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= 1 ( in the reals ) and … 999 =
− 1 ( in the 10 @-@ adics ) , then by " blind faith and unabashed juggling of symbols " one may add the two equations and arrive at … 999 @.@ 999 … = 0 . This equation does not make sense either as a 10 @-@ adic expansion or an ordinary decimal expansion , but it turns out to be meaningful and true if one develops a theory of " double @-@ decimals " with eventually repeating left ends to represent a familiar system : the real numbers .
= = = Ultrafinitism = = =
The philosophy of ultrafinitism rejects as meaningless concepts dealing with infinite sets , such as the summation of infinitely many numbers <formula> corresponding to the positional values of the decimal digits in <formula> . In this approach to mathematics , only some particular ( fixed ) number of finite decimal digits are meaningful . Instead of " equality " , one has " approximate equality " , which is equality up to the number of decimal digits that one is permitted to compute . Doron Zeilberger , a proponent of this philosophy , calls the equality <formula> " not even wrong " , for this reason . Instead , he argues that there is an algorithm that can check that the sequence obtained by truncating the decimal expansion of 0 @.@ 999 ... is approximately equal to 1 within a specified error . Although Katz and Katz ( 2010a ) argue that ultrafinitism may capture the student intuition that 0 @.@ 999 ... ought to be less than 1 , the ideas of ultrafinitism do not enjoy widespread acceptance in the mathematical community , and the philosophy lacks a generally agreed @-@ upon formal mathematical foundation .
= = Related questions = =
Zeno 's paradoxes , particularly the paradox of the runner , are reminiscent of the apparent paradox that 0 @.@ 999 … and 1 are equal . The runner paradox can be mathematically modelled and then , like 0 @.@ 999 … , resolved using a geometric series . However , it is not clear if this mathematical treatment addresses the underlying metaphysical issues Zeno was exploring .
Division by zero occurs in some popular discussions of 0 @.@ 999 … , and it also stirs up contention . While most authors choose to define 0 @.@ 999 … , almost all modern treatments leave division by zero undefined , as it can be given no meaning in the standard real numbers . However , division by zero is defined in some other systems , such as complex analysis , where the extended complex plane , i.e. the Riemann sphere , has a " point at infinity " . Here , it makes sense to define 1 ⁄ 0 to be infinity ; and , in fact , the results are profound and applicable to many problems in engineering and physics . Some prominent mathematicians argued for such a definition long before either number system was developed .
Negative zero is another redundant feature of many ways of writing numbers . In number systems , such as the real numbers , where " 0 " denotes the additive identity and is neither positive nor negative , the usual interpretation of " − 0 " is that it should denote the additive inverse of 0 , which forces − 0 = 0 . Nonetheless , some scientific applications use separate positive and negative zeroes , as do some computing binary number systems ( for example integers stored in the sign and magnitude or ones ' complement formats , or floating point numbers as specified by the IEEE floating @-@ point standard ) .
= 1 ? from cut @-@ the @-@ knot
Why does 0 @.@ 9999 … =
1 ?
Proof of the equality based on arithmetic
David Tall 's research on mathematics cognition
What is so wrong with thinking of real numbers as infinite decimals ?
Theorem 0 @.@ 999 … on Metamath
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= Phạm Ngọc Thảo =
Colonel Phạm Ngọc Thảo ( IPA : Hanoi : [ fâˀm ŋoˀk tʰa ᷉ ɔ ] , Saigon : [ fə ̂ ˀm ŋoˀk tʰə ᷉ ɔ ] ) , also known as Albert Thảo ( 1922 – 1965 ) , was a communist sleeper agent of the Viet Minh ( and , later , of the Vietnam People 's Army ) who infiltrated the Army of the Republic of Vietnam and also became a major provincial leader in South Vietnam . In 1962 , he was made overseer of Ngô Đình Nhu 's Strategic Hamlet Program in South Vietnam and deliberately forced it forward at an unsustainable speed , causing the production of poorly equipped and poorly defended villages and the growth of rural resentment toward the regime of President Ngô Đình Diệm , Nhu 's elder brother . In light of the failed " land reform " efforts in North Vietnam , the Hanoi government welcomed Thao 's efforts to undermine Diem .
During the First Indochina War , Thảo was a communist officer in the Vietminh and helped oversee various operations in the Mekong Delta in the far south , at one point commanding his future enemy Nguyễn Khánh , who briefly served the communist cause . After the French withdrawal and the partition of Vietnam , Thảo stayed in the south and made a show of renouncing communism . He became part of the military establishment in the anti @-@ communist southern regime and quickly rose through the ranks . Nominally Catholic , Thảo befriended Diệm 's elder brother , Archbishop Pierre Martin Ngô Đình Thục — the devoutly Roman Catholic Ngô family strongly favored co @-@ religionists and had great trust in Thảo , unaware that he was still loyal to the communists . He went on to serve as the chief of Bến Tre Province , and gained fame after the area — traditionally a communist stronghold — suddenly became peaceful and prosperous . Vietnamese and US officials , as well as journalists hostile to or supportive of Saigon , misinterpreted this as a testament to Thảo 's great ability , and he was promoted to a more powerful position where he could further his sabotage . Thảo and the communists in the local area had simply stopped fighting , so that the communists could quietly recuperate , while Thảo would appear to be very skillful and be given a more important job where he could do more damage .
Through intrigue , Thảo also helped destabilise and ultimately unseat two South Vietnamese regimes — Diem 's and the military junta of Khánh . As the Diệm regime began to unravel in 1963 , Thảo was one of the officers planning a coup . His plot was ultimately integrated into the successful plot and his activities promoted infighting which weakened the government and distracted the military from fighting the Viet Cong insurgency . Throughout 1964 and 1965 , as South Vietnam was struggling to establish a stable state after the ouster of Diệm , Thảo was involved in several intrigues and coup plots which diverted the government from implementing its programs . In 1965 , he went into hiding after a failed attempt to seize power from Khánh and was sentenced to death in absentia . Although this coup also failed , the subsequent chaos forced Khánh 's junta to collapse . Thảo died the same year he was forced into hiding ; it is believed that he was murdered after a bounty was placed on his head . After Vietnam was reunified at the end of the Vietnam War , the victorious communists claimed Thảo as one of their own and posthumously made him a one @-@ star general .
