprised everybody else , Sauvy called the Third World all the countries that were not in this Cold War division , i.e. , the unaligned and uninvolved states in the " East @-@ West Conflict . " With the coining of the term Third World directly , the first two groups came to be known as the " First World " and " Second World , " respectively . Here the three @-@ world system emerged .
However , Shuswap Chief George Manuel believes the Three World Model to be outdated . In his 1974 book The Fourth World : An Indian Reality , he describes the emergence of the Fourth World while coining the term . The fourth world refers to " nations , " e.g. , cultural entities and ethnic groups , of indigenous people who do not compose states in the traditional sense . Rather , they live within or across state boundaries ( see First Nations ) . One example is the Native Americans of North America , Central America , and the Caribbean .
= = = Post Cold War = = =
With the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991 , the Eastern Bloc ceased to exist ; with it , so did all applicability of the term Second World . The definitions of the First World and Third World changed slightly , yet generally described the same concepts .
= = Relationships with the other worlds = =
= = = Historic = = =
During the Cold War Era , the relationships between the First World , Second World and the Third World were very rigid . The First World and Second World were at constant odds with one another via the tensions between their two cores , the United States and the Soviet Union , respectively . The Cold War , by virtue of its name , was a primarily ideological struggle between the First and Second Worlds , or more specifically , the U.S. and the Soviet Union . Multiple doctrines and plans dominated Cold War dynamics including the Truman Doctrine , Marshall Plan ( from the U.S ) and the Molotov Plan ( from the Soviet Union ) . The extent of the odds between the two worlds is evident in Berlin — which was then split into East and West . To stop citizens in East Berlin from having too much exposure to the capitalist West , the Soviet Union put up the Berlin Wall within the actual city .
The relationship between the First World and the Third World is characterized by the very definition of the Third World . Because countries of the Third World were noncommittal and non @-@ aligned with both the First World and the Second World , they were targets for recruitment . In the quest for expanding their sphere of influence , the United States ( core of the First World ) tried to establish pSuccess lay with the First World if at the end of the war , the country became capitalistic and democratic , and with the Second World , if the country became communist . While Vietnam as a whole was eventually communized , only the northern half of Korea remained communist . The Domino Theory largely governed United States policy regarding the Third World and their rivalry with the Second World . In light of the Domino Theory , the U.S. saw winning the proxy wars in the Third World as a measure of the " credibility of U.S. commitments all over the world . "
= = = Present = = =
The movement of people and information largely characterizes the inter @-@ world relationships in the present day . A majority of breakthroughs and innovation originate in Western Europe and the U.S. and later their effects permeate globally . As judged by the Wharton School of Business at the University of Pennsylvania , most of the Top 30 Innovations of the Last 30 Years were from former First World countries ( e.g. , the U.S. and countries in Western Europe ) .
The disparity between knowledge in the First World as compared to the Third World is evident in healthcare and medical advancements . Deaths from water @-@ related illnesses have largely been eliminated in " wealthier nations , " while they are still a " major concern in the developing world . " Widely treatable diseases in the developed countries of the First World , malaria and tuberculosis needlessly claim many lives in the developing countries of the Third World . 900 @,@ 000 people die from malaria each year and combating malaria accounts for 40 % of health spending in many African countries .
The International Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers ( ICANN ) recently announced that the first Internationalized Domain Names ( IDNs ) will be available as soon as the summer of 2010 . These include non @-@ Latin domains such as Chinese , Arabic , and Russian . This is one way that the flow of information between the First and Third Worlds may become more even .
The movement of information and technology from the First World to various Third World countries has created a general " aspir ( ation ) to First World living standards . " The Third World has lower living standards as compared to the First World . Information about the comparatively higher living standards of the First World comes through television , commercial advertisements and foreign visitors to their countries . This exposure causes two changes : a ) living standards in some Third World countries rise and b ) this exposure creates hopes and many from Third World countries immigrate - both legally and illegally - to these First World countries in hopes of attaining that living standard and prosperity . In fact , this immigration is the " main contributor to the increasing populations of U.S. and Europe . " While these immigrations have greatly contributed to globalization , they have also precipitated trends like brain drain and problems with repatriation . They have also created immigration and governmental burden problems for the countries ( i.e. , First World ) that people immigrate to .
= = = Environmental impact = = =
Some have argued that the most important human population problem for the world is not the high rate of population increase in certain Third World countries , but rather the " increase in total human impact . " The per @-@ capita impact - the resources consumed and the wastes created by each person - is varied globally ; the highest in the First World and the lowest in the Third World : inhabitants of the U.S. , Western Europe and Japan consume 32 times as many resources and put out 32 times as much waste as those in the Third World . However , China leads the world in total emissions , but its large population skews its per @-@ capita statistic lower than those of more developed nations .
As large consumers of fossil fuels , First World countries drew attention to environmental pollution . The Kyoto Protocol is a treaty that is based on the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change , which was finalized in 1992 at the Earth Summit in Rio . It proposed to place the burden of protecting the climate on the United States and other First World countries . Countries that were considered to be developing , such as China and India , were not required to approve the treaty because they were more concerned that restricting emissions would further restrain their development .
= = = International relations = = =
Until the recent past , little attention was paid to the interests of Third World countries . This is because most international relations scholars have come from the industrialized , First World nations . As more countries have continued to become more developed , the interests of the world have slowly started to shift . However , First World nations still have many more universities , professors , journals , and conferences , which has made it very difficult for Third World countries to gain legitimacy and respect with their new ideas and methods of looking at the world .
= = = Development theory = = =
During the Cold War , the modernization theory and development theory developed in the West as a result of their economic , political , social , and cultural response to the management of former colonial territories . Western scholars and practitioners of international politics hoped to theorize ideas and then create policies based on those ideas that would cause newly independent colonies to change into politically developed sovereign nation @-@ states . However , most of the theorists were from the United States , and they were not interested in Third World countries achieving development by any model . They wanted those countries to develop through liberal processes of politics , economics , and socialization ; that is to say , they wanted them to follow the Western liberal capitalist example of a so @-@ called " First World state . " Therefore , the modernization and development tradition consciously originated as a Western ( mostly U.S. ) alternative to the Marxist and neo @-@ Marxist strategies promoted by the " Second World states " like the Soviet Union . It was used to explain how developing Third World states would naturally evolve into developed First World States , and it was partially grounded in liberal economic theory and a form of Talcott Parsons ' sociological theory .
= = Globalization = =
The United Nations 's ESCWA has written that globalization " is a widely @-@ used term that can be defined in a number of different ways . " Joyce Osland from San Jose State University wrote , " Globalization has become an increasingly controversial topic , and the growing number of protests around the world has focused more attention on the basic assumptions of globalization and its effects . " " Globalization is not new , though . For thousands of years , people — and , later , corporations — have been buying from and selling to each other in lands at great distances , such as through the famed Silk Road across Central Asia that connected China and Europe during the Middle Ages . Likewise , for centuries , people and corporations have invested in enterprises in other countries . In fact , many of the features of the current wave of globalization are similar to those prevailing before the outbreak of the First World War in 1914 . "
= = = European Union = = =
The most prominent example of globalization in the first world is the European Union ( EU ) . The European Union is an agreement in which countries voluntarily decide to build common governmental institutions to which they delegate some individual national sovereignty so that decisions can be made democratically on a higher level of common interest for Europe as a whole . The result is a union of 28 Member States covering 4 @,@ 324 @,@ 782 square kilometres ( 1 @,@ 669 @,@ 808 sq mi ) with roughly half a billion people . In total , the European Union produces almost a third of the world ’ s gross national product and the member states speak more than 23 languages . All of the European Union countries are joined together by a hope to promote and extend peace , democracy , cooperativeness , stability , prosperity , and the rule of law . In a 2007 speech , Benita Ferrero @-@ Waldner , the European Commissioner for External Relations , said herself , " The future of the EU is linked to globalization ... the EU has a crucial role to play in making globalization work properly ... " . In a 2014 speech at the European Parliament , the Italian PM Matteo Renzi said " we are the ones who can bring civilization to globalization " . With the " Brexit " ( British Exit ) of the EU in 2016 , the fundamental economic and motivational powerhouse of globalization in Europe was placed , once again , in the hands of Germany .
Just as the concept of the First World came about as a result of World War II , so did the European Union . In 1951 the beginnings of the EU were founded with the creation of European Coal and Steel Community ( ECSC ) . From the beginning of its inception , countries in the EU were judged by many standards , including economic ones . This is where the relation between globalization , the EU , and First World countries arises . Especially during the 1990s when the EU focused on economic policies such as the creation and circulation of the Euro , the creation of the European Monetary Institute , and the opening of the European Central Bank .
In 1993 , at the Copenhagen European Council , the European Union took a decisive step towards expanding the EU , what they called the Fifth Enlargement , agreeing that " the associated countries in Central and Eastern Europe that so desire shall become members of the European Union . " Thus , enlargement was no longer a question of if , but when and how . The European Council stated that accession could occur when the prospective country is able to assume the obligations of membership , that is that all the economic and political conditions required are attained . Furthermore , it defined the membership criteria , which are regarded as the Copenhagen criteria , as follows :
stability of institutions guaranteeing democracy , the rule of law , human rights and respect for and protection of minorities
the existence of a functioning market economy as well as the capacity to cope with competitive pressure and market forces within the Union
the ability to take on the obligations of membership including adherence to the aims of political , economic and monetary union
It is clear that all these criteria are characteristics of developed countries . Therefore , there is a direct link between globalization , developed nations , and the European Union .
= = = Multinational corporations = = =
A majority of multinational corporations find their origins in First World countries . After the fall of communism , multinational corporations proliferated as more countries focused on global trade . The series of General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade ( GATT ) and later the World Trade Organization ( WTO ) essentially ended the protectionist measures that were dissuading global trade . The eradication of these protectionist measures , while creating avenues for economic interconnection , mostly benefited developed countries , who by using their power at GATT summits , forced developing and underdeveloped countries to open their economies to Western goods .
As the world starts to globalize , it is accompanied by criticism of the current forms of globalization , which are feared to be overly corporate @-@ led . As corporations become larger and multinational , their influence and interests go further accordingly . Being able to influence and own most media companies , it is hard to be able to publicly debate the notions and ideals that corporations pursue . Some choices that corporations take to make profits can affect people all over the world . Sometimes fatally .
The third industrial revolution is spreading from the developed world to some , but not all , parts of the developing world . To participate in this new global economy , developing countries must be seen as attractive offshore production bases for multinational corporations . To be such bases , developing countries must provide relatively well @-@ educated workforces , good infrastructure ( electricity , telecommunications , transportation ) , political stability , and a willingness to play by market rules .
If these conditions are in place , multinational corporations will transfer via their offshore subsidiaries or to their offshore suppliers , the specific production technologies and market linkages necessary to participate in the global economy . By themselves , developing countries , even if well @-@ educated , cannot produce at the quality levels demanded in high @-@ value @-@ added industries and cannot market what they produce even in low @-@ value @-@ added industries such as textiles or shoes . Put bluntly , multinational companies possess a variety of factors that developing countries must have if they are to participate in the global economy .
= = = Outsourcing = = =
Outsourcing , according to Grossman and Helpman , refers to the process of " subcontracting an ever expanding set of activities , ranging from product design to assembly , from research and development to marketing , distribution and after @-@ sales service " . Many companies have moved to outsourcing services in which they no longer specifically need or have the capability of handling themselves . This is due to considerations of what the companies can have more control over . Whatever companies tend to not have much control over or need to have control over will outsource activities to firms that they consider " less competing " . According to SourcingMag.com , the process of outsourcing can take the following four phases .
strategic thinking
evaluation and selection
contract development
outsourcing management .
Outsourcing is among some of the many reasons for increased competition within developing countries . Aside from being a reason for competition , many First World countries see outsourcing , in particular offshore outsourcing , as an opportunity for increased income . As a consequence , the skill level of production in foreign countries handling the outsourced services increases within the economy ; and the skill level within the domestic developing countries can decrease . It is because of competition ( including outsourcing ) that Robert Feenstra and Gordon Hanson predict that there will be a rise of 15 – 33 percent in inequality amongst these countries .
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= Spotted hyena =
The spotted hyena ( Crocuta crocuta ) , also known as the laughing hyena , is a species of hyena , currently classed as the sole member of the genus Crocuta , native to Sub @-@ Saharan Africa . It is listed as being of least concern by the IUCN on account of its widespread range and large numbers estimated between 27 @,@ 000 and 47 @,@ 000 individuals . The species is , however , experiencing declines outside of protected areas due to habitat loss and poaching . The species may have originated in Asia , and once ranged throughout Europe for at least one million years until the end of the Late Pleistocene . The spotted hyena is the largest known member of the Hyaenidae , and is further physically distinguished from other species by its vaguely bear @-@ like build , its rounded ears , its less prominent mane , its spotted pelt , its more dual purposed dentition , its fewer nipples and the presence of a pseudo @-@ penis in the female . It is the only mammalian species to lack an external vaginal opening .
The spotted hyena is the most social of the Carnivora in that it has the largest group sizes and most complex social behaviours . Its social organisation is unlike that of any other carnivore , bearing closer resemblance to that of cercopithecine primates ( baboons and macaques ) with respect to group @-@ size , hierarchical structure , and frequency of social interaction among both kin and unrelated group @-@ mates . However , the social system of the spotted hyena is openly competitive rather than cooperative , with access to kills , mating opportunities and the time of dispersal for males depending on the ability to dominate other clan @-@ members . Females provide only for their own cubs rather than assist each other , and males display no paternal care . Spotted hyena society is matriarchal ; females are larger than males , and dominate them .
The spotted hyena is a highly successful animal , being the most common large carnivore in Africa . Its success is due in part to its adaptability and opportunism ; it is primarily a hunter but may also scavenge , with the capacity to eat and digest skin , bone and other animal waste . In functional terms , the spotted hyena makes the most efficient use of animal matter of all African carnivores . The spotted hyena displays greater plasticity in its hunting and foraging behaviour than other African carnivores ; it hunts alone , in small parties of 2 – 5 individuals or in large groups . During a hunt , spotted hyenas often run through ungulate herds in order to select an individual to attack . Once selected , their prey is chased over long distance , often several kilometres , at speeds of up to 60 km / h .
The spotted hyena has a long history of interaction with humanity ; depictions of the species exist from the Upper Paleolithic period , with carvings and paintings from the Lascaux and Chauvet Caves . The species has a largely negative reputation in both Western culture and African folklore . In the former , the species is mostly regarded as ugly and cowardly , while in the latter , it is viewed as greedy , gluttonous , stupid , and foolish , yet powerful and potentially dangerous . The majority of Western perceptions on the species can be found in the writings of Aristotle and Pliny the Elder , though in relatively unjudgemental form . Explicit , negative judgements occur in the Physiologus , where the animal is depicted as a hermaphrodite and grave robber . The IUCN 's hyena specialist group identifies the spotted hyena 's negative reputation as detrimental to the species ' continued survival , both in captivity and the wild .
= = Etymology , discovery and naming = =
The spotted hyena 's scientific name Crocuta , was once widely thought to be derived from the Latin loanword crocutus , which translates as " saffron @-@ coloured one " , in reference to the animal 's fur colour . This was proven to be incorrect , as the correct spelling of the loanword would have been Crocāta , and the word was never used in that sense by Graeco @-@ Roman sources . Crocuta actually comes from the Ancient Greek word Κροκόττας ( Krokottas ) , which is derived from the Sanskrit koṭṭhâraka , which in turn originates from kroshṭuka ( both of which were originally meant to signify the golden jackal ) . The earliest recorded mention of Κροκόττας is from Strabo 's Geographica , where the animal is described as a mix of wolf and dog native to Ethiopia .
From Classical antiquity until the Renaissance , the spotted and striped hyena were either assumed to be the same species , or distinguished purely on geographical , rather than physical grounds . Hiob Ludolf , in his Historia aethiopica , was the first to clearly distinguish the Crocuta from Hyaena on account of physical , as well as geographical grounds , though he never had any first hand experience of the species , having gotten his accounts from an Ethiopian intermediary . Confusion still persisted over the exact taxonomic nature of the hyena family in general , with most European travelers in Ethiopia referring to hyenas as " wolves " . This partly stems from the Amharic word for hyena , ጅብ ( jɨbb ) , which is linked to the Arabic word ذئب ( dhiʾb ) " wolf " .
The first detailed first @-@ hand descriptions of the spotted hyena by Europeans come from Willem Bosman and Peter Kolbe . Bosman , a Dutch tradesman who worked for the Dutch West India Company at the Gold Coast ( modern day Ghana ) from 1688 – 1701 , wrote of " Jakhals , of Boshond " ( jackals or woodland dogs ) whose physical descriptions match the spotted hyena . Kolben , a German mathematician and astronomer who worked for the Dutch East India Company in the Cape of Good Hope from 1705 – 1713 , described the spotted hyena in great detail , but referred to it as a " tigerwolf " , because the settlers in southern Africa did not know of hyenas , and thus labelled them as " wolves " .
Bosman and Kolben 's descriptions went largely unnoticed until 1771 , when the Welsh naturalist Thomas Pennant , in his Synopsis of Quadrupeds , used the descriptions , as well as his personal experience with a captive specimen , as a basis for consistently differentiating the spotted hyena from the striped . The description given by Pennant was precise enough to be included by Johann Erxleben in his Systema regni animalis by simply translating Pennant 's text into Latin . Crocuta was finally recognised as a separate genus from Hyaena in 1828 .
= = = Local and indigenous names = = =
Several languages of Africa lack species specific names for hyenas : for example , the spotted and striped species have identical names in Dyula , Swahili , Mandinka , Mossi , Ngambaye , Wolof and Fulani . In other languages , other species may simply be termed " small spotted hyena " , such as in Swahili , where the spotted hyena is termed fisi and the aardwolf fisi ndogo .
= = Taxonomy , origins and evolution = =
Unlike the striped hyena , for which a number of subspecies were proposed in light of its extensive modern range , the spotted hyena is a genuinely variable species , both temporally and spatially . Its range once encompassed almost all of Africa and Eurasia , and displayed a large degree of morphological geographic variation , which led to an equally extensive set of specific and subspecific epithets . It was gradually realised that all of this variation could be applied to individual differences in a single subspecies . In 1939 , biologist L. Harrison Matthews demonstrated through comparisons between a large selection of spotted hyena skulls from Tanzania that all the variation seen in the then recognised subspecies could also be found in a single population , with the only set of characters standing out being pelage ( which is subject to a high degree of individual variation ) and size ( which is subject to Bergmann 's Rule ) . When fossils are taken into consideration , the species displayed even greater variation than it does in modern times , and a number of these named fossil species have since been classed as synonymous with Crocuta crocuta , with firm evidence of there being more than one species within the genus Crocuta still lacking .
Both Björn Kurtén and Camille Arambourg promoted an Asiatic origin for the species ; Kurtén focussed his arguments on the Plio @-@ Pleistocene taxon Crocuta sivalensis from the Siwaliks , a view defended by Arambourg , who nonetheless allowed the possibility of an Indo @-@ Ethiopian origin . This stance was contested by Ficarelli and Torre , who referred to evidence of the spotted hyena 's presence from African deposists dating from the early Pleistocene , a similar age to the Asian C. sivalensis . Studies on the phylogeographic distribution of mtDNA haplotypes indicates three migration events from Africa to Eurasia , though neither the topology of the phylogenetic tree or the fossil record exclude the possibility of an Asian origin . The earliest migration of spotted hyenas from Africa to Eurasia began less than 3 @.@ 5 million years ago , most probably from the area where the first spotted hyena fossils were discovered , reaching East Asia and most likely also Pakistan . The second migration of spotted hyenas occurred less than 1 @.@ 3 – 1 @.@ 5 million years ago and resulted in the first arrival of hyenas in Europe and a separation of African spotted hyenas into a southern and a northern population . The third spotted hyena migration took place 0 @.@ 36 million years ago , starting from the northern African population and reaching both Europe and Asia . Unlike other African carnivores , with the exception of the leopard , there is no evidence to suggest that spotted hyenas underwent a genetic bottleneck during the Pleistocene .
The ancestors of the genus Crocuta diverged from Hyaena ( the genus of striped and brown hyenas ) 10 million years ago . The ancestors of the spotted hyena probably developed social behaviours in response to increased pressure from other predators on carcasses , which forced them to operate in teams . At one point in their evolution , spotted hyenas developed sharp carnassials behind their crushing premolars ; this rendered waiting for their prey to die no longer a necessity , as is the case for brown and striped hyenas , and thus became pack hunters as well as scavengers . They began forming increasingly larger territories , necessitated by the fact that their prey was often migratory , and long chases in a small territory would have caused them to encroach into another clan 's land . It has been theorised that female dominance in spotted hyena clans could be an adaptation in order to successfully compete with males on kills , and thus ensure that enough milk is produced for their cubs . Another theory is that it is an adaptation to the length of time it takes for cubs to develop their massive skulls and jaws , thus necessitating greater attention and dominating behaviours from females . Its appearance in Europe and China during the Cromerian period coincided with the decline and eventual extinction of Pachycrocuta brevirostris , the giant short @-@ faced hyena . As there is no evidence of environmental change being responsible , it is likely that the giant short @-@ faced hyena became extinct due to competition with the spotted hyena .
= = Description = =
= = = Anatomy = = =
The spotted hyena has a strong and well developed neck and forequarters , but relatively underdeveloped hindquarters . The rump is rounded rather than angular , which prevents attackers coming from behind from getting a firm grip on it . The head is wide and flat with a blunt muzzle and broad rhinarium . In contrast to the striped hyena , the ears of the spotted hyena are rounded rather than pointed . Each foot has four digits , which are webbed and armed with short , stout and blunt claws . The paw @-@ pads are broad and very flat , with the whole undersurface of the foot around them being naked . The tail is relatively short , being 300 – 350 mm ( 12 – 14 in ) long , and resembles a pompom in appearance . Unusually among hyaenids , and mammals in general , the female spotted hyena is considerably larger than the male . Both sexes have a pair of anal glands which open into the rectum just inside the anal opening . These glands produce a white , creamy secretion which is pasted onto grass stalks by everting the rectum . The odour of this secretion is very strong , smelling of boiling cheap soap or burning , and can be detected by humans several metres downwind . The spotted hyena has a proportionately large heart , constituting close to 1 % of its body weight , thus giving it great endurance in long chases . In contrast , a lion 's heart makes up only 0 @.@ 45 – 0 @.@ 57 percent of its body weight . The now extinct Eurasian populations were distinguished from the modern African populations by their shorter distal extremities and longer humerus and femur .
The skull of the spotted hyena differs from that of the striped hyena by its much greater size and narrower sagittal crest . For its size , the spotted hyena has one of the most powerfully built skulls among the Carnivora . The dentition is more dual purposed than that of other modern hyena species , which are mostly scavengers ; the upper and lower third premolars are conical bone @-@ crushers , with a third bone @-@ holding cone jutting from the lower fourth premolar . The spotted hyena also has its carnassials situated behind its bone @-@ crushing premolars , the position of which allows it to crush bone with its premolars without blunting the carnassials . Combined with large jaw muscles and a special vaulting to protect the skull against large forces , these characteristics give the spotted hyena a powerful bite which can exert a pressure of 80 kgf / cm2 ( 1140 lbf / in ² ) , which is 40 % more force than a leopard can generate . The jaws of the spotted hyena outmatch those of the brown bear in bonecrushing ability , and free ranging hyenas have been observed to crack open the long bones of giraffes measuring 7 cm in diameter . A 63 @.@ 1 kg ( 139 lb ) spotted hyena is estimated to have a bite force of 565 @.@ 7 newtons at the canine tip and 985 @.@ 5 newtons at the carnassial eocone .
= = = Dimensions = = =
The spotted hyena is the largest extant member of the Hyaenidae . Adults measure 95 – 165 @.@ 8 cm ( 37 – 65 in ) in body length , and have a shoulder height of 70 – 91 @.@ 5 cm ( 28 – 36 in ) . Adult male spotted hyenas in the Serengeti weigh 40 @.@ 5 – 55 @.@ 0 kg ( 89 – 121 lb ) , while females weigh 44 @.@ 5 – 63 @.@ 9 kg ( 98 – 141 lb ) . Spotted hyenas in Zambia tend to be heavier , with males weighing on average 67 @.@ 6 kg ( 149 lb ) , and females 69 @.@ 2 kg ( 153 lb ) . Exceptionally large weights of 81 @.@ 7 kg ( 180 lb ) and 90 kg ( 198 lb ) are known . It has been estimated that adult members of the now extinct Eurasian populations weighed 102 kg ( 225 lb ) .
= = = Fur = = =
Fur colour varies greatly and changes with age . Unlike the fur of the striped and brown hyena , that of the spotted hyena consists of spots rather than stripes and is much shorter , lacking the well defined spinal mane of the former two species . The base colour generally is a pale greyish @-@ brown or yellowish @-@ grey on which an irregular pattern of roundish spots is superimposed on the back and hind quarters . The spots , which are of variable distinction , may be reddish , deep brown or almost blackish . The spots vary in size , even on single individuals , but are commonly 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) in diameter . A less distinct spot pattern is present on the legs and belly but not on the throat and chest . A set of five , pale and barely distinct bands replace the spots on the back and sides of the neck . A broad , medial band is present on the back of the neck , and is lengthened into a forward facing crest . The crest is mostly reddish @-@ brown in colour . The crown and upper part of the face is brownish , save for a white band above both eyes , though the front of the eyes , the area around the rhinarium , the lips and the back portion of the chin are all blackish . The limbs are spotted , though the feet vary in colour , from light brown to blackish . The fur is relatively sparse and consists of two hair types ; moderately fine underfur ( measuring 15 – 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 59 – 0 @.@ 79 in ) ) and long , stout bristle hairs ( 30 – 40 mm ( 1 @.@ 2 – 1 @.@ 6 in ) ) . European Paleolithic rock art depicting the species indicates that the Eurasian populations retained the spots of their modern @-@ day African counterparts .
= = = Female genitalia = = =
The genitalia of the female closely resembles that of the male ; the clitoris is shaped and positioned like a penis , and is capable of erection . The female also possesses no external vagina ( vaginal opening ) , as the labia are fused to form a pseudo @-@ scrotum . The pseudo @-@ penis is traversed to its tip by a central urogenital canal , through which the female urinates , copulates and gives birth . The pseudo @-@ penis can be distinguished from the males ' genitalia by its greater thickness and more rounded glans . In both males and females , the base of the glans is covered with penile spines . The formation of the pseudo @-@ penis appears largely androgen independent , as the pseudo @-@ penis appears in the female fetus before differentiation of the fetal ovary and adrenal gland . After parturition , the pseudo @-@ penis is stretched , and loses many of its original aspects ; it becomes a slack @-@ walled and reduced prepuce with an enlarged orifice with split lips .
= = Behaviour = =
= = = Social behaviour = = =
Spotted hyenas are social animals which live in large communities ( referred to as " clans " ) which can consist of at most 80 individuals . Group @-@ size varies geographically ; in the Serengeti , where prey is migratory , clans are smaller than those in the Ngorongoro Crater , where prey is sedentary . Spotted hyena clans are more compact and unified than wolf packs , but are not as closely knit as those of African wild dogs . Females dominate males , with even the lowest ranking females being dominant over the highest ranking males . It is typical for females to remain with their natal clan , thus large clans usually contain several matrilines , whereas males typically disperse from their natal clan at the age of 2 ½ years . The clan is a fission @-@ fusion society , in which clan @-@ members do not often remain together , but may forage alone or in small groups . High @-@ ranking hyenas maintain their position through aggression directed against lower @-@ ranking clan @-@ members . Spotted hyena hierarchy is nepotistic ; the offspring of dominant females automatically outrank adult females subordinate to their mother . However , rank in spotted hyena cubs is greatly dependent on the presence of the mother ; low @-@ ranking adults may act aggressively toward higher @-@ ranking cubs when the mother is absent . Although individual spotted hyenas only care for their own young , and males take no part in raising their young , cubs are able to identify relatives as distantly related as great @-@ aunts . Also , males associate more closely with their own daughters rather than unrelated cubs , and the latter favour their fathers by acting less aggressively toward them .
Spotted hyena societies are more complex than those of other carnivorous mammals , and are remarkably similar to those of cercopithecine primates in respect to group size , structure , competition and cooperation . Like cercopithecine primates , spotted hyenas use multiple sensory modalities , recognise individual conspecifics , are conscious that some clan @-@ mates may be more reliable than others , recognise third @-@ party kin and rank relationships among clan @-@ mates , and adaptively use this knowledge during social decision making . Also , like cercopithecine primates , dominance ranks in hyena societies are not correlated with size or aggression , but with ally networks . In this latter trait , the spotted hyena further show parallels with primates by acquiring rank through coalition . However , rank reversals and overthrows in spotted hyena clans are very rare . The social network dynamics of spotted hyenas are determined by multiple factors . Environmental factors include rainfall and prey abundance ; individual factors include preference to bond with females and with kin ; and topological effects include the tendency to close triads in the network . Female hyenas are more flexible than males in their social bonding preferences .
The higher ranking adult spotted hyenas tend to have higher telomere length , thus are healthier , naturally live longer , and reproduce more .
Territory size is highly variable , ranging from less than 40 km2 in the Ngorongoro Crater to over 1 @,@ 000 km2 in the Kalahari . Home ranges are defended through vocal displays , scent marking and boundary patrols . Clans mark their territories by either pasting or pawing in special latrines located on clan range boundaries . Clan boundaries are usually respected ; hyenas chasing prey have been observed to stop dead in their tracks once their prey crosses into another clan 's range . Hyenas will however ignore clan boundaries in times of food shortage . Males are more likely to enter another clan 's territory than females are , as they are less attached to their natal group and will leave it when in search of a mate . Hyenas travelling in another clan 's home range typically exhibit bodily postures associated with fear , particularly when meeting other hyenas . An intruder can be accepted into another clan after a long period of time if it persists in wandering into the clan 's territory , dens or kills .
= = = Mating , reproduction , and development = = =
The spotted hyena is a non @-@ seasonal breeder , though a birth peak does occur during the wet season . Females are polyestrus , with an estrus period lasting two weeks . Like many felid species , the spotted hyena is promiscuous , and no enduring pair bonds are formed . Members of both sexes may copulate with several mates over the course of several years . Males will show submissive behaviour when approaching females in heat , even if the male outweighs his partner . Females usually favour younger males born or joined into the clan after they were born . Older females show a similar preference , with the addition of preferring males with whom they have had long and friendly prior relationships . Passive males tend to have greater success in courting females than aggressive ones . Copulation in spotted hyenas is a relatively short affair , lasting 4 – 12 minutes , and typically only occurs at night with no other hyenas present . The mating process is complicated , as the male 's penis enters and exits the female 's reproductive tract through her pseudo @-@ penis rather than directly through the vagina , which is blocked by the false scrotum and testes . These unusual traits make mating more laborious for the male than in other mammals , while also ensuring that rape is physically impossible . Once the female retracts her clitoris , the male enters the female by sliding beneath her , an operation facilitated by the penis 's upward angle . Once this is accomplished , a typical mammalian mating posture is adopted .
The length of the gestation period tends to vary greatly , though 110 days is the average length of time . In the final stages of pregnancy , dominant females provide their developing offspring with higher androgen levels than lower @-@ ranking mothers do . The higher androgen levels – the result of high concentrations of ovarian androstenedione – are thought to be responsible for the extreme masculinization of female behavior and morphology . This has the effect of rendering the cubs of dominant females more aggressive and sexually active than those of lower ranking hyenas ; high ranking male cubs will attempt to mount females earlier than lower ranking males . The average litter consists of two cubs , with three occasionally being reported . Males take no part in the raising of young . Giving birth is difficult for female hyenas , as the females give birth through their narrow clitoris , and spotted hyena cubs are the largest carnivoran young relative to their mothers ' weight . During parturition , the clitoris ruptures in order to facilitate the passage of the young , and may take weeks to heal .
Cubs are born with soft , brownish black hair , and weigh 1 @.@ 5 kg on average . Unique among carnivorous mammals , spotted hyenas are also born with their eyes open and with 6 – 7 mm long canine teeth and 4 mm long incisors . Also , cubs will attack each other shortly after birth . This is particularly apparent in same sexed litters , and can result in the death of the weaker cub . This neonatal siblicide kills an estimated 25 % of all hyenas in their first month . Male cubs which survive grow faster and are likelier to achieve reproductive dominance , while female survivors eliminate rivals for dominance in their natal clan . Lactating females can carry 3 – 4 kg ( 6 @.@ 6 – 8 @.@ 8 lb ) of milk in their udders . Spotted hyena milk has the highest protein content of any terrestrial carnivore , and its fat content is second only to that of the polar bear and sea otter . Cubs will nurse from their mother for 12 – 16 months , though they can process solid food as early as three months . Mothers do not regurgitate food for their young . Females are very protective of their cubs , and will not tolerate other adults , particularly males , approaching them . Spotted hyenas exhibit adult behaviours very early in life ; cubs have been observed to ritually sniff each other and mark their living space before the age of one month . Within ten days of birth , they are able to move at considerable speed . Cubs begin to lose the black coat and develop the spotted , lighter coloured pelage of the adults at 2 – 3 months . They begin to exhibit hunting behaviours at the age of eight months , and will begin fully participating in group hunts after their first year . Spotted hyenas reach sexual maturity at the age of three years . The average lifespan in zoos is 12 years , with a maximum of 25 years .
= = = Denning behaviour = = =
The clan 's social life revolves around a communal den . While some clans may use particular den sites for years , others may use several different dens within a year or several den sites simultaneously . Spotted hyena dens can have more than a dozen entrances , and are mostly located on flat ground . The tunnels are usually oval in section , being wider than they are high , and narrow down from an entrance width of ½ – 1 metre ( 1 @.@ 6 – 7 @.@ 7 ft ) to as small as 25 cm ( 9 @.@ 8 in ) . In the rocky areas of East Africa and Congo , spotted hyenas use caves as dens , while those in the Serengeti use kopjes as resting areas in daylight hours . Dens have large bare patches around their entrances , where hyenas move or lie down on . Because of their size , adult hyenas are incapable of using the full extent of their burrows , as most tunnels are dug by cubs or smaller animals . The structure of the den , consisting of small underground channels , is likely an effective anti @-@ predator device which protects cubs from predation during the absence of the mother . Spotted hyenas rarely dig their own dens , having been observed for the most part to use the abandoned burrows of warthogs , springhares and jackals . Faeces are usually deposited 20 metres ( 66 feet ) away from the den , though they urinate wherever they happen to be . Dens are used mostly by several females at once , and it is not uncommon to see up to 20 cubs at a single site . The general form of a spotted hyena den is tunnel @-@ shaped , with a spacious end chamber used for sleeping or breeding . This chamber measures up to 2 metres ( 6 @.@ 6 feet ) in width , the height being rather less . Females generally give birth at the communal den or a private birth den . The latter is primarily used by low status females in order to maintain continual access to their cubs , as well as ensure that they become acquainted with their cubs before transferral to the communal den .
= = = Intelligence = = =
Compared to other hyenas , the spotted hyena shows a greater relative amount of frontal cortex which is involved in the mediation of social behavior . Studies strongly suggest convergent evolution in spotted hyena and primate intelligence . A study done by evolutionary anthropologists demonstrated that spotted hyenas outperform chimpanzees on cooperative problem @-@ solving tests ; captive pairs of spotted hyenas were challenged to tug two ropes in unison to earn a food reward , successfully cooperating and learning the maneuvers quickly without prior training . Experienced hyenas even helped inexperienced clan @-@ mates to solve the problem . In contrast , chimps and other primates often require extensive training , and cooperation between individuals is not always as easy for them . The intelligence of the spotted hyena was attested to by Dutch colonists in 19th @-@ century South Africa , who noted that hyenas were exceedingly cunning and suspicious , particularly after successfully escaping from traps . Spotted hyenas seem to plan on hunting specific species in advance ; hyenas have been observed to indulge in activities such as scent marking before setting off to hunt zebras , a behaviour which does not occur when they target other prey species . Also , spotted hyenas have been recorded to utilise deceptive behaviour , including giving alarm calls during feeding when no enemies are present , thus frightening off other hyenas and allowing them to temporarily eat in peace . Similarly , mothers will emit alarm calls in attempting to interrupt attacks on their cubs by other hyenas .
= = = Hunting behaviour = = =
Unlike other large African carnivores , spotted hyenas do not preferentially prey on any species , and only African buffalo and giraffe are significantly avoided . Spotted hyenas prefer prey with a body mass range of 56 – 182 kg ( 123 – 401 lb ) , with a mode of 102 kg ( 225 lb ) . When hunting medium to large sized prey , spotted hyenas tend to select certain categories of animal ; young animals are frequently targeted , as are old ones , though the latter category is not so significant when hunting zebras , due to their aggressive anti @-@ predator behaviours . The spotted hyena tracks live prey by sight , hearing and smell . Carrion is detected by smell and the sound of other predators feeding . During daylight hours , they watch vultures descending upon carcasses . Their auditory perception is powerful enough to detect sounds of predators killing prey or feeding on carcasses over distances of up to 10 km ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) . Unlike the grey wolf , the spotted hyena relies more on sight than smell when hunting , and does not follow its prey 's prints or travel in single file . Small prey is killed by being shaken in the mouth , while large prey is eaten alive .
Spotted hyenas usually hunt wildebeest either singly , or in groups of two or three . They catch adult wildebeest usually after 5 km ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) chases at speeds of up to 60 km / h ( 37 mi / h ) . Chases are usually initiated by one hyena and , with the exception of cows with calves , there is little active defence from the wildebeest herd . Wildebeest will sometimes attempt to escape hyenas by taking to water although , in such cases , the hyenas almost invariably catch them . Zebras require different hunting methods to those used for wildebeest , due to their habit of running in tight groups and aggressive defence from stallions . Typical zebra hunting groups consist of 10 – 25 hyenas , though there is one record of a hyena killing an adult zebra unaided . During a chase , zebras typically move in tight bunches , with the hyenas pursuing behind in a crescent formation . Chases are usually relatively slow , with an average speed of 15 – 30 km / h . A stallion will attempt to place himself between the hyenas and the herd , though once a zebra falls behind the protective formation it is immediately set upon , usually after a chase of 3 km ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) . Though hyenas may harass the stallion , they usually only concentrate on the herd and attempt to dodge the stallion 's assaults . Unlike stallions , mares typically only react aggressively to hyenas when their foals are threatened . Unlike wildebeest , zebras rarely take to water when escaping hyenas . When hunting Thomson 's gazelles , spotted hyenas usually operate alone , and prey primarily on young fawns . Chases against both adult and young gazelles can cover distances of 5 km ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) with speeds of 60 km / h ( 37 mi / h ) . Female gazelles do not defend their fawns , though they may attempt to distract hyenas by feigning weakness .
= = Ecology = =
= = = Diet = = =
The spotted hyena is the most carnivorous member of the Hyaenidae . Unlike its brown and striped cousins , the spotted hyena is a predator , not a scavenger ; this has been shown since the 1960s . One of the earliest studies to demonstrate their hunting abilities was done by Hans Kruuk , an African wildlife ecologist , and he showed through a 7 @-@ year study of hyena populations in Africa that spotted hyenas hunt as much as lions , and with later studies this has been shown to be the average in all areas of Africa . However spotted hyenas remain being mislabeled as scavengers , often even by ecologists and wildlife documentary channels .
The spotted hyena is very efficient at eating its prey ; not only is it able to splinter and eat the largest ungulate bones , it is also able to digest them completely . Spotted hyenas can digest all organic components in bones , not just the marrow . Any inorganic material is excreted with the faeces , which consist almost entirely of a white powder with few hairs . They react to alighting vultures more readily than other African carnivores , and are more likely to stay in the vicinity of lion kills or human settlements .
Wildebeest are the most commonly taken medium @-@ sized ungulate prey item in both Ngorongoro and the Serengeti , with zebra and Thomson 's gazelles coming close behind . Cape buffalo are rarely attacked due to differences in habitat preference , though adult bulls have been recorded to be taken on occasion . In Kruger National Park , blue wildebeest , cape buffalo , Burchell 's zebra , greater kudu and impala are the spotted hyena 's most important prey , while giraffe , impala , wildebeest and zebra are its major food sources in the nearby Timbavati area . Springbok and kudu are the main prey in Namibia 's Etosha National Park , and springbok in the Namib . In the southern Kalahari , gemsbok , wildebeest and springbok are the principal prey . In Chobe , the spotted hyena 's primary prey consists of migratory zebra and resident impala . In Kenya 's Masai Mara , 80 % of the spotted hyena 's prey consists of topi and Thomson 's gazelle , save for during the four @-@ month period when zebra and wildebeest herds migrate to the area . Bushbuck , suni and buffalo are the dominant prey items in the Aberdare Mountains , while Grant 's gazelle , gerenuk , sheep , goats and cattle are likely preyed upon in northern Kenya . In west Africa , it is thought that the spotted hyena is primarily a scavenger , but will occasionally attack domestic stock and medium @-@ size antelopes in some areas . In Cameroon , it is common for spotted hyenas to feed on small antelopes like kob , but may also scavenge on reedbuck , kongoni , buffalo , giraffe , African elephant , topi and roan antelope carcasses . Records indicate that spotted hyenas in Malawi feed on medium to large @-@ sized ungulates such as waterbuck and impala . In Tanzania 's Selous Game Reserve , spotted hyenas primarily prey on wildebeest , followed by buffalo , zebra , impala , giraffe , reedbuck and kongoni . In Uganda , it is thought that the species primarily preys on birds and reptiles , while in Zambia it is primarily a scavenger .
Spotted hyenas have also been found to catch fish , tortoises , humans , black rhino , hippo calves , young African elephants , pangolins and pythons . There is at least one record of four hyenas killing an adult hippopotamus in Kruger National Park . The fossil record indicates that the now extinct European spotted hyenas primarily fed on Przewalski 's horses , Irish elk , reindeer , red deer , roe deer , fallow deer , wild boar , ibex , steppe wisent , aurochs , and woolly rhinoceros . Spotted hyenas are thought to be responsible for the dis @-@ articulation and destruction of some cave bear skeletons . Such large carcasses were an optimal food resource for hyenas , especially at the end of winter , when food was scarce . Spotted hyenas may consume leather articles such as boots and belts around campsites . Jane Goodall recorded spotted hyenas attacking or savagely playing with the exterior and interior fittings of cars , and the species is thought to be responsible for eating car tyres .
A single spotted hyena can eat at least 14 @.@ 5 kg of meat per meal . Although spotted hyenas act aggressively toward each other when feeding , they compete with each other mostly through speed of eating , rather than by fighting as lions do . When feeding on an intact carcass , spotted hyenas will first consume the meat around the loins and anal region , then open the abdominal cavity and pull out the soft organs . Once the stomach , its wall and contents are consumed , the hyenas will eat the lungs and abdominal and leg muscles . Once the muscles have been eaten , the carcass is disassembled and the hyenas carry off pieces to eat in peace . Spotted hyenas are adept at eating their prey in water : they have been observed to dive under floating carcasses to take bites , then resurface to swallow . A single hyena can take less than two minutes in eating a gazelle fawn , while a group of 35 hyenas can completely consume an adult zebra in 36 minutes . Spotted hyenas do not require much water , and typically only spend 30 seconds drinking .
= = = Enemies and competitors = = =
In areas where spotted hyenas and lions are sympatric , the two species occupy the same ecological niche , and are thus in direct competition with one another . In some cases , the extent of dietary overlap can be as high as 68 @.@ 8 % . Lions typically ignore spotted hyenas , unless they are on a kill or are being harassed by them . There exists a common misconception that hyenas steal kills from lions , but most often it is the other way around . Lions will readily steal the kills of spotted hyenas ; in the Ngorongoro Crater , it is common for lions to subsist largely on kills stolen from hyenas . Lions are quick to follow the calls of hyenas feeding , a fact demonstrated by field experiments , during which lions repeatedly approached whenever the tape @-@ recorded calls of hyenas feeding were played . When confronted on a kill by lions , spotted hyenas will either leave or wait patiently at a distance of 30 – 100 metres until the lions have finished eating . In some cases , spotted hyenas are bold enough to feed alongside lions , and may occasionally force lions off a kill . This mostly occurs during the nighttime , when hyenas are bolder . Spotted hyenas usually prevail against groups of lionesses unaccompanied by males if they outnumber them 4 : 1 . In some instances they were seen to have taken on and routed two pride males while outnumbering them 5 : 1 . The two species may act aggressively toward one another even when there is no food at stake . Lions may charge at hyenas and maul them for no apparent reason ; one male lion was filmed killing two hyenas on separate occasions without eating them , and lion predation can account for up to 71 % of hyena deaths in Etosha . Spotted hyenas have adapted to this pressure by frequently mobbing lions which enter their territories . Experiments on captive spotted hyenas revealed that specimens with no prior experience with lions act indifferently to the sight of them , but will react fearfully to the scent .
Although cheetahs and leopards preferentially prey on smaller animals than those hunted by spotted hyenas , hyenas will steal their kills when the opportunity presents itself . Cheetahs are usually easily intimidated by hyenas , and put up little resistance , while leopards , particularly males , may stand up to hyenas . There are records of some male leopards preying on hyenas . Hyenas are nonetheless dangerous opponents for leopards ; there is at least one record of a young adult male leopard dying from a septicemia infection caused by wounds inflicted by a spotted hyena . There is also a case of two spotted hyenas killing and eating a young leopard in Timbavati Game Reserve , after a young hyena was killed by the leopard .
Spotted hyenas will follow packs of African wild dogs in order to appropriate their kills . They will typically inspect areas where wild dogs have rested and eat any food remains they find . When approaching wild dogs at a kill , solitary hyenas will approach cautiously and attempt to take off with a piece of meat unnoticed , though they may be mobbed by the dogs in the attempt . When operating in groups , spotted hyenas are more successful in pirating dog kills , though the dog 's greater tendency to assist each other puts them at an advantage against spotted hyenas , who rarely work in unison . Cases of dogs scavenging from spotted hyenas are rare . Although wild dog packs can easily repel solitary hyenas , on the whole , the relationship between the two species is a one sided benefit for the hyenas , with wild dog densities being negatively correlated with high hyena populations .
Spotted hyenas dominate other hyena species wherever their ranges overlap . Brown hyenas encounter spotted hyenas in the Kalahari , where the brown species outnumbers the spotted . The two species typically encounter each other on carcasses , which the larger spotted species usually appropriate . Sometimes , brown hyenas will stand their ground and raise their manes while emitting growls . This usually has the effect of seemingly confusing spotted hyenas , which will act bewildered , though they will occasionally attack and maul their smaller cousins . Similar interactions have been recorded between spotted and striped hyenas in the Serengeti .
Black @-@ backed and side @-@ striped jackals , and African golden wolves will feed alongside hyenas , though they will be chased if they approach too closely . Spotted hyenas will sometimes follow jackals and wolves during the gazelle fawning season , as jackals and wolves are effective at tracking and catching young animals . Hyenas do not take to eating wolf flesh readily ; four hyenas were reported to take half an hour in eating a golden wolf . Overall , the two animals typically ignore each other when there is no food or young at stake .
Spotted hyenas usually keep a safe distance from Nile crocodiles . Though they readily take to water to catch and store prey , hyenas will avoid crocodile infested waters .
= = Communication = =
= = = Body language = = =
Spotted hyenas have a complex set of postures in communication . When afraid , the ears are folded flat , and are often combined with baring of the teeth and a flattening of the mane . When attacked by other hyenas or by wild dogs , the hyena lowers its hindquarters . Before and during an assertive attack , the head is held high with the ears cocked , mouth closed , mane erect and the hindquarters high . The tail usually hangs down when neutral , though it will change position according to the situation . When a high tendency to flee an attacker is apparent , the tail is curled below the belly . During an attack , or when excited , the tail is carried forward on the back . An erect tail does not always accompany a hostile encounter , as it has also been observed to occur when a harmless social interaction occurs . Although they do not wag their tails , spotted hyenas will flick their tails when approaching dominant animals or when there is a slight tendency to flee . When approaching a dominant animal , subordinate spotted hyenas will walk on the knees of their forelegs in submission . Greeting ceremonies among clan @-@ members consist of two individuals standing parallel to each other and facing opposite directions . Both individuals raise their hind legs and lick each other 's anogenital area . During these greeting ceremonies , the penis or pseudo @-@ penis often becomes erect , in both males and females . Erection is usually a sign of submission , rather than dominance , and is more common in males than in females .
= = = Vocalisations = = =
It is said that feasting Hyaenas engage in violent fights , and there is such a croaking , shrieking and laughing at such times that a superstitious person might really think all the inhabitants of the infernal regions had been let loose .
The spotted hyena has an extensive vocal range , with sounds ranging from whoops , fast whoops , grunts , groans , lows , giggles , yells , growls , soft grunt @-@ laughs , loud grunt @-@ laughs , whines and soft squeals . The loud " who @-@ oop " call , along with the maniacal laughter , are among the most recognisable sounds of Africa . Typically , very high @-@ pitched calls indicate fear or submission , while loud , lower @-@ pitched calls express aggression . The pitch of the laugh indicates the hyena 's age , while variations in the frequency of notes used when hyenas make noises convey information about the animal 's social rank .
Dr. Hans Kruuk compiled the following table on spotted hyena calls in 1972 ;
= = Diseases and parasites = =
Spotted hyenas may contract brucellosis , rinderpest and anaplasmosis . They are vulnerable to Trypanosoma congolense , which is contracted by consuming already infected herbivores , rather than through direct infection from tsetse flies . It is known that adult spotted hyenas in the Serengeti have antibodies against rabies , canine herpes , canine brucella , canine parvovirus , feline calici , leptospirosis , bovine brucella , rinderpest and anaplasmosis . During the canine distemper outbreak of 1993 – 94 , molecular studies indicated that the viruses isolated from hyenas and lions were more closely related to each other than to the closest canine distemper virus in dogs . Evidence of canine distemper in spotted hyenas has also been recorded in the Masai Mara . Exposure to rabies does not cause clinical symptoms or affect individual survival or longevity . Analyses of several hyena saliva samples showed that the species is unlikely to be a rabies vector , thus indicating that the species catches the disease from other animals rather than from intraspecifics . The microfilaria of Dipetalonema dracuneuloides have been recorded in spotted hyenas in northern Kenya . The species is known to carry at least three cestode species of the genus Taenia , none of which are harmful to humans . It also carries protozoan parasites of the genus Hepatozoon in the Serengeti , Kenya and South Africa . Spotted hyenas may act as hosts in the life @-@ cycles of various parasites which start life in herbivores ; Taenia hyaenae and T. olnogojinae occur in hyenas in their adult phase . Trichinella spiralis are found as cysts in hyena muscles .
= = Range , habitat and population = =
The spotted hyena 's distribution once ranged in Europe from the Iberian Peninsula to the Urals , where it remained for at least one million years . Remains have also been found in the Russian Far East , and it has been theorised that the presence of hyenas there may have delayed the colonisation of North America . The causes of the species ' extinction in Eurasia are still largely unknown . In Western Europe at least , the spotted hyena 's extinction coincided with a decline in grasslands 12 @,@ 500 years ago . Europe experienced a massive loss of lowland habitats favoured by spotted hyenas , and a corresponding increase in mixed woodlands . Spotted hyenas , under these circumstances , would have been outcompeted by wolves and humans which were as much at home in forests as in open lands , and in highlands as in lowlands . Spotted hyena populations began to shrink roughly 20 @,@ 000 years ago , completely disappearing from Western Europe between 14 – 11 @,@ 000 years ago , and earlier in some areas .
Historically , the spotted hyena was widespread throughout Sub @-@ Saharan Africa . It is present in all habitats save for the most extreme desert conditions , tropical rainforests and the top of alpine mountains . Its current distribution is patchy in many places , especially in West Africa . Populations are concentrated in protected areas and surrounding land . There is a continuous distribution over large areas of Ethiopia , Kenya , Tanzania , Botswana , Namibia and the Transvaal Lowveld areas of South Africa .
The species dwells in semi @-@ deserts , savannah , open woodland , dense dry woodland , and mountainous forests up to 4 @,@ 000 m in altitude . It is scarce or absent in tropical rainforests and coastal areas . Its preferred habitats in west Africa include the Guinea and Sudan savannahs , and is absent in the belt of dense coastal forest . In the Namib Desert , it occurs in riverine growth along seasonal rivers , the sub @-@ desertic pro @-@ Namib and the adjoining inland plateau . In ideal habitats , the spotted hyena outnumbers other large carnivores , including other hyena species . However , the striped and brown hyena occur at greater densities than the spotted species in desert and semi @-@ desert regions . Population densities based on systematic censuses vary substantially , from 0 @.@ 006 to 1 @.@ 7 individuals per km2 .
= = Relationships with humans = =
= = = Cultural depictions and perceptions = = =
= = = = In prehistory = = = =
The spotted hyena ( cave hyena subspecies ) is depicted in a few examples of Upper Palaeolithic rock art in France . A painting from the Chauvet Cave depicts a hyena outlined and represented in profile , with two legs , with its head and front part with well distinguishable spotted coloration pattern . Because of the specimen 's steeped profile , it is thought that the painting was originally meant to represent a cave bear , but was modified as a hyena . In Lascaux , a red and black rock painting of a hyena is present in the part of the cave known as the Diverticule axial , and is depicted in profile , with four limbs , showing an animal with a steep back . The body and the long neck have spots , including the flanks . An image on a cave in Ariège shows an incompletely outlined and deeply engraved figure , representing a part of an elongated neck , smoothly passing into part of the animal ’ s forelimb on the proximal side . Its head is in profile , with a possibly re @-@ engraved muzzle . The ear is typical of the spotted hyena , as it is rounded . An image in the Le Gabillou Cave in Dordogne shows a deeply engraved zoomorphic figure with a head in frontal view and an elongated neck with part of the forelimb in profile . It has large round eyes and short , rounded ears which are set far from each other . It has a broad , line @-@ like mouth that evokes a smile . Though originally thought to represent a composite or zoomorphic hybrid , it is probable it is a spotted hyena based on its broad muzzle and long neck .
The relative scarcity of hyena depictions in Paleolithic rock art has been theorised to be due to the animal 's lower rank in the animal worship hierarchy ; the spotted hyena 's appearance was likely unappealing to Ice Age hunters , and it was not sought after as prey . Also , it was not a serious rival like the cave lion or cave bear , and it lacked the impressiveness of the mammoth or woolly rhino .
= = = = In Africa = = = =
In Africa , the spotted hyena is usually portrayed as an abnormal and ambivalent animal , considered to be sly , brutish , necrophagous and dangerous . It further embodies physical power , excessivity , ugliness , stupidity , as well as sacredness . Spotted hyenas vary in their folkloric and mythological depictions , depending on the ethnic group from which the tales originate . It is often difficult to know whether or not spotted hyenas are the specific hyena species featured in such stories , particularly in West Africa , as both spotted and striped hyenas are often given the same names . In west African tales , spotted hyenas symbolise immorality , dirty habits , the reversal of normal activities , and other negative traits , and are sometimes depicted as bad Muslims who challenge the local animism that exists among the Beng in Côte d ’ Ivoire . In East Africa , Tabwa mythology portrays the spotted hyena as a solar animal that first brought the sun to warm the cold earth .
In the culture of the Mbugwe in Tanzania , the spotted hyena is linked to witchcraft . According to Mbugwe folklore , every witch possesses one or more hyenas , which are referred to as " night cattle " and are branded with an invisible mark . It is said that all hyenas are owned by witches , and that truly wild hyenas are non @-@ existent . Lactating female spotted hyenas are said to be milked by their owners every night to make hyena butter , and are further used as mounts . When a witch acquires a hyena mount , he rides it to distant lands in order to bewitch victims and return safely home before morning . The Mbugwe consider killing hyenas to be dangerous , as the bond between the hyena and its owner is very strong , and will likely result in the witch seeking retribution . In order to obviate this danger , a killed hyena usually has its ears , tail and front legs cut off and buried , as these are the parts which are supposed to be marked by the witches ' brand . In the Mtwara Region of Tanzania , it is believed that a child born at night while a hyena is crying will likely grow up to be a thief . In the same area , hyena faeces are believed to enable a child to walk at an early age , thus it is not uncommon in that area to see children with hyena dung wrapped in their clothes .
The Kaguru of Tanzania and the Kujamaat of Southern Senegal view hyenas as inedible and greedy hermaphrodites . A mythical African tribe called the Bouda is reputed to house members able to transform into hyenas . A similar myth occurs in Mansôa , Guinea @-@ Bissau . These " werehyenas " are executed when discovered , but do not revert to their human form when killed . In Khoikhoi mythology , the spotted hyena is often the butt of the jackal 's tricks . Gogo folklore links the spotted hyena to the origin of death ; in one tale , the hyena prevents humanity from achieving immortality , thus ensuring it can continue to eat corpses . A similar tale is present among the Meru . In their narrative , the supreme god Murungu sent a mole to inform humanity that they would be reborn after death . Fearing this would deprive it of corpses to eat , the hyena prevents the mole from ever delivering the message . Madi and Nuer mythology links the spotted hyena to the separation between heaven and earth ; at one time , humanity kept in contact with the Creator in the sky via a cowhide rope , which was subsequently severed by a hungry hyena . The spotted hyena is a sacred totem animal for some Pedi tribes , with the skin often being used as robes by chieftains and their bones as divining instruments . According to the doctrine of the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church , hyenas are unclean animals which represent sexual deviancy and lawlessness . The Egyptian Saint abba ( Father ) Matewos of Asfoni was associated with hyenas ; one fable tells of how he rescued a cub trapped in a pit , and had his feet licked in gratitude by its mother . In Ethiopian folklore , an albino hyena called the " King of Hyenas " is ascribed great power . Some ethnic groups in Ethiopia associate themselves with hyenas ; the Gurage traditionally believe that their ancestors migrated from Arabia to Ethiopia using hyenas as mounts . In Dorze tradition , the highest Demuṣa @-@ priests have the ability to control hyenas , and will send them to punish defaulting debtors .
Spotted hyenas feature prominently in the rituals of certain African cultures . In the Gelede cult of the Yoruba people of Benin and Southwest Nigeria , a spotted hyena mask is used at dawn to signal the end of the èfè ceremony . As the spotted hyena usually finishes the meals of other carnivores , the animal is associated with the conclusion of all things . Among the Korè cult of the Bambara people in Mali , the belief that spotted hyenas are hermaphrodites appears as an ideal in @-@ between in the ritual domain . The role of the spotted hyena mask in their rituals is often to turn the neophyte into a complete moral being by integrating his male principles with femininity . The Beng people believe that upon finding a freshly killed hyena with its anus inverted , one must plug it back in , for fear of being struck down with perpetual laughter . They also view spotted hyena faeces as contaminating , and will evacuate a village if a hyena relieves itself within village boundaries . In Harar , Ethiopia , spotted hyenas are regularly fed by the city 's inhabitants , who believe the hyenas ' presence keeps devils at bay , and associate mystical properties such as fortune telling to them .
= = = = In Western culture = = = =
Traditional Western beliefs about the spotted hyena can be traced back to Aristotle 's Historia Animalium , which described the species as a necrophagous , cowardly and potentially dangerous animal . He further described how the hyena uses retching noises to attract dogs . In On the Generation of Animals , Aristotle criticised the erroneous belief that the spotted hyena is a hermaphrodite ( which likely originated from the confusion caused by the masculinised genitalia of the female ) , though his physical descriptions are more consistent with the striped hyena . Pliny the Elder supported Aristotle 's depiction , though he further elaborated that the hyena can imitate human voices . Additionally , he wrote how the hyena was held in high regard among the Magi , and that hyena body parts could cure different diseases , give protection and stimulate sexual desire in people .
The author of the Physiologus , who infused pagan tales with the spirit of Christian moral and mystical teaching , reactivated the myth that the hyena is a hermaphrodite . The author compared the species to " double @-@ minded men " who are neither " man nor woman , that is , neither faithful nor unfaithful " . He further states that " The sons of Israel are like this animal since in the beginning they served the living God but later , given over to pleasure and lust , they adored idols . " The bestiaries of the Middle Ages embraced the Physiologus 's descriptions , but further elaborated on the animal 's necrophagous habits . These bestiaries almost invariably depict hyenas feeding on human corpses . These illustrations were largely based on the descriptions given by Aristotle and Pliny , though the animals have no spots or other bodily markings , thus making it unlikely that the authors had ever seen hyenas first @-@ hand .
During the 15th and 16th centuries , travellers to Africa provided further descriptions of the species . Leo Africanus repeated some of the old concepts on the hyena , with the addition of describing its legs and feet as similar to those of men . In 1551 , Swiss naturalist Conrad Gesner rejected the belief of the hyena 's hermaphroditism , and theorised that it originated from confusion over an androgynous fish bearing the same name . He adds three other animals within the category of hyenas , including an Ethiopian quadruped named " Crocotta " , which was thought to be a hybrid between a hyena and a lioness . Sir Thomas Browne also argued against the hyena 's supposed hermaphroditism , stating that all animals follow their own " Law of Coition " , and that a hermaphrodite would transgress this . Sir Walter Raleigh , in an attempt to rationalise how Noah 's Ark could have fitted all extant species of animal , wrote that hyenas were hybrids between foxes and wolves which originated after the Great Flood . References to the spotted hyena 's vocalisations are referenced in numerous contemporary examples of English literature , including Shakespeare 's As You Like It and George Chapman 's Eastward Ho . John Milton , in his Samson Agonistes , compares the species to Delila .
Natural historians of the 18th and 19th centuries rejected stories of hermaphroditism in hyenas , and recognised the differences between the spotted and striped hyena . However , they continued to focus on the species ' scavenging habits , their potential to rob graves and their perceived cowardice . During the 20th century , Western and African stereotypes of the spotted hyena converged ; in both Ernest Hemingway 's Green Hills of Africa and Disney 's The Lion King , the traits of gluttony and comical stupidity , common in African depictions of hyenas , are added to the Western perception of hyenas being cowardly and ugly . After the release of The Lion King , hyena biologists protested against the animal 's portrayal : one hyena researcher sued Disney studios for defamation of character , and another – who had organized the animators ' visit to the University of California 's Field Station for Behavioural Research , where they would observe and sketch captive hyenas – suggested boycotting the film .
= = = Livestock predation = = =
When targeting livestock , the spotted hyena primarily preys upon cattle , sheep and goats , though hyenas in the southern parts of Ethiopia 's Tigray region preferentially target donkeys . Reports of livestock damage are often not substantiated , and hyenas observed scavenging on a carcass may be mistaken for having killed the animal . The rate at which the species targets livestock may depend on a number of factors , including stock keeping practices , the availability of wild prey and human @-@ associated sources of organic material , such as rubbish . Surplus killing has been recorded in South Africa 's eastern Cape Province . Attacks on stock tend to be fewer in areas where livestock is coralled by thorn fences and where domestic dogs are present . One study in northern Kenya revealed that 90 % of all cases of livestock predation by hyenas occurred in areas outside the protection of thorn fences .
= = = Attacks on humans and grave desecration = = =
Like most mammalian predators , the spotted hyena is typically shy in the presence of humans , and has the highest flight distance ( up to 300 metres ) among African carnivores . However , this distance is reduced during the night , when hyenas are known to follow people closely . Although spotted hyenas do prey on humans in modern times , such incidences are rare . However , attacks on humans by spotted hyenas are likely to be underreported . Man @-@ eating spotted hyenas tend to be very large specimens ; a pair of man @-@ eating hyenas , responsible for killing 27 people in Mlanje , Malawi , in 1962 , were weighed at 72 and 77 kg ( 159 and 170 lb ) after being shot . Victims of spotted hyenas tend to be women , children and sick or infirm men , and there are numerous cases of biologists in Africa being forced up trees in order to escape them . Attacks occur most commonly in September , when many people sleep outdoors , and bush fires make the hunting of wild game difficult for hyenas .
In 1903 , Hector Duff wrote of how spotted hyenas in the Mzimba district of Angoniland would wait at dawn outside people 's huts and attack them when they opened their doors . In 1908 – 09 in Uganda , spotted hyenas regularly killed sufferers of African sleeping sickness as they slept outside in camps . Spotted hyenas are widely feared in Malawi , where they have been known to occasionally attack people at night , particularly during the hot season when people sleep outside . Hyena attacks were widely reported in Malawi 's Phalombe plain , to the north of Michesi Mountain . Five deaths were recorded in 1956 , five in 1957 and six in 1958 . This pattern continued until 1961 when eight people were killed . During the 1960s , Flying Doctors received over two dozen cases of hyena attacks on humans in Kenya . An anecdotal 2004 news report from the World Wide Fund for Nature indicates that 35 people were killed by spotted hyenas during a 12 @-@ month period in Mozambique along a 20 km stretch of road near the Tanzanian border .
Although attacks against living humans are rare , the spotted hyena readily feeds on human corpses . In the tradition of the Maasai and the Hadza , corpses are left in the open for spotted hyenas to eat . A corpse rejected by hyenas is seen as having something wrong with it , and liable to cause social disgrace , therefore it is not uncommon for bodies to be covered in fat and blood from a slaughtered ox . In Ethiopia , hyenas were reported to feed extensively on the corpses of victims of the 1960 attempted coup and the Red Terror . Hyenas habituated to scavenging on human corpses may develop bold behaviours towards living people ; hyena attacks on people in southern Sudan increased during the Second Sudanese Civil War , when human corpses were readily available to them .
= = = Urban hyenas = = =
In some parts of Africa , spotted hyenas have begun to frequent metropolitan areas , where groups or " clans " of the animals have become a menace . The Ethiopian capital Addis Ababa is estimated to have up to a thousand resident hyenas which survive by scavenging rubbish tips and preying on feral dogs and cats . There have also been attacks on humans who are homeless . In 2013 a baby boy was killed by hyenas after being snatched from his mother as she camped near the Hilton Hotel . Some 40 of the animals were reportedly seen alongside a fence bordering the British Embassy compound . In December 2013 a cull was organised and marksmen killed ten hyenas which had occupied wasteland near the city centre .
= = = Hunting and use in traditional medicine = = =
The spotted hyena has been hunted for its body parts for use in traditional medicine , for amusement , and for sport , though this is rare , as the species is generally not considered attractive . There is fossil evidence of humans in Middle Pleistocene Europe butchering and presumably consuming spotted hyenas . Such incidences are rare in modern Africa , where most tribes , even those known to eat unusual kinds of meat , generally despise hyena flesh .
Several authors during the Scramble for Africa attested that , despite its physical strength , the spotted hyena poses no danger to hunters when captured or cornered . It was often the case that native skinners refused to even touch hyena carcasses , though this was not usually a problem , as hyena skins were not considered attractive . In Burkina Faso , the hyena 's tail is used for medicinal and magical purposes . In Cameroon , Côte d 'Ivoire and Senegal , the animals ' whole body is harvested for bushmeat and medicine . In Malawi and Tanzania , the genitalia , nose tips and tails are used for traditional medicine . In Mozambique , traditional healers use various spotted hyena body parts , particularly the paws . Oromo hunters typically go through ritual purification after killing hyenas . Kujamaat hunters traditionally treat the spotted hyenas they kill with the same respect due to deceased tribal elders , in order to avoid retribution from hyena spirits acting on behalf of the dead animal . During the early years of Dutch colonisation in southern Africa , hyenas ( referred to as " wolves " by the colonists ) were especially susceptible to trapping , as their prediliction for carrion and lack of caution about enclosed spaces worked against them . A feature of many frontier farms was the wolwehok ( hyena trap ) , which was roughly constructed from stone or wood and baited with meat . The trap featured a trap @-@ door , which was designed to shut once the bait was disturbed . In the Cape Colony , spotted hyenas were often hunted by tracking them to their dens and shooting them as they escaped . Another hunting method was to trap them in their dens and dazzle them with torchlight , before stabbing them in the heart with a long knife . When chased by hunting dogs , spotted hyenas often attack back , unless the dogs are of exceptionally large , powerful breeds . James Stevenson @-@ Hamilton wrote that wounded spotted hyenas could be dangerous adversaries for hunting dogs , recording an incident in which a hyena managed to kill a dog with a single bite to the neck without breaking the skin . Further difficulties in killing spotted hyenas with dogs include the species ' thick skin , which prevents dogs from inflicting serious damage to the animal 's muscles .
= = = Spotted hyenas in captivity and as pets = = =
From a husbandry point of view , hyenas are easily kept , as they have few disease problems and it is not uncommon for captive hyenas to reach 15 – 20 years of age . Nevertheless , the spotted hyena was historically scantily represented in zoos , and was typically obtained in order to fill empty cages until a more prestigious species could be obtained . In subsequent years , animals considered to be more charismatic were allocated larger and better quality facilities , while hyenas were often relegated to inferior exhibits . In modern times , the species faces spatial competition from more popular animals , especially large canids . Also , many captive individuals have not been closely examined to confirm their sexes , thus resulting in non @-@ breeding pairs often turning out to be same @-@ sexed individuals . As a result , many captive hyena populations are facing extinction .
During the 19th century , the species was frequently displayed in travelling circuses as oddities . Alfred Brehm wrote that the spotted hyena is harder to tame than the striped hyena , and that performing specimens in circuses were not up to standard . Sir John Barrow described how spotted hyenas in Sneeuberge were trained to hunt game , writing that they were " as faithful and diligent as any of the common domestic dogs " . In Tanzania , spotted hyena cubs may be taken from a communal den by witchdoctors , in order to increase their social status . An April 2004 BBC article described how a shepherd living in the small town of Qabri Bayah about 50 kilometres from Jigjiga , Ethiopia managed to use a male spotted hyena as a livestock guardian dog , suppressing its urge to leave and find a mate by feeding it special herbs . If not raised with adult members of their kind , captive spotted hyenas will exhibit scent marking behaviours much later in life than wild specimens . Although easily tamed , spotted hyenas are exceedingly difficult to house train , and can be very destructive ; a captive , otherwise perfectly tame , specimen in the Tower of London managed to tear an 8 @-@ foot ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) long plank nailed to its recently repaired enclosure floor with no apparent effort . During the research leading to the composition of his monograph The Spotted Hyena : A Study of Predation and Social Behavior , Hans Kruuk kept a tame hyena he named Solomon . Kruuk found Solomon 's company so congenial , he would have kept him , but Solomon had an insatiable taste for " cheese in the bar of the tourist lounge and bacon off the Chief Park Warden 's breakfast table " , and no door could hold him back , so Solomon was obliged to live out his days in the Edinburgh Zoo .
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= Royal Stoa ( Jerusalem ) =
The Royal Stoa ( Hebrew : הסטיו המלכותי , also known as the Royal Colonnade , Royal Portico , Royal Cloisters , Royal Basilica or Stoa Basileia ) was an ancient basilica constructed by Herod the Great during his renovation of the Temple Mount at the end of the 1st century BCE . Probably Herod 's most magnificent secular construction , the three @-@ aisled structure was described by Josephus as deserving " to be mentioned better than any other under the sun . " A center of public and commercial activity , the Royal Stoa was the likely location of Jesus ' Cleansing of the Temple . The Royal Stoa overlooked Jerusalem 's residential and commercial quarters , and at its southwestern corner was the place from which a ram 's horn was blown to announce the start of holy days .
The Royal Stoa was destroyed by the Roman army during the sack of Jerusalem in 70 CE . Its site on the Temple Mount esplanade is currently inaccessible to archaeologists . However , artifacts from the Stoa have been recovered both from excavations at the foot of the platform and in secondary use in later constructions . This evidence has confirmed details given in the accounts of the historian Josephus , and has also allowed comparison of the Royal Stoa 's decoration with that used in other , contemporaneous monumental buildings .
= = History = =
= = = Construction = = =
Herod 's reconstruction of the Second Temple was one of his principal building projects . Construction began during the last quarter of the 1st century BCE . It was both a monumental architectural feat and an important political achievement . Herod invested a great deal of effort in the expansion of the Temple platform , especially at its southern side where the Temple Mount descends into the Tyropoeon and Kidron valleys . This expansion along the southern edge of the esplanade served as a base upon which the Royal Stoa was erected . The building was basilical in form , but open on one side , which led it to being described as a portico , a stoa or cloisters in various sources . It was likely Herod 's most magnificent secular edifice . The historian Josephus praised the Royal Stoa as " more worthy of mention than any other [ structure ] under the sun " , and described the building in detail :
This cloister had pillars that stood in four rows one over against the other all along , for the fourth row was interwoven into the wall , which [ also was built of stone ] ; and the thickness of each pillar was such , that three men might , with their arms extended , fathom it round , and join their hands again , while its length was 27 feet ( 8 @.@ 2 m ) , with a double spiral at its basis ; and the number of all the pillars [ in that court ] was a hundred and sixty @-@ two . Their chapiters were made with sculptures after the Corinthian order [ ... ] These four rows of pillars included three intervals for walking in the middle of this cloister ; two of which walks were made parallel to each other , and were contrived after the same manner ; the breadth of each of them was 30 feet ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) , the length was 1 furlong ( 200 m ; 660 ft ) , and the height 50 feet ( 15 m ) ; but the breadth of the middle part of the cloister was one and a half of the other , and the height was double , for it was much higher than those on each side ; but the roofs were adorned with deep sculptures in wood , representing many sorts of figures . The middle was much higher than the rest , and the wall of the front was adorned with beams , resting upon pillars , that were interwoven into it , and that front was all of polished stone ...
A basilica with four rows of columns running lengthwise , each made of 40 columns , the Royal Stoa thus contained three parallel halls , with a central 13 @.@ 5 metres ( 44 ft ) wide hall and two flanking 9 metres ( 30 ft ) wide halls . Each column was approximately 1 @.@ 5 metres ( 4 @.@ 9 ft ) in diameter and , according to Josephus , 9 metres ( 30 ft ) tall , though classical proportions would have had it at roughly 17 metres ( 56 ft ) . The central hall was twice as tall as the aisles , probably nearly 33 metres ( 108 ft ) tall . Israeli archaeologist Ehud Netzer estimates the Royal Stoa was roughly 33 metres ( 108 ft ) wide and 240 metres ( 790 ft ) long , though Josephus gives its length as a stade ( approximately 600 ft ) .
The central aisle had a higher ceiling than the side @-@ aisles . Light was provided by clerestory windows in the upper part of the central hall . It is also possible that an apse stood at the eastern wall of the Stoa . Josephus describes the columns as Corinthian in style and Corinthian capitals have indeed been found in excavations along the mount 's southern wall , as well as reused in later Roman , Byzantine and Islamic structures . The ceilings were ornamented with deeply cut wood @-@ carvings while other parts of the interior were apparently covered with stucco . The southernmost row of columns was incorporated into the southern wall of the Temple mount , while the northern side opened onto the plaza in the middle of which stood the Temple . From the outside , the southern wall was distinguished from the retaining wall of the platform by a series of pilasters running along the length of the superstructure . The main entry to the Stoa from the city was via a monumental staircase which led up from the Tyropoeon Valley and then across Robinson 's Arch , passing over the street and shops below .
The Royal Stoa was built upon the artificially raised portion of the Temple Mount platform . Arches underneath supported the columns of the Stoa , and provided service areas for the structures above . The Huldah Gates at the bottom of the southern wall led through corridors beneath the Stoa , rising to the Temple plaza , and served as the main entrance to the Temple compound for worshipers . Additional passages led to storage areas , and possibly provided secondary access to the Stoa and the Temple beyond . An arched overpass on the eastern side of the Temple Mount led to a gate which opened into the so @-@ called Solomon 's Stables just beneath the eastern end of the Stoa . It is widely assumed that at least part of this area was used as a storage area in conjunction with business conducted in the Stoa .
The expansion of the Temple Mount platform and the erection of the Royal Stoa required Herod 's engineers to overcome the difficult topographic conditions . It was thus necessary to build 35 metres ( 115 ft ) tall foundations above the slope of the Tyropoeon valley and equivalent 40 metres ( 130 ft ) tall foundations above the Kidron . The great effort invested in the construction of the Royal Stoa is a testimony of its immense importance to Herod and his status on the Temple Mount . Unlike his predecessors , the Hasmonean kings who had also served as High Priests , Herod was not of the priestly caste and was therefore unable to participate in priestly rituals . A client king appointed by the Romans , lacking legitimacy and unpopular with his subjects , Herod had initiated the Temple reconstruction to win favour among the Jews , but was forbidden from even entering the inner sanctum of his crowning achievement . It was thus the monumental Royal Stoa which gave Herod his rightful status on the Mount , a showcase of his majesty and grandeur .
= = = Purpose = = =
Every major Roman city had a basilica which was used for banking , law courts , and other commercial transactions . In Jerusalem , the Royal Stoa was the center of this activity . In the forty years prior to the Great Revolt it served as the seat of the Sanhedrin , Judaism 's supreme judicial court , which was moved from the Chamber of Stone to the " Shop " ( Chanuyot in the Talmud ) , referring to the commercial activities conducted in the Stoa . A fragment of a monumental inscription found near the eastern Huldah gates below the Stoa refers to the Zeqenim ( elders ) and may indicate the Sanhedrin 's meeting place near the gates or in the Stoa above .
This center of commercial activity within sight of the Temple was considered irreverent to many devout Jews . It was also a site of commerce related to the Temple ritual , where sacrificial doves could be bought and coins bearing prohibited images could be exchanged . It is therefore a likely location for Jesus ' confrontation with the dove sellers and money changers which is related in chapter 21 of the Gospel of Matthew . Special coinage was used for sacred contributions and other purposes . The Israel Antiquities Authority 's numismatist Donald T. Ariel has proposed that the Royal Stoa as the site for a mint , run by the priesthood . During the Great Revolt against Rome , this may have been the site where silver shekels were produced . The stoa 's convenient proximity to the Temple 's silver stores and the area 's use for other commercial purposes argue for identification of the stoa as the location of minting operations . Other " Revolt " coinage was in base metal , and these may have been struck elsewhere in Jerusalem .
Above the basilica , either on a parapet or tower , was a place from which a trumpet or ram 's horn would be blown to signal the start of the Sabbath and holy days . On the pavement below the southwest corner of the Royal Stoa complex , a piece of stone coping was excavated which bears a dedicatory inscription which reads " to the Place of Trumpeting " . This location overlooked most of Jerusalem 's neighborhoods , and the recovery of the inscription confirms that the southwest corner is the site where the trumpeting took place .
= = = Destruction = = =
And now the Romans , judging that it was in vain to spare what was round about the holy house , burnt all those places , as also the remains of the cloisters and the gates , two excepted ; the one on the east side , and the other on the south ; both which , however , they burnt afterward ... The soldiers also came to the rest of the cloisters that were in the outer [ court of the ] temple , whither the women and children , and a great mixed multitude of the people , fled , in number about six thousand . But before Caesar had determined any thing about these people , or given the commanders any orders relating to them , the soldiers were in such a rage , that they set that cloister on fire ; by which means it came to pass that some of these were destroyed by throwing themselves down headlong , and some were burnt in the cloisters themselves . Nor did any one of them escape with his life .
The Great Revolt and the subsequent sacking of Jerusalem in 70 CE brought about the destruction of Herod 's Temple , including the Royal Stoa , by members of the Roman X Fretensis , XII Fulminata , XV Apollinaris and V Macedonica legions under the command of emperor Vespasian 's son Titus . It is likely that the stoa was modified during the initial phases of the revolt when the Temple Mount was fortified , first by Simon Bar Giora and then by John of Gischala . The main entry at Robinson 's Arch was destroyed and towers built . Excavated remains of the Stoa provide evidence of its demise in a great fire . Chemical analysis of the remains has shown that some of the materials underwent transformations requiring a minimum temperature of 800 K ( 980 ° F ) — a result of sustained , high @-@ temperature burning consistent with Josephus 's account of destruction in a large conflagration . Some remains also contain the mineral apatite , a component of bone , though its origins , human or animal , are unknown .
= = Temple Mount excavations = =
The site of the Royal Stoa is currently occupied by the Al @-@ Aqsa Mosque , Islam 's third @-@ holiest shrine , and is therefore unavailable for archaeological exploration . Between 1968 and 1978 , however , professor Benjamin Mazar of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem carried out excavations at the foot of the southern wall . These uncovered over 400 architectural fragments in the destruction debris below the site of the Stoa , some of which were incorporated in secondary use in later Byzantine and Ummayad construction . Despite their fragmentary nature , these provide some of the largest and richest Second @-@ Temple era assemblages ever found , a testament to the splendor described by Josephus .
Finds include Corinthian capitals , Doric friezes and modillion cornices . The motifs featured on the fragments found occasionally match patterns witnessed in other Second @-@ Temple era public buildings unearthed in the region , while others reflect unique architectural characteristics . These include floral motifs , rosettes , cable patterns similar to finds in the Hauran region of southern Syria and acanthus leaves featured in Roman architecture .
In 1999 , the Muslim Wakf authority controlling the Islamic structures atop the Temple Mount began illegally excavating large amounts of fill from the former site of the Royal Stoa in order to construct a new access to the newly established ( or , as the Waqf would put it , restored and expanded ) Marwani Mosque . Material dug from the site was dumped in the Kidron Valley , so that all the important information which could have been acquired through proper excavation of the material in its archaeological context has been lost forever . Trying to save what could still be saved , an operation to sift through the debris was started by Zachi Zweig and Gabriel Barkay . The ongoing Temple Mount Sifting Project has resulted in the recovery of many architectural fragments from the Second Temple buildings as well as remnants from all other historical periods since the First Temple Period .
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= Dark Horse ( George Harrison album ) =
Dark Horse is the fifth studio album by English musician George Harrison , released on Apple Records in December 1974 as the follow @-@ up to Living in the Material World . Although keenly anticipated on release , Dark Horse is associated with the controversial North American tour that Harrison staged with co @-@ headliner Ravi Shankar in November and December that year . This was the first US tour by a member of the Beatles since 1966 , and the public 's nostalgia for the band , together with Harrison contracting laryngitis during rehearsals and choosing to feature Shankar so heavily in the program , resulted in scathing concert reviews from some influential music critics .
The Dark Horse album was written and recorded during an extended period of upheaval in Harrison 's personal life , when he dedicated much of his energies to business issues such as setting up Dark Horse Records . Author Simon Leng refers to the album as " a musical soap opera , cataloguing rock @-@ life antics , marital strife , lost friendships , and self @-@ doubt " , due to its focus on Harrison 's split with first wife Pattie Boyd and his temporary withdrawal from the spiritual certainties of his previous work .
The album features an array of guest musicians – including Tom Scott , Billy Preston , Willie Weeks , Andy Newmark , Jim Keltner , Ringo Starr , Gary Wright and Ron Wood – and produced two hit singles , " Dark Horse " and " Ding Dong , Ding Dong " . It showed Harrison moving towards the funk and soul musical genres . The album was not well received by the majority of critics at the time . Dark Horse was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America within days of release , but it became Harrison 's first solo album not to chart in Britain . The cover was designed by Tom Wilkes and consists of a school photograph from Harrison 's time at the Liverpool Institute superimposed onto a Himalayan landscape . The album was reissued in remastered form on 22 September 2014 , as part of the Apple Years 1968 – 75 Harrison box set .
= = Background and content = =
George Harrison 's third studio album since the Beatles ' break @-@ up came at the end of " a bad domestic year " , as he describes it in his 1980 autobiography . From the middle of 1973 , with his marriage to Pattie Boyd all but over , Harrison had immersed himself in his work , particularly on developing the acts he would eventually sign to his new record label , Dark Horse Records − Ravi Shankar and a hitherto unknown group called Splinter . Business issues related to the Beatles ' company Apple Corps were also coming to a head during 1973 – 74 , as Harrison , John Lennon and Ringo Starr launched legal proceedings against Allen Klein , their former manager and ally against Paul McCartney ( who had served the original lawsuit in December 1970 seeking to dissolve the band 's partnership ) . The simultaneous winding down of Apple Corps ' subsidiaries left a number of music and film projects in jeopardy , which resulted in Harrison having to make regular trips to Los Angeles in order to find a distributor for the Shankar Family & Friends album , most of which was recorded in California in April 1973 , and Splinter 's debut , The Place I Love . Another venture that was affected was the movie Little Malcolm , an Apple Films project for which Harrison was executive producer and working to seal a distribution deal in Europe .
Compounding the pressure during what Harrison himself would refer to as " the naughty period , 1973 – 74 " , he was drinking heavily and had returned to his drug @-@ taking ways of the 1960s . Some of Harrison 's biographers suggest that this abandoning of the " semi @-@ ascetic " path espoused on his 1973 album Living in the Material World was Harrison 's reaction to the media 's sniping , particularly in Britain , at the pious content of that album , as well as a reflection of Harrison 's despondency over the failure of his first marriage . These two issues informed the lyrics to a new Harrison song , " Dark Horse " . Friend and confidant Klaus Voormann has described this time as an obvious " step back " on Harrison 's spiritual journey , while Boyd would later write : " That whole period was insane . Friar Park was a madhouse . Our lives were fuelled by alcohol and cocaine , and so it was with everyone who came into our sphere ... George used cocaine excessively and I think it changed him . " Harrison addressed this behaviour in " Simply Shady " and laid out his feelings on the couple 's inevitable split in " So Sad " .
Wounded by Harrison 's frequent infidelities , Boyd left him for Eric Clapton in July 1974 , having previously had an affair with another of her husband 's guitar @-@ playing friends , Ron Wood of the Faces . Both of these dalliances would also receive attention on the Dark Horse album , which Harrison 's musical biographer , Simon Leng , has described as " a musical soap opera , cataloguing rock @-@ life antics , marital strife , lost friendships , and self @-@ doubt " . In his rewrite of the Everly Brothers ' " Bye Bye , Love " , Harrison declared : " There goes our lady , with a @-@ you @-@ know @-@ who / I hope she 's happy , old Clapper too " ; while his handwritten liner notes listed one of the guest musicians on " Ding Dong , Ding Dong " as " Ron Would If You Let Him " . For his part , Harrison had taken up with Starr 's wife , Maureen Starkey , and the UK tabloids soon reported him as being romantically involved with model Kathy Simmons ( ex @-@ girlfriend of Rod Stewart ) as well as Krissy Wood ( wife of the Faces guitar player ) . Shortly before Dark Horse 's release , Harrison would dodge reporters ' questions regarding his private life with a suggestion that people wait for the new album , saying , " It 's like Peyton Place . "
Adultery was the subject matter of Harrison 's non @-@ album B @-@ side from this period , " I Don 't Care Anymore " , and his musical association with Ron Wood led to the song " Far East Man " . This co @-@ composition was first recorded for Wood 's debut solo album , I 've Got My Own Album to Do , and when released on Dark Horse , it marked the first foray into soul music within Harrison 's solo work .
Of more profound consequence , and the inspiration behind the Hindu bhajan " It Is ' He ' ( Jai Sri Krishna ) " , was his trip to India , in January and February 1974 . In Benares , Harrison forged a plan with longtime mentor Shankar to sponsor an Indian classical @-@ music concert tour later in the year , featuring as many as eighteen musicians and an unprecedented ( in the West ) range of traditional Indian instruments . An album would be recorded just beforehand , at Harrison 's home studio at Friar Park , in Oxfordshire . Ravi Shankar 's Music Festival from India was the realisation of a long @-@ held dream for the ex @-@ Beatle , but , as with his dedication to Splinter 's The Place I Love , the project would impact on the quality of his own album .
By May , Harrison had agreed distribution terms with A & M Records and was therefore able to formally launch Dark Horse Records , although he would remain contracted to Apple as a solo artist , like the other Beatles , until January 1976 . After announcing the staging of the Music Festival from India in September 1974 , Harrison also confirmed that he planned to tour North America , together with Ravi Shankar 's ensemble , during November and December . Despite his stated aversion to performing live , Harrison would be the first of his former band @-@ mates to undertake a tour of Beatle @-@ hungry America ; the expectations that this created , together with his role as a hands @-@ on record company boss , meant that the pressure on Harrison was immense .
= = Production = =
= = = November 1973 backing tracks = = =
Recording for Dark Horse began in November 1973 , midway through the extended sessions for The Place I Love , at Harrison 's 16 @-@ track home studio , FPSHOT ( short for Friar Park Studios , Henley @-@ on @-@ Thames ) . As on Living in the Material World , Harrison produced the sessions himself and Phil McDonald again served as recording engineer . Using the same line @-@ up of musicians as on Material World – Ringo Starr , Jim Keltner , Klaus Voormann , and Gary Wright and Nicky Hopkins alternating on keyboards – Harrison taped basic tracks for his hoped @-@ for Christmas / New Year " classic " , " Ding Dong , Ding Dong " , an early version of " Dark Horse " , and " So Sad " . Harrison had originally given the latter song to near @-@ neighbour Alvin Lee to record , in August , and had guested on the session along with Ron Wood . Harrison , Lee and Wood all subsequently added lead @-@ guitar parts to " Ding Dong " , in the first of Harrison 's attempts to build up the song 's layers of instrumentation , and so re @-@ create his former collaborator Phil Spector 's celebrated Wall of Sound . This overdubbing session took place sometime after Harrison 's return from India in early March 1974 , judging by the pre @-@ overdubbed version of " Ding Dong " that Harrison included on a tape for David Geffen shortly before leaving . " So Sad " would similarly receive a significant amount of overdubbing , creating a " harrowing encounter " , as Harrison stated his " great despair " at the end of his relationship with Boyd .
= = = April 1974 with the L.A. Express = = =
Simon Leng observes an uncharacteristic spontaneity in Harrison 's work ethic on Dark Horse , now that his home and recording base were one and the same . The discipline of working to a schedule " flew out the ornate windows " , Leng writes , along with his usual painstaking approach to recording . After catching Joni Mitchell 's concert at the New Victoria Theatre in London , in April 1974 , Harrison was much impressed with her jazz @-@ rock backing band , the L.A. Express , led by saxophonist and flautist Tom Scott , and invited them to Friar Park the following day . The ensemble – Harrison , Scott , Robben Ford ( guitar ) , Roger Kellaway ( keyboards ) , Max Bennett ( bass ) and John Guerin ( drums ) – recorded an instrumental track that later became the opening number on the Harrison – Shankar tour , " Hari 's on Tour ( Express ) " . " Simply Shady " , which Harrison had written while in Bombay , was taped later the same day . Having formed a rapport with Harrison after they had worked together on Shankar Family & Friends the year before , Scott stayed on at Friar Park and overdubbed various horn parts onto " Ding Dong " and the two new tracks . Scott later told journalist Michael Gross that he was the first Western musician that Harrison approached to join him on the upcoming tour .
Harrison dedicated the next few months to matters relating to Dark Horse Records , his former band 's business affairs , and Little Malcolm . Although the film was tied up in the Beatles ' " divorce " , as director Stuart Cooper later said of Little Malcolm , it was entered at the Berlin Film Festival in June and won the Silver Bear award . In August , Harrison holidayed in Spain with Kathy Simmons before returning to England at the end of the month for publicity work with Splinter .
= = = August – September 1974 at Friar Park = = =
Harrison resumed recording for his album in late August , working through to early September with four musicians who had signed on for the upcoming tour : old friend Billy Preston on keyboards ; Scott , who would serve as band leader on the tour ; and the rhythm section of Andy Newmark and Willie Weeks , both of whom Harrison had met while working on Ron Wood 's album in July . Harrison taped " Māya Love " , " Far East Man " and " It Is ' He ' ( Jai Sri Krishna ) " with this all @-@ American group of musicians . They also recorded a song called " His Name Is Legs " , which Harrison decided to hold back until 1975 's Extra Texture album . Around this time , Shankar arrived in London with his handpicked orchestra of Indian classical musicians – an " outstanding " group , writes author Peter Lavezzoli , that included Hariprasad Chaurasia , Shivkumar Sharma , Alla Rakha , T.V. Gopalkrishnan , L. Subramaniam , Sultan Khan and Lakshmi Shankar . According to Shankar 's later recollection , rehearsals for the Music Festival from India concerts and the recording of their eponymous studio album took place simultaneously at Friar Park , over a period of three weeks , with Harrison as producer .
On 23 September , Harrison introduced Shankar on stage at London 's Royal Albert Hall for the Indian orchestra 's debut performance , before accompanying them on a short tour of Europe . At this point , Harrison still had the bulk of his album to complete , and rehearsals for his tour were due to begin in Los Angeles in early October . When Harrison arrived in LA , he was apparently already hoarse , but since it would have been " music business heresy " to tour without a new album to promote , he was obligated to complete the recording during rehearsals .
= = = October 1974 in Los Angeles = = =
Using A & M Studios in Hollywood as his base for the next three weeks , Harrison rehearsed on a sound stage with his tour band , which , along with Scott , Preston , Weeks and Newmark , included L.A. Express guitarist Robben Ford , Harrison 's Concert for Bangladesh horn players Jim Horn and Chuck Findley , and jazz percussionist Emil Richards . Harrison 's drummer of choice , Jim Keltner , also participated , but he would not join the tour until late in November . Aside from the Harrison material , selections by Preston and Scott were also rehearsed for their spots in the show , since , as at the Bangladesh benefits in 1971 , Harrison was keen for other artists to have their moment centre @-@ stage . In a fusion of musical cultures , Harrison , Scott and Richards rehearsed with Shankar 's orchestra for some of the Indian @-@ music pieces , and all the musicians , Western and Indian , came together for the Shankar Family & Friends tracks " I Am Missing You " and " Dispute & Violence " .
Outside of the daytime rehearsals , Harrison finished off the songs hastily recorded in England , and mixed the album . Horn and Findley overdubbed flutes , and Richards wobble board onto " It Is ' He ' " . Eight Arms to Hold You authors Chip Madinger and Mark Easter suggest that much of the vocals on Dark Horse were taped at this point – a situation that resulted in Harrison overworking and then blowing his voice in the middle of the tour rehearsals . He was diagnosed with laryngitis . According to Scott , Harrison recorded " Bye Bye , Love " alone one night at A & M , adding a variety of instruments to his acoustic guitar track , including Moog synthesizer , drums , electric pianos and various electric @-@ guitar parts . " I Don 't Care Anymore " is another solo track that was most likely recorded in Los Angeles .
Although he had intended to finish the version of " Dark Horse " taped at Friar Park with Voormann and Starr , Harrison decided to re @-@ record the song with the tour band , live , on the sound stage at A & M Studios . The session took place on either 30 or 31 October , with Norm Kinney as engineer . Leng writes of this performance of " Dark Horse " : " Anyone wondering what Harrison 's voice sounded like on the Dark Horse Tour need look no further : this track was cut only days before the first date in Vancouver . Although the band sounded good , his voice was in shreds ... " Later , Harrison would admit he was " knackered " by the time he arrived in Los Angeles , having simply taken on too much over the previous year . He also claimed that his business manager , Denis O 'Brien , had to force him out of the studio , to ensure he caught the plane for the opening show of the tour , on 2 November .
= = Album artwork = =
The Tom Wilkes @-@ designed front cover of Dark Horse features a 1956 Liverpool Institute high @-@ school photograph presented inside a lotus flower , behind which a dream @-@ like Himalayan landscape extends to the horizon , where the " deathless Yogi of the Ancient of Days " , Shiv @-@ Goraksha Babaji , sits . While some observers have seen pointed similarities with the Beatles ' iconic Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band cover image , Harrison 's choice of artwork reflected his enduring admiration for Terry Gilliam 's animation on Monty Python 's Flying Circus . In the photo , a thirteen @-@ year @-@ old Harrison is pictured in the centre of the top row , his face tinted blue ; school teachers appear dressed in long @-@ sleeve tops bearing a superimposed record @-@ company logo or Om symbol . Wilkes and Harrison disagreed over the size of the Babaji image , which the designer apparently disliked and wanted to reduce in size .
Inside the gatefold cover , around the edges of a tinted photo of Harrison and comedian Peter Sellers walking beside a Friar Park lake , text asks the " Wanderer through this Garden 's ways " to " Be kindly " and refrain from casting " Revengeful stones " if " perchance an Imperfection thou hast found " , the reason being : " The Gardener toiled to make his Garden fair , Most for thy Pleasure . " A speech balloon over the photograph contains the words " Well , Leo ! What say we promenade through the park ? " This line was taken from the Mel Brooks movie The Producers , a favourite of Sellers and Harrison .
On the back cover , Harrison is pictured sitting on a garden bench , the back timbers of which are apparently carved with his name and that of the album . Similar to Harrison 's attire in the outdoor scenes of the " Ding Dong , Ding Dong " video clip , Leng refers to his appearance here as resembling the Jethro Tull character " Aqualung " . Terry Doran 's photo , given the same orange hue as the one inside the gatefold , was also used on some European picture sleeves for the " Ding Dong " and " Dark Horse " singles around this time .
Dark Horse 's inner sleeve notes were all the work of Harrison himself , written on a plane at the start of the tour . Along with the first Harrison @-@ album credit for FPSHOT , and the now @-@ familiar " All glories to Sri Krsna " dedication , his purple pen records various in @-@ jokes while listing the many contributing musicians . As well as the confusing inclusion of Boyd and Clapton 's names ( leading to the assumption that they had actually contributed to the track ) , the song title " Bye Bye , Love " is juxtaposed with the words " Hello Los Angeles " , while " OHLIVERE " would appear to be a reference to Harrison 's new lover and future wife , Dark Horse Records secretary Olivia Arias . The latter is also included among the title track 's musician credits – her contribution being " Trinidad Blissed Out " . Under " Ding Dong " , aside from the appearance of " Ron Would If You Let Him " on guitar , Friar Park 's original owner , Sir Frank Crisp , is credited for providing " Spirit " . Arias 's face , in a photo taken by tour photographer Henry Grossman , appeared on the record 's side @-@ two face label , while a corresponding picture of Harrison appeared on side one .
= = Release = =
Rather than introducing Harrison 's audience to his new , jazz @-@ funk sound , Dark Horse was released two @-@ thirds of the way through a tour that had alienated some of rock music 's most influential critics , notably Ben Fong @-@ Torres of Rolling Stone magazine . Fong @-@ Torres ' radio piece for the Rolling Stone News Service was broadcast across America early in the tour and cemented what has become the " given " view , according to Leng , that the Harrison – Shankar tour was a failure . The majority of critics – or those " without axes to grind " , author Robert Rodriguez writes – reviewed the concerts favourably . Band members Scott , Keltner , Weeks , Horn , Newmark and Richards have each identified " the Dark Horse Tour " as a career highpoint , while some commentators note the groundbreaking nature of the music as a precursor to the world music genre . The negative press Harrison received stemmed from his decision to feature Indian music so heavily in the concert program , and the fact that he was forced to sing with a voice " reduced to a raspy croak " , but most crucially , from his refusal to pander to the Beatles legacy . The 1960s classics " While My Guitar Gently Weeps " , " Something " and " In My Life " were all performed throughout the tour , but with lyrics altered to fit Harrison 's personal spiritual transformation – or his failed marriage in the case of the guitarist 's most famous Beatles @-@ era tune , " Something " .
Following the release of " Dark Horse " as a lead single , in mid November , the album was issued on 9 December 1974 in the United States ( as Apple SMAS 3418 ) . In Britain , the single was " Ding Dong " , and Dark Horse was delayed until 20 December ( with Apple catalogue number PAS 10008 ) . The UK release coincided with the final show of the tour , at Madison Square Garden in New York , and came the day after Harrison and Paul McCartney had signed legal papers dissolving the Beatles partnership , at the Plaza Hotel . Dark Horse sold well in America initially , earning a gold disc for advance orders and climbing to number 4 on the Billboard 200 , but its chart stay was a relatively brief seventeen weeks . In Canada , it peaked at number 42 at the start of February 1975 before quickly falling out of the RPM Top 100 .
Dark Horse failed to place on the UK 's Top 50 Albums Chart . This was not only a poor result for a former Beatle – although Starr 's Beaucoups of Blues had similarly not charted in 1970 – but a dramatic turnaround in Harrison 's commercial fortunes , after his three previous solo releases ( including The Concert for Bangladesh live album ) had all made number 1 or 2 in Britain .
= = = Reissue = = =
Dark Horse was released on CD in January 1992 . The album was remastered again and reissued in September 2014 , as part of the Harrison box set The Apple Years 1968 – 75 . As bonus tracks , the reissue includes a previously unreleased demo of " Dark Horse " and the long @-@ unavailable " I Don 't Care Anymore " . Author Kevin Howlett supplied a liner note essay in the CD booklet , while the DVD exclusive to the box set contains Harrison 's promotional video for " Ding Dong , Ding Dong " and Capitol 's 1974 television ad for the album .
= = Critical reception = =
= = = Contemporary reviews = = =
Dark Horse received some of the most negative reviews of any release by a Beatle up to that point and the worst of Harrison 's career . Released amid the furore surrounding his refusal to play " Beatle George " during a tour that was a " whirlwind of pent @-@ up Beatlemania " , in Leng 's words , it was as if Harrison had already committed " acts of heresy " . Rather than having his new work judged on its own merits , it was " open season " on Harrison ; another biographer , Elliot Huntley , has written of the " tsunami of bile " unleashed on the ex @-@ Beatle in late 1974 .
Under the heading " Transcendental Mediocrity " , Jim Miller of Rolling Stone called Dark Horse a " disastrous album " to match the " disastrous tour " , and a " shoddy piece of work " . According to Miller , the musicians were " merely competent studio pros " and Harrison 's guitar playing was " rudimentary " . In contrast with the praise that the same publication had lavished on Harrison for Living in the Material World the year before , Rolling Stone 's reviewer described Dark Horse as a " chronicle of a performer out of his element , working to a deadline , enfeebling his overtaxed talents by a rush to deliver new ' LP product ' " , and stated : " In plain point of fact , George Harrison has never been a great artist ... the question becomes whether he will ever again become a competent entertainer . " The NME 's Bob Woffinden derided Harrison 's songwriting , production and vocals , particularly on two tracks dealing with his troubled personal life , " Simply Shady " and " So Sad " . Woffinden concluded : " I find Dark Horse the product of a complete egoist – no one , you see , is in my tree – someone whose universe is confined to himself . And his guru ... I 'll repeat that this album is totally colourless . Just stuff and nonsense . " Writing in The Village Voice in January 1975 , Robert Christgau bemoaned the album 's " transubstantiations " and particularly derided the lyrics to " Māya Love " , " in which ' window @-@ pane ' becomes ' window brain . ' Can this mean that pain ( pane , get it ? ) is the same as brain ? For all this hoarse dork knows ... "
There were a number of positive reviews for Dark Horse , with Billboard magazine deeming it a " Spotlight " release . The reviewer described the album as " an excellent one " and compared it favourably with Harrison 's acclaimed 1970 triple set , All Things Must Pass . Brian Harrigan of Melody Maker credited Harrison with establishing " a new category in music – Country and Eastern " and lauded his " nifty " slide @-@ guitar playing and " tremendous " singing . Although he found some of the tracks overlong , Harrigan declared : " Yep , the Sacred Cowboy has produced a good one . " Combined with his feature on the tour in Circus Raves , in which he questioned the accuracy of the negative reports about the Harrison – Shankar concerts , Michael Gross described Dark Horse as matching All Things Must Pass in quality , and " surpassing " it at times , thanks to the new album 's " clarity of production and lovely songs " . Gross highlighted " So Sad " as a " luxurious track " and described " Ding Dong , Ding Dong " , " Dark Horse " and " Far East Man " as " all , simply , good songs " .
Taken as a metaphor for the album itself , the plea for tolerance inside the LP sleeve – " Be kindly Wanderer through this Garden 's ways … " – was ridiculed at the time by some critics . In the 1978 edition of their book The Beatles : An Illustrated Record , Roy Carr and Tony Tyler termed these lines of verse " a self @-@ pitying slab of sub @-@ Desiderata " , while Woffinden described the album cover as " ghastly " . Carr and Tyler conceded that the playing on Dark Horse was " impeccable " , but opined that Harrison 's lyrics were " sanctimonious , repetitive , vituperative and self @-@ satisfied " ; as for the album as a whole : " One wishes it had not come from an ex @-@ Beatle . "
Writing in his 1977 book The Beatles Forever , Nicholas Schaffner found some justification in reviewers ' sniping at the " shoddy performance " and " preachy , humorless message " on Dark Horse . Schaffner singled out " Bye Bye , Love " and " Ding Dong " for derision , but praised the title track and Harrison 's guitar work on " Hari 's on Tour ( Express ) " and " So Sad " , with the latter making for " delectable listening " . Like a number of Beatles authors and biographers , Schaffner found that neither the album nor the tour deserved the level of abuse it received in some sections of the press . " It was George 's turn anyway " , Schaffner reflected , " to be inflicted with the poison @-@ pen treatment that the critics had earlier accorded Paul and John . Knocking idols off their pedestals makes for excellent copy . "
= = = Retrospective reviews and legacy = = =
Having previously championed Harrison 's work since 1970 , Rolling Stone would not change its unfavourable verdict on Dark Horse over the ensuing decades , and Harrison never completely forgave the magazine for the treatment he received during this period . In 2002 , writing in the Rolling Stone Press book Harrison shortly after his death , Greg Kot approved of Dark Horse 's " jazzier backdrops " compared with Material World , but opined that Harrison 's voice turned much of the album into an " unintentionally comic exercise " . In the same publication , Mikal Gilmore identified Dark Horse as " one of Harrison 's most fascinating works – a record about change and loss " . Alan Clayson similarly writes of the interest factor of " a non @-@ Beatle , as well as an ex @-@ Beatle in uncertain transition " , and while classing the album as " an artistic faux pas " , describes " It Is ' He ' ( Jai Sri Krishna ) " as " wonderful " and " startling " . Richard Ginell of AllMusic highlights " Dark Horse " and the " exquisite " Harrison – Wood composition " Far East Man " .
Leng , the first author to write purely on Harrison 's career rather than on his standing as a musical celebrity , considers Dark Horse to be a " remarkably revealing album " and writes : " Any voyeur who wanted to know the intimate details of his personal life didn 't need to buy National Enquirer , they just needed to hear this disc . " While bemoaning the state of Harrison 's voice and the " sonic patchwork " nature of the set , Leng notes that both " So Sad " and " Far East Man " were received positively when first released on albums by Alvin Lee & Mylon LeFevre and Ron Wood , respectively . The difference in winter 1974 – 75 , Leng continues , was that , by championing Ravi Shankar 's Indian music segments during the tour and neglecting his duties as an ex @-@ Beatle in America , Harrison had " committed the cardinal counterculture sin – he had rejected ' rock ' n ' roll ' " .
Reviewing the 2014 Apple Years reissue , for Uncut magazine , Richard Williams dismisses Dark Horse as an album that " only a devoted Apple Scruff could love " , while Joe Marchese of The Second Disc describes it as " Harrison 's earthiest work to date " , containing " many stellar moments " . Blogcritics ' Chaz Lipp comments on the album 's " world @-@ weariness " yet similarly finds " a lot of rewarding listening here " , with " Bye Bye , Love " , " Far East Man " , " It Is ' He ' " and " Dark Horse " among the highlights . Scott Elingburg of PopMatters opines : " What makes Dark Horse so unique is that , aside from All Things Must Pass , Dark Horse sounds and feels like Harrison is playing music like he has nothing to lose and all the world to gain . "
In his review of the Apple Years box set , for Classic Rock magazine , Paul Trynka writes that " The surprise of this set , though , is the albums whose quietness and introspection were out of tune with the mid @-@ 70s . Dark Horse … [ is ] packed with beautiful , small @-@ scale moments . " While identifying " Simply Shady " and the title track among the standouts , Trynka adds : " Only ' Ding Dong , Ding Dong ' embarrasses … " AllMusic editor Stephen Thomas Erlewine describes Dark Horse as " a mess but … a fascinating one " .
= = Track listing = =
All songs by George Harrison , except where noted .
Side one
" Hari 's on Tour ( Express ) " – 4 : 43
" Simply Shady " – 4 : 38
" So Sad " – 5 : 00
" Bye Bye , Love " ( Felice Bryant , Boudleaux Bryant , Harrison ) – 4 : 08
" Māya Love " – 4 : 24
Side two
" Ding Dong , Ding Dong " – 3 : 40
" Dark Horse " – 3 : 54
" Far East Man " ( Harrison , Ron Wood ) – 5 : 52
" It Is ' He ' ( Jai Sri Krishna ) " – 4 : 50
2014 reissue bonus tracks
" I Don 't Care Anymore " – 2 : 44
" Dark Horse ( Early Take ) " – 4 : 25
= = Personnel = =
George Harrison – vocals ( 2 – 9 ) , electric and acoustic guitars ( 1 – 9 ) , Moog synthesizer ( 4 , 9 ) , clavinet ( 3 , 4 ) , organ ( 6 ) , bass ( 4 ) , percussion ( 4 , 5 , 6 , 9 ) , gubgubbi ( 9 ) , drums ( 4 ) , backing vocals ( 2 – 6 , 8 , 9 )
Tom Scott – saxophones ( 1 , 2 , 5 , 6 , 8 ) , flute ( 7 , 9 ) , horn arrangements ( 1 , 2 , 5 , 6 , 8 ) , organ ( 1 )
Billy Preston – electric piano ( 5 , 7 , 8 ) , organ ( 9 ) , piano ( 9 )
Willie Weeks – bass ( 3 , 5 , 7 – 9 )
Andy Newmark – drums ( 5 , 7 – 9 ) , percussion ( 8 )
Jim Keltner – drums ( 3 , 6 , 7 )
Robben Ford – electric guitar ( 1 , 2 ) , acoustic guitar ( 7 )
Jim Horn – flute ( 7 , 9 )
Chuck Findley – flute ( 7 , 9 )
Emil Richards – percussion ( 7 , 9 )
Ringo Starr – drums ( 3 , 6 )
Klaus Voormann – bass ( 6 )
Gary Wright – piano ( 6 )
Nicky Hopkins – piano ( 3 )
Roger Kellaway – piano ( 1 , 2 ) , organ ( 2 )
Max Bennett – bass ( 1 , 2 )
John Guerin – drums ( 1 , 2 )
Ron Wood – electric guitar ( 6 )
Alvin Lee – electric guitar ( 6 )
Mick Jones – acoustic guitar ( 6 )
Derrek Van Eaton – backing vocals ( 7 )
Lon Van Eaton – backing vocals ( 7 )
= = Chart positions = =
= = Shipments and sales = =
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= Galaxy Game =
Galaxy Game is a space combat arcade game developed in 1971 as one of the last games created in the early history of video games . Created by Bill Pitts and Hugh Tuck , it was one of the first coin @-@ operated video games ; its initial prototype display in September 1971 at the Tresidder student union building at Stanford University was only a month after a similar display of a prototype of Computer Space , making it the second known video game to charge money to play . Galaxy Game is an expanded version of the 1962 Spacewar ! , potentially the first video game to spread to multiple computer installations . It features two spaceships , " the needle " and " the wedge " , engaged in a dogfight while maneuvering in the gravity well of a star . Both ships are controlled by human players .
The initial prototype , which cost Pitts and Tuck US $ 20 @,@ 000 to build , was composed of a Digital Equipment Corporation PDP @-@ 11 minicomputer attached by a cable to a wooden console with a monitor , controls , and seats . It charged players 10 cents per game or 25 cents for three , and drew crowds " ten @-@ deep " . The pair built a second prototype , replacing the first in the student union building in June 1972 . It featured the capability to play multiple games simultaneously on four monitors , though due to space restrictions only two consoles with monitors were actually installed . These consoles had a blue fiberglass casing , and the PDP @-@ 11 was housed inside one of the consoles . By the time of its installation , the pair had spent US $ 65 @,@ 000 on the project , but were unable to make the game commercially viable . The second prototype remained in the student union building until 1979 , when the display processor became faulty . It was restored and placed in the Stanford computer science department in 1997 , then moved to the Computer History Museum in 2000 , where it remains .
= = Background = =
At the beginning of the 1970s , video games existed almost entirely as novelties passed around by programmers and technicians with access to computers , primarily at research institutions and large companies . One of these games was Spacewar ! , created in 1962 for the Digital Equipment Corporation ( DEC ) PDP @-@ 1 minicomputer by Steve Russell and others in the programming community at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology . The two @-@ player game has the players engage in a dogfight between two spaceships , set against the backdrop of a starfield , with a central star exerting gravitational force upon the ships . The game was copied to several of the early minicomputer installations in American academic institutions after its initial release , making it potentially the first video game to be available outside a single research institute . Spacewar was extremely popular in the small programming community in the 1960s and was widely recreated on other minicomputer and mainframe computers of the time , later migrating to early microcomputer systems . Early computer scientist Alan Kay noted in 1972 that " the game of Spacewar blossoms spontaneously wherever there is a graphics display connected to a computer , " and contributor Martin Graetz recalled in 1981 that as the game initially spread it could be found on " just about any research computer that had a programmable CRT " . Although the game was widespread for the era , it was still very limited in its direct reach : the PDP @-@ 1 was priced at US $ 120 @,@ 000 and only 55 were ever sold , most without a monitor , which prohibited the original Spacewar or any game of the time from reaching beyond a narrow , academic audience . The original developers of Spacewar considered ways to monetize the game , but saw no options given the high price of the computer it ran on .
In 1966 , Stanford University student Bill Pitts , who had a hobby of exploring the steam tunnels and buildings of the campus , broke into a building he found out to be the location of the Stanford Artificial Intelligence Project , which held a DEC PDP @-@ 6 time @-@ sharing computer system with 20 Teletype consoles connected to it . Fascinated by the computer and having taken several introductory computer classes , Pitts convinced the head of the project , Lester Earnest , to let him use the computer after hours . Soon , Pitts had ceased going to classes , instead spending his nights in the computer lab interacting with the graduate and postgraduate students and playing Spacewar on the PDP @-@ 6 . Pitts often played against Hugh Tuck , a student at California Polytechnic State University who was a friend from high school . During one Spacewar session that took place , depending on the source , between 1966 and 1969 , Tuck remarked that a coin @-@ operated version of the game would be very successful . Such a device was still unfeasible due to the cost of computers , and the pair did not pursue the project . In 1971 , however , Pitts , who by then had graduated and was working at Lockheed as a PDP @-@ 10 programmer , learned of the 1970 DEC PDP @-@ 11 , which was sold for around US $ 14 @,@ 000 . While this was still too high for a commercially viable product , as most electronic games in arcades cost around US $ 1 @,@ 000 at the time , Tuck and Pitts felt it was low enough to build a prototype to determine interest and optimal per @-@ game pricing .
= = Gameplay = =
The gameplay of Galaxy Game , like Spacewar , involves two monochrome spaceships called " the needle " and " the wedge " , each controlled by a player , attempting to shoot one another while maneuvering on a two @-@ dimensional plane in the gravity well of a star , set against the backdrop of a starfield . The ships fire torpedoes , which are not affected by the gravitational pull of the star . The ships have a limited number of torpedoes and a limited supply of fuel , which is used when the player fires his thrusters . Torpedoes are fired one at a time , and there is a cooldown period between launches . The ships follow Newtonian physics , remaining in motion even when the player is not accelerating , though the ships can rotate at a constant rate without inertia .
Each player controls one of the ships and must attempt to shoot down the other ship while avoiding a collision with the star . Flying near the star can provide a gravity assist to the player at the risk of misjudging the trajectory and falling into the star . If a ship moves past one edge of the screen , it reappears on the other side in a wraparound effect . A hyperspace feature , or " panic button " , can be used as a last @-@ ditch means to evade enemy torpedoes by moving the player 's ship to another location on the screen after disappearing for a few seconds , but the reentry from hyperspace occurs at a random location , and there is an increasing probability of the ship exploding with each use . Player controls include clockwise and counterclockwise rotation , forward thrust , firing torpedoes , and hyperspace . Galaxy Game features , as improvements over the original , optional modifications to the game to have faster ships , faster torpedoes , to remove the star and its gravitational field or reverse the gravity to push away from the star , and to remove the wraparound effect . The movement of the ships was controlled with a joystick , while the torpedoes , hyperspace , and game options are controlled via a panel of buttons .
= = Development = =
After deciding to begin work on a coin @-@ operated version of Spacewar , the pair , with assistance from Tuck 's family , bought a PDP @-@ 11 and started working on a prototype . They spent a total of US $ 20 @,@ 000 to build a single arcade machine for two players , like the original Spacewar , deciding to price the game at ten cents per play or 25 cents for three games , with the winner of a match given a free game . They used a PDP @-@ 11 / 20 version of the PDP @-@ 11 ( US $ 14 @,@ 000 ) , a Hewlett @-@ Packard 1300A Electrostatic Display ( US $ 3 @,@ 000 ) , and spent the remainder on the coin acceptors , joysticks , wiring , and casing . Pitts build the computer hardware and handled the programming , while Tuck , a mechanical engineer , designed the enclosing cabinet . The display adapter for the monitor was built by Ted Panofski , the coin acceptors were sourced from jukebox manufacturer Rowe International , and the joysticks found at a military surplus store as remainders from B @-@ 52 bomber controls . The code for the game was based on a version of Spacewar running on a PDP @-@ 10 in the Stanford artificial intelligence lab , but modified with additional features .
Pitts and Tuck renamed their product from Spacewar to Galaxy Game due to anti @-@ war sentiment and founded a company called Computer Recreations in June 1971 to operate the game as it neared completion . The development of the prototype machine took around three and a half months . By August , they were finishing the final touches and had gotten permission to place the machine at the Tresidder student union building at Stanford as a test site . It was then that they received a call from Nolan Bushnell , who had heard of their project and wanted to show them his similar project he was working on .
Bushnell had also played Spacewar during the 1960s and wanted to make an arcade game version of it , but had gone in a different technological direction . He and Ted Dabney had initially started with a US $ 4 @,@ 000 Data General Nova computer which they thought would be powerful enough to run multiple simultaneous games of Spacewar ; when it turned out to not be , they had started investigating replacing the computer hardware with custom @-@ built parts . They had soon discovered that while a general @-@ purpose computer cheap enough for an arcade game would not be powerful enough to run enough games of Spacewar to be profitable , a computer purpose @-@ built for solely running one game could be made for as low as US $ 100 . By August 1971 when Bushnell called Tuck and Pitts , he and Dabney had already displayed a prototype of their Computer Space game in a bar near Stanford and had found a commercial manufacturer for the game in Nutting Associates . They were curious about what Tuck and Pitts had done to make a commercially competitive version of the game , but were relieved , though also somewhat disappointed , to find that they had not solved that problem yet .
Tuck and Pitts , on the other hand , while impressed with Bushnell 's hardware were not impressed with the game itself . They felt that Computer Space , a single @-@ player game without the central gravity well of the original game , was a pale imitation of Spacewar , while their own Galaxy Game was a superior adaptation of the game . A few weeks later , in September 1971 , the Galaxy Game prototype debuted . The veneered walnut console , complete with seats for players , was located on the second floor of the building and connected to the PDP @-@ 11 in the attic by a 100 @-@ foot cable . It was very successful ; Pitts later said that the machine attracted crowds of people " ten @-@ deep " watching the players . They briefly attached a second monitor hanging above the console so that the watchers could more easily see the game . The low prices meant that they did not come close to making back the price of the PDP @-@ 11 , but they were excited by the game 's reception and had not intended the prototype to be profitable . As the initial Galaxy Game prototype was displayed to the public one month after the first Computer Space prototype , it is believed to be the second video game to charge money to play .
As a result of the reception to Galaxy Game , Pitts and Tuck started work on an expanded prototype . For the second machine , they built a full blue fiberglass casing for the consoles , improved the quality of the joysticks with the help of an machine shop , and modified the computer with a newer display processor to support up to four games at once on different monitors — either multiple simultaneous separate games or up to four players playing the same game on two screens . They also placed the PDP @-@ 11 inside one of the consoles rather than in a separate location . While the original plan had been to work on driving down the development costs after the initial prototype , the popularity of the game convinced the pair to instead focus on making a better machine that could run multiple games to recoup the upfront investment . The new version was installed in a cafe in the student union building in June 1972 , though with only two monitors due to space restrictions . The original Galaxy Game prototype was displayed at several locations around the area , but was not as successful as it had been at the student union building . By the time the second prototype was completed the pair had spent US $ 65 @,@ 000 on the project and had no feasible way of making up the cost with the machine or commercial prospects for a wider release . Pitts later explained that he and Tuck had been focused on the engineering and technical challenges of producing a faithful coin @-@ operated Spacewar game and paid little attention to the business side of the project ; he felt that Computer Space had been more commercially successful because Bushnell had focused more on the business side of his idea than the technical .
= = Legacy = =
The second Galaxy Game prototype remained on display in the Tresidder building until May 1979 , when it was removed due to the display processor becoming unreliable . Throughout its time on display , it remained popular , with " ten to twenty people gathered around the machines most Friday and Saturday nights when school was in session . " Pitts later claimed that by the time the machine was removed , it had managed to make back the original investment . After its removal , the machine was dismantled , with the computer parts stored in an office and the casing outdoors . The unit was restored in 1997 with a recreated display processor and put on display for several years in the computer science department at Stanford with two consoles attached for free use by students . Due to issues with space and maintenance , in 2000 it was moved into the Computer History Museum in Mountain View , California , in the displayed storage section . In August 2010 , the museum loaned the console to Google to be placed at their headquarters campus at the request of Pitts — who wanted the game to be played as well as displayed — due to a discussion with senior vice president Jonathan Rosenberg , who had been hired as a 13 year old by Tuck and Pitts in the mid @-@ 1970s to keep the machine cleaned . It has since returned to the museum as a playable exhibit .
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= William Johnstone Hope =
Vice Admiral Sir William Johnstone Hope , GCB ( 16 August 1766 – 2 May 1831 ) was a prominent and controversial British Royal Navy officer and politician in late eighteenth and early nineteenth century Britain , whose career experienced fleet actions , disputes with royalty , party politics and entry to both Russian and British orders of chivalry . A popular officer , Hope served with Nelson , Duncan and Lord Keith through several campaigns , making connections which enabled him to secure a lengthy political career after his retirement from the Royal Navy in 1804 due to ill @-@ health . After 26 years in Parliament , Hope was largely inactive and instead served as a Lord of the Admiralty and commissioner of Greenwich Naval Hospital . Hope died in 1832 after 55 years of naval and political service and was buried in the family plot in Scotland .
= = Early life = =
William Johnstone Hope was born the third son of John Hope and his wife Mary Breton . The Hopes were descendants of the first Earl of Hopetoun and maintained strong political links with the family ; his brothers were also prominent figures , Charles Hope later became Lord Granton and Sir John Hope served as a brigadier under Wellington in the Peninsular War .
Hope was educated at Edinburgh High School between 1774 and 1776 and the following year , aged 12 , he entered the Royal Navy as a midshipman in HMS Weazel , a sloop commanded by his uncle Captain Charles Hope . As his uncle 's protégé , William traveled with his relative thorough various commands , serving during the American Revolutionary War off the Home , Lisbon and Newfoundland Stations . In 1782 he was promoted to lieutenant and left his uncle , taking a position on the frigate HMS Daedalus in Newfoundland . At the conclusion of the war , Hope returned home on Daedalus and remained on her until 1785 when his uncle returned him to his own ship , now the guardship HMS Sampson at Plymouth .
In 1786 , Hope 's career suffered a blow when he was stationed aboard the frigate HMS Pegasus , commanded by Prince William Henry . Hope and Prince William fell out badly and in less than a year Hope had been transferred to the frigate HMS Boreas , at that time commanded by Captain Horatio Nelson , with whom Hope had good relations . Two years later , Hope was transferred to HMS Adamant at the request of Sir Richard Hughes . When Hughes reached flag rank in 1790 whilst stationed in Newfoundland , he promoted Hope to commander and gave him command of Adamant .
= = = French Revolutionary War = = =
Hope continued in command of small ships for several years , pausing in 1792 to marry his distant cousin , Lady Anne Hope Johnstone . The couple would have two daughters and four sons before Anne 's death in 1818 . In 1794 , Hope was in command of HMS Incendiary , a fireship of the Channel Fleet attached to Lord Howe 's force sent to engage the French . In March , Hope was given his step to post captain , taking command of the ship of the line HMS Bellerophon , the flagship of Admiral Thomas Pasley .
Hope was still in command of the Bellerophon three months later when he was heavily engaged in the van of Howe 's fleet at the Glorious First of June , when an equally sized French fleet was defeated 200 miles out in the Atlantic Ocean . At the start of 1795 , Hope joined HMS Tremendous , but within two months was requested onboard HMS Venerable by Admiral Duncan . However , while visiting aboard a Russian ship in 1796 , Hope suffered a serious accidental head injury that left him an invalid for two years , consequently missing Duncan 's victory at the Battle of Camperdown .
Returning from his long convalescence , Hope was again requested by Duncan and commanded his flagship HMS Kent for the next three years . In 1799 , the Kent was Duncan 's flagship in supporting the Anglo @-@ Russian invasion of the Batavian Republic , with Hope being present at the surrender of the Dutch fleet in Texel to the Royal Navy . Sent to Britain with the dispatches proclaiming the surrender , Hope was lauded by both the British and Russian courts , King George III presenting him with £ 500 and Tsar Paul I making him a Commander of the Order of St John .
In 1801 in the Mediterranean , under the command of Admiral Lord Keith , Kent carried Sir Ralph Abercromby and his headquarters for the invasion of Egypt , a successful campaign which forced the surrender of the French occupying force . Hope was not present for the conclusion of the action , returning to Britain with Admiral Duncan after Sir Richard Bickerton raised his flag on Kent . He was awarded the Order of the Crescent by Emperor Selim III for this service . In 1800 , Hope began his second career , gaining the seat of Dumfries Burghs in the House of Commons through family influence . During his time as MP , Hope rarely visited his constituency and equally rarely appeared in parliament . He lost the constituency to his brother in 1802 , but in 1804 was elected to the seat of Dumfriesshire , again through family connections . He retained this post until his retirement from public life in 1830 .
= = Retirement = =
In 1804 , at the end of the Peace of Amiens , Hope briefly took command of HMS Atlas , but it soon became clear that his health was failing and he could no longer maintain an active naval career . Retiring from the navy on half @-@ pay , Hope was an invalid from 1804 until 1807 , when a return to health permitted him to take a post as a Lord of the Admiralty . Hope changed positions several times in this role , but he held onto the position for twenty years as a political favourite , a status maintained by being almost totally politically inactive . In 1812 , Hope was advanced to rear @-@ admiral and in January 1815 he was appointed Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath ( KCB ) on the reorganisation of the order , and was invested later in the year .
From 1813 , Hope served as commander @-@ in @-@ chief at Leith until 1818 and in 1819 he was again promoted , this time to vice @-@ admiral . In 1820 he was recalled to the Admiralty and remained there for seven years without participating in any of the important decisions and innovations of the period . He remarried in 1821 to Maria , Countess of Athlone and in 1825 was advanced to Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath ( GCB ) . In 1827 , in the chaotic aftermath of the collapse of Lord Liverpool 's government , Hope was retired in favour of Sir George Cockburn and given the favourable role of treasurer and later commissioner of the Royal Naval Hospital in Greenwich . Despite his conflicts with Prince William 45 years earlier , when King William IV ascended the throne in 1830 , he made Hope a privy councillor , before Hope entered retirement later in the year . Hope died in May 1831 , a few months after giving up his seat in Parliament . Although he died in Bath , his remains were returned to the family crypt at Johnstone Church , Johnstone , Dumfriesshire .
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= Battle of Beaufort =
The Battle of Beaufort , also known as the Battle of Port Royal Island , was fought on February 3 , 1779 , near Beaufort , South Carolina , during the American Revolutionary War . The inconsequential battle took place not long after British forces consolidated control around Savannah , Georgia , which they had captured in December 1778 .
Brigadier General Augustine Prevost sent 200 British regulars to seize Port Royal Island at the mouth of the Broad River in South Carolina in late January 1779 . Major General Benjamin Lincoln , the American commander in the south , sent South Carolina Brigadier General William Moultrie from Purrysburg , South Carolina with a mixed force composed mainly of militia , but with a few Continental Army men , to meet the British advance . The battle was inconclusive , but the British withdrew first and suffered heavier casualties than the Americans .
= = Background = =
The British began their " southern strategy " by sending expeditions from New York City and Saint Augustine , East Florida to capture Savannah , Georgia late in 1778 . The New York expedition , under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Archibald Campbell , arrived first , and successfully captured the town on December 29 , 1778 . Remnants of Savannah 's defenders combined with South Carolina militia under Major General Benjamin Lincoln at an encampment at Purrysburg , South Carolina to oppose the British .
When Brigadier General Augustine Prevost arrived from Saint Augustine in mid @-@ January 1779 , he assumed command of the garrison there , and on the 22nd sent a force under Campbell to take control of Augusta and raise Loyalist militia companies . Prevost decided thereafter to send a force to occupy Port Royal Island just up the coast in South Carolina , where he had been led to believe that Loyalist sentiment was strong . On January 29 the HMS Vigilant , an unseaworthy ship of the line that had been converted to a floating battery , was towed by Royal Navy crews in longboats through the channel separating Hilton Head Island from the mainland . She was accompanied by a flotilla of smaller ships that carried 200 infantry from the 16th and 60th Regiments under Major William Gardner , who had orders to take control of Beaufort , the island 's main settlement .
The only major defense establishment on Port Royal Island was Fort Lyttelton , which was garrisoned by a company of Continental Army troops under Captain John DeTreville . When he learned that a comparatively large British force was moving in his direction , he spiked the fort 's cannons and blew up its main bastion in order to deny their use to the superior force . When General Lincoln learned that communications with Port Royal Island had been cut off by the British advance , he sent South Carolina Brigadier General William Moultrie , who had distinguished himself in the 1776 Battle of Sullivan 's Island , and 300 men to counter the move . Moultrie 's force was composed mostly of South Carolina militia from the Beaufort area , but it was accompanied by a few Continental Army regulars , and two companies of artillery from Charleston , which were headed by former Congressmen Edward Rutledge and Thomas Heyward , Jr . This force arrived at the main Port Royal ferry on the 31st , not long after DeTreville had finished destroying the fort . They crossed over to the island on February 1 and occupied Beaufort .
= = Battle = =
Gardner 's men landed on Port Royal Island at the plantation of Andrew Deveaux ( present @-@ day Laurel Bay ) , a Loyalist who may have guided them , on February 2 . Gardner sent a detachment to secure the island side of the ferry . These men retreated when they encountered Patriot troops , and Gardner began to move his main force toward Beaufort to face the Americans . Early on February 3 General Moultrie was alerted to the British presence , and moved his forces out of town . The two forces met near the highest ground on Port Royal Island , a rise called Gray 's Hill that was about 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) south of the ferry and in the middle of the island .
Gardner lined his men up at the edge of some woods near the top of the hill and advanced with bayonets fixed . The Americans approached and lined up in an open field outside musket range . General Moultrie positioned two six @-@ pound field cannons in the center of his line , with a smaller two @-@ pounder on the right . The Americans then advanced on the British , Moultrie observing that the action was " reversed from the usual way of fighting between British and Americans ; they taking the bushes and we taking the open ground . " The Americans opened fire first with the artillery , and then with musket volleys . The battle continued for about 45 minutes , at which point the Americans were running low on ammunition . Moultrie had begun a withdrawal when the British were also observed to retreat , leaving the field to the Americans . A company of light horse militia chased after the British , very nearly cutting them off from their boats . They successfully captured 26 men , but were unable to hold all of them due to their small numbers .
= = Aftermath = =
In addition to the prisoners taken ( sources cite either seven or twelve were retained ) , the British reportedly suffered 40 killed or wounded , although deserters reported that nearly half of Gardner 's men had been hit by American fire . The Americans , in contrast , suffered only 8 killed and 22 wounded .
Gardner was criticized by Prevost for the mauling his detachment received because he strayed too far from his boats . It was not Gardner 's fault , however , that he had no Loyalist support . The victory of a largely militia force over British regulars was a boost to the Americans ' morale . However , severe losses incurred in early March at Brier Creek delayed American plans to move against Prevost 's forces in Georgia . When Lincoln began moving troops toward Augusta in April , Prevost moved in force toward Charleston , but was able to do little more than briefly blockade the city before retreating back to Savannah . Port Royal Island was again occupied by the British during this campaign .
The battle is commemorated by a highway marker on U. S. Route 21 near the battle site . Fort Lyttelton 's remains are listed on the National Register of Historic Places .
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= Battle of Kranji =
The Battle of Kranji was the second stage of the Empire of Japan 's plan for the invasion of Singapore during the Second World War . On 9 February 1942 the Imperial Japanese Army assaulted the north @-@ western front of the British colony of Singapore . Their primary objective was to secure a second beachhead after their successful assault at Sarimbun Beach on 8 February , in order to breach the Jurong @-@ Kranji defence line as part of their southward thrust towards the heart of Singapore City . Defending the shoreline between the Kranji River and the Johor – Singapore Causeway was the Australian 27th Brigade , led by Brigadier Duncan Maxwell , and one irregular company . On 10 February the Japanese forces suffered their heaviest losses while moving up the Kranji River , which caused them to panic and nearly aborted the operation . However , a series of miscommunications and withdrawals by Allied forces in the ensuing battles allowed the Japanese to swiftly gain strategic footholds , which eventually led to the fall of Singapore on 15 February 1942 .
= = Background = =
The terrain around Kranji was primarily mangrove swamps and tropical forest intersected by streams and inlets . The shoreline between the Kranji River and the Johor – Singapore Causeway , nearly four kilometers long , was defended by the Australian 27th Brigade , led by Australian Brigadier Duncan Maxwell . The 27th Infantry Brigade consisted of three battalions — the 2 / 30th , 2 / 29th , and 2 / 26th and was supported by the 2 / 10th Field Artillery Regiment , as well as one platoon from the 2 / 4th Machine Gun Battalion .
They were supported by one company from Dalforce ( named after its commander , Lieutenant @-@ Colonel John Dalley of the Malayan Police Special Branch ) , a local Chinese militia consisting of Communists , Nationalist supporters , and other volunteers . As the war intensified , the Dalforce volunteers were given only three to four days of training and sent to the war front with elementary weapons . Lacking uniforms , the volunteers improvised by wearing a red triangle on their blue shirts to avoid being mistaken for Japanese by the Australians .
The Allied forces at Kranji were to be assaulted by the Imperial Guards Division led by Major General Takuma Nishimura . 400 Imperial Guards had landed and taken Pulau Ubin , an island in the north @-@ east of Singapore , in a feint attack on 7 February , where they encountered minimal resistance .
= = Battle = =
= = = 9 February 1942 : Japanese landings = = =
On 9 February , two divisions of the Japanese Twenty Fifth Army , led by Lieutenant General Tomoyuki Yamashita , landed on the northwestern coast of Singapore , in the Sarimbun area . Yamashita 's headquarters ( HQ ) was in the Sultan of Johor 's palace on Istana Bukit Serene , which offered him and his officers a bird 's eye view of virtually every key target in the northern sector of Singapore Island , only 1 @.@ 6 kilometres ( one mile ) across the Straits of Johor . Sultan Ibrahim 's palace was not fired upon by the British because any damage caused would have extensive repercussions for British @-@ Johor ties .
The primary objective of the Japanese at Kranji was to capture Kranji village ; this would let them repair the demolished Causeway in order to facilitate easy flow of reinforcements and supplies down the roads of Woodlands and Mandai , and to the rest of the island for their vanguard force . Once the leading wave of Japanese was safely ashore , the massed Japanese artillery switched their fire to the defensive positions at Kranji . Telegraph and telephone communications were destroyed in the bombardment and communications between the front line and command HQ were broken . At 8 : 30pm that night , the men of the Imperial Guards Division began the crossing from Johor in special armoured landing @-@ crafts , collapsible boats and by swimming .
= = = 10 February 1942 : Heavy losses = = =
In the early hours of 10 February , Japanese forces suffered their heaviest losses during the Battle of Singapore . While moving up the Kranji River , advance landing parties from the 4th Regiment of the Imperial Guard Division found themselves under heavy fire from Australian machine gunners and mortar teams . They also found themselves surrounded by oil slicks , which had been created by Allied personnel emptying the nearby Woodlands oil depot , to prevent its capture . A scenario feared by Yamashita came to pass by accident ; the oil was set alight by Allied small arms fire , causing many Japanese soldiers to be burnt alive . Sustaining heavy losses , Nishimura requested permission to abandon the operation . However , Yamashita denied the request .
Maxwell , who had limited communications with his division headquarters , was concerned that his force would be cut off by fierce and chaotic fighting at Sarimbun and Jurong to the south west , involving the Australian 22nd Brigade . Maxwell 's force consequently withdrew from the seafront . This allowed the Japanese to land in increasing strength and take control of Kranji village . They also captured Woodlands , and began repairing the causeway , without encountering any Allied attacks .
Japanese light tanks , which had good buoyancy , were towed across the straits to Lim Chu Kang Road where they joined the battle at dusk . With reinforced troops and tanks advancing down Choa Chua Kang Road , the Australian troops were no match for the tanks and fled to the hills of Bukit Panjang . The 5th Division ( Imperial Japanese Army ) captured Bukit Timah village by the evening of 11 February .
= = = = Jurong @-@ Kranji defence line = = = =
Lieutenant @-@ General Arthur Percival , General Officer Commanding of HQ Malaya Command , drew a defence perimeter covering Kallang Airfield , the MacRitchie and Peirce reservoirs and the Bukit Timah supply depot area to ensure the integrity of the city 's defence . One line of the north @-@ western defence perimeter was the Jurong @-@ Kranji defence line , a narrow ridge connecting the sources of Sungei Jurong and the Kranji River , forming a natural defence line protecting the north @-@ west approach to the Singapore Town . ( Its counterpart was the Serangoon Line , which was sited between Kallang Airfield and Paya Lebar village in the eastern part of Singapore ) . The troops were to defend this Line strongly against the invading Japanese force . The Line was defended by the 44th Indian Infantry Brigade which covered milestone 12 on Jurong Road , the 12th Indian Infantry Brigade and the reinforced 22nd Australian Brigade which guarded the northern part of the Line and maintained contact with the 44th Indian Brigade . The 15th Indian Infantry Brigade was re @-@ positioned near Bukit Timah Road to guard the island 's vital food and petrol supplies . A secret instruction to protect this area was issued to Percival 's generals .
= = = = Miscommunication = = = =
Percival 's secret orders to withdraw to the last defence line around the city only if necessary were misunderstood by Maxwell , who took this to be an order for an immediate withdrawal to the Line . As a result , the 44th Indian Infantry Brigade , the 12th Indian Infantry Brigade and the 22nd Australian Brigade , reinforced after their withdrawal from Sarimbun beach in the north @-@ west , abandoned the Line on 10 February . Fearing that the large supplies depot would fall into Japanese hands should they make a rush for Bukit Timah too soon , General Archibald Wavell , Allied commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the Far East sent an urgent message to Percival :
It is certain that our troops in Singapore Island heavily outnumber any Japanese who have crossed the Straits . We must destroy them . Our whole fighting reputation is at stake and the honour of the British Empire . The Americans have held out in the Bataan Peninsula against a far heavier odds , the Russians are turning back the picked strength of the Germans . The Chinese with an almost lack of modern equipment have held the Japanese for four and a half years . It will be disgraceful if we yield our boasted fortress of Singapore to inferior enemy forces .
= = Aftermath = =
By 11 February , the Jurong @-@ Kranji Defence Line was left undefended which allowed the Japanese forces to sweep through the Line to attack Bukit Timah . On the same day , Percival finally moved his Combined Operations Headquarters in Sime Road to the underground bunker , The Battle Box at Fort Canning .
Despite their fighting spirit , the Dalforce fighters suffered from poor training and the lack of equipment . A further blow was delivered when the 27th Australian Brigade withdrew southwards . As a result , the Japanese established a stronghold in the northern Woodlands area and secured a relatively easy passage into the island . General Wavell left Singapore for Java early on 11 February and sent a cable to British Prime Minister Winston Churchill in London on his assessment of the war front in Singapore :
Battle for Singapore is not going well ... I ordered Percival to stage counter @-@ attack with all troops possible ... Morale of some troops is not good and none is as high as I should like to see ... The chief troubles are lack of sufficient training in some reinforcing troops and an inferior complex which bold Japanese tactics and their command of the air have caused . Everything possible is being done to produce more offensive spirit and optimistic outlook . But I cannot pretend that these efforts have been entirely successful up to date . I have given the most categorical orders that there is to be no thought of surrender and that all troops are to continue fighting to the end ...
By 12 February , the Imperial Guards had captured the reservoirs and Nee Soon village . The defending troops , by this time , were badly shaken . Thousands of exhausted and frightened stragglers left the fighting to seek shelter in large buildings . On the same night , British forces in the east of the island had begun to withdraw towards the city .
On 13 February , the Japanese 5th Division continued its advance and reached Adam and Farrer Roads to capture the Sime Road Camp . Yamashita moved his HQ forward to the bomb @-@ damaged Ford Factory in Bukit Timah . Heading southwards , the Japanese 18th Division advanced into Pasir Panjang , where the last major battle of Singapore would be fought with the Malay Regiments at Bukit Chandu .
= = = Commemoration = = =
In 1995 , the former battle sites of Kranji and the defence line were gazetted by the National Heritage Board as two of the eleven World War II sites of Singapore .
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= M @-@ 96 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 96 is a state trunkline highway in the US state of Michigan that runs between Kalamazoo and Marshall . Its termini are both on business loops of Interstate 94 ( I @-@ 94 ) ; the eastern one coincides with an intersection with I @-@ 69 . Between Kalamazoo and Marshall it passes through Comstock , Galesburg , Augusta , and Battle Creek intersecting I @-@ 194 / M @-@ 66 in Battle Creek and I @-@ 94 in Emmett Township .
The highway now known as M @-@ 96 was originally part of M @-@ 17 . Parts of M @-@ 17 that were not used for US Highway 12 ( US 12 ) in 1926 were given the M @-@ 96 number . Additional segments of trunkline were added to M @-@ 96 , one of which was an Alternate US 12 in the years afterwards . Later , US 12 was moved after the completion of I @-@ 94 in southern Michigan . Additional US 12 segments were added to M @-@ 96 at that time . The last major changes to M @-@ 96 rerouted the highway through the Battle Creek area in late 1998 .
= = Route description = =
M @-@ 96 starts at an intersection between King Highway and Business Loop I @-@ 94 ( BL I @-@ 94 ) east of downtown Kalamazoo . From this point , it follows King Highway over and then along the Kalamazoo River through a suburban residential area . The highway then follows Michigan Avenue east through Comstock and north of Morrow Lake . At Galesburg , M @-@ 96 turns northeast along Augusta Drive to Augusta , running through rural farmland . It turns eastward again , skirting the Fort Custer State Recreation Area and the Fort Custer National Cemetery . In Augusta , M @-@ 96 turns to follow Dickman Road to Battle Creek , passing north and east of the W. K. Kellogg Airport on Dickman and Helmer roads .
On the north side of the airport , M @-@ 96 runs concurrently with both BL I @-@ 94 and M @-@ 37 . M @-@ 96 turns south on Helmer Road , separating from the other two trunklines , and then turns east crossing along Columbia Avenue . Here the highway runs along the edge of the city of Battle Creek through more residential areas and crosses the I @-@ 194 / M @-@ 66 freeway next to the Riverside County Club . Near Brownlee Park , M @-@ 96 ( Columbia Avenue ) merges with BL I @-@ 94 ( Michigan Avenue ) . Together BL I @-@ 94 / M @-@ 96 continues along Michigan Avenue to I @-@ 94 where BL I @-@ 94 ends . M @-@ 96 passes the Firekeepers Casino , which is located just east of the ending of BL I @-@ 94 , between 11 and 12 Mile Roads . M @-@ 96 continues along Michigan Avenue through farmland from Emmett to Marshall ending at an interchange with I @-@ 69 / BL I @-@ 94 .
M @-@ 96 is maintained by the Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) like other state highways in Michigan . As a part of these maintenance responsibilities , the department tracks the volume of traffic that uses the roadways under its jurisdiction . These volumes are expressed using a metric called annual average daily traffic , which is a statistical calculation of the average daily number of vehicles on a segment of roadway . MDOT 's surveys in 2010 showed that the highest traffic levels along M @-@ 96 were the 22 @,@ 953 vehicles daily between Capitol Avenue and I @-@ 194 in Battle Creek ; the lowest counts were the 5 @,@ 167 vehicles per day at the western terminus in Kalamazoo . The only section of M @-@ 96 that has been listed on the National Highway System ( NHS ) , is in the Battle Creek area between the western BL I @-@ 94 / M @-@ 37 junction and the I @-@ 94 interchange . The NHS is a network of roads important to the country 's economy , defense , and mobility .
= = History = =
M @-@ 96 was formed as a state trunkline in late 1926 from parts of M @-@ 17 . The section of M @-@ 17 between Galesberg and Battle Creek was not utilized for US 12 and became M @-@ 96 . In 1936 , the Alternate US 12 trunkline was designated through the Battle Creek area along a section of highway that had previously been part of US 12 . This highway was added to M @-@ 96 three years later in 1939 .
A rerouting of trunklines in 1941 lead to the creation of a Business US 12 ( BUS US 12 ) . M @-@ 96 ran concurrently with BUS US 12 and M @-@ 37 was truncated to end at M @-@ 96 . US 12 was rerouted between Galesburg and Kalamazoo in 1954 , and M @-@ 96 was extended along the former US 12 routing to end in Kalamazoo . M @-@ 96 was rerouted in downtown Battle Creek to one @-@ way streets in 1958 , and BUS US 12 / M @-@ 96 was extended by the end of the decade when the I @-@ 94 / US 12 freeway was completed in the area . BUS US 12 was redesignated as Business Loop I @-@ 94 ( BL I @-@ 94 ) in 1960 and M @-@ 96 was shortened to end at BL I @-@ 94 / M @-@ 78 running on Capital Avenue . M @-@ 37 was reextended in 1961 in Battle Creek to a concurrent routing with M @-@ 96 in 1961 .
M @-@ 89 was extended along the roadway used by M @-@ 96 west of Battle Creek to M @-@ 37 in 1965 , truncating M @-@ 96 in the process . M @-@ 96 was reextended back to Battle Creek along Dickman Road and Fort Custer Highway from Augusta east in 1971 . Several changes in Battle Creek were made to the area trunklines in 1998 . M @-@ 96 was extended along BL I @-@ 94 ( Dickman Road ) to M @-@ 37 ( Helmer Road ) and along M @-@ 37 to Columbia Avenue . At Columbia , M @-@ 96 then turned west and M @-@ 37 turned east . M @-@ 96 rejoined BL I @-@ 94 along Michigan Avenue to I @-@ 94 and on to Marshall .
= = Major intersections = =
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= Andrew Cunningham , 1st Viscount Cunningham of Hyndhope =
Admiral of the Fleet Andrew Browne Cunningham , 1st Viscount Cunningham of Hyndhope , KT , GCB , OM , DSO & Two Bars ( 7 January 1883 – 12 June 1963 ) was a British admiral of the Second World War . He was widely known by his nickname , " ABC " .
Cunningham was born in Rathmines in the south side of Dublin on 7 January 1883 . After starting his schooling in Dublin and Edinburgh , he enrolled at Stubbington House School , at the age of ten , beginning his association with the Royal Navy . After passing out of Britannia Royal Naval College , Dartmouth , in 1898 , he progressed rapidly in rank . He commanded a destroyer during the First World War and through most of the interwar period . He was awarded the Distinguished Service Order and two Bars , for his performance during this time , specifically for his actions in the Dardanelles and in the Baltics .
In the Second World War , as Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief , Mediterranean Fleet , Cunningham led British naval forces to victory in several critical Mediterranean naval battles . These included the attack on Taranto in 1940 , the first completely all @-@ aircraft naval attack in history , and the Battle of Cape Matapan in 1941 . Cunningham controlled the defence of the Mediterranean supply lines through Alexandria , Gibraltar , and the key chokepoint of Malta . He also directed naval support for the various major Allied landings in the Western Mediterranean littoral . In 1943 , Cunningham was promoted to First Sea Lord , a position he held until his retirement in 1946 . He was ennobled as Baron Cunningham of Hyndhope in 1945 and made Viscount Cunningham of Hyndhope the following year . After his retirement , Cunningham enjoyed several ceremonial positions including Lord High Steward at the coronation of Queen Elizabeth II in 1953 . He died on 12 June 1963 , aged 80 .
= = Childhood = =
Cunningham was born at Rathmines , County Dublin , on 7 January 1883 , the third of five children born to Professor Daniel John Cunningham and his wife Elizabeth Cumming Browne , both of Scottish ancestry . General Sir Alan Cunningham was his younger brother . His parents were described as having a " strong intellectual and clerical tradition , " both grandfathers having been in the clergy . His father was a Professor of Anatomy at Trinity College , Dublin , whilst his mother stayed at home . Elizabeth Browne , with the aid of servants and governesses , oversaw much of his upbringing ; as a result he reportedly had a " warm and close " relationship with her . After a short introduction to schooling in Dublin he was sent to Edinburgh Academy , where he stayed with his aunts Doodles and Connie May . At the age of ten he received a telegram from his father asking " would you like to go into the Navy ? " At the time , the family had no maritime connections , and Cunningham only had a vague interest in the sea . Nevertheless , he replied " Yes , I should like to be an Admiral " . He was then sent to a Naval Preparatory School , Stubbington House , which specialised in sending pupils through the Dartmouth entrance examinations . Cunningham passed the exams , showing particular strength in mathematics .
= = Early naval career = =
Along with 64 other boys Cunningham joined the Royal Navy as a cadet aboard the training ship HMS Britannia in 1897 following preparatory education at Stubbington House School . One of his classmates was future Admiral of the Fleet James Fownes Somerville . Cunningham was known for his lack of enthusiasm for field sports , although he did enjoy golf and spent most of his spare time " messing around in boats " . He said in his memoirs that by the end of his course he was " anxious to seek adventure at sea " . Although he committed numerous minor misdemeanours , he still obtained a very good for conduct . He passed out tenth in April 1898 , with first class marks for mathematics and seamanship .
His first service was as a midshipman on HMS Doris in 1899 , serving at the Cape of Good Hope Station when the Second Boer War began . By February 1900 , he had transferred into the Naval Brigade as he believed " this promised opportunities for bravery and distinction in action . " Cunningham then saw action at Pretoria and Diamond Hill as part of the Naval Brigade . He then went back to sea , as midshipman in HMS Hannibal in December 1901 . The following November he joined the protected cruiser HMS Diadem . Beginning in 1902 , Cunningham took sub @-@ lieutenant courses at Portsmouth and Greenwich ; he served as sub @-@ lieutenant on the battleship HMS Implacable , in the Mediterranean , for six months in 1903 . In September 1903 , he was transferred to HMS Locust to serve as second @-@ in @-@ command . He was promoted to lieutenant in 1904 , and served on several vessels during the next four years . In 1908 , he was awarded his first command , HM Torpedo Boat No. 14 .
= = First World War = =
Cunningham was a highly decorated officer during the First World War , receiving the Distinguished Service Order ( DSO ) and two bars . In 1911 he was given command of the destroyer HMS Scorpion , which he commanded throughout the war . In 1914 , Scorpion was involved in the shadowing of the German battlecruiser and cruiser SMS Goeben and SMS Breslau . This operation was intended to find and destroy the Goeben and the Breslau but the German warships evaded the British fleet , and passed through the Dardanelles to reach Constantinople . Their arrival contributed to the Ottoman Empire joining the Central Powers in November 1914 . Though a bloodless " battle " , the failure of the British pursuit had enormous political and military ramifications — in the words of Winston Churchill , they brought " more slaughter , more misery and more ruin than has ever before been borne within the compass of a ship . "
Cunningham stayed on in the Mediterranean and in 1915 Scorpion was involved in the attack on the Dardanelles . For his performance Cunningham was rewarded with promotion to commander and the award of the Distinguished Service Order . Cunningham spent much of 1916 on routine patrols . In late 1916 , he was engaged in convoy protection , a duty he regarded as mundane . He had no contact with German U @-@ boats during this time , on which he commented ; " The immunity of my convoys was probably due to sheer luck " . Convinced that the Mediterranean held few offensive possibilities he requested to sail for home . Scorpion paid off on 21 January 1918 . In his seven years as captain of the Scorpion , Cunningham had developed a reputation for first class seamanship . He was transferred by Vice @-@ Admiral Roger Keyes to HMS Termagant , part of Keyes ' Dover Patrol , in April 1918 @.@ and for his actions with the Dover Patrol , he was awarded a bar to his DSO the following year .
= = Interwar years = =
= = = Association with Cowan = = =
Cunningham saw much action in the interwar years . In 1919 , he commanded the S @-@ class destroyer Seafire , on duty in the Baltic . The Communists , the White Russians , several varieties of Latvian nationalists , Germans , and the Poles were trying to control Latvia ; the British Government had recognised Latvia 's independence after the Treaty of Brest @-@ Litovsk . It was on this voyage that Cunningham first met Admiral Walter Cowan . Cunningham was impressed by Cowan 's methods , specifically his navigation of the potentially dangerous seas , with thick fog and minefields threatening the fleet . Throughout several potentially problematic encounters with German forces trying to undermine the Latvian independence movement , Cunningham exhibited " good self control and judgement " . Cowan was quoted as saying " Commander Cunningham has on one occasion after another acted with unfailing promptitude and decision , and has proved himself an Officer of exceptional valour and unerring resolution . "
For his actions in the Baltic , Cunningham was awarded a second bar to his DSO , and promoted to captain in 1920 . On his return from the Baltic in 1922 , he was appointed captain of the British 6th Destroyer Flotilla . Further commands were to follow ; the British 1st Destroyer Flotilla in 1923 , and the destroyer base , HMS Lochinvar , at Port Edgar in the Firth of Forth , from 1927 – 1926 . Cunningham renewed his association with Vice Admiral Cowan between 1926 and 1928 , when Cunningham was flag captain and chief staff officer to Cowan while serving on the North America and West Indies Squadron . In his memoirs Cunningham made clear the " high regard " in which he held Cowan , and the many lessons he learned from him during their two periods of service together . The late 1920s found Cunningham back in the UK participating in courses at the Army 's Senior Officers ' School at Sheerness , as well as at the Imperial Defence College . While Cunningham was at the Imperial Defence College , in 1929 , he married Nona Byatt ( daughter of Horace Byatt , MA ; the couple had no children ) . After a year at the College , Cunningham was given command of his first big ship ; the battleship Rodney . Eighteen months later , he was appointed commodore of HMS Pembroke , the Royal Naval barracks at Chatham .
= = = Promoted to flag rank = = =
In September 1932 , Cunningham was promoted to flag rank , and aide @-@ de @-@ camp to the King . He was appointed Rear Admiral ( Destroyers ) in the Mediterranean in December 1933 and was made a Companion of the Bath in 1934 . Having hoisted his flag in the light cruiser HMS Coventry , Cunningham used his time to practice fleet handling for which he was to receive much praise in the Second World War . There were also fleet exercises in the Atlantic Ocean in which he learnt the skills and values of night actions that he would also use to great effect in years to come .
On his promotion to vice admiral in July 1936 , due to the interwar naval policy , further active employment seemed remote . However , a year later due to the illness of Sir Geoffrey Blake , Cunningham assumed the combined appointment of commander of the Battlecruiser Squadron and second @-@ in @-@ command of the Mediterranean Fleet , with HMS Hood as his flagship . After his long service in small ships , Cunningham considered his accommodation aboard Hood to be almost palatial , even surpassing his previous big ship experience on Rodney .
He retained command until September 1938 , when he was appointed to the Admiralty as Deputy Chief of the Naval Staff , although he did not actually take up this post until December 1939 . He accepted this shore job with reluctance since he loathed administration , but the Board of Admiralty 's high regard of him was evident . For six months during an illness of Admiral Sir Roger Backhouse , the then First Sea Lord , he deputised for Backhouse on the Committee of Imperial Defence and on the Admiralty Board . In 1939 he was made a Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath ( KCB ) , becoming known as Sir Andrew Cunningham .
= = Second World War = =
Cunningham described the command of the Mediterranean Fleet as " The finest command the Royal Navy has to offer " and he remarked in his memoirs that " I probably knew the Mediterranean as well as any Naval Officer of my generation " . Cunningham was made Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief , Mediterranean , hoisting his flag in HMS Warspite on 6 June 1939 , one day after arriving in Alexandria on 5 June 1939 . As Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief , Cunningham 's main concern was for the safety of convoys heading for Egypt and Malta . These convoys were highly significant in that they were desperately needed to keep Malta , a small British colony and naval base , in the war . Malta was a strategic strongpoint and Cunningham fully appreciated this . Cunningham believed that the main threat to British Sea Power in the Mediterranean would come from the Italian Fleet . As such Cunningham had his fleet at a heightened state of readiness , so that when Italy did choose to enter into hostilities , then the British Fleet would be ready .
= = = French Surrender ( June 1940 ) = = =
In his role as Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief , Mediterranean , Cunningham had to negotiate with the French Admiral Rene @-@ Emile Godfroy for the demilitarisation and internment of a French squadron at Alexandria , in June 1940 , following the Fall of France . Churchill had ordered Cunningham to prevent the French warships from leaving port , and to ensure that French warships did not pass into enemy hands . Stationed at the time at Alexandria , Cunningham entered into delicate negotiations with Godfroy to ensure his fleet , which consisted of the battleship Lorraine , four cruisers , three destroyers and a submarine , posed no threat . The Admiralty ordered Cunningham to complete the negotiations on 3 July . Just as an agreement seemed imminent Godfroy heard of the British action against the French at Mers el Kebir and , for a while , Cunningham feared a battle between French and British warships in the confines of Alexandria harbour . The deadline was overrun but negotiations ended well , after Cunningham put them on a more personal level and had the British ships appeal to their French opposite numbers . Cunningham 's negotiations succeeded and the French emptied their fuel bunkers and removed the firing mechanisms from their guns . Cunningham in turn promised to repatriate the ships ' crews .
= = = Battle of Taranto ( November 1940 ) = = =
Although the threat from the French Fleet had been neutralised , Cunningham was still aware of the threat posed by the Italian Fleet to British North African operations , based in Egypt . Although the Royal Navy had won in several actions in the Mediterranean , considerably upsetting the balance of power , the Italians who were following the theory of a fleet in being had left their ships in harbour . This made the threat of a sortie against the British Fleet a serious problem . At the time the harbour at Taranto contained six battleships ( five of them battle @-@ worthy ) , seven heavy cruisers , two light cruisers , and eight destroyers . The Admiralty , concerned with the potential for an attack , had drawn up Operation Judgement ; a surprise attack on Taranto Harbour . To carry out the attack , the Admiralty sent the new aircraft carrier HMS Illustrious , commanded by Lumley Lyster , to join HMS Eagle in Cunningham 's fleet .
The attack started at 21 : 00 , 11 November 1940 , when the first of two waves of Fairey Swordfish torpedo bombers took off from Illustrious , followed by the second wave an hour later . The attack was a great success : the Italian fleet lost half its strength in one night . The " fleet @-@ in @-@ being " diminished in importance and the threat to the Royal Navy 's control of the Mediterranean had been considerably reduced . Cunningham said of the victory : " Taranto , and the night of 11 – 12 November 1940 , should be remembered for ever as having shown once and for all that in the Fleet Air Arm the Navy has its most devastating weapon . " The Royal Navy had launched the first all @-@ aircraft naval attack in history , flying a small number of aircraft from an aircraft carrier . This , and other aspects of the raid , were important facts in the planning of the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941 : the Japanese planning staff were thought to have studied it intensively .
Cunningham 's official reaction at the time was memorably terse . After landing the last of the attacking aircraft , Illustrious signalled " Operation Judgement executed " . After seeing aerial reconnaissance photographs the next day which showed several Italian ships sunk or out of action , Cunningham replied with the two @-@ letter code group which signified , " Manoeuvre well executed " .
= = = Battle of Cape Matapan ( March 1941 ) = = =
At the end of March 1941 , Hitler wanted the convoys supplying the British Expeditionary force in Greece stopped , and the Italian Navy was the only force able to attempt this . Cunningham stated in his biography : " I myself was inclined to think that the Italians would not try anything . I bet Commander Power , the Staff Officer , Operations , the sum of ten shillings that we would see nothing of the enemy . " Under pressure from Germany , the Italian Fleet planned to launch an attack on the British Fleet on 28 March 1941 .
The Italian commander , Admiral Angelo Iachino , intended to carry out a surprise attack on the British Cruiser Squadron in the area ( commanded by Vice @-@ Admiral Sir Henry Pridham @-@ Wippell ) , executing a pincer movement with the battleship Vittorio Veneto . Cunningham though , was aware of Italian naval activity through intercepts of Italian Enigma messages . Although Italian intentions were unclear , Cunningham 's staff believed an attack upon British troop convoys was likely and orders were issued to spoil the enemy plan and , if possible , intercept their fleet . Cunningham wished , however , to disguise his own activity and arranged for a game of golf and a fictitious evening gathering to mislead enemy agents ( he was , in fact , overheard by the local Japanese Consul ) . After sunset , he boarded HMS Warspite and left Alexandria .
Cunningham , realising that an air attack could weaken the Italians , ordered an attack by the Formidable 's Albacore torpedo @-@ bombers . A hit on the Vittorio Veneto slowed her temporarily and Iachino , realising his fleet was vulnerable without air cover , ordered his forces to retire . Cunningham gave the order to pursue the Italian Fleet .
An air attack from the Formidable had disabled the cruiser Pola and Iachino , unaware of Cunningham 's pursuing battlefleet , ordered a squadron of cruisers and destroyers to return and protect the Pola . Cunningham , meanwhile , was joining up with Pridham @-@ Wippell 's cruiser squadron . Throughout the day several chases and sorties occurred with no overall victor . None of the Italian ships were equipped for night fighting , and when night fell , they made to return to Taranto . The British battlefleet equipped with radar detected the Italians shortly after 22 : 00 . In a pivotal moment in naval warfare during the Second World War , the battleships Barham , Valiant and Warspite opened fire on two Italian cruisers at only 3 @,@ 800 yards ( 3 @.@ 5 km ) , destroying them in only five minutes .
Although the Vittorio Veneto escaped from the battle by returning to Taranto , there were many accolades given to Cunningham for continuing the pursuit at night , against the advice of his staff . After the previous defeat at Taranto , the defeat at Cape Matapan dealt another strategic blow to the Italian Navy . Five ships – three heavy cruisers and two destroyers – were sunk , and around 2 @,@ 400 Italian sailors were killed , missing or captured . The British lost only three aircrew when one torpedo bomber was shot down . Cunningham had lost his bet with Commander Power but he had won a strategic victory in the war in the Mediterranean . The defeats at Taranto and Cape Matapan meant that the Italian Navy did not intervene in the heavily contested evacuations of Greece and Crete , later in 1941 . It also ensured that , for the remainder of the war , the Regia Marina conceded the Eastern Mediterranean to the Allied Fleet , and did not leave port for the remainder of the war .
= = = Battle of Crete ( May 1941 ) = = =
On the morning of 20 May 1941 , Nazi Germany launched an airborne invasion of Crete , under the code @-@ name Unternehmen Merkur ( Operation Mercury ) . Despite initial heavy casualties , Maleme airfield in western Crete fell to the Germans and enabled them to fly in heavy reinforcements and overwhelm the Allied forces .
After a week of heavy fighting , British commanders decided that the situation was hopeless and ordered a withdrawal from Sfakia . During the next four nights , 16 @,@ 000 troops were evacuated to Egypt by ships ( including HMS Ajax of Battle of the River Plate fame ) . A smaller number of ships were to withdraw troops on a separate mission from Heraklion , but these ships were attacked en route by Luftwaffe dive bombers . Without air cover , Cunningham 's ships suffered serious losses . Cunningham was determined , though , that the " navy must not let the army down " , and when army generals feared he would lose too many ships , Cunningham famously said ,
The " never say die " attitude of Cunningham and the men under his command meant that of 22 @,@ 000 men on Crete , 16 @,@ 500 were rescued but at the loss of three cruisers and six destroyers . Fifteen other major warships were damaged .
= = = Allied Expeditionary Force ( 1943 – 46 ) = = =
Cunningham became a Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath ( GCB ) , " in recognition of the recent successful combined operations in the Middle East " , in March 1941 and was created a baronet , of Bishop 's Waltham in the County of Southampton , in July 1942 . From late 1942 to early 1943 , he served under General Dwight D. Eisenhower , who made him the Supreme Commander , Allied Expeditionary Force . In this role Cunningham commanded the large fleet that covered the Anglo @-@ American landings in North Africa ( Operation Torch ) . General Eisenhower said of him in his diary :
On 21 January 1943 , Cunningham was promoted to Admiral of the Fleet . February 1943 saw him return to his post as Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief , Mediterranean Fleet . Three months later , when Axis forces in North Africa were on the verge of surrender , he ordered that none should be allowed to escape . Entirely in keeping with his fiery character he signalled the fleet " Sink , burn and destroy : Let nothing pass " . He oversaw the naval forces used in the joint Anglo @-@ American amphibious invasions of Sicily , during Operation Husky , Operation Baytown and Operation Avalanche . On the morning of 11 September 1943 , Cunningham was present at Malta when the Italian Fleet surrendered . Cunningham informed the Admiralty with a telegram ; " Be pleased to inform their Lordships that the Italian battle fleet now lies at anchor under the guns of the fortress of Malta . "
In October 1943 , Cunningham became First Sea Lord of the Admiralty and Chief of the Naval Staff , after the death of Dudley Pound . This promotion meant that he had to relinquish his coveted post of Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief , Mediterranean , recommending his namesake Admiral John H. D. Cunningham as his successor . In the position of First Sea Lord , and as a member of the Chiefs of Staff committee , Cunningham was responsible for the overall strategic direction of the navy for the remainder of the war . He attended the major conferences at Cairo , Tehran , Yalta and Potsdam , at which the Allies discussed future strategy , including the invasion of Normandy and the deployment of a British fleet to the Pacific Ocean .
= = Retirement = =
In 1945 Cunningham was appointed a Knight of the Thistle and raised to the peerage as " Baron Cunningham of Hyndhope " , of Kirkhope in the County of Selkirk . He was entitled to retire at the end of the war in 1945 but he resolved to pilot the Navy through the transition to peace before retiring . With the election of Clement Attlee as British Prime Minister in 1945 , and the implementation of his Post @-@ war consensus , there was a large reduction in the Defence Budget . The extensive reorganisation was a challenge for Cunningham . " We very soon came to realise how much easier it was to make war than to reorganise for peace . " Due to pressures on the budget from all three services , the Navy embarked on a reduction programme that was larger than Cunningham had envisaged .
He was made " Viscount Cunningham of Hyndhope " , of Kirkhope in the County of Selkirk , in the 1946 New Year Honours , and appointed to the Order of Merit in June of that year . At the end of May 1946 , after overseeing the transition through to peacetime , Cunningham retired from his post as First Sea Lord . Cunningham retreated to the " little house in the country " , ' Palace House ' , at Bishop 's Waltham in Hampshire , which he and Lady Cunningham had acquired before the war . They both had a busy retirement . He attended the House of Lords irregularly and occasionally lent his name to press statements about the Royal Navy , particularly those relating to Admiral Dudley North , who had been relieved of his command of Gibraltar in 1940 . Cunningham , and several of the surviving admirals of the fleet , set about securing justice for North , and they succeeded with a partial vindication in 1957 . He also busied himself with various appointments ; he was Lord High Commissioner to the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland in 1950 and 1952 , and in 1953 he acted as Lord High Steward – the most recent one to date – at the coronation of Queen Elizabeth II . Throughout this time Cunningham and his wife entertained family and friends , including his own great nephew , Jock Slater , in their extensive gardens . Cunningham died in London on 12 June 1963 , and was buried at sea off Portsmouth . There were no children from his marriage and his titles consequently became extinct on his death .
A bust of Cunningham by Franta Belsky was unveiled in Trafalgar Square in London on 2 April 1967 by Prince Philip , Duke of Edinburgh . The April 2010 UK naval operation to ship British military personnel and air passengers stranded in continental Europe by the air travel disruption after the 2010 Eyjafjallajökull eruption back to the UK was named Operation Cunningham after him .
= = Honours = =
Below is a list of Awards and titles awarded to Andrew Browne Cunningham during his lifetime .
= = = United Kingdom = = =
= = = Awards from other countries = = =
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= 38th ( Welsh ) Infantry Division =
The 38th ( Welsh ) Division ( initially the 43rd Division , later the 38th ( Welsh ) Infantry Division and then the 38th Infantry ( Reserve ) Division ) of the British Army was active during both the First and Second World Wars . In 1914 , the division was raised as the 43rd Division of Herbert Kitchener 's New Army , and was originally meant to form part of a 50 @,@ 000 @-@ strong Welsh Army Corps that had been championed by David Lloyd George . However , the assignment of Welsh recruits to other formations meant that this concept was never realised . On 29 April 1915 , the formation was renamed the 38th ( Welsh ) Division and shipped to France later that year . The division arrived in France with a poor reputation , seen as a political formation that was ill trained and led . The division 's baptism by fire came during the opening days of the Battle of the Somme where it had to capture Mametz Wood . Despite securing the wood , needed as a jumping @-@ off point for the Battle of Bazentin Ridge , the reputation of the division was further effected by miscommunication among its senior officers and by the loss of nearly 4 @,@ 000 men during the next phase of the Somme offensive .
The division 's next large @-@ scale operation came a year later when it made a highly successful attack in the Battle of Pilckem Ridge , the first attack of the Third Battle of Ypres . This redeemed the division in the eyes of the upper hierarchy of the British military and it came to be considered one of the elite . During the German Spring Offensive in 1918 and the Allied Hundred Days Offensive , the division attacked several fortified German positions . It crossed the Ancre river , smashed through the Hindenburg Line , broke through German positions on the River Selle and ended the war on the Belgian frontier . Not chosen to be part of the Occupation of the Rhineland following the war , the division was demobilised over several months , ceasing to exist by March 1919 .
In March 1939 , following the rise of Nazi Germany and the German occupation of Czechoslovakia , the British army increased the number of divisions within the Territorial Army by duplicating existing units . On paper , the division was recreated as the 38th ( Welsh ) Infantry Division , a duplicate of the 53rd ( Welsh ) Infantry Division , although it did not form until September . Transferred around the United Kingdom and assigned home defence duties , it was never deployed overseas as a division . In 1944 , it was disbanded and its units were either dispatched or broken up to reinforce the 21st Army Group fighting in Normandy during Operation Overlord . The 38th Division was recreated on 1 September 1944 as the 38th Infantry ( Reserve ) Division , a training formation that took over the role previously occupied by the 80th Infantry ( Reserve ) Division . In this form , the division completed the training of recruits , who were then dispatched overseas as reinforcements . At the end of the war , the division was again stood down .
= = First World War = =
= = = Formation and training = = =
On 28 July 1914 , the First World War began and on 4 August , following the German invasion of Belgium , the United Kingdom entered the war to uphold the Treaty of London ( 1839 ) . Britain found itself facing a continental war it was not prepared to fight ; the Expeditionary Force ( EF ) was dispatched but the country lacked the forces required for the protracted war envisioned by the military leadership ( the Expeditionary Force was prefaced with British when the Indian Expeditionary Force arrived in France ) .
On 5 August , Herbert Kitchener was appointed Secretary of State for War . This vital position , allowed Kitchener a largely independent role within the war cabinet . His first act , the following day , was to request parliamentary approval to increase the strength of the British Army by 500 @,@ 000 men . Over the coming days , following approval , the Army Council laid out plans for Kitchener 's proposed expansion : traditional recruiting would be used to expand the regular army , bypassing the county associations and thus avoiding expanding the Territorial Force . The first wave , originally termed the New Expeditionary Force , became the First New Army . In 2007 , Simkins wrote that Kitchener held the Territorial Force in disdain , calling it an ill @-@ trained " Town Clerk 's Army " and this was partially why he set up a parallel recruitment system . Simkins noted that it would be a " gross oversimplification to ascribe Kitchener 's decision merely to prejudice and ignorance " . Had the Territorial Force been used as the basis for expansion it would have been " swamped " and " rendered temporarily incapable of carrying out any function at all " , when a " viable home defence force " was needed due to the threat of a German invasion .
On 19 September 1914 , Chancellor of the Exchequer David Lloyd George stated publicly that he " should like to see a Welsh Army in the field " . This thought quickly picked up support from politicians and from Kitchener ; a Welsh Army Corps of two divisions totalling 50 @,@ 000 men was approved on 10 October . The recruits were to be drawn not just from Wales but from Monmouthshire and from Welshmen living in Liverpool , London and Manchester . The creation of the corps soon became a source of heated dispute between Lloyd George and Kitchener and was never realised . In addition to the disagreements , there was a shortage of recruits ; by the end of 1914 only 10 @,@ 000 men had joined the Welsh Corps . During December , having scaled back the ambitious plan for a whole corps , the recruited men were formed into the 43rd Division of Kitchener 's Fifth New Army . Despite steady recruitment , by June 1915 , 20 per cent of recruits had been removed , having been discharged primarily for medical reasons or transferred to other units .
On Saint David 's Day ( 1 March 1915 ) , the new division was inspected by Lloyd George . During April , the Fourth New Army was broken up to provide reinforcements for deployed combat units . The Fifth New Army , in turn , was renamed the Fourth New Army . As part of this re @-@ organisation , the 38th Division became the 31st Division . On 29 April , the 43rd was renamed the 38th ( Welsh ) Division . The division spent most of 1915 dispersed , with the majority located across North Wales with units training at Pwllheli , Colwyn Bay , Llandudno and Rhyl , although some units were based in the south at Abergavenny . At these locations , the men undertook basic training , were drilled and trained for open warfare . On 19 August , the division moved to Winchester , England , where it assembled for the first time as a division . Final training took place and limited instruction was given on tactics to employ during trench warfare ( the assumption being that practical experience would be easier to gain in France ) . Despite the training , it was not until November that the division had been fully equipped with rifles . To be declared fit for overseas service , the division 's soldiers had to fire 24 rounds on a rifle range . On 29 November , the division was inspected for the final time before being deployed ; Queen Mary and Princess Mary reviewed the troops at Crawley Down .
The division , comprising the 113th , 114th and 115th Brigades made up of battalions from the Royal Welsh Fusiliers ( RWF ) , the South Wales Borderers ( SWB ) and the Welsh Regiment ( Welsh ) , was roughly 18 @,@ 500 men strong when it was deployed to France . During November , the division departed from Southampton and by 5 December it arrived in France at Le Havre . Although the division 's artillery initially remained behind to conduct live fire exercises at Larkhill , they had re @-@ joined the division by the end of December .
The initial reaction by the regular army to the division was one of hostility . The division was seen as lacking experience and training , the latter being a criticism levelled at all New Army divisions . Questions were also raised about the divisional leadership and about securing officer commissions through influence peddling . Clive Hughes wrote " regulars professed disgust at the blatantly political character " of the division . While the division was made up predominately of Welshmen , the rest of the United Kingdom was also represented within its ranks as well as several other nations .
= = = Initial actions and the Battle of the Somme = = =
Once in France , the division joined XI Corps and was placed in reserve , relieving the 46th ( North Midland ) Division . The first casualties were soon suffered due to training accidents with grenades . The division was then temporarily split up and spent time attached to the Guards Division and 19th ( Western ) Division , to gain experience in trench warfare . It relieved the 19th ( Western ) Division and until the summer manned the front in the Nord @-@ Pas @-@ de @-@ Calais region . It was rotated along the XI Corps sector , spending time in Festubert , Givenchy , La Gorgue , Laventie and Neuve Chapelle . Units of the division took turns on the front line , maintained positions , conducted trench raids and were subjected to German bombardments , all of which allowed the men to gain experience of active service conditions . The most notable action during this period was a trench raid carried out by Captain Goronwy Owen of the 15th RWF . Owen led a raid into no man 's land , where he located a party of German soldiers who had just finished laying barbed wire . Owen followed the Germans back to their trench and ambushed them . The divisional history comments that " the greater portion [ of the German party ] were killed " and the raid was considered by the Army to be " the third best ... carried out so far " in the war . For his actions , Owen was mentioned in dispatches .
During 10 – 11 June 1916 , the division was relieved by the 61st ( 2nd South Midland ) Division and moved into reserve . It then moved south and joined XVII Corps of the Third Army to train for the Battle of the Somme . New trenches were dug and the division made practice attacks on them using novel tactics : attacking in waves in conjunction with artillery and machine gun fire . Towards the end of the month , the division moved further south to the Somme valley . They then joined II Corps and were placed in reserve . The role of the division was as a second wave to exploit the expected success . Following the breach of the German lines , the Reserve Army cavalry divisions would capture Bapaume . The 38th ( Welsh ) Division would then move forward to relieve the cavalry and secure the town , to allow the cavalry to advance north towards Arras .
1 July was the first day on the Somme and despite being behind the lines in reserve , the division suffered its first casualty of the battle due to German artillery fire . The 1 July attack was a disaster on the Fourth Army front and 57 @,@ 470 casualties were suffered , most north of the Albert – Bapaume road . In particular , XV Corps attacked the villages of Fricourt and Mametz . Throughout the day , the 7th Division assaulted and captured Mametz . The 21st Division pushed into the German lines and flanked Fricourt to the north . Due to this move and the capture of Mametz , the Germans abandoned Fricourt ; the two divisions advanced up to 2 @,@ 500 yards ( 2 @,@ 300 m ) and suffered 7 @,@ 500 casualties . Between these two villages were the entrenched German positions in Mametz Wood . These needed to be captured to allow XV Corps to advance further into German territory . While additional ground was gained in subsequent attacks , German defences and rain hindered moves to clear Mametz Wood . Following additional casualties within the 7th Division , the 38th ( Welsh ) Division was attached to XV Corps to relieve the division and clear the wood .
Mametz Wood was defended by elements of the German Lehr Infantry Regiment and 163rd Infantry Regiment . While these units were entrenched within the wood , the German second line was only 300 yards ( 270 m ) behind , allowing the position to be reinforced easily . From 6 – 9 July , the 38th Division conducted reconnaissance and probing attacks , to determine the strength of the German position .
On 7 July , the division launched two battalions upon the wood following a brief preliminary bombardment . At 08 : 00 , the 16th Welsh and 10th SWB attacked . As soon as the advance began it became obvious that the preliminary bombardment had failed to silence the German machine gun positions and German shells started to fall upon the attacking troops and the trenches they had left , resulting in a temporary communication breakdown . Caught between machine gun fire from their front and their flanks , the attack bogged down within 200 yards ( 180 m ) of the wood . Unable to move further , the troops were ordered to dig in to await a renewed British bombardment . At 11 : 00 a second attempt was made but the troops were unable to push further forward . A proposed third attack in the afternoon was eventually called off . The 16th Welsh Battalion historian wrote that " ' [ c ] ut to Ribbons ' would be an apt description " as casualties amounted to 276 men . The 10th SWB suffered 180 casualties .
During the evening , the 14th RWF launched a minor trench raid . On 8 July , this was supposed to develop into an attack on the southern tip of the wood . While the division prepared to launch a battalion @-@ sized attack , XV Corps commander Lieutenant @-@ General Henry Horne ordered a smaller attack by a platoon . The day was spent in confusion , with conflicting orders issued and Horne travelling to the division to clarify his intentions . In the end , no attack was launched .
When Horne found out that the 14th RWF had not moved and that their attack had been pushed back to 8 July , he summoned the commanding officer , Major @-@ General Ivor Philipps , to Corps headquarters and sacked him . General Douglas Haig , commander of the BEF , noted this event in his diary . He wrote : " visited HQ XV Corps and saw General Horne . He was very disappointed with the work of the ... 38th Welsh Div " . Haig further commented that Philipps was relieved of his command as the majority of the division had " never entered " the woods despite the " most adequate [ ] ... bombard [ ment ] " , had suffered " under 150 casualties " during their attack and that : " a few bold men [ who had ] entered the Wood found little opposition " . Don Farr wrote that Haig 's entries are at odds with the facts and that he relied heavily on what Horne had told him . Farr states Horne 's account to Haig was self @-@ serving and did no justice " to the difficulties confronting the troops on the ground " and did not acknowledge the failure of the bombardment . He also suggests that the sacking of Philipps may have been political , by a distrusting officer corps towards a perceived political appointee .
Hughes quoted a regular officer who was attached to the division who described Philipps as " an excellent administrator " who was " valued [ for ] his service with the division " . Travers wrote that " perhaps Philipps was a poor commander " but the opening attacks on Mametz Wood demonstrated the faults of the entire command structure , not just of Philipps , as there was pressure from the top down to get results . Farr wrote that " there is evidence that ... Philipps ... balked at sending waves of [ his ] men unprotected against machine guns " and Travers wrote that Philipps had shown moral courage in cancelling unprepared attacks and for giving his troops " instructions not to press the attack if machine @-@ gun fire was met " . Horne had intended to replace Philipps with Major @-@ General Charles Blackader but was overruled by Haig who ordered that Herbert Watts , commander of the 7th Division , was to take temporary command . During 9 July , the decision was made that the division would launch a full @-@ scale attack the following day . At 03 : 30 on 10 July , the preliminary bombardment began .
The initial bombardment lasted for 45 minutes , striking the German front line positions , with the shelling halted temporarily to attempt to lure the German defenders back into the front line , when the barrage resumed . At 04 : 15 , the division launched its attack . Advancing behind a creeping barrage were the 13th Welsh ( on the right flank ) , the 14th Welsh ( in the centre ) and the 16th RWF ( on the left flank ) . A smoke screen had been laid down on either flank , which succeeded in drawing German fire away from the assault . The divisional history called this attack " one of the most magnificent sights of the war ... wave after wave of men were seen advancing without hesitation and without a break over a distance which in some places was nearly 500 yards " .
The 14th Welsh rapidly entered the wood and cleared the German positions with bayonets and rifle fire . In the face of determined German resistance and flanking machine gun fire , the 13th Welsh suffered many casualties and their attack stalled . The division reinforced the right flank by committing the 15th Welsh who were able to push through into the wood . Before they could link up and aid the 13th , German troops infiltrated the gap between the two battalions , got behind the 15th Welsh and almost wiped out a company . These troops had to fight their way out " cut their way back out " and returned with just seven men . Despite the losses , the three battalions of the Welsh regiment were able to form a cohesive line defending the edge of the wood and repulsed strong German counter @-@ attacks . The 16th RWF , which had fallen behind the creeping barrage , were met with determined German resistance who repulsed two assaults . The 15th RWF was sent to reinforce and both battalions were then able to push their way into the wood , although German resistance and a machine gun prevented a further advance .
The 10th Welsh moved up to cover the gap between the five battalions already engaged and the 13th RWF were deployed to clear the German position in front of their sister battalions ; divisional engineers arrived to dig trenches and lay wire . During the afternoon , the 10th SWB and 17th RWF were committed to the wood . At 16 : 00 , another attack began and met with little resistance . The 10th SWB captured the eastern stretches of the wood and inflicted many casualties on the Germans . The 15th Welsh , along with the 15th and 17th RWF , fought north through the wood and made it to within 40 yards ( 37 m ) of the northern edge when they were thrown back by German fire . A further attack during the evening was called off and the troops were pulled back up to 300 yards ( 270 m ) and ordered to dig in for the night .
During the night , the 113th and 114th Infantry Brigades were ordered out of the wood and the 115th Brigade assembled in their place . The next day , the 115th Brigade prepared a final assault to clear out the Germans . The 115th Brigade 's commanding officer , Brigadier @-@ General H. J. Evans , wanted to launch a surprise attack but was overruled . The subsequent bombardment to support the attack fell short in places , hitting the British troops and provoking German artillery fire . Despite the friendly fire , the barrage also caught German troops in the open as they fled from the wood . The remaining Germans offered determined resistance and the 16th Welsh were held up by machine gun fire and the use of a flamethrower . Despite this , the brigade was able to clear Mametz Wood by the end of the day . The German second line position was on higher ground , which dominated the edge of wood and , coupled with artillery fire , resulted in the brigade pulling back to its start line to avoid further casualties .
That evening , the 21st Division relieved the 38th Division who moved near Gommecourt and relieved the 48th ( South Midland ) Division . On 12 July , Watts returned to the 7th Division and Blackader assumed command of the 38th . The division had suffered 3 @,@ 993 casualties during the six days it had fought on the Somme , with over 600 men killed . Despite capturing 400 prisoners as well as Mametz Wood ( the largest wood on the Somme ) , which paved the way for the assault on Bazentin Ridge , the reputation of the division had been sullied by inaccuracies . The failure of the first attack did much harm to the division 's reputation , as the comparably few casualties were seen as evidence of a lack of determination by the men . The 113th Brigade 's commander , Brigadier @-@ General Price @-@ Davies , made things worse by reporting panic among the men and refusals of orders . Price @-@ Davies later wrote : " I may not have given my brigade full credit for what they did " but the damage had been done . The difficulty of wood fighting was not appreciated at the time and Farr wrote that the reputation of the division suffered due to the repeated interference by Horne in matters best left to the divisional or brigade staff and his " inexperience of battlefield command at this level " .
= = = Ypres Salient = = =
At the end of August 1916 , the division was deployed to the Ypres Salient where it remained for the following ten months seeing no major action . The division spent its time engaging in the vital effort of rebuilding and consolidating washed out trenches and raiding German positions . For the former , the division was commended by their Corps commander Rudolph Lambart ( XIV Corps ) . The most notable raid conducted during this period occurred in November by the 14th Welsh . Elements of the battalion launched a large raid on a German position known as High Command Redoubt , a fortified position on a slight rise that overlooked the British lines . From this redoubt , the Germans had been able to direct artillery fire and snipe the British positions . The 14th Welsh raided the position , killing 50 defenders in hand @-@ to @-@ hand combat and taking 20 more as prisoners .
In June , the division was withdrawn into reserve to conduct training exercises for the Ypres offensive . Replicas of the German positions on Pilckem Ridge were built and attacks rehearsed . On 20 July , the division returned to the front taking over from the 29th Division . Until the end of the month , the division was subjected to German artillery fire . These shells , a mixture of high explosive and mustard gas , inflicted serious losses . At the same time , aerial reconnaissance and infantry patrols by the division confirmed that the preliminary barrage had forced the Germans back to their second line positions .
At 03 : 50 on 31 July , the Battle of Pilckem Ridge began . The division was ordered to capture the German front line , the second line positions based on Pilckem Ridge , a low ridge that also contained the heavily shelled village of Pilckem , followed by Iron Cross Ridge which lay to the east , before storming down the other side and across a small stream known as the Steenbeck . The division would be opposed primarily by the German 3rd Guards Infantry Division , along with elements of the 3rd Reserve Division and 111th Division , dug @-@ in among trench lines and 280 concrete pillboxes and bunkers . To secure these various objectives , the division planned to attack in waves , with fresh troops constantly moving forward to tackle the next objective .
Due to the Royal Artillery gas bombardments , the German artillery had been largely silenced and played little part in the initial fighting . The 10th and 13th Welsh ( advancing on the right ) and half the 13th and 16th RWF ( on the left ) , were able to take the German forward positions rapidly , capturing several Germans who had remained behind . The 13th and 14th Welsh then pushed beyond their sister battalions up the ridge , along with the remaining half of the 13th and 16th RWF . Based in the village and Marsouin and Stray Farms , the German resistance was more determined , resulting in increasing British losses . Arthur Conan Doyle , in his history of the war , described the scene :
[ The German 's ] ( sic ) poured bullets upon the advancing infantry , who slipped from shell @-@ hole to shell @-@ hole , taking such cover as they could but resolutely pushing onwards .
Where concrete bunkers were encountered , the troops worked their way around them , cutting the German troops off and forcing them to surrender . Despite their resistance , the German second line was captured without delay . Half of the 13th and 14th Welsh , along with the 15th RWF , then pushed towards Iron Cross Ridge . German troops holding Rudolphe Farm , in the area allocated to the 51st ( Highland ) Division which had not yet advanced as far , were able to fire into the flanks of the advancing troops . A platoon from 15th Welsh was diverted and assaulted the farm , capturing 15 men and either killing or scattering the rest , securing the flank of the advance . The 14th Welsh then rushed Iron Cross Ridge and engaged in hand @-@ to @-@ hand combat to seize the position , before pushing on to capture a dressing station . Their charge had resulted in heavy losses but yielded 78 prisoners and three machine guns . The 15th RWF had fallen behind the protective creeping barrage to their front and came under fire from a German position known as Battery Copse . Despite many losses , they pushed forward and were able to secure their portion of Iron Cross Ridge .
With Iron Cross Ridge in British hands , the 11th SWB and 17th RWF pushed forward for the Steenbeck . Despite German resistance , based in more concrete defences , these positions were cleared and the river reached , and the two battalions dug @-@ in on the opposite side . Due to the casualties taken in doing so , elements of the 16th Welsh and 10th SWB were moved forward to reinforce the newly gained position . At 15 : 10 , the German infantry launched a counter @-@ attack . Fighting continued throughout the day , with the forward British battalions forced to pull back beyond the Steenbeck , although German attempts to retake further territory were thwarted . During the course of the afternoon , heavy rain began to fall and did so for the following three days hindering future operations . The fighting broke the 3rd Guards Division , which the Welsh divisional history notes " had to be withdrawn immediately after the battle " . During the day , the division took close to 700 prisoners . Conan Doyle places the division 's losses at 1 @,@ 300 men . Other than an exchange of artillery fire , no further fighting took place and the division was pulled off the line on 6 August .
Toby Thacker wrote in 2014 that " the attack on the Pilckem Ridge was considered a great success by Haig and has been similarly viewed by historians " . He continues : " in Haig 's eyes the Welsh Division had redeemed its reputation after what he had perceived as its poor showing at Mametz Wood " . Haig went on to write that the division had " achieved the highest level of soldierly achievement " . John wrote that the division " regained the honour which it had unjustly lost after their supposed tardiness in the capture of Mametz " . The division returned to the front line on 20 August . On 27 August , elements of the division attacked . Throughout the day , heavy rain had fallen saturating the ground and " the men who had been lying in shell @-@ holes which were gradually filling with water found great difficulty in getting out and advancing and keeping up with the barrage " . As the infantry waded through mud , they lost the creeping barrage . Elements of the division reached the German line ; " it had been a gallant but hopeless endeavour " . The division remained on the line , subjected to German artillery bombardments , until it was withdrawn on 13 September , to take up new positions at Armentières .
= = = Raiding and reorganisation = = =
Until spring 1918 , the division manned various sections of the front line , at times occupying as much as ten miles of the front . During this period , the division worked to improve the trenches they inherited and conducted raids on the German lines . On the night of 7 / 8 November , the 10th SWB conducted a 300 @-@ strong raid on the German lines . Having penetrated 200 yd ( 180 m ) into German territory , the battalion destroyed three concrete dugouts , inflicted at least 50 casualties and took 15 prisoners , for a loss of 50 casualties . In addition to raiding , the division helped train the newly arrived 1st Portuguese Division , assigning a battalion at a time for tutoring . During the winter , the British realised that the Germans intended to begin an offensive in 1918 ( the Spring Offensive ) and the division spent the following months improving the front line positions , as well as constructing rear @-@ line defences from the Armentières region to the northern bank of River Lys , laying what the divisional history described as an : " inconceivable amount of concrete and barbed wire " .
By 1918 , the number of front line infantry within the British Army in France had decreased , leading to a manpower crisis . In an attempt to consolidate manpower and to increase the number of machine guns and artillery support available to the infantry , the decision was made to reduce the number of battalions in a division from twelve to nine . This had the effect of reducing the establishment of a division from 18 @,@ 825 men to 16 @,@ 035 . In addition , to ease reinforcement , an attempt was made to consolidate as many battalions from the same regiment within the same brigade . These changes impacted the division , resulting in the 15th RWF , 11th SWB and 10th and 16th Welsh being disbanded and the 2nd RWF joining from the 33rd Division . These changes to the division also saw the machine gun companies consolidated into a single battalion , one medium mortar battery broken up and absorbed by the remaining two batteries and the heavy mortar battery leaving the division to become a Corps asset .
Following a short break to train and rest , the division returned to the front line in mid @-@ February and recommenced raiding the German lines . On 15 March , the 16 RWF conducted a raid on a similar scale , and with similar success , to the one conducted by the 10 SWB in November . During the same period , the Germans raided the British lines but not with the same level of success and managed to capture only two men . In addition , the division 's snipers were able to gain the upper hand over their German rivals . The divisional history notes that its patrols had gained " control of No Man 's Land " . Using what had been learned " thorough previous reconnaissance " , in addition to sniping , it was " possible to move about unmolested in exposed trenches or even in the open " in front of the German lines .
= = = German Spring Offensive = = =
On 21 March , Germany launched Operation Michael . This attack , which became the opening salvo of their Spring Offensive , aimed to deliver a single , decisive , war winning blow . The Germans intended to strike the southern British flank , to separate the British and French armies and then move north to engage the bulk of the British forces in France in a vernichtungsschlacht ( battle of annihilation ) . The aim was to inflict such a defeat upon the British armies that the country would abandon the war , which in turn would force the French to sue for peace . After the first ten days of the German offensive , the casualties suffered by the 2nd and the 47th ( London ) Divisions were such that the 38th was ordered south to take up positions near Albert to relieve the two formations . While the infantry moved south , the divisional artillery remained at Armentières to support the 34th Division and subsequently took part in the Battle of the Lys . During this battle , the artillery went on to aid French forces before being transferred temporarily to the British 25th Division and conducting a fighting withdrawal . Its actions with both divisions earned the men of the divisional artillery plaudits from both divisional commanders .
Near Albert , the division had been kept in reserve until the night 11 / 12 April , when the division relieved the 12th ( Eastern ) Division . The Germans had captured high ground near Bouzincourt and Aveluy , overlooking the British lines . The division was ordered to retake this to deny the Germans the ability to observe the British positions and to gain observation positions overlooking the German lines in the Ancre valley . At 19 : 30 on 22 April , elements of the 113th and 115th Brigades attacked with support from Australian artillery . The German infantry , supported by a large number of machine guns and much artillery support , resisted the attack . Unable to drive the German infantry off all of the high ground , the division gained 250 yards ( 230 m ) on a 1 @,@ 000 @-@ yard ( 910 m ) front , which achieved the objective . The 13th RWF managed to push further ahead and secured a section of high ground overlooking the German lines , fought off several German counter @-@ attacks and took 85 Germans and six machine guns . Despite these successes , the attack was costly , with the 13th RWF suffering over 400 wounded . The Germans made repeated attempts to push back the British and a big attack was repulsed on 9 May . Over the following days , the division attempted an abortive attack on another German @-@ held ridge and conducted several raids on the German lines , before being withdrawn for a short break on 20 May .
At this point , Major @-@ General Charles Blackader left the division on medical grounds and was replaced by Major @-@ General Thomas Cubitt . The division received replacements for casualties , disbanded the sniper company and engaged in rifle training . Once back on the line , the division return to its previous routine of static warfare : conducting patrols and raids , as well as being subjected to raids and artillery bombardments .
= = = Final battles = = =
On 5 August , the division returned to the front and took up position at Aveluy Wood . Shortly after , the Allied armies launched the Battle of Amiens , which led to the start of the Hundred Days Offensive , the culminating offensive of the war . In the 38th Division sector , the Fourth Army pushed the Germans back from their gains and onto the eastern bank of the Ancre . The 38th Division was assigned to cross the river and clear the German @-@ held Thiepval ridge north of Albert .
On 21 / 22 August , elements of the 114th Brigade crossed the Ancre near Beaumont @-@ Hamel , established a bridgehead , constructed a bridge and fought off German counter @-@ attacks . The following day , additional elements of the brigade crossed , securing a further bridgehead and repulsed more German attacks . The 113th Brigade crossed the river via bridges in Albert and assaulted Unsa Hill 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) to the north @-@ east , taking 194 prisoners , three artillery pieces and seven machine guns . On 23 August , the 115th Brigade crossed the river and cleared several German positions facing them , took at least 30 prisoners and captured 15 machine guns . The rest of the division crossed the following day , either wading or using the new bridges . During the early hours , the 114th Brigade launched an attack on Thiepval ridge while the other two brigades attacked Ovillers @-@ la @-@ Boisselle . By the end of the day , despite heavy fighting , the division had seized the ridge , pushed the Germans back around Ovillers and taken 634 prisoners . The division history also records the capture of " 143 machine guns " .
On 25 August , the division advanced across the old Somme battlefield in the Second Battle of the Somme ( 1918 ) . The 113th Brigade cleared Mametz Wood , while the 115th seized Bazentin le Petit . The following day , the 113th Brigade reached the outskirts of Longueval and fought off numerous counter @-@ attacks , while the 115th Brigade surrounded and cleared High Wood ( near Bazentin le Petit ) . Casualties amounted to around 800 and at least 100 prisoners were taken and 15 machine guns captured . The next day saw heavy fighting outside Longueval as the 113th and 114th Brigades attempted to advance , but they were halted by determined German resistance and repeated counter @-@ attacks . The following days saw an exchange of artillery fire and further German counter @-@ attacks repulsed . Longueval was seized late on 28 August following a partial German withdrawal . The division continued its advance , overcame German resistance and counter @-@ attacks to capture Ginchy , Deville Wood and Lesbœufs but were held up by determined resistance at Morval . Following a day @-@ long barrage , Morval was captured on 1 September after heavy fighting and the division pushed on to take Sailly @-@ Saillisel and Étricourt @-@ Manancourt . In an effort to halt the British advance , the Germans had dug in on the far side of the Canal du Nord and , in the words of the divisional history , " smothered the Canal valley with gas shells " . On 3 September , having noticed a weakness in the German positions , elements of the 13th and 14th Welsh stormed across the canal and cleared the eastern bank allowing the rest of the 114th Brigade to cross . On 5 September , the division was relieved and placed in reserve . During August and the beginning of September , the artillery had fired over 300 @,@ 000 rounds in support of the fighting , 3 @,@ 614 casualties had been suffered and 1 @,@ 915 German prisoners taken .
On 11 September , the division returned to the line near Gouzeaucourt ; the Germans had dug in along a ridge line from Épehy to Trescault intending to delay the British from reaching the Hindenberg Line . The Fourth Army was tasked with clearing these positions . On 18 September , the Battle of Épehy was fought . The division attacked at 05 : 40 with the 113th and 114th Brigades . Both brigades were able to reach their objectives despite flanking fire , and fought off numerous counter @-@ attacks . Despite this success , the Germans were able to cling on to Gouzeaucourt . The battle cleared the German outposts in front of the Hindenburg Line preparing the way for future operations . On 20 September , the division was pulled off the line for a period of rest .
Eight days later , the division returned in preparation for assaulting the Hindenburg Line . The division advanced , along with the Fourth Army , pressing the retreating Germans before halting at the Hindenburg support line , also known as the Le Catelet @-@ Nauroy Line , due to determined German resistance . On 5 October the line was breached by the division after the Germans evacuated it for their main position ( Siegfried II Stellung , otherwise known as the Masnières @-@ Beaurevoir line ) near Villers @-@ Outréaux . The German positions lay behind dense lines of barbed wire , supported by concrete pillboxes and machine gun positions hidden in small woods providing excellent fields of fire over otherwise open countryside . Faced with this level of defence , the division was halted and spent the following days reconnoitring the German positions preparing for an assault .
The division 's plan of attack was for the 115th Brigade to envelop Villers @-@ Outréaux during dark and assault the village during daylight with tank support , while the 113th Brigade would clear the nearby Mortho Wood . The 114th Brigade would be held in reserve initially but brought up to exploit the success and push deeper into the German defensive belt . At 01 : 00 on 8 October , the attack began . The initial attack by the 115th Brigade failed , in turn impeding the 113th Brigade who were unable to approach Mortho Wood due to concentrated German machine gun fire . The 115th rallied and achieved their initial objective while the 113th were able to gain a foothold near theirs . At 05 : 00 , the 2nd RWF – following a friendly fire incident – assaulted Villers @-@ Outréaux and cleared the village with tank support . At 08 : 00 , the 114th Brigade was committed to the battle as orders to delay the advance arrived late . The troops were held up by undetected barbed wire and heavy German fire until 11 : 30 , when they disengaged and pressed forward exploiting the success of the 115th Brigade . The divisional history comments that the attack " progressed rapidly and resulted in a complete rout of the enemy " and that the brigade was able to achieve its final objective on the Prémont – Esnes road . Meanwhile , the 113th Brigade engaged in heavy fighting to clear the German trenches around Mortho Wood . During this action , the division suffered 1 @,@ 290 casualties and took 380 prisoners . The divisional history noted that 8 October was " perhaps ... the stiffest fighting of the whole advance " .
Following the assault , the 33rd Division pursued the retreating German forces , while the 38th stayed close behind ready to take over the advance or assault strongly @-@ held German positions as needed . On 9 October , Clary was liberated and the following day the divisional artillery was firing in support of the 33rd which had made contact with German forces . Over the next few days , the 33rd Division pursued the Germans to the River Selle and launched a bloody assault on the defended eastern bank during the opening stages of the Battle of the Selle . While a bridgehead was secured , it was abandoned due to losses and the decision was made to move the division forward . On the night of 13 / 14 October , the division took over the line near Troisvilles and Bertry . Over the next six days , the division prepared itself : conducting reconnaissance , constructing bridges and moving up heavy artillery . During these preparations , the Germans bombarded elements of the division 's artillery with gas shells .
On the night of 19 / 20 October , the division attacked . The footbridges were brought forward and the river crossed with ease . However , the divisional history comments , the " railway embankment on the far side was a much greater natural obstacle " due to heavy rain and was " heavily wired " and defended . The 113th and 114th Brigades crossed the river , each supported by a tank , while the 115th was held in reserve to deal with German counter @-@ attacks . Despite heavy German resistance and the tanks becoming bogged down in mud , the troops were able to seize the rail line by 02 : 30 . The divisional history commended the 14th Welsh for their efforts during this action , being the first to secure a bridgehead and then rolling up the German line to secure the right flank of the attack . In commending the efforts of his men , Major @-@ General Cubitt described the attack : having " formed up in boggy ground , [ the men ] crossed a difficult river ( for the fourth time since 21st August ) , attacked up a glacis swept by machine gun fire , stormed a precipitous railway embankment 40 to 50 feet high and in pouring rain , very slippery and deep going , in the hours of darkness , established [ themselves ] on the final objective " . Elements of the division 's pioneers joined in the final assault on the heights beyond the river and aided in the capture of the position . Despite several counter @-@ attacks , the division held the high ground . The attack inflicted at least 225 casualties and resulted in the capture of 212 prisoners , a battery of artillery pieces and mortars .
With a bridgehead across the Selle secured , the 33rd Division ( again supported by the 38th 's artillery ) continued the advance with the 38th following close behind . During this time , elements of the division supply train were stricken by an outbreak of Spanish flu . Following the 33rd , the division passed through the village of Forest , Croix @-@ Caluyau and Englefontaine , before halting in front of the Forêt de Mormal . Here the division paused until 4 November and was subjected to artillery and aerial bombardments as well as minor skirmishes with German infantry . At 06 : 15 on 4 November , over a 2 @,@ 000 @-@ yard ( 1 @,@ 800 m ) front , the 115th Brigade pushed forward subjected to a heavy German artillery bombardment . The brigade cleared fenced @-@ off orchards before pushing 500 yards ( 460 m ) into the forest against stiff resistance . They were followed by the 113th Brigade , who then leapfrogged ahead to achieve the division 's second objective inside the forest . A lull in the fighting followed as the artillery was moved forward . Afterwards , the 114th Brigade attacked reaching the division 's final objective , a road running through the forest , before nightfall . In heavy rain and complete darkness , the 13th Welsh carried on the advance . They surrounded the hamlets of Sarbaras and Tete Noir , capturing a garrison of 65 men , before pushing on towards Berliamont and taking an additional 60 prisoners . The division had breached the forest , allowing the 33rd Division to continue again advancing eastwards – this time to cross the Sambre . During this 24 @-@ hour period , the division had advanced 11 @.@ 5 miles ( 18 @.@ 5 km ) , 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) further than the flanking divisions , taken 522 prisoners , captured 23 artillery pieces and suffered at least 411 casualties .
On 7 November , the division relieved the 33rd in the pursuit of the Germans . Taking over the line near Dourlers , the division pushed east . By 11 : 00 on 11 November , the leading brigade was east of Dimechaux with advanced patrols in contact with German forces at Hestrud on the Belgian border . From the start of the Hundred Day Offensive until the signing of the armistice on 11 November , the division had advanced 60 miles ( 97 km ) , taken 3 @,@ 102 prisoners , seized 520 machine guns and captured fifty mortars and 43 artillery pieces . The division 's own losses during this period amounted to 8 @,@ 681 men .
Historian Gary Sheffield commented that , since the division was " employed on trench @-@ holding duties from September 1917 to July 1918 " , it likely " was not regarded by GHQ as an elite ' storm ' formation " . However , he noted , " judged by the results of their attacks during the Hundred Days " the division " was in a select band of elite divisions " akin to the Australian , Canadian and a limited number of other British formations . Sheffield credited Cubitt , " a hard @-@ bitten , ruthless ' fire @-@ eater ' " , for the improved performance of the division during this period , along with the various breaks the division had away from the line when they were able to train and assimilate new knowledge that resulted in " devolution of command " which allowed command flexibility among lower ranks . In addition , Sheffield cited improved staff work and tactical doctrine and high morale , which had led to the ability of the division to carry out effective combined arms operations .
= = = Epilogue = = =
Following the conclusion of fighting , the division was based around Aulnoye @-@ Aymeries in France . The division was not chosen to be part of the British Army of the Rhine , the British occupation force to be based in the Rhineland . Instead , it was demobilised over a period of months . The first 3 @,@ 000 soldiers were sent home during December and the division ceased to exist by March 1919 . Prior to the division 's disbandment the remaining men were visited by Edward Prince of Wales ( later Edward VIII ) .
During the course of the war 4 @,@ 419 of the division 's men were killed , 23 @,@ 268 were wounded and 1 @,@ 693 reported missing . For acts of valour , five soldiers were ( in some instances posthumously ) awarded the Victoria Cross : James Llewellyn Davies , Ivor Rees , Henry Weale , William Allison White and Jack Williams . In addition , the following awards ( in several cases , multiple times ) were bestowed : 86 Distinguished Service Orders , 447 Military Crosses , 254 Distinguished Conduct Medals , and 1 @,@ 150 Military Medals ; 453 men were mentioned in dispatches .
= = Second World War = =
= = = Background = = =
Throughout the 1930s tensions built between Nazi Germany and the United Kingdom as well as its allies . During late 1937 and throughout 1938 , German demands for the annexation of Czechoslovakia 's Sudetenland led to an international crisis . In an attempt to avoid war , British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain met with German Chancellor Adolf Hitler in September and brokered the Munich Agreement . The agreement averted immediate war and allowed Germany to annex the Sudetenland . While Chamberlain had intended the agreement to lead to further peaceful resolution of issues , relations between both countries soon deteriorated . On 15 March 1939 , Germany breached the terms of the agreement by invading and occupying the remnants of the Czech state .
In response , on 29 March , the British Secretary of State for War Leslie Hore @-@ Belisha announced plans to increase the Territorial Army from 130 @,@ 000 men to 340 @,@ 000 and in so doing double the number of territorial divisions . The intended plan of action was for the existing units to recruit over their allowed establishments ( aided by an increase in pay for territorials , the removal of restrictions on promotion that had been a major hindrance to recruiting during the preceding years , the construction of better quality barracks and an increase in supper @-@ time rations ) and then form Second Line divisions from small cadres that could be built upon . As a result , the 38th ( Welsh ) Infantry Division was to be created as a Second Line unit , a duplicate of the First Line 53rd ( Welsh ) Infantry Division . In April , limited conscription was introduced . At that time 34 @,@ 500 militiamen , all of the age of 20 , were conscripted into the regular army , initially to be trained for six months before being deployed to the forming second line units . However , despite the intention for the army to grow in size , the programme was complicated by a lack of central guidance on the expansion and duplication process and issues regarding the lack of facilities , equipment and instructors .
= = = Formation and home defence = = =
Despite the ongoing efforts and some regiments being able to recruit the required numbers to form new battalions , the whole process had – in the words of historian James P. Levy – " not progressed beyond the paper stage when [ the Second World War ] began in September " . The 38th ( Welsh ) Infantry Division finally became active on 18 September 1939 , although its constituent units had already formed and had been administered by the 53rd ( Welsh ) Infantry Division . The 38th was again composed of the 113th , 114th and 115th Infantry Brigades .
The division was initially assigned to Western Command and by early 1940 was spread out along the River Severn in England and Wales . By summer , the division was under the command of III Corps and was based in the North West , around Liverpool , to conduct manoeuvres and training . The war @-@ time deployment of the Territorial Army envisioned it being deployed piecemeal , to reinforce the regular army that had already been deployed to the European mainland , as equipment became available . The plan envisioned the deployment of the whole force in waves , as divisions completed their training , with the final divisions not being deployed until a year had elapsed from the outbreak of war . As a result , the division did not leave the United Kingdom as the British Expeditionary Force was evacuated from France during May and June 1940 .
In April 1941 , the division was assigned to IV Corps and had moved to Sussex , the 18th Infantry Division having replaced them around Liverpool . In Sussex , the division was held in reserve and placed behind the 47th ( London ) Infantry Division and the 55th ( West Lancashire ) Infantry Division which were defending the coast between Bognor Regis – in the west – to Beachy Head in the east . Despite being in reserve , historians Michael Glover and Jonathan Riley note that the Royal Welch Fusiliers battalions of the 115th Brigade all took part in coastal defence duties .
On 1 December 1941 , the division was placed on the Lower Establishment , having been earmarked for a static home defence role . During 1942 , the division was assigned to V Corps and had shifted west to defend the Dorset coastline . Notably , on 27 and 28 February , the anti @-@ aircraft platoon of the 4th Battalion , Monmouthshire Regiment , supported Operation Biting , the commando raid on Bruneval , France . In July , the division lost the 10th Royal Welch Fusiliers to the Parachute Regiment . The division spent 1943 and early 1944 moving around the country spending time in Kent , Hertfordshire and Northumberland , as well being assigned to II and XII Corps . By March , the 115th Infantry Brigade had formed " ' B ' Marshalling Area " and was aiding the movement of troops in preparation for Operation Overlord .
By 1944 , there were five Lower Establishment divisions allocated to home defence duties : the 38th , the 45th , the 47th ( London ) , the 55th ( West Lancashire ) and the 61st Infantry divisions . These five divisions had a combined total of 17 @,@ 845 men . Of this number , around 13 @,@ 000 were available as replacements for the 21st Army Group fighting in France . The remaining 4 @,@ 800 men were considered ineligible for service abroad at that time for a variety of reasons , including a lack of training , or being medically unfit . Over the following six months , up to 75 per cent of these men would be deployed to reinforce 21st Army Group following the completion of their training and certification of fitness . Specifically , the vast majority of the 1st Brecknockshire Battalion , South Wales Borderers were deployed to Normandy at the end of June as replacements to reinforce 21st Army Group , and by mid @-@ July so had the 2nd Battalion , Herefordshire Light Infantry , resulting in that battalion being disbanded . Stephen Hart comments that , by September , the 21st Army Group " had bled Home Forces dry of draftable riflemen " after the losses suffered during the Battle of Normandy , leaving the army in Britain , with the exception of the 52nd ( Lowland ) Infantry Division , with just " young lads , old men and the unfit " .
Compounding the loss of men to reinforce 21st Army Group , on 3 July the 115th Infantry Brigade was withdrawn from the division . The brigade was earmarked for an operation to liberate the Channel Islands and was re @-@ designated Force 135 . Ultimately such an operation did not take place and the brigade was deployed to Europe . During August , the 38th ( Welsh ) Infantry Division began to disperse . On 15 August , the divisional headquarters ceased commanding any subordinate units and by the end of the month the division was disbanded .
= = = Training = = =
During 1944 , the British Army was suffering from a severe shortage of manpower . In an effort to downsize the army and consolidate as many men within as few formations as possible to maintain fighting strength and efficiency , the War Office began disbanding divisions , including the 80th Infantry ( Reserve ) Division . As part of this restructure , the decision was made to retain division numbers familiar to the British public . On 1 September 1944 , the 38th Division was recreated as the 38th Infantry ( Reserve ) Division to replace the 80th as Western Command 's training formation . The new 38th Division was commanded by Major @-@ General Lionel Howard Cox , who had previously commanded the 80th Division . At this point , the divisional insignia was worn only by the permanent members of the division .
The 38th , along with the 45th Holding , the 47th Infantry ( Reserve ) and the 48th Infantry ( Reserve ) Division , were used to complete the training of new army recruits . At the division , the soldiers were given five weeks of additional training at the section , platoon and company level , before undertaking a final three @-@ day exercise . Troops would then be ready to be sent overseas to join other formations .
Undertaking this role , for example , the 5th Battalion , King 's Shropshire Light Infantry – between 1944 and 1945 – trained over 4 @,@ 000 replacements for other battalions within the regiment as well as the North Staffordshire Regiment . Having fulfilled its purpose , the division was disbanded at the end of the war .
= = General officer commanding = =
The division had the following commanders during the First World War :
The division had the following commanders during the Second World War :
= = Orders of Battle = =
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= Henry Gardner =
Henry Joseph Gardner ( June 14 , 1819 – July 21 , 1892 ) was the 23rd Governor of Massachusetts , serving from 1855 to 1858 . Gardner , a Know Nothing , and was elected governor as part of the sweeping victory of Know Nothing candidates in the Massachusetts elections of 1854 .
Born in Dorchester , Gardner was a dry goods merchant from Boston active in the local Whig Party in the early 1850s . With the sudden and secretive rise of the nativist Know Nothings in 1854 , Gardner opportunistically repudiated previously @-@ held positions , and joined the movement , winning a landslide victory over Whig Emory Washburn . During his three terms in office the Know Nothing legislatures enacted legislation on a wide @-@ ranging reform agenda , and made several significant changes to the state constitution , including important electoral reforms such as the replacement of majority voting with plurality voting .
The Know Nothing movement began to disintegrate not long after its 1854 victory , dividing over slavery . Gardner won reelection in 1856 only with Republican support , given in exchange for Know Nothing support for the Republican presidential candidate , John Frémont . Republican Nathaniel Prentice Banks easily defeated Gardner in 1857 , and the Know Nothing movement effectively dissolved . By 1860 Gardner had left politics and returned to his business interests ; he died in relative obscurity .
= = Early life = =
Henry Joseph Gardner was born in Dorchester , Massachusetts ( then a community separate from Boston ) on June 14 , 1819 , to Henry Gardner and Clarissa Holbrook Gardner . His grandfather , also named Henry Gardner , was a well @-@ respected Harvard graduate , was politically active during the American Revolution and served as the state 's treasurer 1774 – 82 . The younger Henry was first educated in private schools in the Boston area , and then attended Phillips Exeter Academy , from which he graduated in 1831 . He then attended Bowdoin College , and embarked on a career as a dry goods merchant in Boston , a business in which he remained until 1876 . In 1844 he married Helen Cobb of Portland , Maine ; they had seven children .
= = Entry into politics = =
In 1850 Gardner , politically a Whig , was elected to the Boston City Council , serving until 1853 . He was a moderately conservative Websterite Whig who was involved in the state party organization , serving on its central organizing committee . In 1854 he broke with the Whigs over their support of the pro @-@ slavery Kansas @-@ Nebraska Act , and became involved in the nativist Know Nothing movement . This shift in position was fairly radical on Gardner 's part , and was viewed by contemporaries and recent historians as politically opportunist . Prior to joining the Know Nothings he had not displayed any nativist sentiments , and had even supported an Irish American in a bid to become justice of the peace . He also switched from a moderate Websterite position on slavery to an abolitionist stance , and supported positions on prohibition of alcohol that he had previously opposed . The Whig statesman Edward Everett described Gardner as " a man of some cleverness , but no solidity of character . "
The Know Nothing convention in October 1854 chose Gardner as its gubernatorial candidate , in part because his stand on slavery was not as radical as that of Republican candidate Henry Wilson , who was also seeking Know Nothing support . Wilson eventually made a deal with the Know Nothings , withdrawing from the race at the last moment in exchange for Know Nothing support in a United States Senate bid . The campaign was relatively sedate , because both the Whigs and Democrats did not organize large @-@ scale events . The larger parties may have been concerned that rallies would be poorly attended due to defections to the Know Nothings . The aristocratic Whigs fielded incumbent governor Emory Washburn to stand for reelection . They were particularly dismissive of the Know Nothings : one commentator described the Know Nothing ticket as " spavined ministers , lying toothpullers , and buggering priests " who were led by " that rickety vermin of a Henry J. Gardner . " Gardner was , however , optimistic , warning one journalist that he would win by a large majority . The election was a landslide : Gardner won 79 % of the vote , and the state legislature and Congressional delegation were almost entirely populated by Know Nothings .
= = Governor of Massachusetts = =
The legislature elected in the Know Nothing sweep was unlike any that preceded it : almost all of its members were new to elected office . The 1855 session was one of the most productive in the state 's history , with about 600 bills and resolutions passed . In his inaugural address , Gardner set what he hoped was a tone that would solidify his position has the party leader . The speech focused almost to exclusion on nativist issues , and included hyperbolic claims that the level of immigration was reaching crisis proportions . Gardner notably omitted popular substantive reform issues such as the ten @-@ hour workday , and also avoided the contentious subject of slavery .
= = = Reforms = = =
The 1855 legislature passed a wide variety of reform legislation , most of which Gardner signed . A board of insurance with broad powers of inspection was created ; bankruptcy laws were changed to benefit lower @-@ class individuals ; imprisonment for debt was abolished . Vaccinations were mandated for all school children , women were given the right to own property on their own , and exempted from responsibility for their husbands ' debts ; and restrictions were placed on child labor . Schools were desegregated , a reform school for girls was established , and state funding was withdrawn from parochial schools . Cities and towns were authorized to engage in a wide variety of civic improvements , including the building of highways , gas , water , and sewer lines , and public transport facilities such as docks and wharves . One of the major reforms that was not enacted , despite vigorous debate , was legislation calling for a ten @-@ hour workday .
Several amendments to the state constitution were enacted during Gardner 's term . All of them originated in the 1853 constitutional convention , whose proposals , although popular , were poorly organized and defeated in a popular referendum . Plurality voting , which had previously been enacted legislatively to apply to federal elections , was extended to state elections . More state executive offices were made elective , including the Governor 's Council , Attorney General , Secretary of State , Auditor , and Treasurer . The state 's rules for districting were reformed so that they were based on districts drawn by population instead of by towns .
One reform that was immediately a subject of controversy was a harsh prohibition law , which criminalized the service of a glass of grog with a six @-@ month jail sentence . The bill , signed into law by Gardner , was immediately protested , and legislators who passed it were later criticized for charging bar tabs to the state when they traveled .
= = = Nativist issues = = =
Some legislation and executive action was squarely aimed at addressing nativist concerns . So @-@ called " foreign " militia , composed of Irish immigrants , were disbanded , and foreigners were not allowed in police forces or state government jobs . The state deported more than 1 @,@ 000 allegedly indigent aliens , inciting protest over abuses . One notable case involved the deportation to Liverpool of a woman with an American @-@ born infant without any means of support . Gardner reported that the state saved $ 100 @,@ 000 by this process .
The most scandalous aspect of the nativist agenda was the legislature 's investigation of alleged abuses in Roman Catholic boarding houses . Joseph Hiss , one of the principal investigators , was reported to have made lewd remarks to nuns in these establishments , and was later found to engage in drinking and the hiring of prostitutes . The scandal received a great deal of press and badly tarnished the Know Nothings .
= = = Slavery = = =
Before Gardner 's election , on May 24 , 1854 , Anthony Burns was arrested in Boston as a fugitive under the Fugitive Slave Law of 1850 . Edward G. Loring , a Suffolk County probate judge who also served as U.S. commissioner of the Circuit Court in Massachusetts , ordered that Burns be forced back into slavery in Virginia , outraging abolitionists and the increasingly antislavery public in Massachusetts . Under the pressure of a public petition campaign spearheaded by William Lloyd Garrison , the legislature passed two Bills of Address , in 1855 and 1856 , calling for Judge Loring to be removed from his state office , but in both cases Gardner declined to remove Loring . A third Bill of Address to remove Loring from office was later approved by Gardner 's Republican successor , Nathaniel Prentice Banks .
The Know @-@ Nothing legislature also passed , over Gardner 's veto , one of the most stringent personal liberty laws , designed to make enforcement of the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850 as difficult for slave claimants as possible . Gardner said that the law would exacerbate relations between North and South , and called for its repeal . Minority parties in the legislature sought to weaken the bill , but its major provisions , including rights of habeas corpus , jury trial , and state @-@ funded defense , survived .
= = = Later elections = = =
In 1855 the national Know Nothing convention split on the subject of slavery . Prominent antislavery Know Nothing supporters in Massachusetts , including Henry Wilson , began another attempt ( after having failed in 1854 ) to form a party with abolition as a major focus . This effort resulted in the formation of the Republican Party , which sought to negotiate with the Know Nothings for a fusion of the two parties . However , Massachusetts Know Nothing leadership refused fusion and Republican leadership refused coalition , with many Republicans skeptical of Gardner 's fidelity to the antislavery cause despite his support for fusion . The parties ended up fielding separate slates of candidates , and many Know Nothing politicians and supporters switched allegiance . In the fall election Gardner , running on a strictly nativist platform , garnered 38 % of the vote , to the 27 % of Republican Julius Rockwell . With the new plurality voting rule in effect , Gardner won the election , but the split ( and disaffection in some circles with the Know Nothing agenda ) cost him support from former Free Soilers and Democrats . In the 1856 election Gardner benefited from a deal with the Republicans , who refused to run a candidate for governor in exchange for Know Nothing support for their presidential candidate , John C. Frémont . He easily won reelection , although many Republicans voted for a protest candidate instead of supporting him . He attempted to parlay the Republican support into an election to the United States Senate ( a matter then decided by the state senate early in its session ) replacing Charles Sumner . However , Republican operatives maneuvered the Senate into voting before Gardner 's speech opening the 1857 session , and Sumner was easily reelected .
Although the nation was wracked by the Panic of 1857 and Bleeding Kansas , the election in Massachusetts that year hinged on other factors . Gardner was opposed by Republican ( and former Know Nothing ) Nathaniel Prentice Banks and Democrat Erasmus Beach . Gardner was accused of having become little more than a tool of the formerly Whig industrial interests , and Banks was adept at bringing many former Know Nothings into his camp , most importantly John Z. Goodrich who attested to Banks ' strong antislavery credentials . Gardner sought to focus the contests on local issues , but slavery predominated as an issue , and Banks won a comfortable victory .
In 1858 Gardner sought to bring what remained of the Know Nothings into a coalition with the Democrats , but his attempts to find a suitable candidate were unsuccessful . That year 's Know Nothing candidate , Amos A. Lawrence , trailed well behind Banks .
= = Later life = =
Gardner continued in his dry goods business until 1876 , and became an agent for the Massachusetts Life Insurance Company in 1887 . He died in Milton , Massachusetts on July 21 , 1892 . In the 1850s he was recognized by Harvard University with honorary degrees , and he was made a member of the Ancient and Honorable Artillery Company in 1855 .
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= EastEnders : E20 =
EastEnders : E20 ( sometimes just E20 ) is a British Internet soap opera , which began airing on 8 January 2010 . A spin @-@ off from the established BBC soap EastEnders , it is set in EastEnders ' regular setting of Albert Square , a Victorian square in the fictional borough of Walford , in the East End of London . Each series follows a group of teenage characters : Zsa Zsa Carter ( Emer Kenny ) , Leon Small ( Sam Attwater ) , Fatboy ( Ricky Norwood ) and Mercy Olubunmi ( Bunmi Mojekwu ) in series 1 ; Asher Levi ( Heshima Thompson ) and his brother Sol ( Tosin Cole ) , Naz Mehmet ( Emaa Hussen ) , and Stevie Dickinson ( Amanda Fairbank @-@ Hynes ) in series 2 ; and Ava Bourne ( Sophie Colquhoun ) , Donnie Lester ( Samuell Benta ) and Faith Olubunmi ( Modupe Adeyeye ) in series 3 . The show 's title comes from Walford 's fictional London postcode district , E20 . The four characters from series 1 also appear in EastEnders , as well as Faith from series 3 .
EastEnders : E20 originally aired as part of the main show 's 25th anniversary celebrations . It was devised in a bid to develop and nurture new talent , including writers , actors , composers and remixers , and target a younger audience , as well as to attempt to drive more people onto the Internet . The series was the idea of executive producers Diederick Santer , who wanted a show where regular EastEnders characters would be in the background , and John Yorke , who wanted to improve the portrayal of teenagers in EastEnders and to get younger people writing for it .
The show 's writers , all newcomers aged between 17 and 22 , were selected through a writing competition , and created the series at a BBC summer school . The theme tune was also selected through a competition , promoted on BBC Radio 1 . The show primarily operates as a standalone series but also cross @-@ references storylines of the main soap , and features cameo appearances from several of the regular characters from EastEnders . The episodes are between three and 16 minutes each in length and are available via EastEnders ' official website . Omnibus editions were also available on BBC iPlayer , BBC Red Button and , from April 2010 , BBC Three .
= = Conception and development = =
EastEnders : E20 was conceived by executive producer Diederick Santer as part of EastEnders ' 25th anniversary celebrations . Described as the " naughty little brother or sister to the main show " , it was devised in a bid to target younger viewers and to develop and nurture new talent . Executive producer John Yorke , who oversaw the show , and is also controller of BBC drama production and new talent , said " Fundamentally the whole idea of the show is it 's a training ground for new talent , be that acting , writing , composing , remixing , everything . The fact is because it 's online , we can take risks . " Nevertheless , the makers said they knew they had to get it right because " the eyes of the World Wide Web would be watching . "
Santer conceived the idea of a " parallel universe show " with new characters , where the regular characters are in the background . Yorke sought to improve the portrayal of teenagers in EastEnders and to get younger people writing for it . The ideas came together and EastEnders : E20 was created in what Yorke described as " one of the quickest periods from idea to screen I 've ever known . " Regarding the decision to create an online drama , Yorke said , " People don 't watch television at fixed times anymore , they use iPlayer [ to ] get it at their convenience and so it made sense to make a programme that [ viewers ] can specifically get at their convenience . " The show 's producer , Deborah Sathe , added , " Technology is changing and it 's changing really quickly and I think it 's really appropriate that the BBC is leading the way in offering online content . " The first series was commissioned by multi @-@ platform commissioning executive Rosie Allimonos .
Another incentive for the show was to get more people to use the Internet . Sathe stated that it was an opportunity for younger people to bring the older members of their families onto the internet , and Yorke hoped that it would bring people onto the internet who had not used it before . Simon Nelson , BBC Vision controller of multiplatform and portfolio , said that this was an opportunity for the BBC to develop its expertise in drama production by exploiting the creative potential of the Internet to create a new online drama where few have succeeded . EastEnders : E20 primarily operates as a standalone series but also cross @-@ references storylines of the main soap . According to Santer , the series also explores the stories of the soap 's anonymous bystanders . He said , " There are always other people [ in EastEnders ] milling round the market and houses that we never go into . There are four or five parallels you could do . It will be nice to see well @-@ known characters through strangers ' eyes . Ian Beale may show up and he is just a strange , irritating man . Or they might ask : ' Who is that moody girl in the market ? ' And it will be Stacey Slater . "
= = = Series 2 = = =
The second series was announced on 8 April 2010 , brought back by Santer 's successor , Bryan Kirkwood and commissioned by Sarah Clay . Nelson explained " We had no hesitation in commissioning another series , something which will delight the 17 @,@ 000 fans who 've been calling for more episodes on the E20 Facebook page . " Script producer Peter Mattessi promised that the second series would take the characters to darker , scarier and more unattractive parts of their personalities , writer Muge Ahmet said it would be sexier , and Sathe stated there would be big secrets , while writer Alex Oates said that the show and the writers had grown up a lot since the first series . The Daily Star newspaper reported that the second series would be more controversial than the first , including scenes of drug dealing and violence .
With the return of the series , Sathe explained that some of the show 's writers had already worked with the EastEnders team on storylines for the characters they had created , and hoped this would continue as the E20 brand develops , and that the show would become a " junior version " of the BBC Writers Academy . Series 2 sees the introduction of street dance to the series to give it an " authentic East End flavour of youth " . The episodes were made all the same length following complaints about the length of episodes in the first series and the decision to show the series on BBC Three . Social networking site Twitter was also used to introduce teasers , with four of the characters having their own profiles .
= = = Series 3 = = =
A third series was announced on 27 September 2010 , commissioned by BBC Learning , as part of a new BBC strategy to provide learning opportunities for all audiences . Saul Nassé , Controller of Learning , said , " I want to use BBC programmes that are known and loved by audiences that can serve as springboards for learning . [ ... ] We 'll be enlisting the help of the BBC 's best talent to maximise the reach of our output , " and Sathe commented , " We are thrilled with the success of the first two series and have already started to storyline the third . Be prepared for a few familiar faces , a couple of new ones and a lot of fireworks . " It was confirmed that Learning would fund the third series and work with young people to develop storylines " that bring to life subjects in the Personal , Social , Health Education ( PSHE ) curriculum such as bullying or peer pressure . " A regional schools tour was organised to tie in with the launch of the series , with pupils writing short scenes based on scenarios tying in with the PSHE curriculum , which were performed , filmed and edited . Sarah Miller , BBC Learning commissioner and executive producer of series 3 , explained : " The schools tour was a terrific opportunity to deliver powerful face @-@ to @-@ face workshops , giving students and teachers the opportunity to develop key media production skills and to get behind the scenes of a top BBC drama . "
= = Production = =
The show is produced by television newcomer Deborah Sathe . The production process for series 1 took about six months , from commissioning to the final cut . Yorke stated that , " Television takes a notoriously long time to make and one of the joys of doing this online is that it 's been incredibly quick , about a quarter of the time it would take a normal show to get off the ground . It 's smaller , it 's easier to do and also there 's a collective will for it to succeed . "
= = = Writing = = =
The first series was written by a team of 13 writers from London aged between 17 and 22 who responded to a writing competition and attended a summer school in August 2009 as part of the BBC 's new talent initiative , where they created the entire series . The summer school took place over four weeks , with the first two weeks in Theatre Royal Stratford East and the last two at the BBC centre at Elstree Studios . The writers did not know they would be writing a spin @-@ off to EastEnders until they arrived . The writers , including Florence Vincent , Alex Oates , Kashman Harris and Emer Kenny , also wrote the ten episodes of series 2 . They are from various parts of London , which Sathe said was " brilliant " as they represent different parts of life in London , and they have grown up with the Internet as a native medium . Santer stated that the writers created a new Walford , calling it a " fresh perspective on a British classic . " The writers were given a day to travel around East London to listen to people talking to get ideas . Sathe commented : " We created some brilliant scenes from the eavesdropping stuff . " After the summer school , the writers were commissioned to write the 12 episodes of series 1 . Some of the scripts were allowed by be changed by the actors if they thought lines were not authentic , such as the use of London street slang . Sathe considered the use of slang to be a highlight of the series , calling it her proudest moment . Storylining and character creation for series 2 started in January 2010 . The third series used mostly different writers to the first two . Each potential writer had to send in a monologue for a character they would like to see on television and the production team chose their favourites . The writers were then asked to write a scene between their character and one of the established EastEnders characters . Following this , the writers were interviewed and the most promising fifteen were selected . Kenny returned as a writer for series 3 and was joined by several of the young EastEnders cast members : Arinze Kene ( Connor Stanley ) , Himesh Patel ( Tamwar Masood ) and Charlie G Hawkins ( Darren Miller ) .
= = = Filming = = =
EastEnders : E20 is filmed on the same set as EastEnders , using three handheld cameras to give it a more " edgy " feel compared to EastEnders , which is filmed with cameras on tripods . Director Michael Keillor stated that although using handheld cameras is normally easier , the fact it was shot with a multiple @-@ camera setup made it more challenging and created problems for the lighting and props teams as nobody knew exactly where the camera would be . Keillor said it was a " particularly tough day " when filming a party scene in a flat , as normally walls of the set would be removed but all the walls were left in to make it look more realistic , meaning the crew overheated . Series 1 was filmed over ten days with approximately 120 minutes of television being shot . Each of the first series ' 12 episodes are between three and 16 minutes in length . The second series features 10 episodes averaging 14 minutes each , which was due to complaints from viewers about the length of some of the episodes in series 1 . Series 3 was scheduled to begin filming on 8 May 2011 , lasting for four weeks .
= = = Music = = =
Unlike EastEnders , E20 uses incidental music , which Scott Matthewman of The Stage said makes it feel like an episode of Hollyoaks , a Channel 4 soap opera targeted at a teen audience . A remix of the EastEnders theme tune was created for the series , with members of the public submitting remixes in a competition held on the BBC website . The competition opened on 11 November 2009 and was officially launched on 13 November by Annie Mac on her BBC Radio 1 show . More than 250 entries were submitted . They were reduced to four and judged by Sathe , Santer , Keillor , original theme tune composer Simon May , and BBC Radio 1Xtra 's DJ Ace . The winner , 21 @-@ year @-@ old Carl Darling , was announced on 4 December 2009 . He said " I was very excited to hear that my track was chosen by such an eclectic judging panel . And to spend time in the BBC studios and walking around the Square was phenomenal . I have grown up hearing Simon May 's original theme tune and watching Albert Square and the iconic Queen Vic , so I feel very privileged to be a part of EastEnders : E20 history ! " Darling explained that he wanted to keep all the " essential features " of the original theme , but to make a grimy drum and bass version .
Additionally producers worked with BBC Introducing to give unsigned bands and musicians the chance to have their music used on the series 2 soundtrack , and grime music producer Aiden " S.K.I.T.Z Beatz " Hogarth was appointed music director and composer , having been unable to take the role for series 1 . He said " For E20 I will be providing all the best and what 's current from the underground and mainstream music scene and instead of having the music playing out of stereos and stalls , we 've taken the step to compose and source music as a soundtrack . Something seasoned EastEnders fans may not be familiar with . I honestly think that the viewers are ready for a refreshing and brand new take on how music direction for this show and others like it should be done . "
= = Casting = =
Casting of the new characters for series 1 was announced on 25 November 2009 . Open auditions were held at Theatre Royal Stratford East , followed by recalls until the possible actors were reduced to eight and then four . Yorke described it as a " painful process " and they had difficulty finding someone to play Zsa Zsa Carter . Emer Kenny was cast in the role whilst writing the second episode . Yorke said " She was so good that we suddenly went , ' It 's her ! ' " Kenny said , " I 'm really thrilled to have been given the opportunity to both write for and act in a show connected with such an iconic drama as EastEnders . Kids these days use their laptops more than their televisions , so it 's really exciting to be a part of a project that 's taking drama online and connecting with these viewers . " To prepare for the role , Kenny had to disguise her " posh " accent , saying that when the director asked her what she would do about her voice , she travelled around the East End to listen to the way people spoke .
On his casting in the role of Fatboy , television newcomer Ricky Norwood said , " It 's an honour to now be a part of [ the ] show . I am born and bred in the East End [ so ] it feels like a homecoming . " Norwood adapted his own use of slang into the character to " try and bring it and from a true place . " Bunmi Mojekwu , who plays Mercy Olubunmi , commented " I feel so blessed to be part of EastEnders : E20 . My first day on set was just crazy . I was on Albert Square – a dream come true – I 'm enjoying every second . " Sam Attwater , who previously appeared in five episodes of Hollyoaks , was cast as boxer Leon Small . On his casting , he commented , " It 's a great privilege to be working with such great actors and on such an established show . It 's an amazing opportunity and I 'm really enjoying tackling a character like Leon who has so much going on , " He prepared for the role by attending a gym , as the character has a lot of topless scenes . He said : " As soon as I heard that I was straight down the gym . Lots of crunches . Everyone said don 't worry about it , but every time I did one of those scenes I had to watch it back and see how it looked because there will be 10 million people watching it . I want to be on the best form . "
The cast for series 2 were announced on 29 July 2010 . Heshima Thompson and Tosin Cole were cast as brothers Asher and Sol Levi . Cole , who has previously starred in a modern adaptation of Shakespeare 's Julius Caesar , said , " It 's a privilege to work on something so big but so different . Everyone is fantastic to work with . I 'm really excited . " Thompson , who has appeared in The Bill and Spooks , stated " It 's a great project to be a part of and I get to dance so this is going to be fun . " Emaa Hussen was cast as Naz Mehmet , her first professional acting role , on which she commented : " it 's a really exciting place to start my career . I 'm from East London and a big fan of EastEnders , which is one of the reasons I wanted to do the show . " Finally , Amanda Fairbank @-@ Hynes , who appeared in An Education , said of her casting as Stevie Dickinson , " It all happened so quickly but I 'm really excited to be working on EastEnders . It 's an amazing group of people and they are great to work with . " Additionally , Hollyoaks actress Roxanne McKee , and dance acts Flawless and Avant Garde also make appearances . Flawless were asked to appear in the show by Sathe , who has previously worked with Marlon Wallen from the troupe .
= = Broadcasting = =
Each of the first series ' episodes were made available on varying days of the week at 8.30pm via EastEnders ' official website , starting on 8 January 2010 and ending on 25 January 2010 . The series was also available in three omnibus shows on BBC iPlayer and via BBC Red Button after the EastEnders omnibus aired on BBC One . The first omnibus , comprising episodes 1 – 4 , was available for one week from 17 January . The second omnibus was available for one week from 24 January , containing episodes 5 – 8 . Episodes 9 – 12 were available as an omnibus from 31 January 2010 . Additionally , the series was re @-@ edited into three 30 @-@ minute editions and shown weekly on BBC Three from 23 April 2010 .
The second series began on 7 September 2010 , with two episodes being made available weekly on Tuesdays and Thursdays , excluding episode 2 , which was available on a Wednesday . The series comprises 10 episodes in total of around 14 minutes each , and was also screened in five omnibus editions on BBC Three on Monday nights . Series 3 comprises 15 episodes of around 10 minutes each . Extra footage , such as video blogs and behind @-@ the @-@ scenes clips , is also available online . All episodes from all three series remain available to view on the BBC website .
= = Characters = =
Each series features new teenage characters who move to Walford , as well as cameos from existing characters from the main show . The characters are described as sixth form students trying to escape from " family problems and crises of their own making " . Series 1 follows Zsa Zsa , Fatboy , Mercy and Leon , who move into 89b George Street in Walford . Leon , Fatboy and Zsa Zsa also appeared briefly in EastEnders in January 2010 before EastEnders : E20 started , and returned as regular characters when EastEnders : E20 ended . It was later announced that due to positive reaction to the character , Mercy would also join EastEnders later in 2010 . Series 2 follows brothers Sol and Asher , plus Naz and Stevie . Sathe said there was a " good chance " that they would also appear in EastEnders at some point . Zsa Zsa , Mercy and Leon also have cameo appearances in series 2 , and Fatboy has a recurring role . Series 3 follows newcomers Ava , Donnie and Faith , Mercy 's sister . Donnie 's younger sister , Riley , also appears along with Richard , a care worker . Naz and Sol also make a cameo appearance . Fatboy continues his recurring role , along with Mercy and Faith 's grandmother Grace Olubunmi , and regular EastEnders character Zainab Masood .
= = Reception = =
= = = Viewership and critical reception = = =
Between 8 and 21 January 2010 , EastEnders : E20 material available via the EastEnders website and BBC iPlayer , including episodes , behind the scenes videos and extra content , received 1 @.@ 7 million views . By 19 February 2010 , the episodes had 2 @.@ 8 million views with additional content pushing the total to 3 @.@ 3 million . Santer was reported to be " knocked out " by the figures , saying : " For our little side project , something that started life as an experiment , to go so big is very exciting . I 'm delighted in particular that the 13 young London writers who wrote the series have reached such an audience with their first professional work . " EastEnders : E20 's official Facebook fan page grew in membership from 100 to 5000 in a matter of hours after the spin @-@ off started , and as of 19 February 2010 , had over 16 @,@ 000 fans . Yorke said that due to the popularity of the first series , they hoped to make further spin @-@ offs . The first BBC Three omnibus edition on 23 April 2010 received 302 @,@ 000 viewers and a 1 @.@ 4 % audience share according to overnight figures. by 13 October 2011 , series 3 had gained viewing figures across both BBC Online and BBC Three of 1 @.@ 2 million viewers , and a 50 % increase in its online audience since it launched on 20 September 2011 . Sathe commented : " I am thrilled to see E20 has sustained its position as a front @-@ runner in online drama . " Grace Dent of The Guardian described the series as " rather brilliant " , while Patrick Smith of The Daily Telegraph called it " vibrant " and Tony Stewart of the Daily Mirror called Zsa Zsa an " impressive " character . However , website Watch With Mothers gave a negative review of the show , saying " there ’ s no need for it . " After the first episode of series 2 was available , Scott Matthewman from The Stage said " while it 's good to have more black and minority ethnic characters in the Square , by concentrating on a very narrow age range of characters it 'll make it all the harder for any new blood to effectively mesh into the full show . "
= = = Awards and nominations = = =
In 2010 , EastEnders : E20 was shorlisted for a Banff World Television Festival award in the Original Online Programs category . In April 2011 , the show was nominated for a Webby Award in the Drama category . Sathe commented on this : " I am so proud of what we have achieved with EastEnders : E20 , and to be nominated for a Webby proves how far the series has come . " The show went on to win the award , on which Yorke stated , " To win such a prestigious award is a huge honour for all the team — and proof that the EastEnders brand is as brave and innovatory as it was when it first started , a quarter of a century ago . " In December 2011 , Sathe won the Creative Innovation Award at the Women in TV & Film Awards for her work on E20 .
In 2012 , Benta received a Screen Nation Awards nomination in the Emerging Talent category for his role as Donnie , while Adeyeye received a special mention for her role as Faith . The same year , the series was nominated in the Best Soap category at the Virgin Media TV Awards .
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= Jim Henson =
James Maury " Jim " Henson ( September 24 , 1936 – May 16 , 1990 ) was an American puppeteer , artist , cartoonist , inventor , screenwriter , songwriter , musician , actor , film director , and producer who achieved international fame as the creator of the Muppets . Born in Greenville , Mississippi , and raised in Leland , Mississippi , and Hyattsville , Maryland , Henson began developing puppets while attending high school . While he was a freshman at the University of Maryland , College Park , he created Sam and Friends , a five @-@ minute sketch @-@ comedy puppet show that appeared on television . After graduating from the University of Maryland with a degree in home economics , he produced coffee advertisements and developed some experimental films . Feeling the need for more creative output , Henson founded Muppets Inc. in 1958 ( which would later become the Jim Henson Company ) .
Henson became famous in the 1960s when he joined the children 's educational television program Sesame Street , and there helped develop characters for the series . He also appeared in the sketch comedy show Saturday Night Live . In 1976 , after scrapping plans for a Broadway show , he produced The Muppet Show . He won fame for his creations , particularly Kermit the Frog , Rowlf the Dog , and Ernie , and he was involved with Sesame Street for over 20 years . He also had frequent roles in Muppets films such as The Muppet Movie , The Great Muppet Caper and The Muppets Take Manhattan , and created advanced puppets for projects like Fraggle Rock , The Dark Crystal , and Labyrinth . During the later years of his life , he also founded the Jim Henson Foundation , and Jim Henson 's Creature Shop . His involvement in two television programs — The Storyteller and The Jim Henson Hour — led to Emmy Awards wins .
Henson died suddenly in May 1990 , aged 53 , from streptococcal toxic shock syndromes – an unexpected event that was widely lamented in the film and television industries . In the weeks after his death , he was celebrated in a wave of tributes . He was posthumously inducted into Hollywood Walk of Fame in 1991 , and as a Disney Legend in 2011 .
= = Early life : 1936 – 61 = =
Born in Greenville , Mississippi on September 24 , 1936 , Henson was the younger of two children of Paul Ransom Henson ( 1904 – 1994 ) , an agronomist for the U.S. Department of Agriculture , and his wife , Betty Marcella ( née Brown ; 1904 – 1972 ) . He was raised as a Christian Scientist and spent his early childhood in Leland , Mississippi , before moving with his family to Hyattsville , Maryland , near Washington , D.C. , in the late 1940s . He later remembered the arrival of the family 's first television as " the biggest event of his adolescence , " having been heavily influenced by radio ventriloquist Edgar Bergen and the early television puppets of Burr Tillstrom ( on Kukla , Fran , and Ollie ) and Bil and Cora Baird .
He remained a Christian Scientist at least into his twenties when he would teach Sunday School but fifteen years before he died he wrote to a Christian Science church to inform them he was no longer a practicing member .
In 1954 , while attending Northwestern High School , he began working for WTOP @-@ TV ( now WUSA @-@ TV ) , creating puppets for a Saturday morning children 's show called The Junior Morning Show . After graduating from high school , Henson enrolled at the University of Maryland , College Park , as a studio arts major , thinking he might become a commercial artist . A puppetry class offered in the applied arts department introduced him to the craft and textiles courses in the College of Home Economics , and he graduated in 1960 with a BS in home economics . As a freshman , he had been asked to create Sam and Friends , a five @-@ minute puppet show for WRC @-@ TV . The characters on Sam and Friends were forerunners of Muppets , and the show included a prototype of Henson 's most famous character : Kermit the Frog . Henson would remain at WRC for seven years from 1954 to 1961 . Among the first of his assignments at WRC was Afternoon , a magazine show aimed at housewives . This marked his first collaboration with Jane Nebel — the woman who later became his wife .
In the show , he began experimenting with techniques that would change the way puppetry had been used on television , including using the frame defined by the camera shot to allow the puppet performer to work from off @-@ camera . Believing that television puppets needed to have " life and sensitivity , " Henson began making characters from flexible , fabric @-@ covered foam rubber , allowing them to express a wider array of emotions at a time when many puppets were made of carved wood . A marionette 's arms are manipulated by strings , but Henson used rods to move his Muppets ' arms , allowing greater control of expression . Additionally , Henson wanted the Muppet characters to " speak " more creatively than was possible for previous puppets — which had seemed to have random mouth movements — so he used precise mouth movements to match the dialogue .
When Henson began work on Sam and Friends , he asked fellow University of Maryland sophomore Jane Nebel to assist him . The show was a financial success , but after graduating from college , Henson began to have doubts about going into a career performing with puppets . He wandered off to Europe for several months , where he was inspired by European puppet performances which look on their work as an art form . Upon Henson 's return to the United States , he and Jane began dating . They were married in 1959 and had five children , Lisa ( b . 1960 ) , Cheryl ( b . 1961 ) , Brian ( b . 1963 ) , John ( b . 1965 , d . 2014 ) , and Heather ( b . 1970 ) .
= = Television and Muppets : 1961 – 69 = =
Despite the success of Sam and Friends , Henson spent much of the next two decades working in commercials , talk shows , and children 's projects before being able to realize his dream of the Muppets as " entertainment for everybody " . The popularity of his work on Sam and Friends in the late fifties led to a series of guest appearances on network talk and variety shows . Henson himself appeared as a guest on many shows , including The Steve Allen Show , The Jack Paar Program and The Ed Sullivan Show ( although on his appearance on the Sept 11 , 1966 , episode of the show — released to DVD on 2011 as part of a collection of episodes featuring the Rolling Stones — Sullivan mis @-@ introduced Henson as " Jim Newsom and his Puppets " ) . This first national television broadcast greatly increased exposure , which led to hundreds of commercial appearances by Henson characters throughout the sixties . During some downtime during a 1964 appearance on the Jack Paar Program , Henson , Frank Oz , Jerry Juhl , and Don Sahlin found a closet door in their dressing room , behind which there were some exposed pipes . They decided to decorate the pipes , adding paint and fake fur to the pipes to give them goofy and monstrous faces . Everyone in the studio was highly entertained by the pipes , but the door was closed and the pipes were largely forgotten . They were rediscovered in 1980 , when some construction workers were knocking down walls for a remodel and found the pipes . The pipes were left alone , but when Jimmy Fallon took over as Late Night host in 2009 , he encouraged NBC to add the pipes to the studio tour . In 2010 , the pipes were placed in a permanent display as a stop on the tour .
Among the most popular of Henson 's commercials was a series for the local Wilkins Coffee company in Washington , D.C. , in which his Muppets were able to get away with a greater level of slapstick violence than might have been acceptable with human actors and would later find its way into many acts on The Muppet Show . In the first Wilkins ad , a Muppet named Wilkins is poised behind a cannon seen in profile . Another Muppet named Wontkins ( with Rowlf 's voice ) is in front of its barrel . Wilkins asks , " What do you think of Wilkins Coffee ? " and Wontkins responds gruffly , " Never tasted it ! " Wilkins fires the cannon and blows Wontkins away , then turns the cannon directly toward the viewer and ends the ad with , " Now , what do you think of Wilkins ? " Henson later explained , " Till then , advertising agencies believed that the hard sell was the only way to get their message over on television . We took a very different approach . We tried to sell things by making people laugh . " The first seven @-@ second commercial for Wilkins was an immediate hit and was syndicated and re @-@ shot by Henson for local coffee companies across the United States ; he ultimately produced more than 300 coffee ads . The same setup was used to pitch Kraml Milk in the Chicago area , Red Diamond coffee , several bread products , and even Faygo .
In 1963 , Henson and his wife moved to New York City , where the newly formed Muppets , Inc . , would reside for some time . Jane quit performing to raise their children . Henson hired writer Jerry Juhl in 1961 and puppet performer Frank Oz in 1963 to replace her . Henson later credited both with developing much of the humor and character of his Muppets . Henson and Oz developed a close friendship and a performing partnership that lasted 27 years ; their teamwork is particularly evident in their portrayals of the characters of Bert and Ernie , Kermit and Miss Piggy , and Kermit and Fozzie Bear .
Henson 's 1960s talk show appearances culminated when he devised Rowlf , a piano @-@ playing anthropomorphic dog . Rowlf became the first Muppet to make regular appearances on a network show , The Jimmy Dean Show . Henson was so grateful for this break that he offered Jimmy Dean a 40 % interest in his production company , but Dean declined stating that Henson deserved all the rewards for his own work , a decision of conscience Dean never regretted . From 1963 to 1966 , Henson began exploring film @-@ making and produced a series of experimental films . His nine @-@ minute experimental film , Time Piece , was nominated for an Academy Award for Live Action Short Film in 1966 . The year 1969 saw the production of The Cube — another Henson @-@ produced experimental movie .
Also around this time , the first drafts of a live @-@ action experimental movie script were written with Jerry Juhl , which would eventually become Henson 's last unproduced full @-@ length screenplay , Tale of Sand . The script remained in the Henson Company archives until the screenplay was adapted in the 2012 graphic novel , Jim Henson 's Tale of Sand .
= = Sesame Street : 1969 = =
In 1969 , television producer Joan Ganz Cooney and her staff at the Children 's Television Workshop , impressed by the quality and creativity of the Henson @-@ led team , asked Henson and staff to work full @-@ time on Sesame Street , a visionary children 's program for public television . This union of talents would become legendary in television entertainment .
Part of the show was set aside for a series of funny , colorful , puppet characters living on the titular street . These included Grover , Oscar the Grouch , Bert and Ernie , Cookie Monster , Elmo , and Big Bird . Henson performed the characters of Ernie , game @-@ show host Guy Smiley , and Kermit , who appeared as a roving television news reporter . It was around this time that a frill was added around Kermit 's neck to make him more frog @-@ like . The collar was functional as well : it covered the joint where the Muppet 's neck and body met .
At first , Henson 's Muppets appeared separately from the realistic segments on the Street , but after a poor test @-@ screening in Philadelphia , Pennsylvania , the show was revamped to integrate the two , placing much greater emphasis on Henson 's work . Though Henson would often downplay his role in Sesame Street 's success , Cooney frequently praised Jim 's work and , in 1990 , the Public Broadcasting Service called him " the spark that ignited our fledgling broadcast service . " The success of Sesame Street also allowed Henson to stop producing commercials . He later remembered that " it was a pleasure to get out of that world " .
In addition to creating and performing Muppet characters , Henson was involved in producing various shows and animation insets during the first two seasons . During the first , Henson produced a series of counting films for the numbers 1 through 10 , which always ended with a baker ( voiced by Henson ) falling down the stairs while carrying the featured number of desserts . For seasons two to seven , Henson worked on a variety of inserts for the numbers 2 through 12 , in a number of different styles — including film ( " Dollhouse " , " Number Three Ball Film " ) , stop @-@ motion ( " King of Eight " , " Queen of Six " ) , cut @-@ out animation ( " Eleven Cheer " ) , and computer animation ( " Nobody Counts To 10 " ) . Jim Henson also directed the original C Is For Cookie .
Concurrently with the first years of Sesame Street , Henson directed Tales from Muppetland , a short series of TV movie specials — in the form of comedic telling of classic fairy tales — aimed at a young audience and hosted by Kermit the Frog . The series included Hey , Cinderella ! , The Frog Prince , and The Muppet Musicians of Bremen .
= = Expansion of audience : 1970 – 77 = =
Concerned that the company was becoming typecast solely as a purveyor of children 's entertainment , Henson , Frank Oz , and his team targeted an adult audience with a series of sketches on the first season of the groundbreaking comedy series Saturday Night Live ( SNL ) . Eleven " Dregs and Vestiges " sketches , set mostly in the Land of Gorch , aired between October 1975 and January 1976 [ inclusive ] , with four additional appearances in March , April , May , and September [ of 1976 ] . Henson recalled that " I saw what [ creator Lorne Michaels ] was going for and I really liked it and wanted to be a part of it , but somehow what we were trying to do and what his writers could write for it never gelled . " The SNL writers never got comfortable writing for the characters , and frequently disparaged Henson 's creations ; one , Michael O 'Donoghue , quipped , " I won 't write for felt . "
Around the time of Henson 's characters ' final appearances on SNL , he began developing two projects featuring the Muppets : a Broadway show and a weekly television series . In 1976 , the series was initially rejected by the American networks who believed that Muppets would appeal to only a child audience . Then Henson pitched the show to British impresario Lew Grade to finance the show . The show would be shot in the United Kingdom and syndicated worldwide . That same year , he scrapped plans for his Broadway show and moved his creative team to England , where The Muppet Show began taping . The Muppet Show featured Kermit as host , and a variety of other memorable characters , notably Miss Piggy , Gonzo the Great , and Fozzie Bear , along with other characters such as Animal . Kermit 's role on The Muppet Show was often compared by his co @-@ workers to Henson 's role in Muppet Productions : a shy , gentle boss with " A whim of steel " who " [ ran ] things as firmly as it is possible to run an explosion in a mattress factory . " Caroll Spinney , the puppet performer of Big Bird and Oscar the Grouch , remembered that Henson " would never say he didn 't like something . He would just go ' Hmm . ' That was famous . And if he liked it , he would say , ' Lovely ! ' " Henson himself recognized Kermit as an alter @-@ ego , though he thought that Kermit was bolder than he ; he once said of the character , " He can say things I hold back . "
Jim Henson was the performer for several well @-@ known characters , including Kermit the Frog , Rowlf the Dog , Dr. Teeth , the Swedish Chef , Waldorf , and Link Hogthrob .
In 1977 , Henson produced a one @-@ hour television adaptation of the Russell Hoban story Emmet Otter 's Jug @-@ Band Christmas .
= = Transition to the big screen : 1979 – 82 = =
Three years after the start of The Muppet Show , the Muppets appeared in their first theatrical feature film The Muppet Movie . The movie was both a critical and financial success ; it made US $ 65 @.@ 2 million domestically and was at the time the 61st highest @-@ grossing film ever made .
A song from the film , " The Rainbow Connection " , sung by Henson as Kermit , hit number 25 on the Billboard Hot 100 and was nominated for a Best Song Academy Award . In 1981 , a Henson @-@ directed sequel , The Great Muppet Caper , followed , and Henson decided to end the still @-@ popular Muppet Show to concentrate on making films . From time to time , the Muppet characters continued to appear in made @-@ for @-@ TV @-@ movies and television specials .
In addition to his own puppetry projects , Henson aided others in their work . In 1979 , he was asked by the producers of the Star Wars sequel The Empire Strikes Back to aid make @-@ up artist Stuart Freeborn in the creation and articulation of enigmatic Jedi Master Yoda . Henson suggested to Star Wars creator George Lucas , himself a Muppets fan , that he use Frank Oz as the puppeteer and voice of Yoda . Oz voiced Yoda in The Empire Strikes Back and each of the four subsequent Star Wars films . The naturalistic , lifelike Yoda became one of the most popular characters of the Star Wars franchise . Lucas even lobbied unsuccessfully to have Oz nominated for a Best Supporting Actor Academy Award .
In 1982 , Henson founded the Jim Henson Foundation to promote and develop the art of puppetry in the United States . Around that time , he began creating darker and more realistic fantasy films that did not feature the Muppets and displayed " a growing , brooding interest in mortality . " With 1982 's The Dark Crystal , which he co @-@ directed with Frank Oz and co @-@ wrote , Henson said he was " trying to go toward a sense of realism — toward a reality of creatures that are actually alive [ where ] it 's not so much a symbol of the thing , but you 're trying to [ present ] the thing itself . " To provide a visual style distinct from the Muppets , the puppets in The Dark Crystal were based on conceptual artwork by Brian Froud .
The Dark Crystal was a financial and critical success and , a year later , the Muppet @-@ starring The Muppets Take Manhattan ( directed by Frank Oz ) did fair box @-@ office business , grossing $ 25 @.@ 5 million domestically and ranking as one of the top 40 films of 1984 . However , 1986 's Labyrinth , a Crystal @-@ like fantasy that Henson directed by himself , was considered ( in part due to its cost ) a commercial disappointment . Despite some positive reviews ( The New York Times called it " a fabulous film " ) , the commercial failure of Labyrinth demoralized Henson to the point that son Brian Henson remembered the time of its release as being " the closest I 've seen him to turning in on himself and getting quite depressed . " The film later became a cult classic .
Henson and his wife separated the same year , although they remained close for the rest of his life . Jane later said that Jim was so involved with his work that he had very little time to spend with her or their children . All five of his children began working with Muppets at an early age , partly because , as Cheryl Henson remembered , " one of the best ways of being around him was to work with him . "
= = Later life and death : 1983 – 90 = =
Though he was still engaged in creating children 's television , such as the successful eighties shows Fraggle Rock and the animated Muppet Babies , Henson continued to explore darker , mature themes with the folk tale and mythology @-@ oriented show The Storyteller ( 1988 ) , which won an Emmy for Outstanding Children 's Program . The next year , Henson returned to television with The Jim Henson Hour , which mixed lighthearted Muppet fare with riskier material . The show was critically well received and won Henson another Emmy for Outstanding Directing in a Variety or Music Program , but was canceled after 13 episodes due to low ratings . Henson blamed its failure on NBC 's constant rescheduling .
In late 1989 , Henson entered into negotiations to sell his company to The Walt Disney Company for almost $ 150 million , hoping that , with Disney handling business matters , he would " be able to spend a lot more of my time on the creative side of things . " By 1990 , he had completed production on a television special , The Muppets at Walt Disney World , and a Disney World ( later Disney California Adventure Park as well ) attraction , Jim Henson 's Muppet * Vision 3D , and was developing film ideas and a television series titled Muppet High . He also made a Disney show called Little Mermaid 's Island .
In the late 1980s , Henson worked with illustrator / designer William Stout on a feature film starring animatronic dinosaurs with the working title of The Natural History Project . In 1991 , news stories written around the premiere of The Jim Henson Company @-@ produced Dinosaurs sitcom highlighted the show 's connection to Henson . " Jim Henson dreamed up the show 's basic concept about three years ago , " said a New York Times article in April 1991 .
'He wanted it to be a sitcom with a pretty standard structure , with the biggest differences being that it 's a family of dinosaurs and their society has this strange toxic life style , ' said [ his son ] Brian Henson . But until The Simpsons took off , said Alex Rockwell , a vice president of the Henson organization , ' people thought it was a crazy idea.'
A New Yorker article said that Henson continued to work on a dinosaur project ( presumably the Dinosaurs concept ) until the " last months of his life . "
During production of his 1990 projects Henson traveled continuously . By late Spring , Henson began to experience recurring flu @-@ like symptoms . On May 4 , 1990 , Henson appeared with Kermit on The Arsenio Hall Show , one of his last television appearances . At the time , he mentioned to his publicist that he was tired and had a sore throat , but felt that it would go away .
On May 12 , 1990 , Henson traveled to Ahoskie , North Carolina , with his daughter Cheryl , to visit his father and stepmother . They both returned to New York on May 13 , and Henson cancelled a Muppet recording session scheduled for May 14 . That night , Henson 's wife Jane , from whom he was separated , came to visit for the last time . Hours later , on May 15 , Henson was having trouble breathing and began coughing up blood . He suggested to his wife that he might be dying , but did not want to take time from his schedule to visit a hospital . Jane later stated that while Henson 's Christian Science upbringing " affect [ ed ] his general thinking " , it did not have any influence on his postponement of medical treatment , and still later told People magazine that his avoidance was likely due to his desire not to be a bother to anyone . His stepmother and others also denied rumors that Henson 's Christian Science beliefs might have contributed to his death , as Henson had ceased practicing in his early 20s .
Two hours later , Henson finally agreed to go to New York Hospital in New York City . By the time he was admitted shortly after 4 : 00 am , he could no longer breathe on his own , and an X @-@ ray revealed he had abscesses in his lungs . He was placed on a mechanical ventilator to help him breathe , but his condition deteriorated rapidly despite aggressive treatment with multiple antibiotics . Less than 24 hours later on May 16 , 1990 , Henson died at the age of 53 .
The official cause of death was first reported as Streptococcus pneumoniae , a bacterial infection that causes bacterial pneumonia . It was later classified as organ failure resulting from streptococcal toxic shock syndrome ( caused by Streptococcus pyogenes ) . S. pyogenes is the bacterial species that causes strep throat , scarlet fever , and rheumatic fever . It can also cause other infections .
On May 21 , Henson 's public memorial service was conducted in New York City at the Cathedral of St. John the Divine . Another was conducted on July 2 at St. Paul 's Cathedral in London . In accordance with Henson 's will , no one in attendance wore black , and The Dirty Dozen Brass Band finished the service by performing " When the Saints Go Marching In " . Harry Belafonte sang " Turn the World Around , " a song he had debuted on The Muppet Show , as each member of the congregation waved , with a puppet performer 's rod , an individual , brightly colored foam butterfly . Later , Big Bird , performed by Caroll Spinney , walked out onto the stage and sang Kermit the Frog 's signature song , " Bein ' Green " .
In the final minutes of the two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ hour service , six of the core Muppet performers — Dave Goelz , Frank Oz , Kevin Clash , Steve Whitmire , Jerry Nelson , and Richard Hunt — sang , in their characters ' voices , a medley of Jim Henson 's favorite songs , eventually ending with a performance of " Just One Person " that began with Richard Hunt singing alone , as Scooter . Henson employee Chris Barry writes that during each verse , " each Muppeteer joined in with their own Muppets until the stage was filled with all the Muppet performers and their beloved characters . " The funeral was later described by Life as " an epic and almost unbearably moving event . " The image of a growing number of performers singing " Just One Person " was recreated for the 1990 television special The Muppets Celebrate Jim Henson and inspired screenwriter Richard Curtis , who attended the London service , to write the growing @-@ orchestra wedding scene of his 2003 film Love Actually .
= = Legacy = =
The Jim Henson Company and the Jim Henson Foundation continued after his death , producing new series and specials . Jim Henson 's Creature Shop , founded by Henson , also continues to build creatures for a large number of other films and series ( e.g. the science @-@ fiction production Farscape , the film adaptation of The Hitchhiker 's Guide to the Galaxy , and the movie MirrorMask ) and is considered one of the most advanced and well @-@ respected creators of film creatures . His son Brian and daughter Lisa are currently the co @-@ chairs and co @-@ CEOs of the company ; his daughter Cheryl is the president of the foundation . Steve Whitmire , a veteran member of the Muppet puppeteering crew , has assumed the roles of Kermit the Frog and Ernie , the most famous characters formerly played by Jim Henson . Whitmire also assumed the roles of Link Hogthrob , from the " Pigs in Space " " Muppet Show " sketch , starting with the video game " Muppets Racemania " from 2000 , as well as The Muppet Newsman , starting in 2008 , with Muppet.com viral online videos . Muppeteer veteran Bill Barretta has taken over for Henson 's fairly deeper voiced roles , such as the Swedish Chef , Mahna Mahna , Rowlf the Dog , and Dr. Teeth . Guy Smiley , in recent years , has been taken over by Eric Jacobson , and the role of Waldorf , in 1992 , was assumed by Muppet performer veteran Dave Goelz .
On February 17 , 2004 , it was announced that the non @-@ Sesame Street / Fraggle Rock Muppets ( the Sesame Street characters are separately owned by Sesame Workshop , and the Fraggle Rock characters are still owned by The Jim Henson Company ) and the Bear in the Big Blue House properties had been sold by Henson 's heirs to The Walt Disney Company . However , as a result , Sesame Workshop ( formerly the Children 's Television Workshop ) , also lost the rights to Kermit the Frog , and thus he would not appear on new material on Sesame Street for some time . However , Sesame Workshop has since obtained permission from Disney to use Kermit , allowing him to make an appearance on the premiere of the show 's 40th season on November 10 , 2009 . In addition , Sesame Workshop has made many of Kermit 's previous segments on the show available for viewing on their YouTube account .
One of Henson 's last projects is a show attraction in Walt Disney World and Disneyland featuring the Muppets , called Muppet * Vision 3D , which opened in 1991 , shortly after his death .
The Jim Henson Company retains the Creature Shop , as well as the rest of its film and television library including Fraggle Rock ( one of the few Muppet @-@ related properties still owned by The Jim Henson Company ) , Farscape , The Dark Crystal , and Labyrinth .
In 2010 , it was announced that the first major biography of Henson , sanctioned by the family and the Jim Henson Legacy , was underway . The biography by Brian Jay Jones was published on September 24 , 2013 , Henson 's 77th birthday .
On February 14 , 2014 , Henson 's son , John Henson , died of a heart attack after playing in the snow with his daughter . He was 48 .
= = = Tributes = = =
Henson is honored both as himself and as Kermit the Frog on the Hollywood Walk of Fame . Only three other people have received this honor : Walt Disney as both himself and Mickey Mouse ; Mel Blanc as both himself and Bugs Bunny ; and Mike Myers as both himself and Shrek . Henson was posthumously inducted into the Walk of Fame in 1991 .
Henson has also earned induction into the Television Hall of Fame . He achieved this honor in 1987 .
The theater at his alma mater , Northwestern High School , in Hyattsville , MD , is named in his honor .
Basil Hears A Noise a CBC special opening with a dedication to him .
Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles II : The Secret of the Ooze and The Muppet Christmas Carol are both dedicated to him .
Stephen Lynch produced a song titled " Jim Henson 's Dead " , in which he pays homage to many of the characters from The Muppet Show and Sesame Street .
Henson featured in The American Adventure in Epcot at the Walt Disney World Resort .
Philip Roth often quotes Jim Henson in his Sabbath 's Theater as the " great regret " for Mickey Sabbath .
The Jim Henson Museum , located in Leland , Mississippi , features an assortment of original Muppet characters , official certificates from the Mississippi Legislature honoring Henson and his characters , and a statue of Kermit in the middle of the stream behind the museum .
The 1990 television special The Muppets Celebrate Jim Henson allowed the Muppets themselves to pay tribute to Henson . The special featured interviews with Steven Spielberg and others .
Celtic singer , musician , and songwriter Heather Alexander wrote a song titled " Storyteller " in 1990 as a tribute to Jim Henson , which harkens to his " Storyteller " series as well as his role as a modern storyteller .
Tom Smith 's Henson tribute song , " A Boy and His Frog " , won the Pegasus Award for Best Filk Song in 1991 .
Henson was featured in Boyz II Men 's 1991 video , " It 's So Hard to Say Goodbye to Yesterday " .
Episode 2880 of Sesame Street ( which aired on November 15 , 1991 ) was dedicated in his memory , with a memorial card following the closing credits .
The classes of 1994 , 1998 , and 1999 at the University of Maryland , College Park , Henson 's alma mater , commissioned a life @-@ size statue of Henson and Kermit the Frog , which was dedicated on September 24 , 2003 , [ which would have been ] Henson 's 67th birthday . The statue cost $ 217 @,@ 000 , and is displayed outside Maryland 's student union . In 2006 , Maryland introduced 50 statues of their school mascot , Testudo the Terrapin , with various designs chosen by different sponsoring groups . Among them was Kertle , a statue by Washington , DC , artist Elizabeth Baldwin , designed to look like Kermit the Frog .
Kermit the Frog was named grand marshal of the 1996 Tournament of Roses Parade in Pasadena , California .
On the evening of October 25 , 2000 , Comedy Central had a banner sign that said : Jim Henson [ 1936 – 1990 ] .
In 2003 , Jim Henson was honored at the annual Norsk Høstfest in Minot , North Dakota .
Oury Atlan , Thibaut Berland , and Damien Ferri wrote , directed , and animated a 3D tribute to Henson entitled Over Time that was shown as part of the 2005 Electronic Theater at SIGGRAPH .
On September 28 , 2005 , the U.S. Postal Service issued a sheet of commemorative stamps honoring Henson and the Muppets .
The Center for Puppetry Arts in Atlanta , Georgia , has acquired more than 700 puppets created by Henson and his studio , including some of the earliest Muppets . Many of these are displayed in the museum exhibit Jim Henson : Puppeteer . In September 2008 , the Center opened Jim Henson : Wonders From His Workshop , highlighting creations from Fraggle Rock , Labyrinth , and other later works .
On August 9 , 2011 , Jim Henson posthumously received the Disney Legends Award . Two of his characters , Kermit the Frog and Rowlf the Dog , performed " Rainbow Connection " in his honor .
On September 24 , 2011 , Leland renamed one of their bridges " The Rainbow Connection " to honor Henson and his work . He was also honored with a Google doodle on his 75th birthday ; the Google logo had six Muppets that were clickable using the " hand " buttons .
= = Muppet performance credits = =
Sam and Friends as Sam , Harry the Hipster , Kermit the Frog , Professor Madcliffe , Omar , Yorick , Pierre the French Rat , and others
Sesame Street as Ernie , Kermit the Frog , Guy Smiley , Dan , Henry , Lance , Captain Vegetable , Mr. Nose , The King , Stan , Harold Happy , Sammy the Snake , and others
Hey Cinderella ! as Kermit the Frog , and others
The Frog Prince as Kermit the Frog , and others
The Muppets Valentine Show as Wally , Kermit the Frog , Rowlf the Dog , Ernie , and others
The Muppet Show : Sex and Violence as Nigel , George Washington , The Swedish Chef , Dr. Teeth , Waldorf , Kermit the Frog , and others
The Muppet Show as Kermit the Frog , Rowlf the Dog , Dr. Teeth , Waldorf , The Swedish Chef , Link Hogthrob , The Newsman , and others
The Muppet Movie as Kermit the Frog , Rowlf the Dog , Dr. Teeth , Waldorf , Swedish Chef , and others
The Great Muppet Caper as Kermit the Frog , Rowlf the Dog , Dr. Teeth , Waldorf , Swedish Chef , The Newsman , and others
The Muppets Take Manhattan as Kermit the Frog , Rowlf the Dog , Dr. Teeth , Waldorf , Swedish Chef , The Newsman , Ernie , and others
Christmas Eve on Sesame Street as Kermit the Frog and Ernie
Emmet Otter 's Jug @-@ Band Christmas as Kermit the Frog , Harvey Beaver , Howard Snake , and Mayor Harrison Fox
Sesame Street Presents Follow That Bird as Ernie and Kermit the Frog
Fraggle Rock as Cantus the Minstrel and Convincing John
Big Bird in China as Ernie
Little Muppet Monsters as Kermit the Frog ( live @-@ action puppet only ) , Dr. Teeth
The Tale of the Bunny Picnic as the Dog
The Muppets : A Celebration of 30 Years as Kermit the Frog , Rowlf the Dog , Dr. Teeth , Waldorf , The Swedish Chef , Link Hogthrob , Ernie , Harry the Hipster , and others
The Christmas Toy as Jack @-@ in @-@ the @-@ Box and Kermit the Frog
A Muppet Family Christmas as Kermit the Frog , Rowlf the Dog , Dr. Teeth , Waldorf , Swedish Chef , The Newsman , Ernie , Guy Smiley , Baby Kermit , Baby Rowlf , and others
Sing @-@ Along , Dance @-@ Along , Do @-@ Along as Rowlf the Dog , Penguins , and Kermit the Frog
Sesame Street : 20 and Still Counting as Ernie , Kermit the Frog , and others
The Muppets at Walt Disney World as Kermit the Frog , Rowlf the Dog , Dr. Teeth , Waldorf , Link Hogthrob , and The Swedish Chef
Muppet * Vision 3D as Kermit the Frog , Waldorf , The Swedish Chef , Link Hogthrob , Rowlf the Dog , and others
= = Archive = =
The moving image collection of Jim Henson is held at the Academy Film Archive . The collection contains the film work of Jim Henson and the Jim Henson Company .
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= Glacier Peak =
Glacier Peak or Dakobed ( known in the Sauk Indian dialect of Lushootseed as " Tda @-@ ko @-@ buh @-@ ba " or " Takobia " ) is the most isolated of the five major stratovolcanoes ( composite volcanoes ) of the Cascade Volcanic Arc in the U.S state of Washington . Located in the Glacier Peak Wilderness , the volcano is visible from the west in Seattle , and from the north in the higher areas of eastern suburbs of Vancouver such as Coquitlam and Port Coquitlam . The volcano is the fourth tallest peak in Washington state , and not as much is known about it compared to other volcanoes in the area . Local Native Americans have recognized Glacier Peak and other Washington volcanoes in their histories and stories . When foreign explorers reached the region , they learned basic information about surrounding landforms , but did not initially understand that Glacier Peak was a volcano . Positioned in Snohomish County , the volcano is only 70 miles ( 110 km ) northeast of Seattle . The only volcano closer to Seattle is Mount Rainier , but as Glacier Peak is set farther into the Cascades and almost 4 @,@ 000 feet ( 1 @,@ 200 m ) shorter , it is less noticeable than Mount Rainier .
Glacier Peak is one of the most active of Washington 's volcanoes . The volcano formed during the Pleistocene epoch , about one million years ago , and since the most recent ice age , it has produced some of largest and most explosive eruptions in the state . When continental ice sheets retreated from the region , Glacier Peak began to erupt regularly , erupting explosively five times in the past 3 @,@ 000 years . It has erupted repeatedly during at least six periods ; two of these eruptions have been among the largest in Washington .
= = Geology = =
Remnants of past , prehistoric lava domes are main components of the summit of the volcano , in addition to its false summit , Disappointment Peak . Past pyroclastic flow deposits are easily visible in river valleys near the volcano , likely caused by lava dome collapse , along with ridges found east of the summit consisting of ash cloud remains . On its western flank , the volcano also has a lahar , or mudflow deposit , which runs for about 35 kilometres ( 22 mi ) into the White Chuck River Valley around 14 @,@ 000 years ago . 10 other pyroclastic flow deposits are visible , all identified as relatively 10 @,@ 000 years old . There is also a considerably newer mudflow , about 5 @,@ 500 years old , which covers an area of 15 kilometres ( 9 @.@ 3 mi ) between the same river valley , along with two small incidents both under 3 @,@ 000 years old . Another lahar , of unidentified age , was rich in oxyhornblende dacite ; and continued for 30 kilometres ( 19 mi ) into the Sauk River .
There are also ash cloud deposits on the opposite eastern flank of the volcano . Studies of the mountain have to date been unable to find any correspondence with pyroclastic flows , but several past mudflows have been identified . In the Dusty Creek , located by the mountain , there is a lahar at least 6 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 7 mi ) thick , containing pyroclastic flow deposits and other mudflows . However , this large mudflow is part of a 300 metres ( 980 ft ) thick concentration of past incidents at the volcano that spans the Dusty and Chocolate Creek . In the area at least ten cubic kilometers of lithic debris are contained . Tephra deposits are for the most part constrained to the left flank of the volcano , and at least nine past incidents have been identified . These form several layers of tephra constructing the mountain . Smaller eruptions involving tephra occurred between 6 @,@ 900 @-@ 5 @,@ 500 years ago , 3 @,@ 450 – 200 years ago , and as recent as 316 – 90 years ago .
On the mountain , three additional cinder cones , Dishpan Gap , Indian Pass , and White Chuck , are located about 1 @,@ 800 m ( 5 @,@ 900 ft ) up . The volcano has also caused such thermal events such as hot springs . There were three hot springs on the mountain : Gamma , Kennedy , and Sulphur , but Kennedy Hot Springs was destroyed and buried in a slide .
= = = Tectonic setting = = =
The volcano is located in Washington , and is one of the five major stratovolcanoes there . Situated in the Cascade Volcanic Arc , the volcano was created by subduction of the oceanic Juan de Fuca Plate under the North American Plate . Convergence between the two continues at a rate of 4 centimetres ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) per year . This range has been volcanically active for about 36 million years , and the rocks that make up its volcanoes are between 55 and 42 million years old . Eruptions within the range are irregular and do not occur all at once . In an attempt to organize the volcanoes by age , scientists typically divide them into the High Cascades , younger volcanoes , and the Western Cascades , consisting of the older volcanoes . However , the vents in Washington are all of different ages so none of its volcanoes are included in either of the sections .
= = History = =
Around the area , there were many Native Americans , and along with other Washington volcanoes , the mountain was recognized by them as a spirit . When European @-@ American explorers reached the area , they learned about the mountain , though only partially , through local legends . Although the local people described Glacier Peak as a vital part of their storytelling and beliefs ; when other volcanoes in the area were mapped , Glacier Peak was left out . In 1850 natives mentioned the volcano to naturalist George Gibbs saying that the volcano had once " smoked " . In 1898 the volcano was finally documented on a map .
Native Americans also used the area around the Cascades for their agriculture , leading them to often congregate in the region . As a result , gold miners eventually reached the area in the 1870s @-@ 1890s , searching for resources and rich land . The first white man recorded to observe the mountain — Daniel Lindsley — was an employee of the Northern Pacific Railroad Company searching for possible railroad routes when he saw it in 1870 .
= = Eruptive history = =
Despite its elevation of 10 @,@ 541 feet ( 3 @,@ 213 m ) , Glacier Peak is a small stratovolcano . Its relatively high summit is a consequence of its location atop a high ridge , but its volcanic portion extends only 1 @,@ 600 – 3 @,@ 200 feet ( 500 – 1 @,@ 000 m ) above the underlying ridge . Another Cascade Arc volcano with similar geomorphology is the Mount Meager massif in southwestern British Columbia , Canada , which is situated on a 1 @,@ 300 ft ( 400 m ) ridge of nonvolcanic , crystalline and metamorphic rock .
Of the five major volcanoes in Washington , only Glacier Peak and Mount St. Helens have had large eruptions in the past 15 @,@ 000 years . Since both volcanoes generate magma of dacitic origin , the viscous magma builds up since it cannot flow through the eruptive vent . Gradually , the pressure grows , culminating in an explosion that ejects materials such as tephra , which in its simplest form , is ash .
Tephrochronology and radiocarbon dating indicate that Glacier Peak eruptions occurred in 1700 AD ± 100 years , 1300 AD ± 300 years , 900 AD ± 50 years , 200 AD ± 50 years , 850 BC , 3150 BC , and in 3550 BC . The Volcanic Explosivity Index ( VEI ) for three of these was 2 to 4 , small compared to the 5 of the 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens . They were characterized mainly by a central vent eruption , followed by an explosive eruption . These eruptions varied in outcome ; some produced lahars , some pyroclastic flows , and others lava domes .
A little more than 13 @,@ 000 years ago , a sequence of nine tephra eruptions occurred within a period of less than a few hundred years . Associated with these eruptions were pyroclastic flows . Mixed with snow , ice and water , these formed lahars that raced into three nearby rivers , filling their valleys with deep deposits . Subsequently the mudflows drained into both the North Fork of the Stillaguamish River ( at that time an outlet of the Sauk River ) and Skagit Rivers . In Arlington , 60 miles ( 97 km ) downstream , lahars deposited seven feet of sediment . Subsequent erosion of lahar deposits near Darrington led to the current river system with the Stillaguamish River separated from the Sauk / Skagit Rivers . Lahar debris was deposited along both the Skagit and Stillaguamish Rivers all the way to Puget Sound . A small portion of the erupted tephra was deposited locally . However , most of the tephra reached higher levels of the atmosphere , and was transported by the wind hundreds of miles . Deposits from this congregation were as thick as 1 foot ( 0 @.@ 30 m ) near Chelan and 0 @.@ 3 inches ( 7 @.@ 6 mm ) near Missoula , Montana .
Since these events , Glacier Peak has produced several lahars . The largest events were 5 @,@ 900 and 1 @,@ 800 years ago and were associated with dome @-@ building eruptions . In both cases , the lahars traveled down the Skagit River to Puget Sound .
= = = Hazards = = =
When lahars reach populated areas , they can bury structures and people . An example was the Armero tragedy at Nevado del Ruiz where 23 @,@ 000 died from an enormous mudflow . Lahars from Glacier Peak pose a similar threat to the small communities of Darrington and Concrete and a lesser threat to the larger and rapidly growing towns of Mount Vernon and Burlington , as well as other communities along the lower Skagit and Stillaguamish Rivers . A 2005 study conducted by the United States Geological Survey identified nine Cascade volcanoes , including Glacier Peak , as " very @-@ high @-@ threat volcanoes with inadequate monitoring " . At the time of the study , only one seismometer was installed on Glacier Peak that had not " worked in two years " .
= = Glaciers = =
Eleven significant glaciers cover Glacier Peak . When C.E. Rusk first saw these glaciers in 1906 they were beginning to retreat , but were still very advanced . The average retreat of Glacier Peak glaciers from the Little Ice Age to the 1958 positions was 5 @,@ 381 feet ( 1 @,@ 640 m ) . Richard Hubley noted that North Cascade glaciers began to advance in the early 1950s , after 30 years of rapid retreat . The advance was in response to a sharp rise in winter precipitation and a decline in summer temperature beginning in 1944 . Ten of the fifteen glaciers around Glacier Peak advanced , including all of the glaciers directly on the mountain 's slopes . Advances of Glacier Peak glaciers ranged from 50 to 1 @,@ 575 feet ( 15 to 480 m ) and culminated in 1978 . All eleven Glacier Peak glaciers that advanced during the 1950 – 79 period emplaced identifiable maximum advance terminal moraines . From 1984 to 2005 , the average retreat of eight Glacier Peak glaciers from their recent maximum positions was 1 @,@ 017 feet ( 310 m ) . Milk Lake Glacier , on the north flank of the mountain , melted away altogether in the 1990s .
= = Recreation = =
The Pacific Crest Trail passes near Glacier Peak . The Suiattle River crossing is a well known feature on the Pacific Crest Trail ( PCT ) as it passes through the area . The Suiattle PCT crossing used to have a bridge crossing until it was flooded out by storms in late 2003 .
The first person to climb the mountain was Thomas Gerdine , along with a group of United States Geological Survey scientists , in 1897 . The volcano is also available to skiers . To reach the mountain itself , it takes 5 miles of walking along the White Chuck River Trail ( Forest Service Trail No. 643 ) and up the Sitkum Glacier . The trail is reached via Forest Service Road No. 23 . Mainly , the slopes consist of black diamonds for both the ascent and descent .
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= Henry Nock =
Henry Nock ( 1741 – 1804 ) was a British inventor and engineer of the Napoleonic period , best known as a gunsmith . Nock produced many innovative weapons including the screwless lock and the seven @-@ barrelled volley gun , although he did not invent the latter despite it commonly being known as the Nock gun . He was a major supplier to the military during the Napoleonic wars . His high quality duelling pistols and double @-@ barrelled shotguns were much sought after and it is largely through Nock that the latter became the weapon of choice for hunters .
As well as supplying the military and civilian markets , Nock made expensive pieces for the aristocracy and royalty and was an appointed gunmaker to the king . Nock 's business eventually became Wilkinson Sword , a company which today makes razor blades and other shaving equipment , and , until very recently , made ceremonial officer 's swords for the British Army .
= = Guns = =
Nock produced many innovative weapons . In 1793 he made a double @-@ barrelled pistol with a removable stock for the Royal Horse Artillery . However , this weapon was impractical with the stock removed and was usually used as a carbine . In 1797 Nock put into production a 9 @-@ inch pistol ( pattern 1796 ) for heavy dragoons with a calibre matching their carbines . Some of these pistols had a novel lock designed by Nock , originally intended for an abandoned musket design requested by the Duke of Richmond in 1786 while serving as Master @-@ General of the Ordnance . The new lock could be dismantled by removable pins rather than the previous more cumbersome and time @-@ consuming screws . The pattern 1796 had no butt @-@ plate and the ramrod was stored in the holster rather than attached to the barrel . This feature made it unpopular with users and many guns were modified to take a conventional swivel ramrod .
The name of Nock is perhaps best known today for the multi @-@ barrelled Nock gun due to it being featured in several films . These include uses of this volley gun by the characters Patrick Harper in Sharpe and Jim Bowie in The Alamo . Nock was the manufacturer , but not the inventor , of this weapon . Despite its portrayal in film , this weapon was not very practical as a hand weapon due its very severe recoil , often causing injuries , and the time needed to reload the seven barrels . It was necessary to abandon the rifling of the early prototypes and reduce the charge to keep this problem manageable . Intended as a naval weapon fired from the rigging to repel boarders on the deck , it was retired by the Royal Navy in 1804 . Nock also produced some experimental rotating multi @-@ barrelled guns to fire one barrel at a time .
In his own day , Nock was most well known for his double @-@ barrelled shotguns . He was not the first to make weapons in such a format , but their high quality and Nock 's many innovations led to shotguns becoming highly popular as a hunting gun , especially after Nock became gun maker to the king . Nock was also well known for his duelling pistols .
Nock made weapons covering the whole field from pistols to muskets . The great variety is perhaps illustrated by his coach blunderbuss which , like naval pistols , had a more corrosion resistant brass barrel . Such weapons were intended to be used at short range and did not take a large enough charge to require iron barrels . Nock continued to innovate until his death – late in life he was making breech loading muskets .
= = Career = =
Nock started out as a locksmith , but he took out a patent for a gun lock in 1775 . Nock was not yet enrolled in the Worshipful Company of Gunmakers and could not trade under his own name . He formed Nock , Jover & Co. with William Jover , a Master of the Gunmakers Company and the patent bore Jover 's name as well as Nock 's along with one John Green . War with the American colonies provided a strong market for Nock 's products .
James Wilson came to Nock in 1779 to make the prototypes for his volley gun design . Nock won the subsequent competitive bid for the production of the gun . The weapon is consequently commonly referred to as the Nock gun . Nock also produced some volley guns and volley pistols for the civilian market but in very small numbers . This included a set of these weapons for the Royal Household which is still in the Queen 's collection today . This set is not standard production . It has , for instance , silver mounts by Mark Bock , a London silversmith .
Following the conclusion of the American Revolutionary War , there was a fall in the demand for military small arms . In this period Nock turned to the civilian market , but also had profitable orders for locks for light to medium calibre ( 3 – 12 pounder ) naval guns .
In 1784 Nock finally became a Freeman of the Gunmakers Company . A few years later the French Revolution and the subsequent Napoleonic Wars ensured that Nock was not short of government business . The Duke of Richmond preferred Nock over his competitors for his innovations , particularly the screwless lock . Nock began delivering muskets in 1792 but orders for the regular army dried up because Nock 's non @-@ standard design took too long to make and used a different calibre ammunition . Thereafter Nock concentrated on supplying muskets to local militia preparing for an expected invasion . In 1804 the government placed a contract with Nock to replace all the Nock locks on their stock of Duke of Richmond pattern muskets with standard ones . Although the Nock locks were recognised as being superior , the need for standardisation took precedence .
In 1789 Nock was appointed gunmaker @-@ in @-@ ordinary to King George III , largely as a result of his patented breech for hunting guns and other inventions . In 1802 Nock became Master of the Gunmakers Company .
= = Legacy = =
Nock 's will was generous to his employees , he specified that his business was to be continued for six months for their benefit . He also left as much as £ 100 ( inflation adjusted £ 7 @,@ 900 ) to some employees .
A nephew of Henry , Samuel Nock , was an apprentice under him . Samuel also proved to be inventive , holding a patent himself . Samuel became Gunmaker @-@ in @-@ Ordinary in succession to George III , George IV , William IV and Victoria and in 1836 became a Master of the Gunmakers Company . However , Henry Nock 's own business was continued by his foreman and son @-@ in @-@ law James Wilkinson . Wilkinson became Gunmaker @-@ in @-@ Ordinary to the king in 1805 . Contracts with the East India Company ensured the success of the business . The name became James Wilkinson & Son around 1818 when James ' son Henry joined . Henry died in 1864 but the company continued making firearms and bladed weapons and became known as Wilkinson Sword . A series of new laws in the UK , starting with the Pistols Act 1903 , restricted the sale of firearms to the public . This pushed the company into changing direction and they henceforth concentrated on razor blades and other domestic products . They continued to produce swords for the British Army and for royal ceremonial purposes until 2005 when the sword manufacturing plant in Acton , West London , was closed . The company continues to make shaving and gardening products .
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= Eddie Bayers =
Eddie Bayers ( born January 28 , 1949 ) is an American session drummer who has played on 150 gold and platinum albums . He received the Academy of Country Music ' Drummer of the Year Award ' for eight straight years , and has three times won the Nashville Music Awards ' Drummer of the Year ' . He is also a member of two bands : The Players , and The Notorious Cherry Bombs .
= = Early life = =
The son of a career military man , Bayers moved around as a child , originally from Maryland then spending time in Nashville , North Africa , Oakland , and Philadelphia . His early musical training was as a classical pianist studying Bach , Beethoven , and Mozart . During his college years in Oakland , California he jammed with future stars Jerry Garcia , and Tom and John Fogerty and developed an appreciation for the creative aspects of music . After a short stint in a New Jersey show band he decided to move to Nashville .
= = Session work = =
Arriving in Nashville in 1973 , Bayers became the house keyboard player at the Carousel Club where he met drummer Larrie Londin who inspired him to take up drumming . His drumming was influenced by soul drummers such as Al Jackson , Jr. and Clyde Stubblefield . He became the staff drummer at Audio Media Studios along with guitarist Paul Worley , keyboardist Dennis Burnside , and bassist Jack Clement playing on records by Tanya Tucker , John Denver , Ricky Skaggs and George Strait . He has since worked with the likes of The Beach Boys , Garth Brooks , Glen Campbell , Kenny Chesney , Peter Frampton , Vince Gill , Rebecca Lynn Howard , Julio Iglesias , Alan Jackson , Elton John , Mark Knopfler , Uncle Kracker , Bob Seger , Sting , Steve Winwood , and Trisha Yearwood . He has also produced Rosanne Cash 's album Interiors , A Glen Campbell Christmas , and the soundtrack for A Thing Called Love .
= = Bands = =
= = = The Players = = =
In 2002 Bayers formed a band , The Players , with fellow studio musicians Brent Mason , Paul Franklin , John Hobbs , Michael Rhodes . The group released a live DVD , Live in Nashville , featuring their own performances along with guest appearances by Peter Frampton , Shawn Colvin , Travis Tritt , Vince Gill , and Jim Horn .
= = = The Notorious Cherry Bombs = = =
Bayers replaced his former mentor , drummer Larrie Londin , in a reunited Notorious Cherry Bombs for a 2003 ASCAP Country Awards dinner . The band decided to stay together and has released The Notorious Cherry Bombs which was nominated for Grammies in both the ' Best Country Performance By A Duo Or Group With Vocal ' and ' Best Country Song ' categories . Along with Bayers the band consists of Vince Gill , Rodney Crowell , Hank DeVito , Richard Bennett , and Michael Rhodes .
= = = The Medallion Band = = =
An all @-@ star lineup was assembled to be the backing band at the 2010 Country Music Hall of Fame induction ceremony dubbed the Medallion Band . Bayers served as drummer and was accompanied by keyboardist and music director John Hobbs , pedal steel player Paul Franklin , electric guitarist Steve Gibson , bassist Michael Rhodes , fiddler Deanie Richardson , tuba player Larry Paxton , background vocalists Dawn Sears and Jeff White , and acoustic guitarist Biff Watson . Later that year Bayers and a slightly revamped Medallion Band accompanied Shawn Camp in honoring Hall of Fame inductee Jimmy Dean . Bayers played the same role for the 2011 Country Music Hall of Fame induction ceremony with the band now dubbed the Medallion All @-@ Stars .
= = Accolades = =
Bayers received the ' Academy of Country Music Drummer of the Year Award ' 13 times , ' Nashville Music Awards Drummer of the Year ' three times , and one of the 10 greatest session drummers of all time by Drum ! magazine . He has been nominated for the ' CMA Musician of the Year ' ten times but has yet to bring home the prize .
= = Music industry = =
In addition to his work as a musician , Bayers has contributed to the recording industry as a 12 @-@ year member of the Board of Governors for NARAS . He is also the part @-@ owner of the Money Pit recording studio . The number one singles " What I Really Meant to Say " by Cyndi Thomson and " Blessed " by Martina McBride were both recorded at his studio .
= = Selected discography = =
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= Edwin Donayre =
General Edwin Donayre ( born January 8 , 1952 ) is a retired Peruvian military officer and former Commanding General of the Peruvian Army ( 2006 – 2008 ) . General Donayre previously served as commander of the Center Military Region , the Southern Military Region and the 2nd Infantry Brigade . He assumed the role of commanding general on December 5 , 2006 , replacing General César Reinoso , who resigned amid accusations of corruption . During his tenure , Donayre was accused of corruption and obstructing inquiries into human rights violations . He was also at the center of an international controversy when a video surfaced in the media showing him making anti @-@ Chilean remarks at a private party . He retired on December 5 , 2008 and was replaced by General Otto Guibovich .
= = Military career = =
Edwin Donayre was born on January 8 , 1952 in the city of Ayacucho in the highlands of Peru . He attended San Juan Bosco school , a Salesian institution in his hometown , and studied at a seminary for two years before studying two years of Chemical Engineering at the San Cristóbal of Huamanga University . Donayre 's military career started at the Chorrillos Military School , where his first year grades earned him a scholarship to continue his formation in Argentina . At the National Military College in Buenos Aires he graduated with honors as a military engineer . In active duty Donayre has served four times in regions under state of emergency due to Shining Path guerrilla activity and five times in frontier regions . He has held several command posts , among them commander of the 20th Combat Engineer Battalion , director of the Army Engineer School , commander of the 2nd Infantry Brigade , commander of the Southern Military Region , and commander of the Central Military Region .
= = Commanding General = =
Donayre 's tenure as Commanding General of the army was controversial from the start due to corruption allegations and an international incident with Chile . Opposition leader Ollanta Humala criticized Donayre 's designation as irregular because at that time he was not serving as general of any of the three major army divisions as stipulated by Peruvian law . As commander of the Army , Donayre was also accused of acquiring 50 @,@ 000 American @-@ made MREs — military rations — to supply troops deployed against Shining Path guerrillas in the Apurímac and Ene river valleys , instead of acquiring cheaper , locally @-@ made alternatives . An attempt to buy 50 @,@ 000 more rations led to an inquiry by the Ministry of Defense .
According to a report by the army inspector general , Francisco Vargas , Donayre requested 80 @,@ 000 gallons of fuel without clear justification when he was commander of the Southern Military Region , between January and September 2006 , and diverted part of it to army headquarters in Lima . This led to an investigation by the anti @-@ corruption prosecutor , Marlene Berrú , but , despite being summoned six times , Donayre did not show up at her office . He finally attended her request on November 25 , 2008 ; in his testimony he denied any wrongdoing and claimed that the Southern Military Region actually received less fuel under his command than in the previous year .
The general 's stance on human rights issues has also been quite controversial . It has been reported that he was behind the Army 's refusal to provide any information on the 1984 massacre at the village of Putis . Requests issued on June 2008 by prosecutor Rubén López for a detailed report on the military personnel deployed there at that time were answered the following month by the Defense Ministry stating that the Army did not have any information on the subject in its archives . Donayre also joined a campaign to raise funds to defend armed forces personnel accused of committing human rights abuses during the internal conflict in Peru .
= = International controversy = =
Donayre became the center of an international controversy on November 24 , 2008 , when Peruvian media showed a YouTube video in which the general said " We are not going to let Chileans pass by ( ... ) [ A ] Chilean who enters will not leave . Or will leave in a coffin . And if there aren 't sufficient coffins , there will be plastic bags " . The video , dated to 2006 or 2007 , was recorded during a party at a friend 's house attended by army officials and civilians . These comments caused widespread indignation in Chile , making headlines in the El Mercurio newspaper . The Peruvian president , Alan García , called his Chilean counterpart , Michelle Bachelet , to explain that these remarks did not reflect official Peruvian policy . Bachelet declared herself satisfied with the explanations .
On November 28 , in response to this incident , a Chilean government spokesman stated that a scheduled visit to Chile by the Peruvian defense minister , Antero Flores Aráoz , might be inopportune given the circumstances . The following day , Flores Aráoz announced his decision to postpone his trip after conferring with the Foreign Affairs Minister , José García Belaúnde . Several members of the Peruvian government commented on the spokesman 's remarks including president García who said the country " did not accept pressure or orders from anybody outside of Peru " . Donayre defended the video , declaring that Peruvian citizens have a right to say whatever they want at private gatherings and that even though he is scheduled to retire on December 5 he will not be forced to resign early under external pressure . As a consequence of these exchanges , tensions between Peru and Chile rose again ; president Bachelet met with top aides on December 1 to discuss the matter and possible courses of action . Meanwhile , in Lima , Congressman Gustavo Espinoza became the center of attention as the main suspect of leaking the video to Chilean press and politicians . Donayre ended his tenure as Commanding General of the Army on December 5 , 2008 , as expected ; president Alan García appointed General Otto Guibovich as his replacement .
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= Super Mario Kart =
Super Mario Kart ( スーパーマリオカート , Sūpā Mario Kāto ) is a 1992 go @-@ kart racing video game developed and published by Nintendo for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System video game console . The first game of the Mario Kart series , it was launched in Japan on August 27 , 1992 , in North America on September 1 , 1992 , and in Europe on January 21 , 1993 . Selling nine million copies worldwide , the game went on to become the third best selling SNES game of all time . Super Mario Kart was re @-@ released on the Wii 's Virtual Console in Japan on June 9 , 2009 , North America on November 23 , 2009 , and in Europe on April 2 , 2010 . Super Mario Kart was re @-@ released again on the Wii U 's Virtual Console in Japan on June 19 , 2013 , Europe on March 27 , 2014 , and in North America on August 6 , 2014 . Super Mario Kart was released once more on the 3DS 's Virtual Console .
In Super Mario Kart , the player takes control of one of eight Mario series characters , each with differing capabilities . In single player mode players can race against computer controlled characters in multi @-@ race cups over three difficulty levels . During the races , offensive and speed boosting power @-@ ups can be used to gain an advantage . Alternatively players can race against the clock in a Time Trial mode . In multi @-@ player mode two players can simultaneously take part in the cups or can race against each other one @-@ on @-@ one in Match Race mode . In a third multiplayer mode – Battle Mode – the aim is to defeat the other players by attacking them with power @-@ ups , destroying balloons which surround each kart .
Super Mario Kart received positive reviews and was praised for its presentation , innovation and use of Mode 7 graphics . It has been ranked among the best games of all time by several organizations including Edge , IGN , The Age and GameSpot , while Guinness World Records has named it as the top console game ever . It is often credited with creating the kart @-@ racing subgenre of video games , leading other developers to try to duplicate its success . The game is also seen as having been key to expanding the Mario series into non @-@ platforming games . This diversity has led to it becoming the best @-@ selling game franchise of all time . Several sequels to Super Mario Kart have been released , for consoles , handhelds and in arcades , each enjoying critical and commercial success . While some elements have developed throughout the series , the core experience from Super Mario Kart has remained intact .
= = Gameplay = =
Super Mario Kart is a kart racing game featuring several single and multiplayer modes . During the game , players take control of one of eight Mario franchise characters and drive karts around tracks with a Mario franchise theme . In order for them to begin driving , Lakitu will come in with the traffic light hanging on a fishing pole , which starts the countdown . When the light turns green , the race or battle officially begins . During a race , the player 's viewpoint is from behind his or her kart . The goal of the game is to either finish a race ahead of other racers , who are controlled by the computer and other players , or complete a circuit in the fastest time . There is also a battle mode in which the aim is to attack the karts of the other human players .
Tiles marked with question marks are arrayed on the race tracks ; they give special abilities ( power @-@ ups ) to a player 's kart if the vehicle passes over them . Power @-@ ups , such as the ability to throw shells and bananas , allow racers to hit others with the objects , causing them to spin and lose control . A kart that obtains the star power @-@ up is temporary invulnerable to attack . Computer players have specific special powers associated with each character , that they are able to use throughout the race . Lines of coins are found on the tracks in competitive race modes . By running over these coins , a kart collects them and increases its top speed . Having coins also helps players when their kart is hit by another : instead of spinning and losing control , they lose a coin . Coins are also lost when karts are struck by power @-@ ups or fall off the tracks .
The game features advanced maneuvers such as power sliding and hopping . Power sliding allows a kart to maintain its speed while turning , although executing the maneuver for too long causes the kart to spin . Hopping helps a kart execute tighter turns : the kart makes a short hop and turns in the air , speeding off in the new direction when it lands . Reviewers praised Super Mario Kart 's gameplay , describing the battle mode as " addictive " and the single player gameplay as " incredible " . IGN stated that the gameplay mechanics defined the genre .
= = = Modes = = =
Super Mario Kart has two single @-@ player modes , Mario Kart GP ( which stands for Grand Prix ) and Time Trial . In Mario Kart GP , one player is required to race against seven computer @-@ controlled characters in a series of five races which are called cups . Initially there are three cups available – the Mushroom Cup , Flower Cup and Star Cup – at two difficulty levels , 50cc and 100cc . By winning all three of the cups at the 100cc level , a fourth cup – the Special Cup – is unlocked . Winning all four cups at 100cc unlocks a new difficulty level , 150cc . Each cup consists of five five @-@ lap races , each taking place on a distinct track . In order to continue through a cup , a position of fourth or higher must be achieved in each race . If a player finishes in fifth to eighth position , they are " ranked out " and the race must be replayed – at the cost of one of a limited number of lives – until a placing of fourth or above is achieved . If the player has no lives when they rank out , the game is over . Points are accrued by finishing in the top four positions in a race ; first to fourth place receive nine , six , three and one points . If a player finished in the same position three times in a row , then an extra life is awarded . The racer with the highest number of points after all five races have been completed wins the cup . In time trial mode , players race against the clock through the same tracks that are present in Mario Kart GP mode , attempting to set the fastest time possible .
Super Mario Kart also has three multiplayer modes ; Mario Kart GP , Match Race and Battle Mode . The multiplayer modes support two players and the second player uses the bottom half of the screen which is used as a map in the single player modes . Mario Kart GP is the same as in single player , the only difference being that there are now two human controlled and six computer controlled drivers . Match Race involves the two players going head to head on a track of their choice without any opponents . In Battle Mode , the two players again go head to head , but this time in one of four dedicated Battle Mode courses . Each player starts with three balloons around their kart which can be popped by power @-@ ups fired by the other player . The first player to have all three of their balloons popped loses .
= = = Characters = = =
Super Mario Kart features eight playable characters from the Mario series – Mario , Luigi , Princess Peach , Yoshi , Bowser , Donkey Kong Jr . , Koopa Troopa and Toad . Each character 's kart has different capabilities with differing levels of top speed , acceleration and handling . Mario , Luigi , Peach , Yoshi , Bowser and Toad returned in all of the subsequent Mario Kart games starting with Mario Kart 64 . During races , computer @-@ controlled characters have special items , or superpowers , which they are able to use . These powers are specific to each character ; for example , Yoshi drops eggs which cause players who hit them to lose coins and spin , while Donkey Kong Jr. throws bananas .