= = Early Vietminh years = =
Born Phạm Ngọc Thuần , Thảo was one of eleven children of a northern Vietnamese Roman Catholic family . At the time , Vietnam was a French colony . The family held French citizenship but opposed French colonialism . His father , an engineer , once headed an underground communist organisation in Paris , which assisted the Viet Minh 's anti @-@ French pro @-@ independence activities outside Vietnam . After attending French schools in Saigon , Thuần changed his name to Thảo and renounced his French citizenship . In his high school years at the Lycée Chasseloup @-@ Laubat , Thảo met Trương Như Tảng , who later became a high @-@ ranking member of the Viet Cong , a communist guerrilla organisation in South Vietnam . Tảng described Thảo as " my dearest friend " and recalled that they had " spent endless hours talking about everything under the sun . We were closer than brothers . "
Thảo spent his teenage years obsessed with his motorcycle . Despite being educated at an upper @-@ class school that served children of French colonial administrators and privileged Vietnamese — French was the medium of instruction and Gallic culture and history a major part of the curriculum — Thảo was attracted to nationalist politics . He participated in Hồ Chí Minh 's revolutionary campaigns for Vietnamese independence and joined the Vietminh .
In September 1945 , Hồ declared independence under the Democratic Republic of Vietnam ( DRV ) following the withdrawal of Imperial Japan , which had seized control of the country from France during the Second World War . At the time , there was a power vacuum , as both Japan and France had been decimated by the war . There was an outbreak of nationalist fervour in Vietnam ; Tảng and Thảo joined the Vanguard Youth , an impromptu independence militia . Tảng was assigned to be the leader of the local unit , but he left the movement soon after , leaving Thảo in command . During this period , Saigon was regularly engulfed in riots .
In 1946 , France attempted to reassert control over its colony and conventional military fighting broke out . Thảo served with the Vietminh in the Mekong Delta in the far south of Vietnam during the war against French rule from 1946 – 54 . He almost met his end before he had started ; he was apprehended by the local communists in Mỹ Tho , who saw his French @-@ style dress and mistook him for a colonial agent . They tied him up and chained him to a block of stone before throwing him into a river to drown . However , Thảo broke free of the weight and swam to safety . Thảo proceeded further south and deeper into the Mekong Delta to the town of Vĩnh Long , where he was again arrested by the local Vietminh . Just as Thảo was about to be executed by drowning , one of the communists realised he was a brother of one of their comrades . Thảo was released and rejoined his family , who lived in the region .
As a leader of the resistance , Thảo was allocated the responsibility of indoctrinating the 1947 batch of recruits with Vietminh ideology . One of Thảo 's students was his future enemy , South Vietnamese General and President Nguyễn Khánh . This group became the 410th Battalion and went on to fight near Cà Mau , the southernmost part of Vietnam . By 1949 , Thảo was in charge of the Vietminh espionage apparatus around Saigon and organised the guerrilla companies in the countryside . Thảo was also involved in procuring arms . Filipino traders brought arms into southern Vietnam in return for rice , shrimp , pork , gold and banknotes . Following the French defeat in 1954 at Điện Biên Phủ , Thảo helped evacuate communist fighters from South Vietnam and Cambodia in accordance with the terms of the Geneva Conference . Under these Accords , Vietnam was to be temporarily divided at the 17th parallel pending national elections to reunify the country in 1956 , and military personnel were to be evacuated to their respective sides of the border . In the meantime , Hồ Chí Minh 's Vietminh controlled the north under the DRV while the south was under the French @-@ sponsored State of Vietnam .
However , Thảo remained in the anti @-@ communist south when Vietnam was partitioned and made a show of renouncing communism . He became a schoolteacher and later worked in a bank , as well as the Department of Transport . He consistently refused to turn in the names of his former comrades , claiming that they were merely patriots fighting against the French and were not communists . At the same time , one of Thảo 's brothers had been appointed as North Vietnam 's ambassador to East Germany , having served as vice chairman of the Vietminh 's Resistance Committee for the South during the war against the French . In October 1955 , Prime Minister Diệm ousted Emperor Bảo Đại in a referendum to determine the form of government of the State of Vietnam . " Republic " received almost 99 % of the vote and " monarchy " received a little over 1 % . Diệm declared himself president of the newly proclaimed Republic of Vietnam . He scrapped the national elections , citing the fact that South Vietnam was not a signatory to the Accords of the Geneva Conference .
= = Undercover communist in the South Vietnamese army = =
The U.S.-backed Diệm was passionately anti @-@ communist . In 1957 , He initiated an " Anti @-@ Communist Denunciation Campaign " to root out Vietminh members and their sympathisers . Thousands of people were killed or jailed , and in time Diệm 's campaigns created more sympathy for the Vietminh . Before 1960 , various small @-@ scale pro @-@ Communist uprisings were taking place in the countryside . Thảo went on the run and hid in Vĩnh Long , worried that Diệm 's men were after him . In December 1960 , North Vietnam 's Politburo authorised the creation of the National Front for the Liberation of South Vietnam , popularly known as the Viet Cong . The Vietcong were dominated by communists , but portrayed itself as a nationalist militant organisation , stating its aim to be the " reunification of the fatherland " with the overthrow of the " disguised colonial regime of the U.S. imperialists and the dictatorial Ngo Dinh Diem administration " . The creation of the Vietcong marked an escalation in the scale and organisation of the insurgency that developed into the Vietnam War .
Thảo 's Catholic background helped him to avoid detection as a communist . He and his brother were the only members of the family who were not anti @-@ communist . The remainder of the relatives were followers of Diệm 's brother , Archbishop Thục , who had been Bishop of Vĩnh Long during the war against France . Thảo was known to have a face that revealed nothing of his inner feelings . Thục 's intervention helped Thảo rise in the Army of the Republic of Vietnam ( ARVN ) . Thục put Thảo in touch with Trần Kim Tuyến , who was in charge of intelligence operations under Diệm 's younger brother Nhu , who was the head of the secret police and controlled the ARVN Special Forces . Thảo began as a propagandist for various units of the army and for the secret Catholic Cần lao Party , whose system of informants and secret cells helped create the atmosphere of a police state and maintained the Ngô family 's grip on power .