The characters are rendered as sprites portrayed from sixteen different angles . The sprites were described as " detailed " by Nintendo Magazine System when the game was first reviewed and were thought to contribute to the " spectacular " graphics of the game as a whole . More recently , Nintendojo called the sprites " not @-@ so @-@ pretty " when they are rendered at a distance , and IGN has commented on the dated look of the game . Super Mario Kart was the first game to feature playable characters from the Mario series other than Mario or Luigi in a non @-@ platforming game and the selection and different attributes of the characters is regarded as one of the game 's strengths , IGN describing a well @-@ balanced " all @-@ star cast " . All of the characters present in Super Mario Kart have gone on to appear in all of the later games in the series , except for Koopa Troopa , who has only appeared intermittently after being replaced by Wario in Mario Kart 64 . Donkey Kong Jr. was replaced by Donkey Kong , who has appeared in every Mario Kart game since . This was Donkey Kong Jr . ' s last appearance as a playable character , except for the Mario Tennis sub @-@ series , including installments on the Nintendo 64 and Virtual Boy .
= = = Tracks = = =
The tracks in Super Mario Kart are based on locations in Super Mario World such as Donut Plains . Each of the four cups contains five different tracks for a total of twenty unique tracks , additionally there are four unique Battle Mode courses . The course outlines are marked out by impassable barriers and feature a variety of bends ranging from sharp hairpins to wide curves which players can power slide around . Numerous obstacles themed from the Mario series appear , such as Thwomps in the Bowser 's Castle tracks , the Cheep @-@ Cheeps from Super Mario World in Koopa Beach and pipe barriers which are found in the Mario Circuit tracks . Other features include off @-@ road sections which slow down the karts such as the mud bogs in the Choco Island tracks . Each single player track is littered with coins and power up tiles , as well as turbo tiles which give the karts a boost of speed and jumps which launch the karts into the air .
The tracks have received positive commentary with GameSpy describing them as wonderfully designed and IGN calling them perfect . When naming its top five Mario Kart tracks of all time in 2008 , 1UP.com named Battle Mode Course 4 at number three and Rainbow Road – along with its subsequent versions in the series – at number one . The track themes in Super Mario Kart influenced later games in the series ; recurring themes that first appeared in Super Mario Kart include haunted tracks , Bowser 's castle and Rainbow Road . Some of the tracks from Super Mario Kart have been duplicated in later games . All twenty of the original tracks are unlockable as an extra feature in the Game Boy Advance sequel Mario Kart : Super Circuit . Remakes of Mario Circuit 1 , Donut Plains 1 , Koopa Beach 2 and Choco Island 2 appear as part of the Retro Grand Prix series in Mario Kart DS , remakes of Ghost Valley 2 , Mario Circuit 3 , and Battle Course 4 appear as part of the Retro Grand Prix and battles in Mario Kart Wii , remakes of Mario Circuit 2 and Rainbow Road appear as part of the Retro Grand Prix in Mario Kart 7 , and remake of Donut Plains 3 and once again , Rainbow Road appear as part of the Retro Grand Prix and battles in Mario Kart 8 .
= = Development = =
Super Mario Kart was produced by Shigeru Miyamoto and directed by Tadashi Sugiyama and Hideki Konno . In an interview Miyamoto has said that the development team originally set out to produce a game capable of displaying two players on the same game screen simultaneously . In the same interview Konno stated that development started with a desire to create a two player racing game in contrast to the single player gameplay of SNES launch title F @-@ Zero . The team found that due to limitations of the SNES hardware , the strong focus on multiplayer prevented the inclusions of tracks as elaborate as those found in F @-@ Zero . Computer and Video Games suggest that this initial emphasis on creating a two player experience is the reason for the game 's horizontal split @-@ screen during single player modes .
The intention to create the racing modes of the game had been present from the start of the project and Battle Mode was developed from the desire to create a one @-@ on @-@ one mode where victory was not determined simply by competing for rank . The game did not start out as a Mario series game and the first prototype featured a generic man in overalls in the kart ; the team decided that characters three heads tall would best suit the design of the karts . They did not decide on incorporating Mario series characters into the game until two or three months after the start of development . The choice was made after the development team , when observing how one kart looked to another driving past it , decided to see what it would look like with Mario in the kart . Thinking that having Mario in the kart looked better than previous designs , the idea of a Mario themed racing game was born .
Notable in the development of Super Mario Kart was its use of Mode 7 graphics . First seen in F @-@ Zero , Mode 7 is a form of texture mapping available on the SNES which allows a plane to be rotated and scaled freely , achieving a pseudo @-@ three @-@ dimensional appearance . 1UP.com have credited the use of Mode 7 with giving the game graphics which at the time of release were considered to be " breathtaking " . Retrospective reflection on the Mode 7 visuals was mixed , with IGN stating that the once revolutionary technology now looks " crude and flickery " while the Video Game Bible describes them as " beautiful " and adding to the game . Super Mario Kart featured a DSP ( Digital Signal Processor ) chip ; DSPs were used in SNES games as they provided a better handling of floating point calculations to assist with three @-@ dimensional maths . The DSP @-@ 1 chip that was used in Super Mario Kart went on to be the most popular DSP chip to be used in SNES games . The music for the title was created by composer Soyo Oka .
= = Reception = =
Super Mario Kart received critical acclaim and proved to be a commercial success ; it received a Player 's Choice release after selling one million copies and eventually went on to sell nine million copies to become the third best selling game ever for the SNES . Aggregate scoring sites GameRankings and MobyGames both give an average of more than 90 percent . Critics praised the game 's Mode 7 graphics ; in 1992 Nintendo Magazine System described them as superb and the graphics have since been described as among the best ever seen on the SNES . Another aspect of the game to have been praised is its gameplay , which Thunderbolt has described as the " deepest [ and ] most addictive ... to be found on the SNES console " . Nintendo Magazine System showed a preference for the multiplayer modes of the game and stated that while the " single player mode becomes dull quickly " the " two @-@ player mode won 't lose appeal " . Retrospective reviews of the game have been positive with perfect scores given by review sites including Thunderbolt and HonestGamers . The use of the style and characters from the Mario franchise was also praised as well as the individual characteristics of each racer . Mean Machines describes the game as having " struck gold " in a way that no other – not even its sequels – has matched and GameSpot named the game as one of the greatest games of all time for its innovation , gameplay and visual style .
Since being released Super Mario Kart has been listed among the best games ever made several times . IGN ranked it as the 15th best game ever in 2005 , describing it as " the original karting masterpiece " and as the 23rd best game ever in 2007 , discussing its originality at time of release . The Age placed it at number 19 on their list of the 50 best games in 2005 and in 2007 Edge ranked Super Mario Kart at number 14 on a list of their 100 best games , noting its continued influence on video game design . The game is also included in Yahoo ! Games UK 's list of the hundred greatest games of all time which praises the appealing characters and power ups and 1UP.com 's " Essential 50 " , a list of the fifty most important games ever made . The game placed 13th in Official Nintendo Magazine 's 100 greatest Nintendo games of all time . Guinness World Records ranked it at number 1 on a list of the top 50 console games of all time based on initial impact and lasting legacy .
= = = Legacy = = =
Super Mario Kart has been credited with inventing the " kart racing " subgenre of video gaming and soon after its release several other developers attempted to duplicate its success . In 1994 , less than two years after the release of Super Mario Kart , Sega released Sonic Drift ; a kart racing game featuring characters from the Sonic the Hedgehog series . Also in 1994 Ubisoft released Street Racer , a kart racing game for the SNES and Mega Drive / Genesis which included a four player mode not present in Super Mario Kart . Apogee Software released Wacky Wheels for PC . Future games that followed in the mould of Super Mario Kart include South Park Rally , Konami Krazy Racers , Diddy Kong Racing , Sonic & Sega All @-@ Stars Racing and several racing games in the Crash Bandicoot series . Response to the karting games released since Super Mario Kart has been mixed , with GameSpot describing them as tending to be bad while 1UP.com notes that countless developers have tried to improve upon the Mario Kart formula without success .
Super Mario Kart is also credited as being the first non @-@ platforming game to feature multiple playable characters from the Mario franchise . As well as several sequels Nintendo has released numerous other sporting and non @-@ sporting Mario spin @-@ offs since Super Mario Kart ; a trend in part accredited to the commercial and critical success of the game . The Mario characters have appeared in many sports games including those relating to basketball , baseball , golf , tennis and soccer . Non @-@ sporting franchises using the Mario characters have also been created , including the Super Smash Bros. series of fighting games and the Mario Party series of board game based , party games . Mario series characters have also made cameos in games from other series such as SSX on Tour and NBA Street V3 , both published by EA Sports . The genre spanning nature of the Mario series that was sparked off by the success of Super Mario Kart has been described as key to the success and longevity of the franchise ; keeping fans interested despite the infrequency of traditional Mario platforming games . Following this model the Mario series has gone on to become the best selling video game franchise of all time with 193 million units sold as of January 2007 , almost 40 million units ahead of second ranked franchise ( Pokémon , also by Nintendo ) .
Super Mario Kart was re @-@ released on the Japanese Virtual Console on June 9 , 2009 , and later in North America on November 23 , 2009 . Previously , when naming it as one of the most wanted games for the platform in November 2008 , Eurogamer stated that problems emulating the Mode 7 graphics were responsible for its absence .
The game was also released for the Wii U virtual console in Japan during June 2013 , and in Europe on March 27 , 2014 . In addition , North America users was able to get the game starting from August 6 , 2014 to celebrate the 22nd anniversary of the game , which also includes the new game update of Mario Kart 8 on August 27 , 2014 .
Super Mario 3D World has a stage with a look based on the Mario Circuit racetracks from Super Mario Kart . A remixed version of the music can also be heard .
= = = Sequels = = =
Several sequels to Super Mario Kart have been brought out for successive generations of Nintendo consoles , each receiving commercial success and critical acclaim . The first of these , Mario Kart 64 was released in 1996 for the Nintendo 64 and was the first Mario Kart game to feature fully 3D graphics . Although reviewers including IGN and GameSpot felt that the single player gameplay was lacking compared to its predecessor , the simultaneous four @-@ person multiplayer modes – a first for the Nintendo 64 – were praised . The second sequel , Mario Kart : Super Circuit , was released for the Game Boy Advance in 2001 . It was described by GameSpot as more of a remake of Super Mario Kart than a sequel to Mario Kart 64 and featured a return to the graphical style of the original . As well as featuring all new tracks , players are able to unlock the original SNES tracks if certain achievements are completed . Mario Kart : Double Dash ‼ was released for the Nintendo GameCube in 2003 . Unlike any other Mario Kart game before or since , it features two riders in each kart , allowing for a new form of cooperative multiplayer where one player controls the kart 's movement and the other fires weapons . Mario Kart DS , released for the Nintendo DS in 2005 , was the first Mario Kart game to include online play via the Nintendo Wi @-@ Fi Connection . It went on to become the best selling hand @-@ held racing game of all time , selling 7 @.@ 83 million units . The game also marks the debut of tracks appearing in previous games . Mario Kart Wii was released for the Wii in 2008 and incorporates motion controls and 12 @-@ player racing . Like Mario Kart DS , it includes on @-@ line play ; it also allows racers to play as user @-@ created Miis ( after unlocking the Mii character ) as well as Mario series characters and comes packaged with the Wii Wheel peripheral , which can act as the game 's primary control mechanism when coupled with a Wii Remote . Mario Kart Wii went on to be the worldwide best @-@ selling game of 2008 ahead of another Nintendo game – Wii Fit – and the critically acclaimed Grand Theft Auto IV . Mario Kart 7 for the Nintendo 3DS was released in 2011 , which features racing on land , sea , and air . Also in Mario Kart 7 is the ability to customize your kart and to race in first @-@ person mode . Three Mario Kart arcade games have also been released , Mario Kart Arcade GP in 2005 , Mario Kart Arcade GP 2 in 2007 , and Mario Kart Arcade GP DX in 2013 . All of them were developed jointly by Nintendo and Namco and feature classic Namco characters including Pac @-@ Man and Blinky . The most recent entry in the series is Mario Kart 8 for the Wii U , which was released at the end of May 2014 , which brings back gliders and propellers from Mario Kart 7 as well as 12 @-@ player racing in Mario Kart Wii . Mario Kart 8 also includes a new feature called Mario Kart TV , where players can watch highlights of previous races and uploading them to YouTube . Another new feature is anti @-@ gravity racing , where players can race on walls and ceilings .
As the series has progressed , many aspects included in Super Mario Kart have been developed and altered . The power up boxes which are flat against the track in Super Mario Kart due to the technical limitations of the SNES became floating boxes in later games . The roster of racers has expanded in recent games to include a greater selection of Nintendo characters including some which had not been created at the time of Super Mario Kart 's release – such as Petey Piranha from Super Mario Sunshine who appeared in Mario Kart : Double Dash ! ! . Multiplayer has remained a key feature of the series and has expanded from the two @-@ player modes available in Super Mario Kart ; first to allow up to four simultaneous players in Mario Kart 64 and eventually up to twelve simultaneous online players in Mario Kart Wii . Many of the track themes have been retained throughout the series , including Rainbow Road – the final track of the Special Cup – which has appeared in every Mario Kart console game . Other features present in Super Mario Kart have disappeared from the series . These include the " super @-@ powers " of the computer characters , the feather power up which allows players to jump high into the air and having a restricted number of lives . The only other Mario Kart games to feature the coin collecting of the original are Mario Kart : Super Circuit , Mario Kart 7 , and Mario Kart 8 . The aspects of style and gameplay from Super Mario Kart that have been retained throughout the series have led Nintendo to face criticism for a lack of originality but the franchise is still considered to be a beloved household name by many , known for its familiar core gameplay .
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= Dyer Lum =
Dyer Daniel Lum ( 1839 – April 6 , 1893 ) was a 19th @-@ century American anarchist , labor activist and poet . A leading anarcho @-@ syndicalist and a prominent left @-@ wing intellectual of the 1880s , Lum is best remembered as the lover and mentor of early anarcha @-@ feminist Voltairine de Cleyre .
Lum was a prolific writer who wrote a number of key anarchist texts , and contributed to publications including Mother Earth , Twentieth Century , Liberty ( Benjamin Tucker 's individualist anarchist journal ) , The Alarm ( the journal of the International Working People 's Association ) and The Open Court among others . Following the arrest of Albert Parsons , Lum edited The Alarm from 1892 – 1893 .
Traditionally portrayed as a " genteel , theoretical anarchist " , Lum has recently been recast by the scholarship of Paul Avrich as an " uncompromising rebel thirsty for violence and martyrdom " in the light of his involvement in the Haymarket affair in 1886 .
= = Life = =
In disposition , Mr. Lum was most amiable ; in the character of his mind he was philosophical ; in mental capacity , he was at once keen and broad . His friends , who were many , mourn his passing away .
Lum was a descendant of the prominent New England Tappan family ; his grandfather was an American revolutionary . In hopes of bringing about the end of slavery , he volunteered to fight for the Union Army in the American Civil War . He served as an adjutant in the Fourteenth New York Cavalry , and later as a brevet captain , seeing combat in the Red River Campaign . A bookbinder by trade , Lum became active in the American labor movement in the aftermath of the war . He served as a secretary to Samuel Gompers and ran for lieutenant governor of Massachusetts on the Labor Reform ticket of abolitionist Wendell Phillips in 1870 .
He became widely known in 1877 after a period traveling across the country as secretary to a congressional committee appointed to " inquire into the depression of labor . " Between 1880 and 1892 , he was an advocate of direct action and trade unionism , and in later years was " the moving spirit of the American group " which worked for the commutation of Alexander Berkman 's sentence for the latter 's attempted assassination of Henry Clay Frick . Lum committed suicide in 1893 after suffering from severe depression , although at the time the cause of death was reported in the anarchist press as " fatty degeneration of the heart . "
= = = Relationship with de Cleyre = = =
When Lum met Voltairine de Cleyre in 1888 , he was twenty @-@ seven years her elder and had lived a life rich in experience . They forged an " unshakable " friendship , and Lum had a profound influence on Voltairine de Cleyre 's political development , which evolved in an opposite direction to his ; she started out as an orthodox Tuckerite individualist , but became increasingly involved with the radical labor movement and ultimately called for a panarchist " anarchism without adjectives " movement . Their relationship ended after five years of intense involvement , leaving their planned collaborative project — a lengthy social and philosophical anarchist novel — ultimately unpublished .
= = = Involvement in the Haymarket Riot = = =
Lum was closely associated with , and worked alongside the martyrs of the Haymarket affair in Chicago in 1886 . In an 1891 essay , he wrote that on the afternoon of May 4 , August Spies sent word to the militants that they were not to bring arms to the Haymarket . This order was not respected , Lum noted – " one man disobeyed that order ; always self @-@ determined , he acted upon his own responsibility , preferring to be prepared for resistance to onslaught rather than to quietly imitate the spiritual " lamb led to slaughter . " Lum asserted that the eight defendants were initially unaware of the bomb @-@ thrower 's identity , although it became known to two of them ( " but neither Spies nor Parsons … " ) , believed by Paul Avrich to be George Engel and Adolph Fischer .
In Lum 's account , the bomb @-@ thrower 's name " was never mentioned in the trial and is today unknown to the public . " Paul Avrich attests that Lum urged Albert Parsons to refuse clemency , and plotted to rescue the anarchists from Cook County Jail by attacking it with explosives . According to de Cleyre , he then assisted the suicide of one of the eight defendants , Louis Lingg , by smuggling into Lingg 's prison cell a dynamite cap concealed in a cigar , which Lingg subsequently lit , thereby blowing off half his face and leaving himself lingering for several hours in torturous pain before dying .
= = Thought = =
… rent , interest , profit are the triple heads of the monster against which modern civilization is waging war .
Lum 's political philosophy was a fusion of individualist anarchist economics – " a radicalized form of laissez @-@ faire economics " inspired by the Boston anarchists – with radical labor organization similar to that of the Chicago anarchists of the time . Lum 's ideas have variously been described as individualist anarchist , syndicalist , mutualist , and anarcho @-@ communist , as well as anarchist without adjectives . Herbert Spencer and Pierre @-@ Joseph Proudhon influenced Lum strongly in his individualist tendency . He developed a " mutualist " theory of unions and as such was active within the Knights of Labor and later promoted anti @-@ political strategies in the American Federation of Labor . Frustration with abolitionism , spiritualism , and labor reform caused Lum to embrace anarchism and radicalize workers , as he came to believe that revolution would inevitably involve a violent struggle between the working class and the employing class . Convinced of the necessity of violence to enact social change he volunteered to fight in the American Civil War , hoping thereby to bring about the end of slavery . Kevin Carson has praised Lum 's fusion of individualist laissez @-@ faire economics with radical labor activism as " creative " and described him as " more significant than any in the Boston group " .
Lum argued in The Economics of Anarchy that the " labor problem " was a result of intervention by the state in creating monopolies , with particular reference to the land and money monopolies . Lum advocated the destruction of the land monopoly , which he saw as a government @-@ granted monopoly , by abolishing land titles and to allow free access to land , thus making the extraction of rent impossible . Similarly , mutual banks set up to issue their own currencies would end the state monopoly and undercut the ability of banks and lenders to charge interest .
In anarchy labor and capital would be merged into one , for capital would be without prerogatives and dependent upon labor , and owned by it . The laborer would find that to produce was to enjoy and the nightmare of destitution banished . The artisan would find in co @-@ operation that nature alone remained to be exploited . The tradesman would find that production offered greater inducement than exchange , unless he accepted a position of competence and ease in the labor exchange which would supplant isolated stores . The clerk , no longer with his horizon bounded by a ribbon counter , would have full scope to display his talents in any direction . The farmer , above all , free from irksome care to meet interest , to dread foreclosure from enforced taxation , with his family growing up around him , and rendered secure by a common title and mutual inter @-@ dependence , or seeking in insurance indemnity for depredation. would find in anarchy release from useless drudgery and his labor crowned with plentiness and peace .
= = = Selected articles = = =
" Dyer D. Lum on Anarchy , " published in The Alarm and in Parsons ' Anarchism : Its Philosophy and Scientific Basis .
" Eighteen Christian Centuries or the Evolution of the Gospel of Anarchy " syndicated in Liberty
" The Status of the Scab , " published in Rights of Labor , and later heavily critiqued by Victor Yarros in Liberty .
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= Thomas C. Kinkaid =
Thomas Cassin Kinkaid ( 3 April 1888 – 17 November 1972 ) served as an admiral in the United States Navy during World War II . He built a reputation as a " fighting admiral " in the aircraft carrier battles of 1942 and commanded the Allied forces in the Aleutian Islands Campaign . He was Commander Allied Naval Forces and the Seventh Fleet under General of the Army Douglas MacArthur in the Southwest Pacific Area , where he conducted numerous amphibious operations , and commanded an Allied fleet during the Battle of Leyte Gulf , largest naval battle of World War II and the last naval battle between battleships in history .
Born into a naval family , Kinkaid was ranked in the lower half of his class on his graduation from the United States Naval Academy in June 1908 . His early commissioned service was spent aboard battleships . In 1913 , he began instruction in ordnance engineering and served in that field for many years . He saw action during the 1916 United States occupation of the Dominican Republic . During World War I , he was attached to the Royal Navy before serving as Gunnery Officer aboard the battleship USS Arizona . After the war , he was Assistant Chief of Staff to the Commander U.S. Naval Detachment in Turkey . Kinkaid received his first command , the destroyer USS Isherwood , in 1924 . He was Executive Officer of the battleship USS Colorado when the 1933 Long Beach earthquake struck , and participated in relief efforts . He received his second command in 1937 , the heavy cruiser USS Indianapolis .
From 1938 to 1941 , Kinkaid was a naval attaché in Italy and Yugoslavia . In the months prior to U.S. entry into World War II , he commanded a destroyer squadron . Promoted to rear admiral in 1941 , he assumed command of a U.S. Pacific Fleet cruiser division . His cruisers defended the aircraft carrier USS Lexington during the Battle of the Coral Sea and USS Hornet during the Battle of Midway . After that battle he took command of Task Force 16 , a task force built around the carrier USS Enterprise , which he led during the long and difficult Solomon Islands campaign , participating in the Battles of the Eastern Solomons and the Santa Cruz Islands . Kinkaid was placed in charge of the North Pacific Force in January 1943 and commanded the operations that regained control of the Aleutian Islands . He was promoted to vice admiral in June 1943 .
In November 1943 , Kinkaid became Commander Allied Naval Forces South West Pacific Area , and Commander of the Seventh Fleet , directing U.S. and Royal Australian Navy forces supporting the New Guinea campaign . During the Battle of the Surigao Strait he commanded the Allied ships in the last naval battle between battleships in history . Following the demise of Japanese naval power in the region , the Allied navies supported the campaigns in the Philippines and Borneo . Kinkaid was promoted to admiral on 3 April 1945 . After the Pacific War ended in August 1945 , the Seventh Fleet assisted in operations on the Korean and China coasts . Admiral Kinkaid was Commander Eastern Sea Frontier and the Sixteenth Fleet from 1946 until his retirement in May 1950 . He was a member of the National Security Training Commission for much of the rest of the decade . He also served with the American Battle Monuments Commission for 15 years .
= = Early life = =
Thomas Cassin Kinkaid was born in Hanover , New Hampshire , on 3 April 1888 , the second child and only son of Thomas Wright Kinkaid , a naval officer , and his wife Virginia Lee née Cassin . At the time , Thomas Wright Kinkaid was on leave from the U.S. Navy and employed at the New Hampshire College of Agriculture and the Mechanic Arts . When Thomas was only a year old , his father was posted to the USS Pinta , and the family moved to Sitka , Alaska , where a third child , Dorothy , was born in 1890 . Over the next few years the family successively moved to Philadelphia , Pennsylvania ; Norfolk , Virginia ; Annapolis , Maryland and Georgetown , Washington , D.C.
Thomas attended Western High School for three years before entering a U.S. Naval Academy preparatory school . He sought and secured an appointment to Annapolis from President Theodore Roosevelt , and was asked to take the admission examination . The Navy was undergoing a period of expansion , and the intake of midshipmen was double that of two years earlier . Of the 350 who took the examination , 283 were admitted . The class was the largest since the Academy had opened in 1845 .
Kinkaid was admitted to Annapolis as a midshipman in July 1904 . His instructors included four future Chiefs of Naval Operations : William S. Benson , William V. Pratt , William D. Leahy and Ernest J. King . In 1905 he took an instructional cruise on USS Nevada . He also spent six weeks on USS Hartford , his only experience of a warship under sail . In subsequent years , his training cruises were on the USS Newark and USS Arkansas which , while much newer , were by this time also obsolete . He participated in sports , particularly in rowing , earning a seat in the Academy 's eight @-@ oar racing shell . He graduated on 5 June 1908 , ranked 136th in his class of 201 .
= = Early career = =
Kinkaid 's first posting was to San Francisco where he joined the crew of the battleship USS Nebraska , part of the Great White Fleet . During the next year , he circumnavigated the globe with the fleet , visiting New Zealand and Australia . The fleet returned to its home port of Norfolk , Virginia in February 1909 . In 1910 , Kinkaid took his examinations for the rank of ensign but failed navigation . While his classmates were promoted in June 1910 , Kinkaid remained a midshipman , pending the result of a makeup examination in December 1910 . In July , he developed pleurisy and was hospitalized in New York , New York before being sent to Annapolis to recuperate . At the time his father was in charge of the Naval Engineering Experiment Station there , which allowed Kinkaid to stay with his parents while studying for his navigation examination . In October , he was posted to the battleship USS Minnesota whose skipper , Commander William Sims , an Annapolis classmate of his father 's , encouraged Kinkaid 's early interest in gunnery . Kinkaid passed his navigation examination on 7 December and was promoted to ensign on 14 February 1911 , backdated to 6 June 1910 . While still at Annapolis , Kinkaid met Helen Sherburne Ross , the daughter of a Philadelphia businessman . The two were married on 24 April 1911 in the Silver Chapel of St. Mark 's Episcopal Church in Philadelphia in a ceremony attended by a small number of guests . Their marriage produced no children . They enjoyed playing contract bridge and golf , and Helen was the women 's golf champion for the District of Columbia in 1921 and 1922 .
In 1913 , Kinkaid , now a lieutenant ( junior grade ) , commenced a course in ordnance at the Naval Academy Postgraduate School . This consisted of four months of classroom instruction followed by tours with the leading naval ordnance manufacturers , and concluded with a tour of duty at the Indian Head Naval Proving Ground . Students had to commit to remain in the Navy for at least eight years . After completing the four months in the classroom at Annapolis , Kinkaid commenced a three @-@ month assignment at Midvale Steel , but this was interrupted after two months by the United States occupation of Veracruz . Kinkaid was ordered to report to the gunboat USS Machias for duty in the Caribbean , during which the ship participated in the 1916 United States occupation of the Dominican Republic . Kinkaid came under fire for the first time when the ship was fired upon from ashore . Machias replied with its machine guns . When one jammed , Kinkaid exposed himself to fire to assist in clearing the weapon . He fired it in response to gunfire against the ship . Machias returned home in December , and in February Kinkaid resumed his ordnance studies and went to Bausch & Lomb in Rochester , New York , where he studied the manufacture of spotting and fire control systems . In March he reported to the Washington Navy Yard , where he wrote a pamphlet on fire control . He also created a design for a human torpedo , but the Bureau of Ordnance decided that his concept was unsound . He completed his ordnance studies with tours at Bethlehem Steel , the Indian Head Naval Proving Ground and the Sperry Gyroscope Company in Brooklyn .
In July 1916 , Kinkaid reported to USS Pennsylvania , the navy 's newest battleship , as a gunfire spotter . He was promoted to lieutenant in January 1917 . In November 1917 , he was ordered to supervise the delivery of a newly developed 20 ft ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) rangefinder from the Norfolk Navy Yard to the Grand Fleet . On reaching London , Kinkaid reported to Sims , now a vice admiral , who then ordered Kinkaid to deliver secret documents to Admiral William S. Benson at a meeting with Allied naval leaders in Paris . Afterwards , Kinkaid returned to the United Kingdom and tested the rangefinder at HMS Excellent on Whale Island , Hampshire . He visited optical works in London , York and Glasgow to study the British Royal Navy 's rangefinders , and the Grand Fleet at its anchorages . On returning to the United States in January 1918 , he visited Sperry Gyroscope and Ford Instruments to consult with them on fire control systems . Promoted to lieutenant commander in February 1918 , he was posted to Pennsylvania 's sister ship , USS Arizona . In May 1919 , Arizona was sent to cover the Greek occupation of Smyrna . For his services from September 1918 to July 1919 , Kinkaid was recommended for the Navy Distinguished Service Medal , but it was not awarded .
= = Between the wars = =
Following the normal pattern of alternating assignments afloat and ashore , Kinkaid was posted to a shore billet as the Chief of the Supply Section of the Bureau of Ordnance in Washington D.C. During this time he published two articles in the United States Naval Institute magazine Proceedings . The first , on the " Probability and Accuracy of Gun Fire " , was a technical article arguing for more rather than bigger guns on battleships and cruisers . The Washington Naval Conference would prevent these ideas from being put into practice , by restricting the number and size of warships and their guns . The second , entitled " Naval Corps , Specialization and Efficiency " , argued for increasing the specializations of line officers rather than creating separate corps of specialists , a more controversial topic at a time when naval aviators were agitating for the creation of a new specialist branch of their own .
In 1922 , Kinkaid became Assistant Chief of Staff to the Commander U.S. Naval Detachment in Turkish Waters , Rear Admiral Mark L. Bristol . This tour saw the end of the Greek occupation of Smyrna . The ratification of the Treaty of Lausanne by Turkey resulted in a draw @-@ down of U.S. naval forces in the region , reducing Bristol 's post to a primarily diplomatic one . In 1924 , Kinkaid , whose father had died in August 1920 , requested a posting back to the United States owing to his mother 's ill @-@ health . The ship taking him back , the light cruiser USS Trenton , had to sail by way of Iran in order to collect the body of Vice Consul Robert Imbrie , who had been killed by an angry mob in Tehran .
Kinkaid received his first command , the destroyer USS Isherwood , on 11 November 1924 . Since its home port was the Philadelphia Navy Yard and ships ' captains did not have to spend their nights on board , Kinkaid was able to live with Helen at her parents ' residence in Philadelphia . In July 1925 , he was assigned to the Naval Gun Factory . He was promoted to commander in June 1926 . For the next two years , he served as Fleet Gunnery Officer and Aide to the Commander in Chief , U.S. Fleet , Admiral Henry A. Wiley . In 1929 and 1930 , Kinkaid attended the Naval War College . This was followed by duty on the Navy General Board . He was then seconded to the State Department as a Naval Advisor at the Geneva Disarmament Conference .
Kinkaid next became Executive Officer of the USS Colorado , one of the navy 's newest battleships , in February 1933 . By coincidence the ship was at anchor in Long Beach , California when the 1933 Long Beach earthquake struck . Over the next few days thousands of sailors and marines participated in relief activities . Kinkaid convinced the captain to allow homeless families of crew members to stay on the ship , and erected tarpaulins on the quayside to create family areas . He sent medical and relief supplies ashore from Colorado .
In 1934 , he returned to Washington for a tour of duty with the Bureau of Navigation , in charge of the Officers ' Detail Section . During this time , Kinkaid came up for promotion to captain . Classmates including Richmond K. Turner and Willis A. Lee were selected in January 1935 , but Kinkaid was passed over for promotion . However , with the help of strong fitness reports from his superiors , Rear Admirals William D. Leahy and Adolphus Andrews , he was selected in January 1936 and , after passing the required physical and professional examinations , was promoted on 11 January 1937 . Kinkaid was then given his second seagoing command , the heavy cruiser USS Indianapolis . He assumed command from Captain Henry K. Hewitt on 7 June 1937 .
= = World War II = =
= = = Attaché = = =
Kinkaid hoped his next assignment would be that of naval attaché to London , but that job went to Captain Alan G. Kirk . Kinkaid was offered and accepted the post in Rome instead . He took up his posting there in November 1938 . In 1939 , he was also accredited with the American embassy in Belgrade . Kinkaid reported that Italy was unprepared for war . Only in May 1940 did he warn that Italy was mobilizing . Soon after , he learned from Count Galeazzo Ciano that Italy would declare war on France and Britain between 10 and 15 June 1940 . He provided accurate reports on the damage inflicted by the British in the Battle of Taranto . He returned to the U.S. in March 1941 .
Kinkaid now faced the prospect of selection to rear admiral . He knew that captains normally required a certain amount of seagoing command experience to be considered , but because his tour of duty on Indianapolis had been cut short in order to take up the post in Rome , he did not have enough months , and it was unlikely that a billet as captain of a battleship or cruiser would come up in sufficient time before the next round of selections . He discussed the matter with head of the Officers ' Detail Section at the Bureau of Navigation , Captain Arthur S. Carpender , an Annapolis classmate who had himself recently been selected for flag rank . Carpender came up with a solution : he recommended Kinkaid for command of a destroyer squadron . This was a seagoing command , although Kinkaid was somewhat senior for it . Good fitness reports as commander of Destroyer Squadron 8 , based in Philadelphia , resulted in Kinkaid 's promotion to rear admiral in August 1941 , despite having no more than two years ' worth of total command experience . He became the last of his class to be promoted to flag rank before the United States entered the war . No one ranking lower in the class was promoted to flag rank before retirement .
= = = Coral Sea and Midway = = =
Kinkaid was ordered to relieve Rear Admiral Frank J. Fletcher as commander of Cruiser Division 6 , consisting of the heavy cruisers USS Astoria , Minneapolis and San Francisco . This was part of the U.S. Pacific Fleet , based at Pearl Harbor . He did not reach his new command until after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor , which brought the U.S. into the war . When he reached Hawaii , Kinkaid stayed with his brother @-@ in @-@ law , the Commander in Chief , U.S. Fleet , Admiral Husband E. Kimmel , who was married to Kinkaid 's sister Dorothy . Kinkaid accompanied Fletcher as an observer during the attempt to relieve Wake Island , and did not formally assume command of the division until 29 December 1941 .
The traditional job of cruisers was scouting and screening , but with the loss of most of the battleships at Pearl Harbor these roles largely passed to the aircraft carriers , while the cruisers ' main mission became defending the carriers against air attack . Kinkaid 's cruisers formed part of Rear Admiral Aubrey W. Fitch 's Task Force 11 , which was built around the carrier USS Lexington . Task Force 11 rendezvoused with Fletcher 's Task Force 17 , built around the carrier USS Yorktown , on 1 May 1942 . Kinkaid then became commander of the Task Group 17 @.@ 2 , the screening cruisers and destroyers of both carriers . Carrier warfare was in its infancy , and at this stage American carriers neither embarked adequate numbers of fighters , nor skillfully employed what they had . When Task Force 17 was attacked three days later in the Battle of the Coral Sea , the burden of defending the Task Force fell on Kinkaid 's gunners . Their task was complicated by the radical maneuvering of the carriers under attack , which made it impossible for the screen to keep station . Despite the gunners ' best efforts , both carriers were hit , and Lexington caught fire and sank . For his part in the battle , Kinkaid was awarded the Navy Distinguished Service Medal .
Kinkaid was detached with the cruisers Astoria , Minneapolis and New Orleans , and four destroyers on 11 May 1942 and sailed for Nouméa , while Fletcher took the rest of Task Force 17 to Tongatapu . Kinkaid then headed north to join the Vice Admiral William F. Halsey 's Task Force 16 . Kinkaid 's force became part of its screen which was under the command of Rear Admiral Raymond A. Spruance . Shortly after Task Force 16 returned to Pearl Harbor , Halsey was hospitalized with a severe case of dermatitis and , on his recommendation , was replaced as commander of Task Force 16 by Spruance . Kinkaid then became commander of the screen , also known as Task Group 16 @.@ 2 . He was one of only four American flag officers present during the subsequent Battle of Midway . However , he saw little action , as Task Force 16 did not come under attack .
= = = Solomon Islands = = =
After the battle , Spruance became chief of staff to Admiral Chester W. Nimitz , the Commander in Chief , U.S. Pacific Fleet ( CINCPAC ) and Pacific Ocean Areas ( CINCPOA ) . In Halsey 's continued absence , Kinkaid became commander of Task Force 16 , built around the carrier USS Enterprise , although he was not an aviator , and his experience with carriers had been restricted to commanding their screens at the Battle of the Coral Sea and the Battle of Midway . In early July Kinkaid was briefed by Nimitz about plans for a landing in the Solomon Islands , codenamed Operation Watchtower . For this operation , Kinkaid 's Task Force 16 would be one of three carrier task forces under Fletcher 's overall command . To protect his flagship , the Enterprise , Kinkaid had the battleship USS North Carolina , heavy cruiser USS Portland , antiaircraft cruiser USS Atlanta , and five destroyers . The addition of the new battleship and its twenty 5 in ( 130 mm ) / 38 caliber dual @-@ purpose guns greatly strengthened Task Force 16 's antiaircraft defenses .
The American landing on Guadalcanal evoked a furious reaction from the Japanese , who sent their fleet to reinforce the Japanese garrison on Guadalcanal . Fletcher 's carriers had the mission of protecting the sea lanes to the Solomons.The two carrier forces clashed in the Battle of the Eastern Solomons . Kinkaid disposed his carrier task force in a circular formation , with Enterprise at the center , the cruisers at 10 and 2 o 'clock and the battleship aft at 6 o 'clock . This proved to be a mistake . With a top speed of 27 kn ( 31 mph ; 50 km / h ) , the battleship fell behind the carrier when the latter accelerated to 30 kn ( 35 mph ; 56 km / h ) while under attack , depriving itself of the protection of the battleship 's guns.Enterprise came under direct attack by Japanese fighters , taking three bomb hits that killed 74 of its crew . Extraordinary efforts permitted the carrier to continue operating aircraft , but it was forced to return to Pearl Harbor for repairs . In his report after the battle , Kinkaid recommended that the number of fighters carried by each carrier be further increased . For his part in the battle , he was awarded his second Distinguished Service Medal .
Task Force 16 returned to the South Pacific in October 1942 , just in time to take part in the decisive action of the campaign , the Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands , when the Japanese Army and Navy made an all @-@ out effort to recapture the airfield of Guadalcanal . In addition to Enterprise , Kinkaid 's force included the battleship South Dakota , heavy cruiser Portland , anti @-@ aircraft cruiser San Juan , and eight destroyers . Fortunately , both Enterprise and South Dakota had been fitted with the new Bofors 40 mm anti @-@ aircraft guns . In the three early carrier battles , Kinkaid had been a subordinate commander . This time he was in overall command , in charge of Task Force 61 , which included both his own Task Force 16 and Rear Admiral George D. Murray 's Task Force 17 , built around the aircraft carrier USS Hornet . The battle unfolded badly . Hornet was sunk , and Enterprise , South Dakota and San Juan were severely damaged . Aviators like Murray and John H. Towers blamed Kinkaid , as a non @-@ aviator , for the loss of the Hornet . It became a black mark on Kinkaid 's record . The Japanese had won another tactical victory , but Kinkaid 's carriers had gained the Americans precious time to prepare and reinforce .
= = = Aleutian Islands = = =
On 4 January 1943 , Kinkaid became Commander of the North Pacific Force ( COMNORPACFOR ) following the failure of his predecessor , Rear Admiral Robert A. Theobald , to work harmoniously with the U.S. Army . Command relationships in the North Pacific were complicated . Naval forces came under Fletcher 's Northwestern Sea Frontier . The troops in Alaska , including Brigadier General William O. Butler 's Eleventh Air Force , were commanded by Major General Simon B. Buckner , Jr . , who was answerable to the head of the Western Defense Command , Lieutenant General John L. DeWitt . Kinkaid 's command was responsible for coordinating these forces and retaking the Aleutian Islands captured by the Japanese . He found the Army eager to cooperate , but encountered more difficulty with Rear Admiral Francis W. Rockwell , the commander of the Amphibious Force , Pacific Fleet , and later the IX Amphibious Force . Rockwell was an Academy classmate of Kinkaid 's , who was senior to him in rank , and convinced that he would both plan and command the amphibious phase of the operation rather than Kinkaid .
Kinkaid 's first major decision was to bypass Kiska in favor of an assault on the less heavily defended Attu Island . He moved his headquarters to Adak to be with those of Buckner and Butler , and at Buckner 's suggestion established a joint mess where their two staffs ate meals together . However , the amphibious planning was done in San Diego by Rockwell and his U.S. Marine Corps advisor , Brigadier General Holland M. Smith . The Battle of Attu was only the third American amphibious operation of the war , and was carried through to a costly success under difficult conditions . The slow rate of progress ashore caused Kinkaid to relieve the Army commander , Major General Albert E. Brown and replace him with Major General Eugene M. Landrum . In June 1943 Kinkaid was promoted to vice admiral , thereby removing any lingering doubts about who was in charge , and awarded his third Distinguished Service Medal . He now prepared Operation Cottage , the much larger invasion of Kiska . This was carried out as planned , but the invaders found that the Japanese had already evacuated the islands . In September 1943 , Kinkaid was replaced by Vice Admiral Frank Fletcher .
= = = Southwest Pacific = = =
In November 1943 , Kinkaid replaced Carpender as Commander Allied Naval Forces , Southwest Pacific Area , and the Seventh Fleet , known as " MacArthur 's Navy " . General Douglas MacArthur had twice requested Carpender 's relief , and Kinkaid 's record working with the Army in Alaska made him a logical choice . Australian newspapers hailed the appointment of a " fighting admiral " , but neither MacArthur nor the Australian government had been consulted about the appointment , which was made by the Commander in Chief , United States Fleet , Admiral Ernest King . This was a violation of the international agreement that had established the Southwest Pacific Area . The Navy Department then announced that the replacement of Carpender with Kinkaid was merely a proposal , and MacArthur and the Prime Minister of Australia , John Curtin , were asked if Kinkaid was acceptable . They agreed that he was . In his new role , Kinkaid had two masters . As commander of the Seventh Fleet , he was answerable to King , but as Commander Allied Naval Forces , Kinkaid was answerable to MacArthur . Operations were conducted on the basis of " mutual cooperation " rather than " unity of command " , and relations between the Army and Navy were not good . Kinkaid was not the most senior naval officer in the theater , for the Royal Australian Navy 's Admiral Sir Guy Royle and the Royal Netherlands Navy 's Admiral Conrad Helfrich were both senior to him .
Despite the unpromising relationship with the army , Kinkaid 's most troublesome subordinate was a U.S. Navy officer , as had been the case with Rockwell in the Aleutians . This time , the subordinate was Rear Admiral Ralph W. Christie , the commander of Task Force 71 , the Seventh Fleet 's submarines . Christie commonly greeted a returning submarine at the pier and awarded decorations on the spot . This practice bypassed military and naval award boards , and annoyed Kinkaid because confirmation of sinkings was accomplished by Ultra , and news of awards given so quickly could constitute a security breach . Kinkaid gave Christie and his other subordinates orders forbidding pierside awards , and the award of army medals to navy personnel . In June 1944 , Christie accompanied a war patrol on Commander Samuel D. Dealey 's submarine USS Harder . Afterward , Christie met with MacArthur and related the events of the war patrol to the general , who decided to award Dealey the Distinguished Service Cross and Christie the Silver Star . When Harder was lost with Dealey and all hands on its next patrol , Christie recommended Dealey for the Medal of Honor . Kinkaid turned down the recommendation on the grounds that Dealey had already received the Distinguished Service Cross for the same patrol . Angered , Christie sent a dispatch to Kinkaid in an easily decipherable low @-@ order code that criticized him and urged him to reconsider . Upset by both Christie 's attitude and his losses , which included Dealey and Kinkaid 's nephew , Lieutenant Commander Manning Kimmel on USS Robalo in July 1944 , Kinkaid requested Christie 's relief . On 30 December 1944 , Christie was replaced by Captain James Fife .
Other forces under Kinkaid 's command included the cruisers of Task Force 74 under Rear Admiral Victor Crutchley , Task Force 75 under Russell S. Berkey , and Task Force 76 , the VII Amphibious Force , under Rear Admiral Daniel E. Barbey . The main role of the Seventh Fleet was supporting MacArthur 's drive along the northern coast of New Guinea with a series of 38 amphibious operations , usually directed by Barbey . Kinkaid accompanied MacArthur for the landing in the Admiralty Islands , where the two men came ashore a few hours after the assault troops . With 215 vessels involved , Operations Reckless and Persecution in April 1944 together constituted the largest operation in New Guinea waters . It was followed in quick succession by four more operations , at Wakde , Biak , Noemfor and Sansapor .
For MacArthur 's long @-@ awaited return to the Philippines in October 1944 , the Seventh Fleet was massively reinforced by Nimitz 's Pacific Fleet . Kinkaid commanded the assault personally , with Barbey 's VII Amphibious Force as Task Force 78 , joined by Vice Admiral Theodore S. Wilkinson 's III Amphibious Force from the Pacific Fleet as Task Force 79 . Kinkaid was also given Rear Admiral Jesse B. Oldendorf 's Task Force 77 @.@ 2 , a bombardment force built around six old battleships that had survived the attack on Pearl Harbor , and Rear Admiral Thomas L. Sprague 's Task Force 77 @.@ 4 , a force of escort carriers . However , Vice Admiral Marc Mitscher 's Task Force 38 , the covering force of the fast carriers and battleships , remained part of Admiral Halsey 's Third Fleet , which was not under MacArthur or Kinkaid 's command .
Halsey 's orders , which gave priority to the destruction of the Japanese fleet , led to the most controversial episode of the Battle of Leyte Gulf . Four Japanese task forces converged on Kinkaid 's forces in Leyte Gulf : a carrier task force under Vice Admiral Jisaburō Ozawa , from the north ; a force under Vice Admiral Takeo Kurita through the Sibuyan Sea ; and two task forces commanded by Vice Admirals Shōji Nishimura and Kiyohide Shima , which approached via the Surigao Strait . Carrier aircraft from Task Force 38 engaged Kurita in the Battle of the Sibuyan Sea , and forced him to withdraw . In a controversial decision , Halsey concluded that Kurita was no longer a threat and headed north after Ozawa 's force but , due to a misunderstanding , Kinkaid believed that Halsey was still guarding the San Bernardino Strait . Kinkaid deployed all available Seventh Fleet vessels in the Surigao Strait under Oldendorf facing Nishimura and Shima .
In the Battle of the Surigao Strait that night , Kinkaid engaged the Japanese with his PT boats and Oldendorf 's destroyers , cruisers and battleships . Oldendorf was able to " cross the T " of the enemy fleet . It was the last occasion in history where battleships fought each other . Of Nishimura 's two battleships and five lesser ships , only the destroyer Shigure survived ; Kinkaid 's PT force lost only PT @-@ 493 , with 3 killed and 20 wounded . In Oldendorf 's task force , only the destroyer Albert W. Grant was hit , mostly by friendly fire . Total Allied casualties were 39 men killed and 114 wounded .
However , the victory was marred when Kurita 's force doubled back and engaged Sprague 's escort carriers in the Battle off Samar the next day . Oldendorf 's force headed back but Kurita withdrew after sinking an escort carrier , two destroyers and a destroyer escort . After the war , Halsey defended his actions in his memoirs . Kinkaid 's position was that :
Of course it would have been sound practice and better to have an overall commander of naval forces .... However , the Third Fleet and the Seventh Fleet each had an assigned mission which , if fulfilled , would have resulted in the destruction of the Japanese fleet then and there . The question of an overall commander at the scene of action would have been purely academic . Most surely Nimitz 's orders to Halsey did not contemplate the withdrawal of covering forces at the height of battle . " Divided Command " is not the key to what happened at Leyte . " Mission " is the key .
Following the demise of Japanese naval power in the region , Kinkaid 's Seventh Fleet supported the land campaigns in the Philippines and the Borneo . Kinkaid was promoted to admiral on 3 April 1945 . After the Pacific War ended in August 1945 , the Seventh Fleet assisted in landing troops in Korea and northern China to occupy these areas and repatriate Allied prisoners of war . Kinkaid elected not to land troops at Chefoo as originally instructed because the city was in the hands of the Communist Eighth Route Army ; Tsingtao was substituted instead . He was awarded the Legion of Merit by the theater commander in China , Lieutenant General Albert C. Wedemeyer , and the Grand Cordon of the Order of Precious Tripod by the Chinese government .
= = Later life = =
Kinkaid returned to the United States to replace Vice Admiral Herbert F. Leary as Commander Eastern Sea Frontier and Commander Sixteenth Fleet , making his home in the historic Quarters A , Brooklyn Navy Yard . He served on a board chaired by Fleet Admiral Halsey which also included Admirals Spruance , Towers and Vice Admiral Marc Mitscher , whose task was to nominate 50 of the 215 serving rear admirals for early retirement . Kinkaid was soon facing this fate himself , when the House Armed Services Committee sought to reduce the number of four @-@ star rank officers in 1947 . Kinkaid was one of three admirals , the others being Spruance and Hewitt , who would have to retire or be reduced in rank to rear admiral . After some lobbying , this was averted , and they were permitted to remain in the grade until 1 July 1950 , past Kinkaid 's retirement age . Retirement ceremonies , including a parade through New York City , were held on 28 April 1950 and Kinkaid formally retired two days later .
In December 1946 , it was announced that Halsey , Spruance and Turner had been awarded the Army Distinguished Service Medal . A message soon arrived from MacArthur stating that he could not see why Kinkaid should not merit the same award , which had been recommended by Krueger during the war . The medal was duly presented by General Courtney Hodges in a ceremony on Governors Island on 10 April 1947 . The Australian government chose to honor Kinkaid with an honorary Companion of the Order of the Bath , which was presented by the ambassador at a ceremony at the embassy in Washington on Australia Day , 26 January 1948 . Kinkaid had already been created Grand Officer of the Order of Orange @-@ Nassau by Queen Wilhelmina of the Netherlands in 1944 . In March 1948 , he was made a Grand Officer of the Order of Leopold and presented with the Croix de guerre with Palm in a ceremony at the Belgian embassy in Washington , D.C.
He served as the naval representative with the National Security Training Commission from 1951 until it was abolished in 1957 , and with the American Battle Monuments Commission for fifteen years , beginning in 1953 . In this capacity , he attended the dedication of the Cambridge American Cemetery and Memorial , Brittany American Cemetery and Memorial , Rhone American Cemetery and Memorial , Manila American Cemetery and Memorial and the East Coast Memorial . He also paid a visit to Australia and New Zealand in 1951 . Until 1961 , he attended the annual reunions held to celebrate General MacArthur 's birthday , 26 January , joining MacArthur and his old colleagues , including Krueger and Kenney . Kinkaid died at Bethesda Naval Hospital on 17 November 1972 and was buried with military honors at Arlington National Cemetery on 21 November . The Navy named a Spruance @-@ class destroyer after him . The USS Kinkaid was launched by his widow Helen at the Ingalls Shipbuilding Division of Litton Industries at Pascagoula , Mississippi on 1 June 1974 .
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= Palau at the 2008 Summer Olympics =
Palau competed at the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing , China . Palau 's Olympic delegation was led by Frank Kyota , the President of the Palau National Olympic Committee , and consisted of five athletes , three team officials and four coaches . This was an increase from the nation 's two previous appearances at the Summer Olympic Games ; four athletes had been sent to both the Sydney and Athens Games . Palau 's Olympic team was one of the 117 that won no medals at the Games .
= = Opening & closing ceremonies = =
Palau was the 119th national team to enter the Beijing National Stadium in the parade of nations during the Opening Ceremony . The country 's flag bearer was freestyle wrestler Elgin Loren Elwais , the first Palauan athlete to have qualified for a Games based on his own performances .
At the Closing Ceremony athletes entered in a less formal style , led by the flag bearers of all the competing nations . The Palauan flag was carried by swimmer Amber Yobech .
= = Athletics = =
Palau had two competitors in the sport of athletics , one in each of the men 's and women 's 100 m sprints . Jesse Tamangrow finished seventh out of eight competitors in a heat which included eventual bronze medallist Walter Dix . Despite setting a new personal best time of 11 @.@ 38 seconds he did not advance to the quarterfinals of the competition . In the women 's event Peoria Koshiba finished eighth out of nine athletes in the first heat and did not advance to the next round .
Key
Note – Ranks given for track events are within the athlete 's heat only
Q
= Qualified for the next round
q =
Qualified for the next round as a fastest loser or , in field events , by position without achieving the qualifying target
NR
= National record
N / A =
Round not applicable for the event
Bye = Athlete not required to compete in round
Men
Women
= = Swimming = =
Amber Yobech , the youngest member of the team at age 17 , was the sole Palauan representative in the swimming events . She finished 3rd in her heat and 71st out of the 92 competitors overall .
Women
Qualifiers for the latter rounds of all swimming events at the Games were decided on a time only basis between competitors from all heats , therefore the rank shown is an overall position against every swimmer in the round .
= = Wrestling = =
Two wrestlers represented Palau in Beijing . Both athletes received byes in the first round but were defeated in their respective round of 16 matches . Elgin Loren Elwais , the reigning Oceanic champion , was beaten on points by three times world champion Hamid Soryan in the Greco @-@ Roman 55 kg . After the bout he announced his hope of competing at the 2012 Olympics in London , saying , " It is my first Olympics and I am looking forward to my next because I 'm young . " The other wrestler Florian Skilang Temengil was beaten by Hungarian Ottó Aubéli in the Freestyle 120 kg .
Key :
VT - Victory by Fall .
PP - Decision by Points - the loser with technical points .
PO - Decision by Points - the loser without technical points .
Men 's freestyle
Men 's Greco @-@ Roman
= = Media coverage = =
The 2008 Summer Olympics marked the first time that Palauans were able to watch complete Olympic television coverage of all events in their own country . Palau 's in @-@ depth television coverage was due to a special agreement between TV New Zealand and the Palau National Communications Corporation .
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= Operation Aquatint =
Operation Aquatint was the codename for a failed raid by British Commandos on the coast of occupied France during the Second World War . The raid was undertaken in September 1942 on part of what later became Omaha Beach by No. 62 Commando , also known as the Small Scale Raiding Force .
Prior to the operation , a raid on the French coastal town of Dieppe had placed the German occupying forces on a high state of alert , and this ultimately contributed to Aquatint 's failure . The commandos were also unable to identify their correct landing place due to the darkness . Within minutes of landing , the raiding party was ambushed by a German patrol and forced to try to reach their Motor Torpedo Boat ( MTB ) transport . The MTB was located and engaged by the German shore batteries , which damaged one of its engines . It was forced to withdraw , leaving the commandos behind . At the end of the raid those commandos who had not been killed all became prisoners of war . Only five of the raiding force would survive the war ; one was killed in captivity and the fate of the other two is uncertain .
= = Background = =
Following a request from the Chief of Combined Operations Admiral Louis Mountbatten for probes of German coastal defences , No. 62 Commando , also known as the Small Scale Raiding Force ( SSRF ) , mounted a number of operations in 1942 . The first three missions were complete successes : Operation Barricade ( 14 / 15 August 1942 ) , Operation Dryad , ( 2 / 3 September 1942 ) , and Operation Pound ( 7 / 8 September 1942 ) . Aquatint was planned for a night in mid September 1942 as a reconnaissance mission near Sainte @-@ Honorine @-@ des @-@ Pertes , a small coastal town near Port en Bessin in Normandy . The mission was to collect information about the surrounding area , and take a German guard prisoner . Aerial reconnaissance had identified a small group of houses on the seafront thought to be occupied by Germans .
The size of the SSRF landing party was limited to how many could be carried aboard a Motor Torpedo Boat ( MTB ) , and comprised five officers , one warrant officer , one senior non @-@ commissioned officer , three other ranks , and a member of the Free French forces . The commander of the SSRF , Major ' Gus ' March @-@ Phillipps , would lead the raid . His second in command , Captain Geoffrey Appleyard , would remain on board the MTB due to an injury acquired on a previous mission . The other men on the raid were Captain Graham Hayes , Captain John Burton , Captain Lord Francis Howard , Lieutenant Anthony Hall , Company Sergeant Major Thomas Winter , Sergeant Allen Michael Williams , Private Jan Hollings ( Jan Helling ) from the Netherlands , Private Adam Orr ( Abraham Opoczynski ) from Poland , Private Richard Leonard ( Richard Lehniger ) a Jewish Sudeten German from Czechoslovakia , and Maître Andre Desgranges of the Free French Forces .
The Dieppe raid in August 1942 had changed the German fortification plans ; the success of the German defences in repelling the raid reinforced the importance of the Atlantic wall . The Organization Todt had now started to reinforce gun emplacements with infantry strong points along the French coastline . The older gun emplacements based on First World War designs were being replaced by stronger designs with overhead cover to offer protection from air attack . The area of Normandy targeted by Operation Aquatint had yet to receive any concrete gun emplacements but there was a network of coastal artillery batteries able to provide interlocking arcs of fire . German infantry carried out foot patrols in the areas between the batteries .
= = Battle = =
The mission had previously been attempted over the night of 11 / 12 September 1942 , but had to be cancelled after the MTB arrived off the coast of France . The raiding party had been unable to locate their target because of the dark and foggy conditions . On 12 September 1942 , their MTB left Portsmouth at 20 : 12 and reached the coast off Barfleur at about 22 : 00 . Moving at a reduced speed to avoid detection and avoid the offshore mine fields , they reached their intended position offshore just after midnight on 13 September 1942 . Observing the coastline , in the dark they incorrectly identified a valley which they believed was St Honorine , but was actually Saint @-@ Laurent @-@ sur @-@ Mer , about one mile to the right of their intended target . At around 00 : 20 hours the landing party headed toward the beach in a small collapsible flat bottomed boat known as a Goatley boat . After reaching the shore they realised they were too close to some houses to leave their boat where it was . They dragged the boat 200 yards ( 180 m ) east away from the houses and above the high water mark . Captain Lord Howard guarded the boat while the rest of the SSRF checked to area to ensure it was safe and they had not been observed landing .
On their way back to the beach they sighted a German patrol of about seven or eight men coming from the direction of the houses so they took cover . They were discovered by the patrol 's guard dog at about 00 : 50 . The patrol opened fire on them with machine guns and hand grenades . The SSRF managed to disperse the German patrol with return fire and reach the Goatley boat . Captain Lord Howard , who had been left to guard the boat , was wounded trying to re @-@ float the boat , and the others managed to get him aboard . The fight lasted for about 30 minutes . When the German patrol moved forward onto the beach , Lieutenant Hall tried to capture one of the Germans but was himself hit over the head and captured . The SSRF left him behind , presuming he was dead . The men in the Goatley boat had managed to get about 100 yards ( 91 m ) out to sea when it was located and engaged by three machine gun posts above the beach . A gun emplacement to the west also starting firing towards them with heavier calibre guns . The combined fire from four positions damaged the boat , which began to sink . The commandos attempted to swim out to the MTB , which by now had also been discovered and was under fire . Unable to locate it in the darkness , they were forced to swim back to the beach . Winter was fired on again when he reached the beach and was captured . He was taken to the German headquarters where he was put into a room with Captain Lord Howard and Desgranges , who had also been captured .
The MTB had withdrawn out of range at about 01 : 30 , but not before it had suffered engine damage ; a bullet had disabled the starboard engine . After 10 minutes it moved back inshore hoping to pick up any survivors . It was again located by the Germans at about 02 : 30 . The MTB was forced to withdraw once again under increasingly heavy mortar and machine gun fire . Unable to locate any survivors , it recrossed the German minefield and arrived back in Portsmouth at 10 : 00 .
= = Aftermath = =
Later on the morning of 13 September 1942 Winter and Desranges were ordered to collect the bodies of the men who had been killed on the beach . Of the 11 men who went ashore , three were killed : Major March @-@ Phillips , Sergeant Williams , and Private Leonard ; four were captured ( the seriously wounded pair Captain Lord Howard and Lieutenant Hall , with Winter and Desgranges ) ; and four others had escaped .
Later on 13 September 1942 Captain Lord Howard and Lieutenant Hall were hospitalised because of their injuries , while Winter and Desgranges were taken to Caen for interrogation . At the time , the Germans were unaware that four commandos — Captain Burton , Privates Hollings and Orr , and Captain Hayes — had managed to evade capture and made it off the beach .
On 14 September 1942 , the Germans issued a communiqué :
A second communiqué on 15 September 1942 read :
The bodies of the dead were buried in the St @-@ Laurent @-@ sur @-@ Mer cemetery on 15 September 1942 . The funeral was only attended by the local German and the French Gendarmarie commanders . To prevent anyone else from attending , the Germans had a machine gun set up covering the cemetery .
After 10 days of questioning Winter was taken to Rennes , where he was joined three days later by Captain Burton , Hollings , and Orr . These three had managed to stay together when the boat was sunk , and were captured by a German parachute unit carrying out manoeuvres . Burton was sent to a prisoner of war camp in Germany , Winter , Hollings and Orr were taken to Frankfurt and handed over to the Gestapo for further questioning , after which Winter was sent to a prisoner of war camp at Memmingen . The fate of Hollings and Orr has never been established . Winter and a Special Air Service officer escaped from the camp in April 1945 , disguised as French soldiers . Desgranges was also able to escape from captivity , travelling via Spain to Britain , where he joined the Special Operations Executive ( SOE ) .
Captain Hayes , unable to reach the MTB , had started swimming away from the shooting , and came ashore beside Asnieres @-@ en @-@ Bessin . He managed to evade capture and made contact with a local French family who provided him with civilian clothing and contacted the French resistance . Hayes was taken by train to Lisieux and after several weeks reached Paris . Hayes was moved along an escape line to the Spanish border , arriving in October 1942 . After crossing into Spain he was stopped by Spanish border guards who handed him over to the Germans . Hayes was returned to Paris and imprisoned in Fresnes prison . He was kept in solitary confinement for nine months before being executed by firing squad on 13 July 1943 . Hayes had landed in uniform and should have been considered a prisoner of war , but he was executed following the issue of the commando order which called for the execution of all commandos upon capture . It was discovered after the war that Hayes had been betrayed to the Germans , who were aware of all his movements from Normandy to the Spanish border . The persons believed responsible for Hayes ' betrayal were never punished , as they convinced the authorities they were acting as double agents .
Despite the results of the operation , the SOE and Combined Operations Headquarters believed that the SSRF could still be of use , and ensured that it was not dissolved . Command of the unit was given to the newly promoted Major Appleyard . At the end of 1942 , most of SSRF were moved to Algeria and absorbed into the 2nd Special Air Service Regiment . Appleyard did not survive the war . He was returning from a Special Air Service mission when his plane was reported missing . It was the same day that Captain Hayes was executed in Paris .
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= M @-@ 55 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 55 is a state trunkline highway in the northern part of the US state of Michigan . M @-@ 55 is one of only three state highways that extend across the Lower Peninsula from Lake Huron to Lake Michigan ; the others are M @-@ 46 and M @-@ 72 . The highway crosses through rural forest and farmlands to connect Manistee with Tawas City . M @-@ 55 crosses two of the major rivers in the state . Two sections of the highway follow along freeways near Cadillac and West Branch . Running for 150 @.@ 944 miles ( 242 @.@ 921 km ) through the state , M @-@ 55 is maintained by the Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) .
The highway was first designated by July 1 , 1919 along a portion of the current roadway . In a series of extensions , M @-@ 55 was lengthened to connect its current endpoints by the early 1930s . The trunkline has been rerouted in sections since that time resulting in the modern roadway alignment . One set of changes produced a business loop in the Houghton Lake area .
= = Route description = =
M @-@ 55 starts at a three @-@ way intersection with US 31 north of Manistee . The trunkline runs southeast on Caberfae Highway over the Manistee River and through the Peters and Highpoint bayous . The highway passes near the community of Eastlake before turning eastward through forest land . In eastern Manistee County , the roadway crosses the Pine River south of the Tippy Dam Pond in Wellston . M @-@ 55 intersects M @-@ 37 in western Wexford County southwest of the Caberfae Peaks Ski & Golf Resort . The roadway turns northeasterly along the south shore of Lake Mitchell where it then curves southeasterly to run concurrently along M @-@ 115 along the south shore of Lake Cadillac and through the south side of Cadillac . At the interchange with the US 131 freeway , M @-@ 55 merges north along the freeway , bypassing downtown Cadillac .
On the east side of town , M @-@ 55 leaves the freeway and turns east again running through the Pere Marquette State Forest along Watergate Road . When the highway meets M @-@ 66 , M @-@ 55 joins M @-@ 66 and runs north through farmland . As the two highways approach Lake City , they run along the shore of Lake Missaukee and through downtown . M @-@ 55 turns east again along Houghton Lake Road , separating from M @-@ 66 north of the central business district . This section of trunkline passes through mixed farm and wood lands that transitions to mostly forests near Merritt . The road crosses the Muskegon River and follows Lake City Road into the outskirts of Houghton Lake . M @-@ 55 passes over the US 127 freeway and enters Houghton Lake Heights . There the highway runs southeasterly along the shores of Houghton Lake into downtown Houghton Lake . M @-@ 18 briefly joins M @-@ 55 through Prudenville on the east side of the lake , and M @-@ 55 follows West Branch Road as it continues east toward Interstate 75 ( I @-@ 75 ) .
M @-@ 55 follows I @-@ 75 between exits 227 and 215 , a distance of about 12 miles ( 19 km ) . This section is the only part of M @-@ 55 that has been listed on the National Highway System , a system of roads important to the nation 's economy , defense , and mobility . From the end of the freeway concurrency , M @-@ 55 follows Business Loop I @-@ 75 ( BL I @-@ 75 ) into downtown West Branch . After leaving town , the highway runs through farm lands in rural Ogemaw and Iosco counties . The highway curves southeast into Tawas City . The eastern end of M @-@ 55 is at an intersection with US 23 along the shores of the Tawas Bay of Lake Huron .
= = History = =
M @-@ 55 had its beginning by July 1 , 1919 when it was designated from Cadillac to Merritt . In 1926 , M @-@ 55 was extended eastward to Houghton Lake over a section of the former M @-@ 14 that was not used for the then @-@ new US 27 . At the same time , another segment of the highway was designated between M @-@ 76 at West Branch and US 23 at Whittemore . The next year , M @-@ 55 was routed along sections of US 27 and M @-@ 76 between the two communities . A western extension was added from Cadillac to US 31 near Manistee in 1932 while the eastern end was shifted from Whittemore to Tawas City when US 23 was rerouted through the area .
Segments of M @-@ 55 have been relocated in the years since the basic routing was completed in the early 1930s . A more direct route from West Branch eastward was created in 1938 . Prior to the construction of present @-@ day Hemlock Road through Tawas City , M @-@ 55 entered Tawas City via present @-@ day Plank Road , Second Street , Fifth Avenue , and Mathews Street , ending at the present @-@ day intersection of US 23 and Mathews Street . In 1949 , US 27 was moved to run to the west of Houghton and Higgins lakes . M @-@ 55 was shifted to run concurrently southward along the former M @-@ 169 which was replaced by US 27 . At the intersection with the former US 27 , M @-@ 55 was routed east , and the former route of M @-@ 55 was designated as a new M @-@ 169 . In 1950 , this M @-@ 169 was redesignated Business M @-@ 55 ( Bus . M @-@ 55 ) . M @-@ 55 was rerouted off US 27 when the US 27 freeway was completed in the area . In rerouting M @-@ 55 , it was shifted back to its former routing through Houghton Lake Heights , replacing Bus . M @-@ 55 in late 1961 .
The last gravel segments were paved in Iosco County in the late 1950s . Another segment east of Cadillac to M @-@ 66 south of Lake City was realigned in 1973 . At the same time , M @-@ 55 was co @-@ signed with a portion of the newly opened stretch of I @-@ 75 between M @-@ 157 and West Branch . The last routing change was made in November 2000 when the southern segment of the Cadillac bypass was opened . M @-@ 55 was moved out of downtown Cadillac and along the freeway and M @-@ 115 . US 131 joined M @-@ 55 on the bypass the next October when the northern half of the bypass was completed in 2001 .
= = Major intersections = =
= = Business loop = =
Business M @-@ 55 ( Bus . M @-@ 55 ) was a business loop designated for just over a decade in Houghton Lake Heights . Bus . M @-@ 55 ran for 2 @.@ 898 miles ( 4 @.@ 664 km ) along Houghton Lake Drive between US 27 and Federal Drive next to the Houghton Lake . M @-@ 55 was shifted off the road when several highways in the Houghton Lake area were rerouted . US 27 was moved to the west side of the lakes in the area , and M @-@ 55 was moved follow US 27 , replace the original M @-@ 169 in the area and replace a section of the former routing of US 27 in Houghton Lake in 1949 . By early 1950 , the former route of M @-@ 55 through Houghton Lake Heights was designated Bus . M @-@ 55 . This business loop existed until the US 27 freeway was built in the area in late 1961 . At that time , M @-@ 55 was moved back to its pre @-@ 1949 routing , replacing Bus . M @-@ 55 .
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= The Who =
The Who are an English rock band that formed in 1964 . Their classic line @-@ up consisted of lead singer Roger Daltrey , guitarist Pete Townshend , bass guitarist John Entwistle , and drummer Keith Moon . They are considered one of the most influential rock bands of the 20th century , selling over 100 million records worldwide and holding a reputation for their live shows and studio work .
The Who developed from an earlier group , the Detours , and established themselves as part of the pop art and mod movements , featuring auto @-@ destructive art by destroying guitars and drums on stage . Their first single as the Who , " I Can 't Explain " , reached the UK top ten , followed by a string of singles including " My Generation " , " Substitute " and " Happy Jack " . In 1967 , they performed at the Monterey Pop Festival and released the US top ten single " I Can See for Miles " , while touring extensively . The group 's fourth album , 1969 's rock opera Tommy , included the single " Pinball Wizard " and was a critical and commercial success . Live appearances at Woodstock and the Isle of Wight Festival , along with the live album Live at Leeds , cemented their reputation as a respected rock act . With their success came increased pressure on lead songwriter and visionary Townshend , and the follow @-@ up to Tommy , Lifehouse , was abandoned . Songs from the project made up 1971 's Who 's Next , which included the hit " Won 't Get Fooled Again " . The group released the album Quadrophenia in 1973 as a celebration of their mod roots , and oversaw the film adaptation of Tommy in 1975 . They continued to tour to large audiences before semi @-@ retiring from live performances at the end of 1976 . The release of Who Are You in 1978 was overshadowed by the death of Moon shortly after .
Kenney Jones replaced Moon and the group resumed activity , releasing a film adaptation of Quadrophenia and the retrospective documentary The Kids Are Alright . After Townshend became weary of touring , the group split in 1982 . The Who occasionally re @-@ formed for live appearances such as Live Aid in 1985 , a 25th anniversary tour in 1989 and a tour of Quadrophenia in 1996 – 97 . They resumed regular touring in 1999 , with drummer Zak Starkey . After Entwistle 's death in 2002 , plans for a new album were delayed . Townshend and Daltrey continued as the Who , releasing Endless Wire in 2006 , and continued to play live regularly .
The Who 's major contributions to rock music include the development of the Marshall stack , large PA systems , use of the synthesizer , Entwistle and Moon 's lead playing styles , Townshend 's feedback and power chord guitar technique , and the development of the rock opera . They are cited as an influence by hard rock , punk rock and mod bands , and their songs still receive regular exposure .
= = History = =
= = = Background = = =
The founding members of the Who , Roger Daltrey , Pete Townshend and John Entwistle , grew up in Acton , London and went to Acton County Grammar School . Townshend 's father , Cliff , played saxophone and his mother , Betty , had sung in the entertainment division of the Royal Air Force during World War II , and both supported their son 's interest in rock and roll . Townshend and Entwistle became friends in their second year of Acton County , and formed a trad jazz group ; Entwistle also played French horn in the Middlesex Schools ' Symphony Orchestra . Both were interested in rock , and Townshend particularly admired Cliff Richard 's début single , " Move It " . Entwistle moved to guitar , but struggled with it due to his large fingers , and moved to bass on hearing the guitar work of Duane Eddy . He was unable to afford a bass and built one at home . After Acton County , Townshend attended Ealing Art College , a move he later described as profoundly influential on the course of the Who .
Daltrey , who was in the year above , had moved to Acton from Shepherd 's Bush , a more working @-@ class area . He had trouble fitting in at the school , and discovered gangs and rock and roll . He was expelled at 15 and found work on a building site . In 1959 he started the Detours , the band that was to evolve into the Who . The band played professional gigs , such as corporate and wedding functions , and Daltrey kept a close eye on the finances as well as the music .
Daltrey spotted Entwistle by chance on the street carrying a bass and recruited him into the Detours . In mid @-@ 1961 , Entwistle suggested Townshend as a guitarist , Daltrey on lead guitar , Entwistle on bass , Harry Wilson on drums , and Colin Dawson on vocals . The band played instrumentals by the Shadows and the Ventures , and a variety of pop and trad jazz covers . Daltrey was considered the leader and , according to Townshend , " ran things the way he wanted them " . Wilson was fired in mid @-@ 1962 and replaced by Doug Sandom , though he was older than the rest of the band , married , and a more proficient musician , having been playing semi @-@ professionally for two years .
Dawson left after frequently arguing with Daltrey and after being briefly replaced by Gabby Connolly , Daltrey moved to lead vocals . Townshend , with Entwistle 's encouragement , became the sole guitarist . Through Townshend 's mother , the group obtained a management contract with local promoter Robert Druce , who started booking the band as a support act . The Detours were influenced by the bands they supported , including Screaming Lord Sutch , Cliff Bennett and the Rebel Rousers , Shane Fenton and the Fentones , and Johnny Kidd and the Pirates . The Detours were particularly interested in the Pirates as they also only had one guitarist , Mick Green , who inspired Townshend to combine rhythm and lead guitar in his style . Entwistle 's bass became more of a lead instrument , playing melodies . In February 1964 , the Detours became aware of the group Johnny Devlin and the Detours and changed their name . Townshend and his room @-@ mate Richard Barnes spent a night considering names , focusing on a theme of joke announcements , including " No One " and " the Group " . Townshend preferred " the Hair " , and Barnes liked " the Who " because it " had a pop punch " . Daltrey chose " the Who " the next morning .
= = = 1964 – 78 = = =
= = = = Early career = = = =
By the time the Detours had become the Who , they had already found regular gigs , including at the Oldfield Hotel in Greenford , the White Hart Hotel in Acton , the Goldhawk Social Club in Shepherd 's Bush , and the Notre Dame Hall in Leicester Square . They had also replaced Druce as manager with Helmut Gorden , with whom they secured an audition with Chris Parmeinter for Fontana Records . Parmeinter found problems with the drumming and , according to Sandom , Townshend immediately turned on him and threatened to fire him if his playing did not immediately improve . Sandom left in disgust , but was persuaded to lend his kit to any potential stand @-@ ins or replacements . Sandom and Townshend did not speak to each other again for 14 years .
During a gig with a stand @-@ in drummer in late April at the Oldfield , the band first met Keith Moon . Moon grew up in Wembley , and had been drumming in bands since 1961 . He was performing with a semi @-@ professional band called the Beachcombers , and wanted to play full @-@ time . Moon played a few songs with the group , breaking a bass drum pedal and tearing a drum skin . The band were impressed with his energy and enthusiasm , and offered him the job . Moon performed with the Beachcombers a few more times , but dates clashed and he chose to devote himself to the Who . The Beachcombers auditioned Sandom , but were unimpressed and did not ask him to join .
The Who changed managers to Peter Meaden . He decided that the group would be ideal to represent the growing mod movement in Britain which involved fashion , scooters and music genres such as rhythm and blues , soul and beat . He renamed the group the High Numbers , dressed them up in mod clothes , secured a second , more favourable audition with Fontana and wrote the lyrics for both sides of their single " Zoot Suit " / " I 'm the Face " to appeal to mods . The tune for " Zoot Suit " was " Misery " by the Dynamics , and " I 'm the Face " borrowed from Slim Harpo 's " I Got Love If You Want It " . Although Meaden tried to promote the single , it failed to reach the top 50 and the band reverted to calling themselves the Who . The group began to improve their stage image ; Daltrey started using his microphone cable as a whip on stage , and occasionally leapt into the crowd ; Moon threw drumsticks into the air mid @-@ beat ; Townshend mimed machine gunning the crowd with his guitar while jumping on stage and playing guitar with a fast arm @-@ windmilling motion , or stood with his arms aloft allowing his guitar to produce feedback in a posture dubbed " the Bird Man " .
Meaden was replaced as manager by two filmmakers , Kit Lambert and Chris Stamp . They were looking for a young , unsigned rock group that they could make a film about , and had seen the band at the Railway Hotel in Wealdstone , which had become a regular venue for them . Lambert related to Townshend and his art school background , and encouraged him to write songs . In August , Lambert and Stamp made a promotional film featuring the group and their audience at the Railway . The band changed their set towards soul , rhythm and blues and Motown covers , and created the slogan " Maximum R & B " .
In June 1964 , during a performance at the Railway , Townshend accidentally broke the head of his guitar on the low ceiling of the stage . Angered by the audience 's laughter , he smashed the instrument on the stage , then picked up another guitar and continued the show . The following week , the audience were keen to see a repeat of the event . Moon obliged by kicking his drum kit over , and auto @-@ destructive art became a feature of the Who 's live set .
= = = = First singles and My Generation = = = =
By late 1964 , the Who were becoming popular in London 's Marquee club , and a rave review of their live act appeared in Melody Maker . Lambert and Stamp attracted the attention of the American producer Shel Talmy , who had produced the Kinks . Townshend had written a song , " I Can 't Explain " , that deliberately sounded like the Kinks to attract Talmy 's attention . Talmy saw the group in rehearsals and was impressed . He signed them to his production company , and sold the recording to the US arm of Decca Records , which meant that the group 's early singles were released in Britain on Brunswick Records , one of UK Decca 's labels for US artists . " I Can 't Explain " was recorded in early November 1964 at Pye Studios in Marble Arch with the Ivy League on backing vocals , and Jimmy Page played fuzz guitar on the B @-@ side , " Bald Headed Woman " .
" I Can 't Explain " became popular with pirate radio stations such as Radio Caroline . Pirate radio was important for bands as there were no commercial radio stations in the UK and BBC Radio played little pop music . The group gained further exposure when they appeared on the television programme Ready Steady Go ! Lambert and Stamp were tasked with finding " typical teens " , and invited the group 's regular audience from the Goldhawk Social Club . Enthusiastic reception on television and regular airplay on pirate radio helped the single slowly climb the charts in early 1965 until it reached the top 10 . The follow @-@ up single , " Anyway , Anyhow , Anywhere " , by Townshend and Daltrey , features guitar noises such as pick sliding , toggle switching and feedback , which was so unconventional that it was initially rejected by the US arm of Decca . The single reached the top 10 in the UK and was used as the theme song to Ready Steady Go !
The transition to a hit @-@ making band with original material , encouraged by Lambert , did not sit well with Daltrey , and a recording session of R & B covers went unreleased . The Who were not close friends either , apart from Moon and Entwistle , who enjoyed visiting nightclubs together in the West End of London . The group experienced a difficult time when touring Denmark in September , which culminated in Daltrey throwing Moon 's amphetamines down the toilet and assaulting him . Immediately on returning to Britain , Daltrey was sacked , but was reinstated on the condition that the group became a democracy without his dominant leadership . At this time , the group enlisted Richard Cole as a roadie .
The next single , " My Generation " , followed in October . Townshend had written it as a slow blues , but after several abortive attempts , it was turned into a more powerful song with a bass solo from Entwistle . The song used gimmicks such as a vocal stutter to simulate the speech of a mod on amphetamines , and two key changes . Townshend insisted in interviews that the lyrics " Hope I die before I get old " were not meant to be taken literally . Peaking at No. 2 , " My Generation " is the group 's highest @-@ charting single in the UK . The début album My Generation was released in late 1965 . Among original material by Townshend , including the title track and " The Kids Are Alright " , the album has several James Brown covers from the session earlier that year that Daltrey favoured .
After My Generation , the Who fell out with Talmy , which meant an abrupt end to their recording contract . The resulting legal acrimony resulted in Talmy holding the rights to the master tapes , which prevented the album from being reissued until 2002 . The Who were signed to Robert Stigwood 's label , Reaction , and released " Substitute " . Townshend said he wrote the song about identity crisis , and as a parody of the Rolling Stones 's " 19th Nervous Breakdown " . It was the first single to feature him playing an acoustic twelve @-@ string guitar . Talmy took legal action over the B @-@ side , " Instant Party " , and the single was withdrawn . A new B @-@ side , " Waltz for a Pig " , was recorded by the Graham Bond Organisation under the pseudonym " the Who Orchestra " .
In 1966 the Who released " I 'm a Boy " , about a boy dressed as a girl , taken from an abortive collection of songs called Quads ; " Happy Jack " ; and an EP , Ready Steady Who , that tied in with their regular appearances on Ready Steady Go ! The group continued to have conflict ; on 20 May , Moon and Entwistle were late to a gig having been on the Ready Steady Go ! set with The Beach Boys ' Bruce Johnston . During " My Generation " , Townshend attacked Moon with his guitar ; Moon suffered a black eye and bruises , and he and Entwistle left the band , but changed their minds and rejoined a week later . Moon kept looking for other work , and Jeff Beck had him to play drums on his song " Beck 's Bolero " ( with Page , John Paul Jones and Nicky Hopkins ) because he was " trying to get Keith out of the Who " .
= = = = A Quick One and The Who Sell Out = = = =
To alleviate financial pressure on the band , Lambert arranged a song @-@ writing deal which required each member to write two songs for the next album . Entwistle contributed " Boris the Spider " and " Whiskey Man " and found a niche role as second songwriter . The band found they needed to fill an extra ten minutes , and Lambert encouraged Townshend to write a longer piece , " A Quick One , While He 's Away " . The suite of song fragments is about a girl who has an affair while her lover is away , but is ultimately forgiven . The album was titled A Quick One ( Happy Jack in the US ) , and reached No. 4 in the UK charts . It was followed in 1967 by the UK Top 5 single " Pictures of Lily " .
By 1966 , Ready Steady Go ! had ended , the mod movement was becoming unfashionable , and the Who found themselves in competition on the London circuit with groups including Cream and the Jimi Hendrix Experience . Lambert and Stamp realised that commercial success in the US was paramount to the group 's future , and arranged a deal with promoter Frank Barsalona for a short package tour in New York . The group 's performances , which still involved smashing guitars and kicking over drums , were well received , and led to their first major US appearance at the Monterey Pop Festival . The group , especially Moon , were not fond of the hippie movement , and thought their violent stage act would stand in sharp contrast to the peaceful atmosphere of the festival . Hendrix was also on the bill , and was also going to smash his guitar on stage . Townshend verbally abused Hendrix and accused him of stealing his act , and the pair argued about who should go on stage first , with the Who winning the argument . The Who brought hired equipment to the festival ; Hendrix shipped over his regular touring gear from Britain , including a full Marshall stack . According to biographer Tony Fletcher , Hendrix sounded " so much better than the Who it was embarrassing " . The Who 's appearance at Monterey gave them recognition in the US , and " Happy Jack " reached the top 30 .
The group followed Monterey with a US tour supporting Herman 's Hermits . The Hermits were a straightforward pop band and enjoyed drugs and practical jokes . They bonded with Moon , who was excited to learn that cherry bombs were legal to purchase in Alabama . Moon acquired a reputation of destroying hotel rooms while on tour , with a particular interest in blowing up toilets . Entwistle said the first cherry bomb they tried " blew a hole in the suitcase and the chair " . Moon recalled his first attempt to flush one down the toilet : " [ A ] ll that porcelain flying through the air was quite unforgettable . I never realised dynamite was so powerful . " After a gig in Flint , Michigan on Moon 's 21st birthday on 23 August 1967 , the entourage caused $ 24 @,@ 000 of damage at the hotel , and Moon knocked out one of his front teeth . Daltrey later said that the tour brought the band closer , and as the support act , they could turn up and perform a short show without any major responsibilities .
After the Hermits tour , the Who recorded their next single , " I Can See for Miles " , which Townshend had written in 1966 but had avoided recording until he was sure it could be produced well . Townshend called it " the ultimate Who record " , and was disappointed it reached only No. 10 in the UK . It became their best selling single in the US , reaching No. 9 . The group toured the US again with Eric Burdon and the Animals , including an appearance on The Smothers Brothers Comedy Hour , miming to " I Can See For Miles " and " My Generation " . Moon bribed a stage hand to put explosives in his drum kit , who loaded it with ten times the expected quantity . The resulting detonation threw Moon off his drum riser and his arm was cut by flying cymbal shrapnel . Townshend 's hair was singed and his left ear left ringing , and a camera and studio monitor were destroyed .
The next album was The Who Sell Out — a concept album paying tribute to pirate radio , which had been outlawed in August 1967 by the Marine , & c . , Broadcasting ( Offences ) Act 1967 . It included humorous jingles and mock commercials between songs , a mini rock opera called " Rael " , and " I Can See For Miles " . The Who declared themselves a pop art group and thus viewed advertising as an artform ; they recorded a wide variety of radio advertisements , such as for canned milkshakes and the American Cancer Society , in defiance of the rising anti @-@ consumerist ethos of the hippie counterculture . Townshend stated , " We don 't change offstage . We live pop art . "
Later that year , Lambert and Stamp formed a record label , Track Records , with distribution by Polydor . As well as signing Hendrix , Track became the imprint for all the Who 's UK output until the mid @-@ 1970s .
The group started 1968 by touring Australia and New Zealand with the Small Faces . The groups had trouble with the local authorities and the New Zealand Truth called them " unwashed , foul @-@ smelling , booze @-@ swilling no @-@ hopers " . They continued to tour across the US and Canada during the first half of the year .
= = = = Tommy , Woodstock and Live at Leeds = = = =
By 1968 the Who had started to attract attention in the underground press . Townshend had stopped using drugs and became interested in the teachings of Meher Baba . In August , he gave an interview to Rolling Stone editor Jann Wenner describing in detail the plot of a new album project and its relationship to Baba 's teachings . The album went through several names during recording , including Deaf Dumb and Blind Boy and Amazing Journey ; Townshend settled on Tommy for the album about the life of a deaf , dumb and blind boy , and his attempt to communicate with others . Some songs , such as " Welcome " and " Amazing Journey " were inspired by Baba 's teaching , and others came from observations within the band . " Sally Simpson " is about a fan who tried to climb on stage at a gig by the Doors that they attended and " Pinball Wizard " was written so that New York Times journalist Nik Cohn , a pinball enthusiast , would give the album a good review . Townshend later said , " I wanted the story of Tommy to have several levels ... a rock singles level and a bigger concept level " , containing the spiritual message he wanted as well as being entertaining . The album was projected for a Christmas 1968 release but recording stalled after Townshend decided to make a double album to cover the story in sufficient depth .
By the end of the year , 18 months of touring had led to a well @-@ rehearsed and tight live band , which was evident when they performed " A Quick One While He 's Away " at The Rolling Stones Rock and Roll Circus television special . The Stones considered their own performance lacklustre , and the project was never broadcast . The Who had not released an album in over a year , and had not completed the recording of Tommy , which continued well into 1969 , interspersed with gigs at weekends . Lambert was a key figure in keeping the group focused and getting the album completed , and typed up a script to help them understand the story and how the songs fitted together .
The album was released in May with the accompanying single , " Pinball Wizard " , a début performance at Ronnie Scott 's , and a tour , playing most of the new album live . Tommy sold 200 @,@ 000 copies in the US in its first two weeks , and was a critical smash , Life saying , " ... for sheer power , invention and brilliance of performance , Tommy outstrips anything which has ever come out of a recording studio " . Melody Maker declared : " Surely the Who are now the band against which all others are to be judged . " Daltrey had significantly improved as a singer , and set a template for rock singers in the 1970s by growing his hair long and wearing open shirts on stage . Townshend had taken to wearing a boiler suit and Doctor Martens shoes .
In August , the Who performed at the Woodstock Festival , despite being reluctant and demanding $ 13 @,@ 000 up front . The group were scheduled to appear on Saturday night , 16 August , but the festival ran late and they did not take to the stage until 5am on Sunday ; they played most of Tommy . During their performance , Yippie leader Abbie Hoffman interrupted the set to give a political speech about the arrest of John Sinclair ; Townshend kicked him off stage , shouting : " Fuck off my fucking stage ! " During " See Me , Feel Me " , the sun rose almost as if on cue ; Entwistle later said , " God was our lighting man " . At the end , Townshend threw his guitar into the audience . The set was professionally recorded and filmed , and portions appear on the Woodstock film , The Old Grey Whistle Test and The Kids Are Alright .
Woodstock has been regarded as culturally significant , but the Who were critical of the event . Roadie John " Wiggie " Wolff , who arranged the band 's payment , described it as " a shambles " . Daltrey declared it as " the worst gig [ they ] ever played " and Townshend said , " I thought the whole of America had gone mad . " A more enjoyable appearance came a few weeks later at the second Isle of Wight Festival , which Townshend described as " a great concert for " the band .
By 1970 , the Who were widely considered one of the best and most popular live rock bands ; Chris Charlesworth described their concerts as " leading to a kind of rock nirvana that most bands can only dream about " . They decided a live album would help demonstrate how different the sound at their gigs was to Tommy , and set about listening to the hours of recordings they had accumulated . Townshend baulked at the prospect of doing so , and demanded that all the tapes be burned . Instead , they booked two shows , one in Leeds on 14 February , and one in Hull the following day , with the intention of recording a live album . Technical problems from the Hull gig resulted in the Leeds gig being used , which became Live at Leeds . The album is viewed by several critics including The Independent , The Telegraph and the BBC , as one of the best live rock albums of all time .
The Tommy tour included shows in European opera houses and saw the Who become the first rock act to play at the Metropolitan Opera House in New York City . In March the Who released the UK top 20 hit " The Seeker " , continuing a theme of issuing singles separate to albums . Townshend wrote the song to commemorate the common man , as a contrast to the themes on Tommy .
= = = = Lifehouse and Who 's Next = = = =
Tommy secured the Who 's future , and made them millionaires . The group reacted in different ways — Daltrey and Entwistle lived comfortably , Townshend was embarrassed at his wealth , which he felt was at odds with Meher Baba 's ideals , and Moon spent frivolously .
During the latter part of 1970 , Townshend plotted a follow up Tommy : Lifehouse , which was to be a multi @-@ media project symbolising the relationship between an artist and his audience . He developed ideas in his home studio , creating layers of synthesizers , and the Young Vic theatre in London was booked for a series of experimental concerts . Townshend approached the gigs with optimism ; the rest of the band were just happy to be gigging again . Eventually , the others complained to Townshend that the project was too complicated and they should simply record another album . Things deteriorated until Townshend had a nervous breakdown and abandoned Lifehouse .
Entwistle was the first member of the group to release a solo album , Smash Your Head Against the Wall , in May 1971 .
Recording at the Record Plant in New York City in March 1971 was abandoned when Lambert 's addiction to hard drugs interfered with his ability to produce . The group restarted with Glyn Johns in April . The album was mostly Lifehouse material , with one unrelated song by Entwistle , " My Wife " , and was released as Who 's Next in August . The album reached No. 1 in the UK and the US . " Baba O 'Riley " and " Won 't Get Fooled Again " are early examples of synthesizer use in rock , featuring keyboard sounds generated in real time by a Lowrey organ ; on " Won 't Get Fooled Again " , it was further processed through a VCS3 synthesizer . The synthesizer intro to " Baba O 'Riley " was programmed based on Meher Baba 's vital stats , and the track featured a violin solo by Dave Arbus . The album was a critical and commercial success , and has been certified 3x platinum by the RIAA . The Who continued to issue Lifehouse @-@ related material over the next few years , including the singles " Let 's See Action " , " Join Together " and " Relay " .
The band went back on tour , and " Baba O ' Riley " and " Won 't Get Fooled Again " became live favourites . In November they performed at the newly opened Rainbow Theatre in London for three nights , continuing in the US later that month , where Robert Hilburn of the Los Angeles Times described the Who as " the Greatest Show on Earth " . The tour was slightly disrupted at the Civic Auditorium in San Francisco on 12 December when Moon passed out over his kit after overdosing on brandy and barbiturates . He recovered and completed the gig , playing to his usual strength .
= = = = Quadrophenia , Tommy film and The Who by Numbers = = = =
After touring Who 's Next , and needing time to write a follow @-@ up , Townshend insisted that the Who take a lengthy break , as they had not stopped touring since the band started . There was no group activity until May 1972 , when they started working on a proposed new album , Rock Is Dead — Long Live Rock ! , but , unhappy with the recordings , abandoned the sessions . Tensions began to emerge as Townshend believed Daltrey just wanted a money @-@ making band and Daltrey thought Townshend 's projects were getting pretentious . Moon 's behaviour was becoming increasingly destructive and problematic through excessive drinking and drugs use , and a desire to party and tour . Daltrey performed an audit of the group 's finances and discovered that Lambert and Stamp had not kept sufficient records . He believed them to be no longer effective managers , which Townshend and Moon disputed . The painful dissolution of the managerial and personal relationships are recounted in James D. Cooper 's 2014 retrospective documentary , Lambert & Stamp . Following a short European tour , the remainder of 1972 was spent working on an orchestral version of Tommy with Lou Reizner .
By 1973 , the Who turned to recording the album Quadrophenia about mod and its subculture , set against clashes with Rockers in early 1960s Britain . The story is about a boy named Jimmy , who undergoes a personality crisis , and his relationship with his family , friends and mod culture . The music features four themes , reflecting the four personalities of the Who . Townshend played multi @-@ tracked synthesizers , and Entwistle played several overdubbed horn parts . By the time the album was being recorded , relationships between the band and Lambert and Stamp had broken down irreparably , and Bill Curbishley replaced them . The album was the Who 's highest charting , peaking at No. 2 in both the UK and US .
The Quadrophenia tour started in Stoke on Trent in October and was immediately beset with problems . Daltrey resisted Townshend 's wish to add Joe Cocker 's keyboardist Chris Stainton ( who played on the album ) to the touring band . As a compromise , Townshend assembled the keyboard and synthesizer parts on backing tapes , as such a strategy had been successful with " Baba O 'Riley " and " Won 't Get Fooled Again " . Unfortunately , the technology was not sophisticated enough to deal with the demands of the music ; added to this issue , tour rehearsals had been interrupted due to an argument that culminated in Daltrey punching Townshend and knocking him out cold . At a gig in Newcastle , the tapes completely malfunctioned , and an enraged Townshend dragged sound @-@ man Bob Pridden on @-@ stage , screamed at him , kicked all the amps over and partially destroyed the backing tapes . The show was abandoned for an " oldies " set , at the end of which Townshend smashed his guitar and Moon kicked over his drumkit . The Independent described this gig as one of the worst of all time . The US tour started on 20 November at the Cow Palace in Daly City , California ; Moon passed out during " Won 't Get Fooled Again " and during " Magic Bus " . Townshend asked the audience , " Can anyone play the drums ? — I mean somebody good . " An audience member , Scot Halpin , filled in for the rest of the show . After a show in Montreal , the band ( except for Daltrey , who retired to bed early ) caused so much damage to their hotel room , including destroying an antique painting and ramming a marble table through a wall , that federal law enforcement arrested them .
By 1974 , work had begun in earnest on a Tommy film . Stigwood suggested Ken Russell as director , whose previous work Townshend had admired . The film featured a star @-@ studded cast , including the band members . David Essex auditioned for the title role , but the band persuaded Daltrey to take it . The cast included Ann @-@ Margret , Oliver Reed , Eric Clapton , Tina Turner , Elton John and Jack Nicholson . Townshend and Entwistle worked on the soundtrack for most of the year , handling the bulk of the instrumentation . Moon had moved to Los Angeles , so they used session drummers , including Kenney Jones . Elton John used his own band for " Pinball Wizard " . Filming was from April until August . 1500 extras appeared in the " Pinball Wizard " sequence .
The film premièred on 18 March 1975 to a standing ovation . Townshend was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Original Score . Tommy was shown at the 1975 Cannes Film Festival , but not in the main competition . It won the award for Rock Movie of the Year in the First Annual Rock Music Awards and generated over $ 2 million in its first month . The soundtrack reached number two on the Billboard charts .
Work on Tommy took up most of 1974 , and live performances by the Who were restricted to a show in May at the Valley , the home of Charlton Athletic , in front of 80 @,@ 000 fans , and a few dates at Madison Square Garden in June . Towards the end of the year , the group released the out @-@ takes album Odds & Sods , which featured several songs from the aborted Lifehouse project .
In 1975 , Daltrey and Townshend disagreed about the band 's future and criticised each other via interviews in the music paper New Musical Express . Daltrey was grateful that the Who had saved him from a career as a sheet @-@ metal worker and was unhappy at Townshend not playing well ; Townshend felt the commitment of the group prevented him from releasing solo material . The next album , The Who by Numbers , had introspective songs from Townshend that dealt with disillusionment such as " However Much I Booze " and " How Many Friends " ; they resembled his later solo work . Entwistle 's " Success Story " gave a humorous look at the music industry , and " Squeeze Box " was a hit single . The group toured from October , playing little new material and few Quadrophenia numbers , and reintroducing several from Tommy . On 6 December 1975 , the Who set the record for largest indoor concert at the Pontiac Silverdome , attended by 78 @,@ 000 . On 31 May 1976 , they played a second concert at the Valley which was listed in the Guinness Book of Records as the world 's loudest concert at over 120 dB . Townshend had become fed up of touring but Entwistle considered live performance to be at a peak .
= = = = Who Are You and Moon 's death = = = =
After the 1976 tour , Townshend took most of the following year off to spend time with his family . He discovered that former Beatles and Rolling Stones manager Allen Klein had bought a stake in his publishing company . A settlement was reached , but Townshend was upset and disillusioned that Klein had attempted to take ownership of his songs . Townshend went to the Speakeasy where he met the Sex Pistols ' Steve Jones and Paul Cook , fans of the Who . After leaving , he passed out in a doorway , where a policeman said he would not be arrested if he could stand and walk . The events inspired the title track of the next album , Who Are You .
The group reconvened in September 1977 , but Townshend announced there would be no live performances for the immediate future , a decision that Daltrey endorsed . By this point , Moon was so unhealthy that the Who conceded it would be difficult for him to cope with touring . The only gig that year was an informal show on 15 December at the Gaumont State Cinema in Kilburn , London , filmed for the documentary , The Kids Are Alright . The band had not played for 14 months , and their performance was so weak that the footage was unused . Moon 's playing was particularly lacklustre and he had gained a lot of weight , though Daltrey later said , " even at his worst , Keith Moon was amazing . "
Recording of Who Are You started in January 1978 . Daltrey clashed with Johns over the production of his vocals , and Moon 's drumming was so poor that Daltrey and Entwistle considered firing him . Moon 's playing improved , but on one track , " Music Must Change " , he was replaced as he could not play in 6 / 8 time . In May , the Who filmed another performance at Shepperton Sound Studios for The Kids Are Alright . This performance was strong , and several tracks were used in the film . It was the last gig Moon performed with the Who .
The album was released on 18 August , and became their biggest and fastest seller to date , peaking at No. 6 in the UK and No. 2 in the US . Instead of touring , Daltrey , Townshend and Moon did a series of promotional television interviews , and Entwistle worked on the soundtrack for The Kids Are Alright .
On 6 September , Moon attended a party held by Paul McCartney to celebrate Buddy Holly 's birthday . Returning to his flat , Moon took 32 tablets of clomethiazole which had been prescribed to combat his alcohol withdrawal . He passed out the following morning and was discovered dead later that day .
= = = 1978 – 83 = = =
The day after Moon 's death , Townshend issued the statement : " We are more determined than ever to carry on , and we want the spirit of the group to which Keith contributed so much to go on , although no human being can ever take his place . " Kenney Jones , of the Small Faces and the Faces , replaced Moon in November 1978 . John " Rabbit " Bundrick joined the live band as an unofficial keyboardist . On 2 May 1979 , the Who returned to the stage with a concert at the Rainbow Theatre , followed by the Cannes Film Festival in France and dates at Madison Square Garden in New York .
The Quadrophenia film was released that year . It was directed by Franc Roddam in his feature @-@ directing début , and had straightforward acting rather than musical numbers as in Tommy . John Lydon was considered as Jimmy , but the role went to Phil Daniels . Sting played Jimmy 's friend and fellow mod , the Ace Face . The soundtrack was Jones ' first appearance on a Who record , performing on newly written material not on the original album . The film was a critical and box office success in the UK and appealed to the growing mod revival movement . The Jam were influenced by the Who , and critics noticed a similarity between Townshend and the group 's leader , Paul Weller .
The Kids Are Alright was also completed in 1979 . It was a retrospective of the band 's career , directed by Jeff Stein . The film included footage of the band at Monterey , Woodstock and Pontiac , and clips from the Smothers Brothers ' show and Russell Harty Plus . Moon had died one week after seeing the rough cut with Daltrey . The film contains the Shepperton concert , and an audio track of him playing over silent footage of himself was the last time he ever played the drums .
In December , the Who became the third band , after the Beatles and the Band , to grace the cover of Time . The article , by Jay Cocks , said the band had " outpaced , outlasted , outlived and outclassed " all of their rock band contemporaries .
= = = = Cincinnati tragedy = = = =
On 3 December 1979 , a crowd crush at a Who gig at the Riverfront Coliseum , Cincinnati killed 11 fans . This was partly due to the festival seating , where the first to enter get the best positions . Some fans waiting outside mistook the band 's sound check for the concert , and attempted to force their way inside . As only a few entrance doors were opened , a bottleneck situation ensued with thousands trying to gain entry , and the crush became deadly .
The Who were not told until after the show because civic authorities feared crowd problems if the concert were cancelled . The band were deeply shaken upon learning of it and requested that appropriate safety precautions be taken in the future . The following evening , in Buffalo , New York , Daltrey told the crowd that the band had " lost a lot of family last night and this show 's for them " .
= = = = Change and break @-@ up = = = =
Daltrey took a break in 1980 to work on the film McVicar , in which he took the lead role of bank robber John McVicar . The soundtrack album is a Daltrey solo album , though all members of the Who are included in the supporting musicians , and was his most successful solo release .
The Who released two studio albums with Jones as drummer , Face Dances ( 1981 ) and It 's Hard ( 1982 ) . Face Dances produced a US top 20 and UK top ten hit with the single " You Better You Bet " , whose video was one of the first shown on MTV . Both Face Dances and It 's Hard sold well and the latter received a five @-@ star review in Rolling Stone . The single " Eminence Front " from It 's Hard was a hit , and became a regular at live shows .
By this time Townshend had fallen into depression , wondering if he was no longer a visionary . He was again at odds with Daltrey and Entwistle , who merely wanted to tour and play hits and thought Townshend had saved his best songs for his solo album , Empty Glass ( 1980 ) . Jones ' drumming style was very different from Moon 's and this drew criticism within the band . Townshend briefly became addicted to heroin before cleaning up early in 1982 .
Townshend wanted the Who to stop touring and become a studio act ; Entwistle threatened to quit , saying , " I don 't intend to get off the road ... there 's not much I can do about it except hope they change their minds . " Townshend did not change his mind , and so the Who embarked on a farewell tour of the US and Canada with the Clash as support , ending in Toronto on 17 December .
Townshend spent part of 1983 writing material for a studio album owed to Warner Bros. Records from a contract in 1980 , but Townshend found himself unable and at the end of 1983 paid for himself and Jones to be released from the contract . He focused on solo albums such as White City : A Novel ( 1985 ) , The Iron Man ( 1989 , featuring Daltrey and Entwistle and two songs credited to the Who ) , and Psychoderelict ( 1993 ) .
= = = Reunions = = =
In July 1985 , the Who performed at Live Aid at Wembley Stadium , London . The BBC transmission truck blew a fuse during the set , temporarily interrupting the broadcast . At the 1988 Brit Awards , at the Royal Albert Hall , the band was given the British Phonographic Industry 's Lifetime Achievement Award . The short set they played there was the last time Jones played with the Who .
= = = = 1989 tour = = = =
In 1989 , the band embarked on a 25th @-@ anniversary The Kids Are Alright reunion tour with Simon Phillips on drums and Steve " Boltz " Bolton as a second guitarist . Townshend had announced in 1987 that he suffered from tinnitus and alternated acoustic , rhythm , and lead guitar to preserve his hearing . Their two shows at Sullivan Stadium in Foxborough , Massachusetts , sold 100 @,@ 000 tickets in less than eight hours , beating previous records set there by U2 and David Bowie . The tour was briefly marred at a gig in Tacoma , Washington , where Townshend injured his arm on @-@ stage . Some critics disliked the tour 's over @-@ produced and expanded line @-@ up , calling it " The Who on Ice " ; Stephen Thomas Erlewine at AllMusic said the tour " tarnished the reputation of the Who almost irreparably " . The tour included most of Tommy and included such guests as Phil Collins , Billy Idol and Elton John . A 2 @-@ CD live album , Join Together , was released in 1990 .
= = = = Partial reunions = = = =
In 1990 , the Who were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame . The group have a featured collection in the hall 's museum , including one of Moon 's velvet suits , a Warwick bass of Entwistle 's , and a drumhead from 1968 .
In 1991 , the Who recorded a cover of Elton John 's " Saturday Night 's Alright for Fighting " for the tribute album Two Rooms : Celebrating the Songs of Elton John & Bernie Taupin . It was the last studio recording to feature Entwistle . In 1994 , Daltrey turned 50 and celebrated with two concerts at New York 's Carnegie Hall . The shows included guest spots by Entwistle and Townshend . Although all three surviving original members of the Who attended , they appeared on stage together only during the finale , " Join Together " , with the other guests . Daltrey toured that year with Entwistle , Zak Starkey on drums and Simon Townshend filling in for his brother as guitarist .
= = = Re @-@ formation = = =
= = = = Revival of Quadrophenia = = = =
In 1996 , Townshend , Entwistle and Daltrey performed Quadrophenia with guests and Starkey on drums at Hyde Park . The performance was narrated by Daniels , who had played Jimmy in the 1979 film . Despite technical difficulties the show led to a six @-@ night residency at Madison Square Garden and a US and European tour through 1996 and 1997 . Townshend played mostly acoustic guitar , but eventually was persuaded to play some electric . In 1998 , VH1 ranked the Who ninth in their list of the " 100 Greatest Artists of Rock ' n ' Roll " .
= = = = Charity shows and Entwistle 's death = = = =
In late 1999 , the Who performed as a five @-@ piece for the first time since 1985 , with Bundrick on keyboards and Starkey on drums . The first show in Las Vegas at the MGM Grand Garden Arena was partially broadcast on TV and the Internet and released as the DVD The Vegas Job . They then performed acoustic shows at Neil Young 's Bridge School Benefit at the Shoreline Amphitheatre in Mountain View , California , followed by gigs at the House of Blues in Chicago and two Christmas charity shows at the Shepherds Bush Empire in London . Critics were delighted to see a rejuvenated band with a basic line @-@ up comparable to the tours of the 1960s and 1970s . Andy Greene in Rolling Stone called the 1999 tour better than the final one with Moon in 1976 .
The band toured the US and UK from June to October 2000 , to generally favourable reviews , culminating in a charity show at the Royal Albert Hall for the Teenage Cancer trust with guest performances from Paul Weller , Eddie Vedder , Noel Gallagher , Bryan Adams and Nigel Kennedy . Stephen Tomas Erlewine described the gig as " an exceptional reunion concert " . In 2001 the band performed the Concert for New York City at Madison Square Garden for families of firefighters and police who had lost their lives following the September 11 attacks on the World Trade Center , and were honoured with a Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award .
The Who played concerts in the UK in early 2002 in preparation for a full US tour . On 27 June , the day before the first date , Entwistle was found dead of a heart attack at 57 at the Hard Rock Hotel in Las Vegas . Cocaine was a contributing factor .
= = = = After Entwistle : Tours and Endless Wire = = = =
Entwistle 's son , Christopher , gave a statement supporting the Who 's decision to carry on . The US tour began at the Hollywood Bowl with touring bassist Pino Palladino . Townshend dedicated the show to Entwistle , and ended with a montage of pictures of him . The tour lasted until September . The loss of a founding member of the Who caused Townshend to re @-@ evaluate his relationship with Daltrey , which had been strained over the band 's career . He decided their friendship was important , and this ultimately led to writing and recording new material .
To combat bootlegging , the band began to release the Encore Series of official soundboard recordings via themusic.com. An official statement read : " to satisfy this demand they have agreed to release their own official recordings to benefit worthy causes " .
In 2004 , the Who released " Old Red Wine " and " Real Good Looking Boy " ( with Palladino and Greg Lake , respectively , on bass ) on a singles anthology , The Who : Then and Now , and went on an 18 @-@ date tour of Japan , Australia , the UK and the US , including a return appearance at the Isle of Wight . Later that year , Rolling Stone ranked the Who No. 29 on their list of the 100 Greatest Artists of All Time .
The Who announced in 2005 that they were working on a new album . Townshend posted a novella called The Boy Who Heard Music on his blog , which developed into a mini @-@ opera called Wire & Glass , forming the basis for the album . Endless Wire , released in 2006 , was the first full studio album of new material since 1982 's It 's Hard and contained the band 's first mini @-@ opera since " Rael " in 1967 . The album reached No. 7 in the US and No. 9 in the UK . Starkey was invited to join Oasis in April 2006 and the Who in November 2006 , but he declined and split his time between the two .
In November 2007 , the documentary Amazing Journey : The Story of the Who was released , featuring unreleased footage of the 1970 Leeds appearance and a 1964 performance at the Railway Hotel when the group were The High Numbers . Amazing Journey was nominated for a 2009 Grammy Award .
The Who toured in support of Endless Wire , including the BBC Electric Proms at the Roundhouse in London in 2006 , headlining the 2007 Glastonbury Festival , a half @-@ time appearance at the Super Bowl XLIV in 2010 and being the final act at the closing ceremony of the London 2012 Olympic Games . In November 2012 , the Who released Live at Hull , an album of the band 's performance night after the Live at Leeds gig .
= = = = Quadrophenia and More = = = =
In 2010 the Who performed Quadrophenia with parts played by Vedder and Tom Meighan at the Royal Albert Hall as part of the Teenage Cancer Trust series of 10 gigs . A planned tour for early 2010 was jeopardised by the return of Townshend 's tinnitus . He experimented with an in @-@ ear monitoring system that was recommended by Neil Young and his audiologist .
The Quadrophenia and More tour started in November 2012 in Ottawa with keyboardists John Corey , Loren Gold and Frank Simes , the latter of whom was also musical director . In February 2013 , Starkey pulled a tendon and was replaced for a gig by Scott Devours who performed with less than four hours ' notice . The tour moved to Europe and the UK , and ended at the Wembley Arena in July 2013 .
= = = = The Who Hits 50 ! = = = =
In October 2013 , Townshend announced the Who would stage their final tour in 2015 , performing in locations they have never played before . Daltrey clarified that the tour is unrelated to the band 's 50th anniversary — which occurred in 2013 — and indicated that he and Townshend were considering recording new material but would be emphasising their hits in their final stadium tour . Daltrey stated , " We can 't go on touring forever ... it could be open @-@ ended , but it will have a finality to it . "
In June 2014 , Jones reunited with the Who at a charity gig for Prostate Cancer UK his Hurtwood Polo Club , alongside Jeff Beck , Procol Harum , and Mike Rutherford . Later that month , the Who announced plans for a world tour with a possible accompanying album . In September , the Who released the song " Be Lucky " , which was included on the compilation The Who Hits 50 ! in October . That November , the group released a virtual reality app co @-@ designed by Daltrey 's son , Jamie , featuring events and images from the band 's history .
In June 2015 , the Who headlined that year 's Hyde Park Festival , and two days later , the Glastonbury Festival . Townshend suggested to Mojo that it could be the group 's last UK gig . To coincide with The Who 's 50th anniversary , all studio albums , including the new compilation , The Who Hits 50 ! , were reissued on vinyl . In September 2015 , all remaining US tour dates were cancelled after Daltrey contracted viral meningitis . Then Townshend promised the band would come back " stronger than ever " .
= = = = Back to the Who Tour 51 ! = = = =
The Who began the Back to the Who Tour 51 ! in 2016 as a continuation of the previous year 's tour . The new tour included a return visit to the Isle of Wight Festival on 11 June .
= = Musical style and equipment = =
The Who have been regarded primarily as a rock band , yet have taken influence from several other styles of music during their career . The original group played a mixture of trad jazz and contemporary pop hits as the Detours , and R & B in 1963 . The group move to a mod sound the following year , particularly after hearing the Small Faces fuse Motown with a harsher R & B sound . The group 's early work was geared towards singles , though it was not straightforward pop . In 1967 , Townshend coined the term " power pop " to describe the Who 's style . Like their contemporaries , the group were influenced by the arrival of Hendrix , particularly after the Who and the Experience met at Monterey . This and lengthy touring strengthened the band 's sound . In the studio , they began to develop softer pieces , particularly from Tommy onwards , and turned their attention towards albums more than singles .
From the early 1970s , the band 's sound included synthesizers , particularly on Who 's Next and Quadrophenia . Although groups had used synthesizers before , the Who were one of the first to integrate the sound into a basic rock structure . In By Numbers the group 's style had scaled back to more standard rock , but synthesisers regained prominence on Face Dances .
Townshend and Entwistle were instrumental in making extreme volumes and distortion standard rock practices . The Who were early adopters of Marshall Amplification . Entwistle was the first member to get two 4 × 12 speaker cabinets , quickly followed by Townshend . The group used feedback as part of their guitar sound , both live and in the studio . In 1967 , Townshend changed to using Sound City amplifiers , customised by Dave Reeves , then in 1970 to Hiwatt . The group were the first to use a 1000 watt PA systems for live gigs , which led to competition from bands such as the Rolling Stones and Pink Floyd .
Throughout their careers , the members of the Who have said their live sound has never been captured as they wished on record . Live gigs and the audience have always been important to the group . " Irish " Jack Lyons said , " The Who weren 't a joke , they were fucking real , and so were we . "
= = = Vocals = = =
Daltrey initially based his style on Motown and rock and roll , but from Tommy onwards he tackled a wider range of styles . His trademark sound with the band , as noted in 1983 , has been a characteristic scream , as heard at the end of " Won 't Get Fooled Again " .
Group backing vocals are prominent in the Who . After " I Can 't Explain " used session men for backing vocals , Townshend and Entwistle resolved to do better themselves on subsequent releases , producing strong backing harmonies . Daltrey , Townshend and Entwistle sang lead on various songs , and occasionally Moon joined in . Who 's Next featured Daltrey and Townshend sharing the lead vocals on several songs , and biographer Dave Marsh considers the contrast between Daltrey 's strong , guttural baritone and Townshend 's higher and gentler tenor to be one of the album 's highlights .
Daltrey 's voice is negatively affected by marijuana smoke , to which he says he is allergic . On 20 May 2015 , during a Who concert at Nassau Coliseum , he smelled a joint burning and told the smoker to put it out or " the show will be over ” . The fan obliged , without taking Pete Townshend 's advice that " the quickest way " to extinguish a joint is " up your fucking arse " .
= = = Guitars = = =
Townshend considered himself less technical than guitarists such as Eric Clapton and Jeff Beck and wanted to stand out visually instead . His playing style evolved from the banjo , favouring down strokes and using a combination of the plectrum and fingerpicking . His rhythm playing frequently used seventh chords and suspended fourths , and he is associated with the power chord , an easy @-@ to @-@ finger chord built from the root and fifth interval that has since become a fundamental part of the rock guitar vocabulary . Townshend also produced noises by manipulating controls on his guitar and by allowing the instrument to feedback .
In the group 's early career , Townshend favoured Rickenbacker guitars as they allowed him to fret rhythm guitar chords easily and move the neck back and forwards to create vibrato . From 1968 to 1973 , he favoured a Gibson SG Special live , and later used customised Les Pauls in different tunings .
In the studio for Who 's Next and thereafter , Townshend used a 1959 Gretsch 6120 Chet Atkins hollow @-@ body guitar , a Fender Bandmaster amp and an Edwards volume pedal , all gifts from Joe Walsh . Townshend started his career with an acoustic guitar and has regularly recorded and written with a Gibson J @-@ 200 .
= = = Bass = = =
A distinctive part of the original band 's sound was Entwistle 's lead bass playing , while Townshend concentrated on rhythm and chords . Entwistle 's was the first popular use of Rotosound strings in 1966 , trying to find a piano @-@ like sound . His bassline on " Pinball Wizard " was described by Who biographer John Atkins as " a contribution of its own without diminishing the guitar lines " ; he described his part on " The Real Me " from Quadrophenia , recorded in one take , as " a bass solo with vocals " . Entwistle 's basses include a " Frankenstein " assembled from five Fender Precision and Jazz basses , and Warwick , Alembic , Gretsch and Guild basses .
= = = Drums = = =
Moon further strengthened the reversal of traditional rock instrumentation by playing lead parts on his drums . His style was at odds with British rock contemporaries such as The Kinks ' Mick Avory and The Shadows ' Brian Bennett who did not consider tom @-@ toms necessary for rock music . Moon used Premier kits starting in 1966 . He avoided the hi @-@ hat , and concentrated on a mix of tom rolls and cymbals .
Jones ' drumming style was in sharp contrast to Moon 's . The Who were initially enthusiastic about working with a completely different drummer , though Townshend later stated , " we 've never really been able to replace Keith . " Starkey knew Moon from childhood and Moon gave him his first drum kit . Starkey has been praised for his playing style which echoes Moon 's without being a copy .
= = = Songwriting = = =
Townshend focused on writing meaningful lyrics inspired by Bob Dylan , whose words dealt with subjects other than boy – girl relationships that were common in rock music ; in contrast to Dylan 's intellectualism , Townshend believed his lyrics should be about things kids could relate to . Early material focused on the frustration and anxiety shared by mod audiences , which Townshend said was a result of " searching for [ his ] niche " . By The Who Sell Out , he began to work narrative and characters into songs , which he fully developed by Tommy , including spiritual themes influenced by Baba . From the mid @-@ 1970s onwards , his songs tended to be more personal , which influenced his decision to go solo .
Entwistle 's songs , by contrast , typically feature black humour and darker themes . His two contributions to Tommy ( " Cousin Kevin " and " Fiddle About " ) appeared because Townshend did not believe he could write songs as " nasty " as Entwistle 's .
= = Personal relationships = =
The Who are perceived as having had a poor working relationship . In the original band , Sandom had been the peacemaker and settled disputes . Moon , by contrast , was as volatile as Daltrey and Townshend . Entwistle was too passive to become involved in arguments . The group established their live reputation and stage show in part out of insecurity and aggression amongst its members and Townshend recalled that all decisions had to be made democratically " because we always disagreed " .
The only genuine friendship in the Who during the 1960s was between Entwistle and Moon . The pair enjoyed each other 's sense of humour and shared a fondness for clubbing . Journalist Richard Green noted a " chemistry of playfullness that would go beyond playfullness " . Their relationship diminished somewhat when Entwistle got married in 1967 , though they still socialised on tour . When Moon was destroying toilets in hotels , Entwistle confessed he " was standing behind him with the matches " .
The group regularly argued in the press , though Townshend said disputes were amplified in print and the group simply found it difficult to agree on things . Tommy mutually benefitted Townshend and Daltrey 's standing in the band because of the former 's songwriting and the latter 's stage presence , yet even this did not make them close friends . The pair quarrelled , particularly in the mid @-@ 1970s , over the group 's direction . During his time with the band , Jones was subject to intermittent criticism from Daltrey .
Entwistle 's death came as a shock to both Townshend and Daltrey , and caused them to re @-@ evaluate their relationship . Townshend has said that he and Daltrey have since become close friends . In 2015 , Townshend confirmed their friendship was still strong , adding their acceptance of each other 's differences " brought us to a really genuine and compassionate relationship , which can only be described as love . "
= = Legacy and influence = =
The Who are one of the most influential rock bands of the 20th century . Their appearances at Monterey and Woodstock helped give them a reputation as one of the greatest live rock acts and they have been credited with originating the " rock opera " . As of October 2014 , the group has sold over 100 million records worldwide .
The group 's contributions to rock include the power chord , windmill strum and the use of non @-@ musical instrument noise such as feedback . The band had an impact on fashion from their earliest days with their embrace of pop art and the use of the Union Jack for clothing . The guitar @-@ smashing incident at the Railway Hotel in 1964 is one of Rolling Stone magazine 's " 50 Moments That Changed the History of Rock ' n ' Roll " .
Pink Floyd began to use feedback from their early shows in 1966 , inspired by the Who , whom they considered a formative influence . Shortly after arriving in London in 1966 , Hendrix visited Marshall 's music shop demanding an amp setup like Townshend 's and manipulated electronic noises in ways that Townshend had pioneered . The Beatles were fans and socialised with Moon in particular during the mid @-@ 1960s . In 1965 , Paul McCartney said the Who " are the most exciting thing around " and was inspired to write " Helter Skelter " in the group 's " heavy " style ; John Lennon borrowed the acoustic guitar style in " Pinball Wizard " for " Polythene Pam " .
The loud volume of the band 's live show influenced the approach of hard rock and heavy metal . Proto punk and punk rock bands such as the MC5 , the Stooges , the Ramones the Sex Pistols , the Clash and Green Day cite the Who as an influence . The Who inspired mod revival bands , particularly the Jam , which helped other groups influenced by the Who become popular . In the mid @-@ 1990s , Britpop bands such as Blur and Oasis were influenced by the Who . The Who have also influenced pop punk band Panic ! at the Disco .
The Who have inspired many tribute bands ; Daltrey has endorsed the Whodlums , who raise money for the Teenage Cancer Trust . Many bands have covered Who songs ; Elton John 's version of " Pinball Wizard " reached No. 7 in the UK .
= = = Media = = =
During the Who 's hiatuses in the 1980s and 90s , Townshend developed his skills as a music publisher to be financially successful from the Who without recording or touring . He countered criticism of " selling out " by saying that licensing the songs to other media allows a wider exposure and widens the group 's appeal .
The American forensic drama CSI ( CSI : Crime Scene Investigation , CSI : Miami , CSI : NY , and CSI : Cyber ) feature Who songs as theme music , " Who Are You " , " Won 't Get Fooled Again " , " Baba O 'Riley " and " I Can See for Miles " respectively . The group 's songs have featured in other popular TV series such as The Simpsons , and Top Gear , which had an episode where the presenters were tasked with being roadies for the band .
Rock @-@ orientated films such as Almost Famous , School of Rock and Tenacious D in the Pick of Destiny refer to the band and feature their songs , and other films have used the band 's material in their soundtracks , including Apollo 13 ( which used " I Can See For Miles " ) and Austin Powers : The Spy Who Shagged Me ( which used a take of " My Generation " recorded for the BBC ) . Several of the band 's tracks have appeared in the video game Rock Band and its sequels .
= = = Awards and nominations = = =
The Who have received many awards and accolades from the music industry for their recordings and their influence . They received a Lifetime Achievement Award from the British Phonographic Industry in 1988 , and from the Grammy Foundation in 2001 .
The group were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1990 where their display describes them as " prime contenders , in the minds of many , for the title of World 's Greatest Rock Band " , and the UK Music Hall of Fame in 2005 . Seven of the group 's albums appeared on Rolling Stone 's 500 Greatest Albums of All Time in 2003 , more than any act except the Beatles , Bob Dylan , the Rolling Stones and Bruce Springsteen .
= = Band members = =
Current members
Roger Daltrey – vocals , guitar , harmonica , percussion ( 1964 – present )
Pete Townshend – guitar , keyboards , vocals ( 1964 – present )
Past members
John Entwistle – bass guitar , horns , keyboards , vocals ( 1964 – 2002 ; his death )
Doug Sandom – drums ( 1964 )
Keith Moon – drums , vocals ( 1964 – 78 ; his death )
Kenney Jones – drums ( 1978 – 88 )
Touring musicians
Zak Starkey – drums , percussion ( 1996 – present )
Simon Townshend – guitar , backing vocals ( 1996 – 97 , 2002 – present )
Pino Palladino – bass guitar ( 2002 – present )
John Corey – keyboards , backing vocals ( 2012 – present )
Loren Gold – keyboards , backing vocals ( 2012 – present )
Frank Simes – keyboards , backing vocals , musical director ( 2012 – present )
Former touring musicians
John " Rabbit " Bundrick – keyboards , backing vocals ( 1979 – 81 , 1985 – 11 )
Tim Gorman – keyboards , backing vocals ( 1982 )
Simon Philips – drums ( 1989 )
Steve " Boltz " Bolton – guitar ( 1989 )
Jody Linscott – percussion ( 1989 – 97 )
Jon Carin – keyboards , percussion ( 1996 – 97 )
= = Discography = =
Studio albums
My Generation ( 1965 )
A Quick One ( 1966 )
The Who Sell Out ( 1967 )
Tommy ( 1969 )
Who 's Next ( 1971 )
Quadrophenia ( 1973 )
The Who by Numbers ( 1975 )
Who Are You ( 1978 )
Face Dances ( 1981 )
It 's Hard ( 1982 )
Endless Wire ( 2006 )
= = Tours and performances = =
Headlining 1960s – 1990s
Headlining 2000s – 2010s
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= Diabolus in Musica =
Diabolus in Musica is the eighth studio album by American thrash metal band Slayer . Released on June 9 , 1998 , it is the second studio album to feature drummer Paul Bostaph . Although receiving mixed critical reviews , the album sold 46 @,@ 000 copies in its first week to peak at number 31 on the Billboard 200 .
Guitarist Jeff Hanneman wrote most of the album 's content which has been described as Slayer 's most experimental album . It is the band 's first studio album to be played mostly in C ♯ tuning . The album 's title is a Latin term for " The Devil in Music " , a musical interval known for its dissonance . Lyrical themes explored on the album include religion , cultural deviance , death , insanity , war , and homicide .
= = Writing and recording = =
Slayer guitarist Jeff Hanneman described the writing process as , " When we were writing this album I was looking for something to beat ; I wanted something to beat , but nothing impresses me right now . Nothing sounded really aggressive or heavy enough to inspire me to beat it , so I just had to come up with my own shit . " The album was produced by Rick Rubin and was recorded at Oceanway Studios .
Adrien Begrand of PopMatters felt Slayer introduced characteristics to its music including tuned down guitars , murky chord structures , and churning beats . He believed these characteristics were adopted in response to the then @-@ burgeoning nu metal scene . Drummer Paul Bostaph claims the album is his favorite as he thought the album was " as experimental as Slayer got " . This included incorporating groove metal elements and strange vocal effects as said by an interview for High Times . Bostaph returned to Slayer after his short @-@ lived side project The Truth About Seafood , and the band entered the recording studio four months later .
= = Album title and lyrical themes = =
Diabolus in Musica is a Latin term for " The Devil in Music " or tritone . Medieval musical rules did not allow this particular dissonance . According to one mythology , the interval was considered sexual and would bring out the devil ; Slayer vocalist and bassist Tom Araya jokingly said that people were executed for writing and using the interval .
Araya held concern about the lyrics that King penned to " In the Name of God " , voicing his opinion to guitarist Hanneman . King 's viewpoint was ; " It 's like , ' C 'mon , man , you 're in Slayer . You 're the antichrist — you said it yourself on the first album ! ' You can 't draw the line like that . Whether he agrees with it or not , he didn 't write it — I wrote it . So you have to say , ' Well , it 's just a part of being in this band . ' Now Jeff and I , we don 't give a fuck . If Jeff wrote something I had a problem with , I would never even raise a fucking finger . I 'd be like , ' Fuck yeah , let 's do it ! Gonna piss someone off ? Alright ! ' "
= = Touring and promotion = =
Following the release of the album the band commenced the Diabolus in Musica tour . From 1998 to 1999 Slayer toured with Sepultura , System of a Down , Fear Factory , Kilgore , Clutch , Meshuggah and Sick of It All . Slayer released a promotional 3 track album called Diabolus in Musica Tour Sampler . The album features 3 tracks , one from Diabolus in Musica ( " Stain of Mind " ) , " Ship of Gold " off tourmate Clutch 's The Elephant Riders and " Suite @-@ Pee " ( Clean Version ) from the debut album by System of a Down . It was released on CD and Cassette .
= = Reception = =
Diabolus in Musica was released on June 9 , 1998 by American Recordings . In its first week of release , the album sold 46 @,@ 000 copies in the United States and debuted at number 31 on the Billboard 200 Chart . As of August 16 , 2006 the album has sold 290 @,@ 000 copies in the United States . Reviewing 2003 Slayer box set Soundtrack to the Apocalypse , Adrien Begrand of PopMatters dubbed the album " a unique record [ ... ] It 's as if they 're stepping in to show the young bands how to do it right , as songs like ' Bitter Peace ' , ' Death 's Head ' , and the terrific ' Stain of Mind ' blow away anything that young pretenders have put out . "
However , not all reviewers were so positive . Reviewing Slayer 's 2001 album God Hates Us All , Blabbermouth.net reviewer Borivoj Krgin described Diabolus in Musica as " a feeble attempt at incorporating updated elements into the group 's sound , the presence of which elevated the band 's efforts somewhat and offered hope that Slayer could refrain from endlessly rehashing their previous material for their future output . " In a 1998 review , The New York Times ' Ben Ratliff complained : " Eight of the 11 songs on Diabolus in Musica , a few of which were played at the show , are in the same gray key , and the band 's rhythmic ideas have a wearying sameness too . " Songs from the album are rarely played live following the return of drummer Dave Lombardo in 2002 , with " Stain of Mind " being the only constant .
= = Band members ' views = =
In the " Nu Metal " episode of the 2011 VH1 documentary series Metal Evolution , Kerry King said the following in retrospect about the album :
= = Track listing = =
= = = Japanese edition = = =
Australian Edition does not contain track # 8
= = Personnel = =
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= SMS Budapest =
SMS Budapest ( " His Majesty 's Ship Budapest " ) was a Monarch @-@ class coastal defense ship built for the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy in the 1890s . After their commissioning , Budapest and the two other Monarch @-@ class ships made several training cruises in the Mediterranean Sea in the early 1900s . Budapest and her sisters formed the 1st Capital Ship Division of the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy until they were replaced by the newly commissioned Habsburg @-@ class pre @-@ dreadnought battleships at the turn of the century . In 1906 the three Monarchs were placed in reserve and only recommissioned during the annual summer training exercises . After the start of World War I , Budapest was recommissioned and assigned to 5th Division together with her sisters .
The division was sent to Cattaro in August 1914 to attack Montenegrin and French artillery that was bombarding the port , and they remained there until mid @-@ 1917 . Budapest and her sister Wien were sent to Trieste in August and bombarded Italian fortifications in the Gulf of Trieste . The ship was briefly decommissioned in early 1918 and became an accommodation ship , but she was fitted with a large siege howitzer for shore bombardment shortly afterwards and recommissioned . A shortage of ammunition caused the gun to be removed before it could be used , and Budapest reverted to her previous role . The ship was awarded to Great Britain by the Paris Peace Conference in 1920 . The British sold her for scrap , and she was broken up in Italy beginning in 1921 .
= = Description and construction = =
At only 5 @,@ 785 tonnes ( 5 @,@ 694 long tons ) maximum displacement , the Monarch class was less than half the size of the battleships of other major navies at the time and were officially designated as coast defense ships . The Austro @-@ Hungarian government believed that the role of its navy was solely to defend her coast .
Budapest had an overall length of 99 @.@ 22 meters ( 325 ft 6 in ) , a beam of 17 meters ( 55 ft 9 in ) and a draft of 6 @.@ 4 meters ( 21 ft 0 in ) . Her two 4 @-@ cylinder vertical triple @-@ expansion steam engines produced a total of 9 @,@ 100 indicated horsepower ( 6 @,@ 800 kW ) using steam from 16 Belleville boilers . These gave the ship a maximum speed of 17 @.@ 8 knots ( 33 @.@ 0 km / h ; 20 @.@ 5 mph ) . Budapest 's maximum load of 500 metric tons ( 490 LT ) of coal gave her a range of 3 @,@ 500 nautical miles ( 6 @,@ 500 km ; 4 @,@ 000 mi ) at a speed of 9 knots ( 17 km / h ; 10 mph ) . She was manned by 26 officers and 397 enlisted men , a total of 423 personnel .
The armament of the Monarch class consisted of four 240 @-@ millimeter ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) Krupp K / 94 guns mounted in two twin @-@ gun turrets , one each fore and aft of the superstructure . The ships carried 80 rounds for each gun . Their secondary armament was six 150 @-@ millimeter ( 6 in ) Škoda guns located in casemates in the superstructure . Defense against torpedo boats was provided by ten quick @-@ firing ( QF ) 47 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) Škoda guns and four 47 @-@ millimeter QF Hotchkiss guns . The ships also mounted two 450 @-@ millimeter ( 18 in ) torpedo tubes , one on each broadside . Each torpedo tube was provided with two torpedoes .
The ship 's nickel @-@ steel waterline armor belt was 120 – 270 millimeters ( 4 @.@ 7 – 10 @.@ 6 in ) thick , and the gun turrets were protected by 250 millimeters ( 9 @.@ 8 in ) of armor . The casemates had 80 millimeters ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) thick sides while the conning tower had 220 millimeters ( 8 @.@ 7 in ) of armor . Budapest 's deck armor was 40 millimeters ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) thick .
The Monarch @-@ class ships were ordered in May 1892 with Budapest and Wien to be built at the Stabilimento Tecnico Triestino shipyard in Trieste . Both ships were laid down on 16 February 1893 , the first ships in the class to be laid down . Budapest was launched on 27 April 1896 by Countess Marie Széchényí @-@ Andrássy , wife of the Governor of Fiume , and commissioned on 12 May 1898 .
= = Service history = =
= = = Peace time = = =
Budapest and her sisters formed the Navy 's 1st Capital Ship Division ( I. Schwere Division ) , and Budapest conducted the first wireless telegraphy trials in the Navy when she was briefly fitted with a Marconi radio in December 1898 . In late 1899 the division made a training cruise to the Eastern Mediterranean where they made port visits in Greece , Lebanon , Turkey and Malta . In early 1902 they made another training cruise to the Western Mediterranean with port visits in Algeria , Spain , France , Italy , Corfu , and Albania . The ship was fitted with a Siemens @-@ Braun radio early the following year . The ships of the division were inspected by Archduke Franz Ferdinand , the heir to the throne , in March 1903 at Gravosa . Shortly afterwards , Budapest , Wien , the battleship Habsburg and the destroyer Magnet made a cruise to the Eastern Mediterranean . In 1904 , the Monarch @-@ class ships formed the 2nd Capital Ship Division , and they took part in the 1904 cruise of the Adriatic and Mediterranean Seas as well as training exercises in which the three Habsburg @-@ class battleships engaged the Budapest and her sisters in simulated combat . Those maneuvers marked the first time two homogeneous squadrons consisting of modern battleships operated in the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy .
The Monarchs were relegated to the newly formed Reserve Squadron on 1 January 1906 and were only recommissioned for the annual summer exercises . They participated in a fleet review by Archduke Franz Ferdinand in September conducted in the Kolocepski Channel near Šipan . The ships were briefly recommissioned at the beginning of 1913 as the 4th Division after the start of the Second Balkan War , but were decommissioned again on 10 March .
= = = World War I = = =
With the beginning of World War I the three Monarchs were recommissioned as the 5th Division . They were sent to the Bay of Kotor in August 1914 to attack Montenegrin artillery batteries on Mount Lovćen bombarding the Austro @-@ Hungarian naval base at Cattaro and the fortifications defending it . Budapest and her sisters arrived on 13 August , but their guns could not elevate enough to engage all of the enemy artillery , which was reinforced by eight French guns on 19 October . The battleship Radetzky was summoned to deal with the guns two days later , and she managed to knock out several French guns and forced the others to withdraw by 27 October . The Monarchs remained at Cattaro until mid @-@ 1917 to deter any further attacks . In August , Budapest and Wien were transferred to Trieste to serve as guard ships against Italian commando raids . Each ship was fitted with a 66 @-@ millimeter ( 2 @.@ 6 in ) anti @-@ aircraft gun after their arrival on 26 August to counter intense Italian air attacks . Wien was damaged by a near miss on 5 September , and both ships withdrew to Pola on 12 September .
They returned to Trieste on 30 October and sortied into the Gulf of Trieste on 16 November to attack Italian coastal defenses at Cortellazzo , near the mouth of the Piave River . Budapest and Wien opened fire at 10 : 35 at a range of about 9 – 10 kilometers ( 5 @.@ 6 – 6 @.@ 2 mi ) and knocked out most of the Italian guns after about a half @-@ hour . Their bombardment was interrupted by several unsuccessful Italian air attacks before a more coordinated attack was made by five MAS torpedo boats and five aircraft around 13 : 30 . This was also unsuccessful , and the last Italian coast defense gun was knocked out an hour later . The ships had sustained only minor damage from several hits and near @-@ misses , and not a single sailor was wounded .
Emperor Karl inspected Budapest on 19 November at Trieste . Anxious to revenge themselves against the Austro @-@ Hungarians , the Royal Italian Navy ( Regia Marina ) planned an attack on the two ships in their berths in the Bay of Muggia , near Trieste , by MAS boats . On the night of 9 / 10 December , two MAS boats managed to penetrate the harbor defenses undetected , and fired torpedoes at Wien and Budapest . The torpedoes fired at the Budapest struck the mole of the seaplane station , but Wien was hit twice and capsized in five minutes , killing 46 of the crew .
Budapest was scheduled for a shore bombardment on 12 December , but was postponed for a week by bad weather . Escorted by the light cruiser Admiral Spaun , six destroyers , nine torpedo boats and a dozen minesweepers , Budapest and the pre @-@ dreadnought Árpád bombarded the Castellazzo fortifications on 19 December . The ship transferred to Pola two days later , and she was decommissioned on 11 March 1918 . She became the accommodation ship for the submarine staff ( Wohnschiff der U @-@ Bootleitung ) . Just over a week later , Admiral Franz von Keil proposed that a 38 @-@ centimeter siege howitzer be installed to bombard the Castellazzo fortifications . Little time was wasted , and removal of the forward gun turret and its barbette began on 26 March . The installation of the 38 @-@ centimeter ( 15 in ) gun was completed on 4 April although testing did not begin until 5 June when three shots were fired . The ship was recommissioned two days later with a reduced crew , and a practice shoot was conducted with unsatisfactory results on 6 August . Another training exercise scheduled for 20 August had to be cancelled for lack of ammunition . The howitzer was removed on 11 October and sent to the Army on 17 October . Budapest resumed her former role and remained at Pola . She was handed over to Great Britain as war reparations in January 1920 and broken up for scrap in Italy in 1921 .
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= Eugene Wigner =
Eugene Paul " E. P. " Wigner ( Hungarian : Wigner Jenő Pál ; November 17 , 1902 – January 1 , 1995 ) , was a Hungarian @-@ American theoretical physicist and mathematician . He received half of the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1963 " for his contributions to the theory of the atomic nucleus and the elementary particles , particularly through the discovery and application of fundamental symmetry principles " .
A graduate of the Technical University of Berlin , Wigner worked as an assistant to Karl Weissenberg and Richard Becker at the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute in Berlin , and David Hilbert at the University of Göttingen . Wigner and Hermann Weyl were responsible for introducing group theory into physics , particularly the theory of symmetry in physics . Along the way he performed ground @-@ breaking work in pure mathematics , in which he authored a number of mathematical theorems . In particular , Wigner 's theorem is a cornerstone in the mathematical formulation of quantum mechanics . He is also known for his research into the structure of the atomic nucleus . In 1930 , Princeton University recruited Wigner , along with John von Neumann , and he moved to the United States .
Wigner participated in a meeting with Leo Szilard and Albert Einstein that resulted in the Einstein @-@ Szilard letter , which prompted President Franklin D. Roosevelt to initiate the Manhattan Project to develop atomic bombs . Wigner was afraid that the German nuclear weapon project would develop an atomic bomb first . During the Manhattan Project , he led a team whose task was to design nuclear reactors to convert uranium into weapons grade plutonium . At the time , reactors existed only on paper , and no reactor had yet gone critical . Wigner was disappointed that DuPont was given responsibility for the detailed design of the reactors , not just their construction . He became Director of Research and Development at the Clinton Laboratory ( now the Oak Ridge National Laboratory ) in early 1946 , but became frustrated with bureaucratic interference by the Atomic Energy Commission , and returned to Princeton .
In the postwar period he served on a number of government bodies , including the National Bureau of Standards from 1947 to 1951 , the mathematics panel of the National Research Council from 1951 to 1954 , the physics panel of the National Science Foundation , and the influential General Advisory Committee of the Atomic Energy Commission from 1952 to 1957 and again from 1959 to 1964 . In later life , he became more philosophical , and published The Unreasonable Effectiveness of Mathematics in the Natural Sciences , his best @-@ known work outside of technical mathematics and physics .
= = Early life = =
Wigner Jenő Pál was born in Budapest , Austria @-@ Hungary on November 17 , 1902 , to middle class Jewish parents , Elisabeth ( Einhorn ) and Anthony Wigner , a leather tanner . He had an older sister , Bertha , known as Biri , and a younger sister Margit , known as Manci , who later married British theoretical physicist Paul Dirac . He was home schooled by a professional teacher until the age of 9 , when he started school at the third grade . During this period , Wigner developed an interest in mathematical problems . At the age of 11 , Wigner contracted what his doctors believed to be tuberculosis . His parents sent him to live for six weeks in a sanatorium in the Austrian mountains , before the doctors concluded that the diagnosis was mistaken .
Wigner 's family was Jewish , but not religiously observant , and his Bar Mitzvah was a secular one . From 1915 through 1919 , he studied at the secondary grammar school called Fasori Evangélikus Gimnázium , the school his father had attended . Religious education was compulsory , and he attended classes in Judaism taught by a rabbi . A fellow student was János von Neumann , who was a year behind Wigner . They both benefited from the instruction of the noted mathematics teacher László Rátz . In 1919 , to escape the Béla Kun communist regime , the Wigner family briefly fled to Austria , returning to Hungary after Kun 's downfall . Partly as a reaction to the prominence of Jews in the Kun regime , the family converted to Lutheranism . Wigner explained later in his life that his family decision to convert to Lutheranism " was not at heart a religious decision but an anti @-@ communist one " . On religious views , Wigner was an atheist .
After graduating from the secondary school in 1920 , Wigner enrolled at the Budapest University of Technical Sciences , known as the Műegyetem . He was not happy with the courses on offer , and in 1921 enrolled at the Technische Hochschule Berlin ( now Technical University of Berlin ) , where he studied chemical engineering . He also attended the Wednesday afternoon colloquia of the German Physical Society . These colloquia featured such luminaries as Max Planck , Max von Laue , Rudolf Ladenburg , Werner Heisenberg , Walther Nernst , Wolfgang Pauli , and Albert Einstein . Wigner also met the physicist Leó Szilárd , who at once became Wigner 's closest friend . A third experience in Berlin was formative . Wigner worked at the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physical Chemistry and Electrochemistry ( now the Fritz Haber Institute ) , and there he met Michael Polanyi , who became , after László Rátz , Wigner 's greatest teacher . Polanyi supervised Wigner 's DSc thesis , Bildung und Zerfall von Molekülen ( " Formation and Decay of Molecules " ) .
= = Middle years = =
Wigner returned to Budapest , where he went to work at his father 's tannery , but in 1926 , he accepted an offer from Karl Weissenberg at the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute in Berlin . Weissenberg wanted someone to assist him with his work on x @-@ ray crystallography , and Polanyi had recommended Wigner . After six months as Weissenberg 's assistant , Wigner went to work for Richard Becker for two semesters . Wigner explored quantum mechanics , studying the work of Erwin Schrödinger . He also delved into the group theory of Ferdinand Frobenius and Eduard Ritter von Weber .
Wigner received a request from Arnold Sommerfeld to work at the University of Göttingen as an assistant to the great mathematician David Hilbert . This proved a disappointment , as the aged Hilbert 's abilities were failing , and his interests had shifted to logic . Wigner nonetheless studied independently . He laid the foundation for the theory of symmetries in quantum mechanics and in 1927 introduced what is now known as the Wigner D @-@ matrix . Wigner and Hermann Weyl were responsible for introducing group theory into quantum mechanics . The latter had written a standard text , Group Theory and Quantum Mechanics ( 1928 ) , but it was not easy to understand , especially for younger physicists . Wigner 's Group Theory and Its Application to the Quantum Mechanics of Atomic Spectra ( 1931 ) made group theory accessible to a wider audience .
In these works , Wigner laid the foundation for the theory of symmetries in quantum mechanics . Wigner 's theorem proved by Wigner in 1931 , is a cornerstone of the mathematical formulation of quantum mechanics . The theorem specifies how physical symmetries such as rotations , translations , and CPT symmetry are represented on the Hilbert space of states . According to the theorem , any symmetry transformation is represented by a linear and unitary or antilinear and antiunitary transformation of Hilbert space . The representation of a symmetry group on a Hilbert space is either an ordinary representation or a projective representation .
In the late 1930s , Wigner extended his research into atomic nuclei . By 1929 , his papers were drawing notice in the world of physics . In 1930 , Princeton University recruited Wigner for a one @-@ year lectureship , at 7 times the salary that he had been drawing in Europe . Princeton recruited von Neumann at the same time . Jenő Pál Wigner and János von Neumann had collaborated on three papers together in 1928 and two in 1929 . They anglicized their first names to " Eugene " and " John " , respectively . When their year was up , Princeton offered a five @-@ year contract as visiting professors for half the year . The Technische Hochschule responded with a teaching assignment for the other half of the year . This was very timely , since the Nazis soon rose to power in Germany . At Princeton in 1934 , Wigner introduced his sister Manci to the physicist Paul Dirac , whom she married .
Princeton did not rehire Wigner when his contract ran out in 1936 . Through Gregory Breit , Wigner found new employment at the University of Wisconsin . There he met his first wife , Amelia Frank , who was a physics student there . However she died unexpectedly in 1937 , leaving Wigner distraught . He therefore accepted a 1938 offer from Princeton to return there . Wigner became a naturalized citizen of the United States on January 8 , 1937 , and he brought his parents to the United States .
= = Manhattan Project = =
Although he was a professed political amateur , on August 2 , 1939 , he participated in a meeting with Leó Szilárd and Albert Einstein that resulted in the Einstein – Szilárd letter , which prompted President Franklin D. Roosevelt to initiate the Manhattan Project to develop atomic bombs . Wigner was afraid that the German nuclear weapon project would develop an atomic bomb first , and even refused to have his fingerprints taken because they could be used to track him down if Germany won . " Thoughts of being murdered , " he later recalled , " focus your mind wonderfully . "
On June 4 , 1941 , Wigner married his second wife , Mary Annette Wheeler , a professor of physics at Vassar College , who had completed her Ph.D. at Yale University in 1932 . After the war she taught physics on the faculty of Rutgers University 's Douglass College in New Jersey until her retirement in 1964 . They remained married until her death in November 1977 . They had two children , David Wigner and Martha Wigner Upton .
During the Manhattan Project , Wigner led a team that included Alvin M. Weinberg , Katharine Way , Gale Young and Edward Creutz . The group 's task was to design the production nuclear reactors that would convert uranium into weapons grade plutonium . At the time , reactors existed only on paper , and no reactor had yet gone critical . In July 1942 , Wigner chose a conservative 100 MW design , with a graphite neutron moderator and water cooling . Wigner was present at a converted rackets court under the stands at the University of Chicago 's abandoned Stagg Field on December 2 , 1942 , when the world 's first atomic reactor , Chicago Pile One ( CP @-@ 1 ) achieved a controlled nuclear chain reaction .
Wigner was disappointed that DuPont was given responsibility for the detailed design of the reactors , not just their construction . He threatened to resign in February 1943 , but was talked out of it by the head of the Metallurgical Laboratory , Arthur Compton , who sent him on vacation instead . As it turned out , a design decision by DuPont to give the reactor additional load tubes for more uranium saved the project when neutron poisoning became a problem . Without the additional tubes , the reactor could have been run at 35 % power until the boron impurities in the graphite were burned up and enough plutonium produced to run the reactor at full power ; but this would have set the project back a year . During the 1950s , he would even work for DuPont on the Savannah River Site . Wigner did not regret working on the Manhattan Project , and sometimes wished the atomic bomb had been ready a year earlier .
An important discovery Wigner made during the project was the Wigner effect . This is a swelling of the graphite moderator caused by the displacement of atoms by neutron radiation . The Wigner effect was a serious problem for the reactors at the Hanford Site in the immediate post @-@ war period , and resulted in production cutbacks and a reactor being shut down entirely . It was eventually discovered that it could be overcome by controlled heating and annealing .
Through Manhattan project funding , Wigner and Leonard Eisenbud also developed an important general approach to nuclear reactions , the Wigner – Eisenbud R @-@ matrix theory , which was published in 1947 .
= = Later years = =
Wigner accepted a position as the Director of Research and Development at the Clinton Laboratory ( now the Oak Ridge National Laboratory ) in Oak Ridge , Tennessee in early 1946 . Because he did not want to be involved in administrative duties , he became co @-@ director of the laboratory , with James Lum handling the administrative chores as executive director . When the newly created Atomic Energy Commission ( AEC ) took charge of the laboratory 's operations at the start of 1947 , Wigner feared that many of the technical decisions would be made in Washington . He also saw the Army 's continuation of wartime security policies at the laboratory as a " meddlesome oversight " , interfering with research . One such incident occurred in March 1947 , when the AEC discovered that Wigner 's scientists were conducting experiments with a critical mass of uranium @-@ 235 when the Director of the Manhattan Project , Major General Leslie R. Groves , Jr . , had forbidden such experiments in August 1946 after the death of Louis Slotin at the Los Alamos Laboratory . Wigner argued that Groves 's order had been superseded , but was forced to terminate the experiments , which were completely different from the one that killed Slotin .
Feeling unsuited to a managerial role in such an environment , he left Oak Ridge at the end of summer in 1947 and returned to Princeton University , although he maintained a consulting role with the facility for many years . In the postwar period he served on a number of government bodies , including the National Bureau of Standards from 1947 to 1951 , the mathematics panel of the National Research Council from 1951 to 1954 , the physics panel of the National Science Foundation , and the influential General Advisory Committee of the Atomic Energy Commission from 1952 to 1957 and again from 1959 to 1964 . He also contributed to civil defense .
Near the end of his life , Wigner 's thoughts turned more philosophical . In 1960 , he published a now classic article on the philosophy of mathematics and of physics , which has become his best @-@ known work outside of technical mathematics and physics , The Unreasonable Effectiveness of Mathematics in the Natural Sciences . He argued that biology and cognition could be the origin of physical concepts , as we humans perceive them , and that the happy coincidence that mathematics and physics were so well matched , seemed to be " unreasonable " and hard to explain . His original paper has provoked and inspired many responses across a wide range of disciplines . These included Richard Hamming in Computer Science , Arthur Lesk in Molecular Biology , Peter Norvig in data mining , Max Tegmark in Physics , Ivor Grattan @-@ Guinness in Mathematics , and Vela Velupillai in Economics .
Wigner was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1963 " for his contributions to the theory of the atomic nucleus and the elementary particles , particularly through the discovery and application of fundamental symmetry principles " . The prize was shared that year , with the other half of the award divided between Maria Goeppert @-@ Mayer and J. Hans D. Jensen . Wigner professed that he had never considered the possibility that this might occur , and added : " I never expected to get my name in the newspapers without doing something wicked . " He also won the Franklin Medal in 1950 , the Enrico Fermi award in 1958 , the Atoms for Peace Award in 1959 , the Max Planck Medal in 1961 , the National Medal of Science in 1969 , the Albert Einstein Award in 1972 , and the eponymous Wigner Medal in 1978 . In 1968 he gave the Josiah Willard Gibbs lecture .
Mary died in November 1977 . In 1979 , Wigner married his third wife , Eileen Clare @-@ Patton ( Pat ) Hamilton , the widow of physicist Donald Ross Hamilton , the Dean of the Graduate School at Princeton University , who had died in 1972 . In 1992 , at the age of 90 , he published his memoirs , The Recollections of Eugene P. Wigner with Andrew Szanton . In it , Wigner said : " The full meaning of life , the collective meaning of all human desires , is fundamentally a mystery beyond our grasp . As a young man , I chafed at this state of affairs . But by now I have made peace with it . I even feel a certain honor to be associated with such a mystery . " In his collection of essays Symmetries and Reflections – Scientific Essays ( 1995 ) , he commented : " It was not possible to formulate the laws of quantum mechanics in a fully consistent way without reference to consciousness . "
Wigner died of pneumonia at the University Medical Center in Princeton , New Jersey on 1 January 1995 . He was survived by his wife Eileen and children Erika , David and Martha , and his sisters Bertha and Margit .
= = Publications = =
1958 ( with Alvin M. Weinberg ) . Physical Theory of Neutron Chain Reactors University of Chicago Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 226 @-@ 88517 @-@ 8
1959 . Group Theory and its Application to the Quantum Mechanics of Atomic Spectra . New York : Academic Press . Translation by J. J. Griffin of 1931 , Gruppentheorie und ihre Anwendungen auf die Quantenmechanik der Atomspektren , Vieweg Verlag , Braunschweig .
1970 Symmetries and Reflections : Scientific Essays . Indiana University Press , Bloomington ISBN 0 @-@ 262 @-@ 73021 @-@ 9
1992 ( as told to Andrew Szanton ) . The Recollections of Eugene P. Wigner . Plenum . ISBN 0 @-@ 306 @-@ 44326 @-@ 0
1995 ( with Jagdish Mehra and Arthur S. Wightman , eds . ) . Philosophical Reflections and Syntheses . Springer , Berlin ISBN 3 @-@ 540 @-@ 63372 @-@ 3
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= Interstate 270 ( Colorado ) =
Interstate 270 ( I @-@ 270 ) is a 7 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 11 km ) highway in the northeastern part of the Denver – Aurora Metropolitan Area in the U.S. state of Colorado . It overlaps U.S. Highway 36 ( US 36 ) for its entire length . The western terminus of I @-@ 270 is at the interchange with I @-@ 25 and US 36 . It heads eastward to an interchange with I @-@ 76 , where the mileposts reset because of a previous freeway extension . The freeway heads southeast and comes to meet Vasquez Boulevard , where it enters Commerce City . The road crosses Quebec Street before ending at I @-@ 70 .
Ground was broken on the first segment of I @-@ 270 in 1965 , and the freeway was completed three years later , stretching from I @-@ 70 to Vasquez Boulevard . The road was then extended to I @-@ 76 two years later . The section between I @-@ 25 and I @-@ 76 was completed in 1999 . Since completion , this section has undergone much construction to renew bridges over Clear Creek and Washington Street . Because the western end of I @-@ 270 is close to the junction of I @-@ 25 and I @-@ 76 , some traffic movements to I @-@ 25 can only be made by using I @-@ 76 .
= = Route description = =
I @-@ 270 begins at an interchange with I @-@ 25 in Welby , and is concurrent with US 36 . The speed limit through the first section is 45 mph ( 72 km / h ) . The freeway heads southeastward for about one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) , crossing over Washington Street and State Highway 224 ( SH 224 ) , but access is not provided to either road . Mileposts along I @-@ 270 reset to zero at the I @-@ 76 interchange because it was the original western end of the Interstate . Since the I @-@ 76 interchange is close to both I @-@ 270 's western end and to the I @-@ 25 / I @-@ 76 interchanges , some movements in the interchange are missing . Eastbound I @-@ 270 traffic cannot access westbound I @-@ 76 , nor can eastbound I @-@ 76 traffic access westbound I @-@ 270 . However , traffic on I @-@ 25 can access both westbound I @-@ 76 and eastbound I @-@ 270 , thus completing the missing movements . The three interchanges work together by eliminating bottlenecks caused by redundant interchanges .
Beyond the I @-@ 76 interchange , the speed limit increases to 55 mph ( 89 km / h ) . The freeway heads southeast and comes to a westbound exit and eastbound entrance with York Street , and crosses the South Platte River into a commercial area in Adams County . I @-@ 270 enters the city of Commerce City , running roughly parallel with the nearby Sand Creek and crossing over SH 265 without an exit . Continuing through the city , the route comes to a cloverleaf interchange with Vasquez Boulevard , which carries US 85 , SH 2 , and US 6 . The freeway heads eastward into Denver , where it has an exit at SH 35 , a short highway which continues northward along Quebec Street for one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) . Quebec Street provides access for traffic heading to westbound I @-@ 70 . The route ends shortly thereafter when it merges into I @-@ 70 .
The freeway is maintained by the Colorado Department of Transportation ( CDOT ) , who is responsible for maintaining and constructing transportation infrastructure in Colorado , including highways . As part of this role , CDOT periodically conducts surveys on their highways to measure traffic volume . This is expressed in terms of average annual daily traffic ( AADT ) , which is a measure of traffic volume for any average day of the year . In 2009 , CDOT calculated that as few as 56 @,@ 500 vehicles used I @-@ 270 daily east of its western terminus at I @-@ 25 , and as many as 89 @,@ 600 vehicles used I @-@ 270 daily southeast of York Street in Commerce City . As part of the Interstate Highway System , the entire route is listed on the National Highway System , a system of roads that are important to the nation 's economy , defense , and mobility .
= = History = =
I @-@ 270 was constructed in several phases , beginning with a section from I @-@ 70 to Vasquez Boulevard . Following this section was another part of the freeway from Vasquez Boulevard west to I @-@ 76 , and finally a section from US 36 to I @-@ 76 . This last segment has undergone much more construction , including new bridges and ramps at interchanges .
= = = Construction = = =
Construction on I @-@ 270 began in 1965 . The first portion cost about $ 2 @.@ 7 million . It opened in 1968 , connecting I @-@ 70 to Vasquez Boulevard . Two years later , another two @-@ mile ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) segment connected the portion already in service to I @-@ 80S . I @-@ 80S became I @-@ 76 in 1976 . Construction began on the section between I @-@ 76 and I @-@ 25 in April 1993 and was finished in September 1999 , costing $ 11 @.@ 4 million . The mileposts were already established when construction took place , so the route was not assigned new mileposts . Completion of this portion largely decreased traffic problems in the area .
= = = Improvements = = =
The bridges along westbound I @-@ 270 over Washington Street were replaced and finished in the late 1990s , costing $ 12 million . By the end of 1998 , the bridges over Clear Creek near the I @-@ 76 interchange were completed . In February 2000 , a connection between westbound I @-@ 270 and westbound US 36 was completed , as was access between I @-@ 76 westbound and I @-@ 270 westbound . The eastbound section between US 36 and I @-@ 76 , including new bridges over Washington Street and Clear Creek , was completed in March 2002 and totaled $ 8 @.@ 5 million . Three years later , a flyover ramp was constructed connecting I @-@ 25 southbound to I @-@ 270 eastbound . However , access between I @-@ 270 eastbound and I @-@ 76 westbound still does not exist .
= = Future = =
CDOT aims to widen the freeway from four up to six lanes between I @-@ 76 and I @-@ 70 by 2025 .
= = Exit list = =
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= Let 's Kill Hitler =
" Let 's Kill Hitler " is the eighth episode of the sixth series of the British science fiction television series Doctor Who , and was first broadcast on BBC One , Space and BBC America on 27 August 2011 . " Let 's Kill Hitler " was written by Steven Moffat and directed by Richard Senior .
In the episode , alien time traveller the Doctor ( Matt Smith ) and his companions Amy Pond ( Karen Gillan ) and her husband Rory Williams ( Arthur Darvill ) crash land in 1938 Berlin when the TARDIS is hijacked by Amy and Rory 's childhood friend , Mels ( Nina Toussaint @-@ White ) . They accidentally save Adolf Hitler ( Albert Welling ) who was scheduled for torture by the Teselecta , a time @-@ travelling justice department . When shot by Hitler , Mels unexpectedly regenerates into River Song , the grown version of Amy and Rory 's child who had been taken away from them . As River is a criminal herself due to her future execution of the Doctor , the Teselecta pursue her instead , whilst the Doctor faces death from her poisoned lipstick .
Moffat intended for " Let 's Kill Hitler " to be more lighthearted than the series opener , and he intended to make fun of Hitler . The episode concludes many elements of River Song 's arc . The episode was filmed around March and April 2011 , although the opening sequence , set in a cornfield , was filmed much later in the final scenes shot for the series as they had to wait for the corn to grow . Much of Berlin was filmed in Swansea , Wales while The Temple of Peace in Cardiff was also used as a location . In the UK , the episode attracted 8 @.@ 10 million viewers , the second most @-@ watched episode of the series . Critical reception was mostly positive , though some were critical of the Teselecta and various aspects of the setting and characters .
= = Plot = =
= = = Prequel = = =
On 15 August 2011 , the BBC released a short " prequel " to " Let 's Kill Hitler " , written by Steven Moffat . In the prequel , Amy calls the Doctor and leaves a message for the Doctor on the TARDIS 's answer phone , begging him to find her child , Melody . Though Amy knows Melody will grow up to be River Song , she does not want to miss seeing her grow up . As she ends her message , it is revealed that a very upset Doctor was listening but did not pick up the phone , even though Amy had pleaded for him to .
= = = Synopsis = = =
In modern @-@ day Leadworth , Amy and Rory create a crop circle to gain the Doctor 's attention via its newspaper coverage . He arrives with his TARDIS , but they are soon joined by Mels , Amy and Rory 's childhood friend who knows of Amy 's " raggedy Doctor " and was responsible for Amy and Rory 's relationship ; Amy had subsequently named her daughter Melody after Mels . On the run from the police after stealing a car , Mels brandishes a gun and coerces them to escape in the TARDIS and " kill Hitler " . Inside , she fires the gun , hitting the central console which fills the time machine with a poisonous gas and sends it out of control .
Back in 1938 Berlin , " Justice Vehicle 6018 " , a Teselecta , a shapechanging , human @-@ looking robot manned by a human crew from the future miniaturised inside it , is seeking to deliver justice on major criminals from the past . They do this by using the Teselecta 's weapons to torture the criminal , near the end of their timeline . Having taken on the appearance of a Wehrmacht officer to meet with Hitler , they are surprised when the TARDIS crashes into Hitler 's office . Hitler , already panicked , fires on the Teselecta , but his aim is poor and strikes Mels . As Rory punches Hitler and locks him in a cupboard , the TARDIS crew finds Mels regenerating , becoming the woman they know as River Song — Melody as a grown woman . River , having been trained by her captors to kill the Doctor , makes several attempts but the Doctor has taken precautions to nullify these . Instead , River kisses him and — before disappearing into the streets of Berlin — reveals that her lipstick is poison ( from the " Judas Tree " ) , which will kill the Doctor within the hour and prevent his regeneration . The Doctor orders Amy and Rory to follow River , passing Amy his sonic screwdriver , while he returns to the TARDIS to try to discover a cure . The Teselecta , aware that the Doctor 's death on 22 April 2011 is a " fixed point in time " ( " The Impossible Astronaut " ) , instead follows Amy and Rory in chasing down River , having identified her as their most wanted war criminal , responsible for the Doctor 's death .
Amy and Rory chase River to a café at the Hotel Adlon , but the Teselecta arrives , bringing them aboard as allies , and takes on Amy 's appearance , allowing the robot to get close to River to attack her . Before they can complete the attack , the TARDIS materialises ; the Doctor , spurred on by the TARDIS ' " voice interface " hologram of Amy 's younger self , Amelia , has found time to dress for the period and stops the attack , now aware of the Teselecta 's nature . The captain speaks to the Doctor , informing him that River has been trained to kill him by the Silence , a religious order that believes that when " the oldest question in the universe " is asked , silence will fall across the universe . When the crew refuse to back down from attacking River , Amy uses the sonic screwdriver to turn the robot 's " antibodies " — its security robots — against the crew . The crew abandon the robot by being teleported away by their mothership , leaving Amy and Rory to face the antibodies .
The Doctor finds himself too weak from the poison 's effects to pilot the TARDIS to rescue his companions ; River is inspired by the Doctor 's sympathy , and finds herself guided by the TARDIS itself to pilot the ship , and rescues Amy and Rory in time . On returning to the café , the trio finds the Doctor near death ; he asks River to find " River Song " and give her a message , then whispers something in her ear before he passes away . River , who at this point still only knows herself as Melody Pond , asks Amy who River Song is ; Amy uses the Teselecta to show River her form stored in the robot 's database of who she is to become . With this , River sacrifices her remaining regenerations to bring the Doctor back to life , and passes out . The Doctor , Amy , and Rory take her to a hospital in the far future , leaving the TARDIS @-@ shaped diary as a gift by her bedside , and depart . Later , River is shown becoming an archaeologist so she can find the Doctor herself . Aboard the TARDIS , the Doctor has discovered the date of his death from the records aboard the Teselecta , but does not reveal this knowledge to Amy or Rory .
= = = Continuity = = =
This episode reveals the origins to several facets of the River Song character . Before transforming into River , Mels states that she was the young girl seen regenerating at the end of " Day of the Moon " , becoming " a toddler " who presumably grew up to become Mels . River 's worn TARDIS @-@ coloured diary , which the Doctor and his companions have seen in her relative future , is given to her brand @-@ new by the Doctor . The Doctor introduces her to the concept of " spoilers " , seen originally in the 10th Doctor story " Silence in the Library " / " Forest of the Dead " , and becoming a virtual catchphrase for River . River 's aptitude for flying the TARDIS — having been taught how by the machine itself — is demonstrated in " The Time of Angels " ; River explains she " had lessons from the very best " ( which the Doctor assumes refers to himself ) and that the Doctor was " busy that day " . The Teselecta crew consider River a wanted , dangerous criminal ; River is shown being in prison in her personal future in " The Time of Angels " for killing " the best man I ever knew " . In this episode 's epilogue , River joins the Luna University to become an archaeologist , in order to find the Doctor . Her previous appearances ( events which take place later in River 's personal timeline ) show that she will / has acquired her degrees . When River wakes up in hospital , the Doctor says " Rule One : The Doctor lies " . This rule is ' repeated ' by River herself in " The Big Bang " , a future event in her own personal timeline .
While activating the voice interface aboard the TARDIS , the Doctor is shown holograms of his former companions Rose Tyler ( Billie Piper ) , Martha Jones ( Freema Agyeman ) and Donna Noble ( Catherine Tate ) . He rejects these , as they all cause him guilt . He eventually settles on the young Amelia ( " The Eleventh Hour " ) , who also appears ( in flashback scenes of Amy 's past ) interacting with a younger Mels and Rory . The young Amelia voice interface brings up " fish fingers and custard " , an allusion to the Doctor 's meal with the real Amelia in " The Eleventh Hour " . The concept of " fixed points in time " has been explored before , such as in " The Fires of Pompeii " . The supposed " state of temporal grace " within the TARDIS was previously asserted by the Fourth Doctor during The Hand of Fear .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing and casting = = =
Serving as the mid @-@ series premiere , it is the opposite of the tone of the opening story " The Impossible Astronaut " / " Day of the Moon " , which was " grim and dark " . Writer Steven Moffat wanted to show Hitler in a comedic light and " take the mickey out of him " instead of making him " an icon of evil " . He compared it to a scene in an Indiana Jones film which made fun of Hitler .
Moffat enjoyed writing Mels ' regeneration scene , finding comedy in her checking out her new body . He asserts that the episode is the beginning of River 's story and shows how she became the woman the Doctor met in previous episodes . During the moments after her regeneration , River reenacts the iconic scene between Mrs Robinson ( Anne Bancroft ) and Benjamin ( Dustin Hoffman ) from the movie The Graduate , calling out to the Doctor " Hello , Benjamin " . The camera angle is also a tribute to the film . The Doctor previously likened River to Mrs Robinson in " The Impossible Astronaut " .
The cast and crew felt that the costume and make @-@ up artists did a good job with Albert Welling , as he looked so much like Hitler it was a " surreal " experience . Ella Kenion , who plays Harriet in this episode , later appeared in the Fourth Doctor audio drama The Wrath of the Iceni where she played Boudica . Darvill was pleased that his character , Rory , was more of an " action hero " in the episode . Before broadcast , Smith stated that it was " maybe [ his ] favorite episode to date ... it just rockets along " . Smith 's Doctor debuted his secondary jacket , a long dark @-@ green military overcoat , for the first time in this episode . In an interview for the previous series concerning the Eleventh Doctor 's costume , executive producer Piers Wenger said , " I think he 'd really like to evolve it next series . He 's really keen to have a coat . " Smith explained that he wanted a coat because of the cold weather .
= = = Filming and effects = = =
The read @-@ through for " Let 's Kill Hitler " took place on 21 March 2011 . The opening scene in the cornfield were the last shots filmed of the series on 11 July 2011 . The scene was filmed last because the crew had to wait for the corn to grow ; Moffat had written the scene in February . Much of Berlin was filmed in Swansea . Vintage vehicles from the period were used ; Darvill loved the motorbike , although he was not allowed to ride it as it was the job of the stuntman . The Temple of Peace in Cardiff used in the episode for the German dinner party was also used for Gillan 's first Doctor Who appearance , when she played a Soothsayer in " The Fires of Pompeii " . Smith , Gillan , and Darvill had previously filmed in the Temple of Peace for " Cold Blood " of the previous series . Hitler 's office was one of the biggest sets that had been built for the show . Typically it would have been filmed in a real building , but the TARDIS had to crash through the wall and thus the set had to be destroyed with an air cannon . The Large Hadron Collider in Switzerland was the inspiration for the design of the Teselecta corridors .
One scene involving the Teselecta ( disguised as a German soldier ) chasing Amy and Rory on motorcycles through Berlin was cut from filming due to budget issues . AT & T , who wanted to advertise in the United States broadcast of the episode on BBC America as a tie @-@ in to their " Rethink possible " slogan , brought the idea of using a motion comic to create a bridging scene within the advertising break where this scene would have been placed . AT & T and BBC America worked with Moffat and Senior to create the 60 second scene , which was animated by Double Barrel Motion Labs .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" Let 's Kill Hitler " was first broadcast on 27 August 2011 on BBC One in the United Kingdom . Internationally , it was broadcast in America on sister station BBC America on 27 August as well as on Space in Canada . Overnight ratings showed that the episode was watched by 6 @.@ 2 million viewers on BBC One , the second most viewed show of the day behind The X Factor . The episode also came in at number one on the BBC iPlayer service the day after it aired as well as topping the requests on the service for the month of August with 0 @.@ 99 million views . The episode also received an Appreciation Index of 85 , considered " excellent " . Final viewing figures came in at 8 @.@ 10 million , the eleventh most watched programme of the week . It was also the second most @-@ watched episode of the sixth series , behind " The Impossible Astronaut " .
Some viewers complained to the BBC believing they heard a German guard say the profanity " where the fuck is he ? " However , the BBC stated he said , " Halt , was machen Sie ? " , which means " Stop , what are you doing ? " in German .
= = = Critical reception = = =
The episode received mostly positive reviews from critics . Dan Martin , writing for The Guardian , was more pleased with " Let 's Kill Hitler " as an opener than " A Good Man Goes to War " as a finale , and said it was " an energetic , timey @-@ wimey tour de force with gags and flourishes like the car and the crop circles that still maintained a strong sense of what it was about " . He also commended Alex Kingston 's performance , saying that " she got to steal her every scene even more completely than usual , masterfully swerving the episode into a properly emotional final act " . Martin later rated it the sixth best episode of the series , though the finale was not included in the list . He commented that it may be " divisive " amongst fans as it was criticised for not making sense to casual viewers of the programme , but Martin said he " loved it " . Michael Hogan of The Daily Telegraph gave the episode four out of five stars , praising it for being " jam @-@ packed full of ideas , twists , turns and wibbly @-@ wobbly time @-@ bending stuff " and " giddily thrilling entertainment , albeit rather exhausting " . He also praised the way it allowed Rory to " finally find his niche " .
Writing for The Independent , Neela Debnath praised the lighter mood and " great slapstick moments " . Though she thought the identity of Mels was " obvious to everyone but the characters " , she said that Toussaint @-@ White was " excellent " and that " it was shame that she regenerated so early on because she brought a different energy to the character " . Radio Times reviewer Patrick Mulkern , unlike Debnath , admitted that Mels ' true identity " took [ him ] completely by surprise " . He thought that a plot hole was generated in terms of what Melody did in between regenerating in 1969 and joining Amy and Rory , still as a child , 20 years later , but said that " the episode moves too fast for such quibbles to stick , and it is hilarious " . Ken Tucker of Entertainment Weekly called it " a marvelously energetic , funny , clever , noble mid @-@ season start " and praised the acting of Smith , Gillan , Darvill , and particularly Kingston , as well as the emotion that developed in the episode .
IGN 's Matt Risley gave the episode a score of 9 out of 10 , saying that it was " arguably Moffat 's most unashamedly fun Time Lord romp yet " . While he praised the humour , plot , and character development , he was critical of the Teselecta ; though they " score [ ed ] high on the sci @-@ fi kitsch factor " they were " anything but memorable " . SFX magazine critic Richard Edwards gave " Let 's Kill Hitler " five out of five stars , thinking it " has to rank among the cleverest Who episodes Moffat has ever written " . While he praised Kingston 's performance , he wrote that " it 's Matt Smith who steals the show , in one of his finest performances as the Doctor ... he 's utterly magnificent , whether acting the joker , or living out 32 minutes ( ish ) of death scene . The mix of optimism ... and sadness is a tricky thing to pull off , yet Smith does it in a quintessentially Doctor way " . Keith Phipps of The A.V. Club graded the episode as a B + , saying that he was " a bit divided " . He praised Moffat 's River Song arc , which made " the mind [ reel ] ... in a good way " , as well as the dialogue and " big concepts " . On the other hand , he did not think the Teselecta 's mission was developed and " as characters they seem kind of bland " . What " really [ troubled ] " him was that it did not have the " impact " of some previous episodes and he thought it unlikely that Amy and Rory were willing to quickly accept that they were meant to raise their daughter as a school friend .
Jim Shelley of The Daily Mirror was also negative about the episode , especially towards Alex Kingston , who appeared to be acting while " the rest of the cast play their parts perfectly naturally " . The Daily Telegraph reviewer Gavin Fuller said that Moffat " delivered a pacy romp " and praised the concept of the Teselecta , but was disappointed with the " wasted opportunity " of the setting . He thought that the setting offered " great dramatic potential " but was " little more than window dressing for the story " . He also felt using Hitler as a comic relief " struck a wrong note given the nature of the man and the regime he led " and that it was " an odd way to treat such an historically significant character " . He was also critical of Moffat 's " seeming keenness to kill the regular cast in some way , shape or form " . However , Entertainment Weekly 's Tucker thought that it " didn 't need Hitler to be an excellent [ Doctor Who ] episode " .
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= 2000 CECAFA Cup =
The 2000 CECAFA Cup was the 24th edition of the football tournament , which involves teams from Southern and Central Africa . The matches were played in Uganda , a decision which Tanzania protested , but to no avail . Tanzania were also banned from international football by FIFA , the world football governing body . The matches were played from 18 November to 2 December 2000 . Prior to the tournament , Djibouti withdrew due to monetary difficulties , but re @-@ entered . Sudan and Zanzibar also withdrew , but stayed out . The reasoning behind their withdrawal was unknown .
Nine teams entered the tournament , as opposed to the twelve teams competing at the previous tournament in 1999 . However , there were only eight different nations competing in the tournament as Uganda entered two teams : Uganda ( A ) and Uganda ( B ) . Uganda ( A ) was in Group A , and Uganda ( B ) was in Group B , enabling the two the correct set @-@ up to be able to meet each other in the final , as occurred here . Both Ugandas topped their respective groups , and progressed to the knockout stages along with Ethiopia and Rwanda . Uganda ( A ) beat Rwanda , and Uganda ( B ) beat Ethiopia to mean that " the Cranes " ( Uganda [ A ] ) and " the Lions " ( Uganda ( B ) ) would meet in the final . In the final , Uganda ( A ) captained by George Ssimwogerere of Express , won 2 – 0 . Ethiopia finished third after beating Rwanda on penalties 4 – 2 after the match finished 0 – 0 .
= = Background = =
The CECAFA Cup is considered Africa 's oldest football tournament , and involves teams from Central and Southern Africa . The tournament was originally named the Gossage Cup , contested by the four nations of Kenya , Uganda , Tanganyika ( modern day Tanzania ) , and Zanzibar ; it ran from 1929 until 1965 . In 1967 , this became the East and Central African Senior Challenge Cup , often shortened to simply the Challenge Cup , which was competed for five years , until 1971 , before the CECAFA Cup was introduced in 1973 . The 1999 champions were Rwanda ( B ) , in 2000 they emerged from their group second , after Uganda ( B ) , 5 points behind but 2 points ahead of the next team , Eritrea . They were then knocked out in the semi @-@ finals against Uganda ( A ) . The 2000 champions , Uganda , were knocked out in the 1999 semi @-@ finals by none other than Rwanda .
= = Participants = =
9 teams from 8 countries competed , three teams from the original tournament competed ( excluding Tanganyika , which changed names and is currently called Tanzania ) , all 8 nations at this tournament had competed at the 1999 CECAFA Cup .
= = Group stage = =
The group stage began on 18 November and ended on 27 November with Group A 's final match between Ethiopia and Burundi . At the end of the group stage , the teams who finished bottom of their group were eliminated , along with the two teams above them ( in Group A ) , and the team above them ( in Group B ) , whereas the teams positioned in the top two slots in the groups progressed to the knock @-@ out rounds . Due to there being an odd number of teams , Group A contained more matches and an additional team , with a total of 5 to Group B 's 4 teams .
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= Smallville =
Smallville is an American television series developed by writer @-@ producers Alfred Gough and Miles Millar , based on the DC Comics character Superman created by Jerry Siegel and Joe Shuster . The series , initially broadcast by The WB , premiered on October 16 , 2001 . After Smallville 's fifth season , The WB and UPN merged to form The CW , the series ' later United States broadcaster . Smallville , which ended its tenth and final season on May 13 , 2011 , follows Clark Kent ( Tom Welling ) in the fictional town of Smallville , Kansas , before he becomes known as Superman . The first four seasons focus on Clark and his friends in high school . After season five Smallville ventures into adult settings , eventually focusing on his career at the Daily Planet and introducing other DC comic @-@ book superheroes and villains .
Before the series ' production Bruce Wayne , chronicling the young protagonist 's journey toward Batman , was proposed ; although that series failed to generate interest , it inspired Smallville . Series developers Gough and Millar pitched their " no tights , no flights " rule to the president of Warner Bros. Television , reducing Superman to the bare essentials and examining what led Clark Kent to become the Man of Steel . After seven seasons with the show , Gough and Millar departed with little explanation . Smallville was primarily filmed in and around Vancouver , British Columbia , with local businesses and buildings substituting for Smallville locations . Most of the music for the first six seasons was composed by Mark Snow , who incorporated elements of John Williams 's musical score from the Superman film series . In season seven , Louis Febre ( who worked with Snow from the beginning ) became the series ' primary composer .
Smallville was generally positively received when it began . Former Superman star Christopher Reeve expressed approval for the series , making two guest appearances before his death . The pilot episode set a ratings record for a WB debut , with 8 @.@ 4 million viewers . Over ten seasons the series averaged about 4 @.@ 34 million viewers per episode , with season two the highest @-@ rated at 6 @.@ 3 million . By the end of its run , Smallville passed Stargate SG @-@ 1 as the longest @-@ running North American science @-@ fiction series . Since its first season , the series received accolades ranging from Emmys to Teen Choice Awards . Smallville spawned a series of young @-@ adult novels , a DC Comics bimonthly comic book , soundtrack recordings and series @-@ related merchandise . All ten seasons are available on DVD in regions 1 , 2 and 4 . In April 2012 , it continued in comic @-@ book form with a storyline resuming shortly after the series finale , and ended in November 2014 .
= = Series overview = =
The regular cast is introduced in season one , with storylines involving a villain deriving power from kryptonite exposure . The one @-@ episode villains were a plot device developed by Gough and Millar . Smallville 's first season primarily dealt with Clark 's coming to terms with his alien origin and the revelation that his arrival on Earth was connected to the death of Lana Lang 's parents . After the first season the series had fewer villain @-@ of @-@ the @-@ week episodes , focusing instead on individual @-@ character story arcs and exploring Clark 's origins . Major storylines include Clark 's discovery of his Kryptonian heritage and Lex 's escalating conflict with his father , Lionel . The disembodied voice of Clark 's father , Jor @-@ El , is introduced ; he communicates to Clark through his spaceship , setting the stage for plots involving his role in fulfilling Clark 's earthly destiny . In a fourth @-@ season arc Clark , instructed by Jor @-@ El , searches for three Kryptonian stones which contain the knowledge of the universe and form his Fortress of Solitude . Clark battles Brainiac in his attempts to release the Kryptonian criminal General Zod , and must capture ( or destroy ) other escaped Phantom Zone criminals . His cousin Kara arrives , and Lex Luthor discovers Clark 's secret . The eighth season introduces Davis Bloome ( Smallville 's version of Doomsday ) , and Tess Mercer replaces the departing Lex Luthor . Justin Hartley becomes a series regular as Oliver Queen ( Green Arrow ) after being a recurring guest in season six . In the ninth season Major Zod ( Callum Blue ) and other members of Zod 's military group are revived ( without their Kryptonian powers ) by Tess Mercer , and their efforts to regain their powers are the season 's central conflict . The final season revolves around Clark 's attempts to lose his doubts and fears and become the hero he is meant to be , while confronting his biggest challenges : the coming of Darkseid and the return of Lex Luthor .
= = Cast = =
Tom Welling plays Clark Kent , a young man with superhuman abilities who tries to find his place in life after discovering that he is an alien and uses his powers to help those in danger . Clark 's season @-@ one problems include his inability to share his secret and his desire for a normal life . After months of scouting , Welling was cast as Clark . Although David Nutter had to convince his manager that the role would not hurt the actor 's film career to persuade Welling to read the pilot script , after reading the script Welling agreed to audition .
Kristin Kreuk plays Lana Lang , the girl next door . Grieving the loss of her parents , she has empathy for everyone and feels connected to Clark . Kreuk was the first to be cast , after Nutter saw an audition tape the actress had sent . Although she left the series after the seventh season , she returned for five episodes in season eight as a guest star .
Michael Rosenbaum plays Lex Luthor , a billionaire 's son sent to Smallville to run the local fertilizer plant . After Clark saves his life , they become fast friends . As the series progresses , Lex 's friendship with Clark crumbles until they consider themselves enemies . The role was difficult to cast ; Michael Rosenbaum auditioned twice and , feeling that he did not take his first audition seriously enough , outlined a two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ page scene indicating where to be funny , charismatic or menacing . His second audition went so well that he was hired . Rosenbaum left the show after seven seasons , reprising his role for the series finale .
Allison Mack plays Chloe Sullivan , one of Clark 's best friends , who is in love with him ( although her feelings are not reciprocated ) . Editor of the school newspaper , her journalistic curiosity and desire to " expose falsehoods " and " know the truth " create tension with her friends ( especially when she investigates Clark 's past ) . After learning about Smallville from casting director Dee Dee Bradley , Mack considered auditioning for Lana Lang but auditioned twice for Chloe Sullivan . The character was created just for the series , and was intended to have an " ethnic background " before Mack was hired . She has since appeared in the comic book .
Sam Jones III plays Pete Ross , another best friend of Clark 's and the first person to whom Clark voluntarily tells his secret . Although he is in love with Chloe , he does not admit it because of the Clark @-@ Lana @-@ Chloe love triangle already in place . Ross was written out of the series at the end of season three , but made a guest appearance in season seven . Jones was the last of the series regulars to be cast , with Gough and Millar seeing him four days before they began filming the pilot . In the comics Ross is Caucasian , but the producers chose to cast Jones ( who is African @-@ American ) .
Annette O 'Toole plays Martha Kent , Clark 's adoptive mother . She and her husband , Jonathan , give Clark wise advice about coping with his increasing abilities . In season five Martha takes a state @-@ senate seat , and in season six she leaves the show . Although Cynthia Ettinger was originally cast as Martha Kent , during filming everyone ( including Ettinger ) realized that she was not right for the part . O 'Toole was committed to the television series The Huntress when Ettinger filmed the original pilot . Around the time the creators wanted to recast Martha Kent The Huntress was canceled , allowing O 'Toole to join the cast . The actress had played Lana Lang in Superman III .
John Schneider plays Jonathan Kent , Clark 's adoptive father , who goes to great lengths to protect his son 's secret ; according to Schneider , Jonathan is " perfectly willing to go to jail , or worse , to protect his son . " Schneider was written out of the show in the series ' 100th episode , with Jonathan dying of a heart attack the night of his election victory . Millar and Gough wanted a recognizable face for Smallville ; they were happy to cast Schneider as Jonathan because he was known as Bo Duke from The Dukes of Hazzard , which Gough saw as adding to the belief that Schneider could have grown up running a farm .
Eric Johnson plays Whitney Fordman , Lana 's boyfriend in season one , who becomes jealous of Clark and Lana 's budding friendship and hazes him . He reconciles with Clark before joining the Marines and going to Afghanistan . Although Whitney was written out of the show in the first @-@ season finale , he made cameo appearances in the season @-@ two episode " Visage " ( where it is disclosed that he was killed in action ) and the season @-@ four episode " Façade " ( during a flashback to Clark 's freshman year of high school ) . Johnson , who auditioned for Lex and Clark before he was cast as Whitney , was pleased that the writers gave his character a hero 's exit .
John Glover plays Lionel Luthor , Lex 's father . Lionel is responsible for the Kents ' adoption of Clark without legal ramifications or questions about his origins . Glover tried to make Lionel seem to try to " toughen [ Lex ] up " , and saw the character as a rich , powerful businessman who was disappointed in his son . Lionel was created for Smallville to parallel the Kents and as an " experiment in extreme parenting . " A recurring first @-@ season guest , Glover became a series regular from seasons two to seven until Lionel was murdered by Lex near the end of the seventh season . Lionel returns in a parallel @-@ universe version , also portrayed by Glover , during the final season in a recurring role .
Jensen Ackles plays Jason Teague , Lana 's love interest , in season four . He follows Lana to Smallville from Paris , taking a job as the school 's assistant football coach , but is fired when their relationship comes to light . By the end of the season , it is disclosed that he was working with his mother to track the three Kryptonian stones of knowledge . Before he was cast as Jason , Ackles was second in line for the role of Clark Kent . Although he received top billing for season four and was contracted for season five , he was written out of the show in the season @-@ four finale because of his commitment to Supernatural .
Erica Durance plays Lois Lane , Chloe 's cousin who comes to Smallville to investigate Chloe 's supposed death and stays with the Kents . Durance , a recurring guest in season four , became a series regular . The producers wanted to bring Lois Lane to the series , and Chloe 's supposed death in the season @-@ three finale provided the opportunity . Durance was cast three days before filming began ; although she could initially appear in only four episodes , according to the film division of Warner Bros. , after negotiations her character was cleared for more appearances .
Aaron Ashmore plays Jimmy Olsen , Chloe 's photographer boyfriend who works at the Daily Planet . Ashmore , a recurring guest in season six , became a regular cast member in season seven . He called his casting a welcome surprise : " I auditioned for [ the role ] and I put myself on tape . I hadn 't heard anything , and a couple of weeks later , all of the sudden ( sic ) , I got the call saying , ' You 're going to Vancouver to start shooting Smallville . ' It 's a dream come true , really . " After three seasons on the series ( two as a regular ) , Ashmore 's character was killed off . Although Ashmore 's Jimmy Olsen was murdered , he said his character was not the " real " Jimmy Olsen ; Jimmy 's younger brother , who appears briefly in the season @-@ eight finale , is intended to be the Jimmy who works with Clark and Lois . Ashmore returns as the real , younger Jimmy in the series finale .
Laura Vandervoort plays Kara , Clark 's Kryptonian cousin . Sent to look after Kal @-@ El ( Clark ) , she was in suspended animation for eighteen years . When the dam confining Kara 's ship broke in the season @-@ six finale , " Phantom " , she was set free . She has Clark 's abilities , including flight . At the end of the seventh season , Kara was trapped in the Phantom Zone . Although Vandervoort did not return regularly for the eighth season , she had guest appearances to wrap up her storyline in season eight 's " Bloodline " and season ten 's " Supergirl " and " Prophecy " .
Justin Hartley plays Oliver Queen ( Green Arrow ) , the CEO of Queen Industries and leader of a small group of superheroes . Hartley , a recurring guest in the sixth and seventh seasons , became a series regular in season eight and was the producers ' first choice to play Oliver Queen . He was designed to shake up Clark and Lois in season six and to give Clark an alternate view of how to fight crime .
Samuel Witwer plays Davis Bloome in season eight . A " charismatic " paramedic struggling with inner darkness , Davis Bloome is Smallville 's version of Doomsday ( the only character to kill Superman ) . Davis would come to resemble his comic @-@ book counterpart over the course of the season . Brian Peterson said that with Michael Rosenbaum 's departure , the new executive producers were looking for a villain " as great as Lex " and Doomsday fit the bill .
Cassidy Freeman plays Tess Mercer , Lex 's handpicked successor as LuthorCorp CEO in season eight . Her name is an homage to two Superman characters , Eve Teschmacher and Mercy Graves . Freeman described her character as " fierce " , " fun " , and " intelligent " , with finding Lex her primary season @-@ eight goal . Tess believes that Clark will be able to help her . In the season @-@ ten episode " Abandoned " , it is disclosed that her birth name is Lutessa Lena Luthor and she is Lionel 's illegitimate daughter .
Callum Blue plays Zod , an early version of the criminal from Krypton who was sent to the Phantom Zone prison . His character is first mentioned in season five , when Brainiac uses Lex 's body as a vessel for Zod 's spirit , and he appears in a Kryptonian sphere in the season @-@ eight finale . Smallville 's executive producers called this incarnation " Major Zod " ( as opposed to the typical " General Zod " ) , and in season nine " the venomous side of Zod rises because he experiences a few key betrayals with our beloved characters " .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
Tollin / Robbins Productions originally wanted to do a series about a young Bruce Wayne , but the feature @-@ film division of Warner Bros. decided to develop an origin movie for Batman and did not want to compete with a television series . In 2000 Tollin / Robbins approached Peter Roth , president of Warner Bros. Television , about developing a series on a young Superman . That year , Alfred Gough and Miles Millar developed a pilot based on the film Eraser . After watching the pilot , Roth approached Gough and Millar about developing a pilot about a young Superman ; the two made a " no tights , no flights " rule that Clark would not fly or wear the Superman suit during the series .
Gough and Millar wanted to strip Superman to his " bare essence " , exploring why Clark Kent became the Man of Steel . They felt that because they were not comic @-@ book fans or familiar with the universe , they would have an unbiased approach to the series . Gough and Millar learned about the characters , researching the comics and choosing what they liked . They pitched their idea to The WB and Fox on the same day . A bidding war between the networks followed , with The WB committing to thirteen episodes .
Although Roth , Gough and Millar knew the show would be action @-@ oriented , they wanted to reach 7th Heaven 's " middle America iconography " . To create atmosphere , the team decided the meteor shower bringing Clark to Earth would be the ironic foundation of the show . The primary source of his life on Earth and the super @-@ powered beings Clark must fight , it would take away the parents of the girl he loves and start Lex Luthor down a dark path . Roth appreciated Clark 's conflict in dealing with the fact that his arrival caused so much pain .
The creators also had to address why Lex Luthor would socialize with young people . They created a loneliness in the character which they felt would drive him to reach out to the teenagers , a loneliness echoed in Clark and Lana . Gough and Millar wanted a parallel to the Kents and created Lionel Luthor , Lex 's father , whom they saw as conducting an " experiment in extreme parenting . " They wanted a younger Kent couple , to be involved in Clark 's life and help him on his journey . Chloe Sullivan ( another character created for the series ) was considered the " outsider " the show needed to ensure that someone would notice the strange happenings in Smallville rather than a " precursor to Lois Lane " .
Smallville has been described by Warner Bros. as a from @-@ the @-@ roots reinterpretation of Superman mythology . Since the November 2004 reacquisition of Superboy by the Siegel family , a copyright infringement dispute has arisen over ownership of the fictional town of Smallville and a claimed similarity between Superboy and Smallville 's Clark Kent . According to the Siegel heirs , " Smallville is part of the Superboy copyright " ( which they hold ) .
= = = Crew changes = = =
On April 3 , 2008 , after seven seasons with the series , Gough and Millar announced that they were leaving Smallville . The developers thanked the cast and crew for their work , acknowledging that they never stopped fighting for what they saw as " their vision " of the show . A reason for their departure was not provided . Gough and Millar were replaced as showrunners by Todd Slavkin , Darren Swimmer , Kelly Souders and Brian Peterson . All began writing for the series at the start of the second season , and were executive producers by the seventh season . On February 6 , 2009 , after one season , the L.A. Times confirmed that Swimmer and Slavkin would take over the new CW series Melrose Place and not return for Smallville 's ninth season ; Souders and Peterson would continue as showrunners . On July 24 , 2009 , it was reported Tom Welling was a co @-@ executive producer of the series . On March 26 , 2010 , The Hollywood Reporter disclosed that Millar , Gough and co @-@ producer Tollin / Robins Productions filed a lawsuit against Warner Bros. and The CW charging that Hollywood 's " vertical integration " cost Millar and Gough millions of dollars . The suit claimed that Warner Bros. failed to " maximize profits " in marketing Smallville , misrepresented production costs and sold the show to foreign markets at " well below the value of the series " , not specifying the amount of compensation sought by the plaintiffs . In a May 20 , 2010 press release from The CW , Tom Welling was appointed an executive producer for Smallville 's tenth season .
= = = Filming = = =
The series was produced at BB Studios in Burnaby , British Columbia . Although production was initially planned for Australia , Vancouver had more of a " Middle America landscape " . The city provided a site for the Kent farm , doubled for Metropolis , provided a cheaper shooting location and was in the Los Angeles time zone . Smallville 's Main Street is a combination of two locations in the town of Merritt and Cloverdale .
Vancouver Technical School doubled as the exterior for Smallville High , since the school had the " mid @-@ American largess " wanted by the filmmakers and was in keeping with Millar 's idea that Smallville should be the epitome of " Smalltown , USA " . Templeton Secondary School was used for Smallville High 's interior . During season one , the production team repainted most of Templeton in Smallville High 's red and yellow and distributed large Smallville High Crows logos ; so much of the school was painted that it adopted red and yellow as its school colors . The students became accustomed to the film crew ( which had to shoot when school was in session ) , and when a class was dismissed the crew stepped aside so the students could move the equipment to get to their lockers for the next class .
The Kent farm is a working farm in Aldergrove . Owned by the Anderlinis , the crew painted their home yellow for the show . Exterior shots of Luthor Mansion were filmed at Hatley Castle in Victoria . The interiors were filmed at Shannon Mews in Vancouver , also the set for the Dark Angel pilot and the film Along Came a Spider . Clova Cinema , in Cloverdale was used for exteriors of the Talon , Smallville 's coffeehouse .
The story is told from Clark 's point of view , so color schemes and camera selection illustrate how he interprets his environment . When he is safe at home , the colors are " warm and gentle " earth tones and the camera movement is " very gentle " . When Clark is keeping his secret and not in danger , the lighting is more neutral and the camera more mobile . When danger is present , the lighting becomes colder and the camera is handheld to allow for more " extreme angles " . In Metropolis " clean , hard @-@ lined architecture " predominates , with blues , purples and reflective metals the dominant scheme . The same concept is used for the characters ; Lex usually has a " glass , steel background " , and Lionel has a white or " clinical blue " background . Lex typically wears black , grey and " cool tones " ( purples and blues ) . Clark is represented by red , yellow and blue , similar to the traditional Superman costume , and " All @-@ American " red , white and blue . From season two onward , Entity FX produced all of the visual effects for Smallville , including the view of the Metropolis skyline .
= = = Music = = =
Composer Mark Snow worked with producer Ken Horton to create Smallville 's score . Snow composed music as he watched the picture , and tweaked his performance when he reviewed his initial recordings . He then sent the music to the producers , who sent it back for recomposition if needed . Individual episodes have their own soundtrack , comprising one ( or more ) songs . Jennifer Pyken and Madonna Wade @-@ Reed of Daisy Music looked for songs for the soundtrack . Their choices were discussed by the producers , who decided which songs they wanted and secured their rights . Although Snow said it initially seemed odd to combine two types of music on a " typical action @-@ adventure " television show , " the producers seem to like the contrast of the modern songs and the traditional , orchestral approach to the score " .
The main Smallville theme was not composed by Snow , although he composed opening themes for other shows ( including The X @-@ Files ) . The series ' opening music is " Save Me " by Remy Zero . Snow composed the closing @-@ credits music , which was intended as Smallville 's theme . During the first two seasons , the closing @-@ credits music was a potential theme for the series ( before " Save Me " was selected ) ; it was more " heroic " and " in @-@ your @-@ face " . Snow was told during season two that the closing credits needed new music , since the show had evolved and the existing music was no longer suitable , and he created a new , toned @-@ down score with a more " melodic " sound . Snow has also reworked music from the previous Superman films . John Williams ' musical score for the Krypton sequence in the opening credits of Superman was used in season two 's " Rosetta " ( which featured a guest appearance by Christopher Reeve ) and several times in the season @-@ two finale . To save money Snow recorded his version of Williams ' score , since using the original version would have required the team to pay Williams ' orchestra .
In an interview with Randall Larson on May 23 , 2008 Snow said that he would not be returning to Smallville , citing the joint workload of Smallville and Ghost Whisperer , but would return for Ghost Whisperer . Reminiscing about his work on the show , Snow said that much of the music had not changed during the series and agreed with Larson that it was " more [ about ] maintaining the heroic concept and the mythology than progressing through specific changes " . Louis Febre , who worked closely with Snow from the beginning , became the sole composer for Smallville in season seven . Febre said that since he began composing for Smallville there was a shift to " thematic development " in the score , paralleling the characters ' growth : " As Clark grew emotionally and intellectually more complex , I found a need to comment musically on his growth , and as he drew closer to his Superman persona , it became obvious that a ' Superman ' theme would be required . "
The creative team had a number of opportunities to try different music to enhance an episode 's storyline . Pyken and Wade @-@ Reed chose and coordinated music on the show when Snow and Febre 's scores were not used . In season three 's " Slumber " , producer Ken Horton wondered if they could get a band to provide music for the entire episode . During a breakfast meeting with the music department of Warner Bros. R.E.M. was suggested , and Pyken and Wade @-@ Reed immediately saw an opportunity to connect the episode 's featured band with its story ( which revolved around REM sleep ) . That season , Al Gough wanted to use Johnny Cash 's cover of the Nine Inch Nails song " Hurt " for the final scene of " Shattered " ( when Lionel Luthor looks at Lex through a one @-@ way mirror at Belle Reve sanitarium ) as soon as he read the episode 's script . Cash died while Wade @-@ Reed was trying to obtain the rights for the song and his heirs , believing that the song 's use in the episode would honor his memory , gave Smallville the rights .
For season three 's " Resurrection " and " Memoria " , songs were chosen as symbolism for the characters . In " Resurrection " , The Rapture 's " Infatuation " was used during a scene with Lex and Lana to symbolize the question , " Are we ever going to figure out what these two people think of each other ? " For " Memoria " Gough wanted to use Evanescence 's " My Immortal " for the episode 's final scene , telling Wade @-@ Reed that he saw the song as being about mothers . In that scene Clark tells Martha that his first childhood memory was of his mother , Lara .
Season three 's " Velocity " provided the music editors with the opportunity to use hip @-@ hop , rarely used in the series . The episode , similar to The Fast and the Furious , focused on Pete . Wade @-@ Reed heard of British hip @-@ hop artist Dizzee Rascal , and was the first person in the United States to secure the rights to Rascal 's album . Greg Beeman directs episodes , and sometimes scenes , with particular songs in mind . For " Vortex " in season two , he used Coldplay 's " In My Place " for the final scene . In the season @-@ two finale " Exodus " , Beeman directed the scene where Lana shows up at the Kent barn before Lex 's wedding to Matthew Good 's " Weapon " . The lyrics speak of an angel and devil " by my side " , and Beeman timed specific shots to the song 's lyrics .
= = Broadcasting = =
Smallville premiered at 9 : 00 pm on Tuesday , October 16 , 2001 on The WB . For the next five seasons the series aired on The WB , moving from Tuesday at 9 : 00 pm to Wednesday at 8 : 00 pm and eventually to Thursday at 8 : 00 pm . In 2006 , before the start of Smallville 's sixth season , it was announced The WB and UPN would merge into The CW and the network reported that the series would continue in its lineup . During its seventh season , the series aired in Canada a day earlier than it did in the United States . On May 21 , 2009 it was announced that Smallville 's ninth season would move to Friday at 8 : 00 pm , considered the " death slot " for television programs . By the end of its tenth season it was the longest @-@ running science @-@ fiction TV show in the United States , breaking the record held by Stargate SG @-@ 1 . Syndication rights became available in 2011 , and TNT began airing episodes on October 3 , 2011 .
= = = Reception = = =
Smallville set a WB record as its highest @-@ rated series debut , with 8 @.@ 4 million viewers tuned in for the pilot . Its premiere set a WB record for adults aged 18 – 34 and finished first among viewers aged 12 – 34 , with Warner Bros. president Jordan Levin crediting the series with invigorating the network 's Tuesday @-@ night lineup . Smallville appeared on the cover of Entertainment Weekly as one of five new shows to watch . After its first season , the series was sixth on the Parents Television Council 's 10 @-@ best list of broadcast programs . Levin , acknowledging early concerns that Smallville had become a villain of the week series , said that season two would introduce " smaller mini @-@ arcs over three to four episodes " and become less of a " serialized show " . According to Gough , although each succeeding season relied more on season @-@ long story arcs , an occasional villain @-@ of @-@ the @-@ week story was necessary . The villain @-@ of @-@ the @-@ week stories were more harshly criticized by fans of the Superman mythology , but Gough wanted to please them and The WB 's general audience ( teenagers who preferred villain @-@ of @-@ the @-@ week stories over episodes focusing on the Superman mythology ) .
Christopher Reeve , star of the Superman films , expressed his approval of the show :
I was a little bit skeptical when I heard about [ Smallville ] at first , but I must say the writing , the acting , and the special effects are quite remarkable . In 1977 , a big stunt scene would have taken us a week to film — it 's pretty impressive what they are able to do with computers and effects technology today on a weekly TV show . It gives it a lot more production value and inventiveness than I thought I was going to see when I first heard about the series . I think the show is doing a really good job following the mythology , and Tom is doing a good job following the tradition .
According to MTV 's Karl Heitmueller , Smallville 's Clark Kent was a better representation of the original material and remained " true to the heart of the story " by showing Clark 's selflessness and his struggle between his desires and his obligations . However , Heitmueller wrote that the series would have a difficult time addressing why no one in Smallville ( including Lex Luthor ) recognized Clark when he put on the suit . TV Guide 's Michael Schneider called it one of the best examples of a superhero adaptation for television , but Christopher Hooton of Metro wrote that Smallville was a story which did not need to be told : " No @-@ one bothered to follow Bruce Wayne 's tedious years spent manufacturing microchips before he became Batman , so why must we endure a decade of flannel shirt @-@ wearing Clark Kent bucking hay ? "
= = = Nielsen rankings = = =
A table of season rankings , based on average total estimated viewers per episode , of Smallville on The WB and The CW follows . " Rank " is the series ' ratings compared to other prime time TV series .
= = = Accolades = = =
During its ten seasons , Smallville won awards ranging from Emmys to Teen Choice Awards . In 2002 , the series won an Emmy for Outstanding Sound Editing for a Series for its pilot episode . Four years later , it received an Emmy for Outstanding Sound Editing for a Series for the fifth @-@ season episode " Arrival " . In 2008 , Smallville again won an Outstanding Sound Editing for a Series Emmy for season seven 's " Bizarro " .
Smallville has received a number of Leo Awards . Make @-@ up artist Natalie Cosco won two Leo Awards for Best Make @-@ Up : for her work in the fourth @-@ season episode " Scare " and in the sixth season 's " Hydro " and " Wither " . At the 2006 Leo Awards , Barry Donlevy won Best Cinematography in a Dramatic Series for his work on the fourth @-@ season episode " Spirit " and David Wilson won Best Production Design in a Dramatic Series for " Sacred " . Smallville 's sixth season won a Best Dramatic Series Leo . James Marshall won Best Direction for " Zod " , Caroline Cranstoun won Best Costume Design for her work on " Arrow " and James Philpott won Best Production Design for " Justice " . In 2008 , Smallville won Leos for Best Dramatic Series and Best Cinematography . The visual @-@ effects team was recognized for its work on the pilot with a 2002 Best Visual Effects Leo , and received 2004 VES Awards for Outstanding Compositing in a Televised Program , Music Video or Commercial for the second season 's " Accelerate " and Outstanding Matte Painting in a Televised Program , Music Video , or Commercial for " Insurgence " .
In 2002 the American Society of Composers , Authors and Publishers honored composer Mark Snow and Remy Zero , who provided the opening song " Save Me " , for their contributions to the series ; the award was given to individuals who wrote the theme ( or underscore ) for the highest @-@ rated television series in 2001 for their network . The American Society of Cinematographers awarded David Moxness for the sixth season 's " Arrow " , giving Glen Winter the same award the following year for his work on " Noir " . Series regulars have also won awards ; in 2001 , Michael Rosenbaum won a Saturn Award for Best Supporting Actor , and Tom Welling won a Teen Choice Award for Choice Breakout TV Star — Male in 2002 . Allison Mack won the Teen Choice Best Sidekick award in 2006 and 2007 , and in 2009 Welling received the Choice TV Actor Action Adventure award .
= = Other media = =
Smallville has generated other media and spinoffs , from young @-@ adult novels and comic books to Internet @-@ based mini @-@ episodes with characters from the series . It influenced the British TV series , Merlin .
= = = Literature = = =
Two series of novels have been published since Smallville 's second season . A series of eight young @-@ adult novels was published by Aspect Publishing from October 2002 to March 2004 , and a second series of ten young @-@ adult novels was published by Little , Brown Young Readers from October 2002 to April 2004 . A bimonthly comic @-@ book series , which often tied into the series , was also published .
= = = = Young adult novels = = = =
Three novels were published on October 1 , 2002 : one by Aspect and two by Little , Brown Young Readers . The Aspect novel ( Smallville : Strange Visitors ) was written by Roger Stern , with Clark and his friends trying to uncover the truth about two religious con men who set up shop in Smallville and use kryptonite in their spiritual seminars to rob the townspeople . Little , Brown Young Readers first published Arrival by Michael Teitelbaum , chronicling the series ' pilot . The second novel ( See No Evil , by series writers Cherie Bennett and Jeff Gottesfeld ) follows Dawn Mills , a young actress who wants to attend Juilliard . Dawn , who can become invisible , wants to get revenge on the people who have been talking behind her back but is stopped by Clark . See No Evil was one of the original storylines for season one 's " Shimmer " .
On November 1 , 2002 Aspect published Alan Grant 's Smallville : Dragon , about an ex @-@ convict who assumes the abilities and appearance of a dragon after he is exposed to kryptonite in a cave ; the mutation drives him to try to kill everyone who testified against him . In the novel , Clark is hypnotized into believing that he is a normal teenager with no special abilities . A month after the publication of Grant 's novel Bennett and Gottesfeld wrote Little , Brown Young Readers ' Flight , about a young girl ( Tia ) who Clark discovers has wings . He and his friends believe that Tia is being abused by her father , and teach her to overcome her fear of flying so she can find her mother . Flight ( like See No Evil ) was a planned episode , but the crew was uncertain that they could get the flying effects right and the idea was scrapped . Nancy Holder wrote the third novel in the Aspect series . Published on January 1 , 2003 , Hauntings follows Clark and his friends as they investigate a ghostly presence in a Smallville house . Little , Brown Young Readers then published Animal Rage by David and Bobby Weiss , about animal @-@ rights activist Heather Fox ( who can change into any animal she touches ) . Heather uses this ability to harm people who hurt animals until Clark discovers it and stops her . Aspect published Dean Wesley Smith 's Whodunit , in which Clark , Chloe , Lana and Pete investigate the murder of a boy and his sister while Lex tries to decide whether to ransom his kidnapped father or try rescuing Lionel himself .
Little , Brown Young Readers published the next two books in April and June 2003 . The first , Speed , was written by Cherie Bennett and Jeff Gottesfeld . The second , Buried Secrets , was written by Suzan Colon . In Speed , a boy uses an hourglass his father gave him for his birthday to stop time and commit hate crimes without being caught . Clark stops him before he disrupts a local multicultural festival . In Buried Secrets Clark and Lex fall in love with a mind @-@ reading substitute Spanish teacher , jeopardizing their friendship .
On September 9 , 2004 Aspect published Diana G. Gallagher 's Shadows , about a girl and her father who move to Smallville ; the father creates murderous monsters . Jonathan Kent assumes that the deaths are related to LuthorCorp , creating tension with his son . Clark discovers the truth to prove Lex 's innocence , stopping the creatures before they can kill again . Colon returned to write Runaway , in which Clark runs away to the city and lives with other homeless teenagers ; he falls in love with one of the girls before returning home . In Smallville : Silence by Nancy Holder , the characters investigate zombies in town . Little , Brown Young Readers published its eighth book , Greed , by Bennett and Gottesfeld in which Clark and his friends take summer jobs as counselors at a camp for disadvantaged youths . When a boy falls into Crater Lake , he develops the ability to foretell the future and Lionel tries to exploit this . Pete also tries to exploit Clark 's abilities by tricking him into playing in a basketball game and betting on the outcome .
Alan Grant returned to write Curse , about a gravedigger who unleashes a 150 @-@ year @-@ old curse onto Smallville and Clark 's attempts to put things right . On February 1 , 2004 Little , Brown Young Readers published Suzan Colon 's Temptation , where Clark uses red kryptonite in an attempt to impress Lana and Chloe when they are infatuated with a French exchange student . Aspect published its final novel on March 1 , 2004 . Written by Devin K. Grayson , City follows Clark and Lex on a trip to Metropolis . In the city , they are caught between the Japanese mafia and a secret agent who thinks he has found an alien . In Little , Brown Young Readers ' final novel , " Sparks " by Cherie Bennett and Jeff Gottesfeld , Chloe is hit by kryptonite sparks from a fireworks display . The sparks make Chloe the desire of every man , but when they wear off an admirer kidnaps her and she is rescued by Clark .
= = = = Comic books = = = =
Smallville 's first venture into comics was " Elemental " , a one @-@ off story by Gough and Millar which appeared in TV Guide during the series ' first season and set in that period . Before the start of season two , DC Comics published a one @-@ off comic based on the series . Entitled Smallville : The Comic , it has two stories . The first , " Raptor " by Mark Verheiden and Roy Martinez , is about an abused boy who mutates into a raptor ( thanks to kryptonite ) and tries to get revenge on the Luthor family . Michael Green and John Paul Leon wrote " Exile and The Kingdom " , with insight into why Lex remains in Smallville after his father offers him a position in Metropolis at the end of season one . DC Comics then began publishing a bimonthly comic with stories about Smallville characters . Writer and script coordinator Clint Carpenter called the comic @-@ book line a companion to the series rather than a non @-@ canonical version . According to Carpenter , the comic @-@ book line expands on events in the series ( such as season @-@ ending cliffhangers ) and gives " additional depth " to characters with limited screen time on the series or whose storylines needed additional explanation .
Carpenter was not the first person asked to oversee the comic ; Mark Verheiden , who co @-@ wrote the one @-@ off comic , was originally intended to be in charge of the bimonthly series . Verheiden 's commitment to the TV series kept him from working on the comic books , so he asked Carpenter if he would take them on . Although the comic @-@ book series was intended to expand on the TV series , there was an occasional continuity overlap because of differences in production schedule between the comic and the series . In one instance , the comic book showed Clark robbing an ATM and the season @-@ three premiere showed him robbing multiple ATMs . The comic @-@ book series tied into the TV series , the Chloe Chronicles webisodes and Smallville @-@ related webpages , with cast and crew interviews and information on the episodes ' production . The comic @-@ book series ended in January 2005 , with no comics published until the Season Eleven series debut .
Note : The full title of all volumes listed here start with " Smallville : " .
= = = = Smallville Season Eleven = = = =
On February 8 , 2012 , it was reported that a Smallville Season Eleven comic book would be published by DC Comics . The series would be released digitally first , and collected into a three @-@ issue print edition once a month . The first digital issue was released on April 13 , 2012 , and the first print issue was published on May 2 , 2012 . In the comic book ( written by Smallville executive story editor Bryan Q. Miller ) , set six months after Darkseid 's attack , Clark no longer fights crime as " The Blur " but as " Superman " . Although Clark is generally accepted by the public , some distrust him ( including Lex Luthor , despite his memory loss after his encounter with Tess Mercer ) . TV Guide reported that " Detective " , a new series of adventures paralleling the TV series and the comic series ' second arc , would be published digitally on the title 's off @-@ week beginning January 4 , 2013 . A new arc , " Effigy " , would feature a team @-@ up of recurring character John Jones and Batman . DC Comics cancelled the series after nineteen issues at the end of the " Olympus " story arc , with the rest of the season @-@ eleven story continuing as miniseries under the Season Eleven banner . On March 11 , 2015 , DC Comics ended the Smallville Season Eleven with story arc " Continuity " , which serves as the finale of the television franchise .
= = = = = Main series = = = = =
Note : The full title of all volumes listed here start with " Smallville Season 11 : " .
= = = = = Interlude series = = = = =
Note : The full title of all volumes listed here start with " Smallville Season 11 Specials : " .
= = = Chloe Chronicles = = =
Allison Mack 's character , Chloe Sullivan , has starred in two promotional tie @-@ in series : Smallville : Chloe Chronicles , and Vengeance Chronicles . Two volumes of Chloe Chronicles totaled eleven mini @-@ episodes . In the first volume Chloe investigated events leading to the death of Earl Jenkins , who held Chloe and her friends hostage at the LuthorCorp plant in the first @-@ season episode " Jitters " . It aired from April 29 to May 20 , 2003 to AOL subscribers . After the first volume received positive responses from viewers , the second volume was created as a continuation with Sam Jones III as Pete Ross . This volume used the Smallville comic books as a secondary tie @-@ in to the series . Viewers could watch Smallville , Chloe 's Chronicles and finish with the Smallville comic book , which would provide an " enhanced backstory to the online segments " . The later series , Vengeance Chronicles , is a spinoff of the fifth @-@ season episode " Vengeance " . In this series Chloe joins a costumed vigilante , whom she calls the " Angel of Vengeance " , to expose Lex Luthor 's Level 33 @.@ 1 experiments on meteor @-@ infected people .
The idea for an online show about Chloe originated with Mark Warshaw , who ran the show 's website and was in charge of the DVDs . The series intended to wrap up " unfinished business " from the television show . Although Smallville : Chloe Chronicles began on AOL , it made its way to the United Kingdom 's Channel 4 website . According to Lisa Gregorian , senior vice president for television of Warner Bros. Marketing Services , " Our goal is to create companion programming that offers new and exciting ways to engage the audience , just as music videos did for record promotion . " Allison Mack described the show as " very Nancy Drew and mysterious " : " I think it 's a bit more like The X @-@ Files or NYPD Blue . The Chronicles are like a detective story , with Chloe following clues and interviewing people , going from spot to spot , figuring things out . " The scripts were written by Brice Tidwell ; Mack was given script approval for the series , allowing her to review and make changes to the script . Warshaw communicated with Gough and Millar to expand Smallville stories in Chloe 's Chronicles .
= = = Promotional tie @-@ ins = = =
For the season @-@ three premiere , the Smallville producers teamed up with Verizon to enable its registered users to view plot updates ( as Daily Planet press releases ) , quizzes and games related to the show with Verizon product placement . Smallville Legends : The Oliver Queen Chronicles , a six @-@ episode CGI series chronicling the early life of Oliver Queen , was released in a promotional tie @-@ in with Sprint . According to Warner Bros. Television Group executive vice @-@ president of worldwide marketing Lisa Gregorian , the promotional tie @-@ ins got fans more connected to the show . On April 19 , 2007 a tie @-@ in with Toyota promoting the Yaris featured an online comic strip , Smallville Legends : Justice & Doom , as an interstitial program during new Smallville episodes . The interactive comic was based on the " Justice " episode , which follows Oliver Queen , Bart Allen , Victor Stone and Arthur Curry ( the initial members of the " Justice League " in Smallville ) as they seek to destroy LuthorCorp 's secret experimental labs . The online series allowed viewers to investigate with the fictional team to win prizes . Stephan Nilson wrote all five episodes , working with a team of artists on the illustrations . Nilson received the plot for each comic episode as Smallville 's production crew was filming its current television episode . Artist Steve Scott drew comic @-@ book panels which were sent to Motherland , a consulting group . Motherland reviewed the drawings , telling Scott which images to draw on a separate overlay ; this allowed objects to be moved in and out of a frame .
In 2008 The CW joined the manufacturers of Stride gum to give viewers an opportunity to create their own Smallville digital comic , Smallville : Visions . The writers and producers developed the comic 's beginning and end , allowing viewers to provide the middle . The CW began its tie @-@ in campaign with the March 13 , 2008 episode " Hero " , where Pete develops superhuman elasticity after chewing kryptonite @-@ infused Stride gum . On The CW 's website , viewers voted on one of two options ( each adding four pages to the comic ) every Tuesday and Thursday until the campaign ended on April 7 . In season seven Smallville again worked with Sprint , bringing its customers " mobisodes " entitled Smallville Legends : Kara and the Chronicles of Krypton with Clark 's cousin Kara .
= = = Spin @-@ offs = = =
Gough and Millar developed an Aquaman pilot for The WB , with Justin Hartley as Aquaman ( Arthur Curry ) . As work progressed on the Smallville season @-@ five episode " Aqua " , although the episode was not intended as a backdoor pilot for an Aquaman spin @-@ off the character was seen as having potential for his own series . Alan Ritchson was not considered for the role in the new series , because Gough and Millar did not consider it a Smallville spin @-@ off . Gough said in November 2005 , " [ The series ] is going to be a different version of the ' Aquaman ' legend " and suggested a crossover with Smallville at some point . Although the pilot was given a good chance of being picked up , when The WB and UPN merged into The CW the new network passed on the show .
During the sixth season there was talk of spinning off the Green Arrow into his own series , but Hartley refused to talk about the possibility of a spin @-@ off because of his role on Smallville . The actor felt it his duty to respect what the show had accomplished in five seasons , and not " steal the spotlight " because there was " talk " of a spin @-@ off after his two appearances . According to Hartley , " talking " was as far as the spin @-@ off idea ever got .
= = Home video = =
Seasons one through ten have been released on DVD in Region 1 , 2 and 4 . Seasons five and six were also released in the now @-@ obsolete HD DVD format on November 28 , 2006 and September 18 , 2007 , respectively . Seasons six , seven , eight , nine and ten have been released for Blu @-@ ray . The DVD releases include deleted scenes , behind @-@ the @-@ scenes featurettes and commentary by cast and crew members on selected episodes . The promotional tie @-@ ins Chloe Chronicles and Vengeance Chronicles accompanied the season two , three and five box sets . Other special features include interactive functionality ( such as a tour of Smallville ) , a comic book and DVD @-@ ROM material .
= = Merchandise = =
Since Smallville began airing , a variety of merchandise connected with the series has been produced . Two soundtrack albums of songs from the show have been released . On February 25 , 2003 Smallville : The Talon Mix , with a group of artists who licensed their music for the show , was issued . Smallville : The Metropolis Mix , with another group of artists , was released on November 8 , 2005 . In addition to the soundtracks , action figures , T @-@ shirts , hats and posters have been produced . In December 2002 autographed Smallville merchandise was listed for auction on eBay , with the proceeds going to charity . In 2003 , Titan Magazines began publishing a monthly Smallville magazine with cast and crew interviews , information on Smallville merchandise and photos . The 34th and final issue was published in November 2009 .
Titan Books published companion volumes for each season with cast and crew interviews , episode descriptions and behind @-@ the @-@ scenes photos . On September 1 , 2004 , the company published its first companion for the series . Written by Paul Simpson , the book has sixteen pages of color photos of the cast . On March 1 , 2005 Titan Books published its season @-@ two companion , also written by Simpson , which details the series ' special effects . Titan published the third @-@ season companion on September 1 , the last written by Simpson . He described the episodes ' plots , discussing the neglect of the Martha Kent character and the failure of the Adam Knight storyline . Titan Books released the fourth @-@ season companion by Craig Byrne , who wrote the subsequent companion books , on September 4 , 2007 . It contains interviews with the cast and crew and color photos of the production . Titan published the season @-@ five companion on December 26 , 2007 . The season @-@ six companion , with an introduction by Justin Hartley , was published on March 25 , 2008 . The season @-@ seven companion ( Titan 's last ) has a foreword by Laura Vandervoort , a reflection on the " Smallville phenomenon " and a discussion of Gough and Millar 's departure .
In 2010 , the Smallville Roleplaying Game was released by Margaret Weis Productions using its Cortex Plus System . Using the series ' season @-@ nine setting , it includes rules for earlier seasons . Two supplements , the High School Yearbook and the Watchtower Report , were produced . Players can play the characters from Smallville , or create their own spin @-@ off of the series . On May 15 , 2013 Ultimate Smallville Soundtrack , a five @-@ CD box set with 100 songs from the series ' 10 seasons , was released by Vicious Records with all profits benefiting the Christopher and Dana Reeve Foundation .
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= INS Shivalik ( F47 ) =
INS Shivalik ( F47 ) is the lead ship of her class of stealth multi @-@ role frigates built for the Indian Navy . She is the first stealth warship built by India .
= = Construction = =
INS Shivalik was built at the Mazagon Dock Limited ( MDL ) located in Mumbai . The keel of the ship was laid on 11 July 2001 and the vessel was launched on 18 April 2003 . She was originally planned to be commissioned by 2005 but this was delayed . She started her sea trials in February 2009 and was eventually commissioned on 29 April 2010 .
INS Shivalik features improved stealth and land attacking features over the preceding Talwar @-@ class frigates . She is also the first Indian Navy ship to use the CODOG propulsion system .
= = Service history = =
= = = 2012 = = =
In 2012 , INS Shivalik was deployed in the Northwest Pacific for JIMEX 2012 ( Japan @-@ India Maritime Exercise ) with a four @-@ ship group which included INS Rana , INS Shakti and INS Karmuk and took part in India 's first bi @-@ lateral maritime exercise with Japan . The Japanese Maritime Self Defence Force ( JMSDF ) was represented by two destroyers , one maritime patrol aircraft and a helicopter . The four ships entered Tokyo on 5 June 2012 after visiting Singapore , Vietnam , Philippines and Republic of Korea . They stayed in Tokyo for three days . This visit coincided with commemoration of 60 years of diplomatic relations between India and Japan . Vice Admiral Anil Chopra , Flag Officer Commanding @-@ in @-@ Chief Eastern Naval Command , also visited Tokyo to witness the first JIMEX .
After the deployment in the north Pacific , the battle group was deployed in the South China Sea . As part of India 's Look East policy , the ships visited the Shanghai port on 13 June 2012 , for a five @-@ day goodwill tour . INS Shakti served as the fuel and logistics tanker to the three destroyers . The ships left the port on 17 June 2012 . Before leaving the port , the ships conducted a routine passage exercise with the People 's Liberation Army Navy ( PLAN ) .
After the visits to Singapore , Vietnam , Philippines , Japan , South Korea and China , the ships visited Port Klang , Malaysia . This was the battle group 's last port call during its two @-@ month @-@ long deployment , which had started in May 2012 . After this she returned to the Eastern Fleet of the Indian Navy and since has been docked there .
= = = 2014 = = =
On 21 @-@ 25 April 2014 , INS Shivalik participated in the PLAN 's 65th anniversary celebrations held in Qingdao , China . She sailed 4 @,@ 500 miles from Port Blair to Qingdao without being assisted by any support vessel .
On 17 @-@ 23 July 2014 , she participated in INDRA 2014 a naval and army counter @-@ terrorism exercise , with Russia in the Sea of Japan . INS Ranvijay and INS Shakti were also part of India fleet accompanying her . Russia was represented by the destroyer Admiral Vinogradov and Peresvet in addition to several auxiliary vessels . The exercise was hosted at Vladivostok , Russia .
On 24 @-@ 30 July 2014 , she participated in Malabar 2014 naval exercise off the southern coast of Japan , with the navies of Japan and United States . The exercise was hosted at Nagasaki , Japan .
On 6 @-@ 9 August 2014 , she visited Hai Phong , Vietnam on a goodwill visit . She was commanded by Captain Puruvir Das .
= = = 2015 = = =
On 12 @-@ 19 September 2015 , she participated in AUSINDEX 2015 at Visakhapatnam , the first bilateral maritime exercise between India and Australia . Royal Australian Navy deployed HMAS Sirius , HMAS Arunta , HMAS Sheean and an Australian Air Force P3C Orion . India provided INS Shivalik , INS Ranvijay , INS Shakti and an Indian Navy P8I maritime patrol aircraft .
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= Joust ( video game ) =
Joust is an arcade game developed by Williams Electronics and released in 1982 . While not the first game to feature two @-@ player cooperative play , Joust was more successful than its predecessors and popularized the concept . The player uses a button and joystick to control a knight riding a flying ostrich . The object is to progress through levels by defeating groups of enemy knights riding buzzards .
John Newcomer led the development team , which included Bill Pfutzenreuter , Jan Hendricks , Python Anghelo , Tim Murphy , and John Kotlarik . Newcomer aimed to create a flying game with cooperative two @-@ player gameplay , but wanted to avoid a space theme , which was popular at the time . Staff worked within the technical limitations of the hardware ( originally developed two years earlier for Williams ' first game , Defender ) , excluding concepts and optimizing the visuals .
The game was well received in arcades and by critics , who praised the gameplay , the mechanics of which influenced titles by other developers . Joust was followed by a sequel four years later , and was ported to numerous home and portable platforms .
= = Gameplay = =
Joust is a platforming game where the player controls a yellow knight riding a flying ostrich or stork , from a third @-@ person perspective . Using the two @-@ way directional joystick and the button for flapping the ostrich 's wings , the player flies the knight amidst the floating rock platforms and above pools of lava ; when maneuvering off the screen to either side , the player will continue its path reappearing from the opposite side . The rate at which the player repeatedly presses the button causes the ostrich to fly upward , hover , or slowly descend . Home console versions use game controllers with directional pads or analog sticks , while computer ports use the keyboard .
The objective is to defeat groups of enemy knights riding buzzards that populate each level , referred to as a " wave " . Upon completing a wave , a subsequent , more challenging wave begins .
Players navigate the knight to collide with enemies . The elevation of an enemy in relation to the player 's knight determines the outcome of the collision . If the protagonist is higher than the enemy , the villain is defeated and vice versa . A collision of equal elevations results in the two knights bouncing off each other . A defeated enemy will turn into an egg that falls toward the bottom of the screen , which a player can collect for points . An egg that sits on a platform long enough will hatch into a new knight ; if the player does not pick him up , he will gain a new mount and must be defeated again .
The game features three types of enemy knights — Bounder , Hunter , and Shadow Lord — that are worth different amounts of points . A pterodactyl will appear after a predetermined time frame to hunt the hero .
A second player , controlling a blue knight on a stork , can join the game . The two players can either cooperatively complete the waves or attack each other while competitively defeating enemies .
= = Development = =
Joust was developed by Williams Electronics , with John Newcomer as the lead designer . Programmer Bill Pfutzenrueter and artists Jan Hendricks and Python Anghelo assisted him . Tim Murphy and John Kotlarik handled the audio design . The game features amplified monaural sound and raster graphics on a 19 inch color CRT monitor . Like other Williams arcade games , Joust was programmed in assembly language . A pack of three AA batteries provide power to save the game 's settings and high scores when the machine is unplugged from an electrical outlet . The cabinet artwork , by Anghelo , is stenciled on a wooden frame . Anghelo also designed artwork for promotional materials ; one such flyer featured archaic English , which was also incorporated into the game 's on @-@ screen instructions .
= = = Conception = = =
Following the success of the 1981 title Defender , Williams searched for new creative staff . Believing video games to be the future of entertainment , Newcomer left his job as a toy designer to work at the company who hired him to create game ideas as support for development staff . After a few days , he generated a list of ideas that included game ideas for The War of the Worlds and Joust , Newcomer 's top two choices . Technical specifications dictated the selection ; Newcomer 's vision of The War of the Worlds was infeasible , but Joust could be accomplished with Williams ' available hardware . A development team was formed , which decided to create the game using Defender 's hardware .
Newcomer conceived Joust as a " flying game " with cooperative two @-@ player gameplay ; however , he did not wish to emulate the popular space theme of previous successful flying games like Asteroids and Defender . To that end , Newcomer made a list of things that could fly : machines , animals , and fictional characters . After evaluating the positive and negative of each idea , he chose birds , believing that they would have a wide appeal . Newcomer also felt that birds were a good fit as he was familiar with fantasy and science fiction media featuring birds . To further increase his understanding , Newcomer went to the library to study mythology . He felt that the primary protagonist should ride a majestic bird . The first choice was an eagle , but the lack of graceful land mobility dissuaded the designer . Instead , Newcomer chose an ostrich because he thought a flying ostrich was more believable than a running eagle . To differentiate between the first and second player characters , the developers picked a stork , believing the proportions were similar to an ostrich while the color difference would avoid confusion among players . Newcomer chose vultures as the main enemies , believing that they would be recognizably evil . Anghelo created concept art of the characters as guidance for further design .
= = = Creative and technical design = = =
The decision to use birds prompted Newcomer to deviate from the then standard eight @-@ direction joystick . He implemented a " flapping " mechanism to allow players to control the character 's ascent and descent . With the vertical direction controlled via the arcade cabinet 's button , a two @-@ way joystick was added to dictate horizontal direction . Though other Williams employees were concerned over the design , Newcomer believed that a direct control scheme for flight would strengthen the connection between the player and the character . The combat is devised to allow for higher levels of strategy than traditional shooting games . Because flying became an integral gameplay element , he chose to have characters collide as a means of combat . Newcomer felt that the characters ' heights on the screen were the best way to determine a victor .
The developers created the game using 96K of memory , which limited the file size of individual graphics and sound effects they could use . The memory limits also prohibited Newcomer from creating more characters . The graphics were created at the pixel level and hand @-@ animated . To animate the birds , Hendricks used Eadweard Muybridge 's book Animals In Motion as a reference . Given the limited memory , she had to balance the number of frames to minimize file size , while maintaining realistic animation . Hendricks originally picked gray for the buzzards , but chose green instead to optimize the color palette as the developers had only 16 colors to create the visuals . Once the colors were decided for the character sprites , Newcomer finalized the look of the platforms . The hardware had limited audio capabilities , and sounds typically required larger amounts of memory than graphics . Working with these restrictions , Newcomer instructed Murphy and Kotlarik to focus on select sounds he deemed important to reinforcing gameplay . He reasoned that the audio would serve as conspicuous hints that players could use to adjust their strategy . Though Newcomer prioritized the wing flap , other sound effects like those related to the pterodactyl , collisions , and hatching eggs were considered important as well .
In designing the levels , Newcomer added platforms to the environment after the combat was devised . A static game world was chosen over a scrolling world to showcase visual textures applied to the platforms . The hardware could not easily display the textures while scrolling , and the team felt that displaying the whole environment would aid players . The last game world element was a lava pit and a hand reaching out of it to destroy characters too close to the bottom . Newcomer placed the platforms to optimize Pfutzenrueter 's enemy artificial intelligence ( AI ) , which factors attack patterns based partly on platform placements . The knight enemies were designed to exhibit progressively more aggressive behavior . Bounders fly around the environment randomly , occasionally reacting to the protagonist . Hunters seek the player 's character in an effort to collide . Shadow Lords fly quickly and closer to the top of the screen . Pfutzenrueter designed them to fly higher when close to the protagonist to increase the Shadow Lord 's chances of victory against the player . The pterodactyl was designed to attack idle players and be difficult to defeat . The only vulnerability was attacking the creature in its open mouth during a specific animation frame . Newcomer and Pfutzenrueter designed the pterodactyl to quickly fly upward at the last moment when approaching a player waiting at the edge of a platform . This was done to prevent an easy defeat of the enemy . When processing the graphics , the game gives priority to the player characters over the enemies . As a result , enemies begin to react more slowly when the number of on @-@ screen sprites increases .
While playtesting the game , the team discovered an animation bug they described as a " belly flop " . The flaw allows players to force the ostrich or stork sprite through an otherwise impassable small gap between two adjacent platforms of very close elevation . Because it provided an interesting method to perform a sneak attack on an opponent below the gap , the developers decided to keep the defect rather than fix it . Newcomer also attributed the inclusion to excessive playtesting that limited the time available to find a solution .
A second bug , which allows the pterodactyl to be easily defeated , was discovered after the game was first distributed . Newcomer designed the game and its AI with each sprite 's dimension in mind . A day before the game was finished , however , the pterodactyl 's sprite was altered to improve the appearance . The new sprite allowed the pterodactyl to be easily defeated an unending number of times . The player could sit on the center ledge , with a single enemy knight caught indefinitely in the hand of the " lava troll " , and kill an unlimited number of pterodactyls simply by turning to face them as they entered the screen in a rapid , never @-@ ending sequence . Using this flaw , the player could quickly accumulate a very high score and a large cache of lives , with no significant skill required . Upon learning of the flaw , Williams shipped a new ROM for the arcade cabinets to assuage distributors ' complaints .
= = Reception and legacy = =
Given the different control scheme , Williams was concerned that the game would be unsuccessful . Though arcades were hesitant to purchase the game for the same reason , Joust sold well . Williams eventually shipped 26 @,@ 000 units , and Electronic Games in 1983 described it as " tremendously popular " . A cocktail table version was later released , engineered by Leo Ludzia . It differs from other cocktail games in that it features side @-@ by @-@ side seating rather than opposing sides . This setup allowed Williams to use the same ROM chip as in the upright cabinets . The cabinets have since become collector 's items . Though the upright cabinets are common , the cocktail version is a rare , sought after game . Between 250 and 500 units were manufactured .
= = Popular culture = =
Joust has been parodied in popular culture . References appear in the Robot Chicken episode " Celebutard Mountain " , the Code Monkeys episode " Just One of the Gamers " , and the video games Mortal Kombat 3 and World of Warcraft : Cataclysm .
Author Steve Kent considered Joust one of the more memorable games of its time . Author David Ellis agreed , and stated that the game remains enjoyable to this day . In 2008 , Guinness World Records listed it as the number sixty @-@ nine arcade game in technical , creative , and cultural impact . A writer for Video Gaming Illustrated called Joust exotic and praised the animation as lifelike . Kevin Bowen of GameSpy 's Classic Gaming wrote that despite a concept he described as " incredibly stupid " , Joust is an appealing game with good controls and competitive gameplay . Bowen further commented that the multiplayer aspect differentiated the game from others at the time . He described it as " one of the first really fun multiplayer games " and a precursor to the video game deathmatch . Retro Gamer writer Mike Bevan praised the game 's physics , calling them " beautifully realised " , and described Joust as one of Williams ' " most remarkable and well @-@ loved titles " . A Computer and Video Games writer called the game " weird and wonderful " . Author John Sellers praised the competitive two @-@ player gameplay , and attributed the game 's appeal to the flapping mechanism . In 2004 , Ellis described Joust as an example of innovative risk absent in the then @-@ current video game industry . In retrospect , Newcomer commended Williams ' management for taking a risk on him and the game . The game has garnered praise from industry professionals as well . Jeff Peters of GearWorks Games lauded the gameplay , describing it as unique and intuitive . Fusion Learning Systems ' Jeff Johannigman praised the flapping mechanism and Kim Pallister of Microsoft enjoyed the multi @-@ player aspect .
Joust features prominently in the book Ready Player One , a 2011 science fiction and dystopian novel by Ernest Cline . The game is one of many games and other cultural artifacts from the 1980s that populate the vast virtual universe called OASIS that is the setting for the story .
= = Sequels and remakes = =
A pinball version was released in 1983 , designed by Barry Oursler and Constantino Mitchell . The game includes artwork and themes from the arcade version . In addition to single player gameplay , it features competitive two @-@ player gameplay with the players on opposing sides of the machine . Fewer than 500 machines were produced .
An arcade sequel , Joust 2 : Survival of the Fittest , was released in 1986 . It features similar gameplay with new elements on a vertical screen .
Joust was ported to the Nintendo Entertainment System — programmed by Satoru Iwata — and to several Atari platforms : the Atari 2600 , Atari 5200 , Atari 7800 , and Atari Lynx consoles , as well as Atari 8 @-@ bit and Atari ST home computers . Entertainment Weekly called Joust one of the top ten games for the Atari 2600 in 2013 . Apple II , Macintosh and MS @-@ DOS versions were also released . Tiger Electronics released a small keychain version of Joust in 1998 . A mobile phone version was released in 2005 , but omitted the flapping control scheme . In 2000 , a web @-@ based version of Joust , along with nine other classic arcade games , was published on Shockwave.com.
Four years later , Midway Games also launched a website featuring the Shockwave versions . The game was included in several multi @-@ platform compilations : the 1996 Williams Arcade 's Greatest Hits , the 2000 Midway 's Greatest Arcade Hits , and the 2003 Midway Arcade Treasures . Other compilation titles are the 1995 Arcade Classic 4 for the Game Boy and the 2005 Midway Arcade Treasures : Extended Play for the PlayStation Portable . Joust was released via digital distribution on GameTap , Xbox Live Arcade , and the PlayStation Network . In 2012 , Joust was included in the compilation Midway Arcade Origins .
Other remakes were in development , but never released . Previously unreleased Atarisoft prototypes of Joust for the ColecoVision surfaced in 2001 at the Classic Gaming Expo in Las Vegas . An adaptation with three @-@ dimensional ( 3D ) graphics ( and a port of the original Joust as a bonus ) was in development for the Atari Jaguar CD . Titled Dactyl Joust , it was eventually canceled . Newcomer pitched an updated version of the arcade game for the Game Boy Advance to Midway Games . The company , however , did not sanction it . The prototype featured multi @-@ directional scrolling , more detailed graphics based on 3D renders , and new gameplay mechanics .
Midway Games optioned Joust 's movie rights to CP Productions in 2007 . Michael Cerenzie and Christine Peters of CP Productions planned to expand on a game element for the film 's premise . Cerenzie described the script by Marc Gottlieb as " Gladiator meets Mad Max " , set 25 years in the future , and Peters commented that the action oriented film would appeal to a general audience . The movie was planned as a tent @-@ pole movie , with a graphic novel by Steven @-@ Elliot Altman as part of the media franchise 's release . Midway Games also considered a video game adaptation of the film . Joust 's expected release date was set in June 2008 and then later pushed back to 2009 . The video game company , however , filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy in 2009 . Warner Bros. Interactive Entertainment purchased most of Midway 's assets , including Joust , with the intent to develop movie adaptations .
= = = Clones = = =
Several titles by other developers feature gameplay that either copies or builds upon Joust 's design . The 1983 Jetpac and Mario Bros. feature elements inspired by it , as does the 1984 Balloon Fight .
= = External Links = =
Joust can be played for free in the browser at the Internet Archive
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= World Series of Poker bracelet =
The World Series of Poker ( WSOP ) bracelet is considered the most coveted non @-@ monetary prize a poker player can win . Since 1976 , a bracelet has been awarded to the winner of every event at the annual WSOP . Even if the victory occurred before 1976 , WSOP championships are now counted as " bracelets " . During the first years of the WSOP only a handful of bracelets were awarded each year . In 1990 , there were only 14 bracelet events . By 2000 , that number increased to 24 . As the popularity of poker has increased during the 2000s , the number of events has likewise increased . In 2011 , 58 bracelets were awarded at the WSOP , seven at the World Series of Poker Europe ( WSOPE ) , and one to the WSOP National Circuit Champion . This brought the total number of bracelets awarded up to 959 . Five additional bracelets were awarded for the first time in April 2013 at the inaugural World Series of Poker Asia @-@ Pacific ( WSOP APAC ) in Melbourne , Australia .
After the conclusion of the 2014 WSOP APAC , there have been 1083 bracelets awarded , 500 of which were won by 170 players who have won at least two bracelets , with all of the other bracelets being won by one @-@ time winners . This includes ( up to this point ) 17 Main Event winners : Hal Fowler , Bill Smith , Mansour Matloubi , Brad Daugherty , Jim Bechtel , Russ Hamilton , Noel Furlong , Robert Varkonyi , Chris Moneymaker , Greg Raymer , Joe Hachem , Jamie Gold , Jerry Yang , Peter Eastgate , Pius Heinz , Ryan Riess and Martin Jacobson .
Since Chris Moneymaker won the 2003 Main Event , ( through the completion of Event # 58 in 2015 ) only two players have won and followed it up with a win in another bracelet event , Jonathan Duhamel and Joe Cada .
= = Bracelet description = =
The 1976 bracelet looked " like gold nuggets kind of hammered flat . " The bracelet in 1976 cost approximately $ 500 . In the 1980s , Las Vegas jeweler Mordechai Yerushalmi became the exclusive manufacturer of WSOP bracelets until Harrah 's Entertainment bought the rights to the WSOP in 2004 . According to 2003 WSOP Champion Chris Moneymaker , the design of the bracelet remained relatively unchanged under Yerushalmi . In 2005 , Gold and Diamond International based in Memphis , TN won the bid from Harrah 's Entertainment to manufacture the 2005 WSOP bracelets . The company also manufactures the WSOP circuit rings .
In 2006 , Frederick Goldman , Inc. made the WSOP bracelets while luxury watch maker Corum introduced some commemorative watches as part of the prize package . In 2006 , the Champion 's bracelet had 259 stones including 7 @.@ 2 carats ( 1 @.@ 4 g ) of diamonds , 120 grams of white and yellow gold . It also used rubies to represent the heart and diamond suits , a sapphire to represent the spade and three black diamonds to represent the clubs .
In 2007 , Corum became the official bracelet manufacturer for the WSOP . Some of the 2007 WSOP champions received both a watch and a bracelet from Corum . Corum designed four variations for the 2007 World Series of Poker Bracelets . The standard version that is presented to 53 winners features 53 diamonds . The Ladies World Champion receives a bracelet that is adorned with four black diamonds , two rubies and 87 blue sapphires . The $ 50 @,@ 000 HORSE Champion Bracelet has 91 black diamonds and two rubies . The World Series of Poker Main Event Bracelet has 120 diamonds on 136 grams of 18 carat ( 75 percent ) white gold . The value of the 2007 bracelets have not been released , but the typical price of a Corum watch ranges from $ 1 @,@ 500 – $ 30 @,@ 000 + .
In 2008 , the Main Event Bracelet had 291 diamonds , totalling 2 @.@ 81 carats set in 168 grams of 18kt white gold . The other 54 event bracelets consisted of 55 diamonds , totalling 0 @.@ 25 carats set in 80 grams of 14kt yellow gold .
In 2010 , an Australian @-@ based company OnTilt Designs Pty Ltd won a multi @-@ year contract to become the official bracelet manufacturer for the WSOP . OnTilt jewelers decided that the 2010 bracelet design would return to the tradition of the 70 's and 80 's where the bracelet was a heavy piece of unadorned metal . American jewelry designer Steve Soffa was chosen to design and manufacture the entire set of bracelets . The goal was to create a bracelet that somebody would actually want to wear every day . In 2011 , OnTilt has also been chosen to manufacture the WSOP Circuit rings .
In 2012 , Jason Arasheben , famed jewelry designer and owner of Jason of Beverly Hills was chosen as the official bracelet manufacturer of the WSOP . Arasheben had designed the championship rings for the 2009 and 2010 Los Angeles Lakers and the 2011 Green Bay Packers , among others . The Main Event bracelet will feature each suit in the deck in either rubies or black diamonds . In terms of sheer mass , it weighs in at over 160 grams of 14 karat gold and over 35 carats of flawless diamonds .
A special platinum bracelet was awarded at the 2012 WSOP to the winner of The Big One for One Drop , Antonio Esfandiari . The event was a $ 1 million buy @-@ in tournament created as a fundraiser for the One Drop Foundation , a charity established by Cirque du Soleil founder Guy Laliberté .
= = Prestige = =
At first , the bracelets did not have much prestige . Ten @-@ time bracelet winner Doyle Brunson said that his first bracelet " didn 't mean anything " to him and that he did not even pick up two of them .
Some professional poker players believe that there are two types of poker players ; those who have won a bracelet and those who have not . Those who have belong to an exclusive club . " It 's impossible to overstate the value of a World Series of Poker gold bracelet to anyone who takes the game seriously , " stated World Series of Poker Commissioner Jeffrey Pollack during the 2006 bracelet unveiling . " It is the equivalent of winning the Stanley Cup in hockey or the Lombardi Trophy in football . "
Many professional poker players desire the recognition that is associated with the bracelet . Former Celebrity Poker Showdown host and poker star Phil Gordon said , " I want that bracelet more than anything . " Freddy Deeb said that he did not appreciate his first bracelet because he did not recognize what it meant . He said his 2007 bracelet , however , " means everything to me " . Jennifer Tilly says that winning her 2005 Women 's Championship bracelet was " better than an Oscar " . When the World Poker Tour decided to offer a prize to its event champions , they decided to present them with WPT Bracelets . In so doing , WPT Founder , President and CEO Steve Lipscomb said , " The championship bracelet has become synonymous with poker as a symbol of achievement and respect , and we are honored to continue the tradition that Benny Binion [ the founder of the WSOP ] began over 30 years ago . "
= = History = =
Bracelets have not always been awarded for winning events . In 1970 , the first WSOP Champion received nothing but a silver cup and whatever cash he won during the event . From 1971 – 1974 , according to Becky Behnen ( the daughter of WSOP founder Benny Binion ) , the winner received an undescribed " corny trophy " . In 1975 , the winners received a sterling plate . The following year , 1976 , the WSOP started the tradition of issuing bracelets to the event winners .
In 1980 and 1981 , one did not have to win a WSOP event to win a gold bracelet . In 1980 and 1981 , H.D. " Oklahoma Johny " Hale and Chip Reese received a gold bracelet for being the " Best All Around Player " at the WSOP , respectively . These bracelets , however , are not considered in the count of WSOP championship bracelets .
In 2007 , Thomas Bihl became the first person to ever win a WSOP bracelet outside Las Vegas , Nevada . Bihl won the £ 2 @,@ 500 World Championship H.O.R.S.E. at the World Series of Poker Europe in London , England . Days later , Annette Obrestad became the youngest player to ever win a WSOP bracelet at 18 years , 364 days , also becoming the first woman to win a World Series Main Event ( WSOPE ) . Caesars Entertainment ( known until 2010 as Harrah 's Entertainment ) , the owner of the WSOP , considers the WSOP Europe bracelet to be the same in prestige as those awarded every year in Las Vegas .
In 2008 , Jesper Hougaard became the first person to have won both a WSOP and WSOPE bracelet .
In 2011 , a World Series of Poker bracelet was awarded for the first time to the WSOP Circuit National Championship winner in the 100 @-@ qualifier event from May 27 – 29 . The following year , the Circuit National Championship moved to New Orleans , where it will also be held in 2013 .
Starting in 2013 , bracelets are also awarded in Australia at the World Series of Poker Asia @-@ Pacific , held at Crown Melbourne .
= = Bracelet legacy = =
Of the three top WSOP bracelet winners , only Johnny Chan still has them all . He keeps them locked in a vault because they are worth , according to him , " millions . " Brunson did not pick up two of his . Fourteen @-@ time bracelet winner Phil Hellmuth gave away ten of his . " To me , " Hellmuth said , " the bracelets have always been a really huge deal , to me more than the other guys , because I knew that they represented history . "
Three @-@ time WSOP Bracelet winner Hamid Dastmalchi and five @-@ time winner Ted Forrest had been playing for four days non @-@ stop at the Mirage when Hamid started to complain about the 1992 Main Event Championship Bracelet he received . Bitter about a dispute with the Binion 's Horseshoe , the owners of the WSOP at the time , Hamid told the table that the Binion 's " say it 's worth $ 5 @,@ 000 , but I 'd take $ 1 @,@ 500 for it . " To which Forrest responded " Sold " and immediately tossed Hamid $ 1 @,@ 500 in chips . Dastmalchi mailed Forrest his bracelet . Ted Forrest also reported that three of his five bracelets have been stolen over the years , and that he gave his daughter one .
In November 2010 , Peter Eastgate put his main event bracelet up for auction on eBay with a starting bid of $ 16 @,@ 000 . It eventually sold for $ 147 @,@ 500 and this money was donated to UNICEF .
= = Multiple bracelet winners = =
As of the end of the 2013 World Series of Poker , 22 players have earned five or more WSOP bracelets . Of those , the top bracelet winners are as follows :
( bold = won Main Event )
Johnny Moss , with a win at the 1971 WSOP , became the first person to have won multiple lifetime WSOP " bracelets " ( as mentioned above , the first actual bracelet was given in 1976 ) .
Moss also was the first person to win five lifetime WSOP bracelets , with a win at the 1975 WSOP .
Johnny Chan , with a win in Event No. 25 at the 2005 WSOP , became the first person to win 10 lifetime WSOP bracelets , just a few days before Doyle Brunson won his 10th bracelet in Event No. 31 of that same WSOP .
The first person to win two bracelets in the same WSOP was Johnny Moss at the 1971 WSOP .
The first person to win three bracelets in the same WSOP was Walter " Puggy " Pearson , at the 1973 WSOP . As of the start of the 2016 WSOP , only five other players have won three bracelets in a single WSOP .
Bill Boyd and Doyle Brunson are the only players to have won bracelets in four consecutive years ( Boyd from 1971 to 1974 , and Brunson from 1976 to 1979 ) .
= = WSOP rings = =
In 2005 , the WSOP started hosting Circuit Events at many of their casinos around the country . In order to differentiate these events and to ensure the prestige of the WSOP Bracelet , the circuit events present a ring to the winners . In 2011 , the WSOP awarded a bracelet to the winner of the Circuit Event National Champion . The Circuit Event National Champion was an invitation only event that used the standings of players from the various circuit events in determining who was invited .
= = Circuit National Championship = =
Starting with the 2011 WSOP Circuit , the Circuit National Championship was held as a closed event for participants of various circuit events .
Starting in 2012 , qualification for the Circuit National Championship was significantly changed . A total of 100 players now receive automatic seats in the National Championship . The winners of each Circuit main event and the highest point earner at each circuit stop receive seats , with the remaining automatic seats filled by the top points earners throughout the Circuit season who are not already qualified . Additionally , the top 100 players in the " WSOP World Rankings " , a points race determined on results in open events of the previous two WSOPs , are eligible to enter . The Circuit qualifiers play the National Championship on a freeroll , while the WSOP World Rankings qualifiers must pay a $ 10 @,@ 000 buy @-@ in .
The winner of the Circuit National Championship wins a World Series of Poker bracelet .
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= Pará @-@ class monitor =
The Pará class monitors were a group of six wooden @-@ hulled ironclads named after Brazilian states and built in Brazil for the Brazilian Navy during the Paraguayan War in the late 1860s . The first three ships finished , Pará , Alagoas and Rio Grande , participated in the Passagem de Humaitá in February 1868 . Afterwards the remaining ships joined the first three and they all provided fire support for the army for the rest of the war . The ships were split between the newly formed Upper Uruguay ( Portuguese : Alto Uruguai ) and Mato Grosso Flotillas after the war . Alagoas was transferred to Rio de Janeiro in the 1890s and participated in the Fleet Revolt of 1893 – 94 .
= = Design and description = =
The Pará @-@ class river monitors were designed to meet the need of the Brazilian Navy for small , shallow @-@ draft armored ships capable of withstanding heavy fire during the Paraguayan War , which saw Argentina and Brazil allied against Paraguay . The two foreign @-@ built river monitors already in service drew enough water that they could not operate on the shallower rivers in Paraguay . The monitor configuration was chosen as a turreted design did not have the same problems engaging enemy ships and fortifications as did the casemate ironclads already in Brazilian service . The oblong gun turret sat on a circular platform that had a central pivot . It was rotated by four men via a system of gears ; 2 @.@ 25 minutes were required for a full 360 ° rotation . A bronze ram was fitted to these ships as well . The hull was sheathed with Muntz metal to reduce biofouling .
The ships measured 39 meters ( 127 ft 11 in ) long overall , with a beam of 8 @.@ 54 meters ( 28 ft 0 in ) . They had a draft between of 1 @.@ 51 – 1 @.@ 54 meters ( 4 ft 11 in – 5 ft 1 in ) and displaced 500 metric tons ( 490 long tons ) . With only 0 @.@ 3 meters ( 1 ft 0 in ) of freeboard they had to be towed between Rio de Janeiro and their area of operations . Their crew numbered 43 officers and men .
= = = Propulsion = = =
The Pará @-@ class ships had two direct @-@ acting steam engines , each driving a single 1 @.@ 3 @-@ meter ( 4 ft 3 in ) propeller . Their engines were powered by two tubular boilers at a working pressure of 59 psi ( 407 kPa ; 4 kgf / cm2 ) . The engines produced a total of 180 indicated horsepower ( 130 kW ) which gave the monitors a maximum speed of 8 knots ( 15 km / h ; 9 @.@ 2 mph ) in calm waters . The ships carried enough coal for one day 's steaming .
= = = Armament = = =
The first three ships carried a single 70 @-@ pounder Whitworth rifled muzzle loader ( RML ) in their gun turret , but the last three ships substituted a 120 @-@ pounder Whitworth RML . The 70 @-@ pdr gun had a maximum elevation of 15 ° , but the larger gun 's elevation was reduced because of its longer barrel . Both guns had a similar maximum range of 5 @,@ 540 meters ( 6 @,@ 060 yd ) . The 70 @-@ pdr gun weighed 8 @,@ 582 pounds ( 3 @,@ 892 @.@ 7 kg ) and fired a 5 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 140 mm ) shell that weighed 81 pounds ( 36 @.@ 7 kg ) . The 7 @-@ inch ( 178 mm ) shell of the 120 @-@ pdr gun weighed 151 pounds ( 68 @.@ 5 kg ) while the gun itself weighed 16 @,@ 660 pounds ( 7 @,@ 556 @.@ 8 kg ) . Most unusually the guns ' Brazilian @-@ designed iron carriage was designed to pivot vertically at the muzzle ; this was done to minimize the size of the gunport through which splinters and shells could enter .
= = = Armor = = =
The hull of the Pará @-@ class ships was made from three layers of wood that alternated in orientation . It was 457 millimeters ( 18 @.@ 0 in ) thick and was capped with a 102 @-@ millimeter ( 4 in ) layer of peroba hardwood . The ships had a complete wrought iron waterline belt , 0 @.@ 91 meters ( 3 @.@ 0 ft ) high . It had a maximum thickness of 102 millimeters amidships , decreasing to 76 millimeters ( 3 in ) and 51 millimeters ( 2 in ) at the ship 's ends . The curved deck was armored with 12 @.@ 7 millimeters ( 0 @.@ 5 in ) of wrought iron .
The gun turret was shaped like a rectangle with rounded corners . It was built much like the hull , but the front of the turret was protected by 152 millimeters ( 6 in ) of armor , the sides by 102 millimeters and the rear by 76 millimeters . Its roof and the exposed portions of the platform it rested upon were protected by 12 @.@ 7 millimeters of armor . The armored pilothouse was positioned ahead of the turret .
= = Construction = =
= = Service = =
The first three ships finished , Pará , Alagoas and Rio Grande , participated in the Passagem de Humaitá on 19 February 1868 . For the engagement the three river monitors were lashed to the larger ironclads in case any engines were disabled by the Paraguayan guns . Barroso led with Rio Grande , followed by Bahia with Alagoas and Tamandaré with Pará . Both Alagoas , which had taken an estimated 200 hits , and Pará had to be beached after passing the fortress to prevent them from sinking . Alagoas was under repair at São José do Cerrito until mid @-@ March , although Pará joined a squadron to capture the town of Laureles on 27 February . Rio Grande continued upstream with the other undamaged ships and they bombarded Asunción on 24 February with little effect . On 23 March Rio Grande and Barroso sank the Parguayan steamer Igurey and both ships were boarded by Paraguayan soldiers on the evening of 9 July , although they managed to repel the boarders .
For the rest of the war the river monitors bombarded Paraguayan positions and artillery batteries in support of the army , notably at Angostura , Timbó and along the Tebicuary and Manduvirá Rivers . After the war the ships were divided between the newly formed Upper Uruguay and Mato Grosso Flotillas . Alagoas was transferred to Rio de Janeiro in the 1890s and participated in the Fleet Revolt of 1893 – 94 . The ships were disposed of during the last two decades of the 19th century , although Rio Grande was docked for reconstruction in 1899 . However , the work was never completed and she was eventually scrapped in 1907 .
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= The Head and the Hair =
" The Head and The Hair " is the eleventh episode of the first season of the American television comedy series 30 Rock . It was written by series creator Tina Fey and co @-@ executive producer John Riggi . The director of this episode was Gail Mancuso . It originally aired on the National Broadcasting Company ( NBC ) in the United States on January 18 , 2007 . Guest stars in this episode include Katrina Bowden , Craig Castaldo , Peter Hermann , Brian McCann , John McEnroe , Maulik Pancholy , Keith Powell , and Lonny Ross .
In the episode , two men , one a cerebral nerd ( McCann ) and the other a gorgeous hunk ( Hermann ) , capture the attention of Liz Lemon ( Tina Fey ) and Jenna Maroney ( Jane Krakowski ) . Meanwhile , Jack Donaghy ( Alec Baldwin ) and Kenneth Parcell ( Jack McBrayer ) trade places for " Bottom 's Up Day " at the office and at the same time , Tracy Jordan ( Tracy Morgan ) enlists Frank Rossitano ( Judah Friedlander ) and James " Toofer " Spurlock ( Powell ) to write his autobiography in one day .
" The Head and the Hair " received generally positive reception from television critics . According to the Nielsen ratings system , the episode was watched by 5 @.@ 0 million households during its original broadcast , and received a 2 @.@ 4 rating / 6 share among viewers in the 18 – 49 demographic .
= = Plot = =
Liz Lemon ( Tina Fey ) and Jenna Maroney ( Jane Krakowski ) keep running into the same two men in the elevator at the 30 Rock building , and find themselves interested in them . Not knowing their names , Liz and Jenna refer to them as " The Head " ( Brian McCann ) and " The Hair " ( Peter Hermann ) . After talking with Jenna , Liz decides she is going to ask " The Head " out on a date . However , on her way to find him , she runs into " The Hair " , who asks her out , and discovers his name is Gray . She agrees to attend a restaurant opening with him . Feeling uncomfortable with Gray , as she believes that she does not date someone like Gray as it feels wrong , Liz tries to go home , but he convinces her to hang out for a while longer . The next day things end abruptly when Liz finds a picture of her great @-@ aunt in his apartment and they learn that they are related .
Meanwhile , Tracy Jordan ( Tracy Morgan ) panics in the TGS with Tracy Jordan staff office , as his autobiography is due to a publisher the next day but he has not yet begun to write it . He begs Frank Rossitano ( Judah Friedlander ) and James " Toofer " Spurlock ( Keith Powell ) to help him get it done in time , and they agree . They run into a problem when Tracy cannot remember much about his own life , and turn to Wikipedia for the answers . They work non @-@ stop on the project , until Tracy remembers that there never was an actual publisher for the book , thus shutting the project down .
Finally , Vice President of East Coast Television and Microwave Oven Programming for General Electric Jack Donaghy ( Alec Baldwin ) and NBC page Kenneth Parcell ( Jack McBrayer ) are participating in " Bottoms Up " day at the office . Jack must work in Kenneth 's job for a day , to help him be a better manager . During their time together , Kenneth tells Jack about an idea he has for a game show called Gold Case , in which contestants must correctly guess which briefcase being modeled contains gold bricks . Jack helps him sell the idea to NBC . The pilot episode of Gold Case is in production , with host John McEnroe . Due to the weight of the gold , contestants can quickly spot which model is straining with the weight of the case . Every contestant wins almost immediately which results in the show being shut down .
= = Production = =
" The Head and the Hair " was written by series ' creator , executive producer and lead actress Tina Fey and co @-@ executive producer John Riggi . The director of this episode was Don Scardino . This was Fey and Riggi 's first script collaboration , and they later co @-@ wrote the season three episode " The Natural Order " . " The Head and the Hair " originally aired on NBC in the United States on January 18 , 2007 as the eleventh episode of the show 's first season and overall of the series .
This episode featured guest appearances from actors Brian McCann and Peter Hermann , in which McCann played " The Head " and Hermann " The Hair " . Former professional tennis player John McEnroe played himself in the episode , in which he hosts the game show Gold Case . McEnroe would later guest star as himself in the November 20 , 2008 , 30 Rock episode " Gavin Volure " . In one scene of this episode , Kenneth runs into a man named " Moonvest " , and tells him that he got an idea for a television game show , but Moonvest tells him " Give me your fingernails " . Moonvest was played by Craig Castaldo , or known as Radio Man .
One filmed scene from " The Head and the Hair " was cut out from the airing . Instead , the scene was featured on 30 Rock 's season 1 DVD as part of the deleted scenes in the Bonus feature . In the scene , Pete Hornberger ( Scott Adsit ) is visibly upset that someone added paper in the regular garbage and demands to know who did it , as NBC recycles . Jack and Kenneth show up . Jack apologizes for throwing the paper in the regular garbage , which results in Pete telling him to go through the garbage by hand and " fish out anything that 's recyclable " , as Jack is dressed as a page , in which he is participating on " Bottoms Up " day .
= = Cultural references = =
In one of the scenes of the episode , Kenneth is in news anchor Brian Williams 's dressing room . There , Kenneth is seeing cleaning out a half @-@ cleaned graffiti that reads " Kat Cou Suc " , a reference to fellow news host Katie Couric . Williams ' has been on the series , having appeared in the season three episode " The Ones " , in which Tracy has been giving out Williams 's phone number instead of his . He next appeared in the season four episode " Audition Day " , as he is auditioning to become a cast member on TGS . Williams appeared in " Future Husband " in which he tells the CNBC staff that his news program Nightly News " rules " .
There are frequent references to Star Wars in 30 Rock , beginning with the pilot episode in 2006 where Tracy is seen shouting that he is a Jedi . Liz admits to being a huge fan of Star Wars , saying that she had watched it many times with Pete Hornberger ( Scott Adsit ) , and dressed up as the Star Wars character Princess Leia during four recent Halloweens . There is also reference to Star Wars when Tracy takes on the identity of the character Chewbacca . In " The Head and the Hair " , Liz tells Jenna that " The Head " asked her out and says " I had to say yes . I mean he looked at me with those handsome guys eyes . It was like the Death Star tractor beam when the Falcon was ... " , until Jenna interrupts her and says " No Liz , do not talk about that stuff on your date . Guys like that do not like Star Trek " , to which Liz corrects " Wars ! " . Fey , a fan of Star Wars herself , said that the weekly Star Wars joke or reference " started happening organically " when the crew realized that they had a Star Wars reference " in almost every show " . Fey said that from then on " it became a thing where [ they ] tried to keep it going " , and that even though they could not include one in every episode , they still had a " pretty high batting average " . Fey attributed most of the references to executive producer and writer Robert Carlock , whom she described as " the resident expert " .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast , " The Head and the Hair " was watched by 5 @.@ 0 million households , according to the Nielsen ratings system . It earned a 2 @.@ 4 rating / 6 share in the 18 – 49 demographic , meaning that 2 @.@ 4 percent of all people in that group , and 6 percent of all people from that group watching television at the time , watched the episode . This was a decrease from the previous episode , " The Rural Juror " , which was watched by 6 @.@ 1 million American viewers . Since airing , the episode has received generally good reception from television critics .
Television columnist Alan Sepinwall for The Star @-@ Ledger said that 30 Rock " feels like a show that 's already made The Leap midway through season one . " He reported that Tracy 's story was " largely a dud " , but said that the two other plots were " so funny " that it would not matter much . Sepinwall said " The Head and the Hair " was " splendid " . Julia Ward of AOL 's TV Squad was complimentary towards Alec Baldwin 's Jack in this episode , citing that he knows " how to squeeze some serious funny out of a simple gesture and a pause . " She added that his " lingering stare " at both Jenna and Liz after taking their drink order " was the funniest moment in a very funny episode " . Ward also enjoyed that it " brought us maximum Kenneth , which is great . He 's turning out to be one of the show 's most endearing characters . " IGN contributor Robert Canning wrote that the pairing of Jack and Kenneth was a " great idea and gave Kenneth his best episode " since " Blind Date " . In regards to Liz 's story , he commented it was " her strongest episodes to date " , and said that it " felt good " to see her " have a little luck for a change " with " The Head " . In conclusion , Canning gave the episode an 8 @.@ 0 out of 10 rating . TV Guide 's Matt Mitovich disliked that NBC " utterly ruined " the outcome of Liz 's plot in the promos , though , said that it was a " very funny resolution to the relationship that was too good , and too well coiffed , to be true . " Mitovich said that it was " fun " to see Liz successfully date " while it lasted " .
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= Richard Nixon =
Richard Milhous Nixon ( January 9 , 1913 – April 22 , 1994 ) was the 37th President of the United States , serving from 1969 to 1974 when he became the only U.S. president to resign the office . Nixon had previously served as a U.S. Representative and Senator from California and as the 36th Vice President of the United States from 1953 to 1961 .
Nixon was born in Yorba Linda , California . After completing his undergraduate studies at Whittier College , he graduated from Duke University School of Law in 1937 and returned to California to practice law . He and his wife , Pat Nixon , moved to Washington in 1942 to work for the federal government . He subsequently served on active duty in the U.S. Navy Reserve during World War II . Nixon was elected to the House of Representatives in 1946 and to the Senate in 1950 . His pursuit of the Hiss Case established his reputation as a leading anti @-@ communist , and elevated him to national prominence . He was the running mate of Dwight D. Eisenhower , the Republican Party presidential nominee in the 1952 election . Nixon served for eight years as vice president . He waged an unsuccessful presidential campaign in 1960 , narrowly losing to John F. Kennedy , and lost a race for Governor of California to Pat Brown in 1962 . In 1968 he ran again for the presidency and was elected when he defeated Hubert Humphrey .
Nixon ended American involvement in the war in Vietnam in 1973 and brought the American POWs home . At the same time , he ended military draft . Nixon 's visit to the People 's Republic of China in 1972 opened diplomatic relations between the two nations , and he initiated détente and the Anti @-@ Ballistic Missile Treaty with the Soviet Union the same year . His administration generally transferred power from Washington to the states . He imposed wage and price controls for a period of ninety days , enforced desegregation of Southern schools and established the Environmental Protection Agency . Nixon also presided over the Apollo 11 moon landing , which signaled the end of the moon race . He was reelected by one of the largest landslides in U.S. history in 1972 , when he defeated George McGovern .
The year 1973 saw an Arab oil embargo , gasoline rationing , and a continuing series of revelations about the Watergate scandal . The scandal escalated , costing Nixon much of his political support , and on August 9 , 1974 , he resigned in the face of almost certain impeachment and removal from office . After his resignation , he was issued a pardon by his successor , Gerald Ford . In retirement , Nixon 's work writing several books and undertaking of many foreign trips helped to rehabilitate his image . He suffered a debilitating stroke on April 18 , 1994 , and died four days later at the age of 81 .
= = Early life = =
Richard Milhous Nixon was born on January 9 , 1913 in Yorba Linda , California , in a house his father built . He was the son of Hannah ( Milhous ) Nixon and Francis A. Nixon . His mother was a Quaker and his father converted from Methodism to the Quaker faith ; Nixon 's upbringing was marked by evangelical Quaker observances of the time , such as refraining from alcohol , dancing , and swearing . Nixon had four brothers : Harold ( 1909 – 33 ) , Donald ( 1914 – 87 ) , Arthur ( 1918 – 25 ) , and Edward ( born 1930 ) . Four of the five Nixon boys were named after kings who had ruled in historical or legendary England ; Richard , for example , was named after Richard the Lionheart .
Nixon 's early life was marked by hardship , and he later quoted a saying of Eisenhower to describe his boyhood : " We were poor , but the glory of it was we didn 't know it " . The Nixon family ranch failed in 1922 , and the family moved to Whittier , California . In an area with many Quakers , Frank Nixon opened a grocery store and gas station . Richard 's younger brother Arthur died in 1925 after a short illness . At the age of twelve , Richard was found to have a spot on his lung and , with a family history of tuberculosis , he was forbidden to play sports . Eventually , the spot was found to be scar tissue from an early bout of pneumonia .
= = = Primary and secondary education = = =
Young Richard attended East Whittier Elementary School , where he was president of his eighth @-@ grade class . His parents believed that attendance at Whittier High School had caused Richard 's older brother Harold to live a dissolute lifestyle before the older boy fell ill of tuberculosis ( he died of the disease in 1933 ) . Instead , they sent Richard to the larger Fullerton Union High School . He had to ride a school bus for an hour each way during his freshman year and he received excellent grades . Later , he lived with an aunt in Fullerton during the week . He played junior varsity football , and seldom missed a practice , even though he was rarely used in games . He had greater success as a debater , winning a number of championships and taking his only formal tutelage in public speaking from Fullerton 's Head of English , H. Lynn Sheller . Nixon later remembered Sheller 's words , " Remember , speaking is conversation ... don 't shout at people . Talk to them . Converse with them . " Nixon stated that he tried to use the conversational tone as much as possible .
His parents permitted Richard to transfer to Whittier High School for his junior year , beginning in September 1928 . At Whittier High , Nixon suffered his first electoral defeat , for student body president . He generally rose at 4 a.m. , to drive the family truck into Los Angeles and purchase vegetables at the market . He then drove to the store to wash and display them , before going to school . Harold had been diagnosed with tuberculosis the previous year ; when their mother took him to Arizona in the hopes of improving his health , the demands on Richard increased , causing him to give up football . Nevertheless , Richard graduated from Whittier High third in his class of 207 students .
= = = Collegiate and law school education = = =
Nixon was offered a tuition grant to attend Harvard University , but Harold 's continued illness and the need for their mother to care for him meant Richard was needed at the store . He remained in his hometown and attended Whittier College , his expenses there covered by a bequest from his maternal grandfather . Nixon played for the basketball team ; he also tried out for football , but lacked the size to play . He remained on the team as a substitute , and was noted for his enthusiasm . Instead of fraternities and sororities , Whittier had literary societies . Nixon was snubbed by the only one for men , the Franklins ; many members of the Franklins were from prominent families but Nixon was not . He responded by helping to found a new society , the Orthogonian Society . In addition to the society , schoolwork , and work at the store , Nixon found time for a large number of extracurricular activities , becoming a champion debater and gaining a reputation as a hard worker . In 1933 , he became engaged to Ola Florence Welch , daughter of the Whittier police chief . The two broke up in 1935 .
After his graduation from Whittier in 1934 , Nixon received a full scholarship to attend Duke University School of Law . The school was new and sought to attract top students by offering scholarships . It paid high salaries to its professors , many of whom had national or international reputations . The number of scholarships was greatly reduced for second- and third @-@ year students , forcing recipients into intense competition . Nixon not only kept his scholarship but was elected president of the Duke Bar Association , inducted into the Order of the Coif , and graduated third in his class in June 1937 .
= = Early career and marriage = =
After graduating from Duke , Nixon initially hoped to join the Federal Bureau of Investigation . He received no response to his letter of application and learned years later that he had been hired , but his appointment had been canceled at the last minute due to budget cuts . Instead , he returned to California and was admitted to the bar in 1937 . He began practicing with the law firm Wingert and Bewley in Whittier , working on commercial litigation for local petroleum companies and other corporate matters , as well as on wills . In later years , Nixon proudly stated that he was the only modern president to have previously worked as a practicing attorney . Nixon was reluctant to work on divorce cases , disliking frank sexual talk from women . In 1938 , he opened up his own branch of Wingert and Bewley in La Habra , California , and became a full partner in the firm the following year .
In January 1938 , Nixon was cast in the Whittier Community Players production of The Dark Tower . There he played opposite a high school teacher named Thelma " Pat " Ryan . Nixon described it in his memoirs as " a case of love at first sight " — for Nixon only , as Pat Ryan turned down the young lawyer several times before agreeing to date him . Once they began their courtship , Ryan was reluctant to marry Nixon ; they dated for two years before she assented to his proposal . They wed at a small ceremony on June 21 , 1940 . After a honeymoon in Mexico , the Nixons began their married life in Whittier . They had two daughters , Tricia ( born 1946 ) and Julie ( born 1948 ) .
= = World War II = =
In January 1942 , the couple moved to Washington , D.C. , where Nixon took a job at the Office of Price Administration . In his political campaigns , Nixon would suggest that this was his response to Pearl Harbor , but he had sought the position throughout the latter part of 1941 . Both Nixon and his wife believed he was limiting his prospects by remaining in Whittier . He was assigned to the tire rationing division , where he was tasked with replying to correspondence . He did not enjoy the role , and four months later , applied to join the United States Navy . As a birthright Quaker , he could have claimed exemption from the draft ; he might also have been deferred because he worked in government service . But instead of exploiting his circumstance , Nixon opted to enlist in the Navy . His application to enlist was successful , and was appointed a lieutenant junior grade in the U.S Naval Reserve ( U.S. Navy Reserve ) on June 15 , 1942 .
In October 1942 , he was assigned as aide to the commander of the Naval Air Station Ottumwa in Iowa until May 1943 . On October 1 , 1943 , Nixon was promoted to lieutenant . Seeking more excitement , he requested sea duty and was reassigned as the naval passenger control officer for the South Pacific Combat Air Transport Command , supporting the logistics of operations in the South West Pacific theater ; he was the Officer in Charge of the Combat Air Transport Command at Guadalcanal in the Solomons and in March 1944 at Green Island ( Nissan island ) just north of Bougainville . His unit prepared manifests and flight plans for C @-@ 47 operations and supervised the loading and unloading of the cargo aircraft . For this service , he received a Navy Letter of Commendation ( awarded a Navy Commendation Ribbon which was later updated to the Navy and Marine Corps Commendation Medal ) from his commanding officer for " meritorious and efficient performance of duty as Officer in Charge of the South Pacific Combat Air Transport Command " . Upon his return to the U.S. , Nixon was appointed the administrative officer of the Alameda Naval Air Station in California . In January 1945 , he was transferred to the Bureau of Aeronautics office in Philadelphia to help negotiate the termination of war contracts , and received his second letter of commendation , from the Secretary of the Navy for " meritorious service , tireless effort , and devotion to duty " . Later , Nixon was transferred to other offices to work on contracts and finally to Baltimore . On October 3 , 1945 , he was promoted to lieutenant commander . On March 10 , 1946 , he was relieved of active duty . He resigned his commission on New Year 's Day 1946 . On June 1 , 1953 , he was promoted to commander . He retired in the U.S. Naval Reserve on June 6 , 1966 .
= = Rising politician = =
= = = Congressional career = = =
In 1945 , Republicans in California 's 12th congressional district , frustrated by their inability to defeat Democratic Congressman Jerry Voorhis , sought a consensus candidate who would run a strong campaign against him . They formed a " Committee of 100 " to decide on a candidate , hoping to avoid internal dissensions which had led to Voorhis victories . After the committee failed to attract higher @-@ profile candidates , Herman Perry , Whittier 's Bank of America branch manager , suggested Nixon , a family friend with whom he had served on the Whittier College Board of Trustees before the war . Perry wrote to Nixon in Baltimore . After a night of excited talk between the Nixons , the naval officer responded to Perry with enthusiasm . Nixon flew to California and was selected by the committee . When he left the Navy at the start of 1946 , Nixon and his wife returned to Whittier , where Nixon began a year of intensive campaigning . He contended that Voorhis had been ineffective as a congressman and suggested that Voorhis 's endorsement by a group linked to communists meant that Voorhis must have radical views . Nixon won the election , receiving 65 @,@ 586 votes to Voorhis ' 49 @,@ 994 .
In Congress , Nixon supported the Taft – Hartley Act of 1947 , a federal law that monitors the activities and power of labor unions , and served on the Education and Labor Committee . He was part of the Herter Committee , which went to Europe to report on the need for U.S. foreign aid . Nixon was the youngest member of the committee , and the only Westerner . Advocacy by Herter Committee members , including Nixon , led to congressional passage of the Marshall Plan .
Nixon first gained national attention in 1948 when his investigation , as a member of the House Un @-@ American Activities Committee ( HUAC ) , broke the Alger Hiss spy case . While many doubted Whittaker Chambers ' allegations that Hiss , a former State Department official , had been a Soviet spy , Nixon believed them to be true and pressed for the committee to continue its investigation . Under suit for defamation filed by Hiss , Chambers produced documents corroborating his allegations . These included paper and microfilm copies that Chambers turned over to House investigators after having hidden them overnight in a field ; they became known as the " Pumpkin Papers " . Hiss was convicted of perjury in 1950 for denying under oath he had passed documents to Chambers . In 1948 , Nixon successfully cross @-@ filed as a candidate in his district , winning both major party primaries , and was comfortably reelected .
In 1949 , Nixon began to consider running for the United States Senate against the Democratic incumbent , Sheridan Downey , and entered the race in November of that year . Downey , faced with a bitter primary battle with Representative Helen Gahagan Douglas , announced his retirement in March 1950 . Nixon and Douglas won the primary elections and engaged in a contentious campaign in which the ongoing Korean War was a major issue . Nixon tried to focus attention on Douglas ' liberal voting record . As part of that effort , a " Pink Sheet " was distributed by the Nixon campaign suggesting that , as Douglas ' voting record was similar to that of New York Congressman Vito Marcantonio ( believed by some to be a communist ) , their political views must be nearly identical . Nixon won the election by almost twenty percentage points . During this campaign , Nixon was first called " Tricky Dick " by his opponents for his campaign tactics .
In the Senate , Nixon took a prominent position in opposing global communism , traveling frequently and speaking out against the threat . He maintained friendly relations with his fellow anti @-@ communist , the controversial Wisconsin senator , Joseph McCarthy , but was careful to keep some distance between himself and McCarthy 's allegations . Nixon also criticized President Harry S. Truman 's handling of the Korean War . He supported statehood for Alaska and Hawaii , voted in favor of civil rights for minorities , and supported federal disaster relief for India and Yugoslavia . He voted against price controls and other monetary restrictions , benefits for illegal immigrants , and public power .
= = = Vice Presidency = = =
General Dwight D. Eisenhower was nominated for president by the Republicans in 1952 . He had no strong preference for a vice presidential candidate , and Republican officeholders and party officials met in a " smoke @-@ filled room " and recommended Nixon to the general , who agreed to the senator 's selection . Nixon 's youth ( he was then 39 ) , stance against communism , and political base in California — one of the largest states — were all seen as vote @-@ winners by the leaders . Among the candidates considered along with Nixon were Ohio Senator Robert A. Taft , New Jersey Governor Alfred Driscoll and Illinois Senator Everett Dirksen . On the campaign trail , Eisenhower spoke to his plans for the country , leaving the negative campaigning to his running mate .
In mid @-@ September , the Republican ticket faced a major crisis . The media reported that Nixon had a political fund , maintained by his backers , which reimbursed him for political expenses . Such a fund was not illegal , but it exposed Nixon to allegations of possible conflict of interest . With pressure building for Eisenhower to demand Nixon 's resignation from the ticket , the senator went on television to deliver an address to the nation on September 23 , 1952 . The address , later termed the Checkers speech , was heard by about 60 million Americans — including the largest television audience up to that point . Nixon emotionally defended himself , stating that the fund was not secret , nor had donors received special favors . He painted himself as a man of modest means ( his wife had no mink coat ; instead she wore a " respectable Republican cloth coat " ) and a patriot . The speech would be remembered for the gift which Nixon had received , but which he would not give back : " a little cocker spaniel dog … sent all the way from Texas . And our little girl — Tricia , the 6 @-@ year @-@ old — named it Checkers . " The speech was a masterpiece and prompted a huge public outpouring of support for Nixon . Eisenhower decided to retain him on the ticket , which proved victorious in the November election .
Eisenhower gave Nixon responsibilities during his term as vice president — more than any previous vice president . Nixon attended Cabinet and National Security Council meetings and chaired them when Eisenhower was absent . A 1953 tour of the Far East succeeded in increasing local goodwill toward the United States and prompted Nixon to appreciate the potential of the region as an industrial center . He visited Saigon and Hanoi in French Indochina . On his return to the United States at the end of 1953 , Nixon increased the amount of time he devoted to foreign relations .
Biographer Irwin Gellman , who chronicled Nixon 's congressional years , said of his vice presidency :
Eisenhower radically altered the role of his running mate by presenting him with critical assignments in both foreign and domestic affairs once he assumed his office . The vice president welcomed the president 's initiatives and worked energetically to accomplish White House objectives . Because of the collaboration between these two leaders , Nixon deserves the title , " the first modern vice president " .
Despite intense campaigning by Nixon , who reprised his strong attacks on the Democrats , the Republicans lost control of both houses of Congress in the 1954 elections . These losses caused Nixon to contemplate leaving politics once he had served out his term . On September 24 , 1955 , President Eisenhower suffered a heart attack ; his condition was initially believed to be life @-@ threatening . Eisenhower was unable to perform his duties for six weeks . The 25th Amendment to the United States Constitution had not yet been proposed , and the Vice President had no formal power to act . Nonetheless , Nixon acted in Eisenhower 's stead during this period , presiding over Cabinet meetings and ensuring that aides and Cabinet officers did not seek power . According to Nixon biographer Stephen Ambrose , Nixon had " earned the high praise he received for his conduct during the crisis ... he made no attempt to seize power " .
His spirits buoyed , Nixon sought a second term , but some of Eisenhower 's aides aimed to displace him . In a December 1955 meeting , Eisenhower proposed that Nixon not run for reelection in order to give him administrative experience before a 1960 presidential run and instead become a Cabinet officer in a second Eisenhower administration . Nixon , however , believed such an action would destroy his political career . When Eisenhower announced his reelection bid in February 1956 , he hedged on the choice of his running mate , stating that it was improper to address that question until he had been renominated . Although no Republican was opposing Eisenhower , Nixon received a substantial number of write @-@ in votes against the President in the 1956 New Hampshire primary election . In late April , the President announced that Nixon would again be his running mate . Eisenhower and Nixon were reelected by a comfortable margin in the November 1956 election .
In the spring of 1957 , Nixon undertook another major foreign trip , this time to Africa . On his return , he helped shepherd the Civil Rights Act of 1957 through Congress . The bill was weakened in the Senate , and civil rights leaders were divided over whether Eisenhower should sign it . Nixon advised the President to sign the bill , which he did . Eisenhower suffered a mild stroke in November 1957 , and Nixon gave a press conference , assuring the nation that the Cabinet was functioning well as a team during Eisenhower 's brief illness .
On April 27 , 1958 , Richard and Pat Nixon embarked on a goodwill tour of South America . In Montevideo , Uruguay , Nixon made an impromptu visit to a college campus , where he fielded questions from students on U.S. foreign policy . The trip was uneventful until the Nixon party reached Lima , Peru , where he was met with student demonstrations . Nixon went to the campus , got out of his car to confront the students , and stayed until forced back into the car by a volley of thrown objects . At his hotel , Nixon faced another mob , and one demonstrator spat on him . In Caracas , Venezuela , Nixon and his wife were spat on by anti @-@ American demonstrators and their limousine was attacked by a pipe @-@ wielding mob . According to Ambrose , Nixon 's courageous conduct " caused even some of his bitterest enemies to give him some grudging respect " .
In July 1959 , President Eisenhower sent Nixon to the Soviet Union for the opening of the American National Exhibition in Moscow . On July 24 , while touring the exhibits with Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev , the two stopped at a model of an American kitchen and engaged in an impromptu exchange about the merits of capitalism versus communism that became known as the " Kitchen Debate " .
= = = 1960 and 1962 elections ; wilderness years = = =
In 1960 , Nixon launched his first campaign for President of the United States . He faced little opposition in the Republican primaries and chose former Massachusetts Senator Henry Cabot Lodge Jr. as his running mate . His Democratic opponent was John F. Kennedy , and the race remained close for the duration . Nixon campaigned on his experience , but Kennedy called for new blood and claimed the Eisenhower – Nixon administration had allowed the Soviet Union to overtake the U.S. in ballistic missiles ( the " missile gap " ) . A new political medium was introduced in the campaign : televised presidential debates . In the first of four such debates , Nixon appeared pale , with a five o 'clock shadow , in contrast to the photogenic Kennedy . Nixon 's performance in the debate was perceived to be mediocre in the visual medium of television , though many people listening on the radio thought that Nixon had won . Nixon lost the election narrowly , with Kennedy ahead by only 120 @,@ 000 votes ( 0 @.@ 2 percent ) in the popular vote .
There were charges of vote fraud in Texas and Illinois , both states won by Kennedy ; Nixon refused to consider contesting the election , feeling a lengthy controversy would diminish the United States in the eyes of the world , and the uncertainty would hurt U.S. interests . At the end of his term of office as vice president in January 1961 , Nixon and his family returned to California , where he practiced law and wrote a bestselling book , Six Crises , which included coverage of the Hiss case , Eisenhower 's heart attack , and the Fund Crisis , which had been resolved by the Checkers speech .
Local and national Republican leaders encouraged Nixon to challenge incumbent Pat Brown for Governor of California in the 1962 election . Despite initial reluctance , Nixon entered the race . The campaign was clouded by public suspicion that Nixon viewed the office as a stepping @-@ stone for another presidential run , some opposition from the far @-@ right of the party , and his own lack of interest in being California 's governor . Nixon hoped that a successful run would confirm him in his status as the nation 's leading active Republican politician , and ensure he remained a major player in national politics . Instead , he lost to Brown by more than five percentage points , and the defeat was widely believed to be the end of his political career . In an impromptu concession speech the morning after the election , Nixon blamed the media for favoring his opponent , saying , " You won 't have Nixon to kick around anymore because , gentlemen , this is my last press conference " . The California defeat was highlighted in the November 11 , 1962 , episode of ABC 's Howard K. Smith : News and Comment entitled " The Political Obituary of Richard M. Nixon " . Alger Hiss appeared on the program , and many members of the public complained that it was unseemly to allow a convicted felon air time to attack a former vice president . The furor drove Smith and his program from the air , and public sympathy for Nixon grew .
The Nixon family traveled to Europe in 1963 , where Nixon gave press conferences and met with leaders of the countries he visited . The family moved to New York City , where Nixon became a senior partner in the leading law firm Nixon , Mudge , Rose , Guthrie & Alexander . Nixon had pledged , when announcing his California campaign , not to run for president in 1964 ; even if he had not , he believed it would be difficult to defeat Kennedy , or after his assassination , Kennedy 's successor , Lyndon Johnson . In 1964 , he supported Arizona Senator Barry Goldwater for the Republican nomination for president ; when Goldwater was successful in gaining the nomination , Nixon was selected to introduce the candidate to the convention . Although he thought Goldwater unlikely to win , Nixon campaigned for him loyally . The election was a disaster for the Republicans ; Goldwater 's landslide loss to Johnson was matched by heavy losses for the party in Congress and among state governors .
Nixon was one of the few leading Republicans not blamed for the disastrous results , and he sought to build on that in the 1966 congressional elections . He campaigned for many Republicans seeking to regain seats lost in the Johnson landslide and received credit for helping the Republicans make major gains in the midterm election .
= = 1968 presidential election = =
At the end of 1967 , Nixon told his family he planned to run for president a second time . Although Pat Nixon did not always enjoy public life ( for example , she had been embarrassed by the need to reveal how little the family owned in the Checkers speech ) , she was supportive of her husband 's ambitions . Nixon believed that with the Democrats torn over the issue of the Vietnam War , a Republican had a good chance of winning , although he expected the election to be as close as in 1960 .
One of the most tumultuous primary election seasons ever began as the Tet Offensive was launched , followed by the withdrawal of President Johnson as a candidate after doing unexpectedly poorly in the New Hampshire primary ; it concluded with the assassination of one of the Democratic candidates , Senator Robert F. Kennedy , just moments after his victory in the California primary . On the Republican side , Nixon 's main opposition was Michigan Governor George Romney , though New York Governor Nelson Rockefeller and California Governor Ronald Reagan each hoped to be nominated in a brokered convention . Nixon secured the nomination on the first ballot . He selected Maryland Governor Spiro Agnew as his running mate , a choice which Nixon believed would unite the party , appealing to both Northern moderates and Southerners disaffected with the Democrats .
Nixon 's Democratic opponent in the general election was Vice President Hubert Humphrey , who was nominated at a convention marked by violent protests . Throughout the campaign , Nixon portrayed himself as a figure of stability during a period of national unrest and upheaval . He appealed to what he later called the " silent majority " of socially conservative Americans who disliked the hippie counterculture and the anti @-@ war demonstrators . Agnew became an increasingly vocal critic of these groups , solidifying Nixon 's position with the right .
Nixon waged a prominent television advertising campaign , meeting with supporters in front of cameras . He stressed that the crime rate was too high , and attacked what he perceived as a surrender by the Democrats of the United States ' nuclear superiority . Nixon promised " peace with honor " in the Vietnam War and proclaimed that " new leadership will end the war and win the peace in the Pacific " . He did not release specifics of how he hoped to end the war , resulting in media intimations that he must have a " secret plan " . His slogan of " Nixon 's the One " proved to be effective .
Johnson 's negotiators hoped to reach a truce in Vietnam prior to the election . Nixon received astute analysis on the talks from Henry Kissinger , then a consultant to U.S. negotiator Averell Harriman , and his campaign was in regular contact with Anna Chennault in Saigon . She advised South Vietnamese president Thieu not to go to Paris to join the talks , hinting that Nixon would give him a better deal if elected . Johnson was aware of what was going on , as he had both Chennault and the South Vietnamese ambassador to Washington bugged , and was enraged by what he considered an attempt by Nixon to undermine U.S. foreign policy . On October 31 , with no agreement , Johnson announced a unilateral halt to the bombing , and that peace negotiations would start in Paris on November 6 , the day after Election Day . On November 2 , after speaking with Chennault again , Thieu stated he would not go to Paris . Johnson telephoned Nixon , who denied any involvement ; the President did not believe him . Johnson felt he could not publicly mention Chennault 's involvement , which had been obtained by wiretapping , but told Humphrey , who chose not to use the information .
In a three @-@ way race between Nixon , Humphrey , and independent candidate former Alabama Governor George Wallace , Nixon defeated Humphrey by nearly 500 @,@ 000 votes ( seven @-@ tenths of a percentage point ) , with 301 electoral votes to 191 for Humphrey and 46 for Wallace . In his victory speech , Nixon pledged that his administration would try to bring the divided nation together . Nixon said : " I have received a very gracious message from the Vice President , congratulating me for winning the election . I congratulated him for his gallant and courageous fight against great odds . I also told him that I know exactly how he felt . I know how it feels to lose a close one . "
= = Presidency ( 1969 – 74 ) = =
Nixon was inaugurated as president on January 20 , 1969 , sworn in by his onetime political rival , Chief Justice Earl Warren . Pat Nixon held the family Bibles open at Isaiah 2 : 4 , which reads , " They shall beat their swords into plowshares , and their spears into pruning hooks . " In his inaugural address , which received almost uniformly positive reviews , Nixon remarked that " the greatest honor history can bestow is the title of peacemaker " — a phrase that would later be placed on his gravestone . He spoke about turning partisan politics into a new age of unity :
In these difficult years , America has suffered from a fever of words ; from inflated rhetoric that promises more than it can deliver ; from angry rhetoric that fans discontents into hatreds ; from bombastic rhetoric that postures instead of persuading . We cannot learn from one another until we stop shouting at one another , until we speak quietly enough so that our words can be heard as well as our voices .
= = = Foreign policy = = =
= = = = China = = = =
Nixon laid the groundwork for his overture to China even before he became president , writing in Foreign Affairs a year before his election : " There is no place on this small planet for a billion of its potentially most able people to live in angry isolation . " Assisting him in this venture was his National Security Advisor and future Secretary of State , Henry Kissinger , with whom the President worked closely , bypassing Cabinet officials . With relations between the Soviet Union and China at a nadir — border clashes between the two took place during Nixon 's first year in office — Nixon sent private word to the Chinese that he desired closer relations . A breakthrough came in early 1971 , when Chairman Mao invited a team of American table tennis players to visit China and play against top Chinese players . Nixon followed up by sending Kissinger to China for clandestine meetings with Chinese officials . On July 15 , 1971 , it was simultaneously announced by Beijing and by Nixon ( on television and radio ) that the President would visit China the following February . The announcements astounded the world . The secrecy allowed both sets of leaders time to prepare the political climate in their countries for the contact .
In February 1972 , Nixon and his wife traveled to China . Kissinger briefed Nixon for over 40 hours in preparation . Upon touching down , the President and First Lady emerged from Air Force One and greeted Chinese Premier Zhou Enlai . Nixon made a point of shaking Zhou 's hand , something which then @-@ Secretary of State John Foster Dulles had refused to do in 1954 when the two met in Geneva . Over 100 television journalists accompanied the president . On Nixon 's orders , television was strongly favored over printed publications , as Nixon felt that the medium would capture the visit much better than print . It also gave him the opportunity to snub the print journalists he despised .
Nixon and Kissinger met for an hour with Mao and Zhou at Mao 's official private residence , where they discussed a range of issues . Mao later told his doctor that he had been impressed by Nixon , whom he considered forthright , unlike the leftists and the Soviets . He said he was suspicious of Kissinger , though the National Security Advisor referred to their meeting as his " encounter with history " . A formal banquet welcoming the presidential party was given that evening in the Great Hall of the People . The following day , Nixon met with Zhou ; the joint communique following this meeting recognized Taiwan as a part of China , and looked forward to a peaceful solution to the problem of reunification . When not in meetings , Nixon toured architectural wonders including the Forbidden City , Ming Tombs , and the Great Wall . Americans received their first glimpse into Chinese life through the cameras which accompanied Pat Nixon , who toured the city of Beijing and visited communes , schools , factories , and hospitals .
The visit ushered in a new era of Sino @-@ American relations . Fearing the possibility of a Sino @-@ American alliance , the Soviet Union yielded to pressure for détente with the United States .
= = = = Vietnam War = = = =
When Nixon took office , about 300 American soldiers were dying each week in Vietnam , and the war was broadly unpopular in the United States , with violent protests against the war ongoing . The Johnson administration had agreed to suspend bombing in exchange for negotiations without preconditions , but this agreement never fully took force . According to Walter Isaacson , soon after taking office , Nixon had concluded that the Vietnam War could not be won and he was determined to end the war quickly . Conversely , Black argues that Nixon sincerely believed he could intimidate North Vietnam through the " Madman theory " . Nixon sought some arrangement which would permit American forces to withdraw , while leaving South Vietnam secure against attack .
Nixon approved a secret bombing campaign of North Vietnamese and allied Khmer Rouge positions in Cambodia in March 1969 ( code @-@ named Operation Menu ) , a policy begun under Johnson . These operations resulted in heavy bombing of Cambodia ; by one measurement more bombs were dropped over Cambodia under Johnson and Nixon than the Allies dropped during World War II . In mid @-@ 1969 , Nixon began efforts to negotiate peace with the North Vietnamese , sending a personal letter to North Vietnamese leaders , and peace talks began in Paris . Initial talks , however , did not result in an agreement . In May 1969 he publicly proposed to withdraw all American troops from South Vietnam provided North Vietnam also did so and for South Vietnam to hold internationally supervised elections with Viet Cong participation .
In July 1969 , Nixon visited South Vietnam , where he met with his U.S. military commanders and President Nguyễn Văn Thiệu . Amid protests at home demanding an immediate pullout , he implemented a strategy of replacing American troops with Vietnamese troops , known as " Vietnamization " . He soon instituted phased U.S. troop withdrawals but authorized incursions into Laos , in part to interrupt the Ho Chi Minh trail , used to supply North Vietnamese forces , that passed through Laos and Cambodia . Nixon announced the ground invasion of Cambodia to the American public on April 30 , 1970 . His responses to protesters included an impromptu , early morning meeting with them at the Lincoln Memorial on May 9 , 1970 . Documents uncovered from the Soviet archives after 1991 reveal that the North Vietnamese attempt to overrun Cambodia in 1970 was launched at the explicit request of the Khmer Rouge and negotiated by Pol Pot 's then @-@ second @-@ in @-@ command , Nuon Chea . Nixon 's campaign promise to curb the war , contrasted with the escalated bombing , led to claims that Nixon had a " credibility gap " on the issue .
In 1971 , excerpts from the " Pentagon Papers " , which had been leaked by Daniel Ellsberg , were published by The New York Times and The Washington Post . When news of the leak first appeared , Nixon was inclined to do nothing ; the Papers , a history of United States ' involvement in Vietnam , mostly concerned the lies of prior administrations and contained few real revelations . He was persuaded by Kissinger that the papers were more harmful than they appeared , and the President tried to prevent publication . The Supreme Court eventually ruled for the newspapers .
As U.S. troop withdrawals continued , conscription was reduced and in 1973 ended ; the armed forces became all @-@ volunteer . After years of fighting , the Paris Peace Accords were signed at the beginning of 1973 . The agreement implemented a cease fire and allowed for the withdrawal of remaining American troops ; however , it did not require the 160 @,@ 000 North Vietnam Army regulars located in the South to withdraw . Once American combat support ended , there was a brief truce , before fighting broke out again , this time without American combat involvement . North Vietnam conquered South Vietnam in 1975 .
= = = = Latin American policy = = = =
Nixon had been a firm supporter of Kennedy in the 1961 Bay of Pigs Invasion and 1962 Cuban Missile Crisis ; on taking office he stepped up covert operations against Cuba and its president , Fidel Castro . He maintained close relations with the Cuban @-@ American exile community through his friend , Bebe Rebozo , who often suggested ways of irritating Castro . These activities concerned the Soviets and Cubans , who feared Nixon might attack Cuba and break the understanding between Kennedy and Khrushchev which had ended the missile crisis . In August 1970 , the Soviets asked Nixon to reaffirm the understanding ; despite his hard line against Castro , Nixon agreed . The process had not yet been completed when the Soviets began expanding their base at the Cuban port of Cienfuegos in October 1970 . A minor confrontation ensued , which was concluded with an understanding that the Soviets would not use Cienfuegos for submarines bearing ballistic missiles . The final round of diplomatic notes , reaffirming the 1962 accord , were exchanged in November .
The election of Marxist candidate Salvador Allende as President of Chile in September 1970 spurred Nixon and Kissinger to pursue a vigorous campaign of covert resistance to Allende , first designed to convince the Chilean congress to confirm Jorge Alessandri as the winner of the election and then messages to military officers in support of a coup . Other support included strikes organized against Allende and funding for Allende opponents . It was even alleged that " Nixon personally authorized " $ 700 @,@ 000 in covert funds to print anti @-@ Allende messages in a prominent Chilean newspaper . Following an extended period of social , political , and economic unrest , General Augusto Pinochet assumed power in a violent coup d 'état on September 11 , 1973 ; among the dead was Allende .
= = = = Soviet Union = = = =
Nixon used the improving international environment to address the topic of nuclear peace . Following the announcement of his visit to China , the Nixon administration concluded negotiations for him to visit the Soviet Union . The President and First Lady arrived in Moscow on May 22 , 1972 and met with Leonid Brezhnev , the General Secretary of the Communist Party ; Alexei Kosygin , the Chairman of the Council of Ministers ; and Nikolai Podgorny , the head of state , among other leading Soviet officials .
Nixon engaged in intense negotiations with Brezhnev . Out of the summit came agreements for increased trade and two landmark arms control treaties : SALT I , the first comprehensive limitation pact signed by the two superpowers , and the Anti @-@ Ballistic Missile Treaty , which banned the development of systems designed to intercept incoming missiles . Nixon and Brezhnev proclaimed a new era of " peaceful coexistence " . A banquet was held that evening at the Kremlin .
Seeking to foster better relations with the United States , both China and the Soviet Union cut back on their diplomatic support for North Vietnam and advised Hanoi to come to terms militarily . Nixon later described his strategy :
I had long believed that an indispensable element of any successful peace initiative in Vietnam was to enlist , if possible , the help of the Soviets and the Chinese . Though rapprochement with China and détente with the Soviet Union were ends in themselves , I also considered them possible means to hasten the end of the war . At worst , Hanoi was bound to feel less confident if Washington was dealing with Moscow and Beijing . At best , if the two major Communist powers decided that they had bigger fish to fry , Hanoi would be pressured into negotiating a settlement we could accept .
Having made considerable progress over the previous two years in U.S.-Soviet relations , Nixon embarked on a second trip to the Soviet Union in 1974 . He arrived in Moscow on June 27 to a welcome ceremony , cheering crowds , and a state dinner at the Grand Kremlin Palace that evening . Nixon and Brezhnev met in Yalta , where they discussed a proposed mutual defense pact , détente , and MIRVs . While he considered proposing a comprehensive test @-@ ban treaty , Nixon felt he would not have time as president to complete it . There were no significant breakthroughs in these negotiations .
= = = = Middle Eastern policy = = = =
As part of the Nixon Doctrine that the U.S. would avoid direct combat assistance to allies where possible , instead giving them assistance to defend themselves , the U.S. greatly increased arms sales to the Middle East — particularly Israel , Iran and Saudi Arabia — during the Nixon administration . The Nixon administration strongly supported Israel , an American ally in the Middle East , but the support was not unconditional . Nixon believed that Israel should make peace with its Arab neighbors and that the United States should encourage it . The president believed that — except during the Suez Crisis — the U.S. had failed to intervene with Israel , and should use the leverage of the large U.S. military aid to Israel to urge the parties to the negotiating table . However , the Arab @-@ Israeli conflict was not a major focus of Nixon 's attention during his first term — for one thing , he felt that no matter what he did , American Jews would oppose his reelection .
On October 6 , 1973 , an Arab coalition led by Egypt and Syria , supported with tons of arms and materiel by the Soviet Union , attacked Israel in what was known as the Yom Kippur War . Israel suffered heavy losses and Nixon ordered an airlift to resupply Israeli losses , cutting through inter @-@ departmental squabbles and bureaucracy and taking personal responsibility for any response by Arab nations . More than a week later , by the time the U.S. and Soviet Union began negotiating a truce , Israel had penetrated deep into enemy territory . The truce negotiations rapidly escalated into a superpower crisis ; when Israel gained the upper @-@ hand , Egyptian President Sadat requested a joint U.S.-USSR peacekeeping mission , which the U.S. refused . When Soviet Premier Brezhnev threatened to unilaterally enforce any peacekeeping mission militarily , Nixon ordered the U.S. military to DEFCON3 , placing all U.S. military personnel and bases on alert for nuclear war . This was the closest that the world had come to nuclear war since the Cuban Missile Crisis . Brezhnev backed down as a result of Nixon 's actions .
Because Israel 's victory was largely due to U.S. support , the Arab OPEC nations retaliated by refusing to sell crude oil to the U.S. , resulting in the 1973 oil crisis . The embargo caused gasoline shortages and rationing in the United States in late 1973 , and was eventually ended by the oil @-@ producing nations as peace in the Middle East took hold .
After the war , and under Nixon 's presidency , the U.S. reestablished relations with Egypt for the first time since 1967 . Nixon used the Middle East crisis to restart the stalled Middle East Peace Negotiations ; he wrote in a confidential memo to Kissinger on October 20 :
I believe that , beyond a doubt , we are now facing the best opportunity we have had in 15 years to build a lasting peace in the Middle East . I am convinced history will hold us responsible if we let this opportunity slip by ... I now consider a permanent Middle East settlement to be the most important final goal to which we must devote ourselves .
Nixon made one of his final international visits as president to the Middle East in June 1974 , and became the first President to visit Israel .