Tảng believed that Thục " undoubtedly considered that Thảo 's Catholic and family loyalties were stronger and more durable than his youthful enthusiasm for revolution " . He felt that Thảo had tricked Thục into believing that he was no longer a communist , and that his inside knowledge would be useful to the Ngô family . Thảo started by training the Civil Guard . As a result of his family 's Catholic connections , Thảo rose steadily in the ARVN , since Diệm 's regime had always promoted officers primarily on religious preference and loyalty . Nhu sent him to Malaysia to study counterinsurgency techniques , and upon his return , Thảo became a vital part of Nhu 's efforts to purge the army of disloyal officers . As Thảo kept a close watch on those who commanded troops , lest they use their personnel in a coup , the leading officers were keen to maintain a good relationship with him , which increased his effectiveness as a spy . Thảo rose even further when the troops he commanded helped put down the November 1960 coup attempt against Diệm . Thảo assisted Khánh and Trần Thiện Khiêm to put down the revolt . All three were promoted , with the latter pair gaining the leadership of the ARVN and of the combined forces , respectively . This cemented the trio 's close ties .
Thảo was promoted to the post of chief of Bến Tre Province . He covertly worked with the cadres of Nguyễn Thị Định , a Vietcong leader who later became the highest ranking female communist in post @-@ war reunified Vietnam . The area was a traditional communist stronghold , and anti @-@ government attacks had increased in recent times , but it suddenly became peaceful when Thảo arrived . There were rumours that Thảo and the communists had decided to cease fighting for their mutual benefit ; the guerrillas could quietly strengthen themselves , while Thảo would appear to be successful and he would be promoted to a more powerful position where he could cause more damage to Diệm . The lack of fighting between Thảo 's forces and the Vietcong proved to beneficial to the communist cause . In a three @-@ month period in 1963 , the Vietcong were able to recruit 2 @,@ 000 men in Bến Tre and formed two more battalions . Thảo was praised by the Ngô family and U.S. military advisors , unaware of his ruse . He received another promotion , and with it , more influence and contacts among the officer corps .
The US ambassador , Elbridge Durbrow , described Bến Tre Province as an " agricultural showplace " and advised journalists to travel there to see Thảo 's successful administration . The influential American journalist Joe Alsop changed his plans so that he could spend more time in Bến Tre , saying that the province " particularly inspires hope " . In one operation by Thảo 's ARVN forces , American field journalists covering the battle saw their hours @-@ long attempt to box in a Vietcong battalion yield only one farmer who lived in a hut with antigovernment slogans . Despite this , the American journalists and Vietnamese officers remained unaware that Thảo was a double agent . In fact , the Pulitzer Prize @-@ winning journalist David Halberstam misinterpreted the lack of attacks in Bến Tre , while other provinces were being ravaged , as proof that Thảo was one of the few capable government officials in the Mekong Delta . Journalist Robert Shaplen wrote : " In all respects , Thao is one of the most remarkable Vietnamese around , being a conspiratorial revolutionary figure straight out of a Malraux novel and , at the same time , a highly sophisticated and astute man , whose talents , if only they were properly channeled , could profitably be used right now . " As Thảo was a former leader of the Vietminh , outsiders thought that his apparent success was due his first @-@ hand knowledge of communist tactics . During his period as the province chief , Thảo set up the Council of Elders , a consultative body of 20 – 200 men and women , who were allowed to criticise local officials . He advocated the creation of the Council of Patrons , a philanthropic body to raise money for community projects .
= = Strategic Hamlet Program = =
In 1962 , Nhu began work on the ambitious Strategic Hamlet Program , an attempt to build fortified villages that would be secure zones for rural Vietnamese . The objective was to lock the Vietcong out so that they could not operate among the villagers . Thảo supervised these efforts , and when told that the peasants resented being forcibly removed from their ancestral lands and put into forts that they were forced to build , he advised Nhu and Tuyến that it was imperative to build as many hamlets as fast as possible . This pleased the Vietcong , who felt that Thảo 's efforts were turning the rural populace against Saigon . Thảo specifically had villages built in areas that he knew had a strong Vietcong presence . This increased the number of communist sympathisers who were placed inside the hamlets and given identification cards . As a result , the Vietcong were able to more effectively penetrate the villages to access supplies and personnel .
Later in 1962 , United States Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara visited South Vietnam and was taken on an inspection tour of the country , accompanied by Diệm and Thảo . Perhaps because Thảo divulged the tour details to Vietcong guerrillas , each of McNamara 's stopovers was punctuated by bloody attacks on nearby ARVN installations . For example , when McNamara was in Bình Dương Province , five government soldiers were killed . As he flew from Đà Lạt north to Đà Nẵng near the Demilitarized Zone , he was greeted by a Vietcong bombing of a southbound troop train , which killed 27 and wounded 30 Civil Guard members .
= = The fall of Diệm = =
In 1963 , the Diệm regime began to lose its tight control over the country as civil unrest spread as a result of the Buddhist crisis . Large scale demonstrations by the Buddhist majority erupted in response to the government shootings of nine Buddhists in Huế who were protesting against a ban on the flying of the Buddhist flag during Vesak , the birthday of Gautama Buddha . With Diệm remaining intransigent in the face of Buddhist demands for religious equality , sections of society began calling for his removal from power . Thảo was part of the many plots that engulfed Saigon , destabilising the regime . Aiming for a 15 July coup , Tuyến consulted with Thảo regarding his plans , but Tuyến was too closely associated with Nhu to recruit the necessary military aid and he was subsequently exiled by Nhu .
Tuyen 's group ended up being led by Thảo but his initial coup plans were shelved when American CIA agent Lucien Conein instructed Thảo 's superior , General Khiêm , to stop the coup on the grounds that it was premature . Thảo 's motivation for involvement in the plotting is generally attributed to communist instructions for him to cause infighting within the ARVN whenever possible . He resumed plotting , intending to stage the coup on 24 October . He had recruited various infantry , marine and paratroop units for his scheme , totalling 3 @,@ 000 men . Thảo 's group did not carry out the coup after senior generals persuaded him to integrate his forces into their larger group , which was more likely to succeed . Thảo reasoned that aligning himself with a group of officers that were likely to successful would yield more influence in the resulting junta . The coup was successfully executed on 1 November 1963 under the leadership of Generals Dương Văn Minh and Trần Văn Đôn .