= = = Domestic policy = = =
= = = = Economy = = = =
At the time Nixon took office in 1969 , inflation was at 4 @.@ 7 percent — its highest rate since the Korean War . The Great Society had been enacted under Johnson , which , together with the Vietnam War costs , was causing large budget deficits . Unemployment was low , but interest rates were at their highest in a century . Nixon 's major economic goal was to reduce inflation ; the most obvious means of doing so was to end the war . This could not be accomplished overnight , and the U.S. economy continued to struggle through 1970 , contributing to a lackluster Republican performance in the midterm congressional elections ( Democrats controlled both Houses of Congress throughout Nixon 's presidency ) . According to political economist Nigel Bowles in his 2011 study of Nixon 's economic record , the new president did little to alter Johnson 's policies through the first year of his presidency .
Nixon was far more interested in foreign affairs than domestic policies , but believed that voters tend to focus on their own financial condition , and that economic conditions were a threat to his reelection . As part of his " New Federalism " views , he proposed grants to the states , but these proposals were for the most part lost in the congressional budget process . However , Nixon gained political credit for advocating them . In 1970 , Congress had granted the President the power to impose wage and price freezes , though the Democratic majorities , knowing Nixon had opposed such controls through his career , did not expect Nixon to actually use the authority . With inflation unresolved by August 1971 , and an election year looming , Nixon convened a summit of his economic advisers at Camp David . He then announced temporary wage and price controls , allowed the dollar to float against other currencies , and ended the convertibility of the dollar into gold . Bowles points out ,
by identifying himself with a policy whose purpose was inflation 's defeat , Nixon made it difficult for Democratic opponents ... to criticize him . His opponents could offer no alternative policy that was either plausible or believable since the one they favored was one they had designed but which the president had appropriated for himself .
Nixon 's policies dampened inflation through 1972 , although their aftereffects contributed to inflation during his second term and into the Ford administration .
After he won reelection , Nixon found inflation returning . He reimposed price controls in June 1973 . The price controls became unpopular with the public and businesspeople , who saw powerful labor unions as preferable to the price board bureaucracy . The controls produced food shortages , as meat disappeared from grocery stores and farmers drowned chickens rather than sell them at a loss . Despite the failure to control inflation , controls were slowly ended , and on April 30 , 1974 , their statutory authorization lapsed .
= = = = Governmental initiatives and organization = = = =
Nixon advocated a " New Federalism " , which would devolve power to state and local elected officials , though Congress was hostile to these ideas and enacted few of them . He eliminated the Cabinet @-@ level United States Post Office Department , which in 1971 became the government @-@ run United States Postal Service .
Nixon was a late convert to the conservation movement . Environmental policy had not been a significant issue in the 1968 election ; the candidates were rarely asked for their views on the subject . He saw that the first Earth Day in April 1970 presaged a wave of voter interest on the subject , and sought to use that to his benefit ; in June he announced the formation of the Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) . Nixon broke new ground by discussing environment policy in his State of the Union speech ; other initiatives supported by Nixon included the Clean Air Act of 1970 and Occupational Safety and Health Administration ( OSHA ) ; the National Environmental Policy Act required environmental impact statements for many Federal projects . Nixon vetoed the Clean Water Act of 1972 — objecting not to the policy goals of the legislation but to the amount of money to be spent on them , which he deemed excessive . After Congress overrode his veto , Nixon impounded the funds he deemed unjustifiable .
In 1971 , Nixon proposed health insurance reform — a private health insurance employer mandate , federalization of Medicaid for poor families with dependent minor children , and support for health maintenance organizations ( HMOs ) . A limited HMO bill was enacted in 1973 . In 1974 , Nixon proposed more comprehensive health insurance reform — a private health insurance employer mandate and replacement of Medicaid by state @-@ run health insurance plans available to all , with income @-@ based premiums and cost sharing .
Concerned about the prevalence of drug use both domestically and among American soldiers in Vietnam , Nixon called for a War on Drugs , pledging to cut off sources of supply abroad , and to increase funds for education and for rehabilitation facilities .
As one policy initiative , Nixon called for more money for sickle @-@ cell research , treatment , and education in February 1971 and signed the National Sickle Cell Anemia Control Act on May 16 , 1972 . While Nixon called for increased spending on such high @-@ profile items as sickle @-@ cell disease and for a War on Cancer , at the same time he sought to reduce overall spending at the National Institutes of Health .
= = = = Civil rights = = = =
The Nixon presidency witnessed the first large @-@ scale integration of public schools in the South . Nixon sought a middle way between the segregationist Wallace and liberal Democrats , whose support of integration was alienating some Southern whites . Hopeful of doing well in the South in 1972 , he sought to dispose of desegregation as a political issue before then . Soon after his inauguration , he appointed Vice President Agnew to lead a task force , which worked with local leaders — both white and black — to determine how to integrate local schools . Agnew had little interest in the work , and most of it was done by Labor Secretary George Shultz . Federal aid was available , and a meeting with President Nixon was a possible reward for compliant committees . By September 1970 , less than ten percent of black children were attending segregated schools . By 1971 , however , tensions over desegregation surfaced in Northern cities , with angry protests over the busing of children to schools outside their neighborhood to achieve racial balance . Nixon opposed busing personally but enforced court orders requiring its use .
In addition to desegregating public schools , Nixon implemented the Philadelphia Plan in 1970 — the first significant federal affirmative action program . He also endorsed the Equal Rights Amendment after it passed both houses of Congress in 1972 and went to the states for ratification . Nixon had campaigned as an ERA supporter in 1968 , though feminists criticized him for doing little to help the ERA or their cause after his election . Nevertheless , he appointed more women to administration positions than Lyndon Johnson had .
= = = Space policy = = =
After a nearly decade @-@ long national effort , the United States won the race to land astronauts on the Moon on July 20 , 1969 , with the flight of Apollo 11 . Nixon spoke with Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin during their moonwalk . He called the conversation " the most historic phone call ever made from the White House " .
Nixon , however , was unwilling to keep funding for the National Aeronautics and Space Administration ( NASA ) at the high level seen through the 1960s as NASA prepared to send men to the Moon . NASA Administrator Thomas O. Paine drew up ambitious plans for the establishment of a permanent base on the Moon by the end of the 1970s and the launch of a manned expedition to Mars as early as 1981 . Nixon , however , rejected both proposals due to the expense . Nixon also canceled the Air Force Manned Orbital Laboratory program in 1969 , because unmanned spy satellites were shown to be a more cost @-@ effective way to achieve the same reconnaissance objective .
On March 7 , 1970 , Nixon announced the end of the Kennedy @-@ Johnson era 's massive efforts in the space race , stating " We must think of [ space activities ] as part of a continuing process ... and not as a series of separate leaps , each requiring a massive concentration of energy . Space expenditures must take their proper place within a rigorous system of national priorities ... What we do in space from here on in must become a normal and regular part of our national life and must therefore be planned in conjunction with all of the other undertakings which are important to us . " He then cancelled the last three planned Apollo lunar missions to place Skylab in orbit more efficiently and free money up for the design and construction of the Space Shuttle .
On May 24 , 1972 , Nixon approved a five @-@ year cooperative program between NASA and the Soviet space program , culminating in the 1975 joint mission of an American Apollo and Soviet Soyuz spacecraft linking in space .
= = = Reelection , Watergate scandal , and resignation = = =
= = = = 1972 presidential campaign = = = =
Nixon believed his rise to power had peaked at a moment of political realignment . The Democratic " Solid South " had long been a source of frustration to Republican ambitions . Goldwater had won several Southern states by opposing the Civil Rights Act of 1964 but had alienated more moderate Southerners . Nixon 's efforts to gain Southern support in 1968 were diluted by Wallace 's candidacy . Through his first term , he pursued a Southern Strategy with policies , such as his desegregation plans , that would be broadly acceptable among Southern whites , encouraging them to realign with the Republicans in the aftermath of the Civil Rights era . He nominated two Southern conservatives , Clement Haynsworth and G. Harrold Carswell to the Supreme Court , but neither was confirmed by the Senate .
Nixon entered his name on the New Hampshire primary ballot on January 5 , 1972 , effectively announcing his candidacy for reelection . Virtually assured the Republican nomination , the President had initially expected his Democratic opponent to be Massachusetts Senator Ted Kennedy ( brother of the late president ) , but he was largely removed from contention after the 1969 Chappaquiddick incident . Instead , Maine Senator Edmund Muskie became the front runner , with South Dakota Senator George McGovern in a close second place .
On June 10 , McGovern won the California primary and secured the Democratic nomination . The following month , Nixon was renominated at the 1972 Republican National Convention . He dismissed the Democratic platform as cowardly and divisive . McGovern intended to sharply reduce defense spending and supported amnesty for draft evaders as well as abortion rights . With some of his supporters believed to be in favor of drug legalization , McGovern was perceived as standing for " amnesty , abortion and acid " . McGovern was also damaged by his vacillating support for his original running mate , Missouri Senator Thomas Eagleton , dumped from the ticket following revelations that he had received treatment for depression . Nixon was ahead in most polls for the entire election cycle , and was reelected on November 7 , 1972 in one of the largest landslide election victories in American history . He defeated McGovern with over 60 percent of the popular vote , losing only in Massachusetts and the District of Columbia .
= = = = Watergate = = = =
The term Watergate has come to encompass an array of clandestine and often illegal activities undertaken by members of the Nixon administration . Those activities included " dirty tricks , " or bugging the offices of political opponents and the harassment of activist groups and political figures . The activities were brought to light after five men were caught breaking into Democratic party headquarters at the Watergate complex in Washington , D.C. on June 17 , 1972 . The Washington Post picked up on the story ; reporters Carl Bernstein and Bob Woodward relied on an informant known as " Deep Throat " — later revealed to be Mark Felt , associate director at the FBI — to link the men to the Nixon administration . Nixon downplayed the scandal as mere politics , calling news articles biased and misleading . A series of revelations made it clear that the Committee to Re @-@ elect President Nixon , and later the White House , was involved in attempts to sabotage the Democrats . Senior aides such as White House Counsel John Dean faced prosecution ; in total 48 officials were convicted of wrongdoing .
In July 1973 , White House aide Alexander Butterfield testified under oath to Congress that Nixon had a secret taping system that recorded his conversations and phone calls in the Oval Office . These tapes were subpoenaed by Watergate Special Counsel Archibald Cox ; Nixon provided transcripts of the conversations but not the actual tapes , citing executive privilege . With the White House and Cox at loggerheads , Nixon had Cox fired in October in the " Saturday Night Massacre " ; he was replaced by Leon Jaworski . In November , Nixon 's lawyers revealed that an audio tape of conversations , held in the White House on June 20 , 1972 , featured an 18 ½ minute gap . Rose Mary Woods , the President 's personal secretary , claimed responsibility for the gap , alleging that she had accidentally wiped the section while transcribing the tape , though her tale was widely mocked . The gap , while not conclusive proof of wrongdoing by the President , cast doubt on Nixon 's statement that he had been unaware of the cover @-@ up .
Though Nixon lost much popular support , even from his own party , he rejected accusations of wrongdoing and vowed to stay in office . He insisted that he had made mistakes , but had no prior knowledge of the burglary , did not break any laws , and did not learn of the cover @-@ up until early 1973 . On October 10 , 1973 , Vice President Agnew resigned — unrelated to Watergate — and was convicted on charges of bribery , tax evasion and money laundering during his tenure as Governor of Maryland . Nixon chose Gerald Ford , Minority Leader of the House of Representatives , to replace Agnew .
On November 17 , 1973 , during a televised question and answer session with the press , Nixon said , " People have got to know whether or not their President is a crook . Well , I 'm not a crook . I 've earned everything I 've got . "
The legal battle over the tapes continued through early 1974 , and in April 1974 Nixon announced the release of 1 @,@ 200 pages of transcripts of White House conversations between him and his aides . The House Judiciary Committee opened impeachment hearings against the President on May 9 , 1974 , which were televised on the major TV networks . These hearings culminated in votes for impeachment . On July 24 , the Supreme Court ruled unanimously that the full tapes , not just selected transcripts , must be released .
The scandal grew to involve a slew of additional allegations against the President , ranging from the improper use of government agencies to accepting gifts in office and his personal finances and taxes ; Nixon repeatedly stated his willingness to pay any outstanding taxes due , and paid $ 465 @,@ 000 in back taxes in 1974 .
Even with support diminished by the continuing series of revelations , Nixon hoped to fight the charges . However , one of the new tapes , recorded soon after the break @-@ in , demonstrated that Nixon had been told of the White House connection to the Watergate burglaries soon after they took place , and had approved plans to thwart the investigation . In a statement accompanying the release of what became known as the " Smoking Gun Tape " on August 5 , 1974 , Nixon accepted blame for misleading the country about when he had been told of White House involvement , stating that he had a lapse of memory . He met with Republican congressional leaders soon after , and was told he faced certain impeachment in the House and had , at most , only 15 votes in his favor in the Senate — far fewer than the 34 he needed to avoid removal from office .
= = = = Resignation = = = =
In light of his loss of political support and the near @-@ certainty of impeachment , Nixon resigned the office of the presidency on August 9 , 1974 , after addressing the nation on television the previous evening . The resignation speech was delivered from the Oval Office and was carried live on radio and television . Nixon stated that he was resigning for the good of the country and asked the nation to support the new president , Gerald Ford . Nixon went on to review the accomplishments of his presidency , especially in foreign policy . He defended his record as president , quoting from Theodore Roosevelt 's 1910 speech Citizenship in a Republic :
Sometimes I have succeeded and sometimes I have failed , but always I have taken heart from what Theodore Roosevelt once said about the man in the arena , " whose face is marred by dust and sweat and blood , who strives valiantly , who errs and comes up short again and again because there is not effort without error and shortcoming , but who does actually strive to do the deed , who knows the great enthusiasms , the great devotions , who spends himself in a worthy cause , who at the best knows in the end the triumphs of high achievements and who at the worst , if he fails , at least fails while daring greatly " .
Nixon 's speech received generally favorable initial responses from network commentators , with only Roger Mudd of CBS stating that Nixon had not admitted wrongdoing . It was termed " a masterpiece " by Conrad Black , one of his biographers . Black opined that " What was intended to be an unprecedented humiliation for any American president , Nixon converted into a virtual parliamentary acknowledgement of almost blameless insufficiency of legislative support to continue . He left while devoting half his address to a recitation of his accomplishments in office . "
= = Later years and death = =
= = = Pardon and illness = = =
Following his resignation , the Nixons flew to their home La Casa Pacifica in San Clemente , California . According to his biographer , Aitken , after his resignation , " Nixon was a soul in torment " . Congress had funded Nixon 's transition costs , including some salary expenses , though reducing the appropriation from $ 850 @,@ 000 to $ 200 @,@ 000 . With some of his staff still with him , Nixon was at his desk by 7 a.m. — with little to do . His former press secretary , Ron Ziegler , sat with him alone for hours each day .
Nixon 's resignation had not put an end to the desire among many to see him punished . The Ford White House considered a pardon of Nixon , though it would be unpopular in the country . Nixon , contacted by Ford emissaries , was initially reluctant to accept the pardon , but then agreed to do so . Ford , however , insisted on a statement of contrition ; Nixon felt he had not committed any crimes and should not have to issue such a document . Ford eventually agreed , and on September 8 , 1974 , he granted Nixon a " full , free , and absolute pardon " , which ended any possibility of an indictment . Nixon then released a statement :
I was wrong in not acting more decisively and more forthrightly in dealing with Watergate , particularly when it reached the stage of judicial proceedings and grew from a political scandal into a national tragedy . No words can describe the depth of my regret and pain at the anguish my mistakes over Watergate have caused the nation and the presidency , a nation I so deeply love , and an institution I so greatly respect .
In October 1974 , Nixon fell ill with phlebitis , the inflammation of the walls of a vein . Told by his doctors that he could either be operated on or die , a reluctant Nixon chose surgery , and President Ford visited him in the hospital . Nixon was under subpoena for the trial of three of his former aides — Dean , Haldeman , and John Ehrlichman — and The Washington Post , disbelieving his illness , printed a cartoon showing Nixon with a cast on the " wrong foot " . Judge John Sirica excused Nixon 's presence despite the defendants ' objections . Congress instructed Ford to retain Nixon 's presidential papers — beginning a three @-@ decade legal battle over the documents that was eventually won by the former president and his estate . Nixon was in the hospital when the 1974 midterm elections were held , and Watergate and the pardon were contributing factors to the Republican loss of 43 seats in the House and three in the Senate .
= = = Return to public life = = =
In December 1974 , Nixon began planning his comeback despite the considerable ill @-@ will against him in the country . He wrote in his diary , referring to himself and Pat ,
So be it . We will see it through . We 've had tough times before and we can take the tougher ones that we will have to go through now . That is perhaps what we were made for — to be able to take punishment beyond what anyone in this office has had before particularly after leaving office . This is a test of character and we must not fail the test .
By early 1975 , Nixon 's health was improving . He maintained an office in a Coast Guard station 300 yards from his home , at first taking a golf cart and later walking the route each day ; he mainly worked on his memoirs . He had hoped to wait before writing his memoirs ; the fact that his assets were being eaten away by expenses and lawyer fees compelled him to begin work quickly . He was handicapped in this work by the end of his transition allowance in February , which compelled him to part with many of his staff , including Ziegler . In August of that year , he met with British talk @-@ show host and producer David Frost , who paid him $ 600 @,@ 000 for a series of sit @-@ down interviews , filmed and aired in 1977 . They began on the topic of foreign policy , recounting the leaders he had known , but the most remembered section of the interviews was that on Watergate . Nixon admitted that he had " let down the country " and that " I brought myself down . I gave them a sword and they stuck it in . And they twisted it with relish . And , I guess , if I 'd been in their position , I 'd have done the same thing . " The interviews garnered 45 – 50 million viewers — becoming the most @-@ watched program of their kind in television history .
The interviews helped improve Nixon 's financial position — at one point in early 1975 he had only $ 500 in the bank — as did the sale of his Key Biscayne property to a trust set up by wealthy Nixon friends such as Bebe Rebozo . In February 1976 , Nixon visited China at the personal invitation of Mao . Nixon had wanted to return to China , but chose to wait until after Ford 's own visit in 1975 . Nixon remained neutral in the close 1976 primary battle between Ford and Reagan . Ford won , but was defeated by Georgia Governor Jimmy Carter in the general election . The Carter administration had little use for Nixon and blocked his planned trip to Australia , causing the government of Prime Minister Malcolm Fraser to withhold its official invitation .
In 1976 , Nixon was disbarred in the state of New York for obstruction of justice in the Watergate affair . Nixon chose not to present any defense . In early 1978 , Nixon went to the United Kingdom . He was shunned by American diplomats and by most ministers of the James Callaghan government . He was welcomed , however , by the Leader of the Opposition , Margaret Thatcher , as well as by former prime ministers Lord Home and Sir Harold Wilson . Two other former prime ministers , Harold Macmillan and Edward Heath declined to meet him . Nixon addressed the Oxford Union regarding Watergate :
Some people say I didn 't handle it properly and they 're right . I screwed it up . Mea culpa . But let 's get on to my achievements . You 'll be here in the year 2000 and we 'll see how I 'm regarded then .
= = = Author and elder statesman = = =
In 1978 , Nixon published his memoirs , RN : The Memoirs of Richard Nixon , the first of ten books he was to author in his retirement . The book was a bestseller and attracted a generally positive critical response . Nixon journeyed to the White House in 1979 , invited by Carter for the state dinner for Chinese Vice Premier Deng Xiaoping . Carter had not wanted to invite Nixon , but Deng had stated he would visit Nixon in California if the former president was not invited . Nixon had a private meeting with Deng and visited Beijing again in mid @-@ 1979 .
On August 10 , 1979 , the Nixons purchased a New York City townhouse at 817 Fifth Avenue after being rejected by two Manhattan co @-@ ops . When the former Shah of Iran died in Egypt in July 1980 , Nixon defied the State Department , which intended to send no U.S. representative , by attending the funeral . Though Nixon had no official credentials , as a former president he was seen as the American presence at its former ally 's funeral . Nixon supported Ronald Reagan for president in 1980 , making television appearances portraying himself as , in biographer Stephen Ambrose 's words , " the senior statesman above the fray " . He wrote guest articles for many publications both during the campaign and after Reagan 's victory . After eighteen months in the New York City townhouse , Nixon and his wife moved in 1981 to Saddle River , New Jersey .
Throughout the 1980s , Nixon maintained an ambitious schedule of speaking engagements and writing , traveled , and met with many foreign leaders , especially those of Third World countries . He joined former Presidents Ford and Carter as representatives of the United States at the funeral of Egyptian President Anwar Sadat . On a trip to the Middle East , Nixon made his views known regarding Saudi Arabia and Libya , which attracted significant U.S. media attention ; The Washington Post ran stories on Nixon 's " rehabilitation " . Nixon journeyed to the Soviet Union in 1986 and on his return sent President Reagan a lengthy memorandum containing foreign policy suggestions and his personal impressions of Mikhail Gorbachev . Following this trip , Nixon was ranked in a Gallup poll as one of the ten most admired men in the world .
In 1986 , Nixon addressed a convention of newspaper publishers , impressing his audience with his tour d 'horizon of the world . At the time , political pundit Elizabeth Drew wrote , " Even when he was wrong , Nixon still showed that he knew a great deal and had a capacious memory , as well as the capacity to speak with apparent authority , enough to impress people who had little regard for him in earlier times . " Newsweek ran a story on " Nixon 's comeback " with the headline " He 's back " .
On July 19 , 1990 , the Richard Nixon Library and Birthplace in Yorba Linda , California opened as a private institution with the Nixons in attendance . They were joined by a large crowd of people , including Presidents Ford , Reagan , and George H. W. Bush , as well as their wives , Betty , Nancy , and Barbara . In January 1991 , the former president founded the Nixon Center ( today the Center for the National Interest ) , a Washington policy think tank and conference center .
Pat Nixon died on June 22 , 1993 , of emphysema and lung cancer . Her funeral services were held on the grounds of the Richard Nixon Library and Birthplace . Former President Nixon was distraught throughout the interment and delivered a moving tribute to her inside the library building .
= = = Death and funeral = = =
Nixon suffered a severe stroke on April 18 , 1994 , while preparing to eat dinner in his Park Ridge , New Jersey home . A blood clot resulting from the atrial fibrillation he had suffered for many years had formed in his upper heart , broken off , and traveled to his brain . He was taken to New York Hospital – Cornell Medical Center in Manhattan , initially alert but unable to speak or to move his right arm or leg . Damage to the brain caused swelling ( cerebral edema ) , and Nixon slipped into a deep coma . He died at 9 : 08 p.m. on April 22 , 1994 , with his daughters at his bedside . He was 81 years old .
Nixon 's funeral took place on April 27 , 1994 in Yorba Linda , California . Eulogists at the Nixon Library ceremony included President Bill Clinton , former Secretary of State Henry Kissinger , Senate Minority Leader Bob Dole , California Governor Pete Wilson , and the Reverend Billy Graham . Also in attendance were former Presidents Ford , Carter , Reagan , George H. W. Bush , and their wives .
Richard Nixon is buried beside his wife Pat on the grounds of the Nixon Library . He was survived by his two daughters , Tricia and Julie , and four grandchildren . In keeping with his wishes , his funeral was not a full state funeral , though his body did lie in repose in the Nixon Library lobby from April 26 to the morning of the funeral service . Mourners waited in line for up to eight hours in chilly , wet weather to pay their respects . At its peak , the line to pass by Nixon 's casket was three miles long with an estimated 42 @,@ 000 people waiting to pay their respects .
John F. Stacks of Time magazine said of Nixon shortly after his death ,
An outsize energy and determination drove him on to recover and rebuild after every self @-@ created disaster that he faced . To reclaim a respected place in American public life after his resignation , he kept traveling and thinking and talking to the world 's leaders ... and by the time Bill Clinton came to the White House [ in 1993 ] , Nixon had virtually cemented his role as an elder statesman . Clinton , whose wife served on the staff of the committee that voted to impeach Nixon , met openly with him and regularly sought his advice .
Tom Wicker of The New York Times noted that Nixon had been equalled only by Franklin Roosevelt in being five times nominated on a major party ticket and , quoting Nixon 's 1962 farewell speech , wrote ,
Richard Nixon 's jowly , beard @-@ shadowed face , the ski @-@ jump nose and the widow 's peak , the arms upstretched in the V @-@ sign , had been so often pictured and caricatured , his presence had become such a familiar one in the land , he had been so often in the heat of controversy , that it was hard to realize the nation really would not ' have Nixon to kick around anymore ' .
Ambrose said of the reaction to Nixon 's death , " To everyone 's amazement , except his , he 's our beloved elder statesman . "
Upon Nixon 's death , almost all of the news coverage mentioned Watergate , but for the most part , the coverage was favorable to the former president . The Dallas Morning News stated , " History ultimately should show that despite his flaws , he was one of our most farsighted chief executives . " This offended some ; columnist Russell Baker complained of " a group conspiracy to grant him absolution " . Cartoonist Jeff Koterba of the Omaha World @-@ Herald depicted History before a blank canvas , his subject Nixon , as America looks on eagerly . The artist urges his audience to sit down ; the work will take some time to complete , as " this portrait is a little more complicated than most " .
= = Legacy = =
Historian and political scientist James MacGregor Burns observed of Nixon , " How can one evaluate such an idiosyncratic president , so brilliant and so morally lacking ? " Nixon 's biographers disagree on how he will be perceived by history . According to Ambrose , " Nixon wanted to be judged by what he accomplished . What he will be remembered for is the nightmare he put the country through in his second term and for his resignation . " Irwin Gellman , who chronicled Nixon 's congressional career , suggests that " he was remarkable among his congressional peers , a success story in a troubled era , one who steered a sensible anti @-@ Communist course against the excess of McCarthy " . Aitken feels that " Nixon , both as a man and as a statesman , has been excessively maligned for his faults and inadequately recognised for his virtues . Yet even in a spirit of historical revisionism , no simple verdict is possible . "
Nixon 's Southern Strategy is credited by some historians as causing the South to become a Republican stronghold , though others deem economic factors more important to the change . Throughout his career , he was instrumental in moving his party away from the control of isolationists , and as a congressman was a persuasive advocate of containing Soviet communism . According to his biographer , Herbert Parmet , " Nixon 's role was to steer the Republican party along a middle course , somewhere between the competitive impulses of the Rockefellers , the Goldwaters , and the Reagans . "
Nixon is given credit for his stance on domestic affairs , which resulted in the passage and enforcement of environmental and regulatory legislation . Historian Paul Charles Milazzo in his 2011 paper on Nixon and the environment , points to Nixon 's creation of the EPA and his enforcement of legislation such as the 1973 Endangered Species Act , stating that " though unsought and unacknowledged , Richard Nixon 's environmental legacy is secure . "
Nixon saw his policies regarding Vietnam , China , and the Soviets as key to his place in history . George McGovern , Nixon 's onetime opponent , commented in 1983 , " President Nixon probably had a more practical approach to the two superpowers , China and the Soviet Union , than any other president since World War II ... With the exception of his inexcusable continuation of the war in Vietnam , Nixon really will get high marks in history . " Political scientist Jussi M. Hanhimäki disagrees , saying Nixon 's diplomacy was merely a continuation of the Cold War policy of containment , using diplomatic rather than military means . Historian Christopher Andrew concludes that " Nixon was a great statesman on the world stage as well as a shabby practitioner of electoral politics in the domestic arena . While the criminal farce of Watergate was in the making , Nixon 's inspirational statesmanship was establishing new working relationships with both Communist China and the Soviet Union . "
Historian Keith W. Olson has written that Nixon left a negative legacy : fundamental mistrust of government with its roots in Vietnam and Watergate . During the impeachment of Bill Clinton in 1998 , both sides tried to use Nixon and Watergate to their advantage : Republicans suggested that Clinton 's misconduct had been comparable to Nixon 's , while Democrats contended that Nixon 's actions had been far more serious than those of the incumbent . Another legacy , for a time , was a decrease in the power of the presidency as Congress passed restrictive legislation in the wake of Watergate . Olson suggests that grants of power to George W. Bush in the aftermath of the 9 / 11 attacks restored the president 's power .
= = Personality and public image = =
Nixon 's career was frequently dogged by his persona and the public 's perception of it . Editorial cartoonists and comedians often exaggerated his appearance and mannerisms , to the point where the line between the human and the caricature became increasingly blurred . He was often portrayed with unshaven jowls , slumped shoulders , and a furrowed , sweaty brow .
Nixon had a complex personality , both very secretive and awkward , yet strikingly reflective about himself . He was inclined to distance himself from people and was formal in all aspects , wearing a coat and tie even when home alone . Nixon biographer Conrad Black described him as being " driven " though also " uneasy with himself in some ways " . According to Black , Nixon
thought that he was doomed to be traduced , double @-@ crossed , unjustly harassed , misunderstood , underappreciated , and subjected to the trials of Job , but that by the application of his mighty will , tenacity , and diligence , he would ultimately prevail .
Biographer Elizabeth Drew summarized Nixon as a " smart , talented man , but most peculiar and haunted of presidents " . In his account of the Nixon presidency , author Richard Reeves described Nixon as " a strange man of uncomfortable shyness , who functioned best alone with his thoughts " . Nixon 's presidency was doomed by his personality , Reeves argues :
He assumed the worst in people and he brought out the worst in them ... He clung to the idea of being ' tough ' . He thought that was what had brought him to the edge of greatness . But that was what betrayed him . He could not open himself to other men and he could not open himself to greatness .
Nixon believed that putting distance between himself and other people was necessary for him as he advanced in his political career and became president . Even Bebe Rebozo , by some accounts his closest friend , did not call him by his first name . Nixon stated of this ,
Even with close friends , I don 't believe in letting your hair down , confiding this and that and the other thing — saying , ' Gee , I couldn 't sleep ' ... I believe you should keep your troubles to yourself . That 's just the way I am . Some people are different . Some people think it 's good therapy to sit with a close friend and , you know , just spill your guts ... [ and ] reveal their inner psyche — whether they were breast @-@ fed or bottle @-@ fed . Not me . No way .
When told that most Americans , even at the end of his career , did not feel they knew him , Nixon replied , " Yeah , it 's true . And it 's not necessary for them to know . "
= = = Explanatory notes = = =
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= Christ unser Herr zum Jordan kam , BWV 7 =
Christ unser Herr zum Jordan kam ( Christ our Lord came to the Jordan ) , BWV 7 , is a church cantata by Johann Sebastian Bach . He composed it in Leipzig for the Feast of St. John the Baptist and led its first performance on 24 June 1724 .
It is the third cantata Bach composed for his chorale cantata cycle , the second cycle he started after being appointed Thomaskantor in 1723 . The cantata is based on the seven stanzas of Martin Luther 's hymn " Christ unser Herr zum Jordan kam " , about baptism . The first and last stanza of the chorale were used for the outer movements of the cantata , while an unknown librettist paraphrased the inner stanzas of the hymn into the text for the five other movements . The first movement , a chorale fantasia , is followed by a succession of arias alternating with recitatives , leading to a four @-@ part closing chorale .
The cantata is scored for three vocal soloists ( alto , tenor and bass ) , a four @-@ part choir , two oboes d 'amore , two solo violins , strings and basso continuo .
= = History and words = =
Bach composed this cantata for St John 's Day 24 June 1724 in Leipzig , as the third cantata of his second annual cycle ( the chorale cantata cycle ) , which had begun about two weeks earlier on the first Sunday after Trinity . The cycle was devoted to Lutheran hymns , typically rendered by keeping their text of the first and last stanza , while a contemporary poet reworded the inner stanzas .
The prescribed readings for the feast of the birth of John the Baptist were from the Book of Isaiah , " the voice of a preacher in the desert " ( Isaiah 40 : 1 – 5 ) , and from the Gospel of Luke , the birth of John the Baptist and the Benedictus of Zechariah ( Luke 1 : 57 – 80 ) . Martin Luther 's hymn " Christ unser Herr zum Jordan kam " ( To Jordan came our Lord the Christ ) is associated with the feast . Its topic , differing from that of the readings , is baptism , which is treated based on biblical accounts , starting from Christ 's baptism by John the Baptist in the river Jordan . The hymn tune is " Es woll [ t ] uns Gott genädig sein " , Zahn No. 7246 .
Bach used the text of the first stanza of Luther 's hymn for the first movement of his cantata , with its chorale melody sung as cantus firmus . The final movement of the cantata is a four @-@ part chorale setting of the seventh stanza , on the hymn tune . The five arias and recitatives between these choral movements are settings of text paraphrased from the hymn 's other stanzas .
= = Scoring and structure = =
The cantata in seven movements is scored for three vocal soloists ( alto ( A ) , tenor ( T ) and bass ( B ) ) , a four @-@ part choir ( SATB ) , two oboes d 'amore ( Oa ) , two solo violins ( Vs , the second one only introduced in a later performance ) , two violins ( Vl ) , viola ( Va ) and basso continuo ( Bc ) .
= = Music = =
The seven @-@ movement cantata begins with a chorale fantasia and ends , after a sequence of alternating arias and recitatives , with a closing chorale as a four @-@ part setting . Bach increased the number of accompanying instruments for the arias , from only continuo in the second movement , over two solo violins in the central movement of the cantata , to two oboes d 'amore and strings in the sixth movement .
= = = 1 = = =
In the opening chorus , " Christ unser Herr zum Jordan kam " ( Christ our Lord came to the Jordan ) , the tenor has the melody as a cantus firmus , while the other voices sing free counterpoint . In the first cantata of the chorale cantata cycle , O Ewigkeit , du Donnerwort , BWV 20 , Bach had given the cantus firmus of the chorale tune to the soprano , and in the second , Ach Gott , vom Himmel sieh darein , BWV 2 , to the alto .
The opening chorus resembles an Italian violin concerto . The musicologist Julian Mincham likens the " solo violin 's persistent , rocking , wave @-@ like idea " to the waves of the Jordan River . Alfred Dürr compares the vocal sections , all with the solo violin , to the solo sections of a violin concerto , as opposed to the tutti sections with the orchestra . John Eliot Gardiner interprets the movement as a French overture , " replete with grandiloquent baroque gestures to suggest both the processional entrance of Jesus and the powerful flooding of the River Jordan " . Klaus Hofmann notes that the movement combines the old style of motet writing with the new type of solo concerto , and observes that " the main violin solo episodes ... are at first linked to the choral entries , but gradually assume larger proportions and greater independence as the movement progresses " .
= = = 2 = = =
The first aria , " Merkt und hört , ihr Menschenkinder " ( Mark and hear , you humans ) , is accompanied by the continuo alone . Mincham observes that a characteristic fast motif of five notes , repeated abundantly in the cello , always flows downward , while Bach usually also inverses motifs , such as in his Inventions . Mincham concludes that it represents the " pouring of the baptismal waters " .
= = = 3 = = =
The following recitative is given to the tenor as an Evangelist : " Dies hat Gott klar mit Worten " ( This God has clearly provided with words ) , narrating the biblical command to baptise .
= = = 4 = = =
The central aria is sung by the tenor , accompanied by two violins , marked " solo " in a later performance , " Des Vaters Stimme ließ sich hören " ( The Father 's voice can be heard ) . Gardiner notes that the music " describes , through its pair of soaring violins , the circling flight of the Holy Spirit as a dove " . Hofmann notes the character of the movement as a gigue , and several appearances of the number 3 as a symbol of the Trinity : it is a trio for voice and two violins , " in triple time – and markedly so : not only is the time signature 3 / 4 , but also the crotchets are each divided into triplets " , and in a form of three solo sections as " all variants of a single model that is presented in the opening and concluding ritornellos " . Hofmann concludes : " The sequence that this creates – three different forms of the same musical substance – is evidently to be understood as a symbol of the Holy Trinity . "
= = = 5 = = =
A recitative for bass , the vox Christi ( voice of Christ ) , " Als Jesus dort nach seinen Leiden " ( As Jesus there , after His passion ) , speaks of Jesus after his passion and resurrection . It is accompanied by the strings , similar to the words of Jesus in Bach 's St Matthew Passion .
= = = 6 = = =
The last aria is sung by the alto with rich accompaniment : " Menschen , glaubt doch dieser Gnade " ( People , believe this grace now , ) . The two oboes d 'amore double the first violin when human beings are requested to accept the grace of God to not " perish in the pit of hell " .
= = = 7 = = =
The closing chorale is the final stanza of the hymn , with the instruments playing colla parte : " Das Aug allein das Wasser sieht " ( The eye sees only water , ) , a summary of Luther 's teaching about baptism .
= = Editions = =
In 1851 , about a century before the cantata got its BWV number , it was published as No. 7 in the first volume of the Bach @-@ Gesellschaft @-@ Ausgabe . In the New Bach Edition the cantata was included in Series I , Volume 29 , Kantaten zum Johannisfest ( Cantatas for St. John 's Day ) . Calmus and Breitkopf & Härtel published performance scores . The Breitkopf score translates the cantata 's title as Lord Christ of old to Jordan came .
= = Selected recordings = =
A list of recordings is provided by Aryeh Oron on the Bach @-@ Cantatas website . The type of choir and orchestra is roughly shown as a large group by red background , and as an ensemble with period instruments in historically informed performance by green background .
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= Paul Gascoigne =
Paul John Gascoigne ( born 27 May 1967 ) is a former England international footballer and football manager . He is also known by his nickname , Gazza . He earned 57 caps during his England career and has been described by the National Football Museum as " the most naturally gifted English midfielder of his generation " .
Born and raised in Gateshead , the midfielder signed schoolboy terms with Newcastle United , before turning professional with the top tier ( pre @-@ Premier League creation ) club in 1985 . Three years later he was sold on to Tottenham Hotspur for a £ 2 @.@ 2 million fee . He won the FA Cup with Spurs in 1991 , before he was sold to Italian club Lazio for £ 5 @.@ 5 million the following year . In July 1995 , he was transferred to Rangers for £ 4 @.@ 3 million , and helped the club to two league titles and two trophies . He returned to England in a £ 3 @.@ 4 million move to Middlesbrough in March 1998 . He made his debut in the Premier League in the 1998 – 99 season , having already featured in the 1998 Football League Cup Final . He switched to Everton in July 2000 , and later had spells with Burnley , Gansu Tianma ( China ) , and Boston United .
He was part of the England squad that reached fourth place in the 1990 FIFA World Cup , where he was reduced to tears after receiving a yellow card in the semi @-@ final with West Germany , which meant he would be suspended for the final itself had England won the game . He also helped the team to the semi @-@ finals of UEFA Euro 1996 , scoring a goal against Scotland which was described as one of the best of the tournament .
After retiring from professional football , his life became dominated by his mental and emotional problems , particularly his alcoholism . His personal struggles have received regular coverage in the British press , especially since leaving professional football . He has attempted to live without alcohol on numerous occasions , though rehabilitation programmes have provided only temporary relief . His problems ended his coaching career , and he has not worked since being fired as the manager of Kettering Town in 2005 .
= = Early life = =
Gascoigne was born in the Dunston area of Gateshead , England on 27 May 1967 . His father , John , was a hod carrier , and his mother , Carol , worked in a factory . He was named Paul John Gascoigne in tribute to The Beatles members Paul McCartney and John Lennon .
He attended Breckenbeds Junior High School , then the Heathfield Senior High School , both in the Low Fell area of Gateshead . He was noticed by football scouts while playing for Gateshead Boys , though failed to impress in a trial at Ipswich Town . Further trials at Middlesbrough and Southampton also proved unsuccessful , before the team he supported , Newcastle United , signed him as a schoolboy in 1980 . He was usually overweight whilst signed to Newcastle and frequently got into trouble with his friend Jimmy " Five Bellies " Gardner , particularly when the pair were taken to court and fined over a hit and run incident . Newcastle chairman Stan Seymour described Gascoigne as " George Best without brains " .
While Gascoigne was successful on the football field , his childhood was marked by instability and tragedy . Initially his family lived in a single upstairs room in a council house with a shared bathroom , and moved several times during Gascoigne 's early life . When he was ten , Gascoigne witnessed the death of Steven Spraggon , the younger brother of a friend , who was killed in a traffic collision . Around this time , his father began to suffer from seizures . Gascoigne began developing obsessions and twitches , and was taken into therapy at age ten , but soon quit the therapy sessions after his father expressed doubts over the treatment methods .
Gascoigne developed an addiction to gaming machines , frequently spending all his money on them , and also began shoplifting to fund his addiction . Gascoigne experienced further tragedy when a friend , whom he had encouraged to join Newcastle United from Middlesbrough , died whilst he was working for Gascoigne 's uncle on a building site . At the age of 15 , he took the decision to provide for his family – his parents and two sisters – financially , as he saw professional football as a way of earning more money than the rest of the family were capable of . He enjoyed football , and later wrote that " I didn 't have twitches or worry about death when I was playing football " . He was signed on as an apprentice at Newcastle on his sixteenth birthday .
= = Club career = =
= = = Newcastle United = = =
Gascoigne captained Newcastle United 's youth team to the FA Youth Cup in the 1984 – 85 season , and scored twice in the 4 – 1 victory over Watford in the final at Vicarage Road . Manager Jack Charlton handed Gascoigne his first team debut as a substitute for George Reilly in a 1 – 0 win over Queens Park Rangers on 13 April 1985 at St James ' Park . At the age of 18 Gascoigne signed a two @-@ year £ 120 a week contract at Newcastle , with the club also having a further two @-@ year option clause .
Willie McFaul took over as manager for the 1985 – 86 season , and named Gascoigne in his first eleven from the opening game of the campaign ; he took the place of Chris Waddle , who had been sold to Tottenham Hotspur in the summer . He scored his first goal at home to Oxford United in a 3 – 0 victory on 21 September 1985 , and claimed a further eight goals in the 1985 – 86 campaign . Newcastle finished 11th in the First Division that season and , at the end of it , Gascoigne was featured on the front cover of the Rothmans Football Yearbook .
He scored five goals in 24 league games in the 1986 – 87 season , as the " Magpies " slipped to 17th place , just three points above the relegation play @-@ offs .
In a 0 – 0 draw with Wimbledon at Plough Lane hard @-@ man Vinnie Jones singled him out for attention , and in an incident that would become a much @-@ publicised photograph , Jones grabbed him by the genitals as Gascoigne screamed in agony . Gascoigne subsequently sent Jones a red rose , and the two became good friends . He was named as the PFA Young Player of the Year and listed on the PFA Team of the Year in the 1987 – 88 season , and was the subject of offers from both Manchester United and Tottenham Hotspur . His first choice was Liverpool but with no offer forthcoming , Gascoigne promised Alex Ferguson that he would sign for Manchester United . Ferguson duly went on holiday to Malta , where he received the news that Gascoigne had signed for Spurs , for a record British fee of £ 2 @.@ 2 million . In his 1999 autobiography , Ferguson claimed that Gascoigne was wooed into signing for Tottenham after they bought a house for his impoverished family .
= = = Tottenham Hotspur = = =
In his first season at White Hart Lane Gascoigne helped Terry Venables 's Spurs to sixth in the First Division , scoring seven goals in 37 appearances . They rose to third place in 1989 – 90 , but were still 16 points behind champions Liverpool . He was named as BBC Sports Personality of the Year in 1990 , and on accepting the award said that " I haven 't won anything in the game as yet . But the World Cup did help to put England on the map " . He was also named as Tottenham Hotspur 's Player of the Year .
Gascoigne was named on the PFA Team of the Year in the 1990 – 91 season as Tottenham reached the FA Cup Final , with victories over Blackpool , Oxford United , Portsmouth , Notts County and North London derby rivals Arsenal . He scored the opening goal of the 3 – 1 victory over Arsenal at Wembley with a free @-@ kick , one of six goals he scored in the competition . Going into the final against Nottingham Forest he had already agreed terms to join Italian club Lazio in an £ 8 @.@ 5 million deal . However just 15 minutes into the game he committed a dangerous knee @-@ high foul on Gary Charles and ruptured his own cruciate ligaments in his right knee . England team mate Stuart Pearce scored from the resultant free kick , and Gascoigne subsequently collapsed after the kick @-@ off , forcing him to leave the match on a stretcher . Tottenham went on to win the Cup in extra @-@ time .
He missed the entire 1991 – 92 season while he recovered , suffering a further knee injury in late 1991 , when an incident at a nightclub on Tyneside kept him out for even longer . The saga over Gascoigne 's proposed transfer to Lazio dominated the tabloid press throughout 1991 , often overshadowing the key national news of that time – namely the recession and rise in unemployment that it sparked – although the broadsheet newspapers generally kept stories about Gascoigne confined to their back pages .
" I 'm very pleased for Paul but it 's like watching your mother @-@ in @-@ law drive off a cliff in your new car . "
= = = Lazio = = =
Gascoigne eventually joined Lazio for a fee of £ 5 @.@ 5 million ; he received a £ 2 million signing @-@ on fee and signed a contract worth £ 22 @,@ 000 a week . He made his Serie A debut on 27 September 1992 in a match against Genoa which was televised in Britain as well as Italy . He failed to fully settle in Italy and was beset by negative media interest which was not helped by the numerous occasions he punched reporters and the time when he belched down a microphone on live television . He was well received by the club 's fans , but not by the club 's owner Sergio Cragnotti , who resented him after Gascoigne greeted him by saying " Tua figlia , grande tette " ( roughly translated as " Your daughter , big tits " ) . His form was inconsistent in his first season at the Stadio Olimpico as he had previously spent a year out injured , but he endeared himself to Eagles fans when he scored in the 89th minute to equalise during the Rome derby against A.S. Roma . He broke his cheekbone whilst on international duty in April 1993 , and had to play the remaining games of the season in a mask . Lazio ended the campaign in fifth place , which was considered a success as it meant qualification for European competition for the first time in 16 years .
He fell badly out of shape before the 1993 – 94 season and was told by manager Dino Zoff to lose two stone ( 13 kg ) by the start of the campaign else he would lose his first team place . Gascoigne went on an extreme weight loss diet and succeeded in shedding the excess fat . He kept his place in the team and captained the club against US Cremonese when regular captain Roberto Cravero was substituted . However , in April he broke his leg in training whilst attempting to tackle Alessandro Nesta . Upon his recovery he was disgruntled with new head coach Zdeněk Zeman 's stern fitness approach , and both club and player decided to part ways at the end of the 1994 – 95 season .
= = = Rangers = = =
Gascoigne signed for Rangers in July 1995 , for a club record fee of £ 4 @.@ 3 million , on wages of £ 15 @,@ 000 a week . He made an immediate impact ; in the fifth league game of the season in the Old Firm match at Celtic Park he scored a goal after running almost the full length of the pitch . On 30 December , in a match against Hibernian , Gascoigne was booked by referee Dougie Smith after he picked Smith 's yellow card up from the ground and jokingly ' booked ' the referee . Rangers went on to win the league in the 1995 – 96 season , clinching the title in the penultimate game of the season against Aberdeen at Ibrox Stadium ; Gascoigne scored a hat @-@ trick during the game . Rangers won the double as they also won the Scottish Cup by knocking out Keith , Clyde , Inverness Caledonian Thistle and Celtic , before beating Heart of Midlothian 5 – 1 in the final at Hampden Park . He scored 19 goals in 42 appearances in all competitions , and was named as both PFA Scotland Players ' Player of the Year and SFWA Footballer of the Year .
Rangers won the league title again in 1996 – 97 , their ninth in succession . Gascoigne claimed hat @-@ tricks against Kilmarnock and Motherwell , and ended the campaign with 17 goals in 34 games . However manager Walter Smith and assistant Archie Knox became increasingly concerned over Gascoigne 's reliance on alcohol . The " Gers " won another double by winning the League Cup , knocking out Clydebank , Ayr United , Hibernian and Dunfermline Athletic en route to the final . Rangers beat Hearts 4 – 3 in the final at Celtic Park , with Gascoigne scoring two goals and Ally McCoist claiming the other two .
In November 1997 , Gascoigne received a five @-@ match ban after being sent off for violent conduct during the Old Firm derby following an incident with Celtic midfielder Morten Wieghorst . In January 1998 , Gascoigne courted serious controversy after he played a mock flute ( symbolic of the flute @-@ playing of Orange Order marchers ) during an Old Firm match at Celtic Park . The gesture infuriated Celtic fans who had been taunting him and Gascoigne was fined £ 20 @,@ 000 by Rangers after the incident . He also received a death threat from an Irish Republican Army ( IRA ) Member following the incident . The 1997 – 98 season was not a success , as Gascoigne scored just three goals in 28 games and Rangers failed to win any trophies , losing the league title to Celtic .
= = = Middlesbrough = = =
Gascoigne left Scotland to join Middlesbrough for £ 3 @.@ 45 million in March 1998 , where former England teammate Bryan Robson was manager . His first match was the 1998 Football League Cup Final defeat to Chelsea at Wembley , where he came on as a substitute . He played seven games in the First Division , helping " Boro " into the Premier League as runners @-@ up to Nottingham Forest at the end of the 1997 – 98 season .
Before the 1998 – 99 campaign began , Gascoigne began suffering from blackouts after blaming himself for the death of a friend , who died after Gascoigne and a group of friends went on a night out drinking . Despite his ongoing personal problems and his spell in rehab , Gascoigne started the season in good form and helped Middlesbrough into fourth place by Christmas . They ended the season in ninth place and having scored three goals in 26 top @-@ flight games Gascoigne was linked with a recall to the England squad , who were now managed by former teammate Kevin Keegan and lacking a creative presence in midfield .
His career went into terminal decline during the 1999 – 2000 campaign , with Gascoigne breaking his arm after elbowing opposition midfield player George Boateng in the head during Middlesbrough 's 4 – 0 defeat to Aston Villa at the Riverside Stadium . He subsequently received a three match ban and £ 5 @,@ 000 fine from the Football Association .
= = = Everton = = =
Gascoigne signed a two @-@ year contract with Everton , managed by former Rangers boss Walter Smith , after joining on a free transfer in July 2000 . He started the 2000 – 01 season well despite not playing every game due to his lack of fitness , but a series of niggling injuries and his ongoing depression took him out of the first team picture by Christmas .
After spending time at an alcohol rehabilitation clinic in Arizona , Gascoigne was fit enough to play for the " Toffees " in the 2001 – 02 season , and he scored his first goal for the club – and last in English football – away to Bolton Wanderers on 3 November . However he then suffered a hernia injury , which kept him out of action for three months . Walter Smith left Goodison Park in March , and Gascoigne left the club shortly after his successor , David Moyes , took charge .
= = = Later career = = =
Gascoigne finished the 2001 – 02 season with Stan Ternent 's Burnley , where he made six First Division appearances . The club narrowly missed out on the play @-@ offs , and he left Turf Moor after only two months . In 2002 , he was inducted to the National Football Museum , being described as " the most naturally gifted English midfielder of his generation " . Fellow England midfielder Paul Ince said that Gascoigne was " the best player I 've ever played with ... he had everything . He was amazing . "
In summer 2002 , Gascoigne went on trial with American club D.C. United , but rejected a contract . In February 2003 , he signed a nine @-@ month contract with China League One club Gansu Tianma in both a playing and coaching role . Gascoigne scored in his first match in China , and in total scored two goals in four league games but his mental state meant that he had to return to America for treatment against drink and depression in April , and he never returned despite the club ordering him to do so .
In July 2004 , Gascoigne was signed as player @-@ coach by League Two side Boston United , and upon signing spoke of his coaching aspirations , saying that " I can become a great coach and a great manager " . Gascoigne left Boston after he made five appearances in a three @-@ month spell , citing professional reasons including his coaching career .
= = International career = =
Gascoigne was called up to the England under @-@ 21 side in summer 1987 , and scored with a free @-@ kick in his debut in a 2 – 0 win over Morocco . He went on to win 12 caps for the under @-@ 21s under Dave Sexton .
Gascoigne was first called up to the full England squad by Bobby Robson for a friendly against Denmark on 14 September 1988 , and came on as a late substitute for Peter Beardsley in a 1 – 0 win . He scored his first goal for England in a 5 – 0 victory over Albania at Wembley on 26 April 1989 . He made his first start in the following game against Chile , and kept his first team place for most matches in the run in to the 1990 FIFA World Cup . He also played four games for the England B team . He secured his place in the World Cup squad in a 4 – 2 win against Czechoslovakia when he scored one goal and was a key component in the other three .
He played in all three of the group games in the 1990 World Cup in Italy , and England topped Group F , Gascoigne providing the assist for Mark Wright 's winner against Egypt . In the first knockout game against Belgium he made another assist after chipping a free @-@ kick into the penalty area , where David Platt volleyed the ball into the net . Gascoigne was at the centre of the action again in the quarter @-@ final clash with Cameroon when he gave away a penalty , which Cameroon converted . In extra @-@ time he made a successful through @-@ ball pass from which Gary Lineker won , and subsequently scored a penalty , which proved to be the winning goal .
On 4 July 1990 , England played West Germany in a World Cup semi @-@ final match at Juventus 's Stadio delle Alpi in Turin . Gascoigne , having already received a yellow card during England 's 1 – 0 victory over Belgium in the second round , was booked for a foul on Thomas Berthold , which meant that he would be suspended for the final if England won the match . Television cameras showed that he had tears in his eyes following the yellow card and made Gascoigne a highly popular figure with the sympathetic British public . The match culminated in a penalty shoot @-@ out , which the Germans won after Stuart Pearce and Chris Waddle missed their penalties .
Robson quit the England job after the tournament , and his successor Graham Taylor dropped Gascoigne in favour of 32 @-@ year @-@ old Gordon Cowans in a Euro ' 92 qualifier against Ireland in November 1990 , citing tactical reasons . He returned to the starting eleven for a friendly against Cameroon the following February , before injury in the FA Cup final three months later caused him to miss the next 21 England fixtures , including all of UEFA Euro 1992 , where England failed to progress beyond the group stages .
Gascoigne returned to fitness in time for the opening qualifying game against Norway in October 1992 , and before playing in the 1 – 1 draw he responded to a Norwegian television crew 's request to say ' a few words to Norway ' by saying " fuck off Norway " . His message was broadcast on Norwegian television and he was forced to apologize for the remark . The following month he scored two goals in a 4 – 0 victory over Turkey . Qualification ended badly for England , as they ended in third place behind Norway and the Netherlands and missed out on a place in the 1994 FIFA World Cup .
A broken leg in 1994 meant Gascoigne was unable to play for 15 months , but by the time he returned to fitness , Terry Venables – his former manager at Spurs – had been appointed as England manager . As England were hosting UEFA Euro 1996 they did not have to go through the qualification process , so they instead played numerous friendlies , most of which featured Gascoigne in the starting line @-@ up . The final of these games were played in Hong Kong , after which numerous England players were photographed on a night out in which Gascoigne and several others having drinks poured into their mouths whilst sitting in the " dentist 's chair " . The tournament opened with a 1 – 1 draw with Switzerland , during which Gascoigne was substituted . He scored a memorable goal in the second game of the tournament , against Scotland , when he received the ball from Darren Anderton outside the Scotland penalty area , flicked the ball over Colin Hendry with his left foot and changed direction ; Hendry was completely wrong @-@ footed and , as the ball dropped , Gascoigne volleyed it with his right foot past Andy Goram . The goal was followed by the " dentist 's chair " celebration referring to the incident before the Euro 1996 , where Gascoigne lay on the ground as if he were sitting in the dentist 's chair , and teammates sprayed lucozade from bottles into his open mouth . England beat the Netherlands 4 – 1 to make it through to the knock @-@ out stages . They then drew 0 – 0 with Spain before winning 4 – 2 on penalties , the last of which was converted by Gascoigne . England drew 1 – 1 with Germany in the semi @-@ finals , and Gascoigne missed the chance to win the game in extra @-@ time when he came inches away from connecting to an Alan Shearer cross yards in front of an unguarded German net . England lost to Germany in the resulting penalty shoot @-@ out , with Gareth Southgate missing England 's sudden death penalty .
Under Glenn Hoddle , Gascoigne was picked regularly and helped England to win the Tournoi de France in 1997 ahead of Brazil , France and Italy . Qualification for the 1998 FIFA World Cup went down to the last group game against Italy at the Stadio Olimpico , and Gascoigne put in a disciplined and mature performance to help England secure the 0 – 0 draw that was enough to take them through to the tournament . However , British tabloid newspapers showed pictures of Gascoigne eating kebabs late at night with DJ friend Chris Evans only a week before the final squad was due to be chosen . Hoddle elected not to pick Gascoigne in the final squad and after hearing the news Gascoigne wrecked Hoddle 's room in a rage before being restrained . Gascoigne was never to play for his country again , having won 57 caps and scored 10 goals .
= = Managerial and coaching career = =
Having already gained some coaching experience in China , Gascoigne signed for Boston United on 30 July 2004 . After being at the club for 11 games he left ( partly as a result of the club refusing to let him participate in the reality television show I 'm a Celebrity ... Get Me Out of Here ! ) on 5 October , to begin a football coaching course . After leaving Boston , he stated that he was interested in taking over as manager of Scottish side Greenock Morton , but this came to nothing .
In mid @-@ 2005 he spent two months as player @-@ coach at the recently founded Portuguese team Algarve United , but he returned to England after a proposed contract never materialised . He was appointed manager of Conference North club Kettering Town on 27 October 2005 , and also planned to put in enough money to own one @-@ third of the club to show his commitment . Previous manager Kevin Wilson was appointed as director of football , and Paul Davis was appointed as the club 's assistant manager . Bookmakers put odds on Gascoigne getting the sack before Christmas , though he insisted that he was at the club " for the long haul " . Attempts to get new sponsors on board were successful , though results on the pitch soon went against Kettering . His tenure lasted just 39 days , and he was dismissed by the club 's board on 5 December . The club 's owner , Imraan Ladak , blamed Gascoigne 's alcohol problems , stating that he drank almost every day he worked . Gascoigne later claimed that the owner had interfered incessantly and harboured ambitions of being a manager himself , despite knowing little about football . He was never on a contract at the club , and was never paid for his six weeks work , nor was he given the chance to invest money in the club as he had first planned .
Gascoigne came close to being appointed manager of Garforth Town in October 2010 , and after weeks of talks between his agent and the club he decided to turn down the offer , though reiterated his desire to return to football management .
= = Other projects = =
At the height of " Gazzamania " following the 1990 World Cup , he reached number 2 in the UK Top 40 with " Fog on the Tyne " , a collaborative cover with Lindisfarne that earned him a gold disc . He established Paul Gascoigne Promotions and hired a number of staff to handle the hundreds of requests from companies wishing to use his likeness and / or endorsement to promote their products . He signed an exclusive deal with The Sun , which did not prevent the newspaper from joining its rivals in sensationalising the various scandals he became embroiled in . He promoted two video games : Gazza 's Superstar Soccer and Gazza II .
In August 2006 , he visited Botswana on behalf of the Football Association 's international outreach week and played football with the children from the SOS Children 's Village there . On 25 July 2009 , Gascoigne appeared on a Sporting Heroes edition of the BBC television quiz The Weakest Link , where he engaged in banter with host Anne Robinson . The next day he played in an England versus Germany charity football match to help raise funds for the Sir Bobby Robson cancer fund . He took part in the first edition of Soccer Aid in 2006 , playing for an England team captained by Robbie Williams .
In August 2014 , Gascoigne began playing amateur football after signing for Bournemouth Sunday League Division Four team Abbey . In 2015 Paul Gascoigne was the subject of a documentary called Gascoigne .
= = Style of play = =
A creative , hard @-@ working , and technically gifted attacking midfielder , Gascoigne was capable both of scoring and setting up goals , due to his passing accuracy and his powerful striking ability . Gascoigne was gifted with pace , physical strength , balance , and excellent dribbling skills , which allowed him to protect the ball , beat opponents , and withstand physical challenges . Despite his talent , he was also criticised for his erratic behaviour and aggression on the pitch . His turbulent and often unhealthy lifestyle off the pitch , as well as his tendency to pick up injuries , is thought to have affected his career .
= = Personal life = =
Gascoigne married his long @-@ term girlfriend Sheryl ( née Failes ) in Ware , Hertfordshire , in July 1996 , after they had been together for around six years . He later admitted to violence towards Sheryl during their marriage . They divorced in early 1999 . In 2009 Sheryl published a tell @-@ all book entitled Stronger : My Life Surviving Gazza . Gascoigne had a son , Regan , with Sheryl and also adopted Sheryl 's two children from her first marriage , Mason and Bianca . Bianca is a glamour model and television personality , and appeared on reality TV show Love Island .
During the 1990s Gascoigne , Danny Baker and Chris Evans had a much publicized friendship , and Gascoigne frequently appeared on their radio and television shows on Talksport and TFI Friday .
In November 2008 , Gascoigne was faced with a bankruptcy petition over a £ 200 @,@ 000 tax bill , having not filed any tax returns for more than two years . On 25 May 2011 he avoided being declared bankrupt by the High Court in London , despite still owing £ 32 @,@ 000 .
Gascoigne has three autobiographies : Gazza : My Story ( with Hunter Davies ) published in 2004 , Being Gazza : Tackling My Demons ( with Hunter Davies and John McKeown ) , published in 2006 , and Glorious : My World , Football and Me , published in 2011 . In Gazza : My Story , and in Being Gazza : Tackling My Demons , he refers to treatment for bulimia , obsessive @-@ compulsive disorder ( OCD ) , bipolar disorder , and alcoholism . The books also describes his addictive personality , which has led him to develop addictions of varying severity on alcohol , cocaine , chain smoking , gambling , high @-@ caffeine energy drinks , exercise , and junk food .
= = = Mental illness and alcoholism = = =
Gascoigne first entered therapy sessions in October 1998 when he was admitted into Priory Hospital after a drinking session where he drank 32 shots of whisky which left him at " rock bottom " ; then @-@ manager Bryan Robson signed him into the clinic whilst Gascoigne was unconscious . He was released , at his own insistence , two weeks into the suggested minimum stay of 28 days . His subsequent visits to the Priory became more infrequent , and he eventually returned to drinking alcohol . In 2001 Gascoigne 's then @-@ chairman Bill Kenwright contacted Gascoigne 's therapist at the Priory , John McKeown , who organised more treatment to help Gascoigne to control his drinking . As part of the treatment he was sent to the United States where he had a stay at a clinic in Cottonwood , Arizona . He was diagnosed with bipolar disorder . He stayed at the clinic in 2003 after he suffered low points working in China , and again in 2004 after retiring from football .
In February 2008 he was sectioned under the Mental Health Act after an incident at the Malmaison Hotel in Newcastle upon Tyne . He was taken into protective custody to prevent self @-@ harm . He was sectioned again in June , and in September he was hospitalised after he overdosed on alcohol and drugs in an apparent suicide attempt .
Gascoigne was arrested for a disturbance outside a takeaway in February 2010 . The following month he was charged with drunk driving , driving without a licence , and driving without insurance . On 9 July 2010 Gascoigne appeared at the scene of the tense stand @-@ off between the police and Raoul Moat , claiming to be a friend of Raoul Moat and stating that he had brought him " a can of lager , some chicken , fishing rod , a Newcastle shirt and a dressing gown . " He was denied access to Moat . In August 2011 Gascoigne sued The Sun , claiming that its coverage of him during the Raoul Moat incident interrupted his treatment for alcoholism .
In October 2010 , Gascoigne was arrested for drink driving . He subsequently admitted being more than four times over the limit at Newcastle upon Tyne Magistrates Court . One day after being warned he could face a prison sentence for drink driving , Gascoigne was arrested for possession of cocaine . He should have appeared in court on 11 November to be sentenced for the drink driving offence , but instead he went into rehab on the south coast of England . He was given an eight @-@ week suspended sentence on 9 December 2010 .
In February 2013 his agent , Terry Baker , told BBC Radio 5 Live that Gascoigne had relapsed again : " He won 't thank me for saying it but he immediately needs to get help ... His life is always in danger because he is an alcoholic . Maybe no one can save him – I don 't know . I really don 't know . " Gascoigne was placed in intensive care in a US hospital while being treated for alcoholism in Arizona in a rehabilitation programme thanks to financial support provided by ex @-@ cricketer Ronnie Irani and Chris Evans . He was arrested for assaulting a railway security guard and being drunk and disorderly at Stevenage railway station on 4 July 2013 ; he was fined £ 1 @,@ 000 after admitting the offence , and ordered to pay £ 100 compensation to the guard .
In January 2014 Gascoigne entered rehab for his alcohol addiction for a seventh time at a £ 6 @,@ 000 @-@ a @-@ month clinic in Southampton . In August he was again admitted to hospital in relation to his problems following an incident outside his home . On 23 October 2014 , police were called to his home in Poole after he was in a drink binge ; he was sectioned under the Mental Health Act the next day and taken to a hospital for a three @-@ day detox .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = International goals = = =
Scores and results list England 's goal tally first .
= = Honours = =
= = = Club = = =
Newcastle United
FA Youth Cup : 1985
Tottenham Hotspur
FA Cup : 1991
Rangers
Scottish Premier Division : 1995 – 96 , 1996 – 97
Scottish Cup : 1996
Scottish League Cup : 1996
Middlesbrough
Football League Cup Runner @-@ up : 1998
= = = International = = =
England
Rous Cup : 1989
Tournoi de France : 1997
FIFA World Cup Fourth Place : 1990
UEFA European Championship Semi @-@ finalist : 1996
= = = Individual = = =
PFA Young Player of the Year : 1987 – 88
PFA Team of the Year : 1987 – 88 , 1990 – 91
BBC Sports Personality of the Year : 1990
FIFA World Cup All @-@ Star Team : 1990
Goal of the Season : 1990 – 91
PFA Scotland Players ' Player of the Year : 1995 – 96
SFWA Footballer of the Year : 1995 – 96
UEFA European Football Championship Teams of the Tournament : 1996
Inducted into the English Football Hall of Fame in 2002
Rangers Hall of Fame Inductee : 2006
= = = Specific = = =
= = = General = = =
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= Oregon Iron Company =
The Oregon Iron Company was an iron smelting company located in what is now Lake Oswego , Oregon . The company was established in 1865 , and in 1867 became the first company west of the Rocky Mountains in the United States to smelt iron . The company failed after a few years , but was reorganized as the Oswego Iron Company in 1878 , and again as the Oregon Iron and Steel Company in 1883 . With the addition of a larger furnace , the last incarnation of the company prospered , reaching peak production in 1890 . By 1894 , however , pressure from cheaper imported iron combined with the effects of the Panic of 1893 forced the company to close its smelter . The company continued to operate a pipe foundry until 1928 , and until the early 1960s , existed as a land management company , selling its real estate holdings which expanded the city of Lake Oswego .
= = Early history = =
The discovery of iron ore near the settlement of Oswego in the hills south of Portland is credited to Morton M. McCarver ( who had served as speaker of the Provisional Legislature of Oregon ) in 1862 . McCarver 's brown hematite ore was tested and found to be of excellent quality , containing from 56 to 75 % metal . In addition , the ore lay near the surface and the Oswego bed was estimated to contain 60 @,@ 000 short tons ( 54 @,@ 000 t ) of ore . Since the site also featured vast forests that could be turned into charcoal to feed the smelting furnaces , and ready access to water for power , the potential of a successful mining operation was easily recognized .
In 1865 , a group of financiers in Portland , which included former Portland mayors William S. Ladd and Henry Failing , as well as Portland Gas Light Company founders Herman C. Leonard and John Green , incorporated an iron smelting company which they named the Oregon Iron Company . Ladd , who served as President , and the others hoped to make Oswego the " Pittsburgh of the West , " believing that having a local source of iron would help their other businesses , which included the Oregon Central Railroad and the Oregon Steam Navigation Company .
= = Construction = =
To oversee construction of a charcoal @-@ fired blast furnace , the company recruited George Wilbur . He modeled his design on the Barnum and Richardson Company furnace in Lime Rock , Connecticut . The furnace was designed by British stonemason Richard Martin and was completed in 1867 . Meanwhile , a dam was built on Sucker Creek to harness water for power , forests were cleared to be turned into charcoal to feed the furnace , and limestone , used during iron smelting to remove impurities , was quarried from the San Juan Islands in Washington Territory , and shipped and unloaded at the company docks on the adjacent Willamette River .
On August 24 , 1867 , the Oregon Iron Company became the first company in the United States to smelt pig iron west of the Rocky Mountains . The first pigs were given to J. C. Trullinger , who owned the townsite of Oswego . From 1867 to 1869 , the company smelted nearly 2 @,@ 400 short tons ( 2 @,@ 200 t ) of iron .
Ladd 's group soon found their business expertise in other areas did not apply as well to the iron industry . Their lack of experience , coupled with a dispute over water rights , caused the company to close in 1869 . After a brief respite in which they filled an order for iron wheels for the Central Pacific Railroad from 1874 to 1876 , the company closed for good in 1878 and the assets were sold off at a sheriff 's auction .
= = Oswego Iron Company = =
The purchasers were led by Ernest Crichton and L. B. Seeley , experienced furnace managers from Ohio ’ s Hanging Rock iron region . Under the new name of the Oswego Iron Company , the company made a number of significant improvements : they purchased the Oswego townsite along with large tracts of forest , settled the water rights issue , remodeled the furnace , opened several new mines , constructed several homes for its workers , and built a narrow gauge railroad for hauling the ore . From 1877 to 1881 , the Oswego Iron Company produced 18 @,@ 500 short tons ( 16 @,@ 800 t ) of iron .
However , to finance these improvements , the company also incurred massive debt , and with the market price for iron remaining low , the company was sold in 1880 to another group of Portland financiers led by Simeon Gannett Reed and railroad baron Henry Villard .
= = Oregon Iron and Steel Company = =
In 1882 , the company was reincorporated as the Oregon Iron and Steel Company with Reed as its president and William M. Ladd , son of Oregon Iron Company founder William S. Ladd , as its vice president . With the elder Ladd , Villard , and Darius Ogden Mills also providing financing , the company built a new smelter north of the original furnace with five times its capacity , 50 short tons ( 45 t ) . The new iron works opened in 1888 , and production boomed . The company employed 300 men and Oswego 's population soared , as hotels , churches , saloons , and an opera house were built to support the town . A railroad line to Portland was completed in 1886 , making Oswego more accessible .
The company reached its peak production in 1890 , smelting 12 @,@ 305 short tons ( 11 @,@ 163 t ) of iron . However , half the company 's resources were dedicated to making charcoal from wood . The availability of cheaper imported coke @-@ fired iron , the overall reduction in demand for iron as railroad expansion slowed , and the economic effects of the Panic of 1893 , all combined to hasten the final closure of the furnace in 1894 . The company continued to operate a pipe foundry on the site of the new furnace until 1928 .
= = Land development = =
Despite its lack of industry , the company still found itself with thousands of acres of land that could be developed . William M. Ladd , who had succeeded Reed as President of Oregon Iron and Steel and his father as President of Ladd & Tilton Bank , formed the Ladd Estate Company to manage these real estate assets . The newly formed Ladd Estate Company converted the depressed company town into a prestigious suburb complete with country club , golf course , polo field , and even worked to rename the harsh @-@ sounding Sucker Lake to Oswego Lake . The company existed as a shell until 1960 , when in its final act , it deeded its powerhouse and dams to lake shareholders .
= = Remnants of infrastructure = =
The original blast furnace still stands in Lake Oswego 's George Rogers Park along the Willamette River , the only extant iron furnace west of the Rocky Mountains . It was placed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1974 . In 2010 , a seven @-@ year restoration of the furnace was completed .
Of the two first pigs smelted in 1867 , one is displayed in the Oregon Historical Society and one remains in place as a street marker at the northwest corner of Ladd and Durham streets in Lake Oswego . The crucible from the second furnace , which was dismantled and sold for scrap in 1926 , is still intact in Lake Oswego 's Roehr Park .
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= St Peter 's Church , Sudbury =
St Peter 's Church is a redundant Anglican church in the town of Sudbury , Suffolk , England . It is recorded in the National Heritage List for England as a designated Grade I listed building , and is under the care of the Churches Conservation Trust . The church stands in the centre of the town in a dominating position on Market Hill .
A church has been on the site since at least 1180 , but the current structure dates from the 15th century , though there have been several restorations in the intervening period . Formerly a spired church , St. Peter 's now has a bell tower which , like the rest of the building , is mainly covered in flint . The interior of the church features paintings by George Frederick Bodley and Robert Cardinal , and a pipe organ originally made by T. C. Lewis .
= = History = =
The earliest documentary record of the church is in 1180 , when it was a chapel of ease to St Gregory 's church . The church was built in three stages , beginning with the first two bays of the chancel and the base of the tower in about 1330 – 48 . The later stages of building were in about 1360 , and in about 1425 – 50 . In 1643 , during the Civil War , the iconoclast William Dowsing damaged many of the items in the church . A restoration took place in 1685 , which included some alterations to the nave roof . A clock was installed in 1701 , and during the first half of the 18th century a spire of metal and wood was added ; this was replaced by another spire in 1810 . The church was restored again in 1858 – 59 by William Butterfield ; this included removal of the three galleries and the box pews , re @-@ laying the chancel floor , and replacement of the pulpit . Stained glass made by Hardman & Co. was installed in some of the windows , and more stained glass by Hardman was installed later in the century .
In 1898 the chancel was restored and redecorated by George Frederick Bodley . A wooden reredos was installed in the Lady Chapel . The stonework of the exterior was restored in 1911 , when statues were inserted into three niches in the south porch . A further restoration took place in 1968 when the upper part of the tower was replaced , the spire was taken down , and most of Bodley 's paintings were removed from the chancel . The church was declared redundant in 1972 , and in 1976 was vested in the Redundant Churches Fund , the forerunner of the Churches Conservation Trust . A charitable trust , The Friends of St. Peter 's has been established to maintain and improve the church . Since being made redundant , the church has been used occasionally for services , and for a variety of events , including concerts , organ recitals and exhibitions .
= = Architecture = =
= = = Exterior = = =
The church is constructed mainly in flint , with some stone , brick and tiles . Its plan is not quite rectangular , as it had to be confined into a limited space . The northwest corner is cut across , and the chancel is not fully in alignment with the nave . The plan consists of a six @-@ bay nave with a clerestory , north and south aisles , a two @-@ bay chancel with the organ chamber and vestry to the north and the Lady Chapel to the south , and an extended sanctuary to the east , and a west tower incorporated in the body of the church . Its architectural styles are Decorated and Perpendicular . The tower is in three stages with angle buttresses . Its parapet consists of stepped battlements , and at the corners are statues rather than pinnacles . The aisles also have battlemented parapets , and there are more buttresses around the church . The main entrance to the church is through the west door at the base of the tower . Formerly the main entrance was through the south porch . The three statues on the exterior of the porch represent Christ , with Saint Peter on one side and Saint Gregory on the other .
= = = Interior = = =
The arcades are in six bays , the piers on the north arcade differing from those on the south . The roof is ceiled and divided into panels , with gilt bosses at the intersections . It is the only medieval nave roof in Suffolk to be ceiled and panelled in its original form . Some of Bodley 's painting remains on the chancel arch . In the south aisle is the octagonal 15th @-@ century font . This was removed from the church in the 17th century to be used as a horse trough , but was returned to the church when the horses refused to drink from it . In the chancel the reredos designed by Bodley measures 20 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) high by 7 feet ( 2 @.@ 1 m ) wide , and depicts the Crucifixion . On the sides of the chancel are 15th @-@ century screens . In the Lady Chapel the font is carved with a depiction of the Nativity , and the reredos is a copy of Leonardo da Vinci 's Last Supper . Over the north and south doors are paintings of Moses and Aaron . These were painted by Robert Cardinall , and formerly hung in a position flanking the reredos at the east end of the church . The lectern , pulpit and altar are Victorian , as is the stained glass . The three @-@ manual organ was built in 1911 by T. C. Lewis . It was renovated in 1942 by Henry Willis & Sons , and rebuilt in 1987 by Bishop . A major rebuild was carried out by J. W. Walker & Sons Ltd in 1999 . There is a ring of ten bells , the oldest three being cast in about 1470 , and the most recent two in 1978 .
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= A Vindication of the Rights of Woman =
A Vindication of the Rights of Woman : with Strictures on Political and Moral Subjects ( 1792 ) , written by the 18th @-@ century British proto @-@ feminist Mary Wollstonecraft , is one of the earliest works of feminist philosophy . In it , Wollstonecraft responds to those educational and political theorists of the 18th century who did not believe women should have an education . She argues that women ought to have an education commensurate with their position in society , claiming that women are essential to the nation because they educate its children and because they could be " companions " to their husbands , rather than mere wives . Instead of viewing women as ornaments to society or property to be traded in marriage , Wollstonecraft maintains that they are human beings deserving of the same fundamental rights as men .
Wollstonecraft was prompted to write the Rights of Woman after reading Charles Maurice de Talleyrand @-@ Périgord 's 1791 report to the French National Assembly , which stated that women should only receive a domestic education ; she used her commentary on this specific event to launch a broad attack against sexual double standards and to indict men for encouraging women to indulge in excessive emotion . Wollstonecraft wrote the Rights of Woman hurriedly to respond directly to ongoing events ; she intended to write a more thoughtful second volume but died before completing it .
While Wollstonecraft does call for equality between the sexes in particular areas of life , such as morality , she does not explicitly state that men and women are equal . Her ambiguous statements regarding the equality of the sexes have since made it difficult to classify Wollstonecraft as a modern feminist , particularly since the word and the concept were unavailable to her . Although it is commonly assumed now that the Rights of Woman was unfavourably received , this is a modern misconception based on the belief that Wollstonecraft was as reviled during her lifetime as she became after the publication of William Godwin 's Memoirs of the Author of A Vindication of the Rights of Woman ( 1798 ) . The Rights of Woman was actually well received when it was first published in 1792 . One biographer has called it " perhaps the most original book of [ Wollstonecraft 's ] century " .
= = Historical context = =
A Vindication of the Rights of Woman was written against the tumultuous background of the French Revolution and the debates that it spawned in Britain . In a lively and sometimes vicious pamphlet war , now referred to as the Revolution Controversy , British political commentators addressed topics ranging from representative government to human rights to the separation of church and state , many of these issues having been raised in France first . Wollstonecraft first entered this fray in 1790 with A Vindication of the Rights of Men , a response to Edmund Burke 's Reflections on the Revolution in France ( 1790 ) . In his Reflections , Burke criticised the view of many British thinkers and writers who had welcomed the early stages of the French revolution . While they saw the revolution as analogous to Britain 's own Glorious Revolution in 1688 , which had restricted the powers of the monarchy , Burke argued that the appropriate historical analogy was the English Civil War ( 1642 – 1651 ) in which Charles I had been executed in 1649 . He viewed the French revolution as the violent overthrow of a legitimate government . In Reflections he argues that citizens do not have the right to revolt against their government because civilisation is the result of social and political consensus ; its traditions cannot be continually challenged — the result would be anarchy . One of the key arguments of Wollstonecraft 's Rights of Men , published just six weeks after Burke 's Reflections , is that rights cannot be based on tradition ; rights , she argues , should be conferred because they are reasonable and just , regardless of their basis in tradition .
When Charles Maurice de Talleyrand @-@ Périgord presented his Rapport sur l 'instruction publique ( 1791 ) to the National Assembly in France , Wollstonecraft was galvanised to respond . In his recommendations for a national system of education , Talleyrand had written :
Let us bring up women , not to aspire to advantages which the Constitution denies them , but to know and appreciate those which it guarantees them . . . Men are destined to live on the stage of the world . A public education suits them : it early places before their eyes all the scenes of life : only the proportions are different . The paternal home is better for the education of women ; they have less need to learn to deal with the interests of others , than to accustom themselves to a calm and secluded life .
Wollstonecraft dedicated the Rights of Woman to Talleyrand : " Having read with great pleasure a pamphlet which you have lately published , I dedicate this volume to you ; to induce you to reconsider the subject , and maturely weigh what I have advanced respecting the rights of woman and national education . " At the end of 1791 , French feminist Olympe de Gouges had published her Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen , and the question of women 's rights became central to political debates in both France and Britain .
The Rights of Woman is an extension of Wollstonecraft 's arguments in the Rights of Men . In the Rights of Men , as the title suggests , she is concerned with the rights of particular men ( 18th @-@ century British men ) while in the Rights of Woman , she is concerned with the rights afforded to " woman " , an abstract category . She does not isolate her argument to 18th @-@ century women or British women . The first chapter of the Rights of Woman addresses the issue of natural rights and asks who has those inalienable rights and on what grounds . She answers that since natural rights are given by God , for one segment of society to deny them to another segment is a sin . The Rights of Woman thus engages not only specific events in France and in Britain but also larger questions being raised by political philosophers such as John Locke and Jean @-@ Jacques Rousseau .
= = Themes of writings = =
Wollstonecraft did not employ the formal argumentation or logical prose style common to 18th @-@ century philosophical writing when composing her own works . The Rights of Woman is a long essay that introduces all of its major topics in the opening chapters and then repeatedly returns to them , each time from a different point of view . It also adopts a hybrid tone that combines rational argument with the fervent rhetoric of sensibility .
In the 18th century , sensibility was a physical phenomenon that came to be attached to a specific set of moral beliefs . Physicians and anatomists believed that the more sensitive people 's nerves , the more emotionally affected they would be by their surroundings . Since women were thought to have keener nerves than men , it was also believed that women were more emotional than men . The emotional excess associated with sensibility also theoretically produced an ethic of compassion : those with sensibility could easily sympathise with people in pain . Thus historians have credited the discourse of sensibility and those who promoted it with the increased humanitarian efforts , such as the movement to abolish the slave trade . But sensibility also paralysed those who had too much of it ; as scholar G. J. Barker @-@ Benfield explains , " an innate refinement of nerves was also identifiable with greater suffering , with weakness , and a susceptibility to disorder " .
By the time Wollstonecraft was writing the Rights of Woman , sensibility had already been under sustained attack for a number of years . Sensibility , which had initially promised to draw individuals together through sympathy , was now viewed as " profoundly separatist " ; novels , plays , and poems that employed the language of sensibility asserted individual rights , sexual freedom , and unconventional familial relationships based only upon feeling . Furthermore , as Janet Todd , another scholar of sensibility , argues , " to many in Britain the cult of sensibility seemed to have feminized the nation , given women undue prominence , and emasculated men . "
= = = Rational education = = =
One of Wollstonecraft 's central arguments in the Rights of Woman is that women should be educated rationally to give them the opportunity to contribute to society . In the 18th century , it was often assumed by both educational philosophers and conduct book writers , who wrote what one might think of as early self @-@ help books , that women were incapable of rational or abstract thought . Women , it was believed , were too susceptible to sensibility and too fragile to be able to think clearly . Wollstonecraft , along with other female reformers such as Catharine Macaulay and Hester Chapone , maintained that women were indeed capable of rational thought and deserved to be educated . She argued this point in her own conduct book , Thoughts on the Education of Daughters ( 1787 ) , in her children 's book , Original Stories from Real Life ( 1788 ) , as well as in the Rights of Woman .
Stating in her preface that " my main argument is built on this simple principle , that if [ woman ] be not prepared by education to become the companion of man , she will stop the progress of knowledge and virtue ; for truth must be common to all " , Wollstonecraft contends that society will degenerate without educated women , particularly because mothers are the primary educators of young children . She attributes the problem of uneducated women to men and " a false system of education , gathered from the books written on this subject by men who [ consider ] females rather as women than human creatures " . Women are capable of rationality ; it only appears that they are not , because men have refused to educate them and encouraged them to be frivolous ( Wollstonecraft describes silly women as " spaniels " and " toys " ) . While stressing it is of the same kind , she entertains the notion that women might not be able to attain the same degree of knowledge that men do .
Wollstonecraft attacks conduct book writers such as James Fordyce and John Gregory as well as educational philosophers such as Jean @-@ Jacques Rousseau who argue that a woman does not need a rational education . ( Rousseau famously argues in Emile ( 1762 ) that women should be educated for the pleasure of men ; Wollstonecraft , infuriated by this argument , attacks not only it but also Rousseau himself . ) Intent on illustrating the limitations that contemporary educational theory placed upon women , Wollstonecraft writes , " taught from their infancy that beauty is woman 's sceptre , the mind shapes itself to the body , and , roaming round its gilt cage , only seeks to adorn its prison " , implying that without this damaging ideology , which encourages young women to focus their attention on beauty and outward accomplishments , they could achieve much more . Wives could be the rational " companions " of their husbands and even pursue careers should they so choose : " women might certainly study the art of healing , and be physicians as well as nurses . And midwifery , decency seems to allot to them . . . they might , also , study politics . . . Business of various kinds , they might likewise pursue . "
For Wollstonecraft , " the most perfect education " is " an exercise of the understanding as is best calculated to strengthen the body and form the heart . Or , in other words , to enable the individual to attach such habits of virtue as will render it independent . " In addition to her broad philosophical arguments , Wollstonecraft lays out a specific plan for national education to counter Talleyrand 's . In Chapter 12 , " On National Education , " she proposes that children be sent to day schools as well as given some education at home " to inspire a love of home and domestic pleasures , " and that such schools be free for children " five to nine years of age . " She also maintains that schooling should be co @-@ educational , contending that men and women , whose marriages are " the cement of society , " should be " educated after the same model . "
= = = Feminism writings = = =
It is debatable to what extent the Rights of Woman is a feminist text ; because the definitions of feminist vary , different scholars have come to different conclusions . Wollstonecraft would never have referred to her text as feminist because the words feminist and feminism were not coined until the 1890s . Moreover , there was no feminist movement to speak of during Wollstonecraft 's lifetime . In the introduction to her seminal work on Wollstonecraft 's thought , Barbara Taylor writes :
Describing [ Wollstonecraft 's philosophy ] as feminist is problematic , and I do it only after much consideration . The label is of course anachronistic . . . Treating Wollstonecraft 's thought as an anticipation of nineteenth and twentieth @-@ century feminist argument has meant sacrificing or distorting some of its key elements . Leading examples of this . . . have been the widespread neglect of her religious beliefs , and the misrepresentation of her as a bourgeois liberal , which together have resulted in the displacement of a religiously inspired utopian radicalism by a secular , class @-@ partisan reformism as alien to Wollstonecraft 's political project as her dream of a divinely promised age of universal happiness is to our own . Even more important however has been the imposition on Wollstonecraft of a heroic @-@ individualist brand of politics utterly at odds with her own ethically driven case for women 's emancipation . Wollstonecraft 's leading ambition for women was that they should attain virtue , and it was to this end that she sought their liberation .
In the Rights of Woman , Wollstonecraft does not make the claim for gender equality using the same arguments or the same language that late 19th- and 20th century feminists later would . For instance , rather than unequivocally stating that men and women are equal , Wollstonecraft contends that men and women are equal in the eyes of God , which means that they are both subject to the same moral law . For Wollstonecraft , men and women are equal in the most important areas of life . While such an idea may not seem revolutionary to 21st @-@ century readers , its implications were revolutionary during the 18th century . For example , it implied that both men and women — not just women — should be modest and respect the sanctity of marriage . Wollstonecraft 's argument exposed the sexual double standard of the late 18th century and demanded that men adhere to the same virtues demanded of women .
However , Wollstonecraft 's arguments for equality stand in contrast to her statements respecting the superiority of masculine strength and valour . Wollstonecraft famously and ambiguously states :
Let it not be concluded , that I wish to invert the order of things ; I have already granted , that , from the constitution of their bodies , men seem to be designed by Providence to attain a greater degree of virtue . I speak collectively of the whole sex ; but I see not the shadow of a reason to conclude that their virtues should differ in respect to their nature . In fact , how can they , if virtue has only one eternal standard ? I must therefore , if I reason consequentially , as strenuously maintain that they have the same simple direction , as that there is a God .
Moreover , Wollstonecraft calls on men , rather than women , to initiate the social and political changes she outlines in the Rights of Woman . Because women are uneducated , they cannot alter their own situation — men must come to their aid . Wollstonecraft writes at the end of her chapter " Of the Pernicious Effects Which Arise from the Unnatural Distinctions Established in Society " :
I then would fain convince reasonable men of the importance of some of my remarks ; and prevail on them to weigh dispassionately the whole tenor of my observations . – I appeal to their understandings ; and , as a fellow @-@ creature , claim , in the name of my sex , some interest in their hearts . I entreat them to assist to emancipate their companion , to make her a help meet for them ! Would men but generously snap our chains , and be content with rational fellowship instead of slavish obedience , they would find us more observant daughters , more affectionate sisters , more faithful wives , more reasonable mothers – in a word , better citizens .
It is Wollstonecraft 's last novel , Maria : or , The Wrongs of Woman ( 1798 ) , the fictionalised sequel to the Rights of Woman , that is usually considered her most radical feminist work .
= = = Sensibility = = =
One of Wollstonecraft 's most scathing criticisms in the Rights of Woman is against false and excessive sensibility , particularly in women . She argues that women who succumb to sensibility are " blown about by every momentary gust of feeling " ; because these women are " the prey of their senses " , they cannot think rationally . In fact , not only do they do harm to themselves but they also do harm to all of civilisation : these are not women who can refine civilisation – these are women who will destroy it . But reason and feeling are not independent for Wollstonecraft ; rather , she believes that they should inform each other . For Wollstonecraft , as for the important 18th @-@ century philosopher David Hume , the passions underpin all reason . This was a theme that she would return to throughout her career , but particularly in her novels Mary : A Fiction ( 1788 ) and Maria : or , The Wrongs of Woman .
As part of her argument that women should not be overly influenced by their feelings , Wollstonecraft emphasises that they should not be constrained by or made slaves to their bodies or their sexual feelings . This particular argument has led many modern feminists to suggest that Wollstonecraft intentionally avoids granting women any sexual desire . Cora Kaplan argues that the " negative and prescriptive assault on female sexuality " is a " leitmotif " of the Rights of Woman . For example , Wollstonecraft advises her readers to " calmly let passion subside into friendship " in the ideal companionate marriage ( that is , in the ideal of a love @-@ based marriage that was developing at the time ) . It would be better , she writes , when " two virtuous young people marry . . . if some circumstances checked their passion " . According to Wollstonecraft , " love and friendship cannot subsist in the same bosom " . As Mary Poovey explains , " Wollstonecraft betrays her fear that female desire might in fact court man 's lascivious and degrading attentions , that the subordinate position women have been given might even be deserved . Until women can transcend their fleshly desires and fleshly forms , they will be hostage to the body . " If women are not interested in sexuality , they cannot be dominated by men . Wollstonecraft worries that women are consumed with " romantic wavering " , that is , they are interested only in satisfying their lusts . Because the Rights of Woman eliminates sexuality from a woman 's life , Kaplan contends , it " expresses a violent antagonism to the sexual " while at the same time " exaggerat [ ing ] the importance of the sensual in the everyday life of women " . Wollstonecraft was so determined to wipe sexuality from her picture of the ideal woman that she ended up foregrounding it by insisting upon its absence . But as Kaplan and others have remarked , Wollstonecraft may have been forced to make this sacrifice : " it is important to remember that the notion of woman as politically enabled and independent [ was ] fatally linked [ during the eighteenth century ] to the unrestrained and vicious exercise of her sexuality . "
= = = Republicanism = = =
Claudia Johnson , a prominent Wollstonecraft scholar , has called the Rights of Woman " a republican manifesto " . Johnson contends that Wollstonecraft is hearkening back to the Commonwealth tradition of the 17th century and attempting to reestablish a republican ethos . In Wollstonecraft 's version , there would be strong , but separate , masculine and feminine roles for citizens . According to Johnson , Wollstonecraft " denounces the collapse of proper sexual distinction as the leading feature of her age , and as the grievous consequence of sentimentality itself . The problem undermining society in her view is feminized men " . If men feel free to adopt both the masculine position and the sentimental feminine position , she argues , women have no position open to them in society . Johnson therefore sees Wollstonecraft as a critic , in both the Rights of Men and the Rights of Woman , of the " masculinization of sensitivity " in such works as Edmund Burke 's Reflections on the Revolution in France .
In the Rights of Woman Wollstonecraft adheres to a version of republicanism that includes a belief in the eventual overthrow of all titles , including the monarchy . She also briefly suggests that all men and women should be represented in government . But the bulk of her " political criticism , " as Chris Jones , a Wollstonecraft scholar , explains , " is couched predominantly in terms of morality " . Her definition of virtue focuses on the individual 's happiness rather than , for example , the good of the entire society . This is reflected in her explanation of natural rights . Because rights ultimately proceed from God , Wollstonecraft maintains that there are duties , tied to those rights , incumbent upon each and every person . For Wollstonecraft , the individual is taught republicanism and benevolence within the family ; domestic relations and familial ties are crucial to her understanding of social cohesion and patriotism .
= = = Class = = =
In many ways the Rights of Woman is inflected by a bourgeois view of the world , as is its direct predecessor the Rights of Men . Wollstonecraft addresses her text to the middle class , which she calls the " most natural state " . She also frequently praises modesty and industry , virtues which , at the time , were associated with the middle class . From her position as a middle @-@ class writer arguing for a middle @-@ class ethos , Wollstonecraft also attacks the wealthy , criticising them using the same arguments she employs against women . She points out the " false @-@ refinement , immorality , and vanity " of the rich , calling them " weak , artificial beings , raised above the common wants and affections of their race , in a premature unnatural manner [ who ] undermine the very foundation of virtue , and spread corruption through the whole mass of society " .
But Wollstonecraft 's criticisms of the wealthy do not necessarily reflect a concomitant sympathy for the poor . For her , the poor are fortunate because they will never be trapped by the snares of wealth : " Happy is it when people have the cares of life to struggle with ; for these struggles prevent their becoming a prey to enervating vices , merely from idleness ! " Moreover , she contends that charity has only negative consequences because , as Jones puts it , she " sees it as sustaining an unequal society while giving the appearance of virtue to the rich " .
In her national plan for education , she retains class distinctions ( with an exception for the intelligent ) , suggesting that : " After the age of nine , girls and boys , intended for domestic employments , or mechanical trades , ought to be removed to other schools , and receive instruction , in some measure appropriated to the destination of each individual . . . The young people of superior abilities , or fortune , might now be taught , in another school , the dead and living languages , the elements of science , and continue the study of history and politics , on a more extensive scale , which would not exclude polite literature . "
= = Rhetoric and style = =
In attempting to navigate the cultural expectations of female writers and the generic conventions of political and philosophical discourse , Wollstonecraft , as she does throughout her oeuvre , constructs a unique blend of masculine and feminine styles in the Rights of Woman . She utilises the language of philosophy , referring to her work as a " treatise " with " arguments " and " principles " . However , Wollstonecraft also uses a personal tone , employing " I " and " you " , dashes and exclamation marks , and autobiographical references to create a distinctly feminine voice in the text . The Rights of Woman further hybridizes its genre by weaving together elements of the conduct book , the short essay , and the novel , genres often associated with women , while at the same time claiming that these genres could be used to discuss philosophical topics such as rights .
Although Wollstonecraft argues against excessive sensibility , the rhetoric of the Rights of Woman is at times heated and attempts to provoke the reader . Many of the most emotional comments in the book are directed at Rousseau . For example , after excerpting a long passage from Emile ( 1762 ) , Wollstonecraft pithily states , " I shall make no other comments on this ingenious passage , than just to observe , that it is the philosophy of lasciviousness . " A mere page later , after indicting Rousseau 's plan for female education , she writes " I must relieve myself by drawing another picture . " These terse exclamations are meant to draw the reader to her side of the argument ( it is assumed that the reader will agree with them ) . While she claims to write in a plain style so that her ideas will reach the broadest possible audience , she actually combines the plain , rational language of the political treatise with the poetic , passionate language of sensibility to demonstrate that one can combine rationality and sensibility in the same self . Wollstonecraft defends her positions not only with reasoned argument but also with ardent rhetoric .
In her efforts to vividly describe the condition of women within society , Wollstonecraft employs several different analogies . She often compares women to slaves , arguing that their ignorance and powerlessness places them in that position . But at the same time , she also compares them to " capricious tyrants " who use cunning and deceit to manipulate the men around them . At one point , she reasons that a woman can become either a slave or tyrant , which she describes as two sides of the same coin . Wollstonecraft also compares women to soldiers ; like military men , they are valued only for their appearance . And like the rich , women 's " softness " has " debased mankind " .
= = Revision = =
Wollstonecraft was forced to write the Rights of Woman hurriedly to respond to Talleyrand and ongoing events . Upon completing the work , she wrote to her friend William Roscoe : " I am dissatisfied with myself for not having done justice to the subject . – Do not suspect me of false modesty – I mean to say that had I allowed myself more time I could have written a better book , in every sense of the word . . . I intend to finish the next volume before I begin to print , for it is not pleasant to have the Devil coming for the conclusion of a sheet fore it is written . " When Wollstonecraft revised the Rights of Woman for the second edition , she took the opportunity not only to fix small spelling and grammar mistakes but also to bolster the feminist claims of her argument . She changed some of her statements regarding female and male difference to reflect a greater equality between the sexes .
Wollstonecraft never wrote the second part to the Rights of Woman , although William Godwin published her " Hints " , which were " chiefly designed to have been incorporated in the second part of the Vindication of the Rights of Woman " , in the posthumous collection of her works . However , she did begin writing the novel Maria : or , The Wrongs of Woman , which most scholars consider a fictionalised sequel to the Rights of Woman . It was unfinished at her death and also included in the Posthumous Works published by Godwin .
= = Reception and legacy = =
When it was first published in 1792 , the Rights of Woman was reviewed favourably by the Analytical Review , the General Magazine , the Literary Magazine , New York Magazine , and the Monthly Review , although the assumption persists even today that Rights of Woman received hostile reviews . It was almost immediately released in a second edition in 1792 , several American editions appeared , and it was translated into French . Taylor writes that " it was an immediate success " . Moreover , other writers such as Mary Hays and Mary Robinson specifically alluded to Wollstonecraft 's text in their own works . Hays cited the Rights of Woman in her novel Memoirs of Emma Courtney ( 1796 ) and modelled her female characters after Wollstonecraft 's ideal woman . Although female conservatives such as Hannah More excoriated Wollstonecraft personally , they actually shared many of the same values . As the scholar Anne Mellor has shown , both More and Wollstonecraft wanted a society founded on " Christian virtues of rational benevolence , honesty , personal virtue , the fulfillment of social duty , thrift , sobriety , and hard work " . During the early 1790s , many writers within British society were engaged in an intense debate regarding the position of women in society . For example , the respected poet and essayist Anna Laetitia Barbauld and Wollstonecraft sparred back and forth ; Barbauld published several poems responding to Wollstonecraft 's work and Wollstonecraft commented on them in footnotes to the Rights of Woman . The work also provoked outright hostility . The bluestocking Elizabeth Carter was unimpressed with the work . Thomas Taylor , the Neoplatonist translator who had been a landlord to the Wollstonecraft family in the late 1770s , swiftly wrote a satire called A Vindication of the Rights of Brutes : if women have rights , why not animals too ?
After Wollstonecraft died in 1797 , her husband William Godwin published his Memoirs of the Author of A Vindication of the Rights of Woman ( 1798 ) . He revealed much about her private life that had previously not been known to the public : her illegitimate child , her love affairs , and her attempts at suicide . While Godwin believed he was portraying his wife with love , sincerity , and compassion , contemporary readers were shocked by Wollstonecraft 's unorthodox lifestyle and she became a reviled figure . Richard Polwhele targeted her in particular in his anonymous long poem The Unsex 'd Females ( 1798 ) , a defensive reaction to women 's literary self @-@ assertion : Hannah More is Christ to Wollstonecraft 's Satan . His poem was " well known " among the responses A Vindication . One reviewer comments this " ingenious poem " with its " playful sallies of sarcastic wit " against " our modern ladies , " though others found it " a tedious , lifeless piece of writing . " Critical responses largely fell along clear @-@ cut political lines .
Wollstonecraft 's ideas became associated with her life story and women writers felt that it was dangerous to mention her in their texts . Hays , who had previously been a close friend and an outspoken advocate for Wollstonecraft and her Rights of Woman , for example , did not include her in the collection of Illustrious and Celebrated Women she published in 1803 . Maria Edgeworth specifically distances herself from Wollstonecraft in her novel Belinda ( 1802 ) ; she caricatures Wollstonecraft as a radical feminist in the character of Harriet Freke . But , like Jane Austen , she does not reject Wollstonecraft 's ideas . Both Edgeworth and Austen argue that women are crucial to the development of the nation ; moreover , they portray women as rational beings who should choose companionate marriage .
The negative views towards Wollstonecraft persisted for over a century . The Rights of Woman was not reprinted until the middle of the 19th century and it still retained an aura of ill @-@ repute . George Eliot wrote " there is in some quarters a vague prejudice against the Rights of Woman as in some way or other a reprehensible book , but readers who go to it with this impression will be surprised to find it eminently serious , severely moral , and withal rather heavy " . The suffragist ( i.e. moderate reformer , as opposed to suffragette ) Millicent Garrett Fawcett wrote the introduction to the centenary edition of the Rights of Woman , cleansing the memory of Wollstonecraft and claiming her as the foremother of the struggle for the vote . While the Rights of Woman may have paved the way for feminist arguments , 20th century feminists have tended to use Wollstonecraft 's life story , rather than her texts , for inspiration ; her unorthodox lifestyle convinced them to try new " experiments in living " , as Virginia Woolf termed it in her famous essay on Wollstonecraft . However , there is some evidence that the Rights of Woman may be influencing current feminists . Ayaan Hirsi Ali , a feminist who is critical of Islam 's dictates regarding women , cites the Rights of Woman in her autobiography Infidel , writing that she was " inspired by Mary Wollstonecraft , the pioneering feminist thinker who told women they had the same ability to reason as men did and deserved the same rights " .
= = = Modern reprints = = =
Wollstonecraft , Mary . The Complete Works of Mary Wollstonecraft . Ed . Janet Todd and Marilyn Butler . 7 vols . London : William Pickering , 1989 . ISBN 0 @-@ 8147 @-@ 9225 @-@ 1 .
Wollstonecraft , Mary . The Vindications : The Rights of Men and The Rights of Woman . Eds . D.L. Macdonald and Kathleen Scherf . Toronto : Broadview Literary Texts , 1997 . ISBN 1 @-@ 55111 @-@ 088 @-@ 1
Wollstonecraft , Mary . A Vindication of the Rights of Woman . Ed . Miriam Brody Kramnick . Rev. ed . Harmondsworth : Penguin , 2004 . ISBN 0 @-@ 14 @-@ 144125 @-@ 9 .
Wollstonecraft , Mary . A Vindication of the Rights of Woman . Ed . Deidre Shauna Lynch . 3rd ed . New York : W. W. Norton and Company , 2009 . ISBN 0 @-@ 393 @-@ 92974 @-@ 4 .
Wollstonecraft , Mary . A Vindication of the Rights of Men and A Vindication of the Rights of Woman . Ed . Sylvana Tomaselli . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press , 1995 . ISBN 0 @-@ 521 @-@ 43633 @-@ 8 .
= = = = Contemporary reviews = = = =
Analytical Review 12 ( 1792 ) : 241 – 249 ; 13 ( 1792 ) : 418 – 489 .
Christian Miscellany 1 ( 1792 ) : 209 – 212 .
Critical Review New Series 4 ( 1792 ) : 389 – 398 ; 5 ( 1792 ) : 132 – 141 .
General Magazine and Imperial Review 6 @.@ 2 ( 1792 ) : 187 – 191 .
Literary Magazine and British Review 8 ( 1792 ) ; 133 – 139 .
Monthly Review New Series 8 ( 1792 ) : 198 – 209 .
New Annual Register 13 ( 1792 ) : 298 .
New @-@ York Magazine 4 ( 1793 ) : 77 – 81 .
Scots Magazine 54 ( 1792 ) : 284 – 290 .
Sentimental and Masonic Magazine 1 ( 1792 ) : 63 – 72 .
Town and Country Magazine 24 ( 1792 ) : 279 .
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= Susan Mayer =
Susan Mayer is a fictional character played by Teri Hatcher on the ABC television series Desperate Housewives . The character was created by television producer and screenwriter Marc Cherry . She first appeared in the pilot episode of the series on October 3 , 2004 , and appeared in every episode until the series finale on May 13 , 2012 . Susan resides on the fictional Wisteria Lane in Fairview , Eagle State , the primary setting of the show . One of four lead characters , Susan is characterized as being a " notoriously clumsy " romantic with a " magnetic charm . " Her storylines tend to focus on her romantic relationships , most notably with Mike Delfino ( James Denton ) , whom she marries twice in the series .
Cherry originally created Susan as a girl next door archetype and intended for the character to provide an emotional anchor for the series . When developing the character , Cherry drew upon his personal experiences as well as those of single women in his life . The role was originally written for Mary @-@ Louise Parker , who turned it down ; as a result , Hatcher was cast in early 2004 . Hatcher 's portrayal of the character is both comedic and vulnerable . During the series ' debut season , both the character and Hatcher 's performance received positive critical reception ; however , as the series has progressed , the character has been received less favorably by critics and fans . Hatcher has received both a Golden Globe Award and Screen Actors Guild Award for her performance in the series .
= = Development and casting = =
While developing the series , Desperate Housewives creator Marc Cherry envisioned Susan as a girl next door and chose her to convey this image . In the original pilot , the character 's surname was spelled " Meyer " but had to be changed to " Mayer " for clearance purposes . Cherry commented , " I knew Susan was going to be my anchor character , and I didn 't really know my take on her at first . And then it occurred to me that one of these women should be divorced ... I thought there was something so real about a woman saying , ' I don 't have much time left , ' and when this available hunky guy moves onto the street , something in her saying ' Let me at him ' " . The character is a compendium of single mothers in Cherry 's life " desperate to land a man " . He also drew upon his own personal experiences while creating the character .
Julia Louis @-@ Dreyfus expressed interest in the role , but ABC executives felt she was not right for the part . Actors originally considered for the role include Courteney Cox , Calista Flockhart , Heather Locklear , Mary @-@ Louise Parker , and Sela Ward . Cherry wrote the part with Parker in mind , but she rejected the offer , later explaining " it just didn ’ t feel like I was gonna [ sic ] serve it as well as someone else might " . Teri Hatcher auditioned for the role in January 2004 and impressed Cherry immediately . After a second audition , Hatcher read for the role in front of network executives . Cherry praised her performance , saying " it was the best audition I 've ever seen in network " . Hatcher later commented , " I don 't think they were hot to hire me for Susan ... I was maybe on a B @-@ list , certainly not an A @-@ list " . Despite her reservations , Hatcher was the third reported cast member to have been cast in the series on February 18 , 2004 .
= = Personality and characteristics = =
Susan is primarily characterized as the girl next door . Teri Hatcher stated " I ’ m not exactly her , but I get her . I get her insecurities , her flaws . " She called the character " a great representation of what [ everyone ] deals with daily . Our responsibilities can be overwhelming and things often don 't go as you planned , so you have to roll with it . Susan celebrates rolling with it " . She is a hopeless romantic and often expresses her more openly and vulnerably than the other characters in the series . The series begins a year after Susan 's first divorce , when she is still emotionally raw . Throughout the series , several other characters have confronted Susan about her inability to live happily and without drama . Susan has a close relationship with her daughter , Julie ( Andrea Bowen ) , who often acts as the parent figure in the relationship .
Susan 's accident @-@ proneness is commonly used throughout the series to provide comic relief . Her susceptibility to bad luck and embarrassing situations have created some of the series ' most memorable moments , including accidentally burning down Edie 's house and being locked out of her own house completely naked . Susan 's poor cooking skills have also become a running gag in the series .
= = History = =
= = = Past = = =
Susan Bremmer was raised by single mother Sophie Bremmer ( Lesley Ann Warren ) . She was told her father was a United States Merchant Marine who died in the Battle of Hanoi during the Vietnam War . She was a cheerleader in high school and graduated as valedictorian of her class . She graduated from community college with an art degree . Eventually , Susan began writing and illustrating children 's books , the first of which was Ants in My Picnic Basket .
In her early twenties , Susan married Karl Mayer ( Richard Burgi ) and gave birth to their daughter , Julie , at age 26 . In 1992 , the family moved to Wisteria Lane in Fairview , Eagle State , where Susan befriended Mary Alice Young ( Brenda Strong ) , her new neighbor . Susan became close friends with Bree Van de Kamp ( Marcia Cross ) , Lynette Scavo ( Felicity Huffman ) , and Gabrielle Solis ( Eva Longoria ) when they moved to Wisteria Lane . In 2003 , Karl left Susan for his secretary , Brandi ( Anne Dudek ) . The two divorced and agreed to share custody of Julie , although she chose to live primarily with Susan .
= = = Season 1 = = =
A year after her divorce , Susan takes an interest in Mike Delfino ( James Denton ) , a plumber who has recently moved in across the street . Susan begins dating Mike , despite competition from Edie Britt ( Nicollette Sheridan ) . Meanwhile , Susan begins investigating Mary Alice 's suicide after she and her friends discover a blackmail note addressed to her . Later , Susan discovers that Mary Alice 's husband , Paul ( Mark Moses ) , had their son , Zach ( Cody Kasch ) , committed to a youth mental institution after he broke into the Van de Kamp house and decorated it for Christmas , Julie begins corresponding with Zach without Susan 's knowledge and hides him in her room when he escapes from the institution . When Susan finds Zach in her home , she and Mike return him to Paul ; however , Julie and Zach continue dating . Paul fabricates unconvincing lies to thwart Susan 's efforts to discover his family 's secrets too .
As her relationship with Mike progresses , Susan becomes suspicious of his past , especially when she finds a gun and large sums of money in his kitchen cabinets . Additionally , evidence connecting Mike to the murder of Wisteria Lane resident , Martha Huber ( Christine Estabrook ) , surfaces . Susan ends the relationship when police inform her that Mike was convicted of manslaughter and drug trafficking . However , Susan learns the murder was accidental and the two renew their relationship and agree that Mike will move into Susan 's house . While Mike is away on business , Susan finds Zach , armed with a handgun , in Mike 's house . He vows to kill Mike when he comes home as he believes Mike killed Paul .
= = = Season 2 = = =
When Mike arrives home , Zach 's murder scheme backfires and he runs away . Mike informs Susan that he recently learned that Zach is his biological son . Susan agrees to help Mike search for Zach and finds him in a nearby park . When Zach expresses hope of rekindling his romance with Julie , she gives him money to look for Paul in Utah . When Mike finds out about her betrayal , he ends their relationship . Susan decides to write an autobiography following the break @-@ up . While researching her father , she learns that her mother lied and her father is local business owner Addison Prudy ( Paul Dooley ) . She tries to establish a relationship with her reluctant father , but her attempts are effectively unsuccessful .
Meanwhile , Susan is dismayed to learn that Karl has moved in with Edie . She begins dating her doctor , Ron McCready ( Jay Harrington ) , who informs her that she has a wandering spleen and will need a splenectomy . When Susan learns that her health insurance will not cover the operation , Karl offers to remarry her for his medical benefits . They agree to keep their sham marriage a secret from Edie and Ron . While under anesthesia before her operation , Susan professes her love for Mike to Ron , which prompts Ron to break up with her . Soon after , Karl leaves Edie , as his love for Susan has resurfaced . Upon learning that Susan is the other woman , Edie intentionally sets Susan 's house on fire . In this time of need , both Mike and Karl vie for Susan 's affections . She chooses to rekindle her relationship with Mike and Karl signs the divorce papers . Susan and Mike then make plans to meet for dinner at nearby Torch Lake , where Mike plans to propose . On his way to dinner , Mike is a victim of a hit @-@ and @-@ run at the hands of Orson Hodge ( Kyle MacLachlan ) , a dentist whom Susan had recently befriended .
= = = Season 3 = = =
As a result of the hit @-@ and @-@ run , Mike falls into a coma . Having waited six months for Mike to wake up , she reluctantly enters a relationship with Ian Hainsworth ( Dougray Scott ) , a British man whose wife , Jane ( Cecily Gambrell ) , has been in a coma for years . When Mike finally awakens , doctors conclude that he now suffers from retrograde amnesia . While Susan is out of town , Edie convinces Mike that Susan was horrible to him during their relationship . Mike turns Susan away when she returns to Fairview . Having lost hope , Susan continues her romance with Ian . Meanwhile , Susan is suspicious of Orson , who has married Bree and is accused of killing his missing ex @-@ wife , Alma ( Valerie Mahaffey ) . When Mike is arrested for the murder of Monique Polier ( Kathleen York ) , Orson 's former mistress , Edie breaks up with him , leaving him without bail . Susan defends Mike , which frustrates Ian . He promises to pay for Mike 's bail if Susan breaks off all contact with him . Mike is eventually acquitted for the crime . Following Jane 's death , Susan accepts Ian 's marriage proposal .
As he slowly regains his memory , Mike recalls his feelings for Susan and challenges Ian for her affections . When Susan learns that the two had made a bet on her in a game of poker , she calls off the wedding and declares that she does not want to see either of them again . Realizing that letting both of them go is a mistake , Susan decides to take Ian back . However , he tells her that he cannot spend the rest of his life wondering if she is still in love with Mike , and he leaves . Susan and Mike reunite and become engaged . The couple get married in a private ceremony in the woods , with Julie as their only guest .
= = = Season 4 = = =
In the fourth season premiere , one month after her wedding , Susan learns that she is pregnant . While looking into their medical histories for the baby 's interest , Mike is forced to tell Susan that he lied about his father being dead . Susan visits Mike 's father , Nick ( Robert Forster ) , who is in jail for murder . Nick warns Susan that Mike is still troubled by demons of his past . With the stress of finances for the baby , Mike begins working overtime , despite an injury resulting from the hit @-@ and @-@ run over a year ago . He begins relying heavily on painkillers . Susan confronts Mike about his addiction , threatening to leave him if he does not enter rehab ; he agrees to admit himself . After a devastating tornado hits Wisteria Lane , Bree , Orson , and their newborn , Benjamin , move into Susan 's house temporarily . During his stay , Orson develops a sleep walking habit and unconsciously admits to running over Mike with his car . Susan feels extremely betrayed and Bree , unable to forgive Orson , asks him to move out . Shortly after , Susan gives birth to a boy , whom she names Maynard , after Mike 's deceased grandfather .
= = = = Five @-@ year jump = = = =
In the five years that take place between seasons four and five , Susan and Mike are involved in a car crash that kills a mother and her daughter . Although Susan was driving , Mike takes the blame , as Susan did not have her license with her at the time . Susan feels incredibly guilty for taking the lives of Lila ( Marie Caldare ) and Paige Dash ( Madeleine Michelle Dunn ) , but Mike insists it was not their fault . The argument over the topic becomes so great that it results in divorce . Giving up on love , Susan engages in a casual relationship with her house painter , Jackson Braddock ( Gale Harold ) .
= = = Season 5 = = =
While Susan manages to keep her relationship with Jackson a secret from her friends and her son , nicknamed M.J. , Jackson seeks a deeper connection with her . Soon enough , Mike and M.J. learn about the relationship . Jackson makes the sudden announcement that he is moving to nearby Riverton for work and asks Susan to come with him . After much consideration , Susan decides that she is unsure of what she wants and turns down Jackson 's offer . Also , Mike moves across the street from Susan and begins dating her close friend and neighbor , Katherine Mayfair ( Dana Delany ) . Realizing she cannot keep Mike from being happy , she gives the couple her blessing , despite still feeling uncomfortable . Susan and Mike decide to enroll M.J. in private school , and Susan takes a job as an assistant art teacher at the school to help pay for the tuition . With both Susan and Mike employed , M.J. spends more time under Katherine 's care , which makes Susan uneasy . She is heartbroken to learn that Mike and Katherine have decided to move in with one another and become engaged .
Susan attempts to console Edie 's husband , Dave Williams ( Neal McDonough ) , following Edie 's death . She explains the truth behind her own accident , completely unaware that Lila and Paige Dash were Dave 's wife and daughter , respectively , and that he had been seeking revenge on Mike since moving to Wisteria Lane . Meanwhile , Jackson returns to Fairview and proposes to Susan , revealing that his visa has expired and he needs to marry an American citizen . When Susan learns that Mike , who is engaged to Katherine , will no longer have to pay alimony once she is married , she explains the false pretenses of her engagement . Dave , who now understands that Susan was driving the car that killed his family , overhears this and reports Jackson to immigration officials . With Jackson out of the picture , Dave invites Susan and M.J. on a fishing trip , planning to kill M.J. just like Susan killed his own child . Mike discovers Dave 's plans and is able to save Susan and M.J. After the ordeal , Susan and Mike share a brief , yet romantic kiss . Dave is sent to a psychiatric hospital in Boston and two months later , Mike marries an unidentified bride .
= = = Season 6 = = =
Susan is identified as Mike 's bride in the sixth season premiere . Her marriage to Mike destroys her friendship with Katherine . After the wedding , Julie is strangled outside of Susan 's home . Julie slips into a coma following her attack . While waiting for her to awaken , Susan learns that Julie had dropped out of medical school , was involved with a married man , and had a pregnancy scare before her attack . When Julie awakens , she refuses to identify the married man she was seeing . Later in the season , Julie 's attacker is revealed to be Eddie Orlofsky ( Josh Zuckerman ) , a local young adult who is also responsible for a handful of murders in Fairview . Prior to the attack , Susan had taken Eddie on as an art student and he developed a crush on her . When he discovered that she was remarrying Mike and that she did not see him as a romantic suitor , he attacked Julie , mistaking her for Susan .
Katherine continues to pursue Mike , believing that he is still in love with her . Mike warns her to leave his family alone and claims he never truly loved her . After he leaves , Katherine calls 9 @-@ 1 @-@ 1 asking for an ambulance , and then stabs herself with a knife with Mike 's fingerprints on it . Katherine frames Mike for her wound . Susan , realizing that Katherine has suffered a total nervous breakdown , calls Katherine 's daughter , Dylan ( Lyndsy Fonseca ) , who comes to town and has her mother committed for psychiatric observation . Susan later forgives Katherine once she recovers from her breakdown . Soon after , Mike reveals that he has accumulated an immense debt in the past year . Unable to balance their debt , Susan and Mike decide to move off Wisteria Lane and rent their house out temporarily . They move into an apartment across town while Paul Young rents their house on Wisteria Lane .
= = = Season 7 = = =
Susan accepts an offer from her landlady , Maxine Rosen ( Lainie Kazan ) , to appear on a website in which she does housework in her lingerie in order to make ends meet , though she keeps her new job a secret from her friends and family . Soon after , Maxine 's site is merged with a larger company that uses Susan 's image to advertise the website on billboards across the country . Susan pays the company $ 9 @,@ 000 to have the billboards removed . As a result , she begins working for the website 's video chatting services to earn back the money . Paul discovers her secret and threatens to expose it unless she sells him her home , in which he now lives with his second wife , Beth ( Emily Bergl ) . Hoping to derail Paul 's blackmail scheme , Susan tells Mike about her job on the website . Paul retaliates by spreading the word about Susan 's involvement with the website , causing her to lose her teaching job . Strapped for money , Mike accepts a job on an oil rig in Alaska and Susan becomes Lynette 's nanny .
After purchasing a majority of the houses on Wisteria Lane , Paul announces that he plans to open a halfway house for ex @-@ convicts on the street . A protest against his plan escalates into a violent riot and Susan is trampled by the unruly crowd . As a result , Susan loses a kidney and learns that her second kidney is deformed and she is at severe risk of renal failure . Susan reluctantly agrees to undergo dialysis while waiting for a transplant . After Paul throws her out , Beth submits paperwork indicating that in the event of her death , her kidney would be given to Susan , and then commits suicide . Despite initial refusal , Paul allows the operation to move forward and he and Susan reconcile . After discovering that Paul has been depressed following Beth 's suicide , Susan begins cooking meals for him with the assistance of Felicia Tilman ( Harriet Sansom Harris ) , Beth 's mother and Martha Huber 's sister , who secretly adds antifreeze to the food in an effort to kill him . Paul nearly dies as a result of the poisoned food . Unaware that Felicia is helping prepare his meals , Paul has Susan arrested for attempting to kill him . Eventually , Susan is released , Paul confesses to the murder of Martha Huber , and Felicia presumably dies in a car crash while fleeing town . Susan and her family move back onto Wisteria Lane . During a dinner party , Gabrielle 's former stepfather , Alejandro ( Tony Plana ) , who raped her during her childhood , attempts to harm Gabrielle until her husband , Carlos Solis ( Ricardo Antonio Chavira ) kills him . Susan , Lynette , and Bree agree to help cover up the crime .
= = = Season 8 = = =
Susan begins to withdraw from her friends and family out of guilt for having helped cover up Alejandro 's death . She bonds with Carlos over their mutual guilt . When Mike begins suspecting Susan and Carlos are having an affair , they agree to tell him the truth about the cover @-@ up . Soon after , Susan begins taking an art class with renowned painter , Andre Zeller ( Miguel Ferrer ) , and discovers that her guilt has given her a renewed artistic ability . In a series of paintings , Susan depicts the scene of Alejandro 's death and subsequent burial , arousing the suspicion of Detective Chuck Vance ( Jonathan Cake ) , Bree 's embittered ex @-@ boyfriend assigned to investigate Alejandro 's disappearance . She briefly considers moving to New York to explore new career opportunities , but ultimately decides against it . In an effort to ease her guilt , Susan visits Alejandro 's wife and stepdaughter , Claudia ( Justina Machado ) and Marisa ( Daniela Bobadilla ) , respectively , and write them a check to help their financial misfortune , which only arouses Claudia 's suspicions . Claudia confronts Susan and Gabrielle about Alejandro 's disappearance , but agrees to stop prying after learning that he had been sexually abusing Marisa .
In " Is This What You Call Love ? " , Susan learns that Julie is six months pregnant and has no relationship with the baby 's father . To her dismay , Julie plans to put the child up for adoption . When Susan discovers that Lynette 's son , Porter ( Max Carver ) , is the father , she supports his decision to raise the child himself . In " You Take for Granted " , Mike is murdered by a vengeful loan shark . The final episodes of the series deal with Susan grieving and eventually moving on from Mike 's death . In the series finale , Julie gives birth to a daughter , whom she now plans on keeping . Susan sells her home on Wisteria Lane and she and M.J. move to help Julie raise the baby .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical = = =
In the first season of Desperate Housewives , the character of Susan was a critics ' favorite and generally regarded as the series ' most prominent role . Hatcher 's portrayal as Susan received praise in the series ' first year . Tim Goodman of the San Francisco Chronicle called Hatcher 's performance in the pilot episode " a huge surprise , " commenting that she gives " self @-@ effacing , disheveled and sadly hopeless Susan a spirit that makes you root for her " . Robert Bianco of USA Today declared that Hatcher delivered " a revelatory performance " . Heather Havrilesky of Salon.com was less enthusiastic , criticizing Hatcher for overacting . In the series ' second season , Susan becomes less important as Bree " comfortably moves into position as the show 's lead " . Many critics noted that the character suffered as a result of the declining quality of the second season . Bianco wrote that the writers were making Susan " too stupid " . Hatcher continued to provide comic relief in the third season .
By season four , critics thought that Susan 's storylines were the least interesting and that she had not " operated at full potential since [ her ] pivotal role in the debut season " . Bianco was more forgiving , stating that while " Susan 's silliness sometimes spirals out of control , Teri Hatcher usually manages to keep her likable " . As a result of the five @-@ year time jump between seasons four and five , a new direction was taken with Susan 's character . The Stat @-@ Legend 's Alan Sepinwall calls Susan 's character arc in season five the " least annoying storyline she 's had in at least three years " . However , Tanner Stransky of Entertainment Weekly still felt the character was " ever @-@ annoying " . In the series ' sixth season , Stransky stated that Susan was still " whiny " and he would have rather seen Mike marry Katherine , though he was not surprised when the mystery bride was revealed to be Susan . Entertainment Weekly named her one of the " 21 Most Annoying TV Characters Ever " .
= = = Awards = = =
Hatcher won the Golden Globe Award for Best Performance by an Actress in a Television Comedy Series in 2005 , beating out fellow cast members Marcia Cross and Felicity Huffman . Also that year , Hatcher received the Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by an Actress in a Comedy Series . In 2005 , Hatcher , along with Cross and Huffman , received a nomination for a Satellite Award in the Best Television Actress in a Musical or Comedy Series . She was also nominated for an Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series , but was beaten out by Huffman . In 2006 , Hatcher was once again nominated for the Golden Globe Award in the same category , along with Cross , Huffman , and Eva Longoria . All four Desperate Housewives stars lost to Mary @-@ Louise Parker . Hatcher was also nominated for a Teen Choice Award for Choice TV Actress and a People 's Choice Award for Favorite Female TV Star .
= = = Controversy = = =
ABC and the Desperate Housewives producers faced criticism following the September 30 , 2007 fourth season premiere in which the character of Susan made a controversial remark about Filipino doctors . When her gynecologist suggests that she may be entering menopause , Susan responds " OK , before we go any further , can I check these diplomas ? Just to make sure they aren 't , like , from some med school in the Philippines ? " Following its broadcast , viewers demanded an apology from the network . ABC issued an apology on October 3 , but the controversy grew to an international concern and Health Secretary Francisco Duque III of Manila publicly sought an apology from the series ' producers . Protests against the network and series were staged , prompting ABC to remove the episode from digital and online platforms in order to apply edits . As a result , the line of controversy was removed from all future broadcasts of the episode , as well as from DVD productions . However , protests continued even after this action was taken . The scene with the line in question is still viewable on YouTube .
= = = Cultural influences and merchandise = = =
Nicole Parker portrayed Susan in a Desperate Housewives parody on an episode of MADtv . Susan 's klutziness is mocked in the skit . Colette Whitaker voices Susan in the Desperate Housewives computer game , which was released in October 2006 . In 2007 , Madame Alexander released a line of 16 @-@ inch fashion dolls of the series ' main characters , including Susan .
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= Spanish battleship Jaime I =
Jaime I was the third and final member of the España class of dreadnought battleships of the Spanish Navy . She had two sister ships , España and Alfonso XIII . Jaime I was built by the SECN shipyard ; she was laid down in February 1912 , launched in September 1914 , and completed in December 1921 . She was armed with a main battery of eight 12 @-@ inch ( 305 mm ) guns and could steam at a speed of 19 @.@ 5 knots ( 36 @.@ 1 km / h ; 22 @.@ 4 mph ) .
Jaime I served in the Spanish fleet from 1921 to 1937 . She and her sisters participated in the Rif War , where they provided gunfire support to Spanish Army forces . During the conflict , she was damaged by a rebel coastal battery . The ship served with the Republicans during the Spanish Civil War . Nationalist bombers attacked the ship twice and on 17 June 1937 , she was destroyed by an accidental explosion . The wreck was later raised and scrapped .
= = Technical characteristics = =
Jaime I was 132 @.@ 6 m ( 435 ft ) long at the waterline and 140 m ( 460 ft ) long overall . She had a beam of 24 m ( 79 ft ) and a draft of 7 @.@ 8 m ( 26 ft ) ; her freeboard was 15 ft ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) amidships . Her propulsion system consisted of four @-@ shaft Parsons steam turbines and twelve Yarrow boilers . The engines were rated at 15 @,@ 500 shaft horsepower ( 11 @,@ 600 kW ) and produced a top speed of 19 @.@ 5 knots ( 36 @.@ 1 km / h ; 22 @.@ 4 mph ) . Jaime I had a cruising radius of 5 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 9 @,@ 300 km ; 5 @,@ 800 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . Her crew consisted of 854 officers and enlisted men .
Jaime I was armed with a main battery of eight 305 mm ( 12 @.@ 0 in ) / 50 guns , mounted in four twin gun turrets . One turret was placed forward , two were positioned en echelon amidships , and the fourth was aft of the superstructure . This mounting scheme was chosen in preference to superimposed turrets , as was done in the South Carolinas , to save weight and cost . Her secondary battery consisted of twenty 102 mm ( 4 @.@ 0 in ) guns mounted in casemates along the length of the hull . They were too close to the waterline , however , which made them unusable in heavy seas . She was also armed with four 3 @-@ pounder guns and two machine guns . Her armored belt was 203 mm ( 8 @.@ 0 in ) thick amidships ; the main battery turrets were protected with the same amount of armor plate . The conning tower had 254 mm ( 10 @.@ 0 in ) thick sides . Her armored deck was 38 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) thick .
= = Service history = =
Jaime I was laid down at the Sociedad Española de Construcción Naval shipyard in Ferrol on 5 February 1912 . She was launched on 21 September 1914 , less than two months after the start of World War I. Spain remained neutral during the conflict , but because Britain supplied much of the armament and other building materials , work on Jaime I was considerably delayed . The ship was ready to go to sea by 1917 , but she was not completed until well after the end of the war ; work was finally finished on 20 December 1921 . Upon her completion , she joined her two sister ships in the 1st Squadron of the Spanish fleet . Jaime I saw action against insurgents in Morocco in the Rif War during the early 1920s along with her two sisters . Rif insurgents operating a coastal battery damaged the ship in 1924 .
She fought with the Spanish Republican Navy in the Spanish Civil War . At the outbreak of the Nationalist revolt , wireless operators in the navy headquarters Madrid intercepted radio messages from General Francisco Franco to rebels in Morocco . They alerted the crews aboard Jaime I and other ships , who mutinied against their rebellious officers and ensured the ships would remain under Republican control . The vessels were nevertheless crippled by poor discipline for some time , as they had murdered many of their officers , and distrusted those that were not killed . On the first months of the war , Jaime I shelled a number of rebel strongholds , among them Ceuta , Melilla and Algeciras . In Algeciras she hit with her secondary armament the Nationalist gunboat Eduardo Dato , which was burned down to the waterline , although she was later repaired and returned to service .
During the Civil War , Jaime I was damaged by a Nationalist air attack at Málaga on 13 August 1936 ; a single , small bomb struck the ship in the bow and caused minimal damage . On 21 May 1937 , she was attacked again while in drydock at Cartagena for repairs after a recent grounding . Three bombs hit the ship , that again caused only minor damage . On 17 June , while at Cartagena , she was wrecked by an accidental internal explosion and fire , although sabotage is suspected . She was refloated , but determined to be beyond repair . She was officially discarded on 3 July 1939 , and broken up in 1941 .
In 1940 , the all the guns were recovered , the front and rear twin turrets were used in the Gibraltar strait coastal defense batteries D9 and D10 , El vigia and Casquebel respectively , near Tarifa . Abandoned in 1985 , the twin turrets and canons are still in place. but under degradation . All the other guns were placed en single mounts in several locations
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= Pharnavaz I of Iberia =
Pharnavaz ( Georgian : ფარნავაზი Georgian pronunciation : [ pʰɑrnɑvɑzi ] ) also transliterated as Parnavaz or Farnavaz was the king of Kartli , an ancient Georgian kingdom known as Iberia to the Classical sources . The Georgian Chronicles credits him with being the first monarch founding the kingship of Kartli and the Pharnavazid dynasty , while another independent chronicles , The Conversion of Kartli makes him the second Georgian monarch . Based on the medieval evidence , most scholars locate Pharnavaz ’ s rule in the 3rd century BC : 302 – 237 BC according to Prince Vakhushti of Kartli , 299 – 234 BC according to Cyril Toumanoff and 284 – 219 BC according to Pavle Ingoroqva . Pharnavaz 's rise and the advent of the Iberian monarchy was directly tied to the victory of Alexander the Great over the Achaemenid Empire .
= = Life = =
According to the Georgian royal annals , Pharnavaz descended from Uplos , son of Mtskhetos , son of Kartlos , who was one of the powerful and famous eight brothers , who from their part were descendants of Targamos , son of Tarsi , the grandson of Japheth , son of the Biblical Noah . He is not directly attested in non @-@ Georgian sources and there is no definite contemporary indication that he was indeed the first of the Georgian kings . His story is saturated with legendary imagery and symbols , and it seems feasible that , as the memory of the historical facts faded , the real Pharnavaz " accumulated a legendary façade " and emerged as the model pre @-@ Christian monarch in the Georgian annals .
According to the c . 800 chronicle The Life of Kings , Pharnavaz had a distinguished genealogy , tracing back to Kartlos , the mythical ethnarch of Kartli . His paternal uncle , Samara , held the position of mamasakhlisi ( " father of the house " ) of the Georgian tribes around Mtskheta . Pharnavaz ’ s mother is claimed to have been a Persian woman from Isfahan , whom Prince Teimuraz of Georgia and Patriarch Anton I of Georgia identify with a daughter of King Darius III . The entire story of Pharnavaz , although written by a Christian chronicler , abounds in ancient Iranian @-@ like imagery and mystic allusions , a reflection of the archaeologically confirmed cultural and presumably political ties between Iran and Kartli of that time . The name " Pharnavaz " is also an illustrative example with its root par- being based upon the Persian farnah , the divine radiance believed by the ancient Iranians to mark a legitimate dynast ( cf. khvarenah ) . The dynastic tag Parnavaziani ( " of / from / named for Pharnavaz " ) is also preserved in the early Armenian histories as P 'arnawazean ( Faustus of Byzantium 5 @.@ 15 ; fifth century ) and P 'arazean ( History of Armenia 14 ; probably the early fifth century ) , an acknowledgment that a king named Pharnavaz was understood to have been the founder of a Georgian dynasty . Pharnavaz is also mentioned in the Armazi stele of Serapit .
Perhaps the most artistically rounded section of the Georgian annals , the narrative follows Pharnavaz 's life from birth to burial . Aged 3 , small Pharnavaz 's family is destroyed , and his heritage is usurped by Azon installed by Alexander the Great during his campaign in Kartli . Alexander 's invasion of Iberia , remembered not only by the Georgian historical tradition , but also by Pliny the Elder ( 4 @.@ 10 @.@ 39 ) and Gaius Julius Solinus ( 9 @.@ 19 ) , appears to be memory of some Macedonian interference in Iberia , which must have taken place in connection with the expedition mentioned by Strabo ( 11 @.@ 14 @.@ 9 ) sent by Alexander in 323 BC to the confines of Iberia , in search of gold mines .
Pharnavaz is brought up fatherless , but a magic dream , in which he anoints himself with the essence of the Sun , heralds the peripeteia . He is persuaded by this vision to " devote [ himself ] to noble deeds " . He then sets off and goes hunting . In a pursuit of a deer , he encounters a mass of treasure stored in a hidden cave . Pharnavaz retrieves the treasure and exploits it to mount a loyal army against the tyrannical Azon . He is aided by Kuji of Colchis , who eventually marries Pharnavaz 's sister . The rebels are also joined by 1 @,@ 000 soldiers from Azon 's camp ; they are anachronistically referred to by the author as Romans , and claimed to have been entitled by the victorious Pharnavaz as aznauri ( i.e. , nobles ) after Azon ( this etymology is false , however ) .
The main threads of Pharnavaz 's story - a fatherless boy hidden and raised in a remote mountains , a forgotten lineage , his dreams , sacral kingship , solar imagery , the hunt , discovery of cave @-@ concealed treasure etc. are reminiscent of legends about Iran 's founding kings , like Cyrus the Great and Ardashir I. Pharnavaz 's self @-@ anointment may have a Sasanian inspiration , as some early Shahanshahs crowned themselves .
= = Reign = =
In the ensuing battle , Azon is defeated and killed , and Pharnavaz becomes the king of Kartli at the age of 27 . He is reported to have acknowledged the suzerainty of the Seleucids , the Hellenistic successors of Alexander in the Middle East , who are afforded by the Georgian chronicles the generic name of Antiochus .
Pharnavaz is also said to have patterned his administration upon an " Iranian " model .
Pharnavaz had introduced a military @-@ administrative organization based on a network of regional governors or eristavi . The insignia of the eristavi , received from the king , constituted a sceptre , a special signet ring , belt and armament . Iberia had in total seven eristavis , in Colchis , Kakheti , Khunani ( modern @-@ day northern Azerbaijan ) , Samshvilde ( Kvemo Kartli ) , Tsunda ( included Javakheti , Kola and Artaani ) , Odzrkhe and Klarjeti . The kingdom had one spaspet who was under the direct control of the royal power based in Inner Kartli . Eristavates mimicked aspects of Achaemenid satrapies and Seleucid strategoi . The major motive of later historian of the chronicles was to convince posterity that the basic political structure of Kartli was created by the very first Georgian monarch in the wake of Wars of Alexander the Great ; was of Achaemenid administrative system and had remained stable throughout Hellenistic , Parthian and Sasanian times . In this way , the long @-@ term viability and stability of the Georgian realm are established .
The hierarchic structure created by Pharnavaz was the following : king ; commander @-@ in @-@ chief ( spaspet ) of the royal army ; eristavis ; middle commanders ( atasistavis tsikhistavis ) of the garrisons stationed in the royal strongholds ; junior commanders ( asistavis ) who were the younger sons of the aristocratic families ; mercenary professional warriors from the neighboring countries and all the soldiers organized around the entire kingdom .
It is evident that the division of Iberia by Pharnavaz into saeristavos served first and foremost a military aim , namely the organization of people for the purpose of defence . This organization was not so much directed against other countries . Back then the total population of the kingdom would have been , including foreign captives and the population of the tributary areas , about 600 @,@ 000 , which could raise a fairly big army not less than 100 @,@ 000 . According to Strabo the Iberian army numbered 70 @-@ 80 @,@ 000 so it appears that each saeristavo had 10 @,@ 000 soldiers .
While Georgian and Classical evidence makes the contemporaneous Kartlian links with the Seleucids plausible ( Toumanoff has even implied that the kings of Kartli might have aided the Seleucids in holding the resurgent Orontids of Armenia in check ) , Pharnavaz 's alleged reform of the eristavi fiefdoms is most likely a back @-@ projection of the medieval pattern of subdivision to the remote past .
Pharnavaz is then reported to have embarked on social and cultural projects ; he supervised two building projects : the raising of the idol Armazi – reputedly named after him – on a mountain ledge and the construction of a similarly named fortress .
Pharnavaz made alliances with various North Caucasian peoples during his reign , to whom he called upon for help against both Macedonia and internal foes . He took a Durdzuk woman in marriage , in order to consolidate the alliance of Iberia with the Durdzuks , who helped him consolidate his reign against his unruly vassals . Similarly he married his sister to a Sarmatian chief .
According to the Georgian royal annals he also created the Georgian script and made the Georgian language an official language of the kingdom :
The chronicles report Pharnavaz 's lengthy reign of 65 years .
Upon his death , he was buried in front of the idol Armazi and worshipped . His son Saurmag succeeded him to the throne .
Pharnavaz 's grave is undisclosed so far . One of the last monarchs who visited his grave to adorn it and pay his respects was King Mirian III . Pharnavaz 's very burial in front of idol Armazi suggests a Hellenistic deification of the early monarchs of Iberia .
= = Pharnavaz and Arrian 's Pharasmanes = =
Several modern scholars have been tempted to make identification between the Pharnavaz of the medieval Georgian tradition and the Pharasmanes of the Greco @-@ Roman historian Arrian , a 2nd @-@ century AD author of The Anabasis of Alexander . Arrian recounts that " Pharasmanes ( Фαρασμάνης ) , king of the Chorasmians " , visited Alexander the Great with 1500 horseman , and pledged his support should Alexander desire to campaign to the Euxine lands and subdue Colchians , whom Pharasmanes names as his neighbors . Apart from the similarity of the names of Pharasmanes and Pharnavaz ( both names are apparently based on the same root , the Iranian farnah ) , it is interesting to note that the king of Chorasmia in Central Asia reports Colchis ( today ’ s western Georgia , i.e. , the western neighbor of ancient Kartli / Iberia ) to be a neighboring country . Some Georgian scholars have suggested that the Greek copyists of Arrian might have confused Chorasmia with Cholarzene ( Chorzene ) , a Classical rendering of the southwest Georgian marchlands ( the medieval Tao @-@ Klarjeti ) , which indeed bordered with Colchis and Pontus .
According to Arrian :
= = Legacy = =
The Bagrationi dynasty claimed descent directly from Pharnavaz . During the continuity of monarchy in Georgia , the Georgian kings presented themselves as heirs to the Kingdom of Iberia founded by King Pharnavaz .
In Tbilisi there is a King Pharnavaz Street , Avenue , and also a statue of Pharnavaz . Also , there are streets named after Pharnavaz in Batumi , Kutaisi , Khashuri , Gori , Gurjaani , Sachkhere , Zestaponi and others . Some buildings , including schools and hotels , also bear his name , as well as about five hundred Georgians .
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= Mycena vitilis =
Mycena vitilis , commonly known as the snapping bonnet , is a species of inedible mushroom in the Mycenaceae family . It is found in Europe and North America , where it grows on the ground among leaves in damp places , especially under alder . The small pale gray to whitish fruit bodies are usually attached to small sticks buried in the leaves and detritus . They are distinguished by their long , slender stems that root into the ground , and by the grooved cap that reaches diameters of up to 2 @.@ 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 9 in ) . The grayish @-@ white gills on the underside of the cap are distantly spaced , and adnately attached to the stem . M. vitilis contains strobilurin B , a fungicidal compound with potential use in agriculture .
= = Taxonomy and naming = =
First described as Agaricus vitilis by Swedish mycologist Elias Magnus Fries in 1838 , it was assigned to Mycena vitilis in 1872 by Lucien Quélet . The white @-@ bodied variant Mycena vitilis var. corsica has been described from Italy , and differs from the main species by its white fruit bodies and differing measurements for several microscopic characters . Carleton Rea named another variety amsegetes ( meaning " field by the roadside " ) , which differs from the type variety by its " obsoletely umbonate " cap , its shorter and thicker stem , and its typical habitat of meadows and roadsides . The name " Mycena filopes " has also been confusingly applied to this species by some authors , although M. filopes ( Bull . ) P. Kumm. is a species that is recognized as being distinct from M. vitilis " .
The specific epithet vitilis is derived from the Latin word for " good for tying or binding with " , or " plaited " . The mushroom 's common name is the " snapping bonnet " . In his 1871 Handbook of British Fungi , Mordecai Cubitt Cooke called it the " flexile Mycena " .
= = Description = =
The cap of M. vitilis is initially conic or bell @-@ shaped , but flattens out in maturity , and typically reaches dimensions of up to 2 @.@ 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 9 in ) . When young , the cap margin is pressed against the stem , but as the cap expands it becomes bell @-@ shaped or somewhat umbonate , and the margin flattens out or curves inward . The cap surface is initially hoary but soon becomes polished and slimy when moist , or shiny when dry . The cap margin is even , and has slight grooves that mark the position of the gills underneath . The cap color is beige ( sometimes with a grayish tinge ) with paler margins , fading to pale gray or nearly white in age . Occasionally , the mushroom cap has a strong brownish tint when fresh . Moist mushrooms have a slightly sticky surface . The flesh is thin but pliant , grayish or pallid , cartilaginous , and lacks any distinctive odor and taste .
The gills are attached by a tooth and are narrowly adnate , close to subdistant , narrow , equal , white or grayish , and with edges concolorous and often slightly eroded . Berkeley noted that the gills " vary a good deal in colour , and are sometimes very dark " . The stem is 6 – 12 cm ( 2 @.@ 4 – 4 @.@ 7 in ) long , 1 @.@ 5 – 2 mm ( 0 @.@ 06 – 0 @.@ 08 in ) thick , equal in width throughout , cartilaginous and tough . The stem color is brown with a tinge of pink , and the color lightens towards the top . It is usually straight but often curved toward the base , and roots into in the debris , or is attached to sticks . Smith has noted that in optimal weather conditions , " robust " forms may be found that are " strict and rigid in their appearance . " The buried portion of the stem is covered with thick , stiff whitish hairs , and is surrounded with a thin subgelatinous layer , which causes it to be slimy to the touch . Its color is initially bluish @-@ black , soon gray , nearly the same color as the cap , with the apex somewhat fibrous @-@ striate . The mushroom is inedible .
= = = Microscopic characteristics = = =
The spores are ellipsoid , hyaline , amyloid , and measure 9 – 11 by 5 – 6 μm . The basidia ( spore @-@ bearing cells ) are four @-@ spored . The pleurocystidia ( cystidia on the gill face ) are not differentiated or are occasionally present near the gill edge and similar to cheilocystidia ( cystidia on the gill edge ) . The cheilocystidia , which measure 32 – 46 by 8 – 14 μm , are tapered on either end and can have two to several obtuse fingerlike projections arising from the apex . The gill flesh stains vinaceous @-@ brown in iodine . The subhymenium ( the tissue layer directly underneath the hymenium ) is made of narrow , interwoven hyphae , with the central portion composed of long , cylindrical , and moderately broad cells . The flesh of the cap has a fairly thick subgelatinous pellicle , a well @-@ differentiated hypoderm , and a filamentous tramal body . All except the pellicle stain vinaceous @-@ brown in iodine .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
The fruit bodies of Mycena vitilis are found growing scattered or in groups on debris in hardwood or mixed conifer and hardwood forests . Along the Pacific Coast it is sometimes abundant in Red alder slashes . In eastern North America it is quite commonly found growing in the autumn months of October and November with M. semivestipes and M. pullata . The fungus is widely distributed in Europe ( for example , Britain , Germany , Italy , Norway , Poland , Portugal ) .
= = Chemistry = =
The fruit bodies of Mycena vitilis contain the chlorinated compound strobilurin B. Strobilurins are aromatic compounds produced by some fungi that help them secure resources by giving them an advantage against other competing fungi . They have been investigated for potential use as lead compounds for agricultural fungicides .
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= Can 't Stop Won 't Stop ( Usher song ) =
" Can 't Stop Won 't Stop " is a song recorded by American recording artist Usher for his seventh studio album Looking 4 Myself ( 2012 ) . Written and produced by Will " will.i.am " Adams and Keith Harris , the song contains an interpolation of the bridge to Billy Joel 's 1983 hit single " Uptown Girl " . Musically , " Can 't Stop Won 't Stop " is a eurodance and dance @-@ pop song that incorporates elements of dubstep .
" Can 't Stop Won 't Stop " received generally mixed reviews from music critics , who praised the song 's production , but dismissed its lyrics . Additionally , similarities between " Can 't Stop Won 't Stop " and Usher 's 2010 single " OMG " were noted . Upon the release of Looking 4 Myself , the song debuted at number 22 on the South Korea Gaon International Chart , with sales of 9 @,@ 374 digital copies .
= = Background = =
" Can 't Stop Won 't Stop " was written by William M. Joel , Keith Harris and William Adams . The production of the song was helmed by Harris and Adams under his stage name will.i.am. Adams had previously written and produced Usher 's 2010 single " OMG " . " Can 't Stop Won 't Stop " contains a portion of Joel 's single " Uptown Girl " ( An Innocent Man , 1983 ) . Mark " Exit " Goodchild recorded the song at Glenwood Place Studios in Burbank , while Jacob Dennis served as recording assistant . It was mixed by Dylan " 3 @-@ D " Dresdow at Paper V.U. Studios North Hollywood with Jaime Martinez serving as a mixing assistant . The track 's producers Harris and Adams provided the complete instrumentation of " Can 't Stop Won 't Stop " .
= = Composition = =
" Can 't Stop Won 't Stop " is a eurodance and dance @-@ pop song that incorporates dubstep elements with a length of three minutes and 51 seconds . According to Carrie Battan of Pitchfork Media , " even though the track opens builds like a arena anthem , but instead of exploding into oblivion after the breakdown it splits into a fizzy and wonky slap of a beat . " PopCrush 's Trent Fitzgerald compared " Can 't Stop Won 't Stop " to Usher 's 2010 single " OMG " . Ryan Hadfield of Time wrote that , " ' Can ’ t Stop Won ’ t Stop ' and ' Scream ' are aggressively seductive club songs " and drew comparisons to Usher 's single " Yeah ! " ( Confessions , 2004 ) and his collaboration with French disk jockey David Guetta entitled " Without You " ( Nothing but the Beat , 2011 ) . Billboard 's Erika Ramirez concluded that " Can 't Stop Won 't Stop " is built around " synth @-@ heavy hook " and was critical towards its " mediocre lyricism " . The song starts with the opening lines : " Hey what ’ s up / This is a jam , turn it up / Play it loud in the club / This is fire , burning it up " , while the chorus consists of the lyrics " I can ’ t can ’ t stop it / Can ’ t stop won ’ t stop " . Unterberger noted that the lines " I don ’ t want to do all the normal things / That all these other normal dudes do " could be the inspiration for the title of the album and its " thesis statement " .
= = Critical reception = =
" Can 't Stop Won 't Stop " received generally mixed review from music critics . Nathan S. of DJ Booth stated that " Can 't Stop Won 't Stop " would be shocking to a " My Way @-@ era Usher " , but " coming from a man who 's [ sic ] last huge hit was OMG , it 's really nothing new " . Sobhi Youssef of Sputnikmusic praised the song 's productions , but dismissed its " truly cliched lyrics " . Erika Ramirez of Billboard stated that the song " simply sets the stage for better tracks to come " . Eric Henderson of Slant Magazine wrote a negative review of the song , calling it " yet another dispiritingly hollow attempted revver @-@ upper in the Pitbull / LMFAO mode " . He also criticized the song 's interpolation from " Uptown Girl . " Killian Fox of The Guardian called the song " horribly overblown " , while Trent of the Lava Lizard labelled the song as " forgettable " .
Brad Wete of Complex disagreed , calling the song , along with " Lemme See " , a " gem " . Andrew Unterberger of Popdust called the song " not exactly single @-@ worthy material " , being " a hobbled @-@ together bunch of musical cliches , where David Guetta stadium house beats meets Skrillex wub @-@ wubs , like the brainchild of the most uncreative EDM think tank possible . " According to Unterberger , the lyrics are " even more hackneyed " , with its " Kardashian @-@ worthy opening lines " Evan Rytlewski of The AV Club both " Can 't Stop Won 't Stop " and " Scream " as two " overinflated dance numbers " that open the album on a " discouragingly perfunctory note " . He concluded by stating that : " If there ’ s a bright spot to either , it ’ s that they forgo the garish auto @-@ tune of Usher 's previous dance forays , so at least his whole register comes across cleanly . "
= = Chart performance = =
Upon the release of Looking 4 Myself , due to digital downloads " Can 't Stop Won 't Stop " debuted on the singles chart in South Korea . It debuted on the South Korea Gaon International Chart at number 22 on June 10 , 2012 , with sales of 9 @,@ 374 digital copies . The next week , the song sold an additional 3 @,@ 593 copies and fell to number 78 .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Recording and mixing
Recorded at Glenwood Place Studios , Burbank , California ; mixed at Paper V.U. Studios North Hollywood , California
Personnel
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Looking 4 Myself , RCA Records .
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= M @-@ 86 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 86 is an east – west state trunkline highway in the US state of Michigan in the southern portion of the Lower Peninsula . The highway starts at Business US Highway 131 ( Bus . US 131 ) and M @-@ 60 in Three Rivers and ends at US Highway 12 ( US 12 ) near Coldwater . In between , it crosses farm country and runs along a section of the Prairie River . Following a highway originally numbered M @-@ 7 , the roadway was renumbered M @-@ 86 in 1940 . It has been a part of the state highway system at least since 1927 . Two other roadways carried the M @-@ 86 designation in the 1920s . Two bridges along the road are eligible for inclusion on the National Register of Historic Places ( NHRP ) .
= = Route description = =
M @-@ 86 begins in Three Rivers at a junction with Bus . US 131 and M @-@ 60 . From there the road travels south out of town on Main Street and across the St. Joseph River . After crossing the river , the highway runs through a residential area of town and turns eastward into rural farm lands . M @-@ 86 crosses the Prairie River and follows Burr Oak Street into the community of Centreville . The highway switches to follow Main Street through downtown Centreville ; east of downtown , Main Street curves along a bend in the river , and it runs parallel to the river out of town . As part of its support of the state highway system , the Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) tracks the traffic levels along the roads it maintains . These traffic counts are expressed in terms of average annual daily traffic ( AADT ) , a calculation of the vehicles using a segment of roadway on a typical day of the year . In 2009 , MDOT measured 7 @,@ 642 vehicles including 138 trucks along M @-@ 86 in Centreville , the highest traffic levels along the whole highway . As the highway leaves town , it passes by the north side of Lake Templene , and Sand Lake near Nottawa before meeting M @-@ 66 .