Thảo commanded around two dozen tanks , which formed a column in the streets surrounding the Presidential Palace at midnight , and helped launch the full @-@ scale attack at 03 : 30 on 2 November . The rebels eventually gained control of the building , and at daybreak Thảo 's forces stormed the palace , but found it empty ; Diệm and Nhu had escaped . A captured officer of the Presidential Guard revealed the brothers ' hiding place and under the orders of Khiêm , Thảo went after them . Khiêm ordered Thảo to ensure the brothers were not physically harmed . Thảo arrived at the house in Cholon where the brothers were purportedly hiding and phoned the rebels back at the palace . Diệm and Nhu were apparently listening in on an extension in another room and escaped . The brothers subsequently surrendered to an ARVN convoy led by General Mai Hữu Xuân at a nearby Catholic church and were executed en route to military headquarters despite being promised safe exile .
The US media 's links to Thảo have been the source of historical debate . The journalists ' reporting of Diệm 's authoritarian rule , military failures , and attacks on Buddhists shifted American public opinion and put pressure on Washington to withdraw support for the Ngô family and seek a change of leadership . William Prochnau felt that the fall of Diệm was the biggest influence of the media on American foreign policy in over six decades . Thảo and Phạm Xuân Ẩn had been the source of much of the media 's information . Conservative revisionist historians have accused the media of bringing down Diệm by publishing reports that , according to them , were based on false data disseminated by communist propagandists to unfairly malign Diệm 's rule , which they claim was effective and fair towards the Buddhist majority .
= = Participation in military junta = =
After the fall of the Diệm regime , Thảo was designated by the head of state Minh and the civilian Prime Minister Nguyễn Ngọc Thơ to create the nucleus of a group called the Council of Notables , and promote it to the public. which , as an interim body of prominent civilians , would advise the military junta before it handed over power to an elected legislature under civilian rule . The Council of 60 people , 58 men and 2 women , held its first meeting on 1 January 1964 in Saigon . The council was composed almost entirely of well @-@ known professionals and academics and , as such , was hardly representative of South Vietnamese society ; there were no delegates from the agricultural or labour sectors of the economy . It gained a reputation for being a forum of debate , rather than a means of enacting policy change and government programs for the populace . Thơ and Minh assigned Thảo with the task of encouraging a transition to democracy by facilitating the formation of a few political parties . This was ineffective , as many political parties with only a handful of members sprang up and squabbled . Within 45 days of the coup , 62 parties had formed but nothing meaningful resulted . In the end , these efforts proved to be irrelevant as Minh 's junta and the accompanying Council of Notables were overthrown before the end of the month . During this period , Thảo served as the head of military security and played a role in replacing Colonel Đỗ Khắc Mai with Nguyễn Cao Kỳ as the head of the Vietnam Air Force . In the aftermath of the coup , Vietcong attacks increased markedly amid infighting among the Saigon leadership , which Thảo had helped to stir up .
The generals sent Thảo to Fort Leavenworth in the United States for six months to learn conventional warfare tactics . He also spent a month in England before returning to Vietnam . By this time , Minh 's junta had been replaced in a 1964 January coup by Khánh . It is suspected that one of the generals ' motives for deploying Thảo overseas was his continual involvement in plotting . Khánh appointed Thảo as his press officer as well as an unofficial political adviser .
Later that same year , Khánh became involved in a power struggle with his deputy Khiêm as well as Minh , who had been retained as the titular head of state . Thảo was a close friend of Khiêm , so when Khánh prevailed in the power struggle , Khánh despatched Khiêm to Washington as the ambassador with Thảo was his press attaché . In August 1964 , Khánh 's leadership became increasingly troubled after he tried to augment his powers by declaring a state of emergency . This only provoked large @-@ scale protests and riots calling for an end to military rule , with Buddhist activists at the forefront . Fearful of losing power , Khánh began making concessions to the protesters and promised democracy in the near future , which encouraged more groups to demand changes , and Khánh demoted certain Catholic pro @-@ Diệm supporters . On 13 September , a Catholic @-@ dominated group led by Generals Lâm Văn Phát and Dương Văn Đức , both of whom had been demoted , moved troops into Saigon but then withdrew after it became obvious they did not have the numbers to remove Khánh . Khiêm and Thảo were implicated in helping to plot Phát and Đức 's attempted putsch ; both were sent abroad by Khánh .
= = 1965 attempted coup = =
In late December 1964 , Thảo was summoned back to Saigon by Khánh , who correctly suspected him and Khiêm of plotting together with Washington . Thảo suspected Khánh was attempting to have him killed , so he went underground upon returning to Saigon , and began plotting in earnest , having been threatened with being charged for desertion . He sheltered in a house belonging to a friend of Trương Như Tảng . The ruling junta appealed to Thảo in newspaper advertisements and broadcasts to follow orders to report , but he ignored them . In mid @-@ January 1965 , the regime called for him to report to his superiors in the ARVN , warning that he would be " considered guilty of abandoning his post with all the consequences of such a situation " if he failed to do so .
Due to his Catholic background , Thảo was able to recruit Diệm loyalists such as Phát . With Khánh 's grip on power shaky , an anonymous source said that Thảo was worried about how he would be treated if someone else took over : " Thao acted first , out of fear that if he did not , the other generals would overthrow Khanh and get rid of him as well . He knew that if the others overthrew Khanh his fate would be worse than Khanh 's . " During this time , Thảo kept in touch with elements of the CIA in an attempt to get American backing . Meanwhile , Khiêm had been putting pressure on Khánh for over two months by charging him and the Buddhists of seeking a " neutralist solution " and " negotiating with the communists " . At the same time , Khánh 's relationship with the Americans — particularly Ambassador and retired General Maxwell Taylor — had broken down over a series of policy disputes and personal arguments , and the Americans were trying to encourage Khánh 's colleagues to overthrow him so that more hawkish policies could be enacted . The other generals wanted to overthrow Khánh and were aware that Thảo — who was widely distrusted — was planning to make a move . They anticipated trouble in trying to keep their subordinates , who were becoming impatient with Khánh 's ongoing tenure , from joining Thảo . Between January and February , Thảo continued to finalize the details of his own counter @-@ coup , using the contacts he had cultivated over the past decades .