From the junction , M @-@ 86 and M @-@ 66 run concurrently to the north for about 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) , at which point M @-@ 86 branches off to the east while M @-@ 66 continues on a northerly route . M @-@ 86 continues east through agricultural land into the village of Colon . The highway follows South Street and turns north on Blackstone Avenue between Sturgeon and Palmer lakes . Turning to follow State Street , the trunkline heads out of the village to the southeast . It continues eastward along Colon Road , passing north of Matteson Lake near Matteson and through Batavia Center . In Coldwater Township , M @-@ 86 experienced its lowest traffic level in 2009 at 1 @,@ 872 vehicles and 129 trucks AADT . The highway terminates at US 12 west of Coldwater near the Branch County Memorial Airport and Messenger Lake . No segment of M @-@ 86 has been listed on the National Highway System , a system of roads important to the nation 's economy , defense , and mobility .
= = History = =
= = = Previous designations = = =
Upon its inception in 1921 , a very different M @-@ 86 was routed along a portion of present @-@ day M @-@ 66 from M @-@ 46 at Six Lakes northward to Remus , ending at M @-@ 24 ( modern M @-@ 20 ) . A few years later in 1924 – 25 , M @-@ 66 was extended north to Remus , supplanting the contemporary M @-@ 86 . At the same time , the M @-@ 86 designation was relocated to Ionia County to run from M @-@ 44 in Orleans to M @-@ 43 ( present day M @-@ 66 ) just east of there . In late 1929 , M @-@ 44 was extended east from Orleans to junction with M @-@ 43 , once again , causing M @-@ 86 to be supplanted and removed from the highway system .
= = = Current designation = = =
By the end of 1927 , the Michigan State Highway Department ( MSHD ) had designated a highway numbered M @-@ 7 between Three Rivers and Centreville . This highway was extended east by the middle of 1936 . The route connected US 131 in downtown Three Rivers to US 112 outside Coldwater . At the time of the extension , all of M @-@ 7 was a gravel road . Later that year , the original segment between Three Rivers and Colon was paved , and the state extended the hard @-@ surface route as far as Nottawa in 1937 .
In 1940 , at the same time all single @-@ digit highway numbers were renumbered in the state , the M @-@ 86 designation replaced M @-@ 7 . This incarnation of M @-@ 86 followed its present @-@ day routing . Near Nottawa , M @-@ 86 ran concurrently with the contemporary M @-@ 78 north and east to Colon . In late 1948 or early 1949 , the last section of highway was paved in Branch County , hard @-@ surfacing all of M @-@ 86 for the first time . A change related to M @-@ 66 and M @-@ 78 altered M @-@ 86 in 1965 . South of Battle Creek , M @-@ 66 replaced M @-@ 78 . Rather than follow M @-@ 78 between Colon and Athens , M @-@ 66 used a different series of roads . The net result was that along M @-@ 86 , the M @-@ 78 concurrency was replaced by a shorter M @-@ 66 concurrency . The routing has remain unchanged since .
= = = Historic bridges = = =
M @-@ 86 currently uses two bridges eligible for listing on the NRHP . The span over the St. Joseph River in Three Rivers was built in 1903 . It is a five @-@ span concrete arch bridge constructed to look as though created from stacked masonry blocks . The current railings were added in 1952 by the MSHD during a repair project . The second historic structure is the bridge over the Prairie River in Centreville . This camelback pony truss span was moved to its current location in 1938 – 39 , although it was originally built on an unknown location in 1923 . In the move , two sidewalks , one on either side of the trusses , were eliminated from the structure . This project was part of Public Works Administration relief work in the area .
= = Major intersections = =
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= Bart on the Road =
" Bart on the Road " is the twentieth episode of The Simpsons ' seventh season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on March 31 , 1996 . In the episode , Bart makes his own fake driver 's license . He rents a car with it and takes Milhouse , Martin , and Nelson on a road trip to Knoxville , Tennessee . In Knoxville , however , the car gets destroyed , and they are stranded without any money or transportation . To get Bart home , Homer orders equipment for the power plant and ships it via courier from Knoxville , with the boys stowed away inside the crate .
The episode was written by Richard Appel , and directed by Swinton O. Scott III . The idea of a road trip was " so exciting " that the writers immediately knew they wanted to write it . This features cultural references to the 1991 film Naked Lunch , American singer Andy Williams , and Look magazine . Since airing , the episode has received positive reviews from television critics , and Central Michigan Life named it the eighth best episode of the show . It acquired a Nielsen rating of 7 @.@ 2 , and was the fifth highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network the week it aired .
= = Plot = =
Principal Skinner closes school the day before spring break and sends the children on a " go to work with your parents day " in order to take a trip to Hong Kong . Bart is forced to go to the DMV with his aunts Patty and Selma , and Lisa decides to go to the nuclear power plant with Homer , where she bonds with him . At the DMV , Bart makes himself a fake driver 's license , which he , Nelson , Martin , and Milhouse use to hire a rental car with $ 600 Martin earned in the stockmarket . The boys tell their parents they are going to attend the " National Grammar Rodeo " in Canada , but secretly take the rented car for a road trip to Knoxville , Tennessee after finding a brochure for the 1982 World 's Fair . During the car ride , chaos ensues as they stop in Branson , Missouri to see Nelson 's favorite singer Andy Williams , and Nelson later manages to provoke an agitated father of a Canadian family traveling to Cape Canaveral to turn around and head back to Winnipeg .
In Knoxville , however , they find out that the fair was held fourteen years earlier , and that its featured attraction , the Sunsphere , is now being used as a warehouse for a wig shop , now called the Wigsphere . The boys ' car soon gets destroyed by the Sunsphere being toppled by a rock Nelson threw , and they are stranded without any money or transportation . They sign up as couriers and then go to Hong Kong . Bart places a collect call to Lisa , who has spent the entire spring break with Homer at work , to ask her for advice . Lisa obtains Homer 's promise that he will not get upset and she reveals Bart 's predicament , causing Homer to scream in his safety helmet . To get Bart home , Homer contacts a power station close to the boys ' location , and orders a new command module for the power plant , after spilling soda over the current one , and ships it via courier from Knoxville , with Milhouse , Nelson , and Martin stowed away inside the crate and Bart as the courier .
The ending credits begin with an unsuspecting Marge getting phone calls from Principal Skinner ( who spotted Bart in Hong Kong ) , the Tennessee State Police ( who inquire about the crushed rental car ) , and the courier office ( which has an assignment for Bart ) . Homer snickers at these calls , which leaves Marge furious .
= = Production = =
The episode was written by Richard Appel , who wanted to do an episode that had two things ; a " go to work with your parents day " and Bart getting a driver 's license . The " go to work with your parents day " idea appealed to Appel because it was something he " lost the right " to do when he went from public school to private school as a child . Appel considered those days to be his favorites because he " didn 't have to do anything " at his parents ' job . The idea of having a driver 's license was something that Appel dreamed about when he was younger .
The writing staff had never done a spring break episode before so they thought , " What would Lisa and Bart do on spring break ? " and came up with the road trip plot . Bill Oakley , the show runner of The Simpsons at the time , said that road trips were something that the writers liked to write stories about . The idea of four children going on a road trip was " so exciting " that they immediately knew they wanted to write it . There was a debate over where the children would go , and Fort Lauderdale , Florida , was first suggested , but the writers eventually decided to have them go to a " funny unlikely place " . Oakley 's show runner partner , Josh Weinstein , said that the writers were always looking for combinations of characters that had not been done many times on the show . Homer and Lisa had not been done " too often " and they wanted the two characters to bond and get closer to each other .
The episode was directed by Swinton O. Scott III . It was difficult to animate because the animators had to draw completely new designs for the locations outside of Springfield , such as Knoxville . The car scenes were also difficult to animate . At the time , The Simpsons was using traditional animation without computers , but they had to get one for a scene where the camera spins around the car from above . The car was difficult to animate because it had to " look real " and not " boxy like a truck " . The car was based on a 1993 Oldsmobile car with rounded edges . The Simpsons animator David Silverman said that the episode was " probably the most difficult one " Scott had to direct on the show .
= = Cultural references = =
When Lisa and Homer are playing with the radiation suits , Lisa says " Houston , we have a problem- Homer 13 is spinning out of control ! " This is a reference to the Apollo 13 incident , where an onboard oxygen tank exploded , causing the spacecraft to temporarily lose control .
Bart and his friends use Bart 's fake license to see the R @-@ rated 1991 film Naked Lunch , an adaptation of William Burroughs 's novel dealing with heroin addiction , homosexuality , and hallucinogens . Nelson 's muted " I can think of at least two things wrong with that title " afterwards reflects the fact that the film has a titillating title but is very much a dark , bleak , un @-@ erotic arthouse film .
The boys also go see an Andy Williams concert in Branson , Missouri , and the marquee advertising it outside reads " Wow , he 's still got it – Look magazine " , Look having been out of business for years when the episode aired .
On the road , the boys pick up a hitchhiker who is based on the hitchhiker in the Texas Chainsaw Massacre horror film series .
Principal Skinner books a vacation with AmeriWestica , a parody of America West Airlines .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast , " Bart on the Road " finished 63rd in the ratings for the week of March 25 to March 31 , 1996 , with a Nielsen rating of 7 @.@ 2 . The episode was the fifth highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week , following The X @-@ Files , Cops , Party of Five , Martin and Melrose Place .
Since airing , the episode has received positive reviews from television critics . The authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , said that it " contains some superb touching character scenes between Homer and Lisa , a fascinating glimpse of Marge 's insecurities , and some nice touches that take it above the show 's very high average . " Dave Foster of DVD Times said that " Bart on the Road " is an episode which is built upon a " frankly ludicrous " idea which if the writers were to " stumble upon " now , " we 'd simply see Bart happen upon a license and skip town without anyone noticing , but here they do give the setup a great deal of consideration both on and off the screen . " He thought the story was " partly believable , though the opportunity when Bart hits the road is largely wasted with only a few well constructed jokes to speak of . " Foster thinks " what saves the episode is the opportunity to see Lisa and Homer connect , once again displaying what a strong season this is for Lisa as we see the two share some wonderfully tender moments , alongside some genuinely laugh @-@ out @-@ loud moments . " DVD Movie Guide 's Colin Jacobson enjoyed the episode and said that he " loves " the children 's experiences at their parents ' jobs , " and when they head out of town , the fun continues . Any episode that sends the kids to the site of the World 's Fair is OK by me . " Jennifer Malkowski of DVD Verdict considered the best part of the episode to be when Patty and Selma explain their job at the DMV : " Somedays we don 't let the line move at all . We call those weekdays . " The website concluded its review by giving the episode a grade of B + . John Thorpe of Central Michigan Life named it the eighth best episode of the show . Robert Canning of IGN in a Flashback Review gave the episode a 9 @.@ 5 saying it was " Outstanding " and also stated " " Bart on the Road " is a fun trip and very funny , but it 's the way everything comes together that really makes it memorable " .
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= Beckford 's Tower =
Beckford 's Tower , originally known as Lansdown Tower , is an architectural folly built in neo @-@ classical style on Lansdown Hill , just outside Bath , Somerset , England . The tower and its attached railings are designated as a Grade I listed building . Along with the adjoining Landsown Cemetery it is Grade II listed on the Register of Historic Parks and Gardens of special historic interest in England .
The tower was built for William Thomas Beckford , a rich novelist , art collector and critic , to designs by Henry Goodridge and completed in 1827 . Beckford used it as a library and a retreat , with the cupola at the top acting as a belvedere providing views over the surrounding countryside . The Italianate building at the base of the tower housed drawing rooms and a library . Extensive grounds between Beckford 's house in Lansdown Crescent were landscaped and planted to create Beckford 's Ride .
Following Beckford 's death in 1844 , the tower and lands were donated to Walcot parish and a burial ground created , with the Scarlet Drawing Room being converted into a chapel . In 1931 the house and tower were damaged by a fire and a public appeal was made for funds for its restoration . The cemetery closed in 1992 and the next year the site was bought by the Bath Preservation Trust who have carried out extensive renovation . It is now home to a museum collection displaying furniture originally made for the tower and paintings , prints and objects illustrating Beckford ’ s life as a writer , collector and patron of the arts .
= = History = =
Beckford 's Tower in Lansdown overlooking the city of Bath , was completed in 1827 for wealthy local resident William Beckford , to a design by Bath architect Henry Goodridge . Beckford was an English novelist , an art collector and patron of works of decorative art , a critic , travel writer and sometime politician , reputed at one stage in his life to be the richest commoner in England . In 1822 he sold Fonthill Abbey , and a large part of his art collection , to John Farquhar for £ 330 @,@ 000 , and moved to Bath , where he bought No. 20 Lansdown Crescent and No. 1 Lansdown Place West , joining them with a one @-@ storey arch thrown across a driveway . In 1836 he also bought Nos. 18 and 19 Lansdown Crescent .
Located at the end of pleasure gardens called Beckford 's Ride which ran from his house in Lansdown Crescent all the way north to the tower at the top of Lansdown Hill , Beckford used the monument as both a library and a retreat . He also made it his habit to ride up to the tower to view the progress of gardens and works then walk back down to Lansdown Crescent for breakfast . From the top of the tower , with a strong spyglass , Beckford could make out shipping in the Bristol Channel . Beckford wished that he had built the tower forty feet higher and admitted : " such as it is , it is a famous landmark for drunken farmers on their way home from market " .
Beckford 's own choice of the best of works of art , virtu , books and prints as well as the rich furnishings from Fonthill Abbey , which he had sold in 1822 , were rehoused in his double adjoining houses in Lansdown Crescent , Bath and at the tower . One long narrow room in the tower was fitted out as an " oratory " , where the paintings were all of devotional subjects and a marble Virgin and Child stood bathed in light from a hidden skylight . In 1841 some of the contents of the tower were sold during a two @-@ day sale and the rooms refurnished .
After Beckford 's death on 2 May 1844 his younger daughter Susan Euphemia Beckford , wife of Alexander Hamilton , 10th Duke of Hamilton , removed the books and greatest treasures to Hamilton Palace and the Tower was put up for sale , however it failed to reach its reserve . In 1847 the tower was sold for £ 1 @,@ 000 to a local publican who turned it into a beer garden . Eventually it was re @-@ purchased by Beckford 's daughter , who gave the surrounding land to Walcot parish for consecration as a cemetery in 1848 . This enabled the return of Beckford 's body from his tomb in Bath Abbey Cemetery , Lyncombe Vale ( off Ralph Allen Drive ) for reburial near the tower as he had originally wished . His self @-@ designed tomb — a massive sarcophagus of polished pink granite with bronze armorial plaques — stands on a hillock in the cemetery surrounded by an oval ditch and ha @-@ ha . On one side is a quotation from his Gothic novel Vathek : " Enjoying humbly the most precious gift of heaven to man — Hope " ; and on another these lines from his poem , A Prayer : " Eternal Power ! Grant me , through obvious clouds one transient gleam Of thy bright essence in my dying hour . " The Scarlet Drawing Room was converted into a chapel in 1848 to serve the cemetery . In 1864 the Rector of Walcot gave £ 100 for the repair of tower stonework and in 1884 a similar amount of money for further repairs to the upper part of the tower , however the condition of the stonework was deteriorating by 1898 and described in 1918 as " piteous and dilapidated " .
In 1931 an unexplained fire destroyed much of the interior of the house , which had been turned into a cemetery chapel . The local fire brigade managed to stop the fire reaching the wooden stairs to the top of the tower . Prebendary F. E. Murphy , the rector of Walcot , established an appeal for funds of £ 300 for the restoration . By 1954 the stairs up the tower had become unsafe and a further appeal for public funds for the restoration was started . In 1970 the Church Commissioners declared the chapel redundant and plans drawn up by the new owners , Dr & Mrs Hilliard , to renovate the tower and create two flats . The Beckford Tower Trust and the museum were established in 1977 .
Since 1993 the tower has been owned by the Bath Preservation Trust and managed by its subsidiary , The Beckford Tower Trust . The tower was restored in 1995 . In 1972 it was designated as a Grade I listed building . The ground floor of the tower is available to rent through the Landmark Trust as a holiday home .
= = Architecture = =
Standing 154 feet ( 47 m ) high , the tower is in three stages . The first stage of the tower is square with small windows and terminates in a Doric entablature and cornice . The second stage has plain square piers forming three openings with recessed arches . The tower is topped by a gilded lantern ( or belvedere ) , based on the peripteral temple at Tivoli and the Tower of the Winds at Athens . The octagonal belvedere has a cast iron roof supported by eight columns . The stone spiral cantileveed staircase leads to the 53 wooden stairs leading into the cupola at the summit . At the base of the tower was a furnace and pump which sent warm air up through the structure .
Below the tower is an Italianate building . On the ground floor was the Scarlet Drawing Room and a vestibule with an annexe which housed a kitchen and offices . The first floor held the Crimson Drawing Room , sanctuary and library .
= = Cemetery and grounds = =
From Beckford 's house in Lansdown Crescent to the tower a series of interlinked gardens were laid out which became known as Beckford 's Ride . Nearest the crescent was a terraced Italianate garden and then a plantation of conifers . Above the plantation was a quarry garden and dyke garden before entering a grotto tunnel under a track . The tunnel lead into the tower garden . Specialist planting included : Pinus arborea , Royal Fern ( Osmunda regalis ) and Cistus alpina . These were to encourage bird species including nightingales , linnets and thrushes . The old quarry was made into a walled garden with fruit and vegetables .
Henry Goodridge designed a Byzantine entrance gateway to the grounds . Bronze railings were later added which had surrounded Beckford 's original tomb in Bath Abbey Cemetery . The railings were removed during World War II and replaced in 2000 . The gardens were surrounding by stone walls around 2 metres ( 6 ft 7 in ) high .
Part of the grounds were donated to the local parish after Beckford 's death and consecrated as a cemetery in 1848 . It became known as Lansdown Cemetery and burial plots were laid out in a grid pattern . It was extended in 1947 and again in 1961 . In addition to Beckford 's tomb , the cemetery is also the burial site for several notable people from Bath including : Henry Goodridge , Field Marshall William Rowan , the Holburne family who founded the Holburne Museum , Anne ( the wife of Sir Richard Bickerton , 2nd Baronet ) and the feminist writer Sarah Grand .
The cemetery closed in 1992 and since then has been maintained by the local council and the Lansdown Cemetery Trust .
= = Museum = =
The tower is home to a museum collection displaying furniture originally made for the tower , alongside paintings , prints and objects illustrating William Beckford ’ s life as a writer , collector and patron of the arts . Visitors can climb the spiral staircase to the restored belvedere below the lantern and experience panoramic views of the surrounding countryside .
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= Russian battleship Gangut ( 1911 ) =
Gangut ( Russian : Гангут ) was both the lead ship of the Gangut @-@ class dreadnoughts of the Imperial Russian Navy built before World War I and the last of her class to be completed . She was named after the Russian victory over the Swedish Navy in the Battle of Gangut in 1714 . She was completed during the winter of 1914 – 15 , but was not ready for combat until mid @-@ 1915 . Her role was to defend the mouth of the Gulf of Finland against the Germans , who never tried to enter , so she spent her time training and providing cover for minelaying operations . Her crew joined the general mutiny of the Baltic Fleet after the February Revolution and joined the Bolsheviks in 1918 . She was laid up in 1918 for lack of manpower and not recommissioned until 1925 , by which time she had been renamed Oktyabrskaya Revolutsiya ( Russian : Октябрьская революция : October Revolution ) .
She was reconstructed between 1931 and 1934 with new boilers , fire @-@ control systems and greatly enlarged superstructures . During the Winter War she bombarded Finnish coastal artillery positions one time . Her anti @-@ aircraft armament was greatly reinforced in early 1941 , just before Operation Barbarossa . She provided gunfire support against the Germans during the Siege of Leningrad despite being bombed three times and under repair for a year . Retained on active duty after the war she became a training ship in 1954 before being struck off the Navy List in 1956 and slowly scrapped .
= = Design = =
Gangut was 180 meters ( 590 ft ) long at the waterline and 181 @.@ 2 meters ( 594 ft ) long overall . She had a beam of 26 @.@ 9 meters ( 88 ft ) and a draft of 8 @.@ 99 meters ( 29 @.@ 5 ft ) , 49 centimeters ( 1 @.@ 61 ft ) more than designed . Her displacement was 24 @,@ 800 tonnes ( 24 @,@ 400 long tons ; 27 @,@ 300 short tons ) at load , over 1 @,@ 500 t ( 1 @,@ 500 long tons ; 1 @,@ 700 short tons ) more than her designed displacement of 23 @,@ 288 t ( 22 @,@ 920 long tons ; 25 @,@ 671 short tons ) .
Gangut 's machinery was built by the Franco @-@ Russian Works . Ten Parsons @-@ type steam turbines drove the four propellers . The engine rooms were located between turrets three and four in three transverse compartments . The outer compartments each had a high @-@ pressure ahead and reverse turbine for each wing propeller shaft . The central engine room had two each low @-@ pressure ahead and astern turbines as well as two cruising turbines driving the two center shafts . The engines had a total designed output of 42 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 31 @,@ 319 kW ) , but they produced 52 @,@ 000 shp ( 38 @,@ 776 kW ) during her sister Poltava 's full @-@ speed trials on 21 November 1915 and gave a top speed of 24 @.@ 1 knots ( 44 @.@ 6 km / h ; 27 @.@ 7 mph ) . Twenty @-@ five Yarrow Admiralty @-@ type small @-@ tube boilers provided steam to the engines at a designed working pressure of 17 @.@ 5 standard atmospheres ( 1 @,@ 770 kPa ; 257 psi ) . Each boiler was fitted with Thornycroft oil sprayers for mixed oil / coal burning . They were arranged in two groups . The forward group consisted of two boiler rooms in front of the second turret , the foremost of which had three boilers while the second one had six . The rear group was between the second and third turrets and comprised two compartments , each with eight boilers . At full load she carried 1 @,@ 847 @.@ 5 long tons ( 1 @,@ 877 @.@ 1 t ) of coal and 700 long tons ( 710 t ) of fuel oil and that provided her a range of 3 @,@ 500 nautical miles ( 6 @,@ 500 km ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ) .
Her main armament consisted of a dozen Obukhovskii 12 @-@ inch ( 305 mm ) Pattern 1907 52 @-@ caliber guns mounted in four triple turrets distributed the length of the ship . The Russians did not believe that superfiring turrets offered any advantage , discounting the value of axial fire and believing that superfiring turrets could not fire while over the lower turret because of muzzle blast problems . They also believed that distributing the turrets , and their associated magazines , over the length of the ship improved the survivability of the ship . Sixteen 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch ( 119 mm ) 50 @-@ caliber Pattern 1905 guns were mounted in casemates as the secondary battery intended to defend the ship against torpedo boats . She completed with only a single 3 @-@ inch ( 76 mm ) 30 @-@ caliber Lender anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) gun mounted on the quarterdeck . Other AA guns were probably added during the course of World War I , but details are lacking . Conway 's says that four 75 @-@ millimeter ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) were added to the roofs of the end turrets during the war . Four 17 @.@ 7 @-@ inch ( 450 mm ) submerged torpedo tubes were mounted with three torpedoes for each tube .
= = Service = =
Gangut was built by the Admiralty Works in Saint Petersburg . Her keel was laid down on 16 June 1909 and she was launched on 22 September 1911 . At the end of October 1914 , she collided with her sister Poltava which delayed her trials , scheduled for 9 November 1914 , to late December 1914 . She entered service on 11 January 1915 when she reached Helsingfors and was assigned to the First Battleship Brigade of the Baltic Fleet . Gangut and her sister Sevastopol provided distant cover for minelaying operations south of Liepāja on 27 August , the furthest that any Russian dreadnought ventured out of the Gulf of Finland during World War I. She ran aground on 10 September , but suffered only minor damage . A minor mutiny broke out on 1 November when the executive officer refused to feed the crew the traditional meal of meat and macaroni after coaling . The return of the captain and the issue of a dinner of tinned meat restored order on the ship . On 10 – 11 November and 6 December Gangut and her sister Petropavlovsk again provided distant cover for minelaying operations . She saw no action of any kind during 1916 . Her crew joined the general mutiny of the Baltic Fleet on 16 March 1917 , after the idle sailors received word of the February Revolution in Saint Petersburg . The Treaty of Brest @-@ Litovsk required the Soviets to evacuate their base at Helsinki in March 1918 or have them interned by newly independent Finland even though the Gulf of Finland was still frozen over . Gangut and her sisters led the first group of ships on 12 March and reached Kronstadt five days later in what became known as the ' Ice Voyage ' .
Gangut was laid up on 9 November 1918 for lack of manpower and was renamed Oktyabrskaya Revolutsiya ( Russian : Октябрьская революция : October Revolution ) on 27 June 1925 while she was being refitted . She was recommissioned on 23 March 1926 and began a partial reconstruction on 12 October 1931 , incorporating the lessons from the earlier modernizations of her sisters Marat and Parizhskaya Kommuna . The tubular tower @-@ mast of Marat was replaced by a larger and sturdier structure with a KDP @-@ 6 fire control director , equipped with two 6 @-@ meter ( 20 ft ) Zeiss rangefinders positioned on top . The aft superstructure was enlarged and a new structure was built just forward of it , with another KDP @-@ 6 director surmounting it , which required the repositioning of the mainmast 9 meters ( 30 ft ) forward . This did not leave enough room for a derrick , as was used on Marat , so two large boat cranes were mounted on each side of the mainmast . Her funnel was curved to the rear rather than angled like Marat . Each turret received Italian 8 @-@ meter ( 26 ft ) rangefinders and their roof armor was increased to 152 @-@ millimeter ( 6 @.@ 0 in ) in thickness . A new forecastle was fitted , much like that Marat 's , to improve seakeeping . Six 76 @.@ 2 @-@ millimeter ( 3 @.@ 00 in ) 34 @-@ K anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) guns were added , three on the roofs of the fore and aft turrets . All twenty @-@ five of her old boilers were replaced by a dozen oil @-@ fired boilers originally intended for the Borodino @-@ class battlecruiser Izmail . The space saved was used to add another inboard longitudinal watertight bulkhead that greatly improved her underwater protection . Her original Pollen Argo Clock mechanical fire @-@ control computer was upgraded with a copy of a Vickers Ltd fire @-@ control computer , designated AKUR by the Soviets , as well as a copy of a Sperry stable vertical gyroscope . These changes increased her displacement to 26 @,@ 690 tonnes ( 26 @,@ 270 long tons ; 29 @,@ 420 short tons ) at full load and her overall length to 184 @.@ 9 meters ( 607 ft ) . Her metacentric height decreased to 1 @.@ 67 meters ( 5 ft 6 in ) from her designed 1 @.@ 76 meters ( 5 ft 9 in ) as a result of her enlarged superstructures .
She finished her reconstruction on 4 August 1934 . Her participation in the Winter War was limited to a bombardment of Finnish 10 @-@ inch ( 254 mm ) coast defense guns on 18 December 1939 at Saarenpää in the Beryozovye Islands before the Gulf of Finland iced over . She failed to inflict any permanent damage before she was driven off by near misses . Oktyabrskaya Revolutsiya sailed to Tallinn shortly after the Soviets occupied Estonia , but she was refitted in February – March 1941 in Kronstadt and her anti @-@ aircraft armament was reinforced . Two twin 76 @.@ 2 @-@ mm 81 @-@ K mounts were mounted on her quarter deck . The magazines for these guns were probably situated in the rearmost casemates on each beam , which lost their 120 @-@ mm guns and twelve automatic 37 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) 70 @-@ K guns were also added , three guns each on the middle turrets and the other six in the fore and aft superstructures . Four twin and four single 12 @.@ 7 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 50 in ) DShK machine guns and two AA directors were also fitted . The large cranes were replaced by smaller ones taken from the ex @-@ German heavy cruiser Petropavlovsk to make room for the anti @-@ aircraft guns .
On 22 June 1941 Oktyabrskaya Revolutsiya was in Tallinn when the Germans invaded the Soviet Union , but she was forced to sail for Kronstadt by the advancing Germans . She opened fire on troop positions of the German 18th Army on 8 September from the channel between Leningrad and Kronstadt , and probably landed four 120 @-@ millimeter ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) guns on the following day for use ashore . She was badly damaged on 21 September by three bomb hits on her bow that knocked out two turrets and she was sent to the Ordzhonikidze Yard on 23 October for repairs . The Soviets took advantage of this time to add four more 37 @-@ mm 70 @-@ K AA guns and another twin 76 @.@ 2 @-@ mm K @-@ 81 gun mount between February and April 1942 . She was hit again by one heavy and three medium bombs dropped by Heinkel He 111s of KG 4 during the night of 4 – 5 April. and again by three bombs on 24 April . Her repairs were completed in November 1942 , although a quadruple 37 @-@ mm 46 @-@ K gun mount was added in September . She supported Soviet forces during the Siege of Leningrad , the Leningrad – Novgorod Offensive in January 1944 and the Vyborg – Petrozavodsk Offensive in June 1944 . She received a Lend @-@ Lease British Type 279 air @-@ warning radar sometime during 1944 . On 22 July 1944 she was awarded the Order of the Red Banner .
She was reclassified as a ' school battleship ' on 24 July 1954 and stricken on 17 February 1956 . She was slowly scrapped and her hulk still survived in May 1958 .
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= Spanish Civil War =
The Spanish Civil War ( Spanish : Guerra Civil Española ) , widely known in Spain simply as The Civil War ( Spanish : Guerra Civil ) or The War ( Spanish : La Guerra ) , took place from 1936 to 1939 and was fought between the Republicans , who were loyal to the democratic , left @-@ leaning Second Spanish Republic , and the Nationalists , a falangist group led by General Francisco Franco . Although often portrayed as a struggle between democracy and fascism , some historians consider it more accurately described as a struggle between leftist revolution and rightist counterrevolution . Ultimately , the Nationalists won , and Franco then ruled Spain for the next 36 years , from April 1939 until his death in November 1975 .
The war began after a pronunciamiento ( declaration of opposition ) by a group of generals of the Spanish Republican Armed Forces , originally under the leadership of José Sanjurjo , against the elected , leftist government of the Second Spanish Republic , at the time under the leadership of President Manuel Azaña . The Nationalist group was supported by a number of conservative groups , including the Spanish Confederation of Autonomous Right @-@ wing Groups ( Confederación Española de Derechas Autónomas , or CEDA ) , monarchists such as the religious conservative ( Catholic ) Carlists , and the Falange Española Tradicionalista y de las Juntas de Ofensiva Nacional Sindicalista , a fascist group . Sanjurjo was killed in an aircraft accident while attempting to return from exile in Portugal , whereupon Franco emerged as the leader of the Nationalists .
The coup was supported by military units in the Spanish protectorate in Morocco , Pamplona , Burgos , Zaragoza , Valladolid , Cádiz , Córdoba , and Seville . However , rebelling units in important cities — such as Madrid , Barcelona , Valencia , Bilbao , and Málaga — were unable to capture their objectives , and those cities remained under the control of the government . Spain was thus left militarily and politically divided . The Nationalists and the Republican government fought for control of the country . The Nationalist forces received munitions and soldiers from Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy , while the communist Soviet Union and socialist Mexico offered support to the " Republican " or " Loyalist " side . Other countries , such as the United Kingdom and France , operated an official policy of non @-@ intervention .
The Nationalists advanced from their strongholds in the south and west , capturing most of Spain 's northern coastline in 1937 . They also besieged Madrid and the area to its south and west for much of the war . After large parts of Catalonia were captured in 1938 and 1939 , the war ended with the victory of the Nationalists and the exile of thousands of leftist Spaniards , many of whom fled to refugee camps in southern France . Those associated with the losing Republicans were persecuted by the victorious Nationalists . With the establishment of a dictatorship led by General Francisco Franco in the aftermath of the war , all right @-@ wing parties fused into the structure of the Franco regime .
The war became notable for the passion and political division it inspired and for the many atrocities . Organized purges occurred in territory captured by Franco 's forces to consolidate the future regime . A significant number of killings took place in areas controlled by the Republicans . The extent to which Republican authorities took part in Republican territory killings varied .
= = Background = =
The 19th century was a turbulent time for Spain . Those in favour of reforming Spain 's government vied for political power with conservatives , who tried to prevent reforms from taking place . Some liberals , in a tradition that had started with the Spanish Constitution of 1812 , sought to limit the power of the monarchy of Spain and to establish a liberal state . The reforms of 1812 did not last after King Ferdinand VII dissolved the Constitution and ended the Trienio Liberal government . Twelve successful coups were carried out between 1814 and 1874 . Until the 1850s , the economy of Spain was primarily based on agriculture . There was little development of a bourgeois industrial or commercial class . The land @-@ based oligarchy remained powerful ; a small number of people held large estates called latifundia as well as all the important government positions .
In 1868 popular uprisings led to the overthrow of Queen Isabella II of the House of Bourbon . Two distinct factors led to the uprisings : a series of urban riots , and a liberal movement within the middle classes and the military ( led by General Joan Prim ) , who were concerned about the ultra @-@ conservatism of the monarchy . In 1873 , Isabella 's replacement , King Amadeo I of the House of Savoy , abdicated due to increasing political pressure , and the short @-@ lived First Spanish Republic was proclaimed . After the restoration of the Bourbons in December 1874 , Carlists and Anarchists emerged in opposition to the monarchy . Alejandro Lerroux , Spanish politician and leader of the Radical Republican Party , helped bring republicanism to the fore in Catalonia , where poverty was particularly acute . Growing resentment of conscription and of the military culminated in the Tragic Week in Barcelona in 1909 .
Spain was neutral in World War I. Afterwards the working class , the industrial class , and the military united in hopes of removing the corrupt central government , but were unsuccessful . Fears of communism grew . A military coup brought Miguel Primo de Rivera to power in 1923 , and he ran Spain as a military dictatorship . Support for his regime gradually faded , and he resigned in January 1930 . He was replaced by General Dámaso Berenguer and then Admiral Juan Bautista Aznar @-@ Cabañas , who both continued to rule by decree . There was little support for the monarchy in the major cities , and King Alfonso XIII gave in to popular pressure for the establishment of a republic and called municipal elections for 12 April 1931 . The socialist and liberal republicans won almost all the provincial capitals and with the resignation of Aznar 's government , King Alfonso XIII fled the country . The Second Spanish Republic was formed and would remain in power until the culmination of the Spanish Civil War .
The revolutionary committee headed by Niceto Alcalá @-@ Zamora became the provisional government , with Alcalá @-@ Zamora as president and head of state . The republic had broad support from all segments of society . In May , an incident where a taxi driver was attacked outside a monarchist club sparked anti @-@ clerical violence throughout Madrid and south @-@ west Spain ; the government 's slow response disillusioned the right and reinforced their view that the Republic was determined to persecute the church . In June and July the Confederación Nacional del Trabajo ( CNT ) called several strikes , which led to a violent incident between CNT members and the Civil Guard and a brutal crackdown by the Civil Guard and the army against the CNT in Seville ; this led many workers to believe the Spanish Second Republic was just as oppressive as the monarchy and the CNT announced their intention of overthrowing it via revolution . Elections in June 1931 returned a large majority of Republicans and Socialists . With the onset of the Great Depression , the government attempted to assist rural Spain by instituting an eight @-@ hour day and giving land tenure to farm workers .
Fascism remained a reactive threat , helped by controversial reforms to the military . In December , a new reformist , liberal , and democratic constitution was declared . It included strong provisions enforcing a broad secularization of the Catholic country , which many moderate committed Catholics opposed . In October 1931 , Republican Manuel Azaña became prime minister of a minority government . In 1933 , the right won the general elections , largely due to the anarchists ' abstention from the vote , increased right wing resentment of the incumbent government caused by a controversial decree implementing land reform , the Casas Viejas incident , and the formation of a right @-@ wing alliance , Spanish Confederation of Autonomous Right @-@ wing Groups ( CEDA ) ; women 's newfound right to vote also contributed to this ( most women voted for centre @-@ right parties ) .
Events in the period following November 1933 , called the " black two years " , seemed to make a civil war more likely . Alejandro Lerroux of the Radical Republican Party ( RRP ) formed a government and rolled back changes made under the previous administration and also granted amnesty to the collaborators of the unsuccessful uprising by General José Sanjurjo in August 1932 . Some monarchists joined with the then fascist @-@ nationalist Falange Española y de las JONS ( " Falange " ) to help achieve their aims . Open violence occurred in the streets of Spanish cities , and militancy continued to increase , reflecting a movement towards radical upheaval , rather than peaceful democratic means as solutions .
In the last months of 1934 , two government collapses brought members of the CEDA into the government . Farm workers ' wages were cut in half , and the military was purged of Republican members . A popular front alliance was organized , which narrowly won the 1936 elections . Azaña led a weak minority government , but soon replaced Zamora as president in April . Prime Minister Santiago Casares Quiroga ignored warnings of a military conspiracy involving several generals , who decided that the government had to be replaced to prevent the dissolution of Spain .
= = Military coup = =
= = = Preparations = = =
In an attempt to remove suspect generals from their posts , the Republican government sacked Franco as chief of staff and transferred him to command of the Canary Islands . Manuel Goded Llopis was removed as inspector general and was made general of the Balearic Islands . Emilio Mola was moved from head of the Army of Africa to military commander of Pamplona in Navarre . This , however , allowed Mola to direct the mainland uprising . General Jose Sanjurjo became the figurehead of the operation and helped reach an agreement with the Carlists . Mola was chief planner and second in command . José Antonio Primo de Rivera was put in prison in mid @-@ March in order to restrict the Falange . However , government actions were not as thorough as they might have been , and warnings by the Director of Security and other figures were not acted upon .
On 12 June , Prime Minister Casares Quiroga met General Juan Yagüe , who managed to falsely convince Casares of his loyalty to the republic . Mola began serious planning in the spring . Franco was a key player because of his prestige as a former director of the military academy and as the man who suppressed the Asturian miners ' strike of 1934 . He was well respected in the Army of Africa , the Spanish Republican Army 's toughest military force . He wrote a cryptic letter to Casares on 23 June , suggesting that the military was disloyal , but could be restrained if he were put in charge . Casares did nothing , failing to arrest or buy off Franco . On 5 July , a ' Dragon Rapide ' aircraft was chartered in GB to take Franco from the Canary Islands to Morocco . It arrived on 14 July .
On 12 July 1936 , in Madrid , members of the Falange murdered a police officer who was a Socialist party member , Lieutenant José Castillo of the Guardia de Asalto , who , among other activities , was giving military training to the UGT young . Castillo was leading the unit of Guardia de Asalto that violently suppressed the riots after the funeral of Guardia Civil Lieutenant Anastasio de los Reyes . Los Reyes was shot by anarchists during the 14 April military parade that commemorated the 5 years of the Republic .
Fernando Condés , the leader of the Guardia de Asalto , was a close personal friend of Castillo . The next day , his squad had sought to arrest José María Gil @-@ Robles y Quiñones , founder of CEDA , as a reprisal for Castillo 's murder , but he was not at home , so they went to the house of José Calvo Sotelo , a leading Spanish monarchist and a prominent parliamentary conservative . Luis Cuenca , a member of the arresting group and a socialist , summarily executed Calvo Sotelo by shooting him in the back of the neck . Hugh Thomas concludes that Condés intended to arrest Sotelo and that Cuenca acted on his own initiative , although he acknowledges other sources that dispute this finding .
Massive reprisals followed . The killing of Sotelo with police involvement aroused suspicions and strong reactions among the government 's opponents on the right . Although the nationalist generals were already in the advanced stages of a planned uprising , the event provided a catalyst and a public justification for their coup .
The socialists and communists , led by Indalecio Prieto , demanded that arms be distributed to the people before the military took over . The prime minister was hesitant .
= = = Beginning of the coup = = =
The uprising 's timing was fixed at 17 July , at 17 : 01 , agreed to by the leader of the Carlists , Manuel Fal Conde . However , the timing was changed — the men in the Spanish protectorate in Morocco were to rise up at 05 : 00 on 18 July and those in Spain proper a day later so that control of Spanish Morocco could be achieved and forces sent back to the Iberian Peninsula to coincide with the risings there . The rising was intended to be a swift coup d 'état , but the government retained control of most of the country .
Control over Spanish Morocco was all but certain . The plan was discovered in Morocco on 17 July , which prompted the conspirators to enact it immediately . Little resistance was encountered . In total , the rebels shot 189 people . Goded and Franco immediately took control of the islands to which they were assigned . On 18 July , Casares Quiroga refused an offer of help from the CNT and Unión General de Trabajadores ( UGT ) , leading the groups to proclaim a general strike — in effect , mobilizing . They opened weapons caches , some buried since the 1934 risings . The paramilitary security forces often waited to see the outcome of militia action before either joining or suppressing the rebellion . Quick action by either the rebels or anarchist militias was often enough to decide the fate of a town . General Gonzalo Queipo de Llano managed to secure Seville for the rebels , arresting a number of other officers .
= = = Outcome = = =
The rebels failed to take any major cities with the critical exception of Seville , which provided a landing point for Franco 's African troops , and the primarily conservative and Catholic areas of Old Castile and León , which fell quickly . Cádiz was taken for the rebels , with the help of the first troops from the Army of Africa .
The government retained control of Málaga , Jaén , and Almería . In Madrid , the rebels were hemmed into the Montaña barracks , which fell with considerable bloodshed . Republican leader Casares Quiroga was replaced by José Giral , who ordered the distribution of weapons among the civilian population . This facilitated the defeat of the army insurrection in the main industrial centres , including Madrid , Barcelona , and Valencia , but it allowed anarchists to take control of Barcelona along with large swathes of Aragón and Catalonia . General Goded surrendered in Barcelona and was later condemned to death . The Republican government ended up controlling almost all of the east coast and central area around Madrid , as well as Asturias , Cantabria and part of the Basque Country in the north .
The rebels termed themselves Nacionales , normally translated " Nationalists " , although the former implies " true Spaniards " rather than a nationalistic cause . The result of the coup was a nationalist area of control containing 11 million of Spain 's population of 25 million . The Nationalists had secured the support of around half of Spain 's territorial army , some 60 @,@ 000 men , joined by the Army of Africa , made up of 35 @,@ 000 men , and a little under half of Spain 's militaristic police forces , the Assault Guards , the Civil Guards , and the Carabineers . Republicans controlled under half of the rifles and about a third of both machine guns and artillery pieces .
The Spanish Republican Army had just 18 tanks of a sufficiently modern design , and the Nationalists took control of 10 . Naval capacity was uneven , with the Republicans retaining a numerical advantage , but with the Navy 's top commanders and two of the most modern ships , heavy cruisers Canarias — captured at the Ferrol shipyard — and Baleares , in Nationalist hands . The Spanish Republican Navy suffered from the same problems as the army — many officers had defected or had been killed after trying to do so . Two @-@ thirds of air capability was retained by the government – however , the whole of the Republican Air Force was very outdated .
= = Combatants = =
The war was cast by Republican sympathizers as a struggle between tyranny and freedom , and by Nationalist supporters as communist and anarchist " red hordes " versus " Christian civilization " . Nationalists also claimed they were bringing security and direction to an ungoverned and lawless country .
Spanish politics , especially on the left , were quite fragmented , since socialists and communists supported the republic . During the republic , anarchists had mixed opinions , but major groups opposed the Nationalists during the Civil War . The Conservatives , in contrast , were united by their fervent opposition to the Republican government and presented a more unified front .
= = = Republicans = = =
Only two countries openly and fully supported the Republic : Mexico and the USSR . From them , especially the USSR , the Republic received diplomatic support , volunteers , and the ability to purchase weapons . Other countries remained neutral , said neutrality being a great source of distress to the intelligentsia in the United States and United Kingdom , and to a lesser extent in other European countries and to Marxists worldwide . This distress led to the International Brigades , thousands of foreigners of all nationalities who went to Spain to aid the Republic in the fight ; they meant a great deal to morale but militarily were not very significant .
The Republic 's supporters within Spain ranged from centrists who supported a moderately @-@ capitalist liberal democracy to revolutionary anarchists who opposed the Republic but sided with it against the coup forces . Their base was primarily secular and urban but also included landless peasants and was particularly strong in industrial regions like Asturias , the Basque country , and Catalonia .
This faction was called variously leales " Loyalists " by supporters , " Republicans " , the " Popular Front " , or " the government " by all parties ; and / or los rojos " the Reds " by their opponents . Republicans were supported by urban workers , agricultural labourers , and parts of the middle class .
The conservative , strongly Catholic Basque country , along with Galicia and the more left @-@ leaning Catalonia , sought autonomy or independence from the central government of Madrid . The Republican government allowed for the possibility of self @-@ government for the two regions , whose forces were gathered under the People 's Republican Army ( Ejército Popular Republicano , or EPR ) , which was reorganized into mixed brigades after October 1936 .
A few well @-@ known people fought on the Republican side , such as English novelist George Orwell ( who wrote Homage to Catalonia ( 1938 ) , an account of his experiences in the war ) and Canadian thoracic surgeon Norman Bethune , who developed a mobile blood @-@ transfusion service for front line operations . Simone Weil added herself for a while to the anarchist columns of Buenaventura Durruti , but was expelled from the front by other fighters , who feared she inadvertently shot them because she was shortsighted .
= = = Nationalists = = =
The Nacionales or Nationalists — also called " insurgents " , " rebels " , or , by opponents , Franquistas or " fascists " — feared national fragmentation and opposed the separatist movements . They were chiefly defined by their anti @-@ communism , which galvanized diverse or opposed movements like falangists and monarchists . Their leaders had a generally wealthier , more conservative , monarchist , landowning background .
The Nationalist side included the Carlists and Alfonsists , Spanish nationalists , the fascist Falange , and most conservatives and monarchist liberals . Virtually all Nationalist groups had strong Catholic convictions and supported the native Spanish clergy . The Nationals included the majority of the Catholic clergy and practitioners ( outside of the Basque region ) , important elements of the army , most large landowners , and many businessmen .
One of the rightists ' principal motives was to confront the anti @-@ clericalism of the Republican regime and to defend the Catholic Church , which had been targeted by opponents , including Republicans , who blamed the institution for the country 's ills . The Church was against the Republicans ' liberal principles , which were fortified by the Spanish Constitution of 1931 . Prior to the war , during the Asturian miners ' strike of 1934 , religious buildings were burnt and at least 100 clergy , religious civilians , and pro @-@ Catholic police were killed by revolutionaries .
Franco had brought in the mercenaries of Spain 's colonial Army of Africa ( Spanish : Ejército de África or Cuerpo de Ejército Marroquí ) and reduced the miners to submission by heavy artillery attacks and bombing raids . The Spanish Legion committed atrocities — many men , women and children were killed , and the army carried out summary executions of leftists . The repression in the aftermath was brutal . In Asturias , prisoners were tortured .
Articles 24 and 26 of the 1931 constitution had banned the Society of Jesus . This proscription deeply offended many within the conservative fold . The revolution in the Republican zone at the outset of the war , in which 7 @,@ 000 clergy and thousands of lay people were killed , deepened Catholic support for the Nationalists .
The Moroccan Fuerzas Regulares Indígenas joined the rebellion and played a significant role in the civil war .
= = = Other factions = = =
Catalan and Basque nationalists were not univocal . Left @-@ wing Catalan nationalists sided with the Republicans , while Conservative Catalan nationalists were far less vocal in supporting the government due to anti @-@ clericalism and confiscations occurring in areas within its control . Basque nationalists , heralded by the conservative Basque Nationalist Party , were mildly supportive of the Republican government , although some in Navarre sided with the uprising for the same reasons influencing conservative Catalans . Notwithstanding religious matters , Basque nationalists , who were for the most part Catholic , generally sided with the Republicans , although the PNV , Basque nationalist party , was reported passing the plans of Bilbao defenses to the nationalists , in an attempt to reduce the duration and casualties of siege .
= = Foreign involvement = =
The Spanish Civil War exposed political divisions across Europe . The right and the Catholics supported the Nationalists as a way to stop the expansion of Bolshevism . On the left , including labor unions , students and intellectuals , the war represented a necessary battle to stop the spread of fascism . Antiwar and pacifist sentiment was strong in many countries , leading to warnings that the Civil War had the potential of escalating into a second world war . In this respect , the war was an indicator of the growing instability across Europe .
The Spanish Civil War involved large numbers of non @-@ Spanish citizens who participated in combat and advisory positions . Britain and France led a political alliance of 27 nations that promised non @-@ intervention in the Spanish Civil War , including an embargo on all arms to Spain . The United States unofficially went along . Germany , Italy and the Soviet Union signed on officially , but ignored the embargo . The attempted suppression of imported materials was largely ineffective , however , and France especially was accused of allowing large shipments to Republican troops . The clandestine actions of the various European powers were , at the time , considered to be risking another world war , alarming antiwar elements across the world .
The League of Nations ' reaction to the war was influenced by a fear of communism , and insufficient to contain the massive importation by fighting factions of arms and other war resources . Although a Non @-@ Intervention Committee was formed , its policies accomplished little and its directives were ineffective .
= = = Support for the Nationalists = = =
= = = = Germany = = = =
German involvement began days after fighting broke out in July 1936 . Adolf Hitler quickly sent in powerful air and armored units to assist the Nationalists . The war provided combat experience with the latest technology for the German military . However , the intervention also posed the risk of escalating into a world war for which Hitler was not ready . He therefore limited his aid , and instead encouraged Benito Mussolini to send in large Italian units .
Nazi Germany 's actions included the formation of the multitasking Condor Legion , a unit composed of volunteers from the Luftwaffe and the German Army ( Heer ) from July 1936 to March 1939 . The Condor Legion proved to be especially useful in the 1936 Battle of the Toledo . German efforts to move the Army of Africa to mainland Spain proved successful in the war 's early stages . German operations slowly expanded to include strike targets , most notably – and controversially – the bombing of Guernica which , on 26 April 1937 , killed 200 to 300 civilians . Germany also used the war to test out new weapons , such as the Luftwaffe Stukas , hold secret to the nationalists , and Junkers Ju @-@ 52 transport Trimotors used also as Bombers , which showed themselves to be effective .
German involvement was further manifested through undertakings such as Operation Ursula , a u @-@ boat undertaking , and contributions from the Kriegsmarine . The Legion spearheaded many Nationalist victories , particularly in aerial combat , while Spain further provided a proving ground for German tank tactics . The training German units provided to Nationalist forces would prove valuable . By the War 's end , perhaps 56 @,@ 000 Nationalist soldiers , encompassing infantry , artillery , aerial and naval forces , had been trained by German detachments .
A total of approximately 16 @,@ 000 German citizens fought in the war , including approximately 300 killed , though no more than 10 @,@ 000 participated at any one time . German aid to the Nationalists amounted to approximately £ 43 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 ( $ 215 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 ) in 1939 prices , 15 @.@ 5 percent of which was used for salaries and expenses and 21 @.@ 9 percent for direct delivery of supplies to Spain , while 62 @.@ 6 percent was expended on the Condor Legion . In total , Germany provided the Nationalists with 600 planes and 200 tanks .
= = = = Italy = = = =
After Francisco Franco 's request and encouragement by Hitler , Benito Mussolini joined the war . While the conquest of Ethiopia in the Second Italo @-@ Ethiopian War made Italy confident in its power , a Spanish ally would nonetheless help secure Italian control of the Mediterranean Theater of Operations . The Royal Italian Navy ( Italian : ' Regia Marina ) played a substantial role in the Mediterranean blockade , and ultimately Italy supplied machine guns , artillery , aircraft , tankettes , the Aviazione Legionaria , and the Corpo Truppe Volontarie ( CTV ) to the Nationalist cause . The Italian CTV would , at its peak , supply the Nationalists with 50 @,@ 000 men . Italian warships took part in breaking the Republican navy 's blockade of Nationalist @-@ held Spanish Morocco and took part in naval bombardment of Republican @-@ held Málaga , Valencia , and Barcelona . In total , Italy provided the Nationalists with 660 planes , 150 tanks , 800 artillery pieces , 10 @,@ 000 machine guns , and 240 @,@ 000 rifles .
= = = = Portugal = = = =
The Estado Novo regime of Portuguese Prime Minister António de Oliveira Salazar played an important role in supplying Franco 's forces with ammunition and logistical help . Despite its discreet direct military involvement – restrained to a somewhat " semi @-@ official " endorsement , by its authoritarian regime , of a volunteer force of up to 20 @,@ 000 , so @-@ called " Viriatos " – for the whole duration of the conflict , Portugal was instrumental in providing the Nationalists with organizational skills and reassurance from the Iberian neighbour to Franco and his allies that no interference would hinder the supply traffic directed to the Nationalist cause .
= = = = Others = = = =
The Conservative government of the UK maintained a position of strong neutrality and was supported by elites and the mainstream media , while the far left mobilized aid to the Republic . The government refused to allow arms shipments and sent warships to try to stop shipments . It became a crime to volunteer to fight in Spain , but about 4 @,@ 000 went anyway . Intellectuals strongly favoured the Republicans . Many visited Spain , hoping to find authentic anti @-@ fascism . They had little impact on the government , and could not shake the strong public mood for peace . The Labour Party was split , with its Catholic element favouring the Nationalists . It officially endorsed the boycott and expelled a faction that demanded support for the Republican cause ; but it finally voiced some support to Loyalists .
Romanian volunteers were led by Ion Moța , deputy @-@ leader of the Iron Guard ( " Legion of the Archangel Michael " ) , whose group of Seven Legionaries visited Spain in December 1936 to ally their movement with the Nationalists .
Despite the Irish government 's prohibition against participating in the war , around 600 Irishmen , followers of Irish political activist and Irish Republican Army leader Eoin O 'Duffy , known as the " Irish Brigade " , went to Spain to fight alongside Franco . The majority of the volunteers were Catholics , and according to O 'Duffy had volunteered to help the Nationalists fight against communism .
= = = Support for the Republicans = = =
= = = = International Brigades = = = =
Many non @-@ Spaniards , often affiliated with radical communist or socialist entities , joined the International Brigades , believing that the Spanish Republic was a front line in the war against fascism . The units represented the largest foreign contingent of those fighting for the Republicans . Roughly 40 @,@ 000 foreign nationals fought with the Brigades , though no more than 18 @,@ 000 were entered into the conflict at any given time . They claimed to represent 53 nations .
Significant numbers of volunteers originated in the French Third Republic ( 10 @,@ 000 ) , Nazi Germany , the Federal State of Austria ( 5 @,@ 000 ) and the Kingdom of Italy ( 3 @,@ 350 ) . More than 1000 each came from the Soviet Union , the United States , the United Kingdom , the Second Polish Republic , the Kingdom of Yugoslavia , the Kingdom of Hungary , and Canada . The Thälmann Battalion , a group of Germans , and the Garibaldi Battalion , a group of Italians , distinguished their units during the Siege of Madrid . Americans fought in units such as the XV International Brigade ( " Abraham Lincoln Brigade " ) , while Canadians joined the Mackenzie – Papineau Battalion .
Over 500 Romanians fought on the Republican side , including Romanian Communist Party members Petre Borilă and Valter Roman . About 145 men from Ireland formed the Connolly Column , which was immortalized by Irish folk singer Christy Moore in the song " Viva la Quinta Brigada " . Some Chinese joined the Brigades , and the majority of them eventually returned to China , while some went to prison or French refugee camps , and a handful remained in Spain .
= = = = Soviet Union = = = =
Though General Secretary Joseph Stalin had signed the Non @-@ Intervention Agreement , the Soviet Union contravened the League of Nations embargo by providing material assistance to the Republican forces , becoming their only source of major weapons . Unlike Hitler and Mussolini , Stalin tried to do this covertly . In total , estimates of material provided by the USSR to the Republicans vary between 634 and 806 planes , 331 and 362 tanks , and 1 @,@ 034 and 1 @,@ 895 artillery pieces .
Stalin also created Section X of the Soviet Union military to head the weapons shipment operation , called Operation X. Despite Stalin 's interest in aiding the Republicans , the quality of arms was inconsistent . On one hand , many of the rifles and field guns provided were old , obsolete or otherwise of limited use ( some dated back to the 1860s ) . On the other hand , the T @-@ 26 and BT @-@ 5 tanks were modern and effective in combat . The Soviet Union supplied aircraft that were in current service with their own forces , but the aircraft provided by Germany to the Nationalists proved superior by the end of the war .
The process of shipping arms from Russia to Spain was extremely slow . Many shipments were lost or arrived only partially matching what had been authorized . Stalin ordered shipbuilders to include false decks in the original designs of ships and , while at sea , Soviet captains employed deceptive flags and paint schemes to evade detection by the Nationalists .
The Republic paid for Soviet arms with official Bank of Spain gold reserves . This would later be the frequent subject of Franquist propaganda , under the term " Moscow Gold " . The cost of the Soviet Union arms was more than the value of Spain 's gold reserves , the fourth @-@ largest in the world , estimated at US $ 500 million ( 1936 prices ) , 176 tonnes of which was transferred through France .
The USSR sent a number of military advisers to Spain ( 2 @,@ 000 – 3 @,@ 000 ) , and , while Soviet troops were fewer than 500 men at a time , Soviet volunteers often operated Soviet @-@ made tanks and aircraft , particularly at the beginning of the war . In addition , the Soviet Union directed Communist parties around the world to organize and recruit the International Brigades .
Another significant Soviet involvement was the activity of the People 's Commissariat for Internal Affairs ( NKVD ) inside the Republican rearguard . Communist figures including Vittorio Vidali ( " Comandante Contreras " ) , Iosif Grigulevich , Mikhail Koltsov and , most prominently , Aleksandr Mikhailovich Orlov led operations that included the murders of Catalan anti @-@ stalinist Communist politician Andreu Nin and independent left @-@ wing activist José Robles . Also , the shooting down in December 1936 of the French aircraft in which the delegate of the International Committee of the Red Cross ( ICRC ) , Georges Henny , carried to France extensive documentation on the Paracuellos massacres was a NKVD @-@ led operation .
= = = = Mexico = = = =
Unlike the United States and major Latin American governments , such as the ABC nations and Peru , Mexico supported the Republicans . Mexico refused to follow the French @-@ British non @-@ intervention proposals , furnishing $ 2 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 in aid and material assistance , which included 20 @,@ 000 rifles and 20 million cartridges .
Mexico 's most important contributions to the Spanish Republic was its diplomatic help , as well as the sanctuary the nation arranged for Republican refugees , including Spanish intellectuals and orphaned children from Republican families . Some 50 @,@ 000 took refuge , primarily in Mexico City and Morelia accompanied by $ 300 million in various treasures still owned by the Left .
= = = = France = = = =
Fearing it might spark a civil war inside France , the leftist " Popular Front " government in France did not send direct support to the Republicans . French Prime Minister Léon Blum was sympathetic to the republic , fearing that the success of Nationalist forces in Spain would result in the creation of an ally state of Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy , an alliance that would nearly encircle France . Right @-@ wing politicians opposed any aid and attacked the Blum government . In July 1936 , British officials convinced Blum not to send arms to the Republicans and , on 27 July , the French government declared that it would not send military aid , technology or forces to assist the Republican forces . However , Blum made clear that France reserved the right to provide aid should it wish to the Republic : " We could have delivered arms to the Spanish Government [ Republicans ] , a legitimate government ... We have not done so , in order not to give an excuse to those who would be tempted to send arms to the rebels [ Nationalists ] . "
On 1 August 1936 , a pro @-@ Republican rally of 20 @,@ 000 people confronted Blum , demanding that he send aircraft to the Republicans , at the same time as right @-@ wing politicians attacked Blum for supporting the Republic and being responsible for provoking Italian intervention on the side of Franco . Germany informed the French ambassador in Berlin that Germany would hold France responsible if it supported " the manoeuvres of Moscow " by supporting the Republicans . On 21 August 1936 , France signed the Non @-@ Intervention Agreement . However , the Blum government provided aircraft to the Republicans through covert means with Potez 540 bomber aircraft ( nicknamed the " Flying Coffin " ) by Spanish Republican pilots ) , Dewoitine aircraft , and Loire 46 fighter aircraft being sent from 7 August 1936 to December of that year to Republican forces . The French also sent pilots and engineers to the Republicans . Also , until 8 September 1936 , aircraft could freely pass from France into Spain if they were bought in other countries .
French novelist André Malraux was a strong supporter of the republican cause ; He tried to organise a volunteer air force ( Escadrile Espana ) on the republican side but as a practical organiser and squadron leader he was somewhat idealistic and inefficient . The Regular Spanish Air force commander Andres Garcia La Calle was openly critical of Malraux 's military efficiency but recognized his usefulness as a propagandist . His novel L 'Espoir and the film version he produced and directed ( Espoir : Sierra de Teruel ) were a great help for the republican cause in France .
Even after covert support by France to the Republicans ended in December 1936 , the possibility of French intervention against the Nationalists remained a serious possibility throughout the war . German intelligence reported to Franco and the Nationalists that the French military was engaging in open discussions about intervention in the war through French military intervention in Catalonia and the Balearic Islands . In 1938 , Franco feared an immediate French intervention against a potential Nationalist victory in Spain through French occupation of Catalonia , the Balearic Islands , and Spanish Morocco .
Besides the generally Republican @-@ oriented sympathies and support in France , some right wing extremists sided with Franco , most notably the members of La Cagoule who where instrumental in sabotaging ships transporting guns and civil relief equipment to Republican Spain in French ports .
= = Course of the war = =
= = = 1936 = = =
A large air and sealift of Nationalist troops in Spanish Morocco was organized to the southwest of Spain . Coup leader Sanjurjo was killed in a plane crash on 20 July , leaving an effective command split between Mola in the North and Franco in the South . This period also saw the worst actions of the so @-@ called " Red " and " White Terrors " in Spain . On 21 July , the fifth day of the rebellion , the Nationalists captured the central Spanish naval base , located in Ferrol , Galicia .
A rebel force under Colonel Alfonso Beorlegui Canet , sent by General Mola and Colonel Esteban García , undertook the Campaign of Gipuzkoa from July to September . The capture of Gipuzkoa isolated the Republican provinces in the north . On 5 September , the Nationalists closed the French border to the Republicans in the battle of Irún . On 15 September , San Sebastián , home to a divided Republican force of anarchists and Basque nationalists , was taken by Nationalist soldiers . The Nationalists then advanced toward their capital , Bilbao , but were halted by Republican militias on the border of Biscay at the end of September .
The Republic proved ineffective militarily , relying on disorganized revolutionary militia . The Republican government under Giral resigned on 4 September , unable to cope with the situation , and was replaced by a mostly Socialist organization under Francisco Largo Caballero . The new leadership began to unify central command in the republican zone .
On the Nationalist side , Franco was chosen as chief military commander at a meeting of ranking generals at Salamanca on 21 September , now called by the title Generalísimo . Franco won another victory on 27 September when his troops relieved the siege of the Alcázar in Toledo , which had been held by a Nationalist garrison under Colonel José Moscardó Ituarte since the beginning of the rebellion , resisting thousands of Republican troops , who completely surrounded the isolated building . Moroccans and elements of the Spanish Legion came to the rescue . Two days after relieving the siege , Franco proclaimed himself Caudillo ( " chieftain " , the Spanish equivalent of the Italian Duce and the German Führer -meaning : ' director ' ) while forcibly unifying the various and diverse falangist , Royalist and other elements within the Nationalist cause . The diversion to Toledo gave Madrid time to prepare a defense , but was hailed as a major propaganda victory and personal success for Franco . In October 1 , 1936 , general Franco was confirmed head of state and armies in Burgos . A similar dramatic success for the Nationalists occurred on 17 October , when troops coming from Galicia relieved the besieged town of Oviedo , in Northern Spain .
In October , the Francoist troops launched a major offensive toward Madrid , reaching it in early November and launching a major assault on the city on 8 November . The Republican government was forced to shift from Madrid to Valencia , outside the combat zone , on 6 November . However , the Nationalists ' attack on the capital was repulsed in fierce fighting between 8 and 23 November . A contributory factor in the successful Republican defense was the effectiveness of the Fifth Regiment and later the arrival of the International Brigades , though only an approximate 3 @,@ 000 foreign volunteers participated in the battle . Having failed to take the capital , Franco bombarded it from the air and , in the following two years , mounted several offensives to try to encircle Madrid , beginning the three @-@ year Siege of Madrid . The Second Battle of the Corunna Road , a Nationalist offensive to the northwest , pushed Republican forces back , but failed to isolate Madrid . The battle lasted into January .
= = = 1937 = = =
With his ranks swelled by Italian troops and Spanish colonial soldiers from Morocco , Franco made another attempt to capture Madrid in January and February 1937 , but was again unsuccessful . The Battle of Málaga started in mid @-@ January , and this Nationalist offensive in Spain 's southeast would turn into a disaster for the Republicans , who were poorly organised and armed . The city was taken by Franco on 8 February . The consolidation of various militias into the Republican Army had started in December 1936 . The main Nationalist advance to cross the Jarama and cut the supply to Madrid by the Valencia road , termed the Battle of Jarama , led to heavy casualties ( 6 @,@ 000 – 20 @,@ 000 ) on both sides . The operation 's main objective was not met , though Nationalists gained a modest amount of territory .
A similar Nationalist offensive , the Battle of Guadalajara , was a more significant defeat for Franco and his armies . It proved the only publicised Republican victory of the war . Italian troops and blitzkrieg tactics were used by Franco , and while many strategists blamed the latter for the rightists ' defeat , the Germans believed it was the former at fault for the Nationalists ' 5 @,@ 000 casualties and loss of valuable equipment . The German strategists successfully argued that the Nationalists needed to concentrate on vulnerable areas first .
The " War in the North " began in mid @-@ March , with the Biscay Campaign . The Basques suffered most from the lack of a suitable air force . On 26 April , the Condor Legion bombed the town of Guernica , killing 200 – 300 and causing significant damage . The destruction had a significant effect on international opinion . The Basques retreated .
April and May saw the May Days , infighting among Republican groups in Catalonia . The dispute was between an ultimately victorious government – Communist forces and the anarchist CNT . The disturbance pleased Nationalist command , but little was done to exploit Republican divisions . After the fall of Guernica , the Republican government began to fight back with increasing effectiveness . In July , it made a move to recapture Segovia , forcing Franco to delay his advance on the Bilbao front , but for only two weeks . A similar Republican attack , the Huesca Offensive , failed similarly .
Mola , Franco 's second @-@ in @-@ command , was killed on 3 June , in an airplane accident . In early July , despite the earlier loss at the Battle of Bilbao , the government launched a strong counter @-@ offensive to the west of Madrid , focusing on Brunete . The Battle of Brunete , however , was a significant defeat for the Republic , which lost many of its most accomplished troops . The offensive led to an advance of 50 square kilometres ( 19 sq mi ) , and left 25 @,@ 000 Republican casualties .
A Republican offensive against Zaragoza was also a failure . Despite having land and aerial advantages , the Battle of Belchite , a place lacking any military interest , resulted in an advance of only 10 kilometres ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) and the loss of much equipment . Franco invaded Aragón in August and took the city of Santander . With the surrender of the Republican army in the Basque territory came the Santoña Agreement . Gijón finally fell in late October in the Asturias Offensive . Franco had effectively won in the north . At November 's end , with Franco 's troops closing in on Valencia , the government had to move again , this time to Barcelona .
= = = 1938 = = =
The Battle of Teruel was an important confrontation . The city , which had formerly belonged to the Nationalists , was conquered by Republicans in January . The Francoist troops launched an offensive and recovered the city by 22 February , but Franco was forced to rely heavily on German and Italian air support .
On 7 March , Nationalists launched the Aragon Offensive and , by 14 April , they had pushed through to the Mediterranean , cutting the Republican @-@ held portion of Spain in two . The Republican government attempted to sue for peace in May , but Franco demanded unconditional surrender , and the war raged on . In July , the Nationalist army pressed southward from Teruel and south along the coast toward the capital of the Republic at Valencia , but was halted in heavy fighting along the XYZ Line , a system of fortifications defending Valencia .
The Republican government then launched an all @-@ out campaign to reconnect their territory in the Battle of the Ebro , from 24 July until 26 November , where Franco personally took command . The campaign was unsuccessful , and was undermined by the Franco @-@ British appeasement of Hitler in Munich . The agreement with Britain effectively destroyed Republican morale by ending hope of an anti @-@ fascist alliance with Western powers . The retreat from the Ebro all but determined the final outcome of the war . Eight days before the new year , Franco threw massive forces into an invasion of Catalonia .
= = = 1939 = = =
Franco 's troops conquered Catalonia in a whirlwind campaign during the first two months of 1939 . Tarragona fell on 15 January , followed by Barcelona on 26 January and Girona on 2 February . On 27 February , the United Kingdom and France recognized the Franco regime .
Only Madrid and a few other strongholds remained for the Republican forces . On 5 March 1939 , the Republican army , led by the Colonel Segismundo Casado and the politician Julián Besteiro , rose against the prime minister Juan Negrín and formed the National Defence Council ( Consejo Nacional de Defensa or CND ) to negotiate a peace deal . Negrín fled to France on 6 March , but the Communist troops around Madrid rose against the junta , starting a brief civil war within the civil war . Casado defeated them , and began peace negotiations with the Nationalists , but Franco refused to accept anything less than unconditional surrender .
On 26 March , the Nationalists started a general offensive , on 28 March the Nationalists occupied Madrid and , by 31 March , they controlled all Spanish territory . Franco proclaimed victory in a radio speech aired on 1 April , when the last of the Republican forces surrendered .
After the end of the war , there were harsh reprisals against Franco 's former enemies . Thousands of Republicans were imprisoned and at least 30 @,@ 000 executed . Other calculations of these deaths range from 50 @,@ 000 to 200 @,@ 000 , depending on which killings are included . Many others were put to forced labour , building railways , drying out swamps , and digging canals .
Hundreds of thousands of Republicans fled abroad , with some 500 @,@ 000 fleeing to France . Refugees were confined in internment camps of the French Third Republic , such as Camp Gurs or Camp Vernet , where 12 @,@ 000 Republicans were housed in squalid conditions . In his capacity as consul in Paris , Chilean poet and politician Pablo Neruda organized the immigration to Chile of 2 @,@ 200 Republican exiles in France using the ship SS Winnipeg .
Of the 17 @,@ 000 refugees housed in Gurs , farmers and others who could not find relations in France were encouraged by the Third Republic , in agreement with the Franquist government , to return to Spain . The great majority did so and were turned over to the Franquist authorities in Irún . From there , they were transferred to the Miranda de Ebro camp for " purification " according to the Law of Political Responsibilities . After the proclamation by Marshal Philippe Pétain of the Vichy regime , the refugees became political prisoners , and the French police attempted to round up those who had been liberated from the camp . Along with other " undesirable " people , the Spaniards were sent to the Drancy internment camp before being deported to Nazi Germany . About 5 @,@ 000 Spaniards died in the Mauthausen concentration camp .
After the official end of the war , guerrilla warfare was waged on an irregular basis by the Spanish Maquis well into the 1950s , gradually reduced by military defeats and scant support from the exhausted population . In 1944 , a group of republican veterans , who also fought in the French resistance against the Nazis , invaded the Val d 'Aran in northwest Catalonia , but were defeated after 10 days .
= = Evacuation of children = =
The Republicans oversaw the evacuation of 30 @,@ 000 – 35 @,@ 000 children from their zone , starting with Basque areas , from which 20 @,@ 000 were evacuated . Their destinations included the United Kingdom and the USSR , and many other locations in Europe , along with Mexico . On 21 May 1937 , around 4 @,@ 000 Basque children were taken to the UK on the aging steamship SS Habana from the Spanish port of Santurtzi . This was against initial opposition from both the government and charitable groups , who saw the removal of children from their native country as potentially harmful . On arrival two days later in Southampton , the children were dispersed all over England , with over 200 children accommodated in Wales . The upper age limit was initially set at 12 , but raised to 15 . By mid @-@ September , all of los niños , as they became known , had found homes with families . Most were repatriated to Spain after the war , but some 250 still remained in Britain by the end of the Second World War in 1945 .
= = Atrocities = =
Death totals remain debated . British historian Antony Beevor wrote in his history of the Civil War that Franco 's ensuing " white terror " resulted in the deaths of 200 @,@ 000 people and that the " red terror " killed 38 @,@ 000 . Julius Ruiz contends that , " Although the figures remain disputed , a minimum of 37 @,@ 843 executions were carried out in the Republican zone , with a maximum of 150 @,@ 000 executions ( including 50 @,@ 000 after the war ) in Nationalist Spain " .
In 2008 a Spanish judge , Baltasar Garzón , opened an investigation into the executions and disappearances of 114 @,@ 266 people between 17 July 1936 and December 1951 . Among the executions investigated was that of the poet and dramatist Federico García Lorca , whose body has never been found . Mention of García Lorca 's death was forbidden during Franco 's regime .
The view of historians , including Helen Graham , Paul Preston , Antony Beevor , Gabriel Jackson and Hugh Thomas , is that the mass executions behind the Nationalists lines were organized and approved by the Nationalists rebel authorities , while the executions behind the Republican lines were the result of the breakdown of the Republican state and anarchy :
Though there was much wanton killing in rebel Spain , the idea of the limpieza , the " cleaning up " , of the country from the evils which had overtaken it , was a disciplined policy of the new authorities and a part of their programme of regeneration . In republican Spain , most of the killing was the consequence of anarchy , the outcome of a national breakdown , and not the work of the state , although some political parties in some cities abetted the enormities , and some of those responsible ultimately rose to positions of authority . – Hugh Thomas
= = = Nationalists = = =
Nationalist atrocities , which authorities frequently ordered to eradicate any trace of " leftism " in Spain , were common . The notion of a limpieza ( cleansing ) formed an essential part of the rebel strategy , and the process began immediately after an area had been captured . According to historian Paul Preston , the minimum number of those executed by the rebels is 130 @,@ 000 , and is likely to have been far higher , with other historians placing the figure at 200 @,@ 000 dead . The violence was carried out in the rebel zone by the military , the Civil Guard and the Falange in the name of the regime .
Many such acts were committed by reactionary groups during the first weeks of the war . This included the execution of schoolteachers , because the efforts of the Second Spanish Republic to promote laicism and displace the Church from schools by closing religious educational institutions were considered by the Nationalists as an attack on the Roman Catholic Church . Extensive killings of civilians were carried out in the cities captured by the Nationalists , along with the execution of unwanted individuals . These included non @-@ combatants such as trade @-@ unionists , Popular Front politicians , suspected Freemasons , Basque , Catalan , Andalusian , and Galician Nationalists , Republican intellectuals , relatives of known Republicans , and those suspected of voting for the Popular Front .
Nationalist forces massacred civilians in Seville , where some 8 @,@ 000 people were shot ; 10 @,@ 000 were killed in Cordoba ; 6 @,@ 000 – 12 @,@ 000 were killed in Badajoz after more than one thousand of landowners and conservatives were killed by the revolutionaries . In Granada , where working @-@ class neighborhoods were hit with artillery and right @-@ wing squads were given free rein to kill government sympathizers , at least 2 @,@ 000 people were murdered . In February 1937 , over 7 @,@ 000 were killed after the capture of Málaga . When Bilbao was conquered , thousands of people were sent to prison . There were fewer executions than usual , however , because of the effect Guernica left on Nationalists ' reputations internationally . The numbers killed as the columns of the Army of Africa devastated and pillaged their way between Seville and Madrid are particularly difficult to calculate .
Nationalists also murdered Catholic clerics . In one particular incident , following the capture of Bilbao , they took hundreds of people , including 16 priests who had served as chaplains for the Republican forces , to the countryside or graveyards and murdered them .
Franco 's forces also persecuted Protestants , including murdering 20 Protestant ministers . Franco 's forces were determined to remove the " Protestant heresy " from Spain . The Nationalists also persecuted Basques , as they strove to eradicate Basque culture . According to Basque sources , some 22 @,@ 000 Basques were murdered by Nationalists immediately after the Civil War .
The Nationalist side conducted aerial bombing of cities in Republican territory , carried out mainly by the Luftwaffe volunteers of the Condor Legion and the Italian air force volunteers of the Corpo Truppe Volontarie : Madrid , Barcelona , Valencia , Guernica , Durango , and other cities were attacked . The Bombing of Guernica was the most controversial .
= = = Republicans = = =
According to the Nationalists , an estimated 55 @,@ 000 civilians died in Republican @-@ held territories . This is considered excessive by Antony Beevor . However , it was much less than the half a million claimed during the war . The deaths would form the prevailing outside opinion of the republic up until the bombing of Guernica .
The Republican government was anticlerical , and supporters attacked and murdered Roman Catholic clergy in reaction to the news of military revolt . In his 1961 book , Spanish archbishop Antonio Montero Moreno , who at the time was director of the journal Ecclesia , wrote that 6 @,@ 832 were killed during the war , including 4 @,@ 184 priests , 2 @,@ 365 monks and friars , and 283 nuns , in addition to 13 bishops , a figure accepted by historians , including Beevor . Some sources claim that by the conflict 's end , 20 percent of the nation 's clergy had been killed , The " Execution " of the Sacred Heart of Jesus by Communist militiamen at Cerro de los Ángeles near Madrid , on 7 August 1936 , was the most infamous of widespread desecration of religious property . In dioceses where the Republicans had general control , a large proportion – often a majority – of secular priests were killed .
Like clergy , civilians were executed in Republican territories . Some civilians were executed as suspected Falangists . Others died in acts of revenge after Republicans heard of massacres carried out in the Nationalist zone . Air raids committed against Republican cities were another driving factor . Shopkeepers and industrialists were shot if they did not sympathize with the Republicans , and were usually spared if they did . Fake justice was sought through a commission , known in Russia as checas .
As pressure mounted with the increasing success of the Nationalists , many civilians were executed by councils and tribunals controlled by competing Communist and anarchist groups . Some members of the latter were executed by Soviet @-@ advised communist functionaries in Catalonia , as recounted by George Orwell 's description of the purges in Barcelona in 1937 in Homage to Catalonia , which followed a period of increasing tension between competing elements of the Catalan political scene . Some individuals fled to friendly embassies , which would house up to 8 @,@ 500 people during the war .
In the Andalusian town of Ronda , 512 suspected Nationalists were executed in the first month of the war . Communist Santiago Carrillo Solares was accused of the killing of Nationalists in the Paracuellos massacre near Paracuellos del Jarama . Pro @-@ Soviet Communists committed numerous atrocities against fellow Republicans , including other Marxists : André Marty , known as the Butcher of Albacete , was responsible for the deaths of some 500 members of the International Brigades . Andreu Nin , leader of the POUM ( Workers ' Party of Marxist Unification ) , and many other prominent POUM members , were murdered by the Communists , with the help of the USSR 's NKVD .
Thirty @-@ eight thousand people were killed in the Republican zone during the war , 17 @,@ 000 of whom were killed in Madrid or Catalonia within a month of the coup . Whilst the Communists were forthright in their support of extrajudicial killings , much of the Republican side was appalled by the murders . Azaña came close to resigning . He , alongside other members of Parliament and a great number of other local officials , attempted to prevent Nationalist supporters being lynched . Some of those in positions of power intervened personally to stop the killings .
= = Social revolution = =
In the anarchist @-@ controlled areas , Aragon and Catalonia , in addition to the temporary military success , there was a vast social revolution in which the workers and peasants collectivised land and industry and set up councils parallel to the paralyzed Republican government . This revolution was opposed by the Soviet @-@ supported communists who , perhaps surprisingly , campaigned against the loss of civil property rights .
As the war progressed , the government and the communists were able to exploit their access to Soviet arms to restore government control over the war effort , through diplomacy and force . Anarchists and the Workers ' Party of Marxist Unification ( Partido Obrero de Unificación Marxista , POUM ) were integrated into the regular army , albeit with resistance . The POUM Trotskyists were outlawed and falsely denounced as an instrument of the fascists . In the May Days of 1937 , many thousands of anarchist and communist Republican soldiers fought for control of strategic points in Barcelona .
The pre @-@ war Falange was a small party of some 30 @,@ 000 – 40 @,@ 000 members . It also called for a social revolution that would have seen Spanish society transformed by National Syndicalism . Following the execution of its leader , José Antonio Primo de Rivera , by the Republicans , the party swelled in size to several hundred thousand members . The leadership of the Falange suffered 60 percent casualties in the early days of the civil war , and the party was transformed by new members and rising new leaders , called camisas nuevas ( " new shirts " ) , who were less interested in the revolutionary aspects of National Syndicalism . Subsequently , Franco united all fighting groups into the Traditionalist Spanish Falange and the National Syndicalist Offensive Juntas ( Spanish : Falange Española Tradicionalista de las Juntas de Ofensiva Nacional @-@ Sindicalista , FET y de las JONS ) .
The 1930s also saw Spain become a focus for pacifist organizations , including the Fellowship of Reconciliation , the War Resisters League , and the War Resisters ' International . Many people including , as they are now called , the " insumisos " ( " defiant ones " , conscientious objectors ) argued and worked for non @-@ violent strategies . Prominent Spanish pacifists , such as Amparo Poch y Gascón and José Brocca , supported the Republicans . Brocca argued that Spanish pacifists had no alternative but to make a stand against fascism . He put this stand into practice by various means , including organizing agricultural workers to maintain food supplies , and through humanitarian work with war refugees .
= = Art and propaganda = =
Throughout the course of the Spanish Civil War , people all over the world were exposed to the goings @-@ on and effects of it on its people not only through standard art , but also through propaganda . Motion pictures , posters , books , radio programs , and leaflets are a few examples of this media art that was so influential during the war . Produced by both nationalists and republicans , propaganda allowed Spaniards a way to spread awareness about their war all over the world . In a film co @-@ produced by famous early @-@ twentieth century authors such as Ernest Hemingway and Lillian Hellman , video footage was used as a way to advertise Spain ’ s need for military and monetary aid . This film , The Spanish Earth , premiered in America in July 1937 . In 1938 , George Orwell 's Homage to Catalonia , a personal account of his experiences and observations in the war , was published in the United Kingdom .
Leading works of sculpture include Alberto Sánchez Pérez 's El pueblo español tiene un camino que conduce a una estrella maqueta ( " The Spanish People Have a Path that Leads to a Star " ) , a 12.5m monolith constructed out of plaster representing the struggle for a socialist utopia ; Julio González 's La Montserrat , an anti @-@ war work which shares its title with a mountain near Barcelona , is created from a sheet of iron which has been hammered and welded to create a peasant mother carrying a small child in one arm and a sickle in the other. and Alexander Calder 's Fuente de mercurio ( Mercury Fountain ) a protest work by the American against the Nationalist forced control of Almade 'n and the mercury mines there .
As to other works of art , Pablo Picasso painted Guernica in 1937 , taking inspiration from the bombing of Guernica , and in Leonardo de Vinci 's The Battle of Anghiari . Guernica , like many important Republican masterpieces , was featured at the 1937 International Exhibition in Paris . The work 's size ( 11 ft by 25 @.@ 6 ft ) grabbed much attention and cast the horrors of the mounting Spanish civil unrest into a global spotlight . The painting has since been heralded as an anti @-@ war work and a symbol of peace in the 20th century .
Joan Miró created El Segador ( The Reaper ) , formally titled El campesino catalán en rebeldía ( Catalan peasant in revolt ) , which spans some 18 feet by 12 feet and depicted a peasant brandishing a sickle in the air , to which Miró commented that " The sickle is not a communist symbol . It is the reaper ’ s symbol , the tool of his work , and , when his freedom is threatened , his weapon . " This work , also featured at the 1937 International Exhibition in Paris , was shipped back to the Spanish Republic 's capital in Valencia following the Exhibition , but has since gone missing or has been destroyed .
= = Timeline = =
Spanish Civil War Timeline
= = People = =
= = Political parties and organizations = =
= = = Images and films = = =
Spain in Revolt , newsreel documentary ( Video Stream ) ( Part 1 , 2 )
Imperial War Museum Collection of Spanish Civil War Posters hosted online by Visual Arts Data Service ( VADS )
Posters of the Spanish Civil War from UCSD 's Southworth collection
Civil War Documentaries made by the CNT
Spanish Civil War and Revolution image gallery – photographs and posters from the conflict
Aircraft of the Spanish Civil War
Battle of Rio Segre Photographs Capa , Robert ( 1938 ) International Center of Photography .
= = = Academics and governments = = =
A History of the Spanish Civil War , excerpted from a U.S. government country study .
Dutch Involvement in the Spanish Civil War . Columbia Historical Review .
" The Spanish Civil War – causes and legacy " on BBC Radio 4 's In Our Time featuring Paul Preston , Helen Graham and Dr Mary Vincent
= = = Other = = =
Original war reports from The Times
The Anarcho @-@ Statists of Spain , a different view of the anarchists in the Spanish Civil War , George Mason University
Spanish Civil War information from Spartacus Educational
American Jews in Spanish Civil War at the Wayback Machine ( archived 8 December 2005 ) , by Martin Sugarman
The Spanish Revolution , 1936 – 39 articles and links , from Anarchy Now !
The Revolutionary Institutions : The Central Committee of Anti @-@ Fascist Militias , by Juan García Oliver
Warships of the Spanish Civil War
¡ No Pasarán ! Speech Dolores Ibárruri 's famous rousing address for the defense of the Second Republic
New Zealand and the Spanish Civil War
Full text in translation of the Collective Letter of the Spanish Bishops , 1937 , a pastoral letter of the Spanish bishops which justified Franco 's uprising
11 Songs of the Spanish Civil War
= = = Archives = = =
Robert E. Burke Collection . 1892 – 1994 . 60 @.@ 43 cubic feet ( 68 boxes plus two oversize folders and one oversize vertical file ) . At the Labor Archives of Washington , University of Washington Libraries Special Collections . Contains materials collected by Burke on the Spanish Civil War .
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= Wonder Stories =
Wonder Stories was an early American science fiction magazine which was published under several titles from 1929 to 1955 . It was founded by Hugo Gernsback in 1929 after he had lost control of his first science fiction magazine , Amazing Stories , when his media company Experimenter Publishing went bankrupt . Within a few months of the bankruptcy , Gernsback launched three new magazines : Air Wonder Stories , Science Wonder Stories and Science Wonder Quarterly .
Air Wonder Stories and Science Wonder Stories were merged in 1930 as Wonder Stories , and the quarterly was renamed Wonder Stories Quarterly . The magazines were not financially successful , and in 1936 Gernsback sold Wonder Stories to Ned Pines at Beacon Publications , where , retitled Thrilling Wonder Stories , it continued for nearly 20 years . The last issue was dated Winter 1955 , and the title was then merged with Startling Stories , another of Pines ' science fiction magazines . Startling itself lasted only to the end of 1955 before finally succumbing to the decline of the pulp magazine industry .
The editors under Gernsback 's ownership were David Lasser , who worked hard to improve the quality of the fiction , and , from mid @-@ 1933 , Charles Hornig . Both Lasser and Hornig published some well @-@ received fiction , such as Stanley Weinbaum 's " A Martian Odyssey " , but Hornig 's efforts in particular were overshadowed by the success of Astounding Stories , which had become the leading magazine in the new field of science fiction . Under its new title , Thrilling Wonder Stories was initially unable to improve its quality . For a period in the early 1940s it was aimed at younger readers , with a juvenile editorial tone and covers that depicted beautiful women in implausibly revealing spacesuits . Later editors began to improve the fiction , and by the end of the 1940s , in the opinion of science fiction historian Mike Ashley , the magazine briefly rivaled Astounding .
= = Publication history = =
By the end of the 19th century , stories centered on scientific inventions and set in the future , in the tradition of Jules Verne , were appearing regularly in popular fiction magazines . Magazines such as Munsey 's Magazine and The Argosy , launched in 1889 and 1896 respectively , carried a few science fiction stories each year . Some upmarket " slicks " such as McClure 's , which paid well and were aimed at a more literary audience , also carried scientific stories , but by the early years of the 20th century , science fiction ( though it was not yet called that ) was appearing more often in the pulp magazines than in the slicks . The first science fiction magazine , Amazing Stories , was launched in 1926 by Hugo Gernsback at the height of the pulp magazine era . It helped to form science fiction as a separately marketed genre , and by the end of the 1930s a " Golden Age of Science Fiction " had begun , inaugurated by the efforts of John W. Campbell , the editor of Astounding Science Fiction . Wonder Stories was launched in the pulp era , not long after Amazing Stories , and lasted through the Golden Age and well into the 1950s .
= = = Gernsback era = = =
Gernsback 's new magazine , Amazing Stories , was successful , but Gernsback lost control of the publisher when it went bankrupt in February 1929 . By April he had formed a new company , Gernsback Publications Incorporated , and created two subsidiaries : Techni @-@ Craft Publishing Corporation and Stellar Publishing Corporation . Gernsback sent out letters advertising his plans for new magazines ; the mailing lists he used almost certainly were compiled from the subscription lists of Amazing Stories . This would have been illegal , as the lists were owned by Irving Trust , the receiver of the bankruptcy . Gernsback denied using the lists under oath , but historians have generally agreed that he must have done so . The letters also asked potential subscribers to decide the name of the new magazine ; they voted for " Science Wonder Stories " , which became the name of one of Gernsback 's new magazines .
Gernsback 's recovery from the bankruptcy judgment was remarkably quick . By early June he had launched three new magazines , two of which published science fiction . The June 1929 issue of Science Wonder Stories appeared on newsstands on 5 May 1929 , and was followed on 5 June by the July 1929 issue of Air Wonder Stories . Both magazines were monthly , with Gernsback as editor @-@ in @-@ chief and David Lasser as editor . Lasser had no prior editing experience and knew little about science fiction , but his recently acquired degree from MIT convinced Gernsback to hire him .
Gernsback claimed that science fiction was educational . He repeatedly made this assertion in Amazing Stories , and continued to do so in his editorials for the new magazines , stating , for example , that " teachers encourage the reading of this fiction because they know that it gives the pupil a fundamental knowledge of science and aviation . " He also recruited a panel of " nationally known educators [ who ] pass upon the scientific principles of all stories " . Science fiction historian Everett Bleiler describes this as " fakery , pure and simple " , asserting that there is no evidence that the men on the panel — some of whom , such as Lee De Forest , were well @-@ known scientists — had any editorial influence . However , Donald Menzel , the astrophysicist on the panel , has said that Gernsback sent him manuscripts and made changes to stories as a result of Menzel 's commentary .
In 1930 , Gernsback decided to merge Science Wonder Stories and Air Wonder Stories into Wonder Stories . The reason for the merger is unknown , although it may have been that he needed the space in the printing schedule for his new Aviation Mechanics magazine . Bleiler has suggested that the merger was caused by poor sales and a consequent need to downsize . In addition , Air Wonder Stories was probably focused on too specialized a niche to succeed . In an editorial just before Science Wonder Stories changed its name , Gernsback commented that the word " Science " in the title " has tended to retard the progress of the magazine , because many people had the impression that it is a sort of scientific periodical rather than a fiction magazine " . Ironically , the inclusion of " science " in the title was the reason that science fiction writer Isaac Asimov began reading the magazine ; when he saw the August 1929 issue he obtained permission to read it from his father on the grounds that it was clearly educational . Concerns about the marketability of titles seem to have surfaced in the last two issues of Science Wonder , which had the word " Science " printed in a color that made it difficult to read . On the top of the cover appeared the words " Mystery @-@ Adventure @-@ Romance " , the last of which was a surprising way to advertise a science fiction magazine .
The first issue of the merged magazine appeared in June 1930 , still on a monthly schedule , with Lasser as editor . The volume numbering continued that of Science Wonder Stories , therefore Wonder Stories is sometimes regarded as a retitling of Science Wonder Stories . Gernsback had also produced a companion magazine for Science Wonder Stories , titled Science Wonder Quarterly , the first issue of which was published in the fall of 1929 . Three issues were produced under this title , but after the merger Gernsback changed the companion magazine 's title to Wonder Stories Quarterly , and produced a further eleven issues under that title .
In July 1933 , Gernsback dismissed Lasser as editor . Lasser had become active in promoting workers ' rights and was spending less time on his editorial duties . According to Lasser , Gernsback told him " if you like working with the unemployed so much , I suggest you go and join them " . It is likely that cost @-@ cutting was also a consideration , as Lasser was paid $ 65 per week , a substantial salary in those days . Soon after Lasser was let go , Gernsback received a fanzine , The Fantasy Fan , from a reader , Charles Hornig . Gernsback called Hornig to his office to interview him for the position of editor ; Hornig turned out to be only 17 , but Gernsback asked him to proofread a manuscript and decided that the results were satisfactory . Hornig was hired at an initial salary of $ 20 per week . That same year , Gernsback dissolved Stellar Publications and created Continental Publications as the new publisher for Wonder Stories . The schedule stuttered for the first time , missing the July and September 1933 issues ; the recent bankruptcy of the company 's distributor , Eastern Distributing Corporation , may have been partly responsible for this disruption . The first issue with Continental on the masthead , and the first listing Hornig as editor , was November 1933 .
Wonder Stories had a circulation of about 25 @,@ 000 in 1934 , comparable to that of Amazing Stories , which had declined from an early peak of about 100 @,@ 000 . Gernsback considered issuing a reprint magazine in 1934 , Wonder Stories Reprint Annual , but it never appeared . That year he experimented with other fiction magazines — Pirate Stories and High Seas Adventures — but neither was successful . Wonder Stories was also failing , and in November 1935 it started publishing bimonthly instead of monthly . Gernsback had a reputation for paying slowly and was therefore unpopular with many authors ; by 1936 he was even failing to pay Laurence Manning , one of his most reliable authors . Staff were sometimes asked to delay cashing their paychecks for weeks at a time . Gernsback felt the blame lay with dealers who were returning magazine covers as unsold copies , and then selling the stripped copies at a reduced rate . To bypass the dealers , he made a plea in the March 1936 issue to his readers , asking them to subscribe , and proposing to distribute Wonder Stories solely by subscription . There was little response , and Gernsback decided to sell . He made a deal with Ned Pines of Beacon Magazines and on 21 February 1936 Wonder Stories was sold .
= = = Thrilling Wonder Stories = = =
Pines ' magazines included several with " Thrilling " in the title , such as Thrilling Detective and Thrilling Love Stories . These were run by Leo Margulies , who had hired Mort Weisinger ( among others ) as the workload increased in the early 1930s . Weisinger was already an active science fiction fan , and when Wonder Stories was acquired , Margulies involved him in the editorial work . Margulies ' group worked as a team , with Margulies listed as editor @-@ in @-@ chief on the magazines and having final say . However , since Weisinger knew science fiction well , Weisinger was quickly given more leeway , and bibliographers generally list Weisinger as the editor for this period of the magazine 's history .
The title was changed to Thrilling Wonder Stories to match the rest of the " Thrilling " line . The first issue appeared in August 1936 — four months after the last Gernsback Wonder Stories appeared . Wonder Stories had been monthly until the last few Gernsback issues ; Thrilling Wonder was launched on a bimonthly schedule . In February 1938 Weisinger asked for reader feedback regarding the idea of a companion magazine ; the response was positive , and in January 1939 the first issue of Startling Stories appeared , alternating months with Thrilling Wonder . A year later Thrilling Wonder went monthly ; this lasted fewer than eighteen months , and the bimonthly schedule resumed after April 1941 . Weisinger left that summer and was replaced at both Startling and Thrilling Wonder by Oscar J. Friend , a pulp writer with more experience in Westerns than science fiction , though he had published a novel , The Kid from Mars , in Startling Stories just the year before . In mid @-@ 1943 both magazines went to a quarterly schedule , and at the end of 1944 Friend was replaced in his turn by Sam Merwin , Jr .. The quarterly schedule lasted until well after World War II ended : Thrilling Wonder returned to a bimonthly schedule with the December 1946 issue and again alternated with Startling which went bimonthly in January 1947 . Merwin left in 1951 in order to become a freelance editor , and was replaced by Samuel Mines , who had worked for Ned Pines since 1942 .
The Thrilling Wonder logo , a winged man against the background of a glass mountain was taken from the Noel Loomis story , " The Glass Mountain . "
By the summer of 1949 Street & Smith , one of the largest pulp publishers , had shut down every one of their pulps . This format was dying out , though it took several more years before the pulps completely disappeared from the newsstands . Both Thrilling Wonder and Startling went quarterly in 1954 , and at the end of that year Mines left . The magazines did not survive him for long ; only two more issues of Thrilling Wonder appeared , both edited by Alexander Samalman . After the beginning of 1955 , Thrilling Wonder was merged with Startling , which itself ceased publication at the end of 1955 .
After the demise of Thrilling Wonder Stories the old Wonder Stories title was revived for two issues , published in 1957 and 1963 . These were both edited by Jim Hendryx Jr . They were numbered vol . 45 , no . 1 and 2 , continuing the volume numbering of Thrilling Wonder . Both were selections from past issues of Thrilling Wonder ; the second one convinced Ned Pines , the publisher who had bought Wonder Stories from Gernsback in 1936 and who still owned the rights to the stories , to start a reprint magazine called Treasury of Great Science Fiction Stories in 1964 ; a companion , Treasury of Great Western Stories , was added the next year .
In 2007 , Winston Engle published a new magazine in book format , titled Thrilling Wonder Stories , with a cover date of Summer 2007 . Engle commented that it was " not a pastiche or nostalgia exercise as much as modern SF with the entertainment , inspirational value , and excitement of the golden age " . A second volume appeared in 2009 .
= = = If--- ! : a picture feature = = =
Six months after the debut of Thrilling Wonder Stories , its June 1937 issue contained a picture feature by Jack Binder entitled If--- ! . Binder 's earlier training as a fine artist helped him create detailed renderings of space ships , lost cities , future cities , landscapes , indigenous peoples , and even ancient Atlantins . If--- ! ' s pen and ink drawings are hand @-@ lettered and rendered in black and white . These one @-@ to @-@ two page studies presented readers with possible outcomes to early 20th @-@ century scientific quandaries . These included :
IF Another Ice Age Grips the Earth ! ( June 1937 ) — Binder 's first picture feature is tucked in between " The Chessboard of Mars " by Eando Binder and J. Harvey Haggard 's " Renegade : The Ways of the Ether are Strange When a Spaceman Seeks to Betray . " Ice Age offered renderings of glaciated cities , infra @-@ red ray guns , and a floating city alongside underground habitations — " the safest and most practicable retreat ! " for chilly humans . It ends with the announcement : " Next Issue : If Atomic Power were Harnessed ! "
IF the Oceans Dried ! ( April 1938 ) — Sailing vessels are museum pieces enshrined in huge bubble cases since the ocean floor is now home to meandering train tracks . All manner of minerals are mined to the benefit of mankind and the lost city of Atlantis ( if real ) is exposed . All ocean life becomes extinct and the earth 's climate undergoes dramatic , yet positive , change .
IF Science Reached the Earth 's Core ( Oct. 1938 ) — Neutronium allows humans to penetrate to the earth 's core , which is not molten , but a gravity @-@ free haven where " vacationers enjoy the thrill of being weightless . " If--- ! is credited with the first use of the phrase " zero @-@ gravity , " a science fiction mainstay , where " Space Travel is solved . Starting at the zero @-@ gravity of Earth 's core , accumulative acceleration is easily built up in a four @-@ thousand @-@ mile tube . The ship 's reach Earth 's surface where gravitation ! | is strongest with an appreciable velocity that makes the take @-@ off a simple process of continuation ! "
IF Earth 's Axis Shifted ( April 1940 ) — An astronomical telescope points towards the night sky revealing that the planets have aligned and caused the earth 's axis to shift . Tidal waves sweep cities away . North America in now a tropic zone , while Siberia is balmy and Antarctica swarms with immigrants wanting to harvest the now accessible coal and metal . " Next Issue : IF the World were Ruled by Intelligent Robots ! "
= = Contents and reception = =
When Air Wonder Stories was launched in the middle of 1929 there were already pulp magazines such as Sky Birds and Flying Aces which focused on aerial adventures . Gernsback 's first editorial dismissed these as being of the " purely ' Wild West ' -world war adventure @-@ sky busting type " . By contrast , Gernsback said he planned to fill Air Wonder solely with " flying stories of the future , strictly along scientific @-@ mechanical @-@ technical lines , full of adventure , exploration and achievement . " Non @-@ fiction material on aviation was printed , including quizzes , short popular articles , and book reviews . The letters column made it clear that the readership comprised more science fiction fans than aviation fans , and Gernsback later commented that the overlap with Science Wonder readers was 90 % ( a figure that presumably referred only to the subscription base , not to newsstand sales ) .
Gernsback frequently ran reader contests , one of which , announced in the February 1930 issue of Air Wonder Stories , asked for a slogan for the magazine . John Wyndham , later to become famous as the author of The Day of the Triffids , won with " Future Flying Fiction " , submitted under his real name of John Beynon Harris . Later that year a contest in Science Wonder Quarterly asked readers for an answer to the question " What I Have Done to Spread Science Fiction " . The winner was Raymond Palmer who later became editor of Gernsback 's original magazine , Amazing Stories . He won the contest for his role in founding a " Science Correspondence Club " .
Science Wonder 's first issue included the first part of a serial , The Reign of the Ray , by Fletcher Pratt and Irwin Lester , and short stories by Stanton Coblentz and David H. Keller . Air Wonder began with a reprinted serial , Victor MacClure 's Ark of the Covenant . Writers who first appeared in the pages of these magazines include Neil R. Jones , Ed Earl Repp , Raymond Z. Gallun and Lloyd Eshbach . The quality of published science fiction at the time was generally low , and Lasser was keen to improve it . On 11 May 1931 he wrote to his regular contributors to tell them that their science fiction stories " should deal realistically with the effect upon people , individually and in groups , of a scientific invention or discovery . ... In other words , allow yourself one fundamental assumption — that a certain machine or discovery is possible — and then show what would be its logical and dramatic consequences upon the world ; also what would be the effect upon the group of characters that you pick to carry your theme . "
= = = After the merger = = =
Lasser provided ideas to his authors and commented on their drafts , attempting to improve both the level of scientific literacy and the quality of the writing . Some of his correspondence has survived , including an exchange with Jack Williamson , whom Lasser commissioned in early 1932 to write a story based on a plot provided by a reader — the winning entry in one of the magazine 's competitions . Lasser emphasized to Williamson the importance of scientific plausibility , citing as an example a moment in the story where the earthmen have to decipher a written Martian language : " You must be sure and make it convincing how they did it ; for they have absolutely no method of approach to a written language of another world . " On one occasion Lasser 's work with his authors extended to collaboration : " The Time Projector " , a story which appeared in the July 1931 issue of Wonder Stories , was credited to David H. Keller and David Lasser . Both Lasser and , later , Hornig , were given almost complete editorial freedom by Gernsback , who reserved only the right to give final approval to the contents . This was in contrast to the more detailed control Gernsback had exerted over the content of Amazing Stories in the first years of its existence . Science fiction historian Sam Moskowitz has suggested that the reason was the poor financial state of Wonder Stories — Gernsback perhaps avoided corresponding with authors as he owed many of them money .
Lasser allowed the letter column to become a free discussion of ideas and values , and published stories dealing with topics such as the relationship between the sexes . One such story , Thomas S. Gardner 's " The Last Woman " , portrayed a future in which men , having evolved beyond the need for love , keep the last woman in a museum . In " The Venus Adventurer " , an early story by John Wyndham , a spaceman corrupts the innocent natives of Venus . Lasser avoided printing space opera , and several stories from Wonder in the early 1930s were more realistic than most contemporary space fiction . Examples include Edmond Hamilton 's " A Conquest of Space " , P. Schuyler Miller 's " The Forgotten Man of Space " , and several stories by Frank K. Kelly , including " The Moon Tragedy " .
Lasser was one of the founders of the American Rocket Society which , under its initial name of the " Interplanetary Society " , announced its existence in the pages of the June 1930 Wonder Stories . Several of Wonder 's writers were also members of the Interplanetary Society , and perhaps as a consequence of the relationship Wonder Stories Quarterly began to focus increasingly on fiction with interplanetary settings . A survey of the last eight issues of Wonder Stories Quarterly by Bleiler found almost two @-@ thirds of the stories were interplanetary adventures , while only a third of the stories in the corresponding issues of Wonder Stories could be so described . Wonder Stories Quarterly added a banner reading " Interplanetary Number " to the cover of the Winter 1931 issue , and retained it , as " Interplanetary Stories " , for subsequent issues . Lasser and Gernsback were also briefly involved with the fledgling Technocracy movement . Gernsback published two issues of Technocracy Review , which Lasser edited , commissioning stories based on technocratic ideas from Nat Schachner . These appeared in Wonder Stories during 1933 , culminating in a novel , The Revolt of the Scientists .
Reviews of fiction and popular science books were published , and there was a science column which endeavored to answer readers ' questions . These features were at first of good quality , but deteriorated after Lasser 's departure , although it is not certain that Lasser wrote the content of either one . An influential non @-@ fiction initiative was the creation of the Science Fiction League , an organization that brought together local science fiction fan clubs across the country . Gernsback took the opportunity to sell items such as buttons and insignia , and it was undoubtedly a profitable enterprise for him as well as a good source of publicity . It was ultimately more important in becoming one of the foundations of science fiction fandom .
= = = Hornig = = =
When Hornig took over from Lasser at the end of 1933 he attempted to continue and expand Lasser 's approach . Hornig introduced a " New Policy " in the January 1934 issue , emphasizing originality and barring stories that merely reworked well @-@ worn ideas . He asked for stories that included good science , although " not enough to become boring to those readers who are not primarily interested in the technicalities of the science " . However , Astounding was moving into the lead position in the science fiction magazine field at this time , and Hornig had difficulty in competing . His rates of payment were lower than Astounding 's one cent per word ; sometimes his writers were paid very late , or not at all . Despite these handicaps , Hornig managed to find some good material , including Stanley G. Weinbaum 's " A Martian Odyssey " , which appeared in the July 1934 Wonder and has been frequently reprinted .
In the December 1934 – January 1935 issue of Hornig 's fanzine , Fantasy Magazine , he took the unusual step of listing several stories that he had rejected as lacking novelty , but which had subsequently appeared in print in other magazines . The list includes several by successful writers of the day , such as Raymond Z. Gallun and Miles Breuer . The most prominent story named is Triplanetary by E. E. Smith , which appeared in Amazing .
Both Lasser and Hornig printed fiction translated from French and German writers , including Otfrid von Hanstein and Otto Willi Gail . With the rise of Adolf Hitler in Germany in the 1930s a few readers ( including Donald Wollheim ) wrote letters complaining about the inclusion of German stories . The editorial response was a strong defense of the translations ; Gernsback argued that events in Germany were irrelevant to the business of selecting fiction .
The covers for almost every issue of Air Wonder , Science Wonder , Wonder Stories and Wonder Stories Quarterly were painted by Frank R. Paul , who had followed Gernsback from Amazing Stories . The only exception was a cover image composed of colored dots , which appeared on the November 1932 issue .
= = = Weisinger and Friend = = =
When the magazine moved to Beacon Publications , as Thrilling Wonder , the fiction began to focus more on action than on ideas . The covers , often by Earle K. Bergey , typically depicted bizarre aliens and damsels in distress . In 1939 , a reader , Martin Alger , coined the phrase " bug @-@ eyed monster " to describe one such cover ; the phrase subsequently entered the dictionary as a word for an alien . Several well @-@ known writers contributed , including Ray Cummings , and John W. Campbell , whose " Brain @-@ Stealers of Mars " series began in Thrilling Wonder in the December 1936 issue . A comic @-@ strip began in August 1936 , the first issue of the Beacon Publications version . It was illustrated and possibly written by Max Plaisted . The strip , titled " Zarnak " , was not a success , and was cancelled after eight issues .
Weisinger 's successor , Friend , gave the magazine a significantly more juvenile feel . He used the alias " Sergeant Saturn " and was generally condescending to the readers ; this may not have been his fault as Margulies , who was still the editorial director , probably wanted him to attract a younger readership . Under Friend 's direction , Earle K. Bergey transformed the look of Thrilling Wonder Stories by foregrounding human figures in space , focusing on the anatomy of women in implausibly revealing spacesuits and his trademark " brass brassières " .
= = = Merwin and Mines = = =
Merwin , who took over with the Winter 1945 issue , adopted a more mature approach than Friend 's . He obtained fiction from writers who had previously been publishing mainly in John Campbell 's Astounding . The Summer 1945 issue of Thrilling Wonder included Jack Vance 's first published story , " The World Thinker " . Merwin also published several stories by Ray Bradbury , some of which were later included in Bradbury 's collection The Martian Chronicles . Other well @-@ known writers that Merwin was able to attract included Theodore Sturgeon , A.E. van Vogt , and Robert A. Heinlein . Thrilling Wonder often published intelligent , thoughtful stories , some of which Campbell would have been unlikely to accept at Astounding : he did not like to publish stories that showed the negative consequences of scientific advances such as nuclear power . In the opinion of science fiction historian Mike Ashley , during the late 1940s Thrilling Wonder became a serious rival to Astounding 's long domination of the field . However , this is not a universal opinion , as the magazine is elsewhere described during Merwin 's tenure as " evidently secondary to Startling " .
Samuel Mines took over from Merwin at the end of 1951 , both at Startling Stories and Thrilling Wonder . He argued against restrictions in science fiction themes , and in 1952 published Philip José Farmer 's " The Lovers " , a ground @-@ breaking story about inter @-@ species sex , in Startling . He followed this in 1953 with another taboo @-@ breaking story from Farmer , " Mother " , in Thrilling Wonder , in which a spaceman makes his home in an alien womb . In the December 1952 Thrilling Wonder , Mines published Edmond Hamilton 's " What 's It Like Out There ? " , a downbeat story about the realities of space exploration that had been considered too bleak for publication when it had originally been written in the 1930s . Sherwood Springer 's " No Land of Nod " , in the same issue , dealt with incest between a father and his daughter in a world in which they are the only two survivors . These stories were all well received by the readership .
= = = Influence on the field = = =
For a few years , Lasser was the dominant force in science fiction . Under him , Wonder Stories was the best of the science fiction magazines of the early 1930s , and the most successful of all Gernsback 's forays into the field . Lasser shaped a new generation of writers , who in many cases had no prior writing experience of any kind ; Wonder Stories was part of a " forcing ground " , according to Isaac Asimov , where young writers learned their trade . The magazine was less constrained by pulp convention than its competitors , and published some novels such as Eric Temple Bell 's The Time Stream and Festus Pragnell 's The Green Man of Graypec , which were not in the mainstream of development of the science fiction genre .
As Thrilling Wonder the magazine was much less influential . Until the mid @-@ 1940s it was focused on younger readers , and by the time Merwin and Mines introduced a more adult approach , Astounding Science Fiction had taken over as the unquestioned leader of the field . Thrilling Wonder could not compete with John Campbell and the Golden Age of science fiction that he brought into being , but it did periodically publish good stories . In the end it was unable to escape its roots in the pulp industry , and died in the carnage that swept away every remaining pulp magazine in the 1950s .
= = Publication details = =
The editorial duties at Wonder Stories and its related magazines were not always performed by the person who bore the title of " editor " in the magazine 's masthead . From the beginning until the sale to Beacon Publications , Gernsback was listed as editor @-@ in @-@ chief ; Lasser was variously listed as " literary editor " and " managing editor " , while Hornig was always listed as " managing editor " . Similarly , under Beacon Publications , the nominal editor ( initially Leo Margulies ) was not always the one to work on the magazine . The following list shows who actually performed the editorial duties . More details are given in the publishing history section , above , which focuses on when the editors involved actually obtained control of the magazine contents , instead of when their names appeared on the masthead .
Air Wonder Stories
David Lasser ( July 1929 – May 1930 )
Science Wonder Stories
David Lasser ( June 1929 – May 1930 )
Science Wonder Quarterly
David Lasser ( Fall 1929 – Spring 1930 )
Wonder Stories
David Lasser ( June 1930 – October 1933 )
Charles Hornig ( November 1933 – March – April 1936 )
Wonder Stories Quarterly
David Lasser ( Summer 1930 – Winter 1933 )
Thrilling Wonder Stories
Mort Weisinger ( August 1936 – April 1941 )
Oscar Friend ( August 1941 – Fall 1944 )
Sam Merwin ( Winter 1945 – October 1951 )
Samuel Mines ( December 1951 – Summer 1954 )
Alexander Samalman ( Fall 1954 – Winter 1955 )
The publisher only changed once through the lifetime of the magazine , when Gernsback sold Wonder Stories in 1936 . However , Gernsback changed the name of his company from Stellar Publishing Corporation to Continental Publications , Incorporated , with effect from December 1933 . Thrilling Wonder 's publisher went by three names : Beacon Publications initially , then Better Publications from the August 1937 issue , and finally , starting with the Fall 1943 issue , Standard Magazines .
Gernsback experimented with the price and format , looking for a profitable combination . Both Air Wonder and Science Wonder were bedsheet @-@ sized ( 8 @.@ 5 × 11 @.@ 75 in , or 216 × 298 mm ) and priced at 25 cents , as were the first issues of Wonder Stories . With the November 1930 issue Wonder Stories changed to pulp format , 6 @.@ 75 × 9 @.@ 9 in ( 171 × 251 mm ) . It reverted to bedsheet after a year , and then in November 1933 became a pulp magazine for good . The pulp issues all had 144 pages ; the bedsheet issues generally had 96 pages , though five issues from November 1932 to March 1933 had only 64 pages . Those five issues coincided with a price cut to 15 cents , which was reversed with the April 1933 issue . Gernsback cut the price to 15 cents again from June 1935 until the sale to Beacon Publications in 1936 , though this time he did not reduce the page count . The short duration of these price cuts suggests Gernsback rapidly realized that the additional circulation they gained him cost too much in lost revenue . Under Beacon Publications Thrilling Wonder remained pulp @-@ sized throughout .
There were two British reprint editions of Thrilling Wonder . The earlier edition , from Atlas Publishing , produced three numbered issues from 1949 to 1950 , and a further seven from 1952 to 1953 . Another four issues appeared from Pemberton between 1953 and 1954 ; these were numbered from 101 to 104 . There were Canadian editions in 1945 – 1946 and 1948 – 1951 .
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= George Robey =
Sir George Edward Wade , CBE ( 20 September 1869 – 29 November 1954 ) , known professionally as George Robey , was an English comedian , singer and actor in musical theatre , who became known as one of the greatest music hall performers of the late 19th and early 20th centuries . As a comedian , Robey mixed everyday situations and observations with comic absurdity . Apart from his music hall acts , he was a popular Christmas pantomime performer in the English provinces , where he excelled in the dame roles . He scored notable successes in musical revues during and after the First World War , particularly with the song " If You Were the Only Girl ( In the World ) " , which he performed with Violet Loraine in the revue The Bing Boys Are Here ( 1916 ) . One of his best @-@ known original characters in his six @-@ decade long career was the Prime Minister of Mirth .
Born in London , Robey came from a middle @-@ class family . After schooling in England and Germany , and a series of office jobs , he made his debut on the London stage , at the age of 21 , as the straight man to a comic hypnotist . He soon developed his own act and appeared at the Oxford Music Hall in 1890 , where he earned favourable notices singing " The Simple Pimple " and " He 'll Get It Where He 's Gone to Now " . In 1892 , Robey appeared in his first pantomime , Whittington Up @-@ to @-@ date in Brighton , which brought him to a wider audience . More provincial engagements followed in Manchester , Birmingham and Liverpool , and he soon became a mainstay of the popular Christmas pantomime scene .
Robey 's music hall act matured in the first decade of the 1900s , and he undertook a number of foreign tours . He starred in the Royal Command Performance in 1912 and regularly entertained before aristocracy . He was an avid sportsman , playing cricket and football at a semi @-@ professional level . During the First World War , he achieved great success in The Bing Boys Are Here ( 1916 ) and several other revues . He raised money for many war charities and was appointed a CBE in 1919 . From 1918 , he created sketches based on his Prime Minister of Mirth character and used a costume he had designed in the 1890s as a basis for the character 's attire . He made a successful transition from music hall to variety shows and starred in the revue Round in Fifty in 1922 , which earned him still wider notice . With the exception of his performances in revue and pantomime , he appeared as his Prime Minister of Mirth character in all the other entertainment media including variety , music hall and radio .
In 1913 he debuted in film , but he only had modest success in the medium . He continued to perform in variety theatre in the inter @-@ war years and , in 1932 , starred in Helen ! , his first straight theatre role . His appearance brought him to the attention of many influential directors , including Sydney Carroll , who signed him to appear on stage as Falstaff in Henry IV , Part 1 in 1935 , a role that he later repeated in Laurence Olivier 's 1944 film , Henry V. During the Second World War , Robey raised money for charities and promoted recruitment into the forces . By the 1950s , his health had deteriorated , and he entered into semi @-@ retirement . He was knighted a few months before his death in 1954 .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life = = =
Robey was born at 334 Kennington Road , Kennington , London . His father , Charles Wade , was a civil engineer who spent much of his career on tramline design and construction . Robey 's mother , Elizabeth Mary Wade née Keene , was a housewife ; he also had two sisters . His paternal ancestors originated from Hampshire ; his uncle , George Wade , married into aristocracy in 1848 , a link which provided a proud topic of conversation for future generations of the Wade family . When Robey was five , his father moved the family to Birkenhead , where he helped in the construction of the Mersey Railway . Robey began his schooling in nearby Hoylake at a dame school . Three years later the family moved back to London , near the border between Camberwell and Peckham . At around this time , trams were being introduced to the area , providing Charles Wade with a regular , well @-@ paid job .
To fulfil an offer of work , Charles Wade moved the family to Germany in 1880 , and Robey attended a school in Dresden . He devoted his leisure hours to visiting the city 's museums , art galleries and opera houses and gained a reasonable fluency in German by the time he was 12 . He enjoyed life in the country and was impressed with the many operatic productions held in the city and with the Germans ' high regard for the arts . When he was 14 , his father allowed him to move in with a clergyman 's family in the German countryside , which he used as a base while studying science at Leipzig University . To earn money , he taught English to his landlord 's children and minded them while their parents were at work . Having successfully enrolled at the university , he studied art and music and stayed with the family for a further 18 months so he could complete his studies before returning to England in 1885 . He later claimed , apparently untruthfully , to have studied at the University of Cambridge .
At the age of 18 Robey travelled to Birmingham , where he worked in a civil engineer 's office . It was here that he became interested in a career on the stage and often dreamed of starring in his own circus . He learned to play the mandolin and became a skilled performer on the instrument . This drew interest from a group of local musicians and , together with a friend from the group who played the guitar , Robey travelled the local area in search of engagements . Soon afterwards , they were hired to play at a charity concert at the local church , St Mary and St Ambrose in Edgbaston , a performance that led to more local bookings . For the next appearance , Robey performed an impromptu version of " Killaloo " , a comic ditty taken from the burlesque Miss Esmeralda . The positive response from the audience encouraged him to give up playing the mandolin to concentrate instead on singing comic songs .
= = = = London debut = = = =
By 1890 Robey had become homesick , and so he returned to South London , where he took employment in a civil engineering company . He also joined a local branch of the Thirteen Club , whose members , many of whom were amateur musicians , performed in small venues across London . Hearing of his talent , the founder of the club , W. H. Branch , invited Robey to appear at Anderton 's Hotel in Fleet Street , where he performed the popular new comic song " Where Did You Get That Hat ? " . Robey 's performance secured him a number of private engagements for which he was paid a guinea a night . By the early months of 1891 , Robey was much in demand , and he decided to change his stage name . He swapped " Wade " for " Robey " after working for a company in Birmingham that bore the latter name . It was at around this time that he met E. W. Rogers , an established music hall composer who wrote songs for Marie Lloyd and Jenny Hill . For Robey , Rogers wrote three songs : " My Hat 's a Brown ' Un " , " The Simple Pimple " and " It Suddenly Dawned Upon Me " .
In 1891 Robey visited the Royal Aquarium in Westminster where he watched " Professor Kennedy " , a burlesque mesmerist from America . After the performance , Robey visited Kennedy in his dressing room and offered himself as the stooge for his next appearance . They agreed that Robey , as his young apprentice , would be " mesmerised " into singing a comic song . At a later rehearsal , Robey negotiated a deal to sing one of the comic songs that had been written for him by Rogers . Robey 's turn was a great success , and as a result he secured a permanent theatrical residency at the venue . Later that year , he appeared as a solo act at the Oxford Music Hall , where he performed " The Simple Pimple " and " He 'll Get It Where He 's Gone to Now " . The theatrical press soon became aware of his act , and The Stage called him a " comedian with a pretty sense of humour [ who ] delivers his songs with considerable point and meets with all success " . In early 1892 , together with his performances at the Royal Aquarium and the Oxford Music Hall , Robey starred alongside Jenny Hill , Bessie Bonehill and Harriet Vernon at the Paragon Theatre of Varieties in Mile End , where , according to his biographer Peter Cotes , he " stole the notices from experienced troupers " .
That summer , Robey conducted a music hall tour of the English provinces which began in Chatham and took him to Liverpool , at a venue owned by the mother of the influential London impresario Oswald Stoll . Through this engagement Robey met Stoll , and the two became lifelong friends . In early December , Robey appeared in five music halls a night , including Gatti 's Under the Arches , the Tivoli Music Hall and the London Pavilion . In mid @-@ December , he travelled to Brighton , where he appeared in his first Christmas pantomime , Whittington Up @-@ to @-@ Date . Pantomime would become a lucrative and regular source of employment for the comedian . Cotes calls Robey 's festive performances the " cornerstone of his comic art " , and the source of " some of his greatest successes " .
= = = = Music hall characterisations = = = =
During the 1890s Robey created a number of music hall characters centred on everyday life . Among them were " The Chinese Laundryman " and " Clarence , the Last of the Dandies " . As Clarence , Robey dressed in a top hat and frock coat and carried a malacca cane , the garb of a stereotypical Victorian gentleman . For his drag pieces , the comedian established " The Lady Dresser " , a female tailor who was desperate to out @-@ dress her high class customers , and " Daisy Dillwater , the District Nurse " who arrived on stage with a bicycle to share light @-@ hearted scandal and gossip with the audience before hurriedly cycling off .
With Robey 's popularity came an eagerness to differentiate himself from his music hall rivals , and so he devised a signature costume when appearing as himself : an oversized black coat fastened from the neck down with large , wooden buttons ; black , unkempt , baggy trousers and a partially bald wig with black , whispery strands of unbrushed , dirty @-@ looking hair that poked below a large , dishevelled top @-@ hat . He applied thick white face paint and exaggerated the redness on his cheeks and nose with bright red make @-@ up ; his eye line and eyebrows were also enhanced with thick , black greasepaint . He held a short , misshaped , wooden walking stick , which was curved at the top . Robey later used the costume for his character , The Prime Minister of Mirth . The outfit helped Robey become instantly recognisable on the London music hall circuit . He next made a start at building his repertoire and bought the rights to comic songs and monologues by several well @-@ established music hall writers , including Sax Rohmer and Bennett Scott . For his routines , Robey developed a characteristic delivery described by Cotes as " a kind of machine @-@ gun staccato rattle through each polysyllabic line , ending abruptly , and holding the pause while he fixed his audience with his basilisk stare . "
= = = = Success in pantomime and the provinces = = = =
At the start of 1894 , Robey travelled to Manchester to participate in the pantomime Jack and Jill , where he was paid £ 25 a week for a three @-@ month contract . He did not appear in Jack and Jill until the third act but pleased the holiday crowds nonetheless . During one performance the scenery mechanism failed , which forced him to improvise for the first time . Robey fabricated a story that he had just dined with the Lord Mayor before detailing exactly what he had eaten . The routine was such a hit that it was incorporated into the show as part of the script .
In the final months of 1894 , Robey returned to London to honour a contract for Augustus Harris at the Theatre Royal , Drury Lane , the details of which are unknown . In September he starred in a series of stand @-@ up comedy shows that he would perform every September between 1894 and 1899 . These short performances , in English seaside resorts including Scarborough and Bournemouth , were designed chiefly to enhance his name among provincial audiences . For the 1895 and 1896 Christmas pantomimes , he appeared in Manchester and Birmingham , respectively , in the title role of Dick Whittington , for which he received favourable reviews and praise from audiences . Despite the show 's success , Robey and his co @-@ stars disliked the experience . The actress Ada Reeve felt that the production had a bad back @-@ stage atmosphere and was thankful when the season ended , while the comedian Barry Lupino was dismayed at having his role , Muffins , considerably reduced .
On 29 April 1898 , Robey married his first wife , the Australian @-@ born musical theatre actress Ethel Hayden , at St Clement Danes church in the Strand , London . The congregation was made up of various theatrical colleagues ; J. Pitt Hardacre was his best man , and composer Leslie Stuart was the organist . Robey and Ethel resided briefly in Circus Road , St John 's Wood , until the birth of their first child Edward in 1900 . They then moved to 83 Finchley Road in Swiss Cottage , Hampstead . Family life suited Robey ; his son Edward recalled many happy experiences with his father , including the evenings when he would accompany him to the half @-@ dozen music halls at which he would be appearing each night .
By the start of the new century , Robey was a big name in pantomime , and he was able to choose his roles . Pantomime enjoyed wide popularity until the 1890s , but by the time Robey had reached his peak , interest in it was on the wane . A type of character he particularly enjoyed taking on was the pantomime dame , which historically was played by comedians from the music hall . Robey was inspired by the older comedians Herbert Campbell and Dan Leno , and , although post @-@ dating them , he rivalled their eccentricity and popularity , earning the festive entertainment a new audience . In his 1972 biography of Robey , Neville Cardus thought that the comedian was " at his fullest as a pantomime Dame " .
In 1902 Robey created the character " The Prehistoric Man " . He dressed as a caveman and spoke of modern political issues , often complaining about the government " slapping another pound of rock on his taxes " . The character was received favourably by audiences , who found it easy to relate to his topical observations . That year he released " The Prehistoric Man " and " Not That I Wish to Say Anything " on shellac discs using the early acoustic recording process .
Robey signed a six @-@ year contract in June 1904 to appear annually at , among other venues , the Oxford Music Hall in London , for a fee of £ 120 a week . The contract also required him to perform during the spring and autumn seasons between 1910 and 1912 . Robey disputed this part of the contract and stated that he agreed to this only as a personal favour to the music hall manager George Adney Payne and that it should have become void on Payne 's death in 1907 . The management of the Oxford counter @-@ claimed and forbade Robey from appearing in any other music hall during this period . The matter went to court , where the judge found in Robey 's favour .
Robey was engaged to play the title role in the 1905 pantomime Queen of Hearts . The show was considered risqué by the theatrical press . In one scene Robey accidentally sat on his crown before bellowing " Assistance ! Methinks I have sat upon a hedgehog " ; in another sketch , the comedian mused , " Then there 's Mrs Simkins , the swank ! Many 's the squeeze she 's had of my blue bag on washing day . " Robey scored a further hit with the show the following year , in Birmingham , which Cotes describes as " the most famous of all famous Birmingham Theatre Royal pantomimes " . Robey incorporated " The Dresser " , a music hall sketch taken from his own repertoire , into the show . Over the next few years he continued to tour the music hall circuit both in London and the English provinces and recorded two songs , " What Are You Looking at Me For ? " and " The Mayor of Mudcumdyke " , which were later released by the Gramophone and Typewriter Company .
= = = Career peak years = = =
= = = = Sporting interests and violin @-@ making = = = =
Off @-@ stage , Robey led an active lifestyle and was a keen amateur sportsman . He was proud of his healthy physique and maintained it by performing frequent exercise and following a careful diet . By the time he was in his mid @-@ thirties , he had played as an amateur against Millwall , Chelsea and Fulham football clubs . He organised and played in many charity football matches throughout England , which were described by the sporting press as being of a very high standard , and he remained an active football player well into his fifties . Robey became associated with cricket by 1895 when he led a team of amateur players for a match at Turney Road in Dulwich . In September 1904 , while appearing in Hull , he was asked by the cricketer Harry Wrathall to take part in a charity cricket match at the Yorkshire County Cricket Club . Robey played so well that Wrathall asked him to return the following Saturday to take part in a professional game . That weekend , while waiting in the pavilion before the game , Robey was approached by an agent for Hull City A.F.C. , who asked the comedian to play in a match that same afternoon . Robey agreed , swapped his cricket flannels for a football kit and played with the team against Nottingham Forest as an inside right .
By 1903 Robey was playing at a semi @-@ professional level . He was signed as an inside forward by Millwall Football Club and scored many goals for them . He also displayed a good level of ability in vigoro , an Australian sport derived from both cricket and baseball which was short @-@ lived in England . Two years later he became a member of the Marylebone Cricket Club and played in minor games for them for many years . He gained a reputation at the club for his comic antics on the field , such as raising his eyebrows at the approaching bowler in an attempt to distract him . The writer Neville Cardus was complimentary about Robey 's cricket prowess and called him " an elegant player " whose performances on the cricket field were as entertaining as they were on the stage . Although a versatile player , Robey thought of himself as a " medium @-@ paced , right @-@ handed bowler " .
Robey was asked to help organise a charity football match in 1907 by friends of the Scottish football trainer James Miller , who had died the previous year . Robey compiled a team of amateur footballers from the theatrical profession and met Miller 's former team Chelsea Football Club at their home ground . The match raised considerable proceeds for Miller 's widow . Robey was proud of the match and joked : " I just wanted to make sure that Chelsea stay in the first division . "
In his spare time , Robey made violins , a hobby that he first took up during his years in Dresden . He became a skilled craftsman of the instrument , although he never intended for them to be played in public . Speaking in the 1960s , the violinist and composer Yehudi Menuhin , who played one of Robey 's violins for a public performance during that decade , called the comedian 's finished instrument " very professional " . He was intrigued by the idea that a man as famous as Robey could produce such a " beautifully finished " instrument , unbeknown to the public . Robey was also an artist , and some of his pen and ink self @-@ caricatures are kept at the National Portrait Gallery , London .
= = = = Oswald Stoll = = = =
Robey 's first high @-@ profile invitation came in the first decade of the 1900s from Hugh Lowther , 5th Earl of Lonsdale , who hired him as entertainment for a party he was hosting at Carlton House Terrace in Westminster . Soon afterwards , the comedian appeared for the first time before royalty when King Edward VII had Robey hired for several private functions . Robey performed a series of songs and monologues and introduced the " Mayor of Mudcumdyke " , all of which was met with much praise and admiration from the royal watchers . He was later hired by Edward 's son , the Prince of Wales ( the future King George V ) , who arranged a performance at Carlton House Terrace for his friend Lord Curzon .
In July 1912 , at the invitation of the impresario Oswald Stoll , Robey took part for the first time in the Royal Command Performance , to which Cotes attributes " one of the prime factors in his continuing popularity " . King George V and Queen Mary were " delighted " with Robey 's comic sketch , in which he performed the " Mayor of Mudcumdyke " in public for the first time . Robey found the royal show to be a less daunting experience than the numerous private command performances that he gave during his career .
At the outbreak of the First World War , Robey wished to enlist in the army but , now in his 40s , he was too old for active service . Instead , he volunteered for the Special Constabulary and raised money for charity through his performances as a comedian . It was not uncommon for him to finish at the theatre at 1 : 00 am and then to patrol as a special constable until 6 : 00 am , where he would frequently help out during zeppelin raids . He combined his civilian duties with work for a volunteer motor transport unit towards the end of the war , in which he served as a lieutenant . He committed three nights a week to the corps while organising performances during the day to benefit war charities . Robey was a strong supporter of the Merchant Navy and thought that they were often overlooked when it came to charitable donations . He raised £ 22 @,@ 000 at a benefit held at the London Coliseum , which he donated in the navy 's favour .
= = = = Film debut and The Bing Boys Are Here = = = =
Robey 's first experience in cinema was in 1913 , with two early sound film shorts : " And Very Nice Too " and " Good Queen Bess " , made in the Kinoplasticon process , where the film was synchronised with phonograph records . The next year , he tried to emulate his music hall colleagues Billy Merson and Charlie Austin , who had set up Homeland Films and found success with the Squibs series of films starring Betty Balfour . Robey met filmmakers from the Burns Film Company , who engaged him in a silent short entitled " George Robey Turns Anarchist " , in which he played a character who fails to blow up the Houses of Parliament . He continued to appear sporadically in film throughout the rest of his career , never achieving more than a modest amount of success .
In 1914 , for the first time in many years , Robey appeared in a Christmas pantomime as a male when he was engaged to play the title role in Sinbad the Sailor ; Fred Emney Sr played the dame role . Although the critics were surprised by the casting , it appealed to audiences , and the scenes featuring Robey and Emney together proved the most memorable . During the war the demand for light entertainment in the English provinces guaranteed Robey frequent bookings and a regular income . His appearances in Manchester , Liverpool , Newcastle and Glasgow were as popular as his annual performances in Birmingham . His wife Ethel accompanied him on these tours and frequently starred alongside him .
By the First World War , music hall entertainment had fallen out of favour with audiences . Theatrical historians blame the music hall 's decline on the increasing salaries of performers and the halls ' inability to present profitably the twenty or thirty acts that the audiences expected to see . Revue appealed to wartime audiences , and Robey decided to capitalise on the medium 's popularity . Stoll offered Robey a lucrative contract in 1916 to appear in the new revue The Bing Boys Are Here at the Alhambra Theatre , London . Dividing his time between three or four music halls a night had become unappealing to the comedian , and he relished the opportunity to appear in a single theatre . He was cast as Lucius Bing opposite Violet Loraine , who played his love interest Emma , and the couple duetted in the show 's signature song " If You Were the Only Girl ( In the World ) " , which became an international success .
This London engagement was a new experience for Robey , who had only been familiar with provincial pantomimes and week @-@ long , one @-@ man comedy shows . Aside from pantomime , he had never taken part in a long @-@ running production , and he had never had to memorise lines precisely or keep to schedules enforced by strict directors and theatre managers . The Bing Boys Are Here ran for 378 performances and occupied the Alhambra for more than a year . The theatrical press praised Robey as " the first actor of the halls " . He made two films towards the end of the war : The Anti @-@ frivolity League in 1916 and Doing His Bit the following year .
= = = = Zig @-@ Zag to Joy Bells = = = =
Robey left the cast of The Bing Boys during its run , in January 1917 , to star at the London Hippodrome in Albert de Courville , Dave Stamper and Gene Buck 's lavishly @-@ staged revue Zig @-@ Zag ! . Robey included a sketch based on his music hall character " The Prehistoric Man " , with Daphne Pollard playing the role of " She of the Tireless Tongue " . In another scene , he played a drunken gentleman who accidentally secures a box at the Savoy Theatre instead of an intended hotel room . The audience appeared unresponsive to the character , so he changed it mid @-@ performance to that of a naive Yorkshire man . The change provoked much amusement , and it became one of the most popular scenes of the show . Zig @-@ Zag ran for 648 performances . Stoll again secured Robey for the Alhambra in 1918 for a sequel , The Bing Boys on Broadway . The show , again co @-@ starring Violet Loraine , matched the popularity of its predecessor and beat the original show 's run with a total of 562 performances .
Robey returned to the London Hippodrome in 1919 where he took a leading role in another hit revue , Joy Bells . Phyllis Bedells took over from Pollard as his stage partner , with Anita Elson and Leon Errol as supporting dancers . Robey played the role of an old @-@ fashioned father who is mystified over the changing traditions after the First World War . He interpolated two music hall sketches : " No , No , No " centred on turning innocent , everyday sayings into suggestive and provocative maxims , and " The Rest Cure " told the story of a pre @-@ op hospital patient who hears worrying stories of malpractice from his well @-@ meaning friends who visit him . In the Italian newspaper La Tribuna , the writer Emilio Cecchi commented : " Robey , just by being Robey , makes us laugh until we weep . We do not want to see either Figaro or Othello ; it is quite enough for Robey to appear in travelling costume and to turn his eyes in crab @-@ like fashion from one side of the auditorium to another . Robey 's aspect in dealing with his audience is paternal and , one might say , apostolic . " Joy Bells ran for 723 performances .
In the early months of 1919 , Robey completed a book of memoirs , My Rest Cure , which was published later that year . During the run of Joy Bells he was awarded the Legion of Honour for raising £ 14 @,@ 000 for the French Red Cross . He declined a knighthood that same year because , according to Cotes , he was worried that the title would distance him from his working @-@ class audiences ; he was appointed a CBE by George V at Buckingham Palace instead . On the morning of the penultimate Joy Bells performance , Robey was invited to Stoll 's London office , where he was offered a role in a new revue at the Alhambra Theatre . On the journey , he met the theatre impresario Sir Alfred Butt , who agreed to pay him £ 100 more , but out of loyalty to Stoll , he declined the offer and resumed his £ 600 a week contract at the Alhambra . On 28 July 1919 , Robey took part in his second Royal Command Performance , at the London Coliseum . He and Loraine sang " If You Were the Only Girl ( In the World ) " .
= = = Inter @-@ war years = = =
= = = = Films and revues of the early 1920s = = = =
A gap in the Alhambra 's schedule allowed Stoll to showcase Robey in a new short film . " George Robey 's Day Off " ( 1919 ) showed the comedian acting out his daily domestic routines to comic effect , but the picture failed at the box office . The British director John Baxter concluded that producers did not know how best to apply Robey 's stage talents to film .
By 1920 variety theatre had become popular in Britain , and Robey had completed the successful transition from music hall to variety star . Pantomime , which relied on its stars to make up much of the script through ad lib , was also beginning to fall out of favour , and his contemporaries were finding it too difficult to create fresh material for every performance ; for Robey , however , the festive entertainment continued to be a lucrative source of employment .
Robey 's first revue of the 1920s was Johnny Jones , which opened on 1 June 1920 at the Alhambra Theatre . The show also featured Ivy St. Helier , Lupino Lane and Eric Blore and carried the advertisement " A Robey salad with musical dressing " . One of the show 's more popular gags was a scene in which Robey picked and ate cherries off St. Helier 's hat , before tossing the stones into the orchestra pit which were then met by loud bangs from the bass drum . A sign of his popularity came in August 1920 when he was depicted in scouting costume for a series of 12 Royal Mail stamps in aid of the Printers Pension Corporation War Orphans and the Prince of Wales Boy Scout Funds .
The revue Robey en Casserole ( 1921 ) was next for Robey , during which he led a troupe of dancers in a musical piece called the " Policemen Ballet " . Each dancer was dressed in a mock police uniform on top and a tutu below . The show was the first failure for the comedian under Stoll 's management . That December Robey appeared in his only London pantomime , Jack and the Beanstalk , at the Hippodrome . His biographer , Peter Cotes , remembered the comedian 's interpretation of Dame Trot as " enormously funny : a bucolic caricature of a woman , sturdy and fruity , leathery and forbidding " and thought that Robey 's comic timing was " in a class of its own . " In March 1922 Robey remained at the Hippodrome in the revue Round in Fifty , a modernised version of Round the World in Eighty Days , which proved to be another hit for the London theatre , and a personal favourite of the comedian .
= = = = Marriage breakdown and foreign tours = = = =
Stoll brought Robey to cinema audiences a further four times during 1923 . The first two films were written with the intention of showcasing the comedian 's pantomime talents : One Arabian Night was a reworking of Aladdin and co @-@ starred Lionelle Howard and Edward O 'Neill , while Harlequinade visited the roots of pantomime . One of Robey 's more notable roles under Stoll was Sancho Panza in Maurice Elvey 's 1923 film Don Quixote , for which he received a fee of £ 700 a week . The amount of time he spent working away from home led to the breakdown of his marriage , and he separated from Ethel in 1923 . He had a brief affair with one of his leading ladies and walked out of the family home .
Robey made a return to the London Hippodrome in 1924 in the revue Leap Year in which he co @-@ starred with Laddie Cliff , Betty Chester and Vera Pearce . Leap Year was set in South Africa , Australia and Canada , and was written to appeal to the tourists who were visiting London from the Commonwealth countries . Robey was much to their tastes , and his rendition of " My Old Dutch " helped the show achieve another long run of 421 performances . Sky High was next and opened at the London Palladium in March 1925 . The chorus dancer Marie Blanche was his co @-@ star , a partnership that caused the gossip columnists to comment on the performers ' alleged romance two years previously . Despite the rumours Blanche continued as his leading lady for the next four years , and Sky High lasted for 309 performances on the West End stage .
The year 1926 was lacking in variety entertainment , a fact largely attributed to the UK general strike that had occurred in May of that year . The strike was unexpected by Robey , who had signed the previous year to star in a series of variety dates for Moss Empires . The contract was lucrative , made more so by the comedian 's willingness to manage his own bookings . He took the show to the provinces under the title of Bits and Pieces and employed a company of 25 artists as well as engineers and support staff . Despite the economic hardships of Britain in 1926 , large numbers of people turned out to see the show . He returned to Birmingham , a city where he was held in great affection , and where he was sure the audiences would embrace his new show . However , censors demanded that he omit the provocative song " I Stopped , I Looked , I Listened " and that he heavily edit the sketch " The Cheat " . The restrictions failed to dampen the audiences ' enthusiasm , and Bits and Pieces enjoyed rave reviews . It ran until Christmas and earned a six @-@ month extension .
In the spring of 1927 Robey embraced the opportunity to tour abroad , when he and his company took Bits and Pieces to South Africa , where it was received favourably . By the time he had left Cape Town , he had played to over 60 @,@ 000 people and had travelled in excess of 15 @,@ 000 miles . Upon his return to England in October , he took Bits and Pieces to Bradford . In August 1928 , Robey and his company travelled to Canada , where they played to packed audiences for three months . It was there that he produced a new revue , Between Ourselves , in Vancouver , which was staged especially for the country 's armed forces . The Canadians were enthusiastic about Robey ; he was awarded the freedom of the city in London , Ontario , made a chieftain of the Sarcee tribe , and was an honorary guest at a cricket match in Edmonton , Alberta . He described the tour as " one of unbroken happiness . " In the late 1920s Robey also wrote and starred in two Phonofilm sound @-@ on @-@ film productions , Safety First ( 1928 ) and Mrs. Mephistopheles ( 1929 ) .
In early 1929 Robey returned to South Africa and then Canada for another tour with Bits and Pieces , after which he started another series of variety dates back in England . Among the towns he visited was Woolwich , where he performed to packed audiences over the course of a week . Here he met the theatre managers Frank and Agnes Littler , with the latter briefly becoming his manager . In 1932 Robey appeared in his first sound film , The Temperance Fête , and followed this with Marry Me , which was , according to his biographer A. E. Wilson , one of the most successful musical films of the comedian 's career . The film tells the story of a sound recordist in a gramophone company who romances a colleague when she becomes the family housekeeper .
By the later months of 1932 , Robey had formed a romantic relationship with the Littlers ' daughter Blanche ( 1897 – 1981 ) , who then took over as his manager . The couple grew close during the filming of Don Quixote , a remake of the comedian 's 1923 success as Sancho Panza . Unlike its predecessor , Don Quixote had an ambitious script , big budget and an authentic foreign setting . Robey , however , resented having to grow a beard for the role and disliked the French climate and gruelling 12 @-@ week filming schedule . He refused to act out his character 's death scene in a farcical way and also objected to the lateness of the " dreadfully banal " scripts , which were often written the night before filming .
= = = = Venture into legitimate theatre = = = =
Until 1932 Robey had never played in legitimate theatre , although he read Shakespeare from an early age . That year he took the part of King Menelaus in Helen ! , which was an English @-@ language adaptation by A. P. Herbert of Offenbach 's operetta La belle Hélène . The show 's producer C. B. Cochran , a longstanding admirer of Robey , engaged a prestigious cast for the production , including Evelyn Laye and W. H. Berry , with choreography by Léonide Massine and sets by Oliver Messel . The operetta opened on 30 January 1932 , becoming the Adelphi Theatre 's most successful show of the year . The critic Harold Conway wrote that while Robey had reached the pinnacle of his career as a variety star , which only required him to rely on his " breezy , cheeky personality " , he had reservations about the comedian 's ability to " integrate himself with the other stars ... to learn many pages of dialogue , and to remember countless cues . "
After the run of Helen ! , Robey briefly resumed his commitments to the variety stage before signing a contract to appear at the Savoy Theatre as Bold Ben Blister in the operetta Jolly Roger , which premiered in March 1933 . The production had a run of bad luck , including an actors ' strike which was caused by Robey 's refusal to join the actors ' union Equity . The dispute was settled when he was included as a co @-@ producer of the show , thus excluding him as a full @-@ time actor . Robey made a substantial donation to the union , and the production went ahead . Despite its troubles , the show was a success and received much praise from the press . Harold Conway of the Daily Mail called the piece " one of the outstanding triumphs of personality witnessed in a London theatre " . Later that year , Robey completed his final autobiography , Looking Back on Life . The literary critic Graham Sutton admired Robey for his honest and frank account , and thought that he was " at his best when most personal " .
= = = = = Shakespearean roles = = = = =
According to Wilson , Robey revered Shakespeare and had an " excellent reading knowledge of the Bard " even though the comedian had never seen a Shakespeare play . As a child , he had committed to memory the " ghost " scene in Hamlet . Writing in 1933 , Cochran expressed the opinion that Robey had been a victim of a largely conservative and " snobbish " attitude from theatre managers , that the comedian was " cut out for Shakespeare " , and that if he had been frequently engaged in playing the Bard 's works , then " Shakespeare would probably have been popular . " In 1934 , the theatre director Sydney Carroll offered Robey the chance to appear as Nick Bottom in A Midsummer Night 's Dream at the Open Air Theatre , Regent 's Park , but he initially declined the offer , citing a hectic schedule , including a conflict with his appearance in that year 's Royal Variety Performance on 8 May . He was also concerned that he would not be taken seriously by legitimate theatre critics and knew that he would not be able to include a comic sketch or to engage in his customary resourceful gagging . In the same year , Robey starred in a film version of the hit musical Chu Chin Chow . The New York Times called him " a lovable and laughable Ali Baba " .
At the start of 1935 Robey accepted his first Shakespearean role , as Falstaff in Henry IV , Part 1 , which surprised the press and worried fans who thought that he might retire the Prime Minister of Mirth . The theatrical press were sceptical of a music hall performer taking on such a distinguished role ; Carroll , the play 's producer , vehemently defended his casting choice . Carroll later admitted taking a gamble on employing Robey but wrote that the comedian " has unlimited courage in challenging criticism and risking his reputation on a venture of this kind ; he takes both his past and his future in both hands and is faced with the alternative of dashing them into the depths or lifting them to a height hitherto undreamt of . " Carroll further opined that " [ Robey ] has never failed in anything he has undertaken . He is one of the most intelligent and capable of actors . "
Henry IV , Part I opened on 28 February at Her Majesty 's Theatre , and Robey proved himself to be a capable Shakespearean actor , though his Shakespearean debut was marred initially by an inability to remember his lines . A journalist from The Daily Express thought that Robey seemed uncomfortable , displayed a halting delivery and was " far from word perfect " . Writing in The Observer , the critic Ivor Brown said of Robey 's portrayal : " In no performance within my memory has the actor been more obviously the afflicted servant of his lines and more obviously the omnipotent master of the situation " . Another journalist , writing in the Daily Mirror , thought that Robey " gave 25 percent of Shakespeare and 75 percent of himself " .
In any case , such was Robey 's popularity in the role that the German theatre and film producer Max Reinhardt declared that , should the opportunity arise for a film version , the comedian would be his perfect choice as Falstaff . Cotes described Robey as having " a great vitality and immense command of the [ role ] . He never faltered , he had to take his audience by the throat and make them attentive at once because he couldn 't play himself in . " Although he was eager to be taken seriously as a legitimate actor , Robey provided a subtle nod in the direction of his comic career by using the wooden cane intended for the Prime Minister of Mirth for the majority of his scenes as Falstaff . The poet John Betjeman responded to the critics ' early scepticism : " Variety artistes are a separate world from the legitimate stage . They are separate too , from ballet , opera , and musical comedy . It is possible for variety artists to appear in all of these . Indeed , no one who saw will ever forget the superb pathos and humour of George Robey 's Falstaff " . Later , in 1935 , Blanche Littler persuaded Robey to accept Carroll 's earlier offer to play Bottom , and the comedian cancelled three weeks ' worth of dates . The press were complimentary of his performance , and he later attributed his success to Littler and her encouragement .
= = = Later career : 1936 – 50 = = =
= = = = Radio and television debut = = = =
Robey made his radio debut in 1936 when he was interviewed for The Spice of Life programme for the BBC . He spoke about his private life and his time spent on the music hall circuit , which he described as the " most enjoyable experience " of his life . The usually reserved Robey admitted that privately he was not a sociable person and that he often grew tired of his audiences while performing on stage , but that he got his biggest thrill from making others laugh . He also declared a love for the outdoors and mentioned that , to relax , he would draw " comic scribbles " of himself as the Prime Minister of Mirth , which he would occasionally give to fans . As a result of the interview he received more than a thousand fan letters from listeners . Wilson thought that Robey 's " perfect diction and intimate manner made him an ideal broadcast speaker " . The press commented favourably on his performance , with one reporter from Variety Life writing : " I doubt whether any speaker other than a stage idol could have used , as Robey did , the first person singular almost incessantly for half an hour without causing something akin to resentment . ... The comedian 's talk was brilliantly conceived and written . "
In the later months of 1936 , Robey repeated his radio success with a thirty @-@ minute programme entitled " Music @-@ Hall " , recorded for American audiences , to honour the tenth birthday of the National Broadcasting Corporation . In it , he presented a montage of his characterisations as well as impressions of other famous acts of the day . A second programme , which he recorded the following year , featured the comedian speaking fondly of cricket and of the many well @-@ known players whom he had met on his frequent visits to the Oval and Lord 's cricket grounds over his fifty @-@ year association .
In the summer of 1938 Robey appeared in the film A Girl Must Live , directed by Carol Reed , in which he played the role of Horace Blount . A report in the Kinematograph Weekly commented that the 69 @-@ year @-@ old comedian was still able to " stand up to the screen by day and variety by night . " A journalist for The Times opined that Robey 's performance as an elderly furrier , the love interest of both Margaret Lockwood and Lilli Palmer , was " a perfect study in bewildered embarrassment " .
Robey made his television debut in August 1938 but was unenthused with the medium and only made rare appearances . The BBC producer Grace Wyndham Goldie was dismayed at how little of his " comic quality " was conveyed on the small screen . Goldie thought that Robey 's comic abilities were not limited to his voice and depended largely on the relation between his facial expressions and his witty words . She felt that he should " be forbidden , by his own angel , if nobody else , to approach the ordinary microphone " . Nonetheless , Goldie remained optimistic about Robey 's future television career . The journalist L. Marsland Gander disagreed and thought that Robey 's methods were " really too slow for television " .
That November , and with his divorce from Ethel finalised , Robey married Blanche Littler , who was more than two decades his junior , at Marylebone Town Hall . At Christmas , he fractured three ribs and bruised his spine when he accidentally fell into the orchestra pit while appearing in the 1938 – 39 pantomime Robinson Crusoe in Birmingham . He attributed the fall to his face mask which gave him a limited view of the stage . The critic Harold Conway was less forgiving , blaming the accident on the comedian 's " lost self @-@ confidence " and opining that the accident was the start of Robey 's professional decline .
= = = = Second World War = = = =
Aware of demand for his act in Australia , Robey conducted a second tour of the country at the start of 1939 . While he was appearing at the Tivoli Theatre in Sydney , war broke out with Germany . Robey returned to England and concentrated his efforts on entertaining to raise money for the war effort . He signed up with the Entertainments National Service Association ( ENSA ) for whom he appeared in a wide range of shows and also in his own one @-@ man engagements . He would sometimes turn up unannounced to perform at hospitals , munition factories , airfields , anti @-@ aircraft posts and other venues where there was an audience of just a few people .