Phát and other pro @-@ Diệm officers opposed the Buddhist influence being exerted on Khánh . Thảo consulted Kỳ — who wanted to seize power for himself — before the plot , and exhorted him to join the coup , but the air force chief claimed that he was remaining neutral . Thảo thus believed Kỳ would not intervene against him , but Kỳ was strongly opposed to Thảo and Phát . American intelligence analysts had believed that General Don was involved in the coup with Phát and Thảo , but this was proven false when the action started . Eight months after the coup was over , Don told the American historian George McTurnan Kahin that he had been plotting with Thảo , who had planned for him to become Defense Minister and Chief of Staff of the military , but that the Đại Việt and Thảo 's Catholic civilian allies had insisted on installing Khiêm , a Catholic . A month before the coup , American intelligence analysts had believed that Thảo was planning to replace Khánh as commander @-@ in @-@ chief with Don .
Shortly before noon on 19 February , he used around fifty tanks , their crew and a mixture of infantry battalions to seize control of the military headquarters , the post office and the radio station of Saigon . He surrounded the home of General Khánh and Gia Long Palace , the residence of head of state Phan Khắc Sửu . The tanks were led by Colonel Dương Hiếu Nghĩa , a Catholic member of the Đại Việt . The country was still trying to find stability , with Phan Huy Quát being appointed prime minister just three days earlier . Khánh managed to escape and flee to Vũng Tàu . His plane lifted off from Tan Son Nhut Air Base , the country 's military headquarters , just as rebel tanks were rolling in , attempting to block the runway . Thảo 's men tried to capture the Saigon base of the Republic of Vietnam Navy , and its commander , Admiral Chung Tấn Cang , but were foiled , but they did capture a number of junta members at Tan Son Nhut .
Thảo made a radio announcement stating that the sole objective of his military operation was to get rid of Khánh , whom he described as a " dictator " . He said that he intended to recall Khiêm to Saigon to lead the Armed Forces Council in place of Khánh , but would retain the civilian cabinet that answered to the generals . In doing so , he caught Khiêm off guard , asleep in his Maryland home . When informed of what was happening , Khiêm sent a cable in which he pledged " total support " to the plot . The coup group made pro @-@ Diệm announcements , claiming then @-@ U.S. Ambassador Henry Cabot Lodge , Jr . " was wrong in encouraging the coup against Diem rather than correcting mistakes " .
A Catholic rebel officer made a speech extolling Diệm , and mourning his loss . This gave the impression that the coup plotters wanted to roll back the country to a Diệm @-@ era position and punish those who had been involved in Diệm 's overthrow and execution . Thảo 's group also promised to aggressively fight the Vietcong and cooperate with the United States . Throughout the day , a series of anti @-@ Khánh speeches were broadcast on radio , and the rebels claimed to have the support of four divisions , something that was regarded as dubious . U.S. government analysts concluded that the rebellion was " primarily a move by die @-@ hard neo @-@ Diemists and Catholic military militants , disturbed at the rise of Buddhist influence , opposed to Gen. Khánh and — in a vague , ill @-@ thought @-@ out way — desirous of turning back the clock and undoing some of the results of the November 1963 ouster of Diem . " Among the civilians linked to Thảo 's plot were Catholic academics and a militant priest .
As Diệm had strongly discriminated along religious lines , the rebels ' commented caused a negative response among the Buddhist majority . The Buddhist activist monk Thich Tam Chau called on Buddhists to support the incumbent junta . The pro @-@ Diệm speeches also alarmed pro @-@ Buddhist and anti @-@ Diệm generals , such as Nguyễn Chánh Thi and Nguyễn Hữu Có , who had been part of the failed 1960 and successful 1963 coups against Diệm respectively . They thought that Thảo and Phat might seek revenge , driving many anti @-@ Diệm officers who may have otherwise been neutral or sympathetic to the coup , to swing more towards Khánh .
Although Taylor and US military commander General William Westmoreland wanted Khánh out , the pro @-@ Diệm political ideology expressed by Thảo 's supporters alienated them , as they feared that the coup plotters would destabilize and polarize the country if they took power . The Americans worried that Phat and Thảo could galvanize support for Khánh through their extreme views , which had the potential to provoke large @-@ scale sectarian divisions , playing into the hands of the communists and hindering wider American objectives . They were also worried by Thảo 's intention to remove Quát and the civilian government , whom he saw was " too susceptible to Buddhist peacemongering " . The U.S. saw civilian participation in governance as a necessity . They worried that a Khánh victory would enhance his prestige , so they wanted to see some third force emerge and defeat both the Thảo and Khánh factions . Westmoreland and Taylor decided to work for the failure of both Thảo and Khánh , and helped organize US advisers for the purpose .
Phat was supposed to seize the Bien Hoa Air Base to prevent air force chief Kỳ from mobilising air power against them , but he failed to reach the airfield before Kỳ , who circled Tan Son Nhut and threatened to bomb the rebels . Most of the forces of the III and IV Corps surrounding the capital disliked both Khánh and the rebels , and took no action . However , as night came , senior military opinion began to turn against Thảo and Phát , although it was not clear at this stage whether the anti @-@ Thảo forces being organised and led by Thi were hostile to Khánh as well .
At 20 : 00 , Phát and Thảo met with Kỳ , and insisted that Khánh be removed from power . The coup collapsed when , between midnight and dawn , anti @-@ Thảo forces swept into the city from the south along with some components of the 7th Airborne Brigade loyal to Kỳ from Biên Hòa in the north . Whether the rebels were genuinely defeated by the overwhelming show of strength or whether a deal was struck with Kỳ to end the revolt in exchange for Khánh 's removal is disputed , although a large majority support the latter . According to the latter version , Phát and Thảo agreed to free the members of the Armed Forces Council that they had arrested and withdraw in exchange for Khánh 's complete removal from power . Possibly as a means of saving face , Phát and Thảo were given an appointment with the figurehead chief of state Sửu , who was under close control by the junta , to " order " him to sign a decree stripping Khánh of his military leadership , and organizing a meeting of the junta and Prime Minister Quát 's civilian cabinet . During the early morning , while the radio station was still in the hands of Thảo 's men , a message attributed to Sửu was read out ; it claimed that the chief of state had sacked Khánh . However , the authenticity of the announcement was put into doubt when loyalists took control of the station and Sửu spoke in person , claiming otherwise . There were no injuries or deaths in the coup .
Before fleeing , Thảo broadcast a premature message claiming the coup had been effective in removing Khánh , and the Armed Forces Council later adopted a vote of no confidence in Khánh later that day , and forced him into exile . Later in the morning , while on the run , Thảo made a broadcast using a military radio system to call for Khanh 's departure and defend his actions , which he described as being in the best interest of the nation . Phat and Thảo were stripped of their ranks , but nothing was initially done as far as prosecuting or sentencing them for their involvement in the coup .
= = In hiding , and death = =
While in hiding in Catholic villages , Thảo expressed his willingness to surrender and cooperate with Quát 's government , if he and approximately fifty officers involved in the coup were granted amnesty . He also offered to go into exile in the United States , where his family had moved when he was sent there for training in 1964 . In May 1965 , a military tribunal sentenced both Thảo and Phát to death in absentia . The death sentence was attributed to the influence of Thi , who had assigned hit squads to look for him . After the conclusion of the trial , it was announced that the Armed Forces Council would disband and give the civilians more control in running the government . Thi was believed to have agreed to the transfer of power to a civilian government in return for Thảo 's death . As a result , Thảo had little choice but to attempt to seize power in order to save himself and he and Thi began to manoeuvre against one another .
On 20 May , a half dozen officers and around forty civilians , most or all of whom were Catholic , were arrested on charges of attempting to assassinate Quát and kidnap Thi and Kỳ . Several of the arrested were known supporters of Thảo and believed to be abetting him in evading the authorities . Despite this , Thảo himself managed to escape , even as a US $ 30 @,@ 000 bounty was put on him by the junta . On 16 July 1965 , he was reported dead in unclear circumstances ; an official report claimed that he died of injuries while on a helicopter en route to Saigon , after being captured north of the city . However , it is generally assumed that he was murdered or tortured to death on the orders of some military officials . One report holds that a Catholic priest betrayed Thảo , while another claims General Nguyễn Văn Thiệu caught him . In his memoirs , Kỳ claimed Thảo had been captured by police in Saigon and " died in jail a few weeks later , probably from a beating " . After the Fall of Saigon in 1975 , a conspiracy theory emerged , maintaining that Thảo went underground and worked in counterintelligence for the communist Central Office of South Vietnam , helping to hunt down Vietcong cadres who had defected to Saigon .
= = Legacy = =
Although Thảo 's last plot failed , his activities in 1965 and the resultant infighting led to a series of internal purges within the ARVN . Amid the instability , the Vietcong made strong gains across the country throughout the year . In response to the deteriorating military situation , the Americans began to deploy combat troops to South Vietnam in large numbers .
Thảo was posthumously promoted by the ARVN to the rank of one – star general and awarded the title of Heroic war dead ( Vietnamese : Liệt sĩ ) . After the Fall of Saigon and the end of the Vietnam War , the communist government awarded him the same title and paid war pensions to his family , claiming him as one of their own . In 1981 , the communists had his body exhumed and reburied in the " Patriots ' cemetery " in Ho Chi Minh City ( previously Saigon ) . Tảng believed Thảo " was a man who throughout his life fought single @-@ mindedly for Vietnam 's independence " . Tảng , who later abandoned communism , said that Thảo " was a nationalist , not an ideologue " , and credited him with turning the military tide towards the communists by helping to bring down Diệm and fomenting chronic instability and infighting for 18 months . Hồ Chí Minh had reacted to Diệm 's death by saying " I can scarcely believe that the Americans would be so stupid " . A communist report written in March 1965 , soon after Thảo 's revolt had caused Khánh to depart , stated that " The balance of force ... has changed very rapidly in our favor . ... The bulk of the enemy 's armed forces ... have disintegrated , and what is left continues to disintegrate " .
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= Wilsonville , Oregon =
Wilsonville is a city primarily in Clackamas County , Oregon , United States . A portion of the northern section of the city is in Washington County . Originally founded as Boones Landing due to the Boones Ferry which crossed the Willamette River at the location , the community became Wilsonville in 1880 . The city was incorporated in 1969 with a population of around 1 @,@ 000 . The population was 13 @,@ 991 at the 2000 census , and grew to 19 @,@ 509 at the 2010 census . Slightly more than 90 % of residents at the 2000 census were White , with Hispanics as the largest minority group .
Located within the Portland metropolitan area , the city also includes the planned community of Charbonneau on the south side of the river . The city is bisected by Interstate 5 and includes I @-@ 5 's Boone Bridge over the Willamette . Public transportation is provided by the city 's South Metro Area Regional Transit , which includes Wilsonville Station on the Westside Express Service operated by TriMet . Students in public schools attend schools in the West Linn @-@ Wilsonville and Canby school districts , including the only traditional high school , Wilsonville High School . Clackamas Community College and Pioneer Pacific College both have campuses in the city .
Wilsonville has a council @-@ manager form of government and operates its own library , public works , and parks department . Fire and police protection are contracted out to other regional government agencies . The city is home to several technology companies including Mentor Graphics , along with Stream Global Services , the largest employer in the city . Wilsonville contains many distribution and manufacturing buildings adjacent to Interstate 5 such as regional distribution facilities for Coca Cola and Rite Aid . Retail centers include Argyle Square on the north and the Town Center Shopping Center to the south . Media in Wilsonville consists of the Portland area broadcast stations , regional newspapers , and the local Wilsonville Spokesman newspaper .
= = History = =
Alphonso Boone , the grandson of Daniel Boone , settled in what would later become Wilsonville in 1846 and established the Boones Ferry across the Willamette River in 1847 . The ferry gave rise to the community of Boones Landing , which eventually grew into Wilsonville . Originally , the area was part of what became Yamhill County , but was transferred to the current Clackamas County in 1855 . The first post office was established in 1876 with the name , Boones Ferry .
Wilsonville became the name of the community on June 3 , 1880 , named after the first postmaster , Charles Wilson . That same year the first school , Wilsonville Grade School , was opened as a single @-@ room building . By 1890 , the railroad had reached town and the community contained depot , several hotels , a saloon , a tavern , a bank , and several other commercial establishments . In 1897 , the twelve school districts in the vicinity of Wilsonville up to Lake Oswego merged to create a single district . A railroad bridge was built across the river for the Oregon Electric Railway beginning in 1906 . The bridge was completed the next year and service from Wilsonville south to Salem began in 1908 .