During the 1940s , Robey appeared predominantly in troop concerts as himself but caused controversy by jokingly supporting the Nazis and belittling black people during his act . His intentions were to gently poke fun at the " Little Englanders " , but audiences thought that he was sympathising with Nazism . His jocular view that a defeat for Hitler would mean a victory for bolshevism was highlighted in a series of controversial interviews , which caused him much embarrassment when challenged and which he regretted afterwards . His views became known in the press as " Robeyisms " , which drew increasing criticism , but his Prime Minister of Mirth remained popular , and he used the character to divert the negative publicity . Cotes wrote that Robey was not a politician , merely a jingoist , who " lived long enough to feel [ that ] his little @-@ Englander outlook [ was causing him ] acute embarrassment , and his army of admirers deep dismay . "
Robey starred in the film Salute John Citizen in 1942 , directed by Maurice Elvey and co @-@ starring Edward Rigby and Stanley Holloway , about the effects that the war had on a normal British family . In a 1944 review of the film , Robey was described as being " convincing in [ an ] important role " but the film itself had " dull moments in the simple tale " . That Christmas , Robey travelled to Bristol , where he starred in the pantomime Robinson Crusoe . A further four films followed in 1943 , one of which promoted war propaganda while the other two displayed the popular medium of cine @-@ variety . Cine @-@ variety introduced Robey to the Astoria in Finsbury Park , London , a venue which was used to huge audiences and big @-@ name acts and was described as " a super @-@ cinema " .
During the early months of 1944 , Robey returned to the role of Falstaff when he appeared in the film version of Henry V , produced by Eagle @-@ Lion Films . The American film critic Bosley Crowther had mixed opinions of the film . Writing in The New York Times in 1946 , he thought that it showcased " a fine group of British film craftsmen and actors " , who contributed to " a stunningly brilliant and intriguing screen spectacle " . Despite that , he considered the film 's additional screenplay poor and called Falstaff 's deathbed scene " non @-@ essential and just a bit grotesque . " Late in 1944 , he appeared in Burnley in a show entitled Vive Paree alongside Janice Hart and Frank O 'Brian . In 1945 , Robey starred in two minor film roles , as " Old Sam " in The Trojan Brothers , a short comedy film in which two actors experience various problems as a pantomime horse , and as " Vogel " in the musical romance Waltz Time . He spent 1947 touring England , while the following spring he undertook a provincial tour of Frederick Bowyer 's fairy play The Windmill Man , which he also co @-@ produced with his wife .
= = = Last years = = =
= = = = Decline in health = = = =
In June 1951 , now aged 81 , Robey starred in a midnight gala performance at the London Palladium in aid of the family of Sid Field who had died that year . For the finale , Robey performed " I Stopped , I Looked , I Listened " and " If You Were the Only Girl in the World " ; the rest of the three @-@ hour performance featured celebrities from the radio , television and film mediums . The American comedian Danny Kaye , who was also engaged for the performance , called Robey a " great , great artist " . The same month , Robey returned to Birmingham , where he opened a garden party at St. Mary and St. Ambrose Church , a venue in which he had appeared at the beginning of his career . On 25 September he appeared for the BBC on an edition of the radio series Desert Island Discs for which he chose among others " Mondo ladro " , Falstaff 's rueful complaint about the wicked world in Verdi 's opera Falstaff . For the rest of the year Robey made a number of personal appearances opening fetes and attending charity events .
Robey took part in the Festival of Variety for the BBC in 1951 , which paid tribute to the British music hall . For his performance , he adopted an ad @-@ lib style rather than use a script . His wife sat at the side of the stage , ready to provide support should he need it . According to Wilson , Robey 's turn earned the loudest applause of the evening . The following month Robey undertook a long provincial tour in the variety show Do You Remember ? under the management of Bernard Delfont . After an evening 's performance in Sheffield , he was asked by a local newspaper reporter if he considered retiring . The comedian quipped : " Me retire ? Good gracious , I 'm too old for that . I could not think of starting a new career at my age ! " In December , he opened the Lansbury Lodge home for retired cricketers in Poplar , East London ; he considered the ceremony to be one of the " happiest memories of his life . "
By early 1952 , Robey was becoming noticeably frail , and he lost interest in many of his sporting pastimes . Instead , he stayed at home and drew comic sketches featuring the Prime Minister of Mirth . In May he filmed The Pickwick Papers , in which he played the role of old Tony Weller , a part which he had initially turned down on health grounds . The following year , and in aid of the games fund , he starred as Clown in a short pantomime at the Olympic Variety Show at the Victoria Palace Theatre . Organisers asked for him to appear in the Prime Minister of Mirth costume instead of the usual clown garb , a request the comedian was happy to fulfil .
= = = = Knighthood and death = = = =
In the early months of 1954 , Robey accepted a knighthood which was conferred on him by Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother at Buckingham Palace . During the following weeks , his health declined ; he became confined to a wheelchair and spent the majority of his time at home under the care of his wife . In May he opened a British Red Cross fete in Seaford , East Sussex , and , a month later , made his last public appearance , on television as a panellist in the English version of The Name 's the Same . Wilson called Robey 's performance " pathetic " and thought that he appeared with only " a hint of his old self " . By June he had become housebound and quietly celebrated his 85th birthday surrounded by family ; visiting friends were organised into appointments by his wife Blanche , but theatrical colleagues were barred in case they caused the comedian too much excitement .
Robey suffered a stroke on 20 November and remained in a semi @-@ coma for just over a week . He died on 29 November 1954 at his home in Saltdean , East Sussex , and was cremated at the Downs Crematorium in Brighton . Blanche continued to live on the Sussex coast until her death at the age of 83 in 1981 .
= = Tributes and legacy = =
News of Robey 's death prompted tributes from the press , who printed illustrations , anecdotes and reminders of his stage performances and charitable activities . " Knighthood notwithstanding , George Robey long ago made himself a place as an entertainer and artist of the people " , declared a reporter from the Daily Worker , while a critic for the Daily Mail wrote : " Personality has become a wildly misused word since his heyday , but George Robey breathed it in every pore . " In Robey 's obituary in The Spectator , Compton Mackenzie called the comedian " one of the last great figures of the late Victorian and Edwardian music @-@ hall . "
In December 1954 , a memorial service for Robey was held at St Paul 's Cathedral . The diverse congregation consisted of royalty , actors , hospital workers , stage personnel , students and taxi drivers , among others . The Bishop of Stepney , Joost de Blank , said : " We have lost a great English music hall artist , one of the greatest this country has known in the late nineteenth and twentieth centuries . " Performers gave readings at the service , including the comedian Leslie Henson , who called Robey " that great obstinate bullock of variety " . In his lifetime , Robey helped to earn more than £ 2 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 for charitable causes , with £ 500 @,@ 000 of that figure being raised during the First World War . In recognition of his efforts , the Merchant Seaman 's Convalescent Home in Limpsfield , Surrey , named a ward after him , and managerial staff at the Royal Sussex Hospital later bought a new dialysis machine in his memory . In the 1960s , a public house in Finsbury Park , North London , was named " The George Robey " .
Robey 's comic delivery influenced other comedians , but opinions of his effectiveness as a comic vary . The radio personality Robb Wilton acknowledged learning a lot from him , and although he felt that Robey " was not very funny " , he could time a comic situation perfectly . Similarly , the comedian Charlie Chester admitted that , as a comedian , Robey " still didn 't make me laugh , " although he described him as " a legend " whose Prime Minister of Mirth character used a beautiful make @-@ up design . Robey 's biographer Peter Cotes disagreed with these assessments , praising the comedian 's " droll like humour " and comparing it in greatness to Chaplin 's miming and Grock 's clowning . Cotes wrote : " His Mayor , Professor of Music , Saracen , Dame Trot , Queen of Hearts , District Nurse , Pro 's Landlady , and of course his immortal Prime Minister , were all absurdities : rich , outsize in prim and pride , gloriously disapproving bureaucratic petty officialdom at its worst , best and funniest . "
Violet Loraine called her former co @-@ star " one of the greatest comedians the world has ever known " , while the theatrical producer Basil Dean opined that " George was a great artist , one of the last and [ sic ] the really big figures of his era . They don 't breed them like that now . " The actor John Gielgud , who remembered meeting Robey at the Alhambra Theatre in 1953 , called the comedian " charming , gracious [ and ] one of the few really great ones " of the music hall era . Upon his death , Robey 's costume for the Prime Minister of Mirth was donated to the London Museum , where it is on permanent display .
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= Jack Parsons ( rocket engineer ) =
John Whiteside Parsons ( born Marvel Whiteside Parsons ; October 2 , 1914 – June 17 , 1952 ) , better known as Jack Parsons , was an American rocket engineer and rocket propulsion researcher , chemist , and Thelemite occultist . Associated with the California Institute of Technology ( Caltech ) , Parsons was one of the principal founders of both the Jet Propulsion Laboratory ( JPL ) and the Aerojet Engineering Corporation . He invented the first rocket engine using a castable , composite rocket propellant , and pioneered the advancement of both liquid @-@ fuel and solid @-@ fuel rockets .
Born in Los Angeles , California , Parsons was raised by a wealthy family on Orange Grove Avenue in Pasadena . Inspired by science fiction literature , he developed an interest in rocketry in his childhood and in 1928 began amateur rocket experiments with school friend Ed Forman . He dropped out of Pasadena Junior College and Stanford University due to financial difficulties during the Great Depression , but in 1934 he united with Forman and graduate student Frank Malina to form the Caltech @-@ affiliated GALCIT Rocket Research Group , supported by Guggenheim Aeronautical Laboratory chairman Theodore von Kármán . In 1939 the GALCIT Group gained funding from the National Academy of Sciences ( NAS ) to work on Jet @-@ Assisted Take Off ( JATO ) for the U.S. military . Following American entry into World War II , in 1942 they founded Aerojet to develop and sell their JATO technology , while the GALCIT Group became JPL in 1943 .
After a brief involvement with Marxism in 1939 , Parsons converted to Thelema , the English occultist Aleister Crowley 's new religious movement . In 1941 , alongside his first wife Helen Northrup , Parsons joined the Agape Lodge , the Californian branch of the Thelemite Ordo Templi Orientis ( O.T.O. ) . At Crowley 's bidding , he replaced Wilfred Talbot Smith as its leader in 1942 and ran the Lodge from his mansion on Orange Grove Avenue . Parsons was expelled from JPL and Aerojet in 1944 due to the Lodge 's infamy and allegedly illicit activities , along with his hazardous workplace conduct . In 1945 Parsons separated from Helen after having an affair with her sister Sara ; when Sara left him for L. Ron Hubbard , he conducted the Babalon Working , a series of rituals designed to invoke the Thelemic goddess Babalon to Earth . He and Hubbard continued the procedure with Marjorie Cameron , whom Parsons married in 1946 . After Hubbard and Sara defrauded him of his life savings , Parsons resigned from the O.T.O. and went through various jobs while acting as a consultant for the Israeli rocket program . Amid the climate of McCarthyism , he was accused of espionage and left unable to work in rocketry . In 1952 , Parsons died at the age of 37 in a home laboratory explosion that attracted national media attention ; the police ruled it an accident , but many associates suspected suicide or assassination .
Parsons ' occult and libertarian polemical writings were published posthumously , with Western esoteric and countercultural circles citing him as one of the most significant figures in propagating Thelema across North America . Although academic interest in his scientific career was originally negligible , in subsequent decades historians came to recognize Parsons ' contributions to rocket engineering . For these innovations , his advocacy of space exploration and human spaceflight , and his role in the founding of JPL and Aerojet , Parsons is regarded as among the most important figures in the history of the U.S. space program . He has been the subject of several biographies and fictionalized portrayals .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life : 1914 – 34 = = =
Marvel Whiteside Parsons was born on October 2 , 1914 , at the Good Samaritan Hospital in Los Angeles . His parents , Ruth Virginia Whiteside ( c . 1893 – 1952 ) and Marvel H. Parsons ( c . 1894 – 1947 ) , had moved to California from Massachusetts the previous year , purchasing a house on Scarf Street in downtown Los Angeles . Although their son was his father 's namesake , he was known in the household as Jack . Their marriage broke down soon after Jack 's birth , when Ruth discovered that his father had made numerous visits to a prostitute , and she filed for divorce in March 1915 . Parsons ' father returned to Massachusetts after being publicly exposed as an adulterer , with Ruth forbidding him from having any contact with Jack . Parsons ' father would later join the armed forces , reaching the rank of major , and marry a woman with whom he had a son named Charles — a half @-@ brother whom Jack would only meet once . Although she retained her ex @-@ husband 's surname , Ruth started calling her son John ; many friends throughout his life knew him as Jack . Ruth 's parents Walter and Carrie Whiteside moved to California to be with Jack and their daughter , using their wealth to buy an up @-@ market house on Orange Grove Avenue in Pasadena — known locally as " Millionaire 's Mile " — where they could live together . Jack was surrounded by domestic servants . Having few friends , he lived a solitary childhood and spent much time reading ; he took a particular interest in works of mythology , Arthurian legend , and the Arabian Nights . Through the works of Jules Verne he became interested in science fiction and a keen reader of pulp magazines like Amazing Stories , which led to his early interest in rocketry .
At age twelve , Parsons began attending Washington Junior High School , where he performed poorly — something biographer George Pendle attributed to undiagnosed dyslexia — and was bullied for his upper @-@ class status and perceived effeminacy . Although unpopular , he formed a strong friendship with Edward Forman , a boy from a poor working class family who defended him from bullies and shared his interest in science fiction and rocketry , with the well @-@ read Parsons enthralling Forman with his literary prowess . In 1928 the pair — adopting the Latin motto per aspera ad astra ( through hardship to the stars ) — began engaging in homemade gunpowder @-@ based rocket experiments in the nearby Arroyo Seco canyon , as well as the Parsons family 's back garden , which left it pockmarked with craters from explosive test failures . They incorporated commonly available fireworks such as cherry bombs into their rockets , and Parsons suggested using glue as a binding agent to reduce the rocket fuel 's volatility . This research became more complex when they began using materials such as aluminium foil to enhance the castability of the gunpowder . Parsons had also begun to investigate occultism , and performed a ritual intended to invoke the Devil into his bedroom ; he worried that the invocation was successful and was frightened into ceasing these activities . In 1929 he began attending John Muir High School , where he maintained an insular friendship with Forman and was a keen participant in the sports of fencing and archery . After receiving poor school results , Parsons ' mother sent him away to study at a private boarding school in San Diego — the Brown Military Academy for Boys — but he was expelled for blowing up the toilets .
The Parsons family spent the summer of 1929 on a tour of Europe before returning to Pasadena , where they moved into a house on San Rafael Avenue . With the onset of the Great Depression their fortune began to dwindle , and in July 1931 Jack 's grandfather Walter died . Parsons began studying at the privately run University School , a liberal institution that took an unconventional approach to teaching . He flourished academically , becoming editor of the school 's newspaper El Universitano and winning an award for literary excellence , while teachers that had trained at the nearby California Institute of Technology ( Caltech ) honed his attentions on the study of chemistry . With the family 's financial difficulties deepening , Parsons began working during weekends and school holidays at the offices of the Hercules Powder Company , where he learned more about explosives and their potential use in rocket propulsion . He and Forman continued to independently explore the subject in their spare time , building and testing different rockets — sometimes with materials that Parsons had stolen from work . Parsons soon constructed a solid @-@ fuel rocket engine , and with Forman corresponded with pioneer rocket engineers including Robert H. Goddard , Hermann Oberth and Konstantin Tsiolkovsky , and Germans Willy Ley and Wernher von Braun . Parsons and von Braun had hours of telephone conversations about rocketry in their respective countries as well as their own research .
Graduating from University School in the summer of 1933 , Parsons moved with his mother and grandmother to a more modest house on St. John Avenue , where he continued to pursue his interests in literature and poetry . In the autumn he enrolled in Pasadena Junior College with the hope of earning an associate degree in physics and chemistry , but dropped out after only a term because of his financial situation and he took up permanent employment at the Hercules Powder Company . His employers then sent him to work at their manufacturing plant in Pinole on San Francisco Bay , where he earned a relatively high wage of $ 100 a month ; however , he was plagued by headaches caused by exposure to nitroglycerin . He saved money in the hope of continuing his academic studies and began a degree in chemistry at Stanford University , but again found the tuition fees unaffordable and returned to Pasadena .
= = = GALCIT Rocket Research Group and the Kynette trial : 1934 – 38 = = =
In the hope of gaining access to the state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art resources of Caltech to use in their rocketry research , Parsons and Forman attended a lecture on the work of Austrian rocket engineer Eugen Sänger and hypothetical above @-@ stratospheric aircraft by the institute 's William Bollay — a PhD student specializing in rocket @-@ powered aircraft — and approached him to express their interest in designing a liquid @-@ fuel rocket motor . Bollay redirected them to another PhD student named Frank Malina , a mathematician and mechanical engineer composing a thesis on rocket propulsion who shared their interests and soon befriended the pair . Parsons , Forman , and Malina applied for funding from Caltech together ; they did not mention that their ultimate objective was to develop rockets for space exploration , realizing that most of the scientific establishment then relegated such ideas to science fiction . While Caltech 's Clark Blanchard Millikan immediately rebuffed them , Malina 's doctoral advisor Theodore von Kármán saw more promise in their proposal and agreed to allow them to operate under the auspices of the university 's Guggenheim Aeronautical Laboratory ( GALCIT ) . Naming themselves the GALCIT Rocket Research Group , they gained access to Caltech 's specialist equipment , though the economics of the Great Depression left von Kármán unable to finance them .
The trio focused their distinct skills on collaborative rocket development ; Parsons was the chemist , Forman the machinist , and Malina the technical theoretician . Malina wrote in 1968 that the self @-@ educated Parsons " lacked the discipline of a formal higher education , [ and ] had an uninhibited and fruitful imagination . " The informally trained Parsons and Forman who , as described by Geoffrey A. Landis , " were eager to try whatever idea happened to spring to mind " , contrasted with the approach of Malina , who insisted on the need for scientific discipline as informed by von Kármán . Landis writes that their creativity , however , " kept Malina focused toward building actual rocket engines , not just solving equations on paper " . Sharing socialist values , they operated on an egalitarian basis ; Malina taught the others about scientific procedure and they taught him about the practical elements of rocketry . They often socialized , smoking marijuana and drinking , while Malina and Parsons set about writing a semiautobiographical science fiction screenplay they planned to pitch to Hollywood with strong anti @-@ capitalist and pacifist themes .
Parsons had met Helen Northup at a local church dance and proposed marriage in July 1934 . She accepted and they were married in April 1935 at the Little Church of the Flowers in Forest Lane Memorial Park , Glendale , before undertaking a brief honeymoon in San Diego . They moved into a house on South Terrace Drive , Pasadena , while Parsons gained employment for the explosives manufacturer Halifax Powder Company at their facility in Saugus . Much to Helen 's dismay , Parsons spent most of his wages funding the GALCIT Rocket Research Group . For extra money he manufactured nitroglycerin in their home , constructing a home laboratory on their front porch , and at one point he pawned Helen 's engagement ring and would often ask her family for loans .
Malina recounted that " Parsons and Forman were not too pleased with an austere program that did not include at least the launching of model rockets " , but the Group reached the consensus of developing a working static rocket @-@ motor before embarking on more complex research . They contacted liquid @-@ fuel rocket pioneer Robert H. Goddard and he invited Malina to his facility in Roswell , New Mexico , but he was not interested in cooperating — reticent about sharing his research and having been subjected to widespread derision for his work in rocketry . They were instead joined by Caltech graduate students Apollo M. O. " Amo " Smith , Carlos C. Wood , Mark Muir Mills , Fred S. Miller , William C. Rockefeller , and Rudolph Schott ; Schott was relied upon for the use of his pickup truck to transport equipment . Their first liquid @-@ fuel motor test took place near the Devil 's Gate Dam in the Arroyo Seco on Halloween 1936 . Parsons ' biographer John Carter described the layout of the contraption as showing
oxygen flowing from one side , with methyl alcohol ( the fuel ) and nitrogen flowing from the other side . Water cooled the rocket during the burn . Thrust pulled down a spring which measured force . The deflection of the spring measured the force applied to it . A small diamond tip on the apparatus scratched a glass plate to mark the furthest point of deflection . The rocket and mount were protected by sandbags , with the tanks ( and the experimenters ) well away from it .
Three attempts to fire the rocket failed ; on the fourth the oxygen line was accidentally ignited and perilously billowed fire at the Group , but they viewed this experience as formative . They continued their experiments throughout the final quarter of 1936 ; after the final test was successfully completed in January 1937 von Kármán agreed that they could perform their future experiments at an exclusive rocket testing facility on campus .
In April 1937 Caltech mathematician Qian Xuesen ( a Chinese citizen ) joined the Group . Several months later Weld Arnold , a Caltech laboratory assistant who worked as the Group 's official photographer , also joined . The main reason for Arnold 's appointment to this position was his provision of a donation to the Group on behalf of an anonymous benefactor whose identity was never revealed . They became well known on campus , earning the moniker of the " Suicide Squad " for the dangerous nature of some of their experiments and attracting attention from the local press . Parsons himself gained further media publicity when he appeared as an expert explosives witness in the trial of Captain Earl Kynette , the head of police intelligence in Los Angeles who was accused of conspiring to set a car bomb in the attempted murder of private investigator Harry Raymond , a former LAPD detective who was fired after whistleblowing against police corruption . When Kynette was convicted largely on Parsons ' testimony , which included his forensic reconstruction of the car bomb and its explosion , his identity as an expert scientist in the public eye was established despite his lack of a university education . While working at Caltech , Parsons was admitted to evening courses in chemistry at the University of Southern California ( USC ) , but distracted by his GALCIT workload he attended sporadically and received unexceptional grades .
By early 1938 the Group had made their static rocket motor , which originally burned for three seconds , run for over a minute . In May that year , Parsons was invited by Forrest J Ackerman to lecture on his rocketry work at Chapter Number 4 of the Los Angeles Science Fiction League ( LASFL ) . Although he never joined the society , he occasionally attended their talks , on one occasion conversing with a teenage Ray Bradbury . Another scientist to become involved in the GALCIT project was Sidney Weinbaum , a Jewish refugee from Europe who was a vocal Marxist ; he led Parsons , Malina , and Qian in their creation of a largely secretive communist discussion group at Caltech , which became known as Professional Unit 122 of the Pasadena Communist Party . Although Parsons subscribed to the People 's Daily World and joined the American Civil Liberties Union ( ACLU ) , he refused to join the American Communist Party , causing a break in his and Weinbaum 's friendship . This coupled with the need to focus on paid employment led to the disintegration of much of the Rocket Research Group , leaving only its three founding members by late 1938 .
= = = Embracing Thelema ; advancing JATO and foundation of Aerojet : 1939 – 42 = = =
In January 1939 John and Frances Baxter , a brother and sister who had befriended Jack and Helen Parsons , took Jack to the Church of Thelema in Winona Boulevard , Hollywood , where he witnessed the performance of The Gnostic Mass . Notable attendees of the church had included Hollywood actor John Carradine and gay rights activist Harry Hay . Parsons was intrigued , having already heard of Thelema 's founder and Outer Head of the Ordo Templi Orientis ( O.T.O. ) , Aleister Crowley , after reading a copy of Crowley 's text Konx om Pax ( 1907 ) .
Parsons was introduced to leading members Regina Kahl , Jane Wolfe , and Wilfred Talbot Smith at the mass . Feeling both " repulsion and attraction " for Smith , Parsons continued to sporadically attend the Church 's events for a year . He continued to read Crowley 's works , which increasingly interested him , and encouraged Helen to read them . Parsons came to believe in the reality of magic — or magick in Thelemic terms — as a force that could be explained through quantum physics . He tried to interest his friends and acquaintances in Thelema , taking science fiction writers Jack Williamson and Cleve Cartmill to a performance of The Gnostic Mass . Although they were unimpressed , Parsons was more successful with Grady Louis McMurtry , a young Caltech student whom he had befriended , as well as McMurtry 's fiancée Claire Palmer , and Helen 's sister Sara " Betty " Northrup .
Jack and Helen were initiated into the Agape Lodge , the renamed Church of Thelema , in February 1941 . Parsons adopted the Thelemic motto of Thelema Obtenteum Proedero Amoris Nuptiae , a Latin mistranslation of " The establishment of Thelema through the rituals of love " . The initials of this motto spelled out T.O.P.A.N. , also serving as the declaration " To Pan " . Commenting on Parsons ' errors of translation , in jest Crowley said that " the motto which you mention is couched in a language beyond my powers of understanding " . Parsons also adopted the Thelemic title Frater T.O.P.A.N — with T.O.P.A.N represented in Kabbalistic numerology as 210 — the name with which he frequently signed letters to occult associates — while Helen became known as Soror Grimaud . Smith wrote to Crowley claiming that Parsons was " a really excellent man ... He has an excellent mind and much better intellect than myself ... JP is going to be very valuable " . Wolfe wrote to German O.T.O. representative Karl Germer that Parsons was " an A1 man ... Crowleyesque in attainment as a matter of fact " , and mooted Parsons as a potential successor to Crowley himself as Outer Head of the Order . Crowley concurred with such assessments , informing Smith that Parsons " is the most valued member of the whole Order , with no exception ! "
At von Kármán 's suggestion , Malina approached the National Academy of Sciences ( NAS ) Committee on Army Air Corps Research to request funding for research into what they referred to as " jet propulsion " , a term chosen to avoid the stigma attached to rocketry . The military were interested in jet propulsion as a means of getting aircraft quickly airborne where there was insufficient room for a full @-@ length runway , and gave the Rocket Research Group $ 1 @,@ 000 to put together a proposal on the feasibility of Jet @-@ Assisted Take Off ( JATO ) by June 1939 , making Parsons et al. the first U.S. government @-@ sanctioned rocket research group . Since their formation in 1934 , they had also performed experiments involving model , black powder motor @-@ propelled multistage rockets . In a research paper submitted to the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics ( AIAA ) , Parsons reported these rockets reaching velocities of 4 @,@ 875 miles per hour , thereby demonstrating the potential of solid fuels as being significantly more effective than liquid types primarily preferred by researchers such as Goddard . In light of this progress , Caltech and the GALCIT Group received an additional $ 10 @,@ 000 rocketry research grant from the AIAA .
Although a quarter of their funding went on repairing damage to Caltech buildings caused by their experiments , in June 1940 they submitted a report to the NAS in which they showed the feasibility of the project for the development of JATO and requested $ 100 @,@ 000 to continue ; however , they only received $ 22 @,@ 000 . Now known as GALCIT Project Number 1 , they continued to be ostracized by other Caltech scientists who grew increasingly irritated by their accidents and noise pollution , and were made to relocate their experiments back to the Arroyo Seco , at a site with unventilated , corrugated iron sheds that served as both research facilities and administrative offices . It was here that JPL would be founded . Parsons and Forman 's rocket experiments were the cover story of the August 1940 edition of Popular Mechanics , in which the pair discussed the prospect of rockets being able to ascend above Earth 's atmosphere and orbit around it for research purposes , as well as reaching the Moon .
For the JATO project , they were joined by Caltech mathematician Martin Summerfield and 18 workers supplied by the Works Progress Administration . Former colleagues like Qian were prevented from returning to the project by the Federal Bureau of Investigation ( FBI ) , who ensured the secrecy of the operation and restricted the involvement of foreign nationals and political extremists . The FBI was satisfied that Parsons was not a Marxist but were concerned when Thelemite friend Paul Seckler used Parsons ' gun in a drunken car hijacking , for which Seckler was imprisoned in San Quentin State Prison for two years . Englishman George Emerson replaced Arnold as the Group 's official photographer .
The Group 's aim was to find a replacement for black @-@ powder rocket motors — units consisting of charcoal , sulphur and potassium nitrate with dectin as a binding agent — the volatility of which frequently resulted in explosions damaging military aircraft . The solid JATO fuel invented by Parsons consisted of amide , corn starch , and ammonium nitrate bound together in the JATO unit with glue and blotting paper . It was codenamed GALCIT @-@ 27 , implying the previous invention of 26 new fuels . The first JATO tests using an Ercoupe plane took place in late July 1941 ; though effectively aiding propulsion , the units frequently exploded and damaged the aircraft . Parsons theorized that this was because the ammonium nitrate became dangerously combustible following overnight storage , during which temperature and consistency changes had resulted in a chemical imbalance . Parsons and Malina accordingly devised a method in which they would fill the JATOs with the fuel in the early mornings shortly before the tests , enduring sleep deprivation to do so . On August 21 , 1941 , Navy Captain Homer J. Boushey , Jr . — watched by such figures as Clark Millikan and William F. Durand — piloted the JATO @-@ equipped Ercoupe at the March Air Force Base in Moreno Valley , California . It proved a success and reduced takeoff distance by 30 % , but one of the JATOs partially exploded . Over the following weeks 62 further tests took place , and the NAS increased their grant to $ 125 @,@ 000 . During a series of static experiments , an exploding JATO did significant damage to the fuselage in the Ercoupe 's tail ; one observer optimistically noted that " at least it wasn 't a big hole " , but necessary repairs delayed their efforts .
The military ordered a flight test using liquid fuel rather than the pre @-@ existing solid fuel in early 1942 . Upon the United States ' entry into the Second World War in December 1941 , the Group realized they could be drafted directly into military service if they failed to provide viable JATO technology for the military . Informed by their left @-@ wing politics , aiding the war effort against Nazi Germany and the Axis powers was as much of a moral vocation to Parsons , Forman and Malina as it was a practical one . Parsons , Summerfield and the GALCIT workers focused on the task and found success with a combination of gasoline with red fuming nitric acid as its oxidizer — with the latter , suggested by Parsons , proving to be an effective substitute for liquid oxygen . The testing of this fuel resulted in another calamity , however , when the testing rocket motor exploded ; the fire , containing iron shed fragments and shrapnel inexplicably left the experimenters unscathed . Malina solved the problem by replacing the gasoline with aniline , resulting in a successful test launch of a JATO @-@ equipped A @-@ 20A plane at the Mura Auxiliary Air Field in the Mojave Desert . Providing a thrust five times more powerful than GALCIT @-@ 27 , and again reducing takeoff distance by 30 % , Malina wrote to his parents that " We now have something that really works and we should be able to help give the Fascists hell ! "
The Group then agreed to produce and sell 60 JATO engines to the United States Army Air Corps . To do so they formed the Aerojet Engineering Corporation in March 1942 , into which Parsons , Forman , Malina , von Kármán , and Summerfield each invested $ 250 , opening their offices on Colorado Boulevard and bringing in Amo Smith as their engineer . Andrew G. Haley was recruited by von Kármán as their lawyer and treasurer . Although Aerojet was a for @-@ profit operation that provided technology for military means , the founders ' mentality was rooted in the ideal of using rockets for peaceful space exploration . As Haley recounted von Kármán requesting : " we will make the rockets — you must make the corporation and obtain the money . Later on you will have to see that we all behave well in outer space . "
Despite these successes , Parsons — project engineer of Aerojet 's Solid Fuel Department — remained motivated to address the malfunctions observed during the Ercoupe tests . In June 1942 — assisted by Mills and Miller — he focused his attention on developing an effective method of restricted burning when using solid rocket fuel , as the military demanded JATOs that could provide over 100 pounds of thrust without any risk of exploding . Although solid fuels such as GALCIT @-@ 27 were less volatile than their liquid counterparts , they were disfavored for military JATO use as they provided less immediate thrust and did not have the versatility of being turned on and off mid @-@ flight . Parsons tried to resolve GALCIT @-@ 27 's volatility issue with GACLIT @-@ 46 , which replaced the former 's ammonium nitrate with guanidine nitrate . To avoid the problems seen with ammonium nitrate , he had GALCIT @-@ 46 supercooled and then superheated prior to testing . When it failed the test , he realized that the fuel 's binding black powders rather than the oxidizers which had resulted in their volatility , and in June that year had the idea of using liquidized asphalt as an appropriate binding agent with potassium perchlorate as its oxidizer .
Malina recounted that Parsons was inspired to use asphalt by the ancient incendiary weapon Greek fire , while in a 1982 talk for the International Association of Astronomical Artists Captain Boushey stated that Parsons experienced an epiphany after watching manual workers using molten asphalt to fix tiles onto a roof . Known as GALCIT @-@ 53 , this fuel proved to be significantly less volatile than the Group 's earlier concoctions , fulfilling Parsons ' aim of creating a restricted @-@ burn rocket fuel inside a castable container , and providing a thrust 427 % more powerful than that of GALCIT @-@ 27 . This set a precedent which according to his biographer John Carter " changed the future of rocket technology " : the thermoplastic asphalt casting — durable in all climates — allowing for mass @-@ production and indefinite storage of the Group 's invention and transforming solid @-@ fuel agents into a safe and viable form of rocket propulsion . Plasticized variants of Parsons ' solid @-@ fuel design — invented by JPL 's Charles Bartley — were later used by NASA in Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Boosters and by the Strategic Air Command in Polaris , Poseidon and Minuteman intercontinental ballistic missiles .
= = = Foundation of JPL and leading the Agape Lodge : 1942 – 44 = = =
Aerojet 's first two contracts were from the U.S. Navy ; the Bureau of Aeronautics requested a solid @-@ fuel JATO and the Wilbur Wright Field requested a liquid @-@ fuel unit . The Air Corps had requested two thousand JATOs from Aerojet by late 1943 , committing $ 256 @,@ 000 toward Parsons ' solid @-@ fuel type . Despite this drastically increased turnover , the company continued to operate informally and remained intertwined with the GALCIT project . Caltech astronomer Fritz Zwicky was brought in as head of the company 's research department , and Haley replaced von Kármán as Aerojet chairman and imposed payroll cuts instead of reducing JATO output ; the alternative was to cut staff numbers while maintaining more generous salaries , but Haley 's priority was Aerojet 's contribution to the war effort . However , company heads including Parsons were exempted from this austerity , drawing the ire of many personnel .
Parsons ' newfound credentials and financial security gave him the opportunity to travel more widely throughout the U.S. as an ambassador for Aerojet , meeting with other rocket enthusiasts . In New York he met with Karl Germer , the head of the O.T.O. in North America and in Washington , D.C. he met Poet Laureate Joseph Auslander , donating some of Crowley 's poetry books to the Library of Congress . He also became a regular at the Mañana Literary Society , which met in Laurel Canyon at the home of Parsons ' friend Robert A. Heinlein and included science fiction writers including Cleve Cartmill , Jack Williamson , and Anthony Boucher . Among Parsons ' favorite works of fiction was Williamson 's Darker Than You Think , a novelette published in the fantasy magazine Unknown in 1940 , which inspired his later occult workings . Boucher used Parsons as a partial basis for the character of Hugo Chantrelle in his murder mystery Rocket to the Morgue ( 1942 ) .
Helen went away for a period in June 1941 , during which Parsons , encouraged to do so by the sexually permissive attitude of the O.T.O. , began a sexual relationship with her 17 @-@ year @-@ old sister , Sara . Upon Helen 's return , Sara asserted that she was Parsons ' new wife , and Parsons himself admitted that he found Sara more sexually attractive than Helen . Conflicted in her feelings , Helen sought comfort in Smith and began a relationship with him that would last for the rest of his life ; the four remained friends . The two couples , along with a number of other Thelemites ( some of whom with their children ) , relocated to 1003 South Orange Grove Avenue , an American Craftsman @-@ style mansion . They all contributed to the rent of $ 100 a month and lived communally in what replaced Winona Boulevard as the new base of the Agape Lodge , maintaining an allotment and slaughtering their own livestock for meat as well as blood rituals . Parsons decorated his new room with a copy of the Stele of Revealing , a statue of Pan , and his collection of swords and daggers . He converted the garage and laundry room into a chemical laboratory and often held science fiction discussion meetings in the kitchen , and entertained the children with hunts for fairies in the 25 acre garden .
Although there were arguments among the commune members , Parsons remained dedicated to Thelema . He gave almost all of his salary to the O.T.O. while actively seeking out new members — including Forman — and financially supported Crowley in London through Germer . Parsons ' enthusiasm for the Lodge quickly began to impact on his professional life . He frequently appeared at Aerojet hungover and sleep deprived from late nights of Lodge activities , and invited many of his colleagues to them , drawing the ire of staff who previously tolerated Parsons ' occultism as harmless eccentricity ; known to von Kármán as a " delightful screwball " , he was frequently observed reciting Crowley 's poem " Hymn to Pan " in an ecstatic manner compared to the preaching of Billy Graham during rocket tests — and on request at parties to their great amusement . However , they disapproved of his hesitancy to separate his vocations ; Parsons became more rigorously engaged in Aerojet 's day @-@ to @-@ day business in an effort to resolve this weariness , but the Agape Lodge soon came under investigation by both the Pasadena Police Department and the FBI . Both had received allegations of a " black magic cult " involved in sexual orgies ; one complainant was a 16 @-@ year @-@ old boy who claimed that he was raped by lodge members , while neighbors reported a ritual involving a naked pregnant woman jumping through fire . After Parsons explained that the Lodge was simply " an organization dedicated to religious and philosophical speculation " , neither agency found evidence of illegal activity and came to the conclusion that the Lodge constituted no threat to national security . Having been a long @-@ term heavy @-@ user of alcohol and marijuana , Parsons now habitually used cocaine , amphetamines , peyote , mescaline and opiates as well . He continued to have sexual relations with multiple women , including McMurtry 's fiancee Claire . When Parsons paid for Claire to have an abortion , McMurtry was angered and their friendship broke down .
Crowley and Germer wanted to see Smith removed as head of the Agape Lodge , believing that he had become a bad influence on its members . Parsons and Helen wrote to them to defend their mentor but Germer nevertheless ordered him to stand down and Parsons was appointed as temporary head of the Lodge . Some veteran Lodge members disliked Parsons ' influence , concerned that it encouraged excessive sexual polyandry that was religiously detrimental , but his charismatic orations at Lodge meetings assured his popularity among the majority of followers . Parsons soon created the Thelemite journal Oriflamme , in which he published his own poetry , but Crowley was unimpressed — particularly due to Parsons ' descriptions of drug use — and the project was soon shelved . Helen gave birth to Smith 's son in April ; the child was named Kwen Lanval Parsons . Smith and Helen left with Kwen for a two @-@ room cabin in Rainbow Valley in May . Concurrently in England , Crowley undertook an astrological analysis of Smith 's birth chart and came to the conclusion that Smith was the incarnation of a god , greatly altering his estimation of him . Smith remained skeptical as Crowley 's analysis was seemingly deliberately devised in Parsons ' favor , encouraging Smith to step down from his role in the Agape Lodge and instructing him to take a meditative retreat . Refusing to take orders from Germer anymore , Smith resigned from the O.T.O. Parsons — who remained sympathetic and friendly to Smith during the conflict and was weary of Crowley 's " appalling egotism , bad taste , bad judgement , and pedanticism " — ceased lodge activities and resigned as its head , but withdrew his resignation after receiving a pacifying letter from Crowley .
By the summer of 1943 Aerojet was operating on a budget of $ 650 @,@ 000 . The same year Parsons and von Kármán traveled to Norfolk , Virginia to consult on a new JATO contract for the U.S. Navy on the invitation of Secretary of the Navy Frank Knox . Though JATOs were being mass @-@ produced for military applications , JATO @-@ propelled aircraft could not " keep up " with larger , bomber planes taking off from long aircraft carrier runways — which made Aerojet 's industry at risk of becoming defunct . Parsons demonstrated the efficacy of the newer JATOs to solve this issue by equipping a Grumman plane with solid @-@ fuel units ; its assisted takeoff from the USS Charger was successful , but produced smoke containing a noxious , yellow @-@ colored residue . The Navy guaranteed Parsons a contract on the condition that this residue was removed ; this led to the invention of Aeroplex , a technology for smokeless vapor trails developed at Aerojet by Parsons .
As the U.S. became aware that Nazi Germany had developed the V @-@ 2 rocket , the military — following recommendations from von Kármán based upon research using British intelligence — placed a renewed impetus on its own rocket research , reinstating Qian to the GALCIT project . They gave the Group a $ 3 million grant to develop rocket @-@ based weapons , and the Group was expanded and renamed the Jet Propulsion Laboratory ( JPL ) . By this point the Navy were ordering 20 @,@ 000 JATOs a month from Aerojet , and in December 1944 Haley negotiated for the company to sell 51 % of its stock to the General Tire and Rubber Company to cope with the increased demand . However , Aerojet 's Caltech @-@ linked employees — including Zwicky , Malina and Summerfield — would only agree to the sale on the condition that Parsons and Forman were removed from the company , viewing their occult activities as disreputable . JPL historian Erik M. Conway also attributes Parsons ' expulsion to more practical concerns : he " still wanted to work in the same way as he 'd done in his backyard , instinctive and without regard for safety " . Parsons and Forman were unfazed , informing Haley of their prediction that the rocket industry would become obsolete in the postwar age and seeing more financial incentive in starting a chain of laundromats . Haley persuaded them to sell their stock , resulting in Parsons leaving the company with $ 11 @,@ 000 . With this money he bought the lease to 1003 , which had come to be known as " the Parsonage " after him .
= = = L. Ron Hubbard and the Babalon Working : 1945 – 46 = = =
Now disassociated from JPL and Aerojet , Parsons and Forman founded the Ad Astra Engineering Company , under which Parsons founded the chemical manufacturing Vulcan Powder Company . Ad Astra was subject to an FBI investigation under suspicion of espionage when security agents from the Manhattan Project discovered that Parsons and Forman had procured a chemical used in a top secret project for a material known only as x @-@ metal , but they were later acquitted of any wrongdoing . Parsons continued to financially support Smith and Helen , although he asked for a divorce from her and ignored Crowley 's commands by welcoming Smith back to the Parsonage when his retreat was finished . Parsons continued to hold O.T.O. activities at the Parsonage but began renting rooms at the house to non @-@ Thelemites , including journalist Nieson Himmel , Manhattan Project physicist Robert Cornog , and science fiction artist Louis Goldstone . Parsons attracted controversy in Pasadena for his preferred clientele . Parsonage resident Alva Rogers recalled in a 1962 article for an occultist fanzine : " In the ads placed in the local paper Jack specified that only bohemians , artists , musicians , atheists , anarchists , or any other exotic types need to apply for rooms — any mundane soul would be unceremoniously rejected " .
Science fiction writer and U.S. Navy officer L. Ron Hubbard soon moved in to the Parsonage ; he and Parsons became close friends . Parsons wrote to Crowley that although Hubbard had " no formal training in Magick he has an extraordinary amount of experience and understanding in the field . From some of his experiences I deduce he is direct touch with some higher intelligence , possibly his Guardian Angel . ... He is the most Thelemic person I have ever met and is in complete accord with our own principles . "
Although Parsons and Sara were in an open relationship encouraged by the O.T.O. ' s polyandrous sexual ethics , she became enamored with Hubbard ; Parsons , despite attempting to repress his passions , became intensely jealous . Motivated to find a new partner through occult means , Parsons began to devote his energies to conducting black magic , causing concern among fellow O.T.O. members who believed that it was invoking troublesome spirits into the Parsonage ; Jane Wolfe wrote to Crowley that " our own Jack is enamored with Witchcraft , the houmfort , voodoo . From the start he always wanted to evoke something — no matter what , I am inclined to think , as long as he got a result . " He claimed to the residents that he was imbuing statues in the house with a magical energy in order to sell them to fellow occultists . Parsons reported paranormal events in the house resulting from the rituals ; including poltergeist activity , sightings of orbs and ghostly apparitions , alchemical ( sylphic ) effect on the weather , and disembodied voices . Pendle suggested that Parsons was particularly susceptible to these interpretations and attributed the voices to a prank by Hubbard and Sara . One ritual allegedly brought screaming banshees to the windows of the Parsonage , an incident that disturbed Forman for the rest of his life . In December 1945 Parsons began a series of rituals based on Enochian magic during which he masturbated onto magical tablets , accompanied by Sergei Prokofiev 's Second Violin Concerto and using his own semen and blood for this purpose . Describing this magical operation as the Babalon Working , he hoped to bring about the incarnation of Thelemite goddess Babalon onto Earth . He allowed Hubbard to take part as his " scribe " , believing that he was particularly sensitive to detecting magical phenomena . As described by Richard Metzger , " Parsons jerked off in the name of spiritual advancement " while Hubbard " scanned the astral plane for signs and visions . "
Their final ritual took place in the Mojave Desert in late February 1946 , during which Parsons abruptly decided that his undertaking was complete . On returning to the Parsonage he discovered that a woman named Marjorie Cameron — an unemployed illustrator and former Navy WAVE — had come to visit . Believing her to be the " elemental " woman and manifestation of Babalon that he had invoked , in early March Parsons began performing sex magic rituals with Cameron , who acted as his " Scarlet Woman " , while Hubbard continued to participate as the amanuensis . Unlike the rest of the household , Cameron knew nothing at first of Parsons ' magical intentions : " I didn 't know anything about the O.T.O. , I didn 't know that they had invoked me , I didn 't know anything , but the whole house knew it . Everybody was watching to see what was going on . " Despite this ignorance and her skepticism about Parsons ' magic , Cameron reported her sighting of a UFO to Parsons , who secretly recorded the sighting as a materialization of Babalon .
Inspired by Crowley 's novel Moonchild ( 1917 ) , Parsons and Hubbard aimed to magically fertilize a " magical child " through immaculate conception , which when born to a woman somewhere on Earth nine months following the working 's completion would become the Thelemic messiah embodying Babalon . To quote Metzger , the purpose of the Babalon Working was " a daring attempt to shatter the boundaries of space and time " facilitating , according to Parsons , the emergence of Thelema 's Æon of Horus . When Cameron departed for a trip to New York , Parsons retreated to the desert , where he believed that a preternatural entity psychographically provided him with Liber 49 , which represented a fourth part of Crowley 's The Book of the Law , the primary sacred text of Thelema , as well as part of a new sacred text he called the Book of Babalon . Crowley was bewildered and concerned by the endeavor , complaining to Germer of being " fairly frantic when I contemplate the idiocy of these louts ! " Believing the Babalon Working was accomplished , Parsons sold the Parsonage to developers for $ 25 @,@ 000 under the condition that he and Cameron could continue to live in the coach house , and he appointed Roy Leffingwell to head the Agape Lodge , which would now have to meet elsewhere for its rituals .
Parsons decided to co @-@ found a company called Allied Enterprises with Hubbard and Sara , into which Parsons invested his life savings of $ 20 @,@ 970 . Hubbard suggested that with this money they travel to Miami to purchase three yachts , which they would then sail through the Panama Canal to the West Coast , where they could sell them on for a profit . Parsons agreed , but many of his friends thought it was a bad idea . Hubbard had secretly requested permission from the U.S. Navy to sail to China and South and Central America on a mission to " collect writing material " ; his real plans were for a world cruise . Left " flat broke " by this defrauding , Parsons was incensed when he discovered that Hubbard and Sara had left for Miami with $ 10 @,@ 000 of the money ; he suspected a scam but was placated by a telephone call from Hubbard and agreed to remain business partners . When Crowley , in a telegram to Germer , dismissed Parsons as a " weak fool " and victim to Hubbard and Sara 's obvious confidence trick , Parsons changed his mind , flew to Miami and placed a temporary injunction and restraining order on them . Upon tracking them down to a harbor in County Causeway , Parsons discovered that the couple had purchased three yachts as planned ; they tried to flee aboard one but hit a squall and were forced to return to port . Parsons was convinced that he had brought them to shore through a lesser banishing ritual of the pentagram containing an astrological , geomantic invocation of Bartzabel — a vengeful spirit of Mars . Allied Enterprises was dissolved and in a court settlement Hubbard was made to promise to reimburse Parsons . Parsons was discouraged from taking further action by Sara , who threatened to report him for statutory rape since their sexual relationship took place when she was under California 's age of consent of 18 . Parsons was ultimately compensated with only $ 2 @,@ 900 . Hubbard , already married to Margaret Grubb , bigamously married Sara and went on to found Dianetics and Scientology .
The Sunday Times published an article about Hubbard 's involvement with the O.T.O. and Parsons ' occult activities in December 1969 . In response , the Church of Scientology released an unsubstantiated press statement which said that Hubbard had been sent as an undercover agent by the U.S. Navy to intercept and destroy Parsons ' " black magic cult " , and save Sara from its influence . The Church also claimed that Robert A. Heinlein was the clandestine Navy operative who " sent in " Hubbard to undertake this operation . Returning to California , Parsons completed the sale of the Parsonage , which was then demolished , and resigned from the O.T.O. He wrote in his letter to Crowley that he did not believe that " as an autocratic organization , [ the O.T.O. ] constitutes a true and proper medium for the expression and attainment " of Thelema .
= = = Work for Israelis and espionage accusations : 1946 – 52 = = =
Parsons was employed by North American Aviation at Inglewood , where he worked on the Navaho Missile Program . He and Cameron moved into a house in Manhattan Beach , where he instructed her in occultism and esotericism . When Cameron developed catalepsy , Parsons referred her to Sylvan Muldoon 's books on astral projection , suggesting that she could manipulate her seizures to accomplish it . They were married on October 19 , 1946 , four days after his divorce from Helen was finalized , with Forman as their witness . Parsons continued to be seen as a specialist in rocketry ; he acted as an expert consultant in numerous industrial tribunals and police and Army Ordnance investigations regarding explosions . In May 1947 , Parsons gave a talk at the Pacific Rocket Society in which he predicted that rockets would take humans to the Moon . Although he had become distant from the now largely defunct O.T.O. and had sold much of his Crowleyan library , he continued to correspond with Crowley until the latter 's death in December 1947 .
At the emergence of the Cold War , a Red Scare developed in the U.S. as the Congressional House Un @-@ American Activities Committee began investigating and obstructing the careers of people with perceived communist sympathies . Many of Parsons ' former colleagues lost their security clearances and jobs as a result , and eventually the FBI stripped Parsons of his clearance because of his " subversive " character , including his involvement in and advocacy of " sexual perversion " in the O.T.O. He speculated in a June 1949 letter to Germer that his clearance was revoked in response to his public dissemination of Crowley 's Liber OZ , a 1941 tract summarizing the individualist moral principles of Thelema . Declassified FBI documents would reveal that the FBI 's primary concern was Parsons ' former connections to Marxists at Caltech and his membership of the also " subversive " ACLU . When they interviewed Parsons he denied communist sympathies but informed them of Sidney Weinbaum 's " extreme communist views " and Frank Malina 's involvement in Weinbaum 's communist cell at Caltech , which resulted in Weinbaum 's arrest for perjury since he had lied under oath by denying any involvement in communist groups . Malina 's security clearance was withdrawn as well . In reaction to this hostile treatment , Parsons sought work in the rocket industry abroad . He sought advice to do so in correspondence with von Kármán ; whose advice he followed by enrolling in an evening course in advanced mathematics at USC to bolster his employability in the field — but again he neglected attendance and failed the course . Parsons again resorted to bootlegging nitroglycerin for money , and managed to earn a wage as a car mechanic , a manual laborer at a gas station , and a hospital orderly ; for two years he was also a faculty member at the USC Department of Pharmacology . Relations between Parsons and Cameron became strained ; they agreed to a temporary separation and she moved to Mexico to join an artists ' commune in San Miguel de Allende .
Unable to pursue his scientific career , without his wife and devoid of friendship , Parsons decided to return to occultism and embarked on sexually based magical operations with prostitutes . He was intent , informally following the ritualistic practice of Thelemite organization the A ∴ A ∴ , on performing " the Crossing of the Abyss " , attaining union with the universal consciousness , or " All " as understood in Thelemic mysticism , and becoming the " Master of the Temple " . Following his apparent success in doing so , Parsons recounted having an out @-@ of @-@ body experience invoked by Babalon , who astrally transported him to the biblical City of Chorazin , an experience he referred to as a " Black Pilgrimage " . Accompanying Parsons ' " Oath of the Abyss " was his own " Oath of the AntiChrist " , which was witnessed by Wilfred Talbot Smith . In this oath , Parsons professed to embody an entity named Belarion Armillus Al Dajjal , the Antichrist " who am come [ sic ] to fulfill the law of the Beast 666 [ Aleister Crowley ] " . Viewing these oaths as the completion of the Babalon Working , Parsons wrote an illeist autobiography titled Analysis by a Master of the Temple and an occult text titled The Book of AntiChrist . In the latter work , Parsons ( writing as Belarion ) prophesied within nine years Babalon would manifest on Earth and supersede the dominance of the Abrahamic religions .
During this period , Parsons also wrote an essay on his individualist philosophy and politics — which he described as standing for " liberalism and liberal principles " — titled " Freedom is a Two @-@ Edged Sword " , in which he condemned the authoritarianism , censorship , corruption , antisexualism and racism he saw as prevalent in American society . None of these works were published in his lifetime . Through Heinlein , Parsons received a visit from writer L. Sprague de Camp , with whom he discussed magic and science fiction , and disclosed that Hubbard had sent a letter offering him Sara back . De Camp later referred to Parsons as " An authentic mad genius if I ever met one " , and based the character Courtney James on him in his time travel story A Gun for Dinosaur ( 1956 ) . Parsons was also visited by Jane Wolfe , who unsuccessfully appealed for him to rejoin the dilapidated O.T.O. He entered a brief relationship with an Irishwoman named Gladis Gohan ; they moved to a house on Redondo Beach , a building known by them as the " Concrete Castle " . Cameron returned to Redondo Beach from San Miguel de Allende and violently argued with Parsons upon discovering his infidelity , before she again left for Mexico . Parsons responded by initiating divorce proceedings against her on the grounds of " extreme cruelty " .
Parsons testified to a closed federal court that the moral philosophy of Thelema was both anti @-@ fascist and anti @-@ communist , emphasizing his belief in individualism . This along with references from his scientific colleagues resulted in his security clearance being reinstated by the Industrial Employment Review Board , which ruled that there was insufficient evidence that he had ever had communist sympathies . This allowed Parsons to obtain a contract in designing and constructing a chemical plant for the Hughes Aircraft Company in Culver City . Von Kármán put Parsons in touch with Herbert T. Rosenfeld , President of the Southern Californian chapter of the American Technion Society — a Zionist group dedicated to supporting the newly created State of Israel . Rosenfeld offered Parsons a job with the Israeli rocket program and hired him to produce technical reports for them . In November 1950 , as the Red Scare intensified , Parsons decided to migrate to Israel to pursue Rosenfeld 's offer , but a Hughes secretary whom Parsons had asked to type up a portfolio of technical documents reported him to the FBI . She accused Parsons of espionage and attempted theft of classified company documents on the basis of some of the reports that he had sought to submit to the Technion Society .
Parsons was immediately fired from Hughes ; the FBI investigated the complaint and were suspicious that Parsons was spying for the Israeli government . Parsons denied the allegations when interrogated ; he insisted that his intentions were peaceful and had suffered an error of judgment in procurement of the documents . Some of Parsons ' scientific colleagues rallied to his defense , but the case against him worsened when the FBI investigated Rosenfeld for being linked to Soviet agents , and more accounts of his occult and sexually permissive activities at the Parsonage came to light . In October 1951 the U.S. attorney decided that because the contents of the reports did not constitute state secrets , Parsons was not guilty of espionage .
The Review Board , however , still considered Parsons a liability because of his historical Marxist affiliations and investigations by the FBI , and in January 1952 they permanently reinstated their ban on him working for classified projects , effectively prohibiting him from working in rocketry . To make a living he founded the Parsons Chemical Manufacturing Company , which was based in North Hollywood and created pyrotechnics and explosives such as fog effects and imitation gunshot wounds for the film industry , and he also returned to chemical manufacturing at the Bermite Powder Company in Saugus .
Reconciling with Cameron , they resumed their relationship and moved into a former coach house on Orange Grove Avenue . Parsons converted its large , first @-@ floor laundry room into a home laboratory to work on his chemical and pyrotechnic projects , homebrew absinthe and stockpile his materials . They let out the upstairs bedrooms and began holding parties that were attended largely by bohemians and members of the Beat Generation , along with old friends including Forman , Malina and Cornog . They also congregated at the home of Andrew Haley , who lived on the same street . Though Parsons in his mid @-@ thirties was a " prewar relic " to the younger attendees , the raucous socials often lasted until dawn and frequently attracted police attention . Parsons also founded a new Thelemite group known as " the Witchcraft " , whose beliefs revolved around a simplified version of Crowley 's Thelema and Parsons ' own Babalon prophecies . He offered a course in its teachings for a ten dollar fee , which included a new Thelemic belief system called " the Gnosis " , a version of Christian Gnosticism with Sophia as its godhead and the Christian God as its demiurge . He also collaborated with Cameron on Songs for the Witch Woman , a collection of poems which she illustrated that remained unpublished until 2014 .
= = = Death : 1952 = = =
Parsons and Cameron decided to travel to Mexico for a few months , both for a vacation and for Parsons to take up a job opportunity establishing an explosives factory for the Mexican government . They hoped that this would facilitate a move to Israel , where they could start a family , and where Parsons could bypass the U.S. government to recommence his rocketry career . He was particularly disturbed by the presence of the FBI , convinced that they were spying on him .
On June 17 , 1952 , a day before their planned departure , Parsons received a rush order of explosives for a film set and began to work on it in his home laboratory . An explosion destroyed the lower part of the building , during which Parsons sustained mortal wounds . His right forearm was amputated , his legs and left arm were broken and a hole was torn in the right side of his face . Despite these critical injuries , Parsons was found conscious by the upstairs lodgers . He tried to communicate with the arriving ambulance workers , who rushed him to the Huntingdon Memorial Hospital , where he was declared dead around thirty @-@ seven minutes after the explosion . Parsons ' last words are frequently said to have been " I wasn 't done " , but Cameron recited them as " Who will take care of me now ? " When his mother , Ruth , was informed of the events , she immediately committed suicide by taking an overdose of barbiturates . Cameron learned of her husband 's death from reporters at the scene when she returned home from grocery shopping .
Pasadena Police Department criminologist Don Harding led the official investigation ; he concluded that Parsons had been mixing fulminate of mercury in a coffee can when he dropped it on the floor , causing the initial explosion , which worsened when it came into contact with other chemicals in the room . Forman considered this likely , stating that Parsons often had sweaty hands and could easily have dropped the can . Some of Parsons ' colleagues rejected this explanation , saying that he was very attentive about safety . Two colleagues from the Bermite Powder Company described Parsons ' work habits as " scrupulously neat " and " exceptionally cautious " . The latter statement — from chemical engineer George Santymers — insisted that the explosion must have come from beneath the floorboards , implying an organized plot to kill Parsons . Harding accepted that these inconsistencies were " incongruous " but described the manner in which Parsons had stored his chemicals as " criminally negligent " , and noted that Parsons had previously been investigated by the police for illegally storing chemicals at the Parsonage . He also found a morphine @-@ filled syringe at the scene , indicating that Parsons was narcotized . The police saw insufficient evidence to continue the investigation and closed the case as an accidental death .
Both Wolfe and Smith suggested that Parsons ' death had been suicide , stating that he had suffered from depression for some time . Others theorized that the explosion was an assassination planned by Howard Hughes in response to Parsons ' suspected theft of Hughes Aircraft Company documents . Cameron became convinced that Parsons had been murdered — either by police officers seeking vengeance for his role in the conviction of Earl Kynette or by anti @-@ Zionists opposed to his work for Israel . One of Cameron 's friends , the artist Renate Druks , later stated her belief that Parsons had died in a rite designed to create a homunculus . His death has never been definitively explained .
The immediate aftermath of the explosion attracted the interest of the U.S. media , making headline news in the Los Angeles Times . These initial reports focused on Parsons ' prominence in rocketry but neglected to mention his occult interests . When asked for comment , Aerojet secretary @-@ treasurer T.E. Beehan said that Parsons " liked to wander , but he was one of the top men in the field " . However , within several days , journalists had discovered his involvement in Thelema and emphasized this in their reports .
A private prayer service was held for Parsons at the funeral home where his body was cremated . Cameron scattered his ashes in the Mojave Desert , before burning most of his possessions . She later tried to perform astral projection to commune with him . The O.T.O. also held a memorial service — with attendees including Helen and Sara — at which Smith led the Gnostic Mass .
= = Personal life = =
= = = Personality = = =
Although considered effeminate as a child , in adult life Parsons was known to exhibit an attitude of machismo . His FBI file described him as " potentially bisexual " and he once expressed experiencing a latent homosexuality . The actor Paul Mathison claimed to have had a gay relationship with Parsons in the 1950s , though this was disputed by others who knew him and Cameron . Parsons had the reputation of being a womanizer , and was notorious for frequently flirting and having sexual liaisons with female staff members at JPL and Aerojet . He was also known for personal eccentricity such as greeting house guests with a large pet snake around his neck , driving to work in a rundown Pontiac , and using a mannequin dressed in a tuxedo with a bucket labelled " The Resident " as his mailbox .
As well as a fencing and archery enthusiast , Parsons was also a keen shooter ; he often hunted jack rabbits and cotton tails in the desert , and was amused by mock duelling with Forman while on test sites with rifles and shotguns . Upon proposing to his first wife Helen , he also gifted her with a pistol . Parsons also enjoyed playing pranks on his colleagues , often through detonating explosives such as firecrackers and smoke bombs , and was known to spend hours at a time in the bathtub playing with toy boats while living at the Parsonage .
As well as intense bursts of creativity , Parsons suffered from what he described as " manic hysteria and depressing melancholy . " His father Marvel , after suffering a near @-@ fatal heart attack , died as a psychiatric patient at St. Elizabeths Hospital in Washington D.C. diagnosed with severe clinical depression , a condition Pendle suggested the younger Parsons inherited .
= = = Professional associations = = =
Parsons ' obituary listed him as a member of the Army Ordnance Corps Association , the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics , the American Chemical Society , the American Association for the Advancement of Science , and — despite his lack of an academic degree — the Sigma Xi fraternity . It also stated that he had turned down several honorary degrees .
= = Philosophy = =
= = = Religious beliefs = = =
Parsons adhered to the occult philosophy of Thelema , which had been founded in 1904 by the English occultist Aleister Crowley following a spiritual revelation that he had in the city of Cairo , Egypt , when — according to Crowley 's own accounts — a spirit being known as Aiwass dictated to him a prophetic text known as The Book of the Law . Prior to becoming aware of Thelema and Crowley , Parsons ' interest in esotericism was developed through his reading of The Golden Bough ( 1890 ) , a work in comparative mythology by Scottish social anthropologist James George Frazer . Parsons had also attended lectures on Theosophy by philosopher Jiddu Krishnamurti with his first wife Helen , but disliked the belief system 's sentiment of " the good and the true " . During rocket tests , Parsons often recited Crowley 's poem " Hymn to Pan " as a good luck charm . He took to addressing Crowley as his " Most Beloved Father " and signed off to him as " thy son , John " .
In July 1945 , Parsons gave a speech to the Agape Lodge , in which he attempted to explain how he felt that The Book of the Law could be made relevant to " modern life " . In this speech , which was subsequently published under the title of " Doing your Will " , he examined the Thelemite concept of True Will , writing that :
The mainspring of an individual is his creative Will . This Will is the sum of his tendencies , his destiny , his inner truth . It is one with the force that makes the birds sing and flowers bloom ; as inevitable as gravity , as implicit as a bowel movement , it informs alike atoms and men and suns .
To the man who knows this Will , there is no why or why not , no can or cannot ; he IS !
There is no known force that can turn an apple into an alley cat ; there is no known force that can turn a man from his Will . This is the triumph of genius ; that , surviving the centuries , enlightens the world .
This force burns in every man .
Parsons identified four obstacles that prevented humans from achieving and performing their True Will , all of which he connected with fear : the fear of incompetence , the fear of the opinion of others , the fear of hurting others , and the fear of insecurity . He insisted that these must be overcome , writing that " The Will must be freed of its fetters . The ruthless examination and destruction of taboos , complexes , frustrations , dislikes , fears and disgusts hostile to the Will is essential to progress . "
Though Parsons was a lifelong devotee to Thelema , he grew weary of and eventually left the Ordo Templi Orientis — the religious organization that began propagating Thelema under Crowley 's leadership from the 1910s — which Parsons viewed , despite the disagreement of Crowley himself , as excessively hierarchical and impeding upon the rigorous spiritual and philosophical practice of True Will , describing the O.T.O. as " an excellent training school for adepts , but hardly an appropriate Order for the manifestation of Thelema " . In this sense Parsons was described by Carter as an " almost fundamentalist " Thelemite who placed The Book of the Law 's dogma above all other doctrine .
= = = Politics = = =
From early on in his career , Parsons took an interest in socialism and communism , views that he shared with his friend Malina . Under the influence of another friend , Sidney Weinbaum , the two joined a communist group in the late 1930s , with Parsons reading Marxist literature , but he remained unconvinced and refused to join the American Communist Party . Malina asserted that this was because Parsons was a " political romantic " , whose attitude was more anti @-@ authoritarian than anti @-@ capitalist . Parsons would later become critical of the Marxist @-@ Leninist government of the Soviet Union led by Joseph Stalin , sarcastically commenting that
The dictatorship of the proletariat is merely temporary — the state will eventually wither away like a snark hunter , leaving us all free as birds . Meanwhile it may be necessary to kill , torture and imprison a few million people , but whose fault is it if they get in the way of progress ?
During the era of McCarthyism and the Second Red Scare in the early 1950s , Parsons was questioned regarding his former links to the communist movement , by which time he denied any connection to it , instead describing himself as " an individualist " who was both anti @-@ communist and anti @-@ fascist . In reaction to the McCarthyite red @-@ baiting of scientists , he expressed disdain that
Science , that was going to save the world in H. G. Wells ' time is regimented , straight @-@ jacked , [ and ] scared shitless , its universal language diminished to one word : security .
Parsons was politically influenced by Thelema — which holds to the ethical code of " Do what thou wilt " — equating this principle to the libertarian views of some of the Founding Fathers of the United States in his article " Freedom is a Lonely Star " , claiming that by his own time these values had been " sold out by America , and for that reason the heart of America is sick and the soul of America is dead . " He proceeded to criticize many aspects of contemporary U.S. society , particularly the police force , remarking that " The police mind is usually of a sadistic and homicidal trend " and noting that they carried out the " ruthless punishment of symbolic scapegoats " such as African @-@ Americans , prostitutes , alcoholics , homeless people and sociopolitical radicals , under the pretense of a country that upheld " liberty and justice for all . "
To bring about a freer future Parsons believed in liberalizing attitudes to sexual morality stating that , in his belief , the publication of the Kinsey report and development of the psychonautical sciences had as significant an influence on Western society as the creation of the atomic bomb and the development of nuclear physics . He also believed that in the future the restrictions on sexual morality within society should be abolished in order to bring about greater freedom and individuality . Parsons concluded that
the liberty of the individual is the foundation of civilization . No true civilization is possible without this liberty and no state , national or international , is stable in its absence . The proper relation between individual liberty on the one hand and social responsibility on the other is the balance which will assure a stable society . The only other road to social equilibrium demands the total annihilation of individuality . There is not further evasion of nature 's immemorial ultimatum : change or perish but the choice of change is ours .
Jack Cashill , American studies professor at Purdue University , argues that " Although his literary career never got much beyond pamphleteering and an untitled anti @-@ war , anti @-@ capitalist manuscript " , Parsons played a significant role — greater than that of Church of Satan founder Anton LaVey — in shaping the Californian counterculture of the 1960s and beyond through his influence on contemporaries such as Hubbard and Heinlein . Hugh Urban , religious studies professor at Ohio State University , cites Parsons ' Witchcraft group as precipitating the neopagan revival of the 1950s .
Science fiction writer and occultist Robert Anton Wilson described Parsons ' political writings as exemplifying an " ultra @-@ individualist " who exhibited a " genuine sympathy for working people " , strongly empathized with feminism and held an antipathy toward patriarchy comparable to that of John Stuart Mill , arguing in this context that Parsons was an influence on the American libertarian and anarchist movements of the 20th century . Parsons was also supportive of the creation of the State of Israel , making plans to emigrate there when his military security clearance was revoked .
= = Legacy and influence = =
In the decades following his death , Parsons would be better remembered among the Western esoteric community rather than their scientific counterpart , with his recognition in the latter frequently amounting to a footnote . For instance , English Thelemite Kenneth Grant suggested that Parsons ' Babalon Working marked the start of the appearance of flying saucers in the skies , leading to phenomena such as the Roswell UFO incident and Kenneth Arnold UFO sighting . Cameron herself postulated that the 1952 Washington , D.C. UFO incident was a spiritual reaction to Parsons ' death . In 1954 she portrayed Babalon in American Thelemite Kenneth Anger 's short film Inauguration of the Pleasure Dome , viewing this cinematic depiction of a Thelemic ritual as aiding the literal invocation of Babalon begun by Parsons ' working , and later claimed that his Book of the AntiChrist prophecies were fulfilled through the manifestation of Babalon in her person .
In December 1958 JPL was integrated into the newly established National Aeronautics and Space Administration , after having built the Explorer 1 satellite that commenced America 's Space Race with the Soviet Union . Aerojet was contracted by NASA to build the main engine of the Apollo Command / Service Module , and the Space Shuttle Orbital Maneuvering System . In a letter to Malina , von Kármán ranked Parsons first in a list of figures he viewed as most important to modern rocketry and the foundation of the American space program . According to Richard Metzger , Wernher von Braun — who was nicknamed " The Father of Rocket Science " — once argued that Parsons was more worthy of this moniker . In October 1968 Malina — himself a pioneer in sounding rocketry — gave a speech at JPL in which he highlighted Parsons ' contribution to the U.S. rocket project , and lamented how it had come to be neglected , crediting him for making " key contributions to the development of storable propellants and of long duration solid propellant agents that play such an important role in American and European space technology . "
The same month JPL held an open access event to mark the 32nd anniversary of its foundation — which featured a " nativity scene " of mannequins reconstructing the November 1936 photograph of the GALCIT Group — and erected a monument commemorating their first rocket test on Halloween 1936 . Among the aerospace industry , JPL was nicknamed as standing for " Jack Parsons ' Laboratory " or " Jack Parsons Lives " . The International Astronomical Union decided to name a crater on the far side of the Moon Parsons after him in 1972 . JPL would later credit him for making " distinctive technical innovations that advanced early efforts " in rocket engineering , with aerospace journalist Craig Covault stating that the work of Parsons , Qian Xuesen and the GALCIT Group " planted the seeds for JPL to become preeminent in space and rocketry . "
Many of Parsons ' writings would see posthumous publication as Freedom is a Two @-@ Edged Sword in 1989 , a compilation co @-@ edited by Cameron and O.T.O. leader Hymenaeus Beta ( ceremonial name of musician William Breeze ) , which incited a resurgence of interest in Parsons within occult and countercultural circles . For example , comic book artist and occultist Alan Moore noted Parsons as a creative influence in a 1998 interview with Clifford Meth . The Cameron @-@ Parsons Foundation was founded as an incorporated company in 2006 , with the intention of conserving and promoting Parsons ' writings and Cameron 's artwork , and in 2014 Fulger Esoterica published Songs for the Witch Woman — a limited edition book of poems by Parsons with illustrations by Cameron , released to coincide with his centenary . An exhibition of the same name was held at the Museum of Contemporary Art , Los Angeles .
In 1999 Feral House published the biography Sex and Rockets : The Occult World of Jack Parsons by John Carter , who expressed the opinion that Parsons had accomplished more in under five years of research than Robert H. Goddard had in his lifetime , and noted that his role in the development of rocket technology had been neglected by historians of science ; conversely , Carter thought that Parsons ' abilities and accomplishments as an occultist had been overestimated and exaggerated among Western esotericists , emphasizing his disowning by Crowley for practising magic beyond his grade . Feral House republished the work as a new edition in 2004 , accompanied with an introduction by Robert Anton Wilson . Wilson believed that Parsons was " the one single individual who contributed the most to rocket science " , describing him as being " very strange , very brilliant , very funny , [ and ] very tormented " , and considering it noteworthy that the day of Parsons ' birth was the predicted beginning of the apocalypse advocated by Charles Taze Russell , the founder of the Jehovah 's Witness movement .
A second biography of Parsons was published in 2005 through Weidenfeld & Nicolson with the title Strange Angel : The Otherworldly Life of Rocket Scientist John Whiteside Parsons ; it was authored by George Pendle , who described Parsons as " the Che Guevara of occultism " and noted that although Parsons " would not live to see his dream of space travel come true , he was essential to making it a reality . " Pendle considered that the cultural stigma attached to Parsons ' occultism was the primary cause of his low public profile , noting that " Like many scientific mavericks , Parsons was eventually discarded by the establishment once he had served his purpose . " It was this unorthodox mindset , creatively facilitated by his science fiction fandom and " willingness to believe in magic 's efficacy " , Pendle argued , " that allowed him to break scientific barriers previously thought to be indestructible " — commenting that Parsons " saw both space and magic as ways of exploring these new frontiers — one breaking free from Earth literally and metaphysically . "
L. Ron Hubbard 's role in Parsons ' Agape Lodge — and the ensuing yacht scam — was explored in Russell Miller 's 1987 Hubbard biography Bare @-@ faced Messiah . Parsons ' involvement in the Agape Lodge would also be discussed by Martin P. Starr in his history of the American Thelemite movement , The Unknown God : W.T. Smith and the Thelemites , published by Teitan Press in 2003 . Parsons ' occult partnership with Hubbard was also mentioned in Alex Gibney 's 2015 documentary film Going Clear : Scientology and the Prison of Belief , produced by HBO .
Before his death , Parsons appeared in science fiction writer Anthony Boucher 's murder @-@ mystery novel Rocket to the Morgue ( 1942 ) under the guise of mad scientist character Hugo Chantrelle . Another fictional character based on Parsons was Courtney James , a wealthy socialite who features in L. Sprague de Camp 's 1956 short time travel story A Gun for Dinosaur . In 2005 Pasadena Babalon , a stage play about Parsons written by George D. Morgan and directed by Brian Brophy , premiered at Caltech as a production by its theater Arts Group in 2010 , the same year Cellar Door Publishing released Richard Carbonneau and Robin Simon Ng 's graphic novel , The Marvel : A Biography of Jack Parsons . In 2012 the Science Channel broadcast a documentary dramatization titled Magical Jet Propulsion in an episode of its Dark Matters : Twisted But True television series — in which Parsons was portrayed by English actor Adam Howden — while independent record label Drag City released Parsons ' Blues , an instrumental tribute single by experimental rock act Six Organs of Admittance . In 2014 AMC Networks announced plans for a serial television dramatization of Parsons ' life titled Strange Angel , produced by Ridley Scott and David Zucker , and written by Mark Heyman .
= = Patents = =
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= 2009 Atlantic hurricane season =
The 2009 Atlantic hurricane season was a below @-@ average Atlantic hurricane season that produced eleven tropical cyclones , nine named storms , three hurricanes , and two major hurricanes . It officially began on June 1 and ended on November 30 , dates that conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones develop in the Atlantic basin . The season 's first tropical cyclone , Tropical Depression One , developed on May 28 , while the final storm , Hurricane Ida , dissipated on November 10 . The most intense hurricane , Bill , was a powerful Cape Verde @-@ type hurricane that affected areas from the Leeward Islands to Newfoundland . The season featured the lowest number of tropical cyclones since the 1997 season , and only one system , Claudette , made landfall in the United States . Forming from the interaction of a tropical wave and an upper level low , Claudette made landfall on the Florida Panhandle with maximum sustained winds of 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) before quickly dissipating over Alabama . The storm killed two people and caused $ 228 @,@ 000 ( 2009 USD ) in damage .
Pre @-@ season forecasts issued by Colorado State University ( CSU ) called for fourteen named storms and seven hurricanes , of which three were expected to attain major hurricane status . The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) later issued its initial forecast , which predicted nine to fourteen named storms , four to seven hurricanes , and one to three major hurricanes . After several revisions in the projected number of named storms , both agencies lowered their forecasts by the middle of the season .
Several storms made landfall or directly affected land outside of the United States . Tropical Storm Ana brought substantial rainfall totals to many of the Caribbean islands , including Puerto Rico , which led to minor street flooding . Hurricane Bill delivered gusty winds and rain to the island of Newfoundland , while Tropical Storm Danny affected the U.S. state of North Carolina , and Erika affected the Lesser Antilles as a poorly organized tropical system . Hurricane Fred affected the Cape Verde Islands as a developing tropical cyclone and Tropical Storm Grace briefly impacted the Azores , becoming the farthest northeast forming storm on record . The season 's final storm , Ida , affected portions of Central America before bringing significant rainfall to the Southeast United States as an extratropical cyclone .
= = Seasonal forecasts = =
Forecasts of hurricane activity are issued before each hurricane season by noted hurricane experts Philip J. Klotzbach , William M. Gray , and their associates at Colorado State University ; and separately by NOAA forecasters .
Klotzbach 's team ( formerly led by Gray ) defined the average number of storms per season ( 1950 to 2000 ) as 9 @.@ 6 tropical storms , 5 @.@ 9 hurricanes , 2 @.@ 3 major hurricanes ( storms reaching at least Category 3 strength in the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale ) and ACE Index 96 @.@ 1 . NOAA defines a season as above @-@ normal , near @-@ normal or below @-@ normal by a combination of the number of named storms , the number reaching hurricane strength , the number reaching major hurricane strength and ACE Index .
= = = Pre @-@ season forecasts = = =
On December 10 , 2008 , Klotzbach 's team issued its first extended @-@ range forecast for the 2009 season , predicting above @-@ average activity ( 14 named storms , 7 hurricanes , 3 of Category 3 or higher and ACE Index of 125 ) . On April 7 , 2009 , Klotzbach 's team issued an updated forecast for the 2009 season , predicting near @-@ average activity ( 12 named storms , 6 hurricanes , 2 of Category 3 or higher and ACE Index of 100 ) , citing the possible cause as the high probability of a weak El Niño forming during the season . On May 21 , 2009 , NOAA issued their forecast for the season , predicting near or slightly above average activity , ( 9 to 14 named storms , 4 to 7 hurricanes , and 1 to 3 of Category 3 or higher ) .
= = = Midseason outlooks = = =
On June 2 , 2009 , Klotzbach 's team issued another updated forecast for the 2009 season , predicting slightly below average activity ( 11 named storms , 5 hurricanes , 2 of Category 3 or higher and ACE Index of 85 ) . Also on June 2 , 2009 , the Florida State University Center for Ocean @-@ Atmospheric Prediction Studies ( FSU COAPS ) issued its first ever Atlantic hurricane season forecast . The FSU COAPS forecast predicted 8 named storms , including 4 hurricanes , and an ACE Index of 65 . On June 18 , 2009 , the UK Met Office ( UKMO ) issued a forecast of 6 tropical storms in the July to November period with a 70 % chance that the number would be in the range 3 to 9 . They also predicted an ACE Index of 60 with a 70 % chance that the index would be in the range 40 to 80 . On August 4 , 2009 , Klotzbach 's team updated their forecast for the 2009 season , again predicting slightly below average activity ( 10 named storms , 4 hurricanes , and 2 major hurricanes ) . On August 6 , 2009 , the NOAA also updated their forecast for the 2009 season , predicting below average activity ( 7 – 11 named storms , 3 – 6 hurricanes , and 1 – 2 major hurricanes ) .
= = Season summary = =
During the 2009 season , nine of the eleven tropical cyclones affected land , of which five actually made landfall . The United States experienced one of its quietest years , with no hurricanes making landfall in the country . Throughout the basin , six people were killed in tropical cyclone @-@ related incidents and total losses reached roughly $ 77 million . Most of the damage resulted from Hurricane Bill , which caused severe beach erosion throughout the east coast of the United States . In the United States , tropical cyclones killed six people and caused roughly $ 50 million in damage . In the Lesser Antilles , Tropical Storms Ana and Erika brought moderate rainfall to several islands but resulted in little damage . Elsewhere in the Atlantic , the Azores Islands , Atlantic Canada , Bermuda , Cape Verde Islands and Wales were affected by tropical cyclones or their remnants . In Canada , Hurricane Bill produced widespread moderate rainfall in Nova Scotia and Newfoundland , leaving roughly $ 10 million in losses . The hurricane also produced tropical storm @-@ force winds in Bermuda . Hurricane Fred briefly impacted the southern Cape Verde Islands as it bypassed the islands early in its existence . The Azores and Wales were also affected by Tropical Storm Grace ; however , both areas recorded only minor effects .
Overall , the season 's activity was reflected with a low cumulative accumulated cyclone energy ( ACE ) rating of 53 , the lowest since 1997 . Due to the low number of storms in the 2009 season , many of which were short @-@ lived , the overall ACE value was ranked as below @-@ average , totaling under 66 . Hurricane Bill was responsible for the ACE value for August being 30 % above average . ACE is , broadly speaking , a measure of the power of the hurricane multiplied by the length of time it existed , so storms that last a long time , as well as particularly strong hurricanes , have high ACEs . ACE is only calculated for full advisories on tropical systems at or exceeding 34 knots ( 39 mph , 63 km / h ) or tropical storm strength . Subtropical cyclones are excluded from the total .
= = Storms = =
= = = Tropical Depression One = = =
During mid @-@ May , a frontal boundary stalled near The Bahamas and slowly degenerated . On May 25 , 2009 , an area of low pressure developed along the tail @-@ end of a decaying cold front near the northern Bahamas . Tracking northward , this low gradually developed as it moved within 85 mi ( 140 km ) of North Carolina 's Outer Banks . By May 28 , deep convection developed across a small area over the low pressure system , leading to the National Hurricane Center classifying the system as Tropical Depression One . The depression moved over the warm waters of the Gulf Stream for the following 24 hours , allowing it to maintain its convection , before moving into a hostile environment characterized by strong wind shear and cooler waters . Late on May 29 , the system degenerated into a remnant low . Several hours later , on May 30 , about 345 mi ( 555 km ) south @-@ southeast of Halifax , Nova Scotia , Tropical Depression One was absorbed by a warm front .
As a tropical cyclone , the depression had no impact on land . However , the precursor to the system brought scattered rainfall and increased winds to parts of the North Carolina coastline , but no damage . Upon becoming a tropical depression on May 28 , Tropical Depression One became the northernmost forming May tropical cyclone in Atlantic history , though subtropical cyclones formed equally far north in 1972 and 2007 . It also marked the third consecutive year with pre @-@ season tropical or subtropical cyclones in the basin .
= = = Tropical Storm Ana = = =
Ana formed out of an area of low pressure associated with a tropical wave on August 11 , Ana briefly attained tropical storm intensity on August 12 before weakening back to a depression . The following day , the system degenerated into a non @-@ convective remnant low as it tracked westward . On August 14 , the depression regenerated roughly 1 @,@ 075 mi ( 1 @,@ 735 km ) east of the Leeward Islands . Early on August 15 , the storm re @-@ attained tropical storm status , at which time it was named Ana . After reaching a peak intensity with winds of 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) and a barometric pressure of 1003 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 65 inHg ) , the storm began to weaken again due to increasing wind shear and the unusually fast movement of Ana . In post @-@ storm analysis , it was discovered that Ana had degenerated into a tropical wave once more on August 16 , before reaching any landmasses .
Numerous tropical storm watches were issued for the Lesser Antilles , Puerto Rico and the Dominican Republic between August 15 and 17 . Several islands took minor precautions for the storm , including St. Croix which evacuated 40 residents from flood @-@ prone areas ahead of the storm . In the Dominican Republic , officials took preparations by setting up relief agencies and setting up shelters . Impact from Ana was minimal , mainly consisting of light to moderate rainfall . In Puerto Rico , up to 2 @.@ 76 in ( 70 mm ) , causing street flooding and forcing the evacuation of three schools . High winds associated with the storm also downed trees and power lines , leaving roughly 6 @,@ 000 residents without power .
= = = Hurricane Bill = = =
As Ana regenerated into a tropical depression , a new tropical depression developed early on August 15 southwest of the Cape Verde Islands . Light wind shear and warm waters allowed the depression to steadily intensify , becoming Tropical Storm Bill later that day . By August 17 , Bill attained hurricane @-@ status about midway between the Cape Verde Islands and the Lesser Antilles . Eventually the hurricane attained its peak intensity as a Category 4 storm roughly 345 mi ( 555 km ) east @-@ northeast of the Leeward Islands . The storm attained maximum winds of 130 mph ( 215 km / h ) , the highest of any storm during the season , before weakening slightly as it turned north . The large storm passed roughly 175 mi ( 280 km ) west of Bermuda as a Category 2 hurricane . Further weakening took place as Bill brushed the southern coast of Nova Scotia the following day . Shortly before making landfall in Newfoundland , Bill weakened to a tropical storm and accelerated . The storm eventually transitioned into an extratropical cyclone after moving over the north Atlantic before being absorbed by a larger non @-@ tropical low on August 24 .
Two people were killed by the storm 's large swells — one in Maine and another in Florida . The hurricane came close enough to warrant tropical cyclone watches and warnings in both the US and Canada . Bill was one of three tropical storms active on August 16 . Large , life @-@ threatening swells produced by the storm impacted north @-@ facing coastlines of Puerto Rico and Hispaniola as Hurricane Bill approached Bermuda . Along the coasts of North Carolina , waves averaging 10 ft ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) in height impacted beaches . On Long Island , beach damage was severe ; in some areas the damage was worse than Hurricane Gloria in 1985 . In New York , severe beach erosion caused by the storm resulted in over $ 35 @.@ 5 million in losses .
= = = Tropical Storm Claudette = = =
Just one day after the formation of Hurricane Bill , the season 's third named storm developed on August 16 . Forming out of a tropical wave and an upper @-@ level low pressure system , Claudette quickly intensified into a tropical storm offshore south of Tallahassee , Florida . By the afternoon , the storm had attained winds of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) and steadily tracked towards the Florida Panhandle . Early on August 17 , the center of Claudette made landfall on Santa Rosa Island . Several hours after landfall , the storm weakened to a tropical depression and the Hydrometeorological Prediction Center took over primary responsibility of the storm . The system quickly dissipated and was last noted over Alabama on August 18 .
The National Hurricane Center issued tropical storm warnings for the Florida coastline and residents in some counties were advised to evacuate storm @-@ surge @-@ prone areas . Tropical Storm Claudette , produced moderate rainfall across portions of Florida , Georgia , and Alabama between August 16 and 18 . Two people were killed offshore amidst rough seas from the storm . An EF @-@ 0 tornado spawned by the storm in Cape Coral damaged 11 homes , leaving $ 103 @,@ 000 in damages . Additional damages to coastal property and beaches amounted to $ 125 @,@ 000 as a result of Claudette .
= = = Tropical Storm Danny = = =
Around the same time the remnants of Hurricane Bill dissipated over the northern Atlantic , a new tropical storm developed near the Bahamas on August 26 . The system , immediately declared Tropical Storm Danny on its first advisory , erratically moved in a general northwestward direction . Danny attained peak winds of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) before succumbing to high wind shear . After turning northward , the storm weakened and was eventually absorbed by another low pressure system off the east coast of the United States early on August 29 . High waves from Danny killed a boy in the Outer Banks .
= = = Tropical Storm Erika = = =
On September 1 , the season 's fifth named storm , Tropical Storm Erika , formed east of the Lesser Antilles . Upon forming , the storm had attained its peak intensity with winds of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) . Persistent wind shear prevented the system from intensifying and resulted in the storm 's convection being completely displaced from the center of circulation by the time it passed over Guadeloupe on September 2 . After entering the Caribbean Sea , Erika briefly regained strength before fully succumbing to strong shear . The system eventually dissipated on September 4 , to the south of Puerto Rico . Damages were minor , though one island received several inches of rain .
= = = Hurricane Fred = = =
Several days after Erika dissipated , a new tropical depression formed southeast of the Cape Verde Islands on September 7 . This depression rapidly intensified within an environment of low wind shear and high sea surface temperatures . Receiving the name Fred on September 8 , the storm quickly developed an eye feature and was upgraded to a hurricane roughly 24 hours after being named . Within a 12 ‑ hour span , the storm 's winds increased by 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) to its peak of 120 mph ( 195 km / h ) . Upon reaching this intensity , Fred became the strongest storm on record south of 30 ° N and east of 35 ° W in the Atlantic basin . Not long after the intensification ceased , it began to weaken as dry air became entrained within the system . By September 11 , the storm nearly stalled northwest of the Cape Verde Islands and weakened to a tropical storm . The following day , Fred degenerated into a remnant low before taking a westward track across the Atlantic . The remnants of Fred persisted for nearly a week , nearly regenerating into a tropical depression several times . The low eventually dissipated on September 19 , to the south of Bermuda .
= = = Tropical Depression Eight = = =
In late September , a new , well @-@ defined tropical wave moved off the west coast of Africa into the Atlantic Ocean . By September 25 , the system had developed sufficient deep convection for the NHC to classify it as Tropical Depression Eight . At this time , the depression attained its peak intensity with winds of 35 mph ( 55 km / h ) and a minimum pressure of 1008 mbar ( hPa ) . Shortly thereafter , wind shear and decreasing sea surface temperatures caused the depression to weaken . The system degenerated into a remnant low on September 26 before degenerating into a trough of low pressure .
= = = Tropical Storm Grace = = =
Originating from an extratropical cyclone east of Newfoundland on September 27 , the precursor to Tropical Storm Grace tracked southeastward towards the Azores , gaining subtropical characteristics . After executing a counterclockwise loop between October 1 and 3 , deep convection wrapped around a small circulation center that had developed within the larger cyclone . On October 4 , this smaller low developed into a tropical storm while situated near the Azores Islands , becoming the northeastern @-@ most forming Atlantic tropical cyclone on record . The storm quickly turned northeastward and intensified , developing an eye @-@ like feature as it attained peak winds of 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) and a minimum pressure of 986 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 11 inHg ) . It weakened over increasingly colder waters and began merging with an approaching frontal boundary . Early on October 6 , Grace transitioned into an extratropical cyclone before dissipating later that day near Wales .
Although Grace passed through the Azores Islands , the storm had little known effects there . In Europe , the system and its remnants brought rain to several countries , including Portugal , the United Kingdom and Belgium . No fatalities were linked to Grace and overall damage was minimal .
= = = Tropical Storm Henri = = =
A tropical wave left the coast of Africa on October 1 , moving westward with intermittent showers and thunderstorms . On October 5 , the system became better organized , and a low pressure area formed . Although the thunderstorms were displaced east of the center of circulation and the probability for development was never high , the disturbance became a tropical depression around 0000 UTC on October 6 about 775 mi ( 1 @,@ 247 km ) east of the Lesser Antilles . Operationally , the storm was not designated a tropical cyclone until later on October 6 , when it was immediately declared a tropical storm .
Affected by strong wind shear , Henri remained disorganized with its center located on the western edge of the convection . Moving northwestward , Henri intensified slightly to peak winds of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) on October 7 after the convection increased . Shortly thereafter , the wind shear grew stronger , and on October 8 the storm weakened to a tropical depression . The structure became further disorganized with several low @-@ level vortices . Just twelve hours after weakening into a depression , Henri degenerated into a remnant area of low pressure . The remnants continued northwestward before turning to the west @-@ southwest due to a ridge . On October 11 , the storm 's circulation dissipated near Hispaniola , having never impacted land .
= = = Hurricane Ida = = =
The final storm of the 2009 season formed over the southern Caribbean Sea on November 4 . The slow moving system quickly developed into Tropical Storm Ida within a favorable environment as it neared the coastline of Nicaragua . Several hours before moving over land , Ida attained hurricane @-@ status , with winds reaching 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) . Hours after moving inland , Ida weakened to a tropical storm and further to a tropical depression as it turned northward . On November 7 , the depression re @-@ entered the Caribbean Sea and quickly intensified . Early on November 8 , the system re @-@ attained hurricane intensity as it rapidly intensified over warm waters . Ida attained its peak intensity as a Category 2 hurricane early the next day with winds of 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) as it moved over the Yucatan Channel . Not long after reaching this intensity , Ida quickly weakened to a tropical storm as it entered the Gulf of Mexico . Despite strong wind shear , the storm briefly re @-@ attained hurricane status for a third time near the southeastern Louisiana coastline before quickly weakening to a tropical storm . Shortly before moving inland over the southern United States , Ida transitioned into an extratropical cyclone . The remnants of Ida persisted until November 11 , at which time the low dissipated . Remnant energy from Ida provided energy for another system which became a powerful nor 'easter , causing significant damage in the Mid @-@ Atlantic States . The resulting storm came to be known as Nor 'Ida .
In the southern Caribbean , Hurricane Ida caused roughly $ 2 @.@ 1 million in damage in Nicaragua after destroying numerous homes and leaving an estimated 40 @,@ 000 people homeless . Ida also produced significant rainfall across portions of western Cuba , with some areas recording up to 12 @.@ 5 in ( 320 mm ) of rain during the storm 's passage . In the United States , the hurricane and the subsequent nor 'easter caused substantial damage , mainly in the Mid @-@ Atlantic States . One person was killed by Ida after drowning in rough seas while six others were killed in various incidents related to the nor 'easter . Overall , the two systems caused nearly $ 300 million in damage throughout the country .
= = Storm names = =
The following names were used for named storms in the North Atlantic in 2009 . Names that were not used are marked in gray . This is the same list used in the 2003 season with the exception of Fred , Ida , and Joaquin , which replaced Fabian , Isabel , and Juan , respectively . The names Fred and Ida were used for Atlantic storms for the first time in 2009 , as the name Joaquin was not used during the course of this season . There were no names retired this year ; thus , the same list was used again in the 2015 season .
= = Season effects = =
This is a table of all of the storms that formed in the 2009 Atlantic hurricane season . It includes their duration , names , landfall ( s ) – denoted by bold location names – damages , and death totals . Deaths in parentheses are additional and indirect ( an example of an indirect death would be a traffic accident ) , but were still related to that storm . Damage and deaths include totals while the storm was extratropical , a wave , or a low , and all of the damage figures are in 2009 USD .
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= Bessas ( general ) =
Bessas ( Greek : Βέσσας , before 480 – after 554 ) was an East Roman ( Byzantine ) general of Gothic origin from Thrace , primarily known for his career in the wars of Justinian I ( reigned 527 – 565 ) . He distinguished himself against the Sassanid Persians in the Iberian War and under the command of Belisarius in the Gothic War , but after Belisarius ' departure from Italy he failed to confront the resurgent Goths and was largely responsible for the loss of Rome in 546 . Returning east in disgrace , despite his advanced age he was appointed as commander in the Lazic War . There he redeemed himself with the recapture of Petra , but his subsequent idleness led Justinian to dismiss him and exile him to Abasgia .
= = Origin = =
According to the contemporary historian Procopius of Caesarea , Bessas was born in the 470s and hailed from a noble Gothic family long established in Thrace , belonging to those Goths who had not followed Theodoric the Great when he left in 488 to invade Italy , then held by Odoacer . Procopius remarks on his fluency in Gothic , but another contemporary writer , Jordanes , claims that he hailed from the settlement of Castra Martis , comprising Sarmatians , Cemandrians and certain of the Huns ( Getica 265 ) . This evidence has been variously interpreted , with most modern commentators leaning towards a Gothic identity . Nevertheless , according to Patrick Amory , it is impossible from the sources at hand to draw any definite conclusion about his ethnicity . Amory maintains that Bessas was a typical example of the " blurry ethnographic identity " evidenced in 6th @-@ century Balkan populations , especially among the military .
= = Career in the east = =
Very little is known of Bessas ' early life and career : he joined the imperial army in his youth and according to Procopius was already " experienced in war " by 503 , when the Anastasian War with the Sassanid Persians broke out . He took part in the war as an officer , but nothing is known of his service there . On the other hand , he is probably to be identified with a comes of the same name who was addressed in a letter of the bishop Jacob of Serugh ( d . 521 ) . If this identification is valid , then Bessas was a ( probably moderate ) Monophysite .
Bessas reappears in 531 , during the Iberian War against Persia , when he was appointed dux Mesopotamiae , with Martyropolis as his base . In this capacity , Bessas led 500 cavalry against the Persian force guarding the same frontier sector , comprising 700 infantry and cavalry under the generals Gadar and Yazdgerd . The Byzantines engaged the Persians in battle on the banks of the Tigris and routed them , killing Gadar and taking Yazdgerd captive . Bessas then raided the province of Arzanene and returned to Martyropolis . In retaliation for this Byzantine success , the Persian shah Kavadh I sent against Martyropolis a large army commanded by three senior generals , Bawi , Mihr @-@ Mihroe and Chanaranges . The Persians besieged the city through the autumn , digging trenches and mines , but the garrison , under Bessas and Bouzes , held firm . Finally , the approach of winter , the arrival of large Byzantine forces at nearby Amida , and the news of the death of Kavadh forced the Persian commanders to raise the siege ( in November or December ) . Soon after their withdrawal , a force of Sabir Huns , who the Persians had hired as mercenaries , invaded Roman territory and raided as far as Antioch , but Bessas caught one of their raiding parties and destroyed it , capturing 500 horses and much booty .
= = Actions in Italy = =
In 535 , Bessas was appointed as one of Belisarius ' lieutenants ( along with Constantine and Peranius ) in the expedition against the Ostrogothic kingdom of Italy . He accompanied Belisarius in the early stages of the campaign , from the recovery of Sicily to the siege of Naples , and was present at the latter 's fall in November 536 . From there the Byzantine army advanced on Rome , which it captured without a fight . Belisarius sent Constantine and Bessas to capture various outlying towns , but when he learned that the new Gothic king , Witiges , was marching on Rome , he recalled them . Bessas tarried for a while near the town of Narni , which controlled the direct route from the Gothic capital , Ravenna , over the Apennines to Rome , and there met and defeated the Gothic vanguard in a skirmish .
During the year @-@ long siege of Rome by the Goths , Bessas commanded the troops at the Porta Praenestina gate and distinguished himself in a number of skirmishes . Nothing is known of his role in the subsequent events until 540 , except that it was probably at about this time that he was raised to the rank of patricius . In early 538 , Bessas had protected Belisarius when the general Constantine tried to kill him during a dispute , but by 540 , when Belisarius was preparing to enter Ravenna under pretense of accepting the Gothic offer to become Emperor of the West , he clearly felt that Bessas could not be trusted , and sent him , along with other troublemaking generals such as John and Narses , to occupy remote locations in Italy .
Following the departure of Belisarius in mid @-@ 540 , Bessas remained in Italy . Justinian did not appoint an overall commander to replace Belisarius , and as a result the various Byzantine generals left in Italy failed to co @-@ ordinate their actions . Instead of subduing the last remnants of the Ostrogoths in northern Italy , they retreated to the safety of various fortified cities , allowing the Goths to gather around a new leader , Ildibad . Ildibad marched on Treviso and routed a Byzantine force under Vitalius , whereupon Bessas advanced with his troops to Piacenza . In late 541 , after Totila had become king of the Goths , Bessas and the other Byzantine commanders assembled in Ravenna to co @-@ ordinate their efforts , but the imperial troops were repulsed from Verona and defeated at Faventia by Totila 's Goths . The Goths then invaded Tuscany and threatened Florence , held by the general Justin . Bessas , along with John and Cyprian , marched to Justin 's aid . The Goths retreated before the Byzantine reinforcements , but as the latter pursued , the Goths fell upon them and drove them to flight . After this new defeat the Byzantine commanders dispersed again to various cities and abandoned each other to his fate . Bessas withdrew with his forces to Spoleto .
Nothing is known of his activities from then until early 545 , by which time he was the garrison commander of Rome . Along with the general Conon he was responsible for the city 's defence during the siege by Totila in 546 . During the siege he restricted himself to passive defence , refusing to sally forth from the walls even when Belisarius , who had returned from the east and landed with reinforcements at the nearby Portus Romanus , ordered him to do so . As a result , Belisarius ' attempts to succour the beleaguered city failed . Procopius heavily criticizes Bessas for his conduct during the siege . He neglected of the civilian population of the city and enriched himself by selling the starving populace the grain he had hoarded at exorbitant prices . The civilians were so exhausted by famine that when he finally allowed those who wanted to leave the city to do so , many simply died on the wayside , while others were killed by the Goths . Finally , he proved negligent in the conduct of the defence , and allowed security measures to grow lax : guards slept at their posts , and patrols were discontinued . This allowed four Isaurian soldiers to contact Totila , and on 17 December 546 , the city was betrayed to the Goths . Bessas managed to escape with the greater part of the garrison , but the treasure that he had amassed was left behind for the Goths to enjoy . Following his dismal performance in Italy , Bessas was apparently recalled to Constantinople .
= = Return to the eastern front and command in Lazica = =
Bessas re @-@ appears in 550 , following the failure of a large Byzantine army under the magister militum per Armeniam Dagisthaeus to capture the strategic fortress of Petra in the ongoing war with the Persians over Lazica ( western Georgia ) . To general surprise — and considerable criticism , in view of his advanced age and failure at Rome — Justinian named Bessas as Dagisthaeus ' successor and entrusted him with the conduct of the war in Lazica .
Bessas first sent an expeditionary force to suppress a rebellion among the Abasgians , who neighboured Lazica to the north . The expedition , under John Guzes , was successful , and the Abasgian leader Opsites was forced to flee across the Caucasus to the Sabir Huns . In spring 551 , after a long siege and thanks largely to his own perseverance and bravery , the Byzantines and their Sabir allies ( some 6 @,@ 000 troops ) captured Petra . A few Persians continued to resist from the citadel , but Bessas ordered it torched . Following his victory , he ordered the city walls razed to the ground .
If the capture of Petra redeemed Bessas in the eyes of his contemporaries , his subsequent actions tarnished it again : instead of following up his success and capture the mountain passes connecting Lazica with the Persian province of Iberia , he retired west to the Roman provinces of Pontica and busied himself with its administration . This inactivity allowed the Persians under Mihr @-@ Mihroe to consolidate Persian control over the eastern part of Lazica . The Byzantine forces in Lazica withdrew west to the mouth of the Phasis , while the Lazi , including their king Gubazes and his family , sought refuge in the mountains . Despite enduring harsh conditions in the winter of 551 – 552 , Gubazes rejected the peace offers conveyed by envoys from Mihr @-@ Mihroe . In 552 , the Persians received substantial reinforcements , but their attacks on the fortresses held by the Byzantines and the Lazi were repulsed .
Bessas reappears in the campaign of 554 , when he was appointed joint commander in Lazica with Martin , Bouzes and Justin . Gubazes , though , soon protested to Justinian about the incompetence of the Byzantine generals . Bessas was dismissed , his property was confiscated , and he was sent in exile among the Abasgians . Nothing more is known about him thereafter .
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= Irresistible ( Jessica Simpson album ) =
Irresistible is the second studio album by American recording artist Jessica Simpson , released on May 25 , 2001 , through Columbia Records . Simpson , who began working on the project in July 2000 , contacted already established writers and producers to collaborate on the project , including Cory Rooney , Rodney Jerkins , and Walter Afanasieff . In contrast to her debut album Sweet Kisses ( 1999 ) , which included more ballads , Irresistible explored hip hop and R & B genres of music . Simpson described the material as " Mariah Carey meets Britney Spears " , indicating the soulfulness of the songs as well as their contemporary appeal . Lyrical themes addressed in the album include love and heartbreak , sexuality , and self @-@ respect .
Sweet Kisses , which was aimed at an older audience , did not perform well commercially , and so Simpson re @-@ evaluated her career . At the suggestion of her label executives , Simpson modified her image and sound in Irresistible , deciding to delve more into the teen pop and R & B genres , as she felt that restyling herself to match the image of her contemporaries — Spears and Christina Aguilera — would help rejuvenate her career . After its release , Irresistible received mostly negative reviews from critics , most of whom were disappointed by the music ; some of them also felt it was too generic and over @-@ produced . Initially , the album enjoyed commercial success , debuting at number six on the Billboard 200 . It was an improvement from her previous endeavor and the album went on to sell about 850 @,@ 000 copies in the US . It was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for shipments of 500 @,@ 000 copies . Elsewhere , the album was not as successful , reaching number thirteen in Canada and cracking the top forty in Sweden , Japan , and Germany .
Two singles were released from Irresistible . The title track , the album 's lead single , was commercially successful , as it reached the top twenty in charts of eleven countries , including number eleven on the UK Singles Chart , and at number fifteen on the United States ' Billboard Hot 100 . It was followed by " A Little Bit " , which failed to chart in the US , but reached a peak position of number sixty @-@ two in Australia . Simpson performed songs from Irresistible on a number of occasions . In 2001 she embarked on her first headlining tour , titled the DreamChaser Tour , to promote the album .
= = Background = =
Simpson signed a record deal with Columbia Records in 1998 and the next year she released her debut album titled Sweet Kisses . The album featured mostly ballads , and was targeted at a more mature audience than the works of her contemporaries , Britney Spears and Christina Aguilera . Simpson even stayed true to her Christian beliefs and dressed conservatively , unlike her peers . The album only managed a peak of number twenty @-@ five on the US Billboard 200 , far from the success of her contemporaries . This led Simpson to reevaluate her career and although she was enjoying some success , she felt she could improve on this . Feeling her more " innocent " image would halt her career from developing further , Simpson adopted a sexier image and newer sound , at the suggestion of the Columbia executives .
She moved into the teen @-@ pop genre , as she felt that restyling herself to match the image of Spears and Aguilera would help remake her career . She separated from her then @-@ boyfriend Nick Lachey , in March 2001 , feeling the need to concentrate on her career . Her new image was promoted through appearances on many events , where Simpson wore revealing outfits . The development of this image coincided with the production and release of her second studio effort , Irresistible . Simpson said that she wanted to portray a " sexier , more mature style " in her new album . " I recorded Sweet Kisses when I was 17 years old and I 'm 21 [ this month ] so there is four years of growth involved , " Simpson said in an interview with Coventry Newspapers in July 2001 . In an interview with Cosmopolitan in June 2001 , she explained , " This record is about who I am now . The music is edgier , and I 'm all grown up . " According to Terri Doughtery , author of People in the News : Jessica Simpson and Nick Lachey , Simpson hoped her new image would bring more attention to the power of her voice . " It 's not just me singing about being in love . I also have heartbreak songs and girls telling off guys songs . It 's going to take me a while to recoup [ on ] this album , because we spent a lot of money on it , " Simpson said to Entertainment Weekly .
= = Development = =
Simpson started working on the album in mid @-@ July 2000 . While compiling songs for Sweet Kisses , she had expressed inconvenience when a track 's lyrics were too suggestive or delivered a message she did not agree with and thus asked for its modification . However , for Irresistible , she decided to let Tommy Mottola , the CEO of Columbia , take control of the whole project . He enlisted many established composers and producers for the album , hand @-@ picked each song for the track list , and rejected those he felt were not so good . Although she had previously announced that she would write a few songs for her second album , Simpson does not share songwriting credits on any of the tracks . On being asked why , she said that she was very shy when it came to songwriting and felt that it requires a lot of " bravery " to write songs . She also expressed that she could not find the right words for the songs and hence did not write for the record . According to Simpson , the album did not have a definite concept or theme ; Mottola selected songs which they felt were good enough for Simpson and compiled them into an album .
Described as being very sexy and more grown up by Simpson , the opening title track was written by the Swedish duo Anders Bagge and Arnthor Birgisson , in collaboration with English singer @-@ songwriter Pamela Sheyne . Birgisson told music technology magazine Sound on Sound that they started developing the song after Sheyne proposed the title and concept . Bagge and Birgisson developed the melody and completed the song 's lyrics . Sheyne also sings backing vocals in the song . " A Little Bit " was written by Kara DioGuardi , along with Steve Morales and David Siegal . Although she had the written songs for other artists including Kylie Minogue and Martine McCutcheon , the song became DioGuardi 's first writing credit for an artist from her native country . Simpson said that " the message behind the song is for the guys to listen to the girl . " The next track , " Forever in Your Eyes " , was co @-@ written by Lachey , along with Rhett Lawrence .
Walter Afanasieff , long @-@ time Mariah Carey collaborator , worked with Simpson on three cuts from Irresistible . One of the songs , " When You Told Me You Loved Me " , was written by Afanasieff in collaboration with Billy Mann . In an interview with Allpop , Simpson named the song as one of her favorites and said , " I really base that on a situation of a friend of mine whose parents are divorced . I like the emotion behind that song . " Cory Rooney wrote " Hot Like Fire " solely , which Simpson described as " certainly not kid stuff " , a song " with a lot of attitude . " Louis Biancaniello and Sam Watters were also brought in to write and produce songs for the album . One of the cuts , " For Your Love " , according to Simpson , is reminiscent of " I Wanna Love You Forever " ( 1999 ) . Simpson covered the gospel hymn " His Eye is on the Sparrow " as the last song of the album . She said , " I wanted to give my audience a piece of my heart and soul . The message is there 's so much in life that can get you discouraged , but if you trust that you 're being watched over , you have a reason to live and a sense of freedom . It 's different for everyone , but for me , my relationship with God is the way I clear out the shadows that hang in our lives . "
= = Recording and production = =
Motolla selected Cory Rooney as the executive producer of Irresistible . Most of the recording and mixing works were done at Sony Music Studios , New York City and was completed over a time span of eight months . Rooney also coordinated the recording process while Robert Williams miked the vocals . Sony 's C @-@ 800G Tube Condenser Microphone , equipped with a dual large diaphragm and electronically selectable pick @-@ up pattern , was used to record the vocals . In an interview with Sony 's SoundByte magazine in 2002 , Williams said of his choice : " In the studio , it comes down to what you hear . [ ... ] She has such a big range , from a whisper to really belting it out , and you need a microphone that can handle the range without distortion . " He had used the microphone for Simpson 's first album and felt that it suited her well . He also noted that on ballads , " the S 's and wet sounds of lips " are important to the texture of the song . According to him , as Simpson 's vocals tended to be " bright " , he edited the lower ends of her voice to equalize the track .
To mix the tracks , a Sony Oxford Console was used . Audio engineer Mick Guzauski explained to SoundByte that he used the console 's " Automated EQ feature " on the tracks . He said that he could " tailor the frequency responses and dynamics within each song with optimum equalizer at every pitch and level . " For the Afanasieff tracks , the background vocals and overdubs were accomplished on the Oxford console at his Wally World Studio B , at San Rafael , California . Simpson 's label @-@ mate and Latin singer Marc Anthony is featured as a guest vocalist on the ballad " There You Were " . Simpson met Anthony at the taping of the TV special A Christmas in Washington in 2000 . They talked to each other , and proposed recording a song on both of their next albums . They sang the song side by side in the studio and the whole song was completed within six hours . " Forever in Your Eyes " was one of the first songs to be recorded for the album , and was produced by Rhett Lawrence . It was recorded at Sony Music Studios within two hours . Rodney Jerkins , who was acquainted with Mottola , produced two cuts on Irresistible . In an interview with Sony Music Japan , Simpson said that she never met Jerkins in person . He produced and recorded the songs ' music and sent the tape to Columbia , from which " Imagination " and " I Never " were selected . Cory Rooney produced Simpson 's vocals and Tony Maserati mixed the vocals . Initially , Simpson did not want to record " What 's It Gonna Be " as she felt the line " Are you gonna be a dog or a gentleman " was a little awkward . However , due to her record label 's persuasion , she recorded the song and ultimately became fond of it . In order to record the title track , Simpson traveled to Murlyn Music Studios , in Sweden . " A Little Bit " was produced by Ric Wake ; although he produced many songs for the album , only " A Little Bit " made the final cut . The Japanese version of the album contains a bonus track — the Hex Hector remix of " Irresistible " — for which Simpson re @-@ recorded her vocals .
= = Composition = =
Simpson described Irresistible 's material as " Mariah Carey meets Britney Spears ... very mature but accessible to teens . " She said that she wanted to blend house , R & B , pop genres into the record . The opening track , " Irresistible " , is an R & B song with dance @-@ pop influences . It also exhibits elements of pop rock and funk genres , while incorporating latin rhythms . Aside from including a string section , the track features Simpson 's breathy vocals , spoken passages and a mid @-@ section breakdown , where her vocals are " funk @-@ fortified " . According to author Ben Graham , the lyrics of the song see Simpson stripping her famous virginity image down . Bob Waliszewski of Plugged In gave a similar observation of the lyrics , writing that they point to an imminent sexual compromise . " A Little Bit " is a dance @-@ pop song following the same beat @-@ oriented pattern as " Irresistible " . It features piano instrumentation and Simpson sings the lyrics as rapid @-@ fire verses and with start @-@ and @-@ stop hooks . Simpson again adopts breathy vocals , and the lyrics talk about what she expects from her partner : " A little more time , a little less wait / A little more heart , a little less break " . The lyrics also demand healthy changes in her relationship . " Forever In Your Eyes " explores elements of Latin music , as the song is backed by Spanish guitar and infused with hip @-@ hop beats . The lyrics describe a couple in love lying together " all through the night " . " There You Were " is a torchy power ballad which drew comparisons to Simpson 's previous song " Where You Are " ( 2000 ) . The lyrics of the song are a homage to the protagonist 's partner , who changed her life . The song received negative response from critics , with some calling it " sappy " and " unnecessary " . " What 's It Gonna Be " is a bubblegum pop song influenced by ' 80s funk music , which was compared to outtakes from Spears ' Oops ! ... I Did It Again ( 2000 ) . The lyrics deal with Simpson expecting a reply from her lover regarding his fear of commitment .
" When You Told Me You Loved Me " is another power ballad about love , this time utilizing a spanish guitar . Backed by a full 60 piece orchestra , the song and Simpson 's vocals were compared to that of Mariah Carey and Celine Dion . " Hot Like Fire " , which received positive reviews from critics , is a funky mid @-@ tempo number . Compared to the likes of Michael Jackson and Destiny 's Child , the song begins with a " faux " telephone call between Simpson and her friend ; the latter explains that Simpson 's boyfriend has been cheating on her . The lyrics , sung with " hard edge vocals " over synth horns , hip @-@ hop beats , and electronica rhythms , demonstrate Simpson 's annoyance at being cheated on by her boyfriend . " Imagination " is a song with electronic and R & B influences . Rick de Yampert of The Daytona Beach News @-@ Journal commented that the song contained Stevie Wonder @-@ styled funk music . " To Fall in Love Again " and " For Your Love " are ballads ; the former is backed by a 60 piece orchestra , and Peter Marsh of BBC Music noted it " morphs [ ... ] into an R 'n'B tinged slow jam . " It also contains a jazz breakdown , towards its end . Bob Waliszewski wrote that through the latter , " Simpson pledges devotion to a partner " . " I Never " , produced by Darkchild , infuses Spanish guitars , and has an " urban " tinge . The song portrays the theme of self @-@ respect , and has Simpson getting rid of her cheating partner . The closing track , the cover of the hymn " His Eye Is on the Sparrow " , is backed by a gospel choir and " praises God for watching over His children " . Reviewers called it one of the standout tracks from the album . According to Kirsten Koba of PopMatters , Simpson sings it " with a depth and passion that is lacking on the rest of the album . "
= = Artwork , title and release = =
The album artwork for Irresistible was shot by Alberto Tolot in April 2001 . The front sleeve cover shows Simpson , wearing heavy makeup and with blond hair , dressed in a semi @-@ transparent shirt , raising it a bit to expose her navel . Simpson said " God gave me my body , you know . I 'm just doing what I can to make it look good . " Later in an interview with the Orlando Sentinel , she said that the album art was " a sign of confidence " . However , the cover received negative attention from many critics , including the conservative Christian publication Plugged In , which was a strong supporter of Simpson and her virgin image , and Sweet Kisses . They stated , " If anything , Irresistible copes with temptation by yielding to it which , in conjunction with Simpson 's general immodesty , models a dubious sexual ethic . " Canadian music magazine Chart also gave a negative response , writing " it takes more than wearing see @-@ through clothes , with airbrushed , non @-@ existent nipples , to show that you have matured . " A few critics criticized the art for being digitally edited , while others commented on Simpson 's similarity to Spears . The Japanese version of the album has the same front sleeve artwork as that of " Irresistible " single .
The title of the album was tentatively set to be Hot Like Fire , later changed to Imagination , before being confirmed to be Irresistible on March 16 , 2001 . In the United States , Irresistible was initially slated for release on March 20 , 2001 . However , due to undisclosed reasons , the release was pushed to June 5 , 2001 . A listening party was arranged by AOL on June 4 , 2001 , a day before the album 's release date . The album 's release was celebrated with a release party at the New York Water Club . Simpson rode down Manhattan 's East River on a yacht decorated with banners for the celebration , which included a water ski show , a fireboat spraying water , and fireworks . Simpson said the album 's release was a critical moment in her career , one " which could send her to stardom or obscurity . " In an interview , she said " I 'm right there ready to explode . " " Or I could go pfft [ sic ] . No one could ever hear from me again , " she added . In the United Kingdom , Irresistible was released on July 16 , 2001 , and in Japan on May 25 , 2001 .
= = Critical reception = =
Upon release , Irresistible was not well received by critics who said the album sounded generic and over @-@ produced . Chuck Campbell of Daily News gave the album a rating of 2 @.@ 5 out of 5 . He said the album was " nothing but a footnote " , and remarked that the songs sounded too similar to works by Spears and Aguilera . He concluded by commenting on Simpson 's version of " His Eye Is on the Sparrow " : " So if her pop fortunes fail , perhaps she 'll find some contemporary Christian singers to imitate . " Teresa Gubbins of The Dallas Morning News wrote that it " doesn 't do much to set her apart . It 's likable but definitely not distinctive – just another formulaic entry into the already saturated teen @-@ pop field . " She gave the album a grade of C.
David Browne of Entertainment Weekly gave the album a D and said that it " should have been called ' Relentless ' . Exploiting every cliché in the pop 2001 handbook – florid ballads seemingly formulated for movie soundtracks [ ... ] it quite literally hits you baby , and more than one time . " Although he gave Simpson credit for being able to sing , he said that she did it in a " talent show manner " . Kirsten Koba of Popmatters commented that " Irresistible is more reminiscent of trips to the dentist 's office , or any equally oppressive place that only plays adult contemporary schlock . " Barry Walters of Rolling Stone wrote that except " Hot Like Fire " , every other track on Irresistible needed remixing . He concluded by saying , " With so many teen @-@ pop choices , this prom @-@ queen cyborg remains redundant and reactionary . " Sal Cinquemani of Slant called the album a " lackluster sophomore " effort . He commented that there was no " original note " on the album and compared the tracks to those by Spears .
Allmusic critic Stephen Thomas Erlewine graded the album 2 @.@ 5 stars out of 5 , and commented that the album was " filled with frothy , sugary pop tunes . " He said that , apart from the title track and " A Little Bit " , none of the songs " register as songs – they 're just stylish background music . " He concluded by commenting , " it 's a bit of the inverse of Sweet Kisses , which was too heavy on ballads , and , like that record , this is the work of pros , so it sounds fine as it plays but it lacks a song as strong as ' I Think I 'm in Love With You ' to anchor it – so it floats away from memory . " Peter Marsh of the BBC said the album sounded like a mixture of Spears , Aguilera , Carey and Dion , and wrote that it covered all the " bases " . Larry Printz of The Morning Call called the album " pleasant , palatable modern pop . " He wrote that the album was " clearly the best of the lot " , and commended Simpson 's vocals . Chuck Taylor of Billboard described " What 's It Gonna Be " like " another bid for chart domination " . He viewed the album as " a great step forward for youth pop and sure footing for [ this ] glamorous talent . "
= = Commercial performance = =
In the United States , Irresistible debuted at number six on the Billboard 200 , the week dated June 23 , 2001 . It sold 120 @,@ 000 copies in its first week , a major improvement over Sweet Kisses , which sold just 65 @,@ 000 copies in its first week . However , the album dropped to number twelve the following week , before falling to number twenty @-@ five the week after . The album stayed on the charts for just sixteen weeks , and was ranked at number 171 on the Billboard 200 @-@ year @-@ end albums chart . It was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for shipments of 500 @,@ 000 copies in the country , and as of February 2009 , Irresistible had sold 755 @,@ 000 copies in the US . In Canada , Irresistible debuted at number fifteen on the Canadian Albums Chart for the week dated June 23 , 2001 . It ascended to its peak of number thirteen the following week before dropping out of the top twenty the week after . Irresistible was certified gold by the Canadian Recording Industry Association ( CRIA ) in April 2005 , for shipments of 50 @,@ 000 units .
Overseas , in Australia , the album debuted at number eighty @-@ one on the ARIA Albums Chart , in the issue dated September 17 , 2001 . It dropped out of the chart the next week . Similarly , Irresistible debuted at number seventy @-@ five on the Austrian Albums Chart , the week of August 5 , 2001 . It rose to its peak position of number fifty @-@ eight the next week . In Switzerland , the album debuted at number twenty , the week dated July 8 , 2001 . After attaining its peak position of number fifteen , it dropped to number sixteen . The album stayed on the charts for a total of ten weeks , including one re @-@ entry at number ninety @-@ five on September 16 , 2001 . In Japan , Irresistible debuted at number twenty @-@ five on the Oricon Albums Chart , with sales of 9 @,@ 560 copies . The following week , it ascended to number twenty @-@ four with additional sales of 12 @,@ 430 units . The album stayed in the top 100 for six weeks , and according to Oricon , has sold 44 @,@ 580 copies in Japan . In the United Kingdom , Irresistible peaked at a position of number 103 . The album saw moderate success in Germany , where it peaked at number thirty @-@ four , and stayed on the chart for three weeks . According to The Daytona Beach News @-@ Journal , the album has achieved multiplatinum sales worldwide .
= = Promotion = =
As a part of promotion , Simpson performed tracks from the album on several televised appearances and occasions , including Macy 's 4th of July Fireworks Spectacular , in celebration of Independence Day , and the 2001 Dick Clark 's New Year 's Rockin ' Eve . In July 2001 , she performed the tracks , including " Irresistible " at Wango Tango , an annual all @-@ day concert organized by KIIS @-@ FM , in California . She also toured with Destiny 's Child , Nelly , and Eve on MTV 's first Total Request Live ( TRL ) Tour , which spanned thirty dates in the US . In November , she joined the lineup of United Service Organizations ' ( USO ) Tour , to entertain the US troops fighting in Operation Enduring Freedom . The tour , which started in Arlington , Virginia , ventured through the Middle East , including Afghanistan . The next month , she joined the cast of KBKS @-@ FM 's Jingle Bell Bash in Seattle . At the event , she performed " Irresistible " , " A Little Bit " , " I Wanna Love You Forever " , and " I Think I 'm in Love with You " . Simpson also promoted the album through performance at MTV 's Spring Break program , held in Cancún , Mexico .
= = = DreamChaser Tour = = =
Apart from the live performances , Simpson went out on a North America only headlining tour titled the DreamChaser Tour . In contrast to her previous co @-@ headlining tour with 98 Degrees , Simpson wanted " DreamChaser " to present her as a singer and a performer , in the mold of Spears . Simpson decided to make the tour risque by adding more backup dancers and wearing skimpier clothing . She took dance lessons for the tour , as she felt that she had to transform herself into a performer . The tour was set up on a portable stage called the " Extreme Mobile Venue " , with a capacity to hold 10 @,@ 000 people , and ran in mall parking lots . The arena featured a 300 feet ( 91 m ) stadium stage , complete with a sound system and lights . Arrangements for concertgoers to bungee jump , climb a rock wall , and go mechanical surfing while the singer was not performing were also provided . The venue featured interactive games and exhibits , and was supported by a 9 @-@ foot ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) -high ramp for extreme motorcycle riders . The tour openers included Eden 's Crush , Youngstown , Toya , and Plus One . It was choreographed by Dan Karaty .
The tour launched on August 7 , 2001 , at Corpus Christi , Texas , and ran twenty @-@ five dates through mid @-@ September . Tickets price ranged between $ 29 @.@ 99 and $ 39 @.@ 99 . In an interview with Deseret News , Simpson said that it " was a fun tour . That was like a preparation for me . It was one of those things where I just wanted to go out and meet all my fans . " A video tape , titled Dream Chaser , was released on January 22 , 2002 , which included Simpson 's biography , music videos , behind @-@ the @-@ scenes looks at " Irresistible " and " A Little Bit " , and footage from the tour . The tape reached number twenty @-@ five on Billboard Top Music Videos chart , for the issue dated February 9 , 2002 .
= = = Singles = = =
The lead single from the album , " Irresistible " , was released on April 12 , 2001 , as a CD single . The song received generally negative reviews from music critics . They criticized the sexuality of its lyrics and the over @-@ usage of digital sound manipulators , with Associated Press calling it " unimaginative " . In 2003 , the song won a Broadcast Music Incorporated ( BMI ) " Pop Music Award " . " Irresistible " became a moderate commercial success , peaking within the top twenty hit in the United States and the United Kingdom . The song was certified gold by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) . The accompanying music video was directed by Simon Brand , and features Simpson dressed as a spy , trying to compromise some evidence in a laboratory .
" A Little Bit " was released as the second single , on October 29 , 2001 . The song was used to promote Bally Total Fitness and thus , a limited CD single pressing was made available to people who joined the club . The song only managed to reach number sixty @-@ two on the Australian Singles Chart . A music video , directed by Hype Williams , features Simpson dancing in a futuristic spaceship @-@ like setting , with her backup dancers . " When You Told Me You Loved Me " was planned as the album 's third single but later canceled . The single however charted and peaked at number 192 on the South Korean Download Chart .
= = Track listing = =
= = Personnel = =
Credits adapted from Irresistible liner notes .
Musicians
Production
= = Recording locations = =
Adapted from Irresistible liner notes .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
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= Charles Pomeroy Stone =
Charles Pomeroy Stone ( September 30 , 1824 – January 24 , 1887 ) was a career United States Army officer , civil engineer , and surveyor . He fought with distinction in the Mexican – American War , earning two brevet promotions for his performance in the conflict . After resigning and surveying for the Mexican Government , he returned to the U.S. Army to fight in the American Civil War .
Stone was reportedly the first volunteer to enter the Union Army , and during the war he served as a general officer , noted for his involvement at the Battle of Ball 's Bluff in October 1861 . Held responsible for the Union defeat , Stone was arrested and imprisoned for almost six months , mostly for political reasons . He never received a trial , and after his release he would not hold a significant command during the war again . Stone later served again with distinction as a general in the Egyptian Army , and is also noted for his role in constructing the base of the Statue of Liberty .
= = Early life = =
Stone was born in Greenfield , Massachusetts , a son of Alpheus Fletcher Stone , the town 's doctor , and his wife Fanny Cushing . In 1841 he entered the United States Military Academy at West Point and graduated four years later , standing seventh out of 41 cadets . He was appointed a brevet second lieutenant of ordnance on July 1 , 1845 .
= = Military career = =
= = = Ordnance officer = = =
Stone stayed at West Point , serving as an assistant professor and teaching geography , history , and also ethics from August 28 , 1845 , to January 13 , 1846 . Afterwards he was posted to the Watervliet Arsenal in New York as Assistant Ordnance Officer , and then to Fortress Monroe at Old Point Comfort , Virginia , both in 1846 . While there Stone worked in the facilities arsenal and was an assistant to Capt. Benjamin Huger , whom he would serve under in the war with Mexico .
= = = Mexican war = = =
Fighting with Maj. Gen. Winfield Scott 's army in the Mexican – American War , Stone was promoted to second lieutenant on March 3 , 1847 . He first saw action during the Siege of Veracruz from March 9 – 29 , then the skirmishing near Amazoque on May 14 , and the Battle of Contreras on August 19 – 20 . Stone then fought notably during the Battle of Molino del Rey on September 8 , and was appointed a brevet first lieutenant from that date for " gallant and meritorious conduct " in this fight .
On September 13 , 1847 , Stone participated in the Battle of Chapultepec , and was appointed a brevet captain for his conduct on that day . He then fought in the Battle for Mexico City until September 15 , and was part of a successful climbing party of the volcano at Popocatepetl , raising an American Flag at its summit . He was an original member of the Aztec Club of 1847 , a military society formed by U.S. Army officers who had served in Mexico .
= = = Pacific coast = = =
After the war with Mexico ended , Stone returned to the Watervliet Arsenal in 1848 , again taking up his position as Assistant Ordnance Officer . He then was granted a leave of absence from the U.S. Army , and proceeded to Europe to study military practices of the armies there for two years . In 1850 he resumed duty at the Watervliet Arsenal briefly , and then was given command of the Ft . Monroe Arsenal into 1851 . Later that year Stone was appointed Chief of Ordnance for the Pacific Department , a post he held until 1855 , and also began construction of the Benicia Arsenal in California that year . During this time he was promoted to the rank of first lieutenant , effective February 26 , 1853 .
Also in 1853 Stone married Maria Louisa Clary , daughter of Esther Philipson and Lt. Robert Emmett Clary , a West Point classmate of Jefferson Davis ; Davis served as best man at Esther 's wedding on March 31 , 1829 . On November 17 , 1856 , he resigned his commission in the U.S. Army , " finding the pay inadequate " for his family . He briefly became a banker in 1856 in San Francisco , but the bank failed the following year due to the " ... absconding of its treasurer . " Stone then went back to Mexico , where he worked in various government jobs . From 1857 to 1860 he surveyed the Mexican state of Sonora , and from 1858 to 1860 he surveyed the lower region of California . Also from 1858 to 1859 Stone served as acting consul at Guaymas , Mexico , the municipal center of Sonora . In 1860 he moved his family back to the U.S. , settling in Washington , D.C. In 1861 he published his survey findings , entitled Notes on the State of Sonora .
= = = Civil War = = =
At the outbreak of secession , Stone found himself in Washington writing his report on Sonora . After a dinner with his former commander Winfield Scott , Stone was requested to be Inspector General of the District of Columbia Militia at the rank of colonel as of January 1 , 1861 , and was thus reputed to be the first volunteer officer mustered into the Union Army before the Civil War . In this role , he secured the capital for the arrival of President @-@ elect Abraham Lincoln , and was personally responsible for security at the new president 's inaugural .
Stone was appointed Colonel of the 14th U.S. Infantry Regiment on May 14 , and then a brigadier general in the Union Army that August , to rank from May 17 . He commanded a brigade in Maj. Gen. Robert Patterson 's Army of the Shenandoah during the First Bull Run campaign in June and July . Stone then was given command of a division , called the Corps of Observation , guarding the fords along the upper Potomac River that fall .
In his efforts to carry out his orders and maintain discipline , Stone drew the attention and wrath of his home state 's governor , John A. Andrew , and Charles Sumner , the senior U.S. Senator from Massachusetts , both powerful and influential Radical Republican politicians . In late September Stone issued general orders that required his men " not to incite and encourage insubordination among the coloured servants in the neighbourhood . " When two runaway slaves came into their lines , one of his regiments , the 20th Massachusetts Infantry , promptly caught them and returned them to their owner . This was done in compliance with Stone 's orders as well as both Federal and Maryland law . However , many of the 20th Massachusetts were abolitionists , disagreed with Stone 's insistence on returning runaways back into slavery , and wrote both their families and their representatives about the incident . Governor Andrew strongly reprimanded the colonel of the regiment , who gave the letter to Stone . After reading it Stone wrote back , its contents summarized by military historian Bruce Catton as follows : " this regiment was in United States service now and the governor had no business meddling with discipline , the young lieutenant and the colonel had properly done what they were told to do and were not subject to reprimand from any governor , and would the governor in future please keep his hand off ? "
More heated letters passed between Andrew and Stone , and then Andrew involved Sumner , who quickly and strongly denounced Stone to the U.S. Senate . Stone 's written response to this — described as " in terms so bitter that it almost seemed as if he were challenging the senator to duel " — further inflamed the situation . Stone 's dealings with these two men would have tragic consequences in his near future .
= = = = Ball 's Bluff = = = =
On October 20 , 1861 , Stone was ordered by Maj. Gen. George B. McClellan to conduct a reconnaissance across the Potomac River to report on Confederate activities in Leesburg , Virginia . McClellan also hoped this action , combined with a movement by Brig. Gen. George A. McCall 's division of 13 @,@ 000 men toward Dranesville the day before , would encourage a Confederate withdrawal from the area without an engagement occurring . This message from McClellan 's staff related the situation and outlined Stone 's orders :
General McCall occupied Dranesville yesterday , and is still there . Will send out heavy reconnaissances today in all directions from that point . The general desires that you keep a good lookout upon Leesburg , to see if this movement has the effect to drive them away . Perhaps a slight demonstration on your part would have the effect to move them .
From this order Stone reasonably believed he had support nearby from McCall if needed ; what he did not know was that McClellan had ordered McCall back to his previous position at Langley on October 21 , putting any help for Stone further away . Stone 's division numbered about 10 @,@ 000 men and was posted around Poolesville , Maryland , about eight miles from Leesburg , with portions of his command at points along the Potomac shore . He moved his artillery to Edward 's Ferry along the Potomac , from which he could shell the woods on the opposite side of the river , held by Confederate forces . Stone then sent three small boats with about 100 men from the 1st Minnesota Infantry across , who returned shortly without incident . Near sunset he sent out a small patrol of 20 soldiers of the 15th Massachusetts Infantry to scout toward Leesburg and see whether the Union movements had the desired effect or not . Crossing at Harrison 's Island on the river , these men scaled Ball 's Bluff and encountered what they believed was a Confederate camp of at least thirty men less than a mile inland . The patrol returned to Harrison 's Island around 10 p.m. and reported by messenger to Stone at Edwards Ferry .
In response to this report , Stone thought the Confederate forces were indeed leaving Leesburg , and decided to investigate further . While he led part of his command directly across at Edwards Ferry at 5 p.m. , Stone ordered Col. Charles Devens and 300 men of his 15th Massachusetts to immediately cross over to Ball 's Bluff that night . Stone 's instructions were to " March silently under cover of night to the position of the camp [ and ] attack and destroy it at daybreak ... and return rapidly to the island . " Devens carried out Stone 's orders and made the difficult crossing on three small 10 @-@ man boats , taking him four hours to accomplish . Stone also gave Devens discretion over what to do after the attack ; either hold Leesburg or return to Harrison 's Island . Stone ordered the rest of the 15th Massachusetts over and added the 20th Massachusetts Infantry , under Col. William R. Lee , to this effort as well , and ordered General and U.S. Senator Edward D. Baker to take overall command . Devens found no camp , since an earlier patrol apparently confused corn shocks as tents in the evening shadows ; he halted and asked Stone for instructions , who responded to push closer to Leesburg . Devens determined to hold there , waiting several hours for reinforcements , when skirmishing began at 7 a.m. , before Baker had arrived .
Confederate Col. Nathan G. " Shanks " Evans was in charge of the forces opposing Stone , and when he learned of the crossings he split his 2 @,@ 000 @-@ man command . Three of his regiments were ordered to deal with Stone by blocking the road from Edwards Ferry to Leesburg , while the remainder fought and defeated Baker 's force at Ball 's Bluff . Since Baker sent no updates , Stone had no idea a battle was occurring there , and finding his path blocked by Confederates Stone returned to Edwards Ferry . He then moved toward Harrison 's Island , learned of the defeat at Ball 's Bluff , and quickly asked McClellan for help from McCall , whom he thought nearby but was actually more than twenty miles away .
Stone lost about 1 @,@ 000 men killed , wounded , captured , and drowned during Ball 's Bluff , while the Confederates lost less than 160 . The Union total included Baker , the only sitting U.S. Senator killed in combat when " Four bullets ripped into him , and he was dead before he hit the ground . " . Baker 's death and the action at Ball 's Bluff would have serious consequences for Stone , and also affect the way the American Civil War would be prosecuted . In his official report about the battle on October 24 , McClellan did not hold Stone personally responsible for the defeat , saying " The disaster was caused by errors committed by the immediate Commander — not General Stone . "
= = = = Arrest and imprisonment = = = =
Stone bore the brunt of much public criticism ; the U.S. Congress Joint Committee on the Conduct of the War was established in the wake of Baker 's congressional eulogies and anger over the defeat . This seven @-@ man group called Stone as one of their first witnesses about the Ball 's Bluff affair , and all testimony given by him and 38 others was kept secret . Before the end of October 1861 , Stone 's official report about Ball 's Bluff had been leaked to the New York Tribune newspaper , and in it Stone praised Baker 's bravery but made clear his shortcomings as a field commander . Baker 's congressional allies , among them Governor Andrew and Senator Sumner , openly denounced this report and began to point accusing fingers at Stone , not at Baker . Stone 's loyalty to the Union and position on slavery were more in question than his military abilities and decisions . The committee 's questions accused him of improper and frequent communications with the Confederates , of not re @-@ enforcing Baker , of using his men to protect slaveholder property in Maryland , and of returning runaway slaves to their owners — despite the last two of these following Maryland as well as Federal law . Another problem for Stone defending himself was an order from McClellan forbidding him to give testimony " regarding his [ McClellan 's ] plans , his orders for the movement of troops , or his orders concerning the position of troops . " This made it impossible for Stone to explain his movements to the committee , but kept McClellan out of the investigation as well .
Under a cloud for suspected disloyalty and treason , Stone was arrested just after midnight on February 8 , 1862 , on orders of Maj. Gen. McClellan , who was acting under orders from Secretary of War Edwin M. Stanton , dated January 28 . Awaiting Stone near his home in Washington were 18 soldiers led by Brig. Gen. George Sykes . When Stone approached , Sykes stated " I have now the most disagreeable duty to perform that I ever had — it is to arrest you . " When Stone angrily asked why , Sykes said " I don 't know . It 's by order of Maj. Gen. George B. McClellan , general @-@ in @-@ chief of the army ... I may as well tell you that you are to be sent to Fort Lafayette . " This shocked Stone , who stated " That 's where they send secessionists ! I have been as true a soldier to the Government as any in service . "
Under guard , Stone was ordered to be sent to the military prison at Fort Lafayette by train . When he reached the rail depot at Philadelphia , confusion as to payment for his ticket caused Stone to buy his own ticket . Upon reaching the facility he was put immediately into solitary confinement , but he managed to hire an attorney and waited for official charges to be filed . According to the Articles of War this had to be done within eight days of an arrest , but was never done in Stone 's case . He sent several inquiries to McClellan , to the army 's adjutant general 's office , and to Stanton himself , who stated " ... the charges were being reviewed prior to being publicized ... " , but received no satisfactory explanation .
Contrary to U.S. Army regulations as well , no charges were ever filed against Stone nor did he stand trial . While he was in solitary confinement at Fort Lafayette , he could not exercise , and consequently Stone 's health began to degrade . His physicians protested heavily to Stanton , who ordered him transferred to the military prison at Fort Hamilton . There Stone was allowed to exercise and his condition improved . He stayed at Fort Lafayette for fifty days , and would spend another 139 in Fort Hamilton . Stone was finally released without explanation or apology on August 16 , 1862 . The reason for his release was new legislation written by California Senator James A. McDougall . In a small addition to another bill , McDougall reiterated the Articles of War requirement that official charges be filed within eight days of arrest , but went on to include that any imprisoned officer must be given their trial within thirty days . McDougall also made it clear this legislation applied to those currently under arrest , which covered Stone 's case . It passed the U.S. Congress and was signed into law by President Lincoln on July 17 , 1862 . Stanton then waited the thirty days before releasing Stone .
It may , or may not be that President Lincoln ordered the arrest of Stone . In a communication of September 30 , 1862 , General in Chief H. W. Halleck wrote about Stone ’ s arrest : “ I understood that it was made by the orders of the President . ”
= = = = Release and reassignment = = = =
After his release , Stone returned home to Washington and awaited orders , and also continued to try to clear his name . Despite the arrest and confinement , Stone 's services were still in demand . In September 1862 , as the Maryland Campaign developed , McClellan asked the War Department to re @-@ instate Stone , but Stanton declined . When Maj. Gen Joseph Hooker took over command of the Army of the Potomac in early 1863 , he asked for Stone as his chief of staff , but Stanton denied this request as well . On February 27 , Stone was finally allowed to hear the testimony that caused him to be arrested , and with McClellan no longer his commander Stone could freely answer the accusations . He did this to the Committee 's satisfaction , who soon afterwards published its revised findings , clearing Stone . With the facts now known , the New York Times newspaper editorialized :
General Stone has sustained a most flagrant wrong — a wrong which will probably stand as the very worst blot on the National side in the history of the war .
Without assignment until May , Stone was ordered to the Department of the Gulf , serving as a member of the surrender commission at Port Hudson and in the Red River Campaign as Maj. Gen. Nathaniel P. Banks 's chief of staff . However , on April 4 , 1864 , Stanton ordered Stone mustered out of his volunteer commission as a brigadier general and he reverted to his rank of colonel within the regular army . He served briefly as a brigade commander in the Army of the Potomac during the Siege of Petersburg , but finally resigned from the Army on September 13 , 1864 , before the end of the war .
= = Later life = =
After the American Civil War ended in 1865 , Stone worked as an engineer and later superintendent for Virginia 's Dover Mining Company until 1869 . The following year William T. Sherman , by now the U.S. Army 's Commanding General , recommended Stone for service in the Egyptian Army . From 1870 to 1883 he served as chief of staff and general aide @-@ de @-@ camp for the khedive Isma 'il Pasha of Egypt . While there he was given the rank of lieutenant general and the title of Ferik Pasha . Stone 's career in the Egyptian Army has been described as :
Stone served the Khedive well , implementing a general staff , expanding Egypt 's boundaries , and establishing schools for the education of Egypt 's soldiers and their children . He remained in the service of Khedive Ismail ( and Ismail 's successor , son Tewfik ) for 13 years . When the British bombarded Alexandria , and Arabi led the revolt of the Egyptian army , Stone stayed with Tewfik in Alexandria , even while his wife and daughters were trapped in Cairo .
Stone later returned to the United States , where he worked as an engineer for the Florida Ship Canal Company in 1883 . He also served as the Chief Engineer for the construction of the Statue of Liberty 's pedestal and concrete foundation . He fell ill after the dedication ceremony and died in New York City . Stone is buried in West Point National Cemetery .
Stone 's first wife Maria died in Washington , D.C. , shortly after Stone 's release from Fort Hamilton . While serving in New Orleans during 1863 , Stone fell in love with Jeanne Stone and they had two daughters and a son , John Stone Stone , who later became a pioneer in the field of wireless telegraphy . Stone was also an original founding member of the Aztec Club of 1847 , a social organization for officers who served in the Mexican – American War .
= = Legacy = =
Military historian Ezra J. Warner held Stone 's treatment following Ball 's Bluff in disdain , saying in 1964 :
The arrest and imprisonment of Stone is without parallel in the annals of American military and / or civil jurisprudence .... he was victim of a demonstration on the part of the Joint Committee on the Conduct of the War to avenge the death of one of their colleagues and to make it known that this was war to the knife , and a war to end slavery as well as to preserve the Union .
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= Gangnam Style =
" Gangnam Style " ( Korean : 강남스타일 , IPA : [ kaŋnam sʰɯtʰail ] ) is the 18th K @-@ pop single by the South Korean musician Psy . The song was released on July 15 , 2012 , as the lead single of his sixth studio album Psy 6 ( Six Rules ) , Part 1 , and debuted at number one on South Korea 's Gaon Chart . On December 21 , 2012 , " Gangnam Style " became the first YouTube video to reach one billion views . The song 's music video has been viewed over 2 @.@ 61 billion times on YouTube , and has been YouTube 's most watched video since November 24 , 2012 , when it surpassed the music video for " Baby " by Justin Bieber .
The phrase " Gangnam Style " is a Korean neologism that refers to a lifestyle associated with the Gangnam District of Seoul . The song and its accompanying music video went viral in August 2012 and have influenced popular culture worldwide since then . " Gangnam Style " received mixed to positive reviews , with praise going to its catchy beat and Psy 's amusing dance moves ( which themselves have become a phenomenon ) in the music video and during live performances in various locations around the world . In September 2012 , " Gangnam Style " was recognized by Guinness World Records as the most " liked " video on YouTube . It subsequently won Best Video at the MTV Europe Music Awards held later that year . It became a source of parodies and reaction videos by many different individuals , groups and organizations .
By the end of 2012 , the song had topped the music charts of more than 30 countries including Australia , Canada , France , Germany , Italy , Russia , Spain , and the United Kingdom . As the song continued to rapidly gain popularity and ubiquity , its signature dance moves were attempted by many notable political leaders such as the British Prime Minister David Cameron , U.S. President Barack Obama , and United Nations Secretary @-@ General Ban Ki @-@ moon , who hailed it as a " force for world peace " . On May 7 , 2013 , at a bilateral meeting with South Korea 's President Park Geun @-@ hye at the White House , U.S. President Barack Obama cited the success of " Gangnam Style " as an example of how people around the world are being " swept up " by the Korean Wave of culture .
= = Background and release = =
" Gangnam Style " is a Korean neologism that refers to a lifestyle associated with the Gangnam District of Seoul , where people are trendy , hip and exude a certain supposed " class " . The term was listed in Time 's weekly vocabulary list as a manner associated with lavish lifestyles in Seoul 's Gangnam district . Psy likened the Gangnam District to Beverly Hills , California , and said in an interview that he intended in a twisted sense of humor by claiming himself to be " Gangnam Style " when everything about the song , dance , looks , and the music video is far from being such a high class :
People who are actually from Gangnam never proclaim that they are — it 's only the posers and wannabes that put on these airs and say that they are " Gangnam Style " — so this song is actually poking fun at those kinds of people who are trying very hard to be something that they 're not .
The song talks about " the perfect girlfriend who knows when to be refined and when to get wild " . The song 's refrain " 오빤 강남 스타일 ( Oppan Gangnam style ) " has been translated as " Big brother is Gangnam style " , with Psy referring to himself . During an interview with The New York Times , Psy revealed that the Korean fans have huge expectations about his dancing , so he felt a lot of pressure . In order to keep up with expectations , he studied hard to find something new and stayed up late for about 30 nights to come up with the " Gangnam Style " dance . Along the way , he had tested various " cheesy " animal @-@ inspired dance moves with his choreographer , including panda and kangaroo moves , before settling for the horse trot , which involves pretending to ride a horse , alternately holding the reins and spinning a lasso , and moving into a legs @-@ shuffling side gallop .
During an interview with Reuters , Psy claimed that " Gangnam Style " was originally produced only for local K @-@ pop fans . On July 11 , Psy and his music label YG Entertainment started releasing several promotional teasers for " Gangnam Style " to their subscribers on YouTube . On July 15 , 2012 , the full music video of " Gangnam Style " was uploaded onto YouTube and was immediately a sensation , receiving about 500 @,@ 000 views on its first day . However , in Germany , an ongoing dispute between YouTube and the GEMA ( the country 's performance rights organization ) regarding copyright issues has led to thousands of music videos including " Gangnam Style " being blocked in the country .
= = = K @-@ pop and the Korean Wave = = =
According to the news agency Agence France @-@ Presse , the success of " Gangnam Style " could be considered as part of the Korean Wave , a term coined by Chinese journalists to refer to the significant increase in the popularity of South Korean entertainment and culture since the late 1990s .
Korean popular music ( K @-@ pop ) , considered by some to be the most important aspect of the Korean Wave , is a music genre that relies on cultural technology to adapt to the tastes of foreign audiences and has now grown into a popular subculture among teenagers and young adults in many places around the world . Although it has spread to the Middle East , Eastern Europe , and parts of South America , its reception in the Western world has so far been lukewarm . However , social media networks such as YouTube , Facebook and Twitter have made it easier for K @-@ pop musicians to reach a wider audience in the West . According to Mark James Russell from Foreign Policy , while the Korean Wave " may not ( yet ) turn heads in Los Angeles or London " , this could soon change because of " Gangnam Style " .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
The song has received mixed to positive ratings from music critics . Billboard K @-@ Town columnist Jeff Benjamin became one of the first music critics to review the song when he published an article and reported that " Gangnam Style " has gone viral on the Internet . In his article , Benjamin introduced the reader to a couple of popular K @-@ pop songs and wrote that " Gangnam Style " in particular , plays all the right moves sonically while " borrowing from LMFAO along the way " .
The next day , Hallie Sekoff of The Huffington Post quoted from the video 's official YouTube video description that the song is characterized by its " strongly addictive beats " , and wrote that this is not too far @-@ fetched , considering " how obsessed we 've found ourselves . " London 's mayor Boris Johnson considered the song to be the greatest cultural masterpiece of 2012 .
Despite its popularity , a few music critics including Robert Copsey from Digital Spy criticized the song for being monotonous . Cospey wrote that " you could slap an LMFAO tag on the cover and few would know the difference " and Paul Lester of The Guardian similarly labelled it as " generic ravey Euro dance with guitars " . Lester described the song as " Pump Up the Jam meets the Macarena with a dash of Cotton Eye Joe " while Robert Myers of The Village Voice dismissed " Gangnam Style " as an " inspired piece of silliness " .
= = = = South Korea and Japan = = = =
Cha Woo @-@ jin , a South Korean music critic , told The Chosun Ilbo that " Gangnam Style " ' s sophisticated rendering and arrangement has made it very appealing to the general public . Choe Kwang @-@ shik , the South Korean Minister of Culture , Sports and Tourism , told reporters that " Gangnam Style " had played an important role in introducing the Korean culture , language , and lifestyle to the rest of the world . However , some have criticized the song for failing to accurately represent South Korean culture . Oh Young @-@ Jin , managing editor of The Korea Times , wrote that the dance has more to do with Americans than Koreans .
In Japan , the song has met with considerable criticism . When " Gangnam Style " first appeared in Japanese TV shows in July , the reaction from viewers was negative . As a result , Psy 's Japanese record label YGEX cancelled a previously planned Japanese language re @-@ release of " Gangnam Style " . According to The Dong @-@ a Ilbo , a South Korean newspaper , the song 's lukewarm reception in Japan could have been caused by a diplomatic conflict between the two countries and the newspaper accused the Japanese media of keeping its people " in the dark " . However , Jun Takaku of the Japanese daily newspaper Asahi Shimbun explained that " Gangnam Style " had caused " barely a ripple in Japan " because Psy does not conform to the image of other " traditionally polished " K @-@ pop acts popular in Japan such as Girls ' Generation and TVXQ . Erica Ho from Time magazine similarly noted that despite the K @-@ pop musical genre being very popular in Japan , the country seemed to be " immune to PSY Mania " and she advised her readers who dislike the song to " pack your bags for Japan " .
Immediately after its release , " Gangnam Style " was mentioned by various English @-@ language websites providing coverage of Korean pop culture for international fans , including Allkpop and Soompi . Simon and Martina Stawski , a Canadian couple living in Seoul who were among the first to parody " Gangnam Style " in late July , wrote that the song has the potential to become " one of the biggest songs of the year " . However , during an interview with Al Jazeera a few weeks later , Martina Stawski claimed that the worldwide popularity of " Gangnam Style " has been viewed negatively by some K @-@ pop fans , because " they [ the fans ] didn 't want K @-@ pop being liked by other people who don 't understand K @-@ Pop " . This view is also supported by the British journalist and K @-@ pop fan Promi Ferdousi , who wrote that the song has managed to " find its way into our clubs " while the best K @-@ pop songs are limited to niche groups on social media websites .
= = Live performances = =
= = = Asia = = =
Following the release of " Gangnam Style " , Psy made several performances on television and at concerts in Korea . Early performances included his appearance on the weekly South Korean music program , The Music Trend . Psy also performed at several concerts prior to his departure to the United States , including during " The Heumbbeok Show " and the Summer Stand Concert in Seoul . After returning to South Korea , Psy performed " Gangnam Style " during a free concert that he held outside the Seoul City Hall . More than 80 @,@ 000 fans attended the event , leading to the closure of part of the city center and an increase in subway operations . While Psy was in the US , it was announced that he , as ambassador of the Formula One Korean Grand Prix , would perform " Gangnam Style " at the event during the 2012 edition . At the event Psy taught Formula One drivers Mark Webber and Sebastian Vettel how to perform the dance .
On November 28 , Psy visited Thailand and held his concert " Gangnam Style Thailand Extra Live " at the SCG Stadium in Muang Thong Thani , Bangkok . At the show , a part of celebration for the 85th birthday of Thai 's King Bhumibol Adulyadej , he performed the song along with his other hits . During the 2012 Mnet Asian Music Awards held in Hong Kong on November 30 , he performed the song on stage , joined by the video 's co @-@ star Hyuna and Yoo Jae @-@ Seok look @-@ alikes in yellow suits . The track was one of three @-@ song setlist on Psy 's free showcase , held at the Marina Bay Sands in Singapore on December 1 , 2012 .
On February 11 , 2013 , Psy arrived at the Malaysian state of Penang and performed " Gangnam Style " at a concert in front of more than 100 @,@ 000 guests , including the Prime Minister of Malaysia Mohd Najib Abdul Razak as well as other high @-@ ranking politicians from the country 's ruling Barisan Nasional party .