A new Methodist church was built in the community in 1910 , which was used until 1988 and is still standing . Two years later , a new two @-@ room school replaced the old one @-@ room school , which in turn was replaced by a modern school in the mid 1900s , all on the same property . In 1939 , the wooden trestle part of the railroad bridge across the Willamette caught fire and burned . Boones Ferry was decommissioned after the Boone Bridge opened in 1954 carrying what was then the Baldock Freeway , and is today Interstate 5 .
In 1961 , the Dammasch State Hospital mental hospital opened on the west side of the community . Gordon House , the only house in Oregon to be designed by architect Frank Lloyd Wright , was built in 1963 near what became Charbonneau and moved to the Oregon Garden in 2001 . Wilsonville was flooded in 1964 and the first fire station was built in 1966 . Wilsonville was incorporated as a city in 1969 with a population of about 1 @,@ 000 . In 1971 , the planned community of Charbonneau on the south side of the river was annexed into the city the year after development began .
Tektronix built a campus in the city beginning in 1973 , which was later sold to Xerox . The following year Wilsonville 's city hall relocated from Tauchman House at what is now Boones Ferry Park to a trailer and the next year the first city manager was hired . A standalone post office was built in 1976 at Boones Ferry and Wilsonville roads , with city police protection added in 1979 . In 1980 , the city reached a population of 2 @,@ 920 , and in 1982 the library was opened . The next year , a new city hall was opened , replacing a trailer that had served as city hall since 1975 .
In 1988 , the city opened their first library building , which replaced the one @-@ room library located in space leased from the school district . The population grew to 7 @,@ 106 at the 1990 census , and in 1991 the Town Center Shopping Center along Wilsonville Road opened . Due to growth in the West Linn @-@ Wilsonville School District , the school board approved building a new high school to be located in Wilsonville in 1992 .
Author Walt Morey owned an estate in Wilsonville and after his death in 1992 , his widow sold the property to a developer . The housing development built on that property , Morey 's Landing , bears his name as does the children 's section of the Wilsonville Public Library . Walt Morey Park , a bear @-@ themed park located in Morey 's Landing , contains a life @-@ size 8 @-@ foot @-@ tall wooden statue of Morey 's most famous literary creation , Gentle Ben .
Living Enrichment Center , a New Thought Church with as many as 3 @,@ 000 members , was headquartered in Wilsonville from 1992 until 2004 . The church closed that year after problems that including money laundering by the church leaders led to the bankrupting of the church .
In 1995 , Dammasch State Hospital was closed by the state of Oregon , and the site was then proposed as a location for what became the Coffee Creek Correctional Facility , which opened in 2001 at a different site to the north of the old hospital grounds . In protest of the construction of the prison , specifically the effect on property values , Larry Eaton began erecting school buses on his property . The former grounds of the state hospital are , as of 2009 , under development as Villebois , a primarily residential complex . Also in 1995 , Wilsonville High School opened as part of the West Linn @-@ Wilsonville School District , the first high school in the city 's history . In 1998 , lack of an adequate long @-@ term water supply forced the city to suspend adding any new developments to the city . A new water treatment plant on the Willamette River opened in 2002 to address this need .
The Wilsonville Public Library was expanded to nearly four times the size of the 7 @,@ 500 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 700 m2 ) 1988 building with an expansion finished in 2002 . Wilsonville Primary School was closed in June 2001 , and later sold with the property and turned into a shopping center , anchored by an Albertsons supermarket . In September 2006 , Wilsonville opened a new $ 9 @.@ 9 million , two @-@ story brick and steel city hall after a controversy concerning its location led to unsuccessful attempts to recall several elected officials in the city , including the mayor .
= = Geography = =
Wilsonville is located on the southern edge of the Portland metropolitan area sitting at an elevation of 154 feet ( 47 m ) above sea level . Primarily in the southwestern part of Clackamas County , the northern section is in Washington County . It is located on the north side of the Willamette River around where Alphonse Boone established the Boones Ferry . Neighboring cities are Tualatin on the north , Sherwood to the northwest , and Canby and Aurora to the southeast . Newberg in Yamhill County is approximately 14 miles west along Wilsonville Road . The Willamette separates the majority of the city from Charbonneau , a planned community and neighborhood within the city limits , on the south .
According to the United States Census Bureau , the city has a total area of 7 @.@ 42 square miles ( 19 @.@ 22 km2 ) , of which , 7 @.@ 21 square miles ( 18 @.@ 67 km2 ) is land and 0 @.@ 21 square miles ( 0 @.@ 54 km2 ) is water . Waterways in addition to the Willamette River include Arrowhead Creek , Meridian Creek , Basalt Creek , Seely Ditch , Boeckman Creek , and Coffee Lake Creek . The Boeckman and Coffee Lake creeks account for 85 % of the runoff in Wilsonville . Coffee Lake Creek is on the west side of the city and includes Coffee Lake and the Coffee Lake Wetlands . The foothills of the Chehalem Mountains lie to the west of Wilsonville , with most land within the city on level ground .
Wilsonville divides the city into 16 neighborhood groups , designated A through P. Within each of these planning areas are individual neighborhoods , and occasionally a neighborhood spans several of these groups . For instance the Villebois development covers areas D through G. Individual neighborhoods include Charbonneau , Wilsonville Meadows , Canyon Creek North , Town Center , RiverGreen , Frog Pond , and Old Town to name a few . Wilsonville ’ s Old Town neighborhood , the oldest of the neighborhoods , is located south of Wilsonville Road along Boones Ferry Road adjacent to the landing of the old Boones Ferry and contains the original portions of the town .
= = = Climate = = =
Wilsonville , as part of the Willamette Valley , is within the Marine west coast climate zone . Summers in Wilsonville are generally warm , but temperatures year @-@ round are moderated by a marine influence from the Pacific Ocean . Wilsonville receives most of its precipitation during the mild to cool winter months , with the wettest period from November through March . July and August are the warmest months with an average high temperature of 81 ° F ( 27 ° C ) , while December is the coolest month with an average low of 34 ° F ( 1 ° C ) . December is also on average the wettest month with 6 @.@ 62 inches ( 168 mm ) . The highest recorded temperature , 105 ° F ( 41 ° C ) , has occurred on August 11 , 1981 ; August 13 , 1977 ; August 18 , 1977 ; and September 3 , 1988 . Wilsonville 's lowest ever recorded temperature was − 15 ° F ( − 26 ° C ) on December 23 , 1998 .
= = Demographics = =
The city has a significant population of families that use Wilsonville as a halfway point between jobs in different cities , mainly Salem and Portland . Wilsonville incorporated with an estimated 1 @,@ 000 residents in 1969 and grew to 2 @,@ 920 people at the 1980 Census , and to 7 @,@ 106 in 1990 . In 2000 , the census placed the population at 13 @,@ 991 , which rose to 19 @,@ 509 in 2010 . Of those counted , approximately 1 @,@ 500 are inmates at the Coffee Creek Correctional Facility that opened in the city in 2001 .
= = = 2010 census = = =
As of the census of 2010 , there were 19 @,@ 509 people , 7 @,@ 859 households , and 4 @,@ 658 families residing in the city . The population density was 2 @,@ 705 @.@ 8 inhabitants per square mile ( 1 @,@ 044 @.@ 7 / km2 ) . There were 8 @,@ 487 housing units at an average density of 1 @,@ 177 @.@ 1 per square mile ( 454 @.@ 5 / km2 ) . The racial makeup of the city was 85 @.@ 3 % White , 1 @.@ 5 % African American , 1 @.@ 0 % Native American , 3 @.@ 8 % Asian , 0 @.@ 4 % Pacific Islander , 4 @.@ 8 % from other races , and 3 @.@ 2 % from two or more races . Hispanic or Latino of any race were 12 @.@ 1 % of the population .
There were 7 @,@ 859 households of which 29 @.@ 9 % had children under the age of 18 living with them , 45 @.@ 3 % were married couples living together , 10 @.@ 0 % had a female householder with no husband present , 4 @.@ 0 % had a male householder with no wife present , and 40 @.@ 7 % were non @-@ families . 32 @.@ 9 % of all households were made up of individuals and 11 @.@ 8 % had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older . The average household size was 2 @.@ 28 and the average family size was 2 @.@ 93 .
The median age in the city was 36 @.@ 2 years . 22 % of residents were under the age of 18 ; 8 @.@ 8 % were between the ages of 18 and 24 ; 32 @.@ 2 % were from 25 to 44 ; 23 @.@ 8 % were from 45 to 64 ; and 13 @.@ 3 % were 65 years of age or older . The gender makeup of the city was 46 @.@ 6 % male and 53 @.@ 4 % female .
= = = 2000 census = = =
As of the census of 2000 , there were 13 @,@ 991 people , 5 @,@ 937 households , and 3 @,@ 775 families residing in the city . The population density was 2 @,@ 085 @.@ 3 people per square mile ( 805 @.@ 1 / km ² ) . There were 6 @,@ 407 housing units at an average density of 954 @.@ 9 per square mile ( 368 @.@ 7 / km ² ) . The racial makeup of the city was 90 @.@ 5 % White , 2 @.@ 2 % Asian , 0 @.@ 7 % African American , 0 @.@ 7 % Native American , 0 @.@ 2 % Pacific Islander , 3 @.@ 2 % from other races , and 2 @.@ 7 % from two or more races . Hispanic or Latino of any race were 6 @.@ 9 % of the population .
There were 5 @,@ 937 households out of which 30 @.@ 4 % had children under the age of 18 living with them , 51 @.@ 5 % were married couples living together , 8 @.@ 3 % had a female householder with no husband present , and 36 @.@ 4 % were non @-@ families . 28 @.@ 3 % of all households were made up of individuals and 9 @.@ 7 % had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older . The average household size was 2 @.@ 34 and the average family size was 2 @.@ 89 . Median home cost was $ 200 @,@ 972 in 2000 and had grown to $ 316 @,@ 400 by 2006 .
In the city the population was spread out with 24 @.@ 6 % under the age of 18 , 9 @.@ 4 % from 18 to 24 , 31 @.@ 4 % from 25 to 44 , 20 @.@ 2 % from 45 to 64 , and 14 @.@ 4 % who were 65 years of age or older . The median age was 35 years . For every 100 females there were 94 @.@ 5 males . For every 100 females age 18 and over , there were 91 @.@ 7 males .
The median income for a household in the city was $ 52 @,@ 515 , and the median income for a family was $ 65 @,@ 172 . This income level is higher than the county , state , and national median income levels . Males had a median income of $ 43 @,@ 480 versus $ 28 @,@ 395 for females . The per capita income for the city was $ 29 @,@ 786 . About 3 @.@ 0 % of families and 5 @.@ 6 % of the population were below the poverty line , including 3 @.@ 7 % of those under age 18 and 8 @.@ 2 % of those age 65 or over .
= = Economy = =
Wilsonville has often had more jobs in the city than residents due to its location along Interstate 5 . This location has led to the city becoming headquarters for several major local and national companies , as well as home to facilities of several national companies . Companies with their headquarters in the city include design software maker Mentor Graphics ; imaging systems manufacturer FLIR Systems ; and shoe retailer Solestruck . G.I. Joe 's , a sporting goods and automotive parts retailer was based in Wilsonville until bankruptcy in 2009 , as was drugstore chain Thrifty PayLess until it was bought by Rite Aid in 1996 , and video rental retailer Movie Gallery and its subsidiary Hollywood Video were as well until bankruptcy in 2010 .
Copier and printer manufacturer Xerox operates a large facility in Wilsonville , and is the city 's largest employer . The company acquired the color printing and imaging division of Tektronix corporation in 2000 . Xerox , Mentor Graphics , and FLIR are all adjacent to each other north of Boeckman Road along Parkway Avenue . Projector maker InFocus was headquartered in the city until December 2009 and was located next to FLIR . InFocus and Mentor were both founded by former employees of Tektronix .
Wilsonville is home to many other business located in industrial parks straddling Interstate 5 that are filled with manufacturing and distribution facilities . Xerox and Mentor Graphics are the city 's two largest employers as of 2006 , the only two to employ more than 1000 people . Other large employers in the city are Tyco Electronics ( Precision Interconnect ) , Sysco , Rockwell Collins , and Rite Aid . Additionally , Coca @-@ Cola operates a bottling plant in the city . Nike had one of its U.S. distribution centers for footwear in Wilsonville until closing it in 2009 .
Retail in Wilsonville is concentrated mainly along Wilsonville Road near the Interstate 5 interchange . This includes the Town Center Shopping Center and related developments along Town Center Loop , which includes Fry 's Electronics , one of the largest employers