= = = Oceania = = =
In early October 2012 , Psy travelled to Sydney , Australia and performed " Gangnam Style " on The X Factor , a reality TV music competition , where Melanie Brown joined him in performing the " horse dance " on stage . The following day , he performed on breakfast TV show Sunrise in Martin Place , Sydney .
= = = Europe = = =
Psy 's first public performance in Europe was on November 5 , 2012 in France , where he and 20 @,@ 000 fans danced " Gangnam Style " in front of the Eiffel Tower in Paris during a flashmob organized by NRJ Radio . Then , he travelled to Oxford and performed a short rendition of " Gangnam Style " with students from the Oxford Union , before moving on to the Yalding House in London where he danced " Gangnam Style " with the BBC 's radio DJ Scott Mills . Shortly afterwards , Psy left for Cologne and met up with the German comedian and television host Stefan Raab during the popular late @-@ night show TV total , where Psy gave an interview and performed " Gangnam Style " for Raab . During the 2012 MTV Europe Music Awards held in Frankfurt on November 11 , Psy delivered a performance of " Gangnam Style " which featured a David Hasselhoff appearance and backup dancing of Psy look @-@ alikes .
In early 2013 , Psy returned to France for the 2013 NRJ Music Awards at the Palais des Festivals et des Congrès in Cannes , where he began performing " Gangnam Style " on the red carpet before finishing the rest of the choreography on stage and leaving the ceremony with 3 awards .
= = = North America = = =
Following the viral success of his music video , Psy left for the United States and performed " Gangnam Style " in various locations . On August 20 , Psy posted on Twitter " Bringing # GangnamStyle to the Dodgers – Giants game this evening " . Dodger Stadium presented a segment called " Psy Dance Cam " where they showed clips of the music video , followed by live shots of baseball fans dancing , and then Psy , who waves and does the dance . Two days later , Psy appeared on VH1 's Big Morning Buzz Live show , and taught television hosts Carrie Keagan and Jason Dundas how to dance " Gangnam Style " .
On September 6 , Psy appeared at the 2012 MTV Video Music Awards performing his " Gangnam Style " dance alongside comedian Kevin Hart . After the event , he would make several more appearances on US TV programs . On September 10 , he appeared on The Ellen DeGeneres Show in Burbank , California , introducing himself as " Psy from Korea " , before teaching Britney Spears the dance . He described the dance as " pretending to bounce like riding on an invisible horse " and when Ellen told Britney she would have to remove her high @-@ heeled shoes to perform the dance Psy protested that no , the point was , ' to dress classy , and dance cheesy . ' On September 14 , he appeared on NBC 's morning program Today in New York City for its Toyota Concert Series , where he performed the song and also taught the anchors the dance . The September 15 season premiere episode of Saturday Night Live featured a sketch based on the song and its video . Bobby Moynihan portrayed Psy , but was joined mid @-@ sketch by Psy himself . He also made his second appearance on The Ellen Show 's September 19 episode to perform the song along with his backup dancers . On September 22 , Psy made an appearance at the iHeartRadio Music Festival to perform " Gangnam Style " . Psy , dressed in a black jacket , blue pants , two @-@ tone shoes and his signature shades , appeared on the US national TV show The View on October 25 and performed the song for Barbara Walters and the ladies of the show who donned sunglasses and got out of their seats .
On November 13 , he joined the American recording artist Madonna on stage during her concert at Madison Square Garden in New York City and they performed a mashup of the song and her 2008 hit " Give It 2 Me " . Psy later told reporters that his gig with Madonna had " topped his list of accomplishments " . On November 18 , Psy , who rocked out in traditional Hammer pants , closed out the 40th American Music Awards show with a performance of " Gangnam Style " , joined by surprise guest MC Hammer who brought in his own moves and Psy 's horse @-@ riding dance as the song mashed into his 1990s hit " 2 Legit 2 Quit " . Jason Lipshutz of Billboard commented that " Psy 's feverish rendition of ' Gangnam Style ' accomplished what so few award show performances can : a palpable sense of excitement . The combination of the K @-@ pop star and MC Hammer ... was a stroke of genius that very few could have seen coming " , choosing it as the best performance of the night . The Tonight Show with Jay Leno did a special Thanksgiving broadcast with an all @-@ military audience on November 22 , and Psy dropped by as the musical guest . The singer sang the song and danced alongside the soldiers , going into the crowd for part of his performance .
Psy performed " Gangnam Style " during the second night of KIIS @-@ FM Jingle Ball concert at Nokia Theatre L.A. Live on December 3 , 2012 . He ― wearing an all @-@ red outfit including a sparkling , sequined top ― sang the song at TNT 's Christmas in Washington special , attended by the US President Barack Obama and his family , and held at the National Building Museum On December 9 . On December 16 , he performed the song at the halftime show of the NFL game between the Buffalo Bills and Seattle Seahawks in Toronto . During the Dick Clark 's New Year 's Rockin ' Eve event at Times Square in Manhattan on December 31 , 2012 , more than one million people witnessed a live " Gangnam Style " performance by Psy as he was joined on stage by characters ( Yoo Jae @-@ Seok , Noh Hong @-@ chul ) from the song 's video for the first part of the performance , before MC Hammer appeared to perform a mash @-@ up of the song and " 2 Legit 2 Quit " .
= = = South America = = =
During the five @-@ day Carnival in Rio attended by more than 5 million people , Psy performed " Gangnam Style " with singers Claudia Leitte and Gilberto Gil to mark the 50th anniversary of Korean immigration to Brazil .
= = Cultural impact = =
After the release of " Gangnam Style " , the American talent manager Scooter Braun , who discovered Justin Bieber on YouTube , asked on Twitter " How did I not sign this guy ( Psy ) " . Soon afterwards , it was reported that Psy had left for Los Angeles to meet with representatives of Justin Bieber , to explore collaboration opportunities . On September 3 , Braun made a public announcement that was later uploaded onto YouTube , saying that he and Psy have decided to " make some history together . [ To ] be the first Korean artist to break a big record in the United States . " On September 4 , it was confirmed that Psy was signed to Braun 's School Boy Records .
The music video for the song has gone viral and is an Internet meme . Although Psy attributed the song 's popularity to YouTube and his fans while at the same time insisted that he is not responsible for the song 's success , the South Korean Ministry of Culture , Sports and Tourism recognized the singer for " increasing the world 's interest in Korea " and announced its decision to award Psy with a 4th Class Order of Cultural Merit .
The phrase " Oppan Gangnam Style " was entered into The Yale Book of Quotations as one of the most famous quotes of 2012 .
= = = Social = = =
As the song 's popularity continued to rise , it caused the share price of the song 's music label YG Entertainment to gain as much as 50 % on the Korea Exchange . DI Corporation , whose executive Chairman Park Won @-@ Ho is Psy 's father , saw its share price increase by 568 @.@ 8 % within a few months of the song 's release despite making a year @-@ over @-@ year loss . Soon , " Gangnam Style " began to attract the attention of several business and political leaders , including UN Secretary @-@ General Ban Ki @-@ moon who recognized the song as a " force for world peace " . During his meeting with Psy at the United Nations Headquarters , he commented , " We have tough negotiations in the United Nations . In such a case I was also thinking of playing Gangnam Style @-@ dance so that everybody would stop and dance . Maybe you can bring UN style . "
Through social networks like Facebook , many small , unofficial fan @-@ organized flash mobs have been held in universities and colleges throughout the world . The earliest flash mobs were held in Pasadena , California , and Sydney , Australia . On September 12 , Times Square in Manhattan was filled with a dance mob dancing to the music of " Gangnam Style " during ABC 's Good Morning America . Major flash mobs ( those with more than 1 @,@ 000 participants ) were also held in Seoul ( South Korea ) , South Sulawesi ( Indonesia ) , Palermo ( Italy ) , Milan ( Italy ) , and Paris ( France ) .
The song has been tweeted by the United Nations , the United Nations Children 's Fund , the American space agency NASA , mentioned by a reporter during a U.S. State Department briefing and referenced by the President of the International Criminal Court Song Sang @-@ Hyun during his speech in front of the UN Security Council . On October 9 , the Mayor of London Boris Johnson held a speech at the 2012 Conservative Party Conference where he told the audience that he and the British Prime Minister David Cameron have danced " Gangnam Style " . A few days before the conference , they had performed the dance at Chequers Court in Buckinghamshire . During a Google Earnings call , Larry Page , the CEO and co @-@ founder of Google , hailed the song as a glimpse of the future of worldwide distribution through YouTube .
The American Council on Exercise estimated that dancing " Gangnam Style " will burn 150 – 200 calories per half @-@ hour and the song was used by Northampton General Hospital to promote hand washing as part of the 2012 Global Handwashing Day on October 15 . Swype , an input method for Android operating systems , included " Gangnam Style " in its list of recognized words and phrases .
U.S. President Barack Obama revealed possible plans to privately perform " Gangnam Style " for his spouse Michelle Obama .
In November 2012 , a Maori cultural group from Rotorua performed a version of the Gangnam Style dance mixed with a traditional Maori haka in Seoul , celebrating 50 years of diplomatic relations between South Korea and New Zealand .
In Thailand , officials from the Dan Sai municipality in Loei Province shot a video of people wearing masks and performing " Gangnam Style " during the Phi Ta Khon " ghost " festival . According to the Thai newspaper The Nation , villagers and spiritual leaders from Loei province felt " uneasy " and also " greatly offended " about this " Gangnam Style " performance which tarnishes the image of a 400 @-@ year @-@ old tradition . Another controversial incident was sparked by a " Gangnam Style " parody by officers from the Royal Thai Navy , which was not well received by some high @-@ ranking commanders . Although Vice Admiral Tharathorn Kajitsuwan from the Third Naval Area Command insisted that " we had no intention to insult or make fun of navy officers in uniform " , some senior officers have called it " improper " . Kajitsuwan claimed that his subordinates had the right to upload the video to YouTube , although he did not expect them to do so . On October 1 , 2012 , he issued an apology to his colleagues . Commander Surasak Rounroengrom believes an investigation is unnecessary because the video caused no damage to the Navy , but he admits that there was some impropriety about military officers doing their " fancy stepping in uniform " .
= = = Popular culture = = =
= = = = Music = = = =
In mid @-@ September , the Brazilian singer Latino released the song " Despedida de solteiro " ( " The Bachelor 's Party " ) , which is supposed to be a cover of " Gangnam Style " . Many felt offended by his disrespectful lyrics , and some have called it a plagiarized copy of " Gangnam Style " . While Psy 's original lyrics talk about the lifestyle of the Gangnam people , Latino 's version is about a man that is enjoying his bachelor 's party in a club , wanting ( and having ) sex with many women , so drunk that he says he does not know if he 's really going to get married the next day . Latino had stated that it was an authorized version .
= = = = Sports = = = =
Since September 2012 , the dance has been performed by athletes in international competitions . These people include :
Serbian tennis player Novak Djokovic ,
Jamaican cricketer Chris Gayle , who danced " Gangnam Style " twice during the West Indies ' match against Ireland and then repeated the act during the 2012 ICC World Twenty20 match against England . Bangladesh national cricket team also celebrated their ODI series win against West Indies with " Gangnam Style " dance on December 8 , 2012 .
Filipino boxer Manny Pacquiao , Uruguayan footballer Edinson Cavani ,
= = = = Television = = = =
In Fall 2012 , a cover version of the song was performed on the Fox TV show Glee in the episode " Thanksgiving " .
The dance was also shown on the Argentine TV series Graduados , performed by the Argentine @-@ Korean actor Chang Kim Sung .
District3 and Rylan Clark , finalists of the British music competition The X Factor , lip @-@ synced and danced to " Gangnam Style " in a promotion .
= = = = Other = = = =
On September 27 , Eric Schmidt , the executive chairman of Google was reported to have danced " Gangnam Style " when he visited the company 's office in Seoul . Nick Carbone from TIME described it as cringe @-@ worthy because " It 's the same reason why you 'd never want to see your dad planking on top of the family car " .
= = = Political and environmental activism = = =
On September 18 , 2012 , the North Korean government became the first to use " Gangnam Style " for political activism when it uploaded a parody with the title " I 'm Yushin style ! " onto the government website Uriminzokkiri . The parody mocks the South Korean ruling conservative party presidential @-@ elect Park Geun @-@ hye . It shows a Photoshopped image of the presidential candidate performing the dance moves of " Gangnam Style " and labels her as a devoted admirer of the Yushin system of autocratic rule set up by her father , Park Chung @-@ hee . A few weeks later , " 草泥马 style " ( literally , " Grass Mud Horse Style " ) , was uploaded onto YouTube and other Chinese websites by the political activist and dissident Ai Weiwei . In his parody , Ai Weiwei dances " Gangnam Style " with a pair of handcuffs as a symbol of his arrest by Chinese authorities in 2011 . According to the Associated Press , government authorities had removed the video from almost all Chinese websites the next day .
South Korean President Park Geun @-@ hye took office on February 25 , 2013 . At her inauguration Psy performed " Gangnam Style " and " Champion " , one of his first hits in his native country .
In order to show his solidarity with Ai Weiwei and to advocate the freedom of expression , the British sculptor Anish Kapoor produced the video Gangnam for Freedom , which features other prominent British artists as well as human rights activists from various international organisations including Index on Censorship and Amnesty International . A few days before , the global grassroots network Students for a Free Tibet had uploaded a parody of " Gangnam Style " to show its support for the Tibetan independence movement . According to Max Fisher from The Washington Post , this parody of " Gangnam Style " was likely to be filmed in Dharamshala , the home of Tibet 's government @-@ in @-@ exile in the northern Indian state of Himachal Pradesh .
Greenpeace announced that it was " Going Gangnam , Greenpeace Style " in order to raise public awareness about illegal and unsustainable fishing practices off the coast of Mozambique . Activists from Greenpeace had parodied " Gangnam Style " on board the organization 's excursion yacht Rainbow Warrior .
Songdo , a ubiquitous city 40 miles ( 65 km ) west of Gangnam , was among five cities vying for the right to host the Green Climate Fund ( GCF ) , a project developed by the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change to channel $ 100 billion a year from developed countries to help developing countries combat climate change . During its campaign to win the right to host the GCF , the country 's Presidential Committee on Green Growth produced a promotional video entitled " GCF Songdo Style by Psy " in which Psy recommends Songdo as the host city for the GCF . He announces that a " new paradigm " will begin at Songdo with the GCF and the video heralds " The beginning of Songdo Style " while " Gangnam Style " plays in the background . On October 20 , 2012 , the Board of the GCF announced that Songdo had won the right to host the fund .
In December 2012 , the Department of Health in the Philippines launched a " Gangnam Style " dance campaign against the use of firecrackers to celebrate the New Year . Janine Tugonon , 2012 Miss Universe 1st runner @-@ up , joined and danced on one of their campaign at Pandacan , Manila . According to the Department 's Assistant Secretary , Dr. Eric Tayag , the popularity of the song will attract people especially children to use safer means of celebration such as dancing " Gangnam Style " . In contrast , the Philippine National Police was confirming intelligence reports about a firecracker named " Gangnam bomb " , which supposedly produced by illegal firecracker makers in Bocaue , Bulacan and apparently riding on the popularity of the song . According to Chief Superintendent Raul Petrasanta , director of the Firearms and Explosives Office of the Philippine National Police , he did not know what the possibly dangerous " Gangnam bomb " looks like .
Muhammad Rahim al Afghani , a close associate of Osama bin Laden currently held at the Guantanamo Bay detention camp , had also used the song to demonstrate his ability to gain access to popular cultural trends despite being confined within a top secret prison . In a letter to his lawyer , Muhammad wrote , " I like this new song Gangnam Style . I want to do the dance for you but cannot because of my shackles . "
= = = Other parodies and covers = = =
Reaction videos and parodies have been made for or with the music respectively . Some of these user generated videos have received international media recognition . " Gangnam Style " -related videos have also been uploaded by the CPDRC Dancing Inmates , Cody Simpson , Seungri , Latino , Fine Brothers , Barely Political , and the Tampa Bay Buccaneers Cheerleaders .
College campuses have spawned numerous parodies . The Massachusetts Institute of Technology 's version ( " MIT Gangnam Style " ) featured Donald Sadoway , recognized in Time Magazine as one of 2012 " Top 100 Most Influential People in the World " , Eric Lander , who is co @-@ chairman of President Barack Obama 's Council of Advisors on Science and Technology , and linguistics pioneer Noam Chomsky . In addition , there are parodies from The Ohio University Marching 110 , York University , McMaster University , Cornell University , University of Oregon , University of Illinois at Urbana – Champaign , Boston University , Dartmouth College , Stanford University Colegio de la Preciosa Sangre de Pichilemu , Eton College , and the University of Michigan .
The American space agency NASA uploaded an educational parody shot by its students at its Mission Control Center in Houston , Texas . The video features cameo appearances by astronauts Tracy Caldwell Dyson , Mike Massimino , Michael Coats , Ellen Ochoa , and the International Space Station 's Expedition 15 flight engineer Clayton Anderson , who dances " Gangnam Style " halfway through the video . Shortly after its upload , the parody was re @-@ tweeted by the European Space Agency and the SETI Institute .
The song was also parodied by cadets from the United States Military Academy , United States Merchant Marine Academy , United States Naval Academy , United States Air Force Academy , and the Royal Military College of Canada ; soldiers from the 210th Fires Brigade , the 2nd Infantry Division , servicemembers from an undisclosed unit and location in Afghanistan , servicemembers from the China Coast Guard 's Jiangsu division , 150 officers from the People 's Liberation Army Air Force , as well as high @-@ ranking officers from the Royal Thai Navy . CollegeHumor uploaded Mitt Romney Style ; while What 's Trending uploaded Obama Style . During the two weeks before August 7 , nearly 1 @,@ 000 videos with the word " Gangnam " in the title were uploaded onto YouTube .
Psy parodied his own video of the song , in an advertisement for pistachio nuts during Super Bowl XLVII .
The Portuguese public broadcaster RTP1 spoofed the song in its late @-@ night show 5 Para A Meia @-@ Noite as Gamar com Style , sung by the comedian Pedro " Pacheco " Fernandes , criticizing the Prime Minister Pedro Passos Coelho , the European Union , the IMF and the 2010 – 13 Portuguese financial crisis .
There are many " Gangnam Style " parodies used for education , similar to " The Elements " , a humorous song in which a man recites the elements on the periodic table to a well @-@ known tune . One such parody includes " Conjugation Style " , a parody used to teach students about the conjugation of -er verbs in the French language .
= = Legacy = =
The success of " Gangnam Style " is a result of the build @-@ up of South Korea 's music industry that has been in the works for over 20 years , and it has led to other K @-@ pop artists positioning themselves for a similar breakthrough in the U.S. music industry . Frances Moore , chief executive of the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry , brought up Gangnam Style as an example of how South Korea became one of the " most successful exporters of repertoire " .
= = = Increased interest in the Korean Wave = = =
According to the news agency Agence France @-@ Presse , the success of " Gangnam Style " has led to the further rise and spread of the Korean Wave to other countries . As the song continued to attract worldwide media attention , it also led to various broadcasting networks and national newspapers focusing its attention on K @-@ pop and other aspects of Korean culture . For example , The Daily Telegraph published an article recommending its readers to try out everything from K @-@ Pop to " K @-@ Cars " , " K @-@ Phones " and " K @-@ Cuisine " . The British multinational grocery and retailer Tesco reported that its total sales of Korean food had more than doubled as a result of the popularity of " Gangnam Style " . Kim Byoung @-@ gi , the Korean Ambassador to Lebanon , wrote that " Gangnam Style " has helped bridge Lebanese and Korean cultures . The French @-@ born political commentator Tim Soutphommasane , a Research fellow at Monash University , agrees that the Gangnam phenomenon is " something worth studying " . According to Soutphommasane , the world is only beginning to appreciate Gangnam Style as " part of a broader hallyu cultural wave coming out of the country [ South Korea ] " .
= = = South Korea = = =
In 2012 , the South Korean government announced that " Gangnam Style " had brought in $ 13 @.@ 4 million to the country ’ s audio sector , and it subsequently launched a campaign to further expand the K @-@ Pop music industry overseas . According to the Bank of Korea , the country 's services account recorded a surplus of USD 2 @.@ 3 billion in the first nine months of this year , compared to a deficit of USD 4 @.@ 5 billion last year . This was mainly due to the growing influence and popularity of K @-@ pop songs such as " Gangnam Style " . However , the American journalist John Seabrook noted that by " satirizing standard K @-@ pop tropes in Gangnam Style " , Psy may have subverted the music genre 's chances of making it big in the West .
= = = Music industry = = =
Record executives in the music industry believe that music charts will increasingly be filled with YouTube @-@ driven globalised acts from foreign countries . Sean Carey , a research fellow in the School of Social Sciences at the University of Roehampton , wrote that the flow of popular music will no longer be a single traffic route from North America and Europe to other parts of the globe , but will also move the other way as well . According to Adam Sherwin from The Independent , the global web demand for Gangnam Style had short @-@ circuited the " traditional reluctance " of radio stations to play foreign @-@ language songs . The song is also underlining a shift in how money is being made in the music business . Although Psy earned more than US $ 60 @,@ 000 from music sales of " Gangnam Style " in South Korea alone , he and his music label YG Entertainment have raked in almost US $ 1 million from advertisements which appear on YouTube videos identified for using " Gangnam Style " in its content . The Harvard Business Review published an article written by Kevin Evers , who explained how " Gangnam Style " had changed Billboard 's ranking methodology of its music charts . Instead of relying solely on radio plays and paid purchases , Billboard started to place a heavier emphasis on digital sales and YouTube views . As a result of the change , Gangnam Style moved up to the top position of Billboard 's Hot Rap Songs music chart . According to the British Phonographic Industry 's report based on Official Charts Company sales data , thanks to Psy 's song and Carly Rae Jepsen ’ s " Call Me Maybe , " pop became the UK ’ s favourite musical genre of the year , taking the lion ’ s share of the singles market ( 38 @.@ 5 % ) in 2012 .
= = Track listing = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Psy – vocals , producer , songwriter ( lyrics and music )
Yoo Gun @-@ hyung – producer , songwriter ( music ) , arrangement
Credits adapted from Psy 6 ( Six Rules ) , Part 1 EP liner notes and YG Entertainment official website .
= = Accolades and records = =
= = = Awards and nominations = = =
= = = Records attained = = =
The song and its accompanying music video currently hold , or have attained , the following records :
Most viewed K @-@ pop video on YouTube – On September 1 , 2012 , it overtook " Gee " by the 9 @-@ member K @-@ Pop idol @-@ group Girls ' Generation with 89 million views .
Most liked video on YouTube – On September 13 , 2012 , it overtook " Party Rock Anthem " by the American electro recording duo LMFAO upon receiving 1 @.@ 57 million " likes " , and subsequently won its first Guinness World Record one week later .
First K @-@ pop song to top the UK Singles Chart – On October 6 , 2012 , the song reached number one of the UK singles chart and Psy became the first South Korean musician to achieve that feat .
Most viewed video on YouTube – On November 24 , 2012 , it overtook " Baby " by the Canadian singer @-@ songwriter Justin Bieber after receiving more than 803 million views .
First video in Internet history to be viewed more than a billion times – On December 21 , 2012 , it acquired its billionth view at around 15 : 50 UTC .
First video in Internet history to be viewed more than two billion times – On May 31 , 2014 , it acquired its 2 billionth view .
= = = Year @-@ end media picks = = =
= = = = Song = = = =
" Gangnam Style " was ranked No. 25 on the Rolling Stone 's 50 best songs of 2012 list and No. 8 on SPIN 's 40 best songs of the year . The song also took the No. 8 spot on the 2012 Billboard 20 best K @-@ Pop songs list by Jeff Benjamin and Jessica Oak , who commented " [ the song ] stands out not only for its slick , electronic production but also for its deeper critique on high @-@ class society . " According to MTV 's list of the 2012 best songs , the song was ranked No. 8 with MTV news staff James Montgomery 's comment : " ' Gangnam ' is either the track we , as a culture needed right now , or the track we , as a culture , deserved " . TIME magazine chose it as the second best song of 2012 after Usher 's " Climax " , writing " The YouTube meme , a good @-@ natured , mind @-@ bendingly catchy lampoon [ ... ] turned into a global obsession " . The song was one of the best songs of the year on The New York Times pop critics ' list and E ! Online 's No. 1 pick on the top 10 pop songs of 2012 list . Digital Spy ranked the song No. 20 among the 20 best singles of the year . It was voted the 12th best single of 2012 by The Village Voice 's 40th annual Pazz & Jop critics ' poll . Music critic Robert Christgau placed " Gangnam Style " as the No. 2 single on his 2012 Dean 's List .
= = = = Video = = = =
The music video for " Gangnam Style " was chosen as the best music video of 2012 by TIME . Melissa Locker of the magazine wrote " The catchy song paired with social satire and tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek vibe has spread so quickly it reminds us why videos are called viral . The video has sparked an International dance craze and catapulted Psy to international super stardom . " Rolling Stone also ranked the video No. 1 on its " The Best Music Videos of 2012 " list , saying " The Korean auteur [ Psy ] conquered the world with his ' dress classy , dance cheesy ' aesthetic , blurring the line between parody and celebration . " The video took No. 4 position on the Digital Spy 's list of 10 top pop music videos of the year .
= = = Miscellaneous = = =
The music video came in first with 21 % rating in the 2012 Billboard.com 's readers poll , beating " Where Have You Been " by Rihanna ( 19 % ) and " Beauty and a Beat " by Justin Bieber featuring Nicki Minaj ( 11 % ) . The song was the most popular song played on New Year 's Eve and the most sung song on the day , leaving " Auld Lang Syne " in second place for the first time since 2005 , on karaoke company Lucky Voice 's online service in the United Kingdom . CNN readers picked " Gangnam Style " as the eighth best song of 2012 . The Week ( US edition ) ranked the song 's global popularity at No. 6 with the strapline " ' Gangnam Style ' takes over the world " on the 13 biggest pop culture moments of the year list . The phenomenon of the song and the video was also picked as one of the 2012 's most viral moments in music by Wendy Geller of Yahoo ! Music , and No. 2 on the 2012 top 20 music moments list after Whitney Houston 's passing by Billboard , being written " If there 's one meme , song and face that has been truly inescapable in the second half of 2012 , it 's South Korean rapper Psy and his outrageous ' Gangnam Style ' . "
On December 1 , 2014 YouTube announced that " Gangnam Style " had exceeded the number of views that are possible to store using a 32 @-@ bit signed integer , that being 2 @,@ 147 @,@ 483 @,@ 647 ( 231 − 1 , or two billion ) . As a result , YouTube was forced to upgrade to using 64 @-@ bit integers to store view numbers , with a maximum value of 9 @,@ 223 @,@ 372 @,@ 036 @,@ 854 @,@ 775 @,@ 807 ( 263 − 1 , or nine quintillion ) . " We never thought a video would be watched in numbers greater than a 32 @-@ bit integer , but that was before we met Psy , " stated a YouTube spokesman .
= = Chart performance = =
= = = South Korea = = =
Upon its release , " Gangnam Style " was an enormous hit . The song went straight to number one on the Gaon Singles Chart on the fourth week of July , 2012 , with 816 @,@ 868 digital downloads , and spent five consecutive weeks at the top position of the chart , tying it with IU 's " Good Day " for the most weeks at number one single in the chart 's history . In addition , the song became the first @-@ place winner on various weekly chart shows such as M ! Countdown ( three straight weeks ) and Music Bank ( a total of 16 weeks including a record 10 @-@ consecutive @-@ week ) . According to the Korea Music Content Industry Association , " Gangnam Style " became the best selling song of 2012 in South Korea with 3 @,@ 842 @,@ 109 download sales .
The song debuted at number six on the Billboard Korea K @-@ Pop Hot 100 for the week of July 28 , 2012 . It then topped the chart the week after and remained at the summit for five consecutive weeks , tying IU 's record with " You and I " for the longest running number one song on the chart . The record , however , was broken by Lee Seung @-@ gi 's " Return " earned six weeks at the top spot from December 2012 to January 2013 . " Gangnam Style " took number one spot on the 2012 Billboard K @-@ Pop Hot 100 year @-@ end chart .
= = = Oceania = = =
In Oceania , " Gangnam Style " was a huge success . The single made its chart debut on the New Zealand Singles Chart at number 21 on September 3 , 2012 . After two weeks , the song reached in the top ten and the following week topped the chart , becoming the first K @-@ pop song and the first foreign language song in three decades to achieve that feat since German band Nena 's " 99 Luftballons " hit the top spot in March 1982 . The song remained atop the chart for two consecutive weeks before being deposed of the top spot by One Direction 's " Live While We 're Young " . After one week of the band 's reign , " Gangnam Style " regained its number one position and stayed at the top spot for a further four weeks , tallying a total of six non @-@ consecutive weeks atop the chart . The track was ranked in the top ten of the chart for 17 consecutive weeks before it fell to number 11 on the January 14 , 2013 chart . The song has been certified 4 × Platinum with sales exceeding 60 @,@ 000 by the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand ( RIANZ ) . " Gangnam Style " was the second biggest @-@ selling single of 2012 in the country behind Carly Rae Jepsen 's " Call Me Maybe " .
In Australia , the song debuted at number seven on the ARIA Singles Chart on September 17 , 2012 , becoming the highest debut for the week . It reached number one on the chart just three weeks after its release , overtaking " Battle Scars " by Guy Sebastian featuring Lupe Fiasco , and spent six consecutive weeks at the summit , making it the second longest running chart @-@ topper for 2012 behind Flo Rida 's " Whistle " remained at the pole position for seven weeks . As a result , Psy became the first artist to reach number one on the chart with a foreign language song since Las Ketchup topped the chart with " The Ketchup Song " in September 2002 , and the eighth overall . In addition , " Gangnam Style " was the first Korean song to enter the chart and to climb to the top spot in Australian chart history . After the single spent the first fourteen weeks in the top ten of the chart since its chart debut , it dropped to number eleven in its 15th week . The song , however , rebounded from the position to number three on the issue date of December 31 , 2012 . It descended to number 14 in its 18th week , ending a 16 @-@ week in the top ten , and out of the top 20 the following week , placed at number 23 . It has been certified 10 × Platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) , with sales exceeding 700 @,@ 000 copies . " Gangnam Style " was placed at number two on the 2012 ARIA Singles year @-@ end chart behind Carly Rae Jepsen 's " Call Me Maybe " . The song is currently the fourth best @-@ selling single in Australian music history .
= = = Europe = = =
In European region , the song made a massive success as well , topping the charts in almost all countries . " Gangnam Style " made its first European chart appearance , entering the Danish Singles Chart at number 40 on August 3 , 2012 . It reached the top ten in its fifth week , and climbed to number four in its sixth . For the issue dated September 14 , 2012 , the song became Psy 's first number one on the chart , ending the one @-@ week reign of the Danish rock band Nephew 's " Hjertestarter " . The song remained at the top position for seven consecutive weeks , tying it with " Somebody That I Used to Know " performed by Gotye featuring Kimbra for the longest running number one single on the chart for 2012 . In its 24th week , it climbed back to the top , giving it its 8th week in that position . The single spent 22 straight weeks in the top ten of the chart . In January 2013 , the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry ( IFPI Denmark ) certified the single 2 × Platinum , denoting sales of 60 @,@ 000 copies .
The song entered the UK Singles Chart at number 196 on September 1 , 2012 , and in its fourth week broke into the top 40 at number 37 . In its fifth week , the song reached the top five on the chart and eventually peaked at number one on the week of October 6 , becoming the first ever K @-@ pop song to achieve that feat . While the track only remained atop the chart for one week before being overtaken by Rihanna 's " Diamonds " , it spent a further 17 consecutive weeks in the top ten of the chart before it fell to number twelve on the January 26 , 2013 chart . The song was the sixth biggest selling single of 2012 with 878 @,@ 000 sales , and ranked at number 24 among the top 40 most streamed tracks of the year in the United Kingdom . According to Official Charts Company sales data , Gangnam Style has become not only the 129th track to sell over a million copies in the history of the UK ’ s Official Singles Chart , but also the first million seller by an Asian music star . On April 9 , 2013 , the song became 13th most downloaded single of all time in the UK .
Elsewhere in Europe , the song also peaked at number one on the German Singles Chart for two non @-@ consecutive weeks in 2012 . For the week of January 11 , 2013 , it returned to the summit , ending the ten @-@ consecutive @-@ week reign of " Diamonds " by Rihanna , and spent a week at the top . Psy 's song has remained in the top ten on the chart for a 19 straight week including fifteen in the top three position since October 2012 . It has been certified Gold by the Bundesverband Musikindustrie ( BVMI ) , denoting sales of 150 @,@ 000 copies . In addition , the single has remained number one in Austria for four non @-@ consecutive weeks , Belgium ( Flanders ) for five consecutive weeks , Belgium ( Wallonia ) for seven straight weeks , Czech Republic for one week , Finland for four consecutive weeks , France for six non @-@ consecutive weeks , Italy for a week , the Netherlands for two consecutive weeks , Norway for four straight weeks , Scotland for a week , Spain for twelve consecutive weeks , and Switzerland for three non @-@ consecutive weeks . It has additionally placed top five positions in Iceland , Ireland and Sweden , and top ten in Hungary and Slovakia .
= = = North America = = =
In the United States , " Gangnam Style " debuted at number 64 the Billboard Hot 100 in the week of September 22 , 2012 , with 61 @,@ 000 downloads sold , more than the total number of previous weeks ( 57 @,@ 000 ) , becoming the second K @-@ pop song to enter the chart behind the Wonder Girls ' " Nobody " , which spent a week at No. 76 on the Oct. 31 , 2009 , chart . The following week , the song rocketed to number eleven on the chart with 188 @,@ 000 downloads , seeing a sales increase of 210 % after Psy appeared on various TV shows such as The Ellen DeGeneres Show and NBC 's Today . In its third week , it rose to number two on the chart , topping the Hot Digital Songs chart with a 60 % increase to 301 @,@ 000 downloads sold and climbing to number nine on On @-@ Demand Songs chart . Since then , the song has peaked at the runner @-@ up spot for seven consecutive weeks behind Maroon 5 's " One More Night " , failing to gain in enough radio audience to ascend to the summit , although it ruled Hot Digital Songs for a fourth week and On @-@ Demand Songs for a fifth week during that period . While " One More Night " dominated the Radio Songs chart for eight weeks , " Gangnam Style " peaked at just number twelve on the chart .
For the week of November 24 , the song dropped to number five on the Hot 100 , despite leading in sales with 188 @,@ 000 downloads . In its 12th week , the single rebounded from number seven to number five with top Digital Gainer accolades , spurred by Psy 's show @-@ closing performance of the song with MC Hammer at the AMA . The track returned for a sixth week atop Hot Digital Songs with 229 @,@ 000 downloads sold including 41 @,@ 000 stemmed from the duet version , which mixed in Hammer 's 1992 No. 5 Hot 100 hit " 2 Legit 2 Quit . " It was the first song to spend six weeks at number one on the Digital Songs chart without reaching the top spot on the Hot 100 since Miley Cyrus ' " Party in the U.S.A. " in 2009 . After the song stayed in the top ten of the Hot 100 for 11 consecutive weeks , it dropped out of the top ten on the December 22 , 2012 chart , falling from number ten to number eleven . The following week , " Gangnam Style " descended to number 18 on the chart but achieved the milestone of 3 million downloads sold in the country , becoming the first and only K @-@ pop song to reach the mark . For the week of January 12 , 2013 , powered by consumers purchasing some of 2012 's most buzzworthy hits and radio airplay recounting the same in year @-@ end retrospectives , the song resurged from number 19 to number six with its best weekly total 400 @,@ 000 downloads sold , returning to the Hot 100 's top ten after three weeks out of the top ten . The track dropped to number 14 in its 18th week , ending a 12 @-@ week in the top 10 , and number 22 in its 19th week , despite staying in the top ten of Digital Songs chart with 192 @,@ 000 and 105 @,@ 000 copies sold , respectively . On February 20 , 2013 , Billboard and Nielsen announced the addition of U.S. YouTube video streaming data to its platforms , which includes an update to the methodology for the Billboard Hot 100 chart . Thanks to the change to reflect online video activity , " Gangnam Style " rebounded from number 48 to number 26 on the Hot 100 for the week of March 2 , 2013 .
On October 11 , 2012 , Billboard unveiled new methodology for the Hot Rap Songs chart , including digital download sales and streaming data for the first time , along with radio airplay audience impressions as measured by Nielsen BDS . Due to this , " Gangnam Style " soared from number 20 to number one on the October 20 , 2012 chart . The song spent eight consecutive weeks atop the chart before being overtaken by Flo Rida 's " I Cry " . After four weeks of his reign , " Gangnam Style " regained its number one position in the week of January 12 , 2013 . The track also peaked at number three on the Hot Dance / Club Play Songs chart in the week of November 17 , 2012 . The song was certified 4 × Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) on April 19 , 2013 , denoting digital download sales of 4 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 . According to Nielsen SoundScan , " Gangnam Style " became the 9th best selling song of 2012 in the United States with 3 @,@ 592 @,@ 000 download sales . In late January 2013 , the song topped the 4 million mark in digital sales , becoming the third comic / novelty song to reach the mark , following LMFAO 's " Sexy and I Know It " and Cee Lo Green 's " Fuck You ! " .
In Canada , " Gangnam Style " was a big hit just like the rest of the world . The song entered the Canadian Hot 100 chart at number 71 on the week of September 8 , 2012 . In its fourth week , it reached in the top ten of the chart , climbing to number three , and the following week hit the pole position . The single spent seven consecutive weeks atop the chart , making it the second longest running number one song of 2012 behind Maroon 5 's " Payphone " remained at the top for eight straight weeks . On the week of September 12 , 2012 , the song debuted at number seven on the Top 20 Digital Tracks chart , based on Nielsen SoundScan data . The following week it topped the chart and spent four weeks at the top spot before giving the summit to " I Knew You Were Trouble " by Taylor Swift . " Gangnam Style " , however , was back on top of the chart for the week of October 24 , and grabbed the number one position for another four straight weeks , tallying a total of eight non @-@ consecutive weeks atop the chart . On November 16 , 2012 , the track was certified 4 × Platinum by Music Canada , and as of January 2013 has sold over 476 @,@ 000 copies in the country .
= = = Music video = = =
On August 21 , 2012 , " Gangnam Style " charted number one on the iTunes Music Video Charts , overtaking Justin Bieber 's " As Long as You Love Me " and Katy Perry 's " Wide Awake " ; this feat is the first for any South Korean artist . From September 8 , 2012 to February 23 , 2013 , the song has also peaked and stayed at number one on Billboard 's YouTube Chart for 22 weeks , until being surpassed by " Stay " by Rihanna for one week ; It has since reclaimed its top position for a 30th week as of April , 2013 .
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = Release history = =
= = " Oppa Is Just My Style " = =
" Gangnam Style " was officially re @-@ released on August 14 , 2012 , as " Oppa Is Just My Style " ( Korean : 오빤 딱 내 스타일 ) , featuring additional vocals provided by Korean singer and 4Minute member Hyuna . Mallika Rao of The Huffington Post wrote that the video was " apparently retrofitted here to work from a woman 's point of view , but the main difference we 're spotting is less invisible horse riding and more sultry side @-@ eyeing . " As of July 2016 , the accompanying music video has garnered over 640 million views on YouTube .
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= Super Mario Bros. =
Super Mario Bros. is a platform video game developed and published by Nintendo as a pseudo @-@ sequel to the 1983 game , Mario Bros. It was originally released in Japan for the Family Computer on September 13 , 1985 , and later that year for the Nintendo Entertainment System in North America and Europe on May 15 , 1987 , and Australia later in 1987 .
It is the first of the Super Mario series of games . In Super Mario Bros. , the player controls Mario and in a two @-@ player game , a second player controls Mario 's brother Luigi as he travels through the Mushroom Kingdom in order to rescue Princess Toadstool from the antagonist Bowser .
In 2005 , IGN 's poll named the " pioneering " and " highly influential " title as the " greatest game of all time " , considering it to have aided in resurrecting the crashed American video game market of the 1980s . The game 's mid @-@ 1980s release served to further popularize the side @-@ scrolling subgenre of the already popular platform video game genre of the early 1980s . In addition to its definitive features , the game has also sold enormously well , and was the best @-@ selling game of all time for a single platform for approximately three decades at over 40 million units , until Nintendo 's Wii Sports took that title . The commercial success of Super Mario Bros. has caused it to be ported to almost every one of Nintendo 's major gaming consoles . Nintendo released special red variants of the Wii and Nintendo DSi XL consoles in re @-@ packaged , Mario @-@ themed , limited edition bundles in late 2010 as part of the 25th anniversary of the game 's release .
= = Gameplay = =
The player takes on the role of the main protagonist of the series , Mario . Mario 's younger brother , Luigi , is only playable by the second player in the game 's multiplayer mode , and assumes the same plot role and functionality as Mario . The objective is to race through the Mushroom Kingdom , survive the main antagonist Bowser 's forces , and save Princess Toadstool . The player moves from the left side of the screen to the right side in order to reach the flag pole at the end of each level .
The game world has coins scattered around it for Mario to collect , and special bricks marked with a question mark ( ? ) , which when hit from below by Mario , may reveal more coins or a special item . Other " secret " , often invisible , bricks may contain more coins or rare items . If the player gains a red and yellow Super Mushroom , Mario grows to double his size and can take one extra hit from most enemies and obstacles , in addition to being able to break bricks above him . Players are given a certain number of lives , and may gain additional lives by picking up green and orange 1 @-@ Up mushrooms , collecting 100 coins , defeating several enemies in a row with a Koopa shell , or bouncing on enemies successively without touching the ground . One life is lost when Mario takes damage while small , falls in a pit , or runs out of time . The game ends when all lives are lost .
Mario 's primary attack is jumping on top of enemies , though many enemies have differing responses to this . For example , a Goomba will flatten and be defeated , while a Koopa Troopa will temporarily retract into its shell , allowing Mario to use it as a projectile . These shells may be deflected off a wall to destroy other enemies , though they can also bounce back against Mario , which will hurt or kill him . Another attack , for enemies standing overhead , is to jump up and hit beneath the brick that the enemy is standing on . Another is the Fire Flower ; when picked up , this item changes the color of Super Mario 's outfit and allows him to throw fireballs , or only upgrades Mario to Super Mario if he has not already . A less common item is the Starman , which often appears when Mario hits certain concealed or otherwise invisible blocks . This item makes Mario temporarily invincible to most hazards and capable of defeating enemies on contact .
The game consists of eight worlds with four sub @-@ levels called " stages " in each world . The final stage of each world takes place in a castle where Bowser or one of his decoys are fought . The game also includes some stages taking place underwater , which contain different enemies . In addition , there are bonuses and secret areas in the game . Most secret areas contain more coins for Mario to collect , but some contain " warp pipes " that allow Mario to advance to later worlds in the game , skipping over earlier ones .
= = Development = =
Super Mario Bros. , the successor to the 1983 arcade title Mario Bros. , was designed by Shigeru Miyamoto and Takashi Tezuka , both of whom belonged to Nintendo 's former creative department at the time . Miyamoto designed the game world and led a team of seven programmers and artists who turned his ideas into code , sprites , music and sound effects . The development of SMB was thus an early example of specialization in the video game industry , made possible and necessary by the capabilities of the Famicom .
The game 's development was motivated by a desire to give Famicom ( i.e. , Nintendo Entertainment System game cartridges ) a swan song in light of the forthcoming Famicom Disk System , and to further progress Nintendo 's work on " athletic games " . Originally , the game was based around a shooting mechanic with very different controls . A desire to focus on jumping and the mapping of the mechanic to the A button resulted in it being dropped . Unlike in Mario Bros. , where Mario would be hurt by stomping on turtles without first flipping them on their backs , Mario could defeat turtles by stomping on their shells , as the developers decided the previous method had been illogical . The ability to have Mario change size was a result of basing level design around a smaller Mario , then intending to make his size bigger in the final version . They later decided it would be fun to have Mario become bigger as a power @-@ up . Early level design was focused on teaching players that mushrooms were distinct from Goombas and would be beneficial to them : In the first level of the game , the first mushroom is difficult to avoid if it is released .
Using mushrooms to change size was influenced by folk tales in which people wander into forests and eat magical Mushrooms ; this also resulted in the game world being named the " Mushroom Kingdom " .
Development was aimed at keeping things simple , in order to have a new game available for the end @-@ of @-@ year shopping season . Originally an idea for a run and gun stage in which Mario would jump onto a cloud and fire at enemies was to be included ; however , this was dropped to maintain the game 's focus on jumping action , but the sky @-@ based bonus stages still remained .
= = = World 1 @-@ 1 = = =
During the third generation of video game consoles , tutorials in which players are explained the mechanics of a video game were rare , and instead , they had to learn how a video game worked by being guided by level design . The opening sections of Nintendo Entertainment System games such as Metroid , The Legend of Zelda and Super Mario Bros. are all designed in such a way that players were forced to explore the mechanics of the game to be able to advance . Super Mario Bros. was the first side @-@ scrolling video game featuring Mario , and one of the first video games directed and designed by Shigeru Miyamoto . Rather to confront the player with obstacles , the first level of Super Mario Bros. lays down the variety of in @-@ game hazards by means of repetition , iteration , and escalation .
In an interview with Eurogamer , Miyamoto explained that he created " World 1 @-@ 1 " to contain everything a player needs to " gradually and naturally understand what they ’ re doing , " so that they can quickly understand how the game works . According to Miyamoto , once the player understands the mechanics of the game , the player will be able to play more freely and it becomes " their game . "
= = = Music = = =
Koji Kondo wrote the six @-@ song musical score for Super Mario Bros. , as well as all of the sound effects . At the time he was composing , video game music was mostly meant to attract attention , not necessarily to enhance or conform to the game . Kondo 's work on Super Mario Bros. was one of the major forces in the shift towards music becoming an integral and participatory part of video games . Whenever he has been asked , Kondo lists the Overworld themes from Super Mario Bros. and The Legend of Zelda as his favourite .
Kondo had two specific goals for his music : " to convey an unambiguous sonic image of the game world " , and " to enhance the emotional and physical experience of the gamer " . The music of Super Mario Bros. is coordinated with the onscreen animations of the various sprites , which was one way he created a sense of greater immersion . He wasn 't the first to do this , for example , Space Invaders has a simple song that gets faster and faster as the aliens speed up , eliciting a sense of stress and impending doom that matches the increasing challenge of the game . However , he took the idea further than that , saying that , “ the guiding question which decides whether to accept or reject his own ( and , more recently , others ’ ) musical tracks is : do the game and music fit one another ? ”
This shift in ideals and results was , in part , born of a method of design that was unusual at the time : instead of bring hired later in the process to add music to a nearly finished game , Kondo was there almost from the beginning , working in tandem with the rest of the team . As he said , " the [ Super Mario Bros. ] music is inspired by the game controls , and its purpose is to heighten the feeling of how the game controls " . Before composition began , a prototype was presented to Kondo for the game so that he could get an idea of Mario 's general environment . Kondo wrote the score with the help of small pianos for an appropriate melody of this scene . After the development of the game showed progress , he realized that his music did not quite fit the pace of the game , so he changed it a bit by increasing the tempo . The music was further adjusted based on the expectations of Nintendo 's play @-@ testers .
= = Minus World = =
The " Minus World " ( also referred to as " World Negative One " ) is the name given to an unbeatable glitch level in Super Mario Bros. World 1 @-@ 2 contains a hidden warp zone , with warp pipes that transport the player to worlds 2 , 3 , and 4 , accessed by running over a wall near the exit . If the player is able to exploit a bug that allows Mario to pass through bricks , the player can enter the warp zone by passing through the wall and the pipe to World 4 @-@ 1 may instead transport the player to a stage labeled " World -1 " . This stage 's map is identical to worlds 2 @-@ 2 and 7 @-@ 2 and upon entering the warp pipe at the end , the player is taken back to the start of the level , thus trapping the player in the level until losing all extra lives . Although the level name is shown as " -1 " ( note the leading space ) on the heads @-@ up display , it is actually World 36 @-@ 1 . The game displays tile No. 36 , which is a blank space , to the left of the hyphen .
The glitch occurs because passing through the wall allows the player to reach the warp pipes before the screen has scrolled far enough to activate the invisible object that initializes the warp . The game defaults to the World 4 @-@ 2 warp data since this is the first warp defined in the program . Most warps have three pipes with the destination world number displayed above them ; since the World 4 @-@ 2 warp has only one pipe , the other two exits are set to World 36 , so that a blank tile is displayed in the empty spots . Since the World 1 @-@ 2 warp has three pipes , the player is able to take the other two to World 36 @-@ 1 ( World " -1 " ) .
The Minus World bug in the Japanese Famicom Disk System version of the game behaves differently and creates multiple , completable stages . " World -1 " is an underwater version of World 1 @-@ 3 with an alternate color palette , and contains sprites of Princess Toadstool , Bowser , and Hammer Bros. " World -2 " is an identical copy of World 7 @-@ 3 , and " World -3 " is a copy of World 4 @-@ 4 , also with an alternate color palette , and contains flying Bloopers , no Bowser , and water instead of lava . After completing these levels , the player returns to the title screen as if the game were completed .
The Minus World bug was fixed in Super Mario All @-@ Stars and subsequent remakes ; however , the Virtual Console releases for Wii , 3DS and Wii U allow players to perform the glitch , as they are emulations of the original Super Mario Bros. Additionally , the game NES Remix for Wii U is also based upon authentic emulation and thus yields the same initially exploitable wall @-@ traversal bug , but the game 's strictly compartmentalized gameplay format yields a loss of a life if the player finally attempts to access the entrance pipe to the Minus World .
On November 25 , 2013 , WatchMojo.com ranked the glitch at No. 1 in the video " Top 10 Video Game Glitches " .
= = Alternate versions = =
As one of Nintendo 's most popular games , Super Mario Bros. has been re @-@ released and remade numerous times , ranging from an arcade version released soon after the original NES release , to the game being available for download on the Virtual Console for the Wii , Nintendo 3DS and Wii U.
= = = Ports = = =
Super Mario Bros. was ported several times in the years following its original release on the Famicom / NES . A side @-@ scrolling platform game entitled Super Mario Bros. was released for the Game & Watch range of handheld LCD game systems by Nintendo . The Game & Watch Super Mario Bros. is an entirely new game , featuring none of the stages from the Famicom / NES original . In Japan , Super Mario Bros. was released for the Disk System , Nintendo 's proprietary floppy disk drive for the Famicom . This version also had multiple Minus World levels and featured on its packaging an artwork drawn by Miyamoto himself . It was also released for the North American NES with other games on the same cartridge ( Super Mario Bros.-Duck Hunt and Super Mario Bros.-Duck Hunt @-@ World Class Track Meet ) .
= = = Vs . Super Mario Bros. = = =
One alternate version , Vs . Super Mario Bros. , is nearly a separate game in its own right . This game , one of several made for Nintendo 's NES @-@ based arcade cabinet , the Nintendo Vs . Unisystem ( and its variant , Nintendo Vs . Dualsystem ) , is based on Super Mario Bros. , and has an identical format . The stages are different ; the early stages are subtly different , with small differences like the omission of 1 @-@ up mushrooms and other hidden items , narrower platforms and more dangerous enemies , but later stages are changed entirely . These changes have a net effect of making Vs . Super Mario Bros. more difficult than the original Super Mario Bros. Many of these later , changed stages reappeared in the 1986 game , Super Mario Bros. 2 .
As with many older arcade games , it is unclear exactly when this game was released ; while the arcade boards themselves are stamped " 1985 " , the Killer List of Video Games , the title screen , and the MAME game listing list the game as having been released in 1986 .
= = = All Night Nippon Super Mario Bros. = = =
All Night Nippon Super Mario Bros. ( オールナイトニッポンスーパーマリオブラザーズ , Ōru Naito Nippon Sūpā Mario Burazāzu ) is a very rare version of Super Mario Bros. with graphics based upon the popular Japanese radio show All Night Nippon . The game , which was only released in Japan for the Famicom Disk System , was a special promotional version that was given away by the show in December 1986 . The creators altered the sprites of the enemies , mushroom retainers , and other characters to look like famous Japanese music idols , recording artists , and DJs as well as other people related to All @-@ Night Nippon . They also used the same slightly upgraded graphics and physics that Super Mario Bros. : The Lost Levels used . It was published by Fuji TV , the same company that later published the game Yume Kōjō : Doki Doki Panic ( which was later modified into the Super Mario Bros. 2 that was released outside Japan ) .
= = = Super Mario Bros. Special = = =
Super Mario Bros. Special ( スーパーマリオブラザーズスペシャル , Sūpā Mario Burazāzu Supesharu ) was a game released only in Japan by Hudson Soft for the NEC PC @-@ 8801 and Sharp X1 computers in Q2 1986 . Although it has similar controls and graphics , there are new level layouts and the game scrolls in a different manner than the original game ( differing based on the computer ) . In addition , many new enemies are included , including enemies from Mario Bros. and Donkey Kong .
On the NEC version , the game goes at a greater speed , meaning that the timer drains more swiftly , and the screen does not scroll . The Sharp X1 version has a speed that is much closer to the original game . Neither version features Luigi or a two @-@ player mode .
= = = Super Mario All @-@ Stars = = =
In 1993 , Nintendo released an enhanced Super NES compilation titled Super Mario All @-@ Stars . It includes all of the Super Mario Bros. games released for the Nintendo Entertainment System and Famicom . The version of Super Mario Bros. included in the compilation has improved graphics and sound to match the SNES 's 16 @-@ bit capabilities , as well as minor alterations in some collision mechanics . Another new feature introduced in this game is the ability for the player to switch to Luigi after the end of the stage , unlike in the original Super Mario Bros. where the second player could only play after Mario died . The new version also included a save game feature . Several glitches from the original NES release were also fixed . This version has also been released for the Wii under a re @-@ packaged , special 25th anniversary compilation known as Super Mario All @-@ Stars : 25th Anniversary Edition .
= = = Super Mario Bros. Deluxe = = =
Super Mario Bros. Deluxe ( スーパーマリオブラザーズデラックス , Sūpā Mario Burazāzu Derakkusu ) , sometimes referred to as Super Mario Bros. DX was released on the Game Boy Color in 1999 in North America and Europe and in 2000 in Japan . Based on the original Super Mario Bros. , it featured an overworld level map , simultaneous multiplayer , a Challenge mode ( in which the player had to find hidden objects and achieve a certain score in addition to normally completing the level ) and eight additional worlds based on the main worlds of the 1986 Super Mario Bros. 2 ( which was released on Super Mario All @-@ Stars as Super Mario Bros. : The Lost Levels ) as an unlockable extra , under the name " For Super Players " . It also was compatible with the Game Boy Printer . The game did not feature any upgraded visuals ( aside from some graphics such as water and lava now being animated rather than static ) , and , since the screen resolution of the Game Boy Color was smaller than the NES , the view distance of the player is reduced . To compensate , players can press up and down to see above and below the player . Pressing select during the game also places the player in the middle or off to the left of the screen so that player can see well . Players can also go back for a very short distance instead of always going to the right . Players can alternate between Mario and Luigi by pressing select on the map screen , and Luigi 's outfit was changed from the original white overalls and green shirt to green overalls and brown shirt to better match Mario and the more common color palette . Fire Luigi , originally identical to Fire Mario , took on normal Luigi ’ s original colors to fit with his Fire colors in later games .
The game holds an aggregate score of 92 @.@ 11 percent on Game Rankings , coming in as the second best game on the Game Boy Color and the 150th best game overall on its lists . IGN 's Craig Harris gave it a perfect score , praising it as a perfect translation of the NES game . He hoped that it would be the example for other NES games to follow when being ported to the Game Boy Color . GameSpot gave the game a 9 @.@ 9 , hailing it as the " killer app " for the Game Boy Color and praising the controls and the visuals ( it was also the highest rated game in the series , later surpassed by Super Mario Galaxy 2 which holds a perfect 10 ) . Both gave it their Editors ' Choice Award . Allgame 's Colin Williamson praised the porting of the game as well as the extras , noting the only flaw of the game being that sometimes the camera goes with Mario as he jumps up . Nintendo World Report 's Jon Lindemann , in 2009 , called it their " ( Likely ) 1999 NWR Handheld Game of the Year , " calling the quality of its porting and offerings undeniable . Nintendo Life gave it a perfect score , noting that it retains the qualities of the original game and the extras . St. Petersburg Times ′ Robb Guido commented that in this form , Super Mario Bros. " never looked better . " The Lakeland Ledger ′ s Nick S. agreed , praising the visuals and the controls . In 2004 , a Game Boy Advance port of Super Mario Bros. ( part of the Classic NES Series ) was released , which had none of the extras or unlockables available in Super Mario Bros. Deluxe . Of that version , IGN noted that the version did not " offer nearly as much as what was already given on the Game Boy Color " and gave it an 8 @.@ 0 out of 10 . Super Mario Bros. Deluxe ranked third in the best @-@ selling handheld game charts in the U.S. between June 6 and 12 , 1999 and sold over 2 @.@ 8 million copies in the U.S. It was included on Singapore Airlines flights in 2006 . Lindermann noted Deluxe as a notable handheld release in 1999 .
It was released on the Nintendo 3DS Virtual Console in 2014 . In Japan , users who registered a Nintendo Network ID on their Nintendo 3DS system between December 10 , 2013 and January 10 , 2014 received a free download code , with emails with download codes being sent out starting January 27 , 2014 . In Europe and Australia , users who registered a Nintendo Network ID on their Nintendo 3DS system between December 10 , 2013 and January 31 , 2014 received a free download code , with emails with download codes being sent out from February 13 to 28 , 2014 . It was released for purchase on the Nintendo 3DS eShop in Europe on February 27 , 2014 , in Australia on February 28 , 2014 , and in North America on December 25 , 2014 .
= = = Super Luigi Bros. = = =
Super Luigi Bros. is a remake of Super Mario Bros. included in NES Remix 2 , featuring Luigi and mirrored to scroll from right to left . The only playable character in the game is Luigi , with the same performance attributes he has in the Japan release of Super Mario Bros. 2 . If the two player mode is played then both players play as Luigi . The game is based on a mission in NES Remix , featuring Luigi in a mirrored version of World 1 @-@ 2 .
= = Reception = =
Super Mario Bros. received favorable reviews , and further popularized the side @-@ scrolling subgenre of the already popular platform video game . This led to many sequels in the series that built upon the same basic premise . Altogether , excluding Game Boy Advance and Virtual Console sales , the game has sold 40 @.@ 24 million copies , making it the best @-@ selling video game in the Mario series .
Allgame gave Super Mario Bros. a five star rating , stating that " The sense of excitement , wonder and most of all -- enjoyment felt upon first playing this masterpiece of videogame can 't barely be put into words . And while its sequels have far surpassed it in terms of length , graphics , sound and other aspects , Super Mario Bros. , like any classic -- whether of a cinematic or musical nature -- has withstood the test of time , continuing to be fun and playable . " and that " Anyone who considers them self a gamer needs to play this game at least once , if not simply for a history lesson . "
Almost all of the game 's aspects have been praised at one time or another , from its large cast of characters to a diverse set of levels . One of the most @-@ praised aspects of the game is the precise controls . The player is able to control how high and far Mario or Luigi jumps , and how fast he can run . Nintendo Power listed it as the fourth best Nintendo Entertainment System video game , describing it as the game that started the modern era of video games as well as " Shigeru Miyamoto 's masterpiece " . The game ranked first on Electronic Gaming Monthly ′ s " Greatest 200 Games of Their Time " list and was named in IGN 's top 100 games of all @-@ time list twice ( in 2005 and 2007 ) . ScrewAttack declared it the second @-@ best Mario game of all time . In 2009 , Game Informer put Super Mario Bros. in second place on their list of " The Top 200 Games of All Time , " behind The Legend of Zelda , saying that it " remains a monument to brilliant design and fun gameplay " . The Game Informer staff also ranked it the second best in their 2001 list of the top 100 games ever made . In 2012 , G4 ranked Super Mario Bros. first of the " Top 100 Video Games of All Time , " citing its revolutionary gameplay as well as its role in helping recover the NA gaming industry from the Video Game Crash of 1983 . In 2014 , IGN ranked Super Mario Bros. as the best Nintendo game in their " Top 125 Nintendo Games of All Time " list , saying that " this is the most important Nintendo game ever made . "
= = = Legacy = = =
Super Mario Bros. ' s success led to the development of many successors in the Super Mario series of video games , which in turn form the core of the greater Mario franchise . The gameplay concepts and elements established in Super Mario Bros. are prevalent in nearly every Super Mario game . The series consists of over 15 entries ; at least one Super Mario game has been released on nearly every Nintendo console to date . The most recent release is Super Mario Maker , released in 2015 for the Wii U. The series is one of the best @-@ selling , with over 310 million copies of games sold worldwide as of September 2015 .
Super Mario Bros. and its sequels inspired products in various media , such as the 1986 anime film , Super Mario Bros. : The Great Mission to Rescue Princess Peach ! ; the 1989 American animated series , The Super Mario Bros. Super Show ! ; and the 1993 live action film , Super Mario Bros. , which stars Bob Hoskins and John Leguizamo as Mario and Luigi , respectively .
In the United States Supreme Court case Brown v. Entertainment Merchants Association , the Electronic Frontier Foundation submitted an amicus brief citing social research that declared Super Mario Bros to be a violent video game . It was compared to Mighty Mouse and Road Runner , cartoons that depict a similar form of violence with little negative reaction from the public .
= = Re @-@ releases = =
In early 2003 , Nintendo re @-@ released the game on the Game Boy Advance in Japan as part of their Famicom Minis collection and in the U.S. as part of the NES Series . Unlike previous re @-@ releases , these versions contain no graphical updates and all of the original glitches remain . Super Mario Bros. was one of the best @-@ selling of these re @-@ releases ; according to the NPD Group ( which tracks game sales in North America ) , this re @-@ released version of Super Mario Bros. was the best @-@ selling Game Boy Advance game in June 2004 to December 2004 . In 2005 , Nintendo released this game again for the GBA as part of its 20th Anniversary with a special edition , which sold approximately 876 @,@ 000 units . Super Mario Bros. is also one of the 19 NES games included in the GameCube game Animal Crossing . The only known way to unlock Super Mario Bros. in most versions is by use of a game modification device ( like the Game Shark or Action Replay ) , though it was distributed as a Famitsu prize to owners of Doubutsu no Mori + . The game is fully emulated ( in fact , it is the original ROM ) , so it includes every glitch from the NES including the Minus World glitch . Super Mario Bros. was released on December 2 , 2006 in Japan , December 25 , 2006 in North America and January 5 , 2007 in PAL regions for Wii 's Virtual Console . As it is a copy of the original game , all glitches — including the Minus World — remain in the game . Super Mario Bros. is also one of the trial games available in the " Masterpieces " section in Super Smash Bros. Brawl . Super Mario Bros. was released on the Nintendo 3DS in September 2011 for members of Nintendo 's 3DS Ambassador Program , and a general release came through in Japan on January 5 , 2012 , in North America on February 16 , 2012 and in Europe on March 1 , 2012 .
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= The Firebrand =
The Firebrand is an 1987 historical fantasy novel by American author Marion Zimmer Bradley . Set in the ancient city of Troy , the novel is a re @-@ telling of Homer 's epic poem , the Iliad . The Firebrand is written from the point of view of Kassandra , the prophet daughter of King Priam of Troy , and also features other prominent characters from Greek mythology . As in the Iliad , Kassandra foresees catastrophe for her city but few pay heed to her warnings . In Bradley 's story , Kassandra is presented as a strong and insightful woman , rather than as a sufferer of insanity .
The novel has been described as belonging to the genres of revisionist history and feminist literature , and employs themes of gender , religion , and power . Bradley wrote it after the success of her 1983 novel The Mists of Avalon , a re @-@ telling of the Arthurian legend from a female perspective . To appeal to a wider readership , The Firebrand includes fewer elements of fantasy than Bradley 's previous works . Her only novel set in ancient Greece , her husband Walter H. Breen helped her research the story .
Simon & Schuster released The Firebrand on October 1 , 1987 in hardcover , and it was issued in paperback in September 1988 . The Firebrand has been overshadowed by the popularity of The Mists of Avalon , receiving less attention and critical praise . Reviews of the book ranged from mixed to positive , with many literary critics praising Bradley 's ability to give new characterizations to legendary figures . It has been translated into at least twelve languages , beginning with Portuguese and French in 1989 .
= = Main characters = =
Princess Kassandra of Troy is the story 's protagonist , and it is told from her perspective . It begins when an elderly Kassandra tiredly agrees to correct the Homeric version of the Trojan War that is told by a traveling minstrel . Kassandra recounts her life experiences at Troy and Colchis , how she came to balk at the gender roles dictated by Trojan culture , and her inner turmoil over whether she should be serving the Goddess or Apollo .
In her early years , Kassandra is known among her family as the " clever girl , " while her older sister Polyxena is the " proper , modest " , and " pretty one " . Her parents intend for Kassandra to be brought up as a lady and to eventually marry a nobleman — to her gradual displeasure . She often comes into conflict with her father , King Priam , who is characterized as cruel , violent , and power @-@ hungry . Queen Hecuba and Kassandra are not close ; the queen often disparages her daughter for her prophecies . Though Hecuba grew up as an Amazon , she gradually adopted patriarchal Trojan customs as her own .
The warrior Hector is close to their sister Polyxena , and is described by Kassandra as a bully . He disapproves of Kassandra 's desire to be a warrior , but he is much loved in the city . As an adult , Kassandra reflects , " of all [ Priam and Hecuba 's children ] , Hector was closest to their hearts , and [ she ] the least loved . Was it only that she had always been so different from the others ? " Kassandra is happiest when she travels with the Amazons , whose chief Penthesilea becomes a mother figure for Kassandra .
Hector 's wife , Andromache , is the elder daughter of Queen Imandra ; despite Colchis ' matriarchal culture Andromache is content to adopt Trojan culture and be subservient to her husband . She and Kassandra become close , as does Kassandra with Helen , despite her initial distaste for the problems Helen brings to Troy . Despite being her twin , Paris dislikes Kassandra . Early in the story , Bradley writes that Paris ' main character flaw is " a total lack of interest in anything that did not relate to himself or contribute in some way to his own comfort and satisfaction . "
= = Synopsis = =
= = = Volume One = = =
In the wealthy and powerful city of Troy , the pregnant queen Hecuba experiences a prophetic dream which distresses her . When consulted , a priestess of the Great Goddess tells Hecuba and her husband , King Priam , that the dream indicates she will birth a son who will bring destruction to Troy . Priam declares that this boy must be exposed to death , but upon his birth three days later , Priam agrees to Hecuba 's pleas and has him fostered by a shepherd on the slopes of Mount Ida . Priam names the boy Alexandros ( later Paris ) , and names his twin sister Alexandra , whom Hecuba keeps and decides to call Kassandra .
While visiting the temple of Apollo with her mother , six @-@ year @-@ old Kassandra experiences a vision of the god telling her she is to become " his priestess " . In the following years , Kassandra experiences further visions . When she is twelve , Kassandra sees a vision of Paris , who is now a shepherd . Kassandra asks her father the boy 's identity but he reacts angrily . Kassandra is sent to be fostered by Hecuba 's sister Penthesilea , chief of the Amazons — a nomadic warrior tribe consisting only of women . There , Kassandra comes to love their lifestyle — though it is not without its trials — and she learns of her twin , continuing to experience visions of him . Kassandra sees the Judgement of Paris , in which her brother deems Aphrodite more beautiful than Athena or Hera ; Aphrodite rewards Paris by eventually promising the love of Helen of Sparta — daughter of Leda and Zeus .
In Colchis , ruled over by Queen Imandra , Kassandra undergoes the rites of a priestess and is told that serving the Goddess is her destiny . At the age of fifteen , Kassandra is unhappily returned to her home . She arrives during a festival in time to see Paris win and be revealed to his true parents as their son . Despite the prophecy , Priam and Hecuba happily welcome him home . However , Hector and his other brothers , jealous of the attention and achievements Paris has suddenly garnered , suggest that he be sent abroad to treaty with King Agamemnon — who holds Priam 's sister . Paris readily agrees . Meanwhile , Kassandra begins training as a priestess of the temple of Apollo , despite misgivings that she is abandoning the Goddess . Part of her duties include helping care for the temple serpents — symbols of Python whom Apollo is said to have slain . Paris returns to Troy with the beautiful Helen , wife of King Menelaus , and she is welcomed into the city . Kassandra 's warnings that Helen will destroy Troy go unheeded , and Paris denounces his sister as a madwoman .
= = = Volume Two = = =
At the temple , Kassandra is assaulted by Khryse , a priest who disguises himself as Apollo in order to seduce her . She sees through his trickery and fights him off , but the god feels insulted by her refusal and makes the city 's residents stop believing her prophecies . Menelaus ' brother Agamemnon uses Helen 's flight as a pretext for war and soon begins launching daily raids on Troy , beginning the Trojan War . Kassandra spends more time with her family to help with daily tasks while the men — led by Hector — fight off the Akhaian invaders . The war continues sporadically despite the attempts of former Trojan ally Odysseus to end the conflict .
Two years into the war , Kassandra returns to Colchis to learn more of serpent lore . Along the way , she encounters Penthesilea . Kassandra is unhappy to find that the nomadic ways of life of the Amazon and Kentaur are ending , and that Penthesilea 's tribe is dwindling in number . Kassandra experiences a horrifying vision of Apollo firing arrows indiscriminately at both armies — a sign of his wrath — which prompts her to return home . Accompanied with an adopted infant daughter named Honey whom she finds alongside the road , Kassandra returns to Troy and finds that the war is not going well for the Trojans .
Soon after her return , Apollo takes the form of Khryse and spreads a plague in the Akhaians ' camp in response to Agamemnon 's sacrilegious refusal to return Khryse 's daughter , who has been Agamemnon 's prisoner for three years . Khryse 's daughter is reluctantly returned to her father and the Akhaian leader takes the young warrior Akhilles ' concubine as reparation for his loss . The furious Akhilles refuses to continue fighting . Menelaus and Paris duel each other , but Paris flees the fight due to the intervention of Helen and Aphrodite .
= = = Volume Three = = =
Most of Kassandra 's family has come to think of her as mad , and become angry when she feels compelled to vocalize prophecies that foretell the end of Troy . Despite Kassandra 's warnings , the city experiences an earthquake sent by Poseidon , killing the three young sons of Helen and Paris . After Patroklus is killed by Hector , his closest friend Akhilles again joins the fight to get his revenge . Hector and his younger brother Troilus are killed , to the grief of everyone in Troy . Akhilles kills Penthesilea in battle , and soon after Kassandra fires a fatally poisoned arrow at his unprotected heel .
Poseidon sends another earthquake , knocking down Troy 's defenses . The Akhaians flood into the city , and Kassandra and Honey are raped by the warrior Ajax . The women of Troy are divided up among the Akhaians , and Kassandra becomes Agamemnon 's concubine . She is freed when his wife Klytemnestra murders him upon their return to Mykenae . Kassandra makes her way back to Asia Minor , where in the desert she hopes to recreate a kingdom of old — one ruled by a powerful queen .
= = Development = =
The Firebrand was written by American author Marion Zimmer Bradley ( 1930 – 1999 ) , who was best known for her Darkover science fiction series and her novel , The Mists of Avalon ; a re @-@ telling of the Arthurian legend from the point of view of Arthur 's antagonist , Morgan le Fay . Bradley wrote The Firebrand after publishing The Mists of Avalon in 1983 . The Encyclopedia of Fantasy said that after The Mists of Avalon , Bradley wrote stories with a strong literary appeal to appeal to a wide readership rather than focus on the fantasy genre . Bradley 's later works often centered on strong lead characters in " mytho @-@ historic settings " with few fantasy elements . For instance , in The Firebrand the Kentaurs are depicted as a nomadic tribe of short , naked riders of horses rather than as the half @-@ human , half @-@ horsemen legends traditionally portray .
The Firebrand is Bradley 's second re @-@ telling of a famous legend , and her only novel set in ancient Greece . She decided to re @-@ envision legends from a female perspective , and said that she had an interest to " hear more about the human realities " surrounding well @-@ known stories , but did not believe this constituted a feminist writing style . In an interview with Lisa See of Publishers Weekly , Bradley said she viewed the Trojan War legend as an example of masculine culture dominating and obfuscating female viewpoints and contributions . She said :
" During the Dorian invasion , when iron won out over bronze , the female cult died . The Minoan and Mycenaean cultures were dead overnight . But you could also look at that period of history and say , here were two cultures that should have been ruled by female twins — Helen and Klytemnestra . And what do you know ? When they married Menelaus and Agamemnon , the men took over their cities . I just want to look at what history was really like before the women @-@ haters got hold of it . I want to look at these people like any other people , as though no one had ever written about them before . "
Unlike The Mists of Avalon , which featured a wide range of Arthurian legends that Bradley drew upon as source material , Bradley cited few sources while writing The Firebrand . She credits her then @-@ husband , author Walter H. Breen , with helping her research the book and create the story . Breen was knowledgeable about ancient Greek history and language ; according to Bradley he persuaded her to use linguistically correct transliterations of the characters ' names , such as Akhilles rather than the commonly known form Achilles . Though Kassandra 's fate remains unknown in the Iliad , Bradley found inspiration for the character 's ending from an inscription at the Archaeological Museum in Athens , which mentioned Kassandra 's descendants . Bradley believed that this inscription provided the historical basis for Kassandra 's existence .
= = Themes and analysis = =
= = = Gender roles = = =
In the original story found in the Iliad , female characters receive little attention ; although they are often crucial to progressing events , they have no developed identities of their own , and are instead defined by motherhood , wifehood , and sisterhood . Cassandra is described in that story as " the loveliest of [ Priam 's ] lovely daughters , " but does not speak at all . Today she is remembered for portending the city 's doom and for not being believed by its inhabitants , who think she is mad . On ancient Greek pottery she is depicted as half naked with long , wild hair , and Shakespeare 's 1602 play Troilus and Cressida characterizes her as an insane woman . After the Akhaians use the Trojan Horse to enter Troy , the Aeneid and other accounts relay how Cassandra is raped by Ajax , is taken captive by Agamemnon , and is later killed with him by his angry wife Clytemnestra . By setting her story from the female perspective , Bradley gives women — especially the formerly silent Cassandra — a voice . Here , Kassandra is depicted as a strong and insightful woman rather than as a lunatic , yet she is still misunderstood by many of those around her . She is allowed to survive Klytemnestra 's wrath to record a female counter @-@ narrative .
The Firebrand employs similar themes to Bradley 's other works , including the reversal of gender roles where " women are the true heroes " while the " proud , arrogant " men who lead Troy to doom " fail to invoke the reader 's sympathy " . The novel 's title refers to Paris and the destruction he brings to Troy . The Firebrand has been perceived as belonging to the revisionist history genre , as it fits into a " reinvent [ ion of ] stories that are either historical or derived from myth / legend but often taken to be historical , " and then told with a different narrative . The novel has also been seen as an example of feminist literature . Despite Bradley 's refusal to label herself as a feminist , her works often dealt with themes of gender , religion , and power , particularly in historically patriarchal societies . In The Firebrand , Bradley introduces feminist ideals by equating the patriarchal culture with oppressive tendencies ; perceived to have been scorned by the male god Apollo , Kassandra is not believed by Trojan citizens because of her gender .
Funda Basak Dorschel noted that because there is " no humanity or compassion in this masculine world , " characters traditionally associated with noble , positive qualities are instead " stripped of their own glamor " and are portrayed in a negative light — Akhilles for instance is a " mad dog " who rapes Penthesilea as an act of cold @-@ blooded contempt , rather than as an act of sudden love upon causing her death . Agamemnon and Menelaus are rendered as patriarchal stereotypes . In her entry for Science Fiction & Fantasy Book Review Annual , Mary @-@ Kay Bray wrote that Bradley 's account makes these traditional heroes seem more human and flawed , even if they are also less admirable .
= = = Religion and gender = = =
Bradley believed that " cultural shock , the clash of alien cultures , is the essence of literature and drama , " and incorporated this viewpoint into many of her works . The Firebrand is set in a time of change and Kassandra is caught between new and old cultures . Despite being ruled by a king and worshiping the male god Apollo , the Trojans still respect the ancient cult surrounding the Earth Mother . In Colchis , the powerful queen Imandra rules alone but her way of life is declining — she is aging and uncertain of her successor , and the impoverished areas surrounding Colchis contain two other dwindling civilizations ; the Amazons and the Kentaurs .
Literary critics have observed elements of neo @-@ paganism in the novel . Bradley often included characteristics of neo @-@ paganism into her stories as she explored the intersection of gender and religion . While neo @-@ paganism lacks a singular definition , many followers have come to define it as a primitive , matriarchal religion that flourished in Western Europe , centered on the worship of a " Mother Goddess " , and became largely decimated by Christianity . Fry wrote that " a basic assumption [ in The Firebrand ] is that the people of ancient Greece had worshiped the Goddess prior to the arrival of the Akhaians , " a people who brought with them a " male warrior pantheon of Gods ... and gradually subverted the old ways . " Bradley 's Penthesilea tells a young Kassandra , " But remember , child : before ever Apollo Sun Lord came to rule these lands , our Horse Mother — the Great Mare , the Earth Mother from whom we all are born — she was here . "
The Firebrand combines two belief systems and mixes neo @-@ paganism with elements of Greek mythology . Scholars have found similarities between The Firebrand and The Mists of Avalon ; they serve " parallel purposes " by retelling old legends from female perspectives . Both stories deal with the confrontation between female @-@ based , Earth @-@ centered belief systems and rising patriarchal religions . This religious dichotomy appears first as a conflict between Apollo and the Goddess , and later as a confrontation between the Akhaian and Trojan gods . In the novel 's tradition , serpents represent the Mother Goddess ' prominent place in religious life , immortality , rebirth , and regeneration . Readers are told that Python — a female snake deity and symbol of the Goddess — was slain by the Hellenistic Apollo , representing the destruction of feminine social , political , and religious power .
Bradley also uses the story 's female characters to create a feminist dichotomy ; Kassandra and Penthesilea represent the " feminist side " in their pursuit of independence , while many of the other women — such as Andromache , Hecuba , and Helen — " subordinate themselves to patriarchal traditions , values , goods . " The loss of this matriarchal culture has been viewed as the novel 's main theme . Bradley writes of the power of women in many of her works , including The Mists of Avalon and the Darkover series , and The Firebrand continues this by depicting Kassandra in an idealized world ; the Amazons follow the Earth Goddess but are slowly dwindling in the wake of the patriarchal " male warrior pantheon of Gods . " Through Kassandra 's experiences with the Amazons , Bradley shows that she idealizes this group of women .
= = Release = =
The novel was published on October 1 , 1987 by Simon & Schuster , and a paperback edition was released in September 1988 . In 1989 , The Firebrand was translated into Portuguese by A. B. Pinheiro de Lemos and into French by Hubert Tezenas . It has been published in at least ten other languages , including Italian , German , Lithuanian , Japanese , and modern Greek .
= = = Reception = = =
The Firebrand has received less critical attention and success than Bradley 's earlier novel The Mists of Avalon , which has tended to overshadow it . The Firebrand received mixed to positive reviews from mainstream literary critics . Magill Book Reviews applauded Bradley 's faithfulness to the source material in the Iliad , despite the " startling liberties [ she takes ] with Homer 's work . " However , the reviewer said her themes of gender and religion , " rendered artfully and gracefully in [ The Mists of Avalon ] , becomes tiresome with repetition . " Bradley said that some readers would take umbrage at her changes to the Trojan legend ; she said , " had I been content with the account in the Iliad , there would have been no reason to write a novel . Besides , the Iliad stops short just at the most interesting point , leaving the writer to conjecture about the end from assorted legends and traditions . " The Library Journal said readers should familiarize themselves with Greek mythology before beginning the novel , and said the author " makes a strong statement about the desirability of women having control of their own destinies and about the cruelties men inflict upon them . " The Encyclopedia of Fantasy said that The Firebrand and Bradley 's 1994 novel The Forest House " display [ Bradley 's ] talent for plot , character , vision and fine storytelling . "
Reviewing for The Globe and Mail , H.J. Kirchhoff compared The Firebrand to The Mists of Avalon , and wrote that the former " is neither as refreshing nor as lovely , even though it is a pretty good read . " Kirchhoff wrote that The Firebrand contained too many similarities to Bradley 's previous novels , saying , " the interlarding of old story and feminist ideology seems forced , " though he praised her " flesh @-@ and @-@ blood " depiction of the men associated with the legend . Vicki McCash of the Sun Sentinel commended the novel for making the legendary characters " breathe and feel " and for giving a " refreshing " twist to the ancient story . McCash wrote , " From the first pages , the reader is gripped in the magic of ancient Troy . These stories have been revered for centuries , but in The Firebrand they are retold to become one epic novel , not only of heroes and gods , but of heroines and goddesses and of change in the very fabric of society . " McCash said that male readers might be troubled by the negative portrayals of their sex , but that Bradley attempted to avoid this by inputting a few sympathetic men such as Aeneas , and several evil women such as Klytemnestra . Virginia Judge of The Herald called it a " fascinating , but lengthy tale , " and praised Bradley 's depictions of the old religion . She criticized the ending for seeming " contrived . "
A reviewer for the English Journal praised the novel and found one of its main strengths is " its ability to entertain the reader with characters who are basically faithful to their origins in the Iliad , yet at the same time rounder , fuller , and more personally engaging . " The reviewer wrote the Bradley " fleshes out the stereotypes on which the characterization in the epic poem rests — the cold calculating Achilles ; crafty , gregarious Odysseus ; frustrated Cassandra — with convincing dialogue which not only carries the plot but gives reference to other events both mythical and historical . " The English Journal also said that " Bradley tempers the bitterness and cynicism of Homer 's Cassandra , presenting instead a woman confused and tormented by knowledge on which she is powerless to act . " In an overview of Bradley 's body of work , Encyclopedia of Fantasy and Horror Fiction author Don D 'Amassa called the novel " one of her better fantasies . " Bradley 's works have received praise from feminist critics , who have particularly lauded her ability to portray multidimensional women as " revered conduit [ s ] of nature @-@ based religion and mysticism " as seen with the character of Kassandra . At the 1988 Locus Awards , The Firebrand was voted the twentieth best fantasy novel of the year .
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= Archimedes =
Archimedes of Syracuse ( / ˌɑːkɪˈmiːdiːz / ; Greek : Ἀρχιμήδης ; c . 287 BC – c . 212 BC ) was an Ancient Greek mathematician , physicist , engineer , inventor , and astronomer . Although few details of his life are known , he is regarded as one of the leading scientists in classical antiquity . Generally considered the greatest mathematician of antiquity and one of the greatest of all time , Archimedes anticipated modern calculus and analysis by applying concepts of infinitesimals and the method of exhaustion to derive and rigorously prove a range of geometrical theorems , including the area of a circle , the surface area and volume of a sphere , and the area under a parabola .
Other mathematical achievements include deriving an accurate approximation of pi , defining and investigating the spiral bearing his name , and creating a system using exponentiation for expressing very large numbers . He was also one of the first to apply mathematics to physical phenomena , founding hydrostatics and statics , including an explanation of the principle of the lever . He is credited with designing innovative machines , such as his screw pump , compound pulleys , and defensive war machines to protect his native Syracuse from invasion .
Archimedes died during the Siege of Syracuse when he was killed by a Roman soldier despite orders that he should not be harmed . Cicero describes visiting the tomb of Archimedes , which was surmounted by a sphere and a cylinder , which Archimedes had requested to be placed on his tomb , representing his mathematical discoveries .
Unlike his inventions , the mathematical writings of Archimedes were little known in antiquity . Mathematicians from Alexandria read and quoted him , but the first comprehensive compilation was not made until c . 530 AD by Isidore of Miletus in Byzantine Constantinople , while commentaries on the works of Archimedes written by Eutocius in the sixth century AD opened them to wider readership for the first time . The relatively few copies of Archimedes ' written work that survived through the Middle Ages were an influential source of ideas for scientists during the Renaissance , while the discovery in 1906 of previously unknown works by Archimedes in the Archimedes Palimpsest has provided new insights into how he obtained mathematical results .
= = Biography = =
Archimedes was born c . 287 BC in the seaport city of Syracuse , Sicily , at that time a self @-@ governing colony in Magna Graecia , located along the coast of Southern Italy . The date of birth is based on a statement by the Byzantine Greek historian John Tzetzes that Archimedes lived for 75 years . In The Sand Reckoner , Archimedes gives his father 's name as Phidias , an astronomer about whom nothing is known . Plutarch wrote in his Parallel Lives that Archimedes was related to King Hiero II , the ruler of Syracuse . A biography of Archimedes was written by his friend Heracleides but this work has been lost , leaving the details of his life obscure . It is unknown , for instance , whether he ever married or had children . During his youth , Archimedes may have studied in Alexandria , Egypt , where Conon of Samos and Eratosthenes of Cyrene were contemporaries . He referred to Conon of Samos as his friend , while two of his works ( The Method of Mechanical Theorems and the Cattle Problem ) have introductions addressed to Eratosthenes .
Archimedes died c . 212 BC during the Second Punic War , when Roman forces under General Marcus Claudius Marcellus captured the city of Syracuse after a two @-@ year @-@ long siege . According to the popular account given by Plutarch , Archimedes was contemplating a mathematical diagram when the city was captured . A Roman soldier commanded him to come and meet General Marcellus but he declined , saying that he had to finish working on the problem . The soldier was enraged by this , and killed Archimedes with his sword . Plutarch also gives a lesser @-@ known account of the death of Archimedes which suggests that he may have been killed while attempting to surrender to a Roman soldier . According to this story , Archimedes was carrying mathematical instruments , and was killed because the soldier thought that they were valuable items . General Marcellus was reportedly angered by the death of Archimedes , as he considered him a valuable scientific asset and had ordered that he not be harmed . Marcellus called Archimedes " a geometrical Briareus " .
The last words attributed to Archimedes are " Do not disturb my circles " , a reference to the circles in the mathematical drawing that he was supposedly studying when disturbed by the Roman soldier . This quote is often given in Latin as " Noli turbare circulos meos , " but there is no reliable evidence that Archimedes uttered these words and they do not appear in the account given by Plutarch . Valerius Maximus , writing in Memorable Doings and Sayings in the 1st century AD , gives the phrase as " ... sed protecto manibus puluere ' noli ' inquit , ' obsecro , istum disturbare ' " - " ... but protecting the dust with his hands , said ' I beg of you , do not disturb this . ' " The phrase is also given in Katharevousa Greek as " μὴ μου τοὺς κύκλους τάραττε ! " ( Mē mou tous kuklous taratte ! ) .
The tomb of Archimedes carried a sculpture illustrating his favorite mathematical proof , consisting of a sphere and a cylinder of the same height and diameter . Archimedes had proven that the volume and surface area of the sphere are two thirds that of the cylinder including its bases . In 75 BC , 137 years after his death , the Roman orator Cicero was serving as quaestor in Sicily . He had heard stories about the tomb of Archimedes , but none of the locals was able to give him the location . Eventually he found the tomb near the Agrigentine gate in Syracuse , in a neglected condition and overgrown with bushes . Cicero had the tomb cleaned up , and was able to see the carving and read some of the verses that had been added as an inscription . A tomb discovered in the courtyard of the Hotel Panorama in Syracuse in the early 1960s was claimed to be that of Archimedes , but there was no compelling evidence for this and the location of his tomb today is unknown .
The standard versions of the life of Archimedes were written long after his death by the historians of Ancient Rome . The account of the siege of Syracuse given by Polybius in his Universal History was written around seventy years after Archimedes ' death , and was used subsequently as a source by Plutarch and Livy . It sheds little light on Archimedes as a person , and focuses on the war machines that he is said to have built in order to defend the city .
= = Discoveries and inventions = =
= = = Archimedes ' principle = = =
The most widely known anecdote about Archimedes tells of how he invented a method for determining the volume of an object with an irregular shape . According to Vitruvius , a votive crown for a temple had been made for King Hiero II , who had supplied the pure gold to be used , and Archimedes was asked to determine whether some silver had been substituted by the dishonest goldsmith . Archimedes had to solve the problem without damaging the crown , so he could not melt it down into a regularly shaped body in order to calculate its density . While taking a bath , he noticed that the level of the water in the tub rose as he got in , and realized that this effect could be used to determine the volume of the crown . For practical purposes water is incompressible , so the submerged crown would displace an amount of water equal to its own volume . By dividing the mass of the crown by the volume of water displaced , the density of the crown could be obtained . This density would be lower than that of gold if cheaper and less dense metals had been added . Archimedes then took to the streets naked , so excited by his discovery that he had forgotten to dress , crying " Eureka ! " ( Greek : " εὕρηκα , heúrēka ! " , meaning " I have found [ it ] ! " ) . The test was conducted successfully , proving that silver had indeed been mixed in .
The story of the golden crown does not appear in the known works of Archimedes . Moreover , the practicality of the method it describes has been called into question , due to the extreme accuracy with which one would have to measure the water displacement . Archimedes may have instead sought a solution that applied the principle known in hydrostatics as Archimedes ' principle , which he describes in his treatise On Floating Bodies . This principle states that a body immersed in a fluid experiences a buoyant force equal to the weight of the fluid it displaces . Using this principle , it would have been possible to compare the density of the golden crown to that of solid gold by balancing the crown on a scale with a gold reference sample , then immersing the apparatus in water . The difference in density between the two samples would cause the scale to tip accordingly . Galileo considered it " probable that this method is the same that Archimedes followed , since , besides being very accurate , it is based on demonstrations found by Archimedes himself . " In a 12th @-@ century text titled Mappae clavicula there are instructions on how to perform the weighings in the water in order to calculate the percentage of silver used , and thus solve the problem . The Latin poem Carmen de ponderibus et mensuris of the 4th or 5th century describes the use of a hydrostatic balance to solve the problem of the crown , and attributes the method to Archimedes .
= = = Archimedes ' screw = = =
A large part of Archimedes ' work in engineering arose from fulfilling the needs of his home city of Syracuse . The Greek writer Athenaeus of Naucratis described how King Hiero II commissioned Archimedes to design a huge ship , the Syracusia , which could be used for luxury travel , carrying supplies , and as a naval warship . The Syracusia is said to have been the largest ship built in classical antiquity . According to Athenaeus , it was capable of carrying 600 people and included garden decorations , a gymnasium and a temple dedicated to the goddess Aphrodite among its facilities . Since a ship of this size would leak a considerable amount of water through the hull , the Archimedes ' screw was purportedly developed in order to remove the bilge water . Archimedes ' machine was a device with a revolving screw @-@ shaped blade inside a cylinder . It was turned by hand , and could also be used to transfer water from a low @-@ lying body of water into irrigation canals . The Archimedes ' screw is still in use today for pumping liquids and granulated solids such as coal and grain . The Archimedes ' screw described in Roman times by Vitruvius may have been an improvement on a screw pump that was used to irrigate the Hanging Gardens of Babylon . The world 's first seagoing steamship with a screw propeller was the SS Archimedes , which was launched in 1839 and named in honor of Archimedes and his work on the screw .
= = = Claw of Archimedes = = =
The Claw of Archimedes is a weapon that he is said to have designed in order to defend the city of Syracuse . Also known as " the ship shaker , " the claw consisted of a crane @-@ like arm from which a large metal grappling hook was suspended . When the claw was dropped onto an attacking ship the arm would swing upwards , lifting the ship out of the water and possibly sinking it . There have been modern experiments to test the feasibility of the claw , and in 2005 a television documentary entitled Superweapons of the Ancient World built a version of the claw and concluded that it was a workable device .
= = = Heat ray = = =
Archimedes may have used mirrors acting collectively as a parabolic reflector to burn ships attacking Syracuse . The 2nd century AD author Lucian wrote that during the Siege of Syracuse ( c . 214 – 212 BC ) , Archimedes destroyed enemy ships with fire . Centuries later , Anthemius of Tralles mentions burning @-@ glasses as Archimedes ' weapon . The device , sometimes called the " Archimedes heat ray " , was used to focus sunlight onto approaching ships , causing them to catch fire .
This purported weapon has been the subject of ongoing debate about its credibility since the Renaissance . René Descartes rejected it as false , while modern researchers have attempted to recreate the effect using only the means that would have been available to Archimedes . It has been suggested that a large array of highly polished bronze or copper shields acting as mirrors could have been employed to focus sunlight onto a ship . This would have used the principle of the parabolic reflector in a manner similar to a solar furnace .
A test of the Archimedes heat ray was carried out in 1973 by the Greek scientist Ioannis Sakkas . The experiment took place at the Skaramagas naval base outside Athens . On this occasion 70 mirrors were used , each with a copper coating and a size of around five by three feet ( 1 @.@ 5 by 1 m ) . The mirrors were pointed at a plywood mock @-@ up of a Roman warship at a distance of around 160 feet ( 50 m ) . When the mirrors were focused accurately , the ship burst into flames within a few seconds . The plywood ship had a coating of tar paint , which may have aided combustion . A coating of tar would have been commonplace on ships in the classical era .
In October 2005 a group of students from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology carried out an experiment with 127 one @-@ foot ( 30 cm ) square mirror tiles , focused on a mock @-@ up wooden ship at a range of around 100 feet ( 30 m ) . Flames broke out on a patch of the ship , but only after the sky had been cloudless and the ship had remained stationary for around ten minutes . It was concluded that the device was a feasible weapon under these conditions . The MIT group repeated the experiment for the television show MythBusters , using a wooden fishing boat in San Francisco as the target . Again some charring occurred , along with a small amount of flame . In order to catch fire , wood needs to reach its autoignition temperature , which is around 300 ° C ( 570 ° F ) .
When MythBusters broadcast the result of the San Francisco experiment in January 2006 , the claim was placed in the category of " busted " ( or failed ) because of the length of time and the ideal weather conditions required for combustion to occur . It was also pointed out that since Syracuse faces the sea towards the east , the Roman fleet would have had to attack during the morning for optimal gathering of light by the mirrors . MythBusters also pointed out that conventional weaponry , such as flaming arrows or bolts from a catapult , would have been a far easier way of setting a ship on fire at short distances .
In December 2010 , MythBusters again looked at the heat ray story in a special edition entitled " President 's Challenge " . Several experiments were carried out , including a large scale test with 500 schoolchildren aiming mirrors at a mock @-@ up of a Roman sailing ship 400 feet ( 120 m ) away . In all of the experiments , the sail failed to reach the 210 ° C ( 410 ° F ) required to catch fire , and the verdict was again " busted " . The show concluded that a more likely effect of the mirrors would have been blinding , dazzling , or distracting the crew of the ship .
= = = Other discoveries and inventions = = =
While Archimedes did not invent the lever , he gave an explanation of the principle involved in his work On the Equilibrium of Planes . Earlier descriptions of the lever are found in the Peripatetic school of the followers of Aristotle , and are sometimes attributed to Archytas . According to Pappus of Alexandria , Archimedes ' work on levers caused him to remark : " Give me a place to stand on , and I will move the Earth . " ( Greek : δῶς μοι πᾶ στῶ καὶ τὰν γᾶν κινάσω ) Plutarch describes how Archimedes designed block @-@ and @-@ tackle pulley systems , allowing sailors to use the principle of leverage to lift objects that would otherwise have been too heavy to move . Archimedes has also been credited with improving the power and accuracy of the catapult , and with inventing the odometer during the First Punic War . The odometer was described as a cart with a gear mechanism that dropped a ball into a container after each mile traveled .
Cicero ( 106 – 43 BC ) mentions Archimedes briefly in his dialogue De re publica , which portrays a fictional conversation taking place in 129 BC . After the capture of Syracuse c . 212 BC , General Marcus Claudius Marcellus is said to have taken back to Rome two mechanisms , constructed by Archimedes and used as aids in astronomy , which showed the motion of the Sun , Moon and five planets . Cicero mentions similar mechanisms designed by Thales of Miletus and Eudoxus of Cnidus . The dialogue says that Marcellus kept one of the devices as his only personal loot from Syracuse , and donated the other to the Temple of Virtue in Rome . Marcellus ' mechanism was demonstrated , according to Cicero , by Gaius Sulpicius Gallus to Lucius Furius Philus , who described it thus :
Hanc sphaeram Gallus cum moveret , fiebat ut soli luna totidem conversionibus in aere illo quot diebus in ipso caelo succederet , ex quo et in caelo sphaera solis fieret eadem illa defectio , et incideret luna tum in eam metam quae esset umbra terrae , cum sol e regione . — When Gallus moved the globe , it happened that the Moon followed the Sun by as many turns on that bronze contrivance as in the sky itself , from which also in the sky the Sun 's globe became to have that same eclipse , and the Moon came then to that position which was its shadow on the Earth , when the Sun was in line .
This is a description of a planetarium or orrery . Pappus of Alexandria stated that Archimedes had written a manuscript ( now lost ) on the construction of these mechanisms entitled On Sphere @-@ Making . Modern research in this area has been focused on the Antikythera mechanism , another device built c . 100 BC that was probably designed for the same purpose . Constructing mechanisms of this kind would have required a sophisticated knowledge of differential gearing . This was once thought to have been beyond the range of the technology available in ancient times , but the discovery of the Antikythera mechanism in 1902 has confirmed that devices of this kind were known to the ancient Greeks .
= = Mathematics = =
While he is often regarded as a designer of mechanical devices , Archimedes also made contributions to the field of mathematics . Plutarch wrote : " He placed his whole affection and ambition in those purer speculations where there can be no reference to the vulgar needs of life . " Archimedes was able to use infinitesimals in a way that is similar to modern integral calculus . Through proof by contradiction ( reductio ad absurdum ) , he could give answers to problems to an arbitrary degree of accuracy , while specifying the limits within which the answer lay . This technique is known as the method of exhaustion , and he employed it to approximate the value of π . In Measurement of a Circle he did this by drawing a larger regular hexagon outside a circle and a smaller regular hexagon inside the circle , and progressively doubling the number of sides of each regular polygon , calculating the length of a side of each polygon at each step . As the number of sides increases , it becomes a more accurate approximation of a circle . After four such steps , when the polygons had 96 sides each , he was able to determine that the value of π lay between 31 / 7 ( approximately 3 @.@ 1429 ) and 310 / 71 ( approximately 3 @.@ 1408 ) , consistent with its actual value of approximately 3 @.@ 1416 . He also proved that the area of a circle was equal to π multiplied by the square of the radius of the circle ( πr2 ) . In On the Sphere and Cylinder , Archimedes postulates that any magnitude when added to itself enough times will exceed any given magnitude . This is the Archimedean property of real numbers .
In Measurement of a Circle , Archimedes gives the value of the square root of 3 as lying between 265 / 153 ( approximately 1 @.@ 7320261 ) and 1351 / 780 ( approximately 1 @.@ 7320512 ) . The actual value is approximately 1 @.@ 7320508 , making this a very accurate estimate . He introduced this result without offering any explanation of how he had obtained it . This aspect of the work of Archimedes caused John Wallis to remark that he was : " as it were of set purpose to have covered up the traces of his investigation as if he had grudged posterity the secret of his method of inquiry while he wished to extort from them assent to his results . " It is possible that he used an iterative procedure to calculate these values .
In The Quadrature of the Parabola , Archimedes proved that the area enclosed by a parabola and a straight line is 4 / 3 times the area of a corresponding inscribed triangle as shown in the figure at right . He expressed the solution to the problem as an infinite geometric series with the common ratio 1 / 4 :
<formula>
If the first term in this series is the area of the triangle , then the second is the sum of the areas of two triangles whose bases are the two smaller secant lines , and so on . This proof uses a variation of the series 1 / 4 + 1 / 16 + 1 / 64 + 1 / 256 + · · · which sums to 1 / 3 .
In The Sand Reckoner , Archimedes set out to calculate the number of grains of sand that the universe could contain . In doing so , he challenged the notion that the number of grains of sand was too large to be counted . He wrote : " There are some , King Gelo ( Gelo II , son of Hiero II ) , who think that the number of the sand is infinite in multitude ; and I mean by the sand not only that which exists about Syracuse and the rest of Sicily but also that which is found in every region whether inhabited or uninhabited . " To solve the problem , Archimedes devised a system of counting based on the myriad . The word is from the Greek μυριάς murias , for the number 10 @,@ 000 . He proposed a number system using powers of a myriad of myriads ( 100 million ) and concluded that the number of grains of sand required to fill the universe would be 8 vigintillion , or 8 × 1063 .
= = Writings = =
The works of Archimedes were written in Doric Greek , the dialect of ancient Syracuse . The written work of Archimedes has not survived as well as that of Euclid , and seven of his treatises are known to have existed only through references made to them by other authors . Pappus of Alexandria mentions On Sphere @-@ Making and another work on polyhedra , while Theon of Alexandria quotes a remark about refraction from the now @-@ lost Catoptrica . During his lifetime , Archimedes made his work known through correspondence with the mathematicians in Alexandria . The writings of Archimedes were first collected by the Byzantine Greek architect Isidore of Miletus ( c . 530 AD ) , while commentaries on the works of Archimedes written by Eutocius in the sixth century AD helped to bring his work a wider audience . Archimedes ' work was translated into Arabic by Thābit ibn Qurra ( 836 – 901 AD ) , and Latin by Gerard of Cremona ( c . 1114 – 1187 AD ) . During the Renaissance , the Editio Princeps ( First Edition ) was published in Basel in 1544 by Johann Herwagen with the works of Archimedes in Greek and Latin . Around the year 1586 Galileo Galilei invented a hydrostatic balance for weighing metals in air and water after apparently being inspired by the work of Archimedes .
= = = Surviving works = = =
On the Equilibrium of Planes ( two volumes )
The first book is in fifteen propositions with seven postulates , while the second book is in ten propositions . In this work Archimedes explains the Law of the Lever , stating , " Magnitudes are in equilibrium at distances reciprocally proportional to their weights . "
Archimedes uses the principles derived to calculate the areas and centers of gravity of various geometric figures including triangles , parallelograms and parabolas .
On the Measurement of a Circle
This is a short work consisting of three propositions . It is written in the form of a correspondence with Dositheus of Pelusium , who was a student of Conon of Samos . In Proposition II , Archimedes gives an approximation of the value of pi ( π ) , showing that it is greater than 223 / 71 and less than 22 / 7 .
On Spirals
This work of 28 propositions is also addressed to Dositheus . The treatise defines what is now called the Archimedean spiral . It is the locus of points corresponding to the locations over time of a point moving away from a fixed point with a constant speed along a line which rotates with constant angular velocity . Equivalently , in polar coordinates ( r , θ ) it can be described by the equation
<formula>
with real numbers a and b . This is an early example of a mechanical curve ( a curve traced by a moving point ) considered by a Greek mathematician .
On the Sphere and the Cylinder ( two volumes )
In this treatise addressed to Dositheus , Archimedes obtains the result of which he was most proud , namely the relationship between a sphere and a circumscribed cylinder of the same height and diameter . The volume is 4 / 3πr3 for the sphere , and 2πr3 for the cylinder . The surface area is 4πr2 for the sphere , and 6πr2 for the cylinder ( including its two bases ) , where r is the radius of the sphere and cylinder . The sphere has a volume two @-@ thirds that of the circumscribed cylinder . Similarly , the sphere has an area two @-@ thirds that of the cylinder ( including the bases ) . A sculpted sphere and cylinder were placed on the tomb of Archimedes at his request .
On Conoids and Spheroids
This is a work in 32 propositions addressed to Dositheus . In this treatise Archimedes calculates the areas and volumes of sections of cones , spheres , and paraboloids .
On Floating Bodies ( two volumes )
In the first part of this treatise , Archimedes spells out the law of equilibrium of fluids , and proves that water will adopt a spherical form around a center of gravity . This may have been an attempt at explaining the theory of contemporary Greek astronomers such as Eratosthenes that the Earth is round . The fluids described by Archimedes are not self @-@ gravitating , since he assumes the existence of a point towards which all things fall in order to derive the spherical shape .
In the second part , he calculates the equilibrium positions of sections of paraboloids . This was probably an idealization of the shapes of ships ' hulls . Some of his sections float with the base under water and the summit above water , similar to the way that icebergs float . Archimedes ' principle of buoyancy is given in the work , stated as follows :
Any body wholly or partially immersed in a fluid experiences an upthrust equal to , but opposite in sense to , the weight of the fluid displaced .
The Quadrature of the Parabola
In this work of 24 propositions addressed to Dositheus , Archimedes proves by two methods that the area enclosed by a parabola and a straight line is 4 / 3 multiplied by the area of a triangle with equal base and height . He achieves this by calculating the value of a geometric series that sums to infinity with the ratio 1 / 4 .
( O ) stomachion
This is a dissection puzzle similar to a Tangram , and the treatise describing it was found in more complete form in the Archimedes Palimpsest . Archimedes calculates the areas of the 14 pieces which can be assembled to form a square . Research published by Dr. Reviel Netz of Stanford University in 2003 argued that Archimedes was attempting to determine how many ways the pieces could be assembled into the shape of a square . Dr. Netz calculates that the pieces can be made into a square 17 @,@ 152 ways . The number of arrangements is 536 when solutions that are equivalent by rotation and reflection have been excluded . The puzzle represents an example of an early problem in combinatorics .
The origin of the puzzle 's name is unclear , and it has been suggested that it is taken from the Ancient Greek word for throat or gullet , stomachos ( στόμαχος ) . Ausonius refers to the puzzle as Ostomachion , a Greek compound word formed from the roots of ὀστέον ( osteon , bone ) and μάχη ( machē – fight ) . The puzzle is also known as the Loculus of Archimedes or Archimedes ' Box .
Archimedes ' cattle problem
This work was discovered by Gotthold Ephraim Lessing in a Greek manuscript consisting of a poem of 44 lines , in the Herzog August Library in Wolfenbüttel , Germany in 1773 . It is addressed to Eratosthenes and the mathematicians in Alexandria . Archimedes challenges them to count the numbers of cattle in the Herd of the Sun by solving a number of simultaneous Diophantine equations . There is a more difficult version of the problem in which some of the answers are required to be square numbers . This version of the problem was first solved by A. Amthor in 1880 , and the answer is a very large number , approximately 7 @.@ 760271 × 10206544 .
The Sand Reckoner
In this treatise , Archimedes counts the number of grains of sand that will fit inside the universe . This book mentions the heliocentric theory of the solar system proposed by Aristarchus of Samos , as well as contemporary ideas about the size of the Earth and the distance between various celestial bodies . By using a system of numbers based on powers of the myriad , Archimedes concludes that the number of grains of sand required to fill the universe is 8 × 1063 in modern notation . The introductory letter states that Archimedes ' father was an astronomer named Phidias . The Sand Reckoner or Psammites is the only surviving work in which Archimedes discusses his views on astronomy .
The Method of Mechanical Theorems
This treatise was thought lost until the discovery of the Archimedes Palimpsest in 1906 . In this work Archimedes uses infinitesimals , and shows how breaking up a figure into an infinite number of infinitely small parts can be used to determine its area or volume . Archimedes may have considered this method lacking in formal rigor , so he also used the method of exhaustion to derive the results . As with The Cattle Problem , The Method of Mechanical Theorems was written in the form of a letter to Eratosthenes in Alexandria .
= = = Apocryphal works = = =
Archimedes ' Book of Lemmas or Liber Assumptorum is a treatise with fifteen propositions on the nature of circles . The earliest known copy of the text is in Arabic . The scholars T. L. Heath and Marshall Clagett argued that it cannot have been written by Archimedes in its current form , since it quotes Archimedes , suggesting modification by another author . The Lemmas may be based on an earlier work by Archimedes that is now lost .
It has also been claimed that Heron 's formula for calculating the area of a triangle from the length of its sides was known to Archimedes . However , the first reliable reference to the formula is given by Heron of Alexandria in the 1st century AD .
= = Archimedes Palimpsest = =
The foremost document containing the work of Archimedes is the Archimedes Palimpsest . In 1906 , the Danish professor Johan Ludvig Heiberg visited Constantinople and examined a 174 @-@ page goatskin parchment of prayers written in the 13th century AD . He discovered that it was a palimpsest , a document with text that had been written over an erased older work . Palimpsests were created by scraping the ink from existing works and reusing them , which was a common practice in the Middle Ages as vellum was expensive . The older works in the palimpsest were identified by scholars as 10th century AD copies of previously unknown treatises by Archimedes . The parchment spent hundreds of years in a monastery library in Constantinople before being sold to a private collector in the 1920s . On October 29 , 1998 it was sold at auction to an anonymous buyer for $ 2 million at Christie 's in New York . The palimpsest holds seven treatises , including the only surviving copy of On Floating Bodies in the original Greek . It is the only known source of The Method of Mechanical Theorems , referred to by Suidas and thought to have been lost forever . Stomachion was also discovered in the palimpsest , with a more complete analysis of the puzzle than had been found in previous texts . The palimpsest is now stored at the Walters Art Museum in Baltimore , Maryland , where it has been subjected to a range of modern tests including the use of ultraviolet and x @-@ ray light to read the overwritten text .
The treatises in the Archimedes Palimpsest are : On the Equilibrium of Planes , On Spirals , Measurement of a Circle , On the Sphere and the Cylinder , On Floating Bodies , The Method of Mechanical Theorems and Stomachion .
= = Legacy = =
Galileo praised Archimedes many times , and referred to him as a " superhuman " . Leibniz said " He who understands Archimedes and Apollonius will admire less the achievements of the foremost men of later times . "
There is a crater on the Moon named Archimedes ( 29 @.@ 7 ° N , 4 @.@ 0 ° W ) in his honor , as well as a lunar mountain range , the Montes Archimedes ( 25 @.@ 3 ° N , 4 @.@ 6 ° W ) .
The Fields Medal for outstanding achievement in mathematics carries a portrait of Archimedes , along with a carving illustrating his proof on the sphere and the cylinder . The inscription around the head of Archimedes is a quote attributed to him which reads in Latin : " Transire suum pectus mundoque potiri " ( Rise above oneself and grasp the world ) .
Archimedes has appeared on postage stamps issued by East Germany ( 1973 ) , Greece ( 1983 ) , Italy ( 1983 ) , Nicaragua ( 1971 ) , San Marino ( 1982 ) , and Spain ( 1963 ) .
The exclamation of Eureka ! attributed to Archimedes is the state motto of California . In this instance the word refers to the discovery of gold near Sutter 's Mill in 1848 which sparked the California Gold Rush .
= = = The Works of Archimedes online = = =
Text in Classical Greek : PDF scans of Heiberg 's edition of the Works of Archimedes , now in the public domain
In English translation : The Works of Archimedes , trans . T.L. Heath ; supplemented by The Method of Mechanical Theorems , trans . L.G. Robinson
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= Marie Curie =
Marie Skłodowska Curie ( / ˈkjʊri , kjʊˈriː / ; French : [ kyʁi ] ; Polish : [ kʲiˈri ] ; 7 November 1867 – 4 July 1934 ) , born Maria Salomea Skłodowska [ ˈmarja salɔˈmɛa skwɔˈdɔfska ] , was a Polish and naturalized @-@ French physicist and chemist who conducted pioneering research on radioactivity . She was the first woman to win a Nobel Prize , the first person and only woman to win twice , the only person to win twice in multiple sciences , and was part of the Curie family legacy of five Nobel Prizes . She was also the first woman to become a professor at the University of Paris , and in 1995 became the first woman to be entombed on her own merits in the Panthéon in Paris .
She was born in Warsaw , in what was then the Kingdom of Poland , part of the Russian Empire . She studied at Warsaw 's clandestine Floating University and began her practical scientific training in Warsaw . In 1891 , aged 24 , she followed her older sister Bronisława to study in Paris , where she earned her higher degrees and conducted her subsequent scientific work . She shared the 1903 Nobel Prize in Physics with her husband Pierre Curie and with physicist Henri Becquerel . She won the 1911 Nobel Prize in Chemistry .
Her achievements included the development of the theory of radioactivity ( a term that she coined ) , techniques for isolating radioactive isotopes , and the discovery of two elements , polonium and radium . Under her direction , the world 's first studies were conducted into the treatment of neoplasms , using radioactive isotopes . She founded the Curie Institutes in Paris and in Warsaw , which remain major centres of medical research today . During World War I , she established the first military field radiological centres .
While a French citizen , Marie Skłodowska Curie ( she used both surnames ) never lost her sense of Polish identity . She taught her daughters the Polish language and took them on visits to Poland . She named the first chemical element that she discovered — polonium , which she isolated in 1898 — after her native country .
Curie died in 1934 , aged 66 , at a sanatorium in Sancellemoz ( Haute @-@ Savoie ) , France , due to aplastic anemia brought on by exposure to radiation while carrying test tubes of radium in her pockets during research , and in the course of her service in World War I mobile X @-@ ray units that she had set up .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early years = = =
Maria Skłodowska was born in Warsaw , in the Russian partition of Poland , on 7 November 1867 , the fifth and youngest child of well @-@ known teachers Bronisława , née Boguska , and Władysław Skłodowski . The elder siblings of Maria ( nickname : Mania ) were Zofia ( born 1862 , nickname : Zosia ) , Józef ( born 1863 , nickname : Józio ) , Bronisława ( born 1865 , nickname : Bronia ) and Helena ( born 1866 , nickname : Hela ) .
On both the paternal and maternal sides , the family had lost their property and fortunes through patriotic involvements in Polish national uprisings aimed at restoring Poland 's independence ( the most recent had been the January Uprising of 1863 – 65 ) . This condemned the subsequent generation , including Maria , her elder sisters and her brother , to a difficult struggle to get ahead in life .
Maria 's paternal grandfather , Józef Skłodowski , had been a respected teacher in Lublin , where he taught the young Bolesław Prus , who would become a leading figure in Polish literature . Her father , Władysław Skłodowski , taught mathematics and physics , subjects that Maria was to pursue , and was also director of two Warsaw gymnasia for boys . After Russian authorities eliminated laboratory instruction from the Polish schools , he brought much of the laboratory equipment home , and instructed his children in its use .
The father was eventually fired by his Russian supervisors for pro @-@ Polish sentiments , and forced to take lower @-@ paying posts ; the family also lost money on a bad investment , and eventually chose to supplement their income by lodging boys in the house . Maria 's mother Bronisława operated a prestigious Warsaw boarding school for girls ; she resigned from the position after Maria was born . She died of tuberculosis in May 1878 , when Maria was ten years old . Less than three years earlier , Maria 's oldest sibling , Zofia , had died of typhus contracted from a boarder . Maria 's father was an atheist ; her mother a devout Catholic . The deaths of Maria 's mother and sister caused her to give up Catholicism and become agnostic .
When she was ten years old , Maria began attending the boarding school of J. Sikorska ; next she attended a gymnasium for girls , from which she graduated on 12 June 1883 with a gold medal . After a collapse , possibly due to depression , she spent the following year in the countryside with relatives of her father , and the next year with her father in Warsaw , where she did some tutoring . Unable to enroll in a regular institution of higher education because she was a woman , she and her sister Bronisława became involved with the clandestine Flying University , a Polish patriotic institution of higher learning that admitted women students .
Maria made an agreement with her sister , Bronisława , that she would give her financial assistance during Bronisława 's medical studies in Paris , in exchange for similar assistance two years later . In connection with this , Maria took a position as governess : first as a home tutor in Warsaw ; then for two years as a governess in Szczuki with a landed family , the Żorawskis , who were relatives of her father . While working for the latter family , she fell in love with their son , Kazimierz Żorawski , a future eminent mathematician . His parents rejected the idea of his marrying the penniless relative , and Kazimierz was unable to oppose them . Maria 's loss of the relationship with Żorawski was tragic for both . He soon earned a doctorate and pursued an academic career as a mathematician , becoming a professor and rector of Kraków University . Still , as an old man and a mathematics professor at the Warsaw Polytechnic , he would sit contemplatively before the statue of Maria Skłodowska which had been erected in 1935 before the Radium Institute that she had founded in 1932 .
At the beginning of 1890 , Bronisława — who a few months earlier had married Kazimierz Dłuski , a Polish physician and social and political activist — invited Maria to join them in Paris . Maria declined because she could not afford the university tuition ; it would take her a year and a half longer to gather the necessary funds . She was helped by her father , who was able to secure a more lucrative position again . All that time she continued to educate herself , reading books , exchanging letters , and being tutored herself . In early 1889 she returned home to her father in Warsaw . She continued working as a governess , and remained there till late 1891 . She tutored , studied at the Flying University , and began her practical scientific training ( 1890 – 91 ) in a chemical laboratory at the Museum of Industry and Agriculture at Krakowskie Przedmieście 66 , near Warsaw 's Old Town . The laboratory was run by her cousin Józef Boguski , who had been an assistant in Saint Petersburg to the Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev .
= = = New life in Paris = = =
In late 1891 , she left Poland for France . In Paris , Maria ( or Marie , as she would be known in France ) briefly found shelter with her sister and brother @-@ in @-@ law before renting a garret closer to the university , in the Latin Quarter , and proceeding with her studies of physics , chemistry , and mathematics at the University of Paris , where she enrolled in late 1891 . She subsisted on her meager resources , suffering from cold winters and occasionally fainting from hunger .
Skłodowska studied during the day and tutored evenings , barely earning her keep . In 1893 , she was awarded a degree in physics and began work in an industrial laboratory of Professor Gabriel Lippmann . Meanwhile , she continued studying at the University of Paris , and with the aid of a fellowship she was able to earn a second degree in 1894 .
Marie had begun her scientific career in Paris with an investigation of the magnetic properties of various steels , commissioned by the Society for the Encouragement of National Industry ( Société d 'encouragement pour l 'industrie nationale [ 1 ] ) . That same year Pierre Curie entered her life ; it was their mutual interest in natural sciences that drew them together . Pierre was an instructor at the School of Physics and Chemistry , the École supérieure de physique et de chimie industrielles de la ville de Paris ( ESPCI ) . They were introduced by the Polish physicist , Professor Józef Wierusz @-@ Kowalski , who had learned that Marie was looking for a larger laboratory space , something that Wierusz @-@ Kowalski thought Pierre had access to . Though Pierre did not have a large laboratory , he was able to find some space for Marie where she was able to begin work .
Their mutual passion for science brought them increasingly closer , and they began to develop feelings for one another . Eventually Pierre proposed marriage , but at first Marie did not accept as she was still planning to go back to her native country . Pierre , however , declared that he was ready to move with her to Poland , even if it meant being reduced to teaching French . Meanwhile , for the 1894 summer break , Marie returned to Warsaw , where she visited her family . She was still laboring under the illusion that she would be able to work in her chosen field in Poland , but she was denied a place at Kraków University because she was a woman . A letter from Pierre convinced her to return to Paris to pursue a Ph.D. At Marie 's insistence , Pierre had written up his research on magnetism and received his own doctorate in March 1895 ; he was also promoted to professor at the School . A contemporary quip would call Marie , " Pierre 's biggest discovery . " On 26 July 1895 they were married in Sceaux ( Seine ) ; neither wanted a religious service . Marie 's dark blue outfit , worn instead of a bridal gown , would serve her for many years as a laboratory outfit . They shared two pastimes : long bicycle trips , and journeys abroad , which brought them even closer . In Pierre , Marie had found a new love , a partner , and a scientific collaborator on whom she could depend .
= = = New elements = = =
In 1895 , Wilhelm Roentgen discovered the existence of X @-@ rays , though the mechanism behind their production was not yet understood . In 1896 , Henri Becquerel discovered that uranium salts emitted rays that resembled X @-@ rays in their penetrating power . He demonstrated that this radiation , unlike phosphorescence , did not depend on an external source of energy but seemed to arise spontaneously from uranium itself . Influenced by these two important discoveries , Marie decided to look into uranium rays as a possible field of research for a thesis .
She used an innovative technique to investigate samples . Fifteen years earlier , her husband and his brother had developed a version of the electrometer , a sensitive device for measuring electric charge . Using Pierre 's electrometer , she discovered that uranium rays caused the air around a sample to conduct electricity . Using this technique , her first result was the finding that the activity of the uranium compounds depended only on the quantity of uranium present . She hypothesized that the radiation was not the outcome of some interaction of molecules but must come from the atom itself . This hypothesis was an important step in disproving the ancient assumption that atoms were indivisible .
In 1897 , her daughter Irène was born . To support her family , Curie began teaching at the École Normale Supérieure . The Curies did not have a dedicated laboratory ; most of their research was carried out in a converted shed next to the School of Physics and Chemistry . The shed , formerly a medical school dissecting room , was poorly ventilated and not even waterproof . They were unaware of the deleterious effects of radiation exposure attendant on their continued unprotected work with radioactive substances . The School did not sponsor her research , but she would receive subsidies from metallurgical and mining companies and from various organizations and governments .
Curie 's systematic studies included two uranium minerals , pitchblende and torbernite ( also known as chalcolite ) . Her electrometer showed that pitchblende was four times as active as uranium itself , and chalcolite twice as active . She concluded that , if her earlier results relating the quantity of uranium to its activity were correct , then these two minerals must contain small quantities of another substance that was far more active than uranium . She began a systematic search for additional substances that emit radiation , and by 1898 she discovered that the element thorium was also radioactive .
Pierre was increasingly intrigued by her work . By mid @-@ 1898 he was so invested in it that he decided to drop his work on crystals and to join her .
The [ research ] idea [ writes Reid ] was her own ; no one helped her formulate it , and although she took it to her husband for his opinion she clearly established her ownership of it . She later recorded the fact twice in her biography of her husband to ensure there was no chance whatever of any ambiguity . It [ is ] likely that already at this early stage of her career [ she ] realized that ... many scientists would find it difficult to believe that a woman could be capable of the original work in which she was involved .
She was acutely aware of the importance of promptly publishing her discoveries and thus establishing her priority . Had not Becquerel , two years earlier , presented his discovery to the Académie des Sciences the day after he made it , credit for the discovery of radioactivity , and even a Nobel Prize , would instead have gone to Silvanus Thompson . Curie chose the same rapid means of publication . Her paper , giving a brief and simple account of her work , was presented for her to the Académie on 12 April 1898 by her former professor , Gabriel Lippmann . Even so , just as Thompson had been beaten by Becquerel , so Curie was beaten in the race to tell of her discovery that thorium gives off rays in the same way as uranium ; two months earlier , Gerhard Carl Schmidt had published his own finding in Berlin .
At that time , no one else in the world of physics had noticed what Curie recorded in a sentence of her paper , describing how much greater were the activities of pitchblende and chalcolite than uranium itself : " The fact is very remarkable , and leads to the belief that these minerals may contain an element which is much more active than uranium . " She later would recall how she felt " a passionate desire to verify this hypothesis as rapidly as possible . " On 14 April 1898 , the Curies optimistically weighed out a 100 @-@ gram sample of pitchblende and ground it with a pestle and mortar . They did not realize at the time that what they were searching for was present in such minute quantities that they would eventually have to process tons of the ore .
In July 1898 , Curie and her husband published a joint paper announcing the existence of an element which they named " polonium " , in honour of her native Poland , which would for another twenty years remain partitioned among three empires . On 26 December 1898 , the Curies announced the existence of a second element , which they named " radium " , from the Latin word for " ray " . In the course of their research , they also coined the word " radioactivity " .
To prove their discoveries beyond any doubt , the Curies sought to isolate polonium and radium in pure form . Pitchblende is a complex mineral ; the chemical separation of its constituents was an arduous task . The discovery of polonium had been relatively easy ; chemically it resembles the element bismuth , and polonium was the only bismuth @-@ like substance in the ore . Radium , however , was more elusive ; it is closely related chemically to barium , and pitchblende contains both elements . By 1898 the Curies had obtained traces of radium , but appreciable quantities , uncontaminated with barium , were still beyond reach . The Curies undertook the arduous task of separating out radium salt by differential crystallization . From a ton of pitchblende , one @-@ tenth of a gram of radium chloride was separated in 1902 . In 1910 , Marie Curie isolated pure radium metal . She never succeeded in isolating polonium , which has a half @-@ life of only 138 days .
Between 1898 and 1902 , the Curies published , jointly or separately , a total of 32 scientific papers , including one that announced that , when exposed to radium , diseased , tumor @-@ forming cells were destroyed faster than healthy cells .
In 1900 , Curie became the first woman faculty member at the École Normale Supérieure , and her husband joined the faculty of the University of Paris . In 1902 she visited Poland on the occasion of her father 's death .
In June 1903 , supervised by Gabriel Lippmann , Curie was awarded her doctorate from the University of Paris . That month the couple were invited to the Royal Institution in London to give a speech on radioactivity ; being a woman , she was prevented from speaking , and Pierre alone was allowed to . Meanwhile , a new industry began developing , based on radium . The Curies did not patent their discovery and benefited little from this increasingly profitable business .
= = = Nobel Prizes = = =
In December 1903 , the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences awarded Pierre Curie , Marie Curie , and Henri Becquerel the Nobel Prize in Physics , " in recognition of the extraordinary services they have rendered by their joint researches on the radiation phenomena discovered by Professor Henri Becquerel . " At first , the Committee intended to honour only Pierre and Becquerel , but one of the committee members and an advocate of woman scientists , Swedish mathematician Magnus Goesta Mittag @-@ Leffler , alerted Pierre to the situation , and after his complaint , Marie 's name was added to the nomination . Marie was the first woman to be awarded a Nobel Prize .
Curie and her husband declined to go to Stockholm to receive the prize in person ; they were too busy with their work , and Pierre , who disliked public ceremonies , was feeling increasingly ill . As Nobel laureates were required to deliver a lecture , the Curies finally undertook the trip in 1905 . The award money allowed the Curies to hire their first laboratory assistant . Following the award of the Nobel Prize , and galvanized by an offer from the University of Geneva , which offered Pierre a position , the University of Paris gave Pierre a professorship and the chair of physics , although the Curies still did not have a proper laboratory . Upon Pierre 's complaint , the University of Paris relented and agreed to furnish a new laboratory , but it would not be ready until 1906 .
In December 1904 , Curie gave birth to their second daughter , Ève . She later hired Polish governesses to teach her daughters her native language , and sent or took them on visits to Poland .
On 19 April 1906 , Pierre was killed in a road accident . Walking across the Rue Dauphine in heavy rain , he was struck by a horse @-@ drawn vehicle and fell under its wheels , causing his skull to fracture . Curie was devastated by her husband 's death . On 13 May 1906 the physics department of the University of Paris decided to retain the chair that had been created for Pierre and to offer it to Marie . She accepted it hoping to create a world @-@ class laboratory as a tribute to Pierre . She was the first woman to become a professor at the University of Paris .
Curie 's quest to create a new laboratory did not end with the University of Paris , however . In her later years , she headed the Radium Institute ( Institut du radium , now Curie Institute , Institut Curie ) , a radioactivity laboratory created for her by the Pasteur Institute and the University of Paris . The initiative for creating the Radium Institute had come in 1909 from Pierre Paul Émile Roux , director of the Pasteur Institute , who had been disappointed that the University of Paris was not giving Curie a proper laboratory and had suggested that she move to the Pasteur Institute . Only then , with the threat of Curie leaving , did the University of Paris relent , and eventually the Curie Pavilion became a joint initiative of the University of Paris and the Pasteur Institute .
In 1910 Curie succeeded in isolating radium ; she also defined an international standard for radioactive emissions that was eventually named for her and Pierre : the curie . Nevertheless , in 1911 the French Academy of Sciences did not elect her to be a member by one or two votes . Elected instead was Édouard Branly , an inventor who had helped Guglielmo Marconi develop the wireless telegraph . A doctoral student of Curie , Marguerite Perey , became the first woman elected to membership in the Academy – over half a century later , in 1962 . Despite Curie 's fame as a scientist working for France , the public 's attitude tended toward xenophobia — the same that had led to the Dreyfus affair – which also fuelled false speculation that Curie was Jewish . During the French Academy of Sciences elections , she was vilified by the right wing press who criticised her for being a foreigner and an atheist . Her daughter later remarked on the public hypocrisy as the French press often portrayed Curie as an unworthy foreigner when she was nominated for a French honour , but would portray her as a French hero when she received a foreign one such as her Nobel Prizes .
In 1911 it was revealed that in 1910 – 11 Curie had conducted an affair of about a year 's duration with physicist Paul Langevin , a former student of Pierre 's — a married man who was estranged from his wife . This resulted in a press scandal that was exploited by her academic opponents . Curie ( then in her mid @-@ 40s ) was five years older than Langevin and was misrepresented in the tabloids as a foreign Jewish home @-@ wrecker . When the scandal broke , she was away at a conference in Belgium ; on her return , she found an angry mob in front of her house and had to seek refuge , with her daughters , in the home of a friend .
International recognition for her work had been growing to new heights , and the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences , overcoming opposition prompted by the Langevin scandal , honored her a second time , with the 1911 Nobel Prize in Chemistry . This award was " in recognition of her services to the advancement of chemistry by the discovery of the elements radium and polonium , by the isolation of radium and the study of the nature and compounds of this remarkable element . " She was the first person to win or share two Nobel Prizes , and remains alone with Linus Pauling as Nobel laureates in two fields each . A delegation of celebrated Polish men of learning , headed by novelist Henryk Sienkiewicz , encouraged her to return to Poland and continue her research in her native country . Curie 's second Nobel Prize enabled her to persuade the French government into supporting the Radium Institute , built in 1914 , where research was conducted in chemistry , physics , and medicine . A month after accepting her 1911 Nobel Prize , she was hospitalised with depression and a kidney ailment . For most of 1912 she avoided public life but did spend time in England with her friend and fellow physicist , Hertha Ayrton . She returned to her laboratory only in December , after a break of about 14 months .
In 1912 the Warsaw Scientific Society offered her the directorship of a new laboratory in Warsaw but she declined , focusing on the developing Radium Institute to be completed in August 1914 , and on a new street named Rue Pierre @-@ Curie . She visited Poland in 1913 and was welcomed in Warsaw but the visit was mostly ignored by the Russian authorities . The Institute 's development was interrupted by the coming war , as most researchers were drafted into the French Army , and it fully resumed its activities in 1919 .
= = = World War I = = =
During World War I , Curie saw a need for field radiological centres near the front lines to assist battlefield surgeons . After a quick study of radiology , anatomy , and automotive mechanics she procured X @-@ ray equipment , vehicles , auxiliary generators , and developed mobile radiography units , which came to be popularly known as petites Curies ( " Little Curies " ) . She became the director of the Red Cross Radiology Service and set up France 's first military radiology centre , operational by late 1914 . Assisted at first by a military doctor and by her 17 @-@ year @-@ old daughter Irène , Curie directed the installation of 20 mobile radiological vehicles and another 200 radiological units at field hospitals in the first year of the war . Later , she began training other women as aides .
In 1915 Curie produced hollow needles containing ' radium emanation ' , a colorless , radioactive gas given off by radium , later identified as radon , to be used for sterilizing infected tissue . She provided the radium from her own one @-@ gram supply . It is estimated that over a million wounded soldiers were treated with her X @-@ ray units . Busy with this work , she carried out very little scientific research during that period . In spite of all her humanitarian contributions to the French war effort , Curie never received any formal recognition of it from the French government .
Also , promptly after the war started , she attempted to donate her gold Nobel Prize medals to the war effort but the French National Bank refused to accept them . She did buy war bonds , using her Nobel Prize money . She was also an active member in committees of Polonia in France dedicated to the Polish cause . After the war , she summarized her war time experiences in a book Radiology in War ( 1919 ) .
= = = Postwar years = = =
In 1920 , for the 25th anniversary of the discovery of radium , the French government established a stipend for her ; its previous recipient was Louis Pasteur ( 1822 – 95 ) . In 1921 , Marie was welcomed triumphantly when she toured the United States to raise funds for research on radium . Mrs. William Brown Meloney , after interviewing Marie , created a Marie Curie Radium Fund and raised money to buy radium , publicising her trip . In 1921 , US President Warren G. Harding received her at the White House to present her with the 1 gram of radium collected in the United States . Before the meeting , recognising her growing fame abroad , and embarrassed by the fact that she had no French official distinctions to wear in public , the French government offered her a Legion of Honour award , but she refused . In 1922 she became a fellow of the French Academy of Medicine . She also travelled to other countries , appearing publicly and giving lectures in Belgium , Brazil , Spain , and Czechoslovakia .
Led by Curie , the Institute produced four more Nobel Prize winners , including her daughter Irène Joliot @-@ Curie and her son @-@ in @-@ law , Frédéric Joliot @-@ Curie . Eventually , it became one of four major radioactivity research laboratories , the others being the Cavendish Laboratory , with Ernest Rutherford ; the Institute for Radium Research , Vienna , with Stefan Meyer ; and the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Chemistry , with Otto Hahn and Lise Meitner .
In August 1922 , Marie Curie became a member of the newly created International Commission for Intellectual Cooperation of the League of Nations . In 1923 , she wrote a biography of Pierre , entitled Pierre Curie . In 1925 , she visited Poland , to participate in the ceremony that laid foundations for the Radium Institute in Warsaw . Her second American tour , in 1929 , succeeded in equipping the Warsaw Radium Institute with radium ; it was opened in 1932 and her sister Bronisława became its director . These distractions from her scientific labours and the attendant publicity caused her much discomfort but provided resources needed for her work . In 1930 , she was elected a member of the International Atomic Weights Committee where she served until her death .
= = = Death = = =
Curie visited Poland for the last time in early 1934 . A few months later , on 4 July 1934 , she died at the Sancellemoz Sanatorium in Passy , in Haute @-@ Savoie , from aplastic anemia believed to have been contracted from her long @-@ term exposure to radiation . The damaging effects of ionising radiation were not known at the time of her work , which had been carried out without the safety measures later developed . She had carried test tubes containing radioactive isotopes in her pocket , and she stored them in her desk drawer , remarking on the faint light that the substances gave off in the dark . Curie was also exposed to X @-@ rays from unshielded equipment while serving as a radiologist in field hospitals during the war . Although her many decades of exposure to radiation caused chronic illnesses ( including near blindness due to cataracts ) and ultimately her death , she never really acknowledged the health risks of radiation exposure .
She was interred at the cemetery in Sceaux , alongside her husband Pierre . Sixty years later , in 1995 , in honour of their achievements , the remains of both were transferred to the Panthéon , Paris . She became the first woman to be honoured with interment in the Panthéon on her own merits . In 2015 , two other women were also interred on their own merits .
Because of their levels of radioactive contamination , her papers from the 1890s are considered too dangerous to handle . Even her cookbook is highly radioactive . Her papers are kept in lead @-@ lined boxes , and those who wish to consult them must wear protective clothing .
In her last year , she worked on a book , Radioactivity , which was published posthumously in 1935 .
= = Legacy = =
The physical and societal aspects of the Curies ' work contributed substantially to shaping the world of the twentieth and twenty @-@ first centuries . Cornell University professor L. Pearce Williams observes :
The result of the Curies ' work was epoch @-@ making . Radium 's radioactivity was so great that it could not be ignored . It seemed to contradict the principle of the conservation of energy and therefore forced a reconsideration of the foundations of physics . On the experimental level the discovery of radium provided men like Ernest Rutherford with sources of radioactivity with which they could probe the structure of the atom . As a result of Rutherford 's experiments with alpha radiation , the nuclear atom was first postulated . In medicine , the radioactivity of radium appeared to offer a means by which cancer could be successfully attacked .
If Curie 's work helped overturn established ideas in physics and chemistry , it has had an equally profound effect in the societal sphere . To attain her scientific achievements , she had to overcome barriers that were placed in her way because she was a woman , in both her native and her adoptive country . This aspect of her life and career is highlighted in Françoise Giroud 's Marie Curie : A Life , which emphasizes Marie 's role as a feminist precursor .
She was known for her honesty and moderate life style . Having received a small scholarship in 1893 , she returned it in 1897 as soon as she began earning her keep . She gave much of her first Nobel Prize money to friends , family , students , and research associates . In an unusual decision , Curie intentionally refrained from patenting the radium @-@ isolation process , so that the scientific community could do research unhindered . She insisted that monetary gifts and awards be given to the scientific institutions she was affiliated with rather than to her . She and her husband often refused awards and medals . Albert Einstein reportedly remarked that she was probably the only person who could not be corrupted by fame .
= = Awards , honours , and tributes = =
As one of the most famous women scientists to date , Marie Curie has become an icon in the scientific world and has received tributes from across the globe , even in the realm of pop culture . In a 2009 poll carried out by New Scientist , Marie Curie was voted the " most inspirational woman in science " . Curie received 25 @.@ 1 per cent of all votes cast , nearly twice as many as second @-@ place Rosalind Franklin ( 14 @.@ 2 per cent ) .
Poland and France declared 2011 the Year of Marie Curie , and the United Nations declared that this would be the International Year of Chemistry . An artistic installation celebrating " Madame Curie " filled the Jacobs Gallery at San Diego 's Museum of Contemporary Art . On 7 November , Google celebrated the anniversary of her birth with a special Google Doodle . On 10 December , the New York Academy of Sciences celebrated the centenary of Marie Curie 's second Nobel prize in the presence of Princess Madeleine of Sweden .
Marie Curie was the first woman to win a Nobel prize , the first person to win two Nobel Prizes , the only woman to win in two fields , and the only person to win in multiple sciences . Awards that she received include :
Nobel Prize in Physics ( 1903 , with Pierre )
Davy Medal ( 1903 , with Pierre )
Matteucci Medal ( 1904 , with Pierre )
Actonian Prize ( 1907 )
Elliott Cresson Medal ( 1909 )
Nobel Prize in Chemistry ( 1911 )
Franklin Medal of the American Philosophical Society ( 1921 )
Marie Curie 's 1898 publication with her husband M. P. Curie and also with M. G. Bémont for their discovery of radium and polonium was honored by a Citation for Chemical Breakthrough Award from the Division of History of Chemistry of the American Chemical Society presented to the ESPCI Paris ( Ecole supérieure de physique et de chimie industrielles de la Ville de Paris ) in 2015 .
In 1995 , she became the first woman to be entombed on her own merits in the Panthéon , Paris . The curie ( symbol Ci ) , a unit of radioactivity , is named in honour of her and Pierre ( although the commission which agreed on the name never clearly stated whether the standard was named after Pierre , Marie or both of them ) . The element with atomic number 96 was named curium . Three radioactive minerals are also named after the Curies : curite , sklodowskite , and cuprosklodowskite . She received numerous honorary degrees from universities across the world . The Marie Curie Actions fellowship program of the European Union for young scientists wishing to work in a foreign country is named after her . In Poland , she had received honorary doctorates from the Lwów Polytechnic ( 1912 ) , Poznań University ( 1922 ) , Kraków 's Jagiellonian University ( 1924 ) , and the Warsaw Polytechnic ( 1926 ) . In 1921 , she was awarded the Iota Sigma Pi National Honorary Member for her significant contribution .
Numerous locations around the world are named after her . In 2007 , a metro station in Paris was renamed to honour both of the Curies . Polish nuclear research reactor Maria is named after her . The 7000 Curie asteroid is also named after her . A KLM McDonnell Douglas MD @-@ 11 ( registration PH @-@ KCC ) is named in her honour .
Several institutions bear her name , starting with the two Curie institutes – the Maria Skłodowska – Curie Institute of Oncology , in Warsaw ; and the Institut Curie in Paris . She is the patron of Maria Curie @-@ Skłodowska University , in Lublin , founded in 1944 ; and of Pierre and Marie Curie University ( Paris VI ) , France 's pre @-@ eminent science university . In Britain , Marie Curie Cancer Care was organized in 1948 to care for the terminally ill .
Two museums are devoted to Marie Curie . In 1967 , the Maria Skłodowska @-@ Curie Museum was established in Warsaw 's " New Town " , at her birthplace on ulica Freta ( Freta Street ) . Her Paris laboratory is preserved as the Musée Curie , open since 1992 .
Several works of art bear her likeness . In 1935 , Michalina Mościcka , wife of Polish President Ignacy Mościcki , unveiled a statue of Marie Curie before Warsaw 's Radium Institute . During the 1944 Second World War Warsaw Uprising against the Nazi German occupation , the monument was damaged by gunfire ; after the war it was decided to leave the bullet marks on the statue and its pedestal . In 1955 Jozef Mazur created a stained glass panel of her , the Maria Skłodowska @-@ Curie Medallion , featured in the University at Buffalo Polish Room .
A number of biographies are devoted to her . In 1938 her daughter , Ève Curie , published Madame Curie . In 1987 Françoise Giroud wrote Marie Curie : A Life . In 2005 Barbara Goldsmith wrote Obsessive Genius : The Inner World of Marie Curie . In 2011 Lauren Redniss published Radioactive : Marie and Pierre Curie , a Tale of Love and Fallout .
Greer Garson and Walter Pidgeon starred in the 1943 U.S. Oscar @-@ nominated film , Madame Curie , based on her life . More recently , in 1997 , a French film about Pierre and Marie Curie was released , Les Palmes de M. Schutz . It was adapted from a play of the same name . In the film , Marie Curie was played by Isabelle Huppert .
Curie is the subject of the play False Assumptions by Lawrence Aronovitch , in which the ghosts of three other women scientists observe events in her life . Curie has also been portrayed by Susan Marie Frontczak in her play Manya : The Living History of Marie Curie , a one @-@ woman show performed in 30 US states and nine countries , by 2014 .
Curie 's likeness also has appeared on banknotes , stamps and coins around the world . She was featured on the Polish late @-@ 1980s 20 @,@ 000 @-@ złoty banknote as well as on the last French 500 @-@ franc note , before the franc was replaced by the euro . Marie Curie themed postage stamps from Mali , the Republic of Togo , Zambia , and the Republic of Guinea actually show a picture of Susan Marie Frontczak portraying Curie in a 2001 picture by Paul Schroeder .
On the 2011 centenary of Marie Curie 's second Nobel Prize ( 1911 ) , an allegorical mural was painted on the façade of her Warsaw birthplace . It depicts an infant Maria Skłodowska holding a test tube from which emanate the elements that she would discover as an adult : polonium and radium .
Also in 2011 , a new Warsaw bridge over the Vistula was named after her .
= = = Nonfiction = = =
Eva Hemmungs Wirtén ( 2015 ) . Making Marie Curie : Intellectual Property and Celebrity Culture in an Age of Information . University of Chicago Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 226 @-@ 23584 @-@ 4 . Retrieved 15 March 2016 .
Kaczorowska , Teresa ( 2011 ) . Córka mazowieckich równin , czyli , Maria Skłodowska @-@ Curie z Mazowsza [ Daughter of the Mazovian Plains : Maria Skłodowska – Curie of Mazowsze ] ( in Polish ) . Związek Literatów Polskich , Oddz. w Ciechanowie . ISBN 9788389408365 . Retrieved 15 March 2016 .
Pasachoff , Naomi ( 1996 ) . Marie Curie and the Science of Radioactivity . Oxford University Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 19 @-@ 509214 @-@ 1 .
Curie , Eve ( 2001 ) . Madame Curie : A Biography . Da Capo Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 306 @-@ 81038 @-@ 1 .
Curie , Marie ( 1921 ) . The Discovery of Radium . Poughkeepsie : Vassar College .
Quinn , Susan ( 1996 ) . Marie Curie : A Life . Da Capo Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 201 @-@ 88794 @-@ 5 .
Giroud , Françoise ( 1986 ) . Marie Curie , a life . Holmes & Meier . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 8419 @-@ 0977 @-@ 9 . , translated by Lydia Davis
Redniss , Lauren ( 2010 ) . Radioactive : Marie & Pierre Curie : A Tale of Love and Fallout . HarperCollins . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 06 @-@ 135132 @-@ 7 .
Opfell , Olga S. ( 1978 ) . The Lady Laureates : Women Who Have Won the Nobel Prize . Metuchen , N.J. & London : Scarecrow Press. pp. 147 – 164 . ISBN 0 @-@ 8108 @-@ 1161 @-@ 8 .
= = = Fiction = = =
Olov Enquist , Per ( 2006 ) . The Book about Blanche and Marie . New York : Overlook . ISBN 1 @-@ 58567 @-@ 668 @-@ 3 . A 2004 novel by Per Olov Enquist featuring Maria Skłodowska @-@ Curie , neurologist Jean @-@ Martin Charcot , and his Salpêtrière patient " Blanche " ( Marie Wittman ) . The English translation was published in 2006 .
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= You Don 't Know What to Do =
" You Don 't Know What to Do " is a song by American singer and songwriter Mariah Carey included on her fourteenth studio album , Me . I Am Mariah ... The Elusive Chanteuse ( 2014 ) , and features rapper Wale . The track was released on June 30 , 2014 , as the fourth single from the album . It was written by Wale , Carey , Jermaine Dupri and Bryan @-@ Michael Cox , with production helmed by the latter three . The song contains an interpolation of " I 'm Caught Up in a One Night Affair " written by Patrick Adams and Terri Gonzalez , both of whom received songwriting credits as a result . The single 's artwork caused controversy when the media criticised Carey for photoshopping and re @-@ using images of herself .
A disco revival song , the lyrics are about Carey being dissatisfied by her lover 's failed attempts at romancing her . Despite being serviced to urban and rhythmic radio in the United States , Belgium and South Korea were the only territories where the song charted , peaking at number 14 on its Ultratip chart , which ranks the top songs that have yet to enter the main Ultratop 50 chart , and number 2 on the South Korea download chart . " You Don 't Know What to Do " garnered critical acclaim amongst music critics : many complimented the disco revival and throwback style , calling it the best track on the album , and compared it to the works of Jocelyn Brown , Daft Punk , Chic and post @-@ revivalist songs produced Pharrell Williams . Carey and Wale performed the song for the first and only time on the Today show in the United States .
= = Background and release = =
" You Don 't Know What to Do " was written by Carey , Jermaine Dupri and Bryan @-@ Michael Cox , with featured artist Wale . The song interpolates a song called " I 'm Caught Up in a One Night Affair " , written by Patrick Adams and Terri Gonzalez and originally performed by Inner Life in 1979 . Adams and Gonzalez are credited as songwriters as a result . In August 2012 , Cox revealed that he , Carey and Dupri had started working on Carey 's then untitled fourteenth studio album , later revealed to be Me . I Am Mariah ... The Elusive Chanteuse , before the singer became pregnant with twins in 2010 , and then resumed working on the project after she gave birth in 2011 . " She was committed to making it before she got pregnant . Then she got pregnant and she took the time off . Then after she came back , we started really vibing again and we picked up right where we left off . I just feel like between Jermaine , myself and her , we came up with a few things that [ are ] really , really a solid body of work " .
In August 2013 , Wale revealed that he had been in the studio with Carey , posting the message " Mariah x Wale x JD = coming soon " on his Twitter account . Then , on May 16 , 2014 , Carey and Wale premiered their collaboration , revealed to be called " You Don 't Know What to Do " , live during a mini @-@ concert for Today held by Carey . Following the performance , Carey premiered the studio version on May 19 on The Russ Parr Morning Show radio show . A solo version which omits Wale 's rap verses was later released in June 2014 . The song was serviced to urban contemporary radio on June 30 , 2014 and rhythmic contemporary radio on July 1 , 2014 , as the fourth single to be released from the album .
= = = Artwork controversy = = =
When Carey released " You Don 't Know What to Do " as the fourth single from the album , fans noticed that it 's accompanying single artwork looked odd . It was later revealed that the single artwork was a cropped version of the album cover for Me . I Am Mariah ... The Elusive Chanteuse , whereby her head had been swapped for another image in favor of one which was forward @-@ facing , as well as an edited background . Various media outlets criticized Carey for continuing to heavily airbrush and " recycle " images of herself . In response , Carey expressed her discontent on Twitter , stating she had nothing to do with the selection of the single 's artwork and in turn asked for fans to send in their artwork designs as alternatives , ending the message with " ' cause at this point IDKWTD ! " , an abbreviation of the song 's title .
= = Composition and lyrics = =
" You Don 't Know What to Do " is a disco revival song with elements of gospel , pop and R & B styles . It lasts for a duration of four minutes and 46 seconds . Several critics highlighted the track as following in the recent disco revivalism footsteps of Daft Punk , Justin Timberlake and posthumous Michael Jackson material . The song begins with Carey singing about how she is in a dilemma as to whether or not she wishes to stay in a relationship with her lover , as he is no longer capable of romancing her . In response , Wale raps about how he is trying to woo her and is asking for a second chance . Carey then decides that it has been too long that Wale has not loved her for , and feels liberated for letting him go . Kenneth Partridge of Billboard likened the string arrangement to Chic 's 1979 single " Good Times " . Pitchfork Media writer Jordan Sargent compared " You Don 't Know What to Do " to Carey 's previous singles " Fantasy " ( 1995 ) and " Heartbreaker " ( 1999 ) , but noted that it felt like a " logical extension of post @-@ Pharrell disco revivalism " . Christina Lee for Idolator thought that the 70s disco feel embodied Daft Punk 's 2013 single , " Get Lucky " .
= = Response = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
PopMatters writer Devone Jones described the song as " the most energetic track " on the album , and continued to write that the " skillful " lyrics allow Carey to perform " genuine harmonies " which are reminiscent of seventies dance songs . Both Andy Kellman of AllMusic and Eric Henderson for Slant Magazine noted that Carey appeared to be channeling American dance singer Jocelyn Brown , with the former writer that she sounded like Brown more prominently in the intro , while the latter described " You Don 't Know What to Do " as a " stunning " tribute to Brown 's 1984 single " Somebody Else 's Guy " . Henderson continued to write that " You Don 't Know What to Do " , along with another album track called " Meteorite " , are two of Carey 's " most serious @-@ minded performances " on the album , further describing them as " galaxies away " from her 2008 single " I 'll Be Lovin ' U Long Time " .
Billboard writer Kenneth Partridge complimented the song for its dance appeal , adding that the only thing missing was a cameo from Nile Rodgers . Melinda Newman of HitFix praised the song 's " playful " sentiment , writing that it was the best song that had been released from Me . I Am Mariah ... The Elusive Chanteuse so far . Entertainment Weekly writer Melissa Maerz complimented the interpolation of " I 'm Caught Up in a One Night Affair " , describing it as " nostalgic " , and further stated that Carey embodies the " bravado " of American singer Jennifer Holliday in the broadway musical Dreamgirls . Digital Spy 's Lewis Corner praised Dupri for producing a piano " disco stormer " with throwback appeal . Mike Wass of Idolator thought that " You Don 't Know What to Do " would have been worthy of being recorded by American disco singer Donna Summer .
Jordan Sargent of Pitchfork Media praised its composition and noted that the disco and gospel genres are where middle @-@ aged woman can " thrive " , whereby Carey " fits in unsurprisingly well " . He was , however , critical of the decision to include Wale on the song . Similarly , Aisha Harris of Slate Magazine praised the song 's production and Carey 's vocals too , but also thought that Wale 's rap verses were not required . Conversely , fashion designer Donatella Versace , a friend of Carey 's , told Vogue that she thought Carey 's singing and Wale 's rapping complimented each other on the song , describing it as " poetry " , and that it made her want to get up and dance " all summer " .
= = = Chart performance = = =
" You Don 't Know What to Do " debuted at number 45 on the Belgium chart , in the region of Wallonia on August 2 , 2014 . The song broke into the top 40 the following week , charting at number 36 . It peaked at number 14 on September 6 , spending six weeks on the chart in total . The song also entered the South Korea International Digital Singles Chart at number 3 for the week ending May 31 , 2014 , and number two on the Download Chart , with sales of 32 @,@ 945 units . In its second week , the song fell to number seven with sales of 11 @,@ 991 units , and again to number 11 in its third week with sales of 7 @,@ 326 units .
= = Live performance = =
Carey and Wale performed " You Don 't Know What to Do " on the Today show on May 16 , 2014 . The performance also included renditions of Carey 's previous singles " Always Be My Baby " ( 1996 ) and " Touch My Body " ( 2008 ) .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Me . I Am Mariah ... The Elusive Chanteuse .
Recording
Recorded at Rapture Studios , Bel Air , CA ; Metrocity Studios , New York , NY ; Studio at the Palms , Las Vegas , NV ; Capital Studios , Hollywood , CA .
Sampling credits
Contains an interpolation of " I 'm Caught Up in a One Night Love Affair " , written by Patrick Adams and Terri Gonzalez .
Personnel
= = Charts = =
= = Release history = =
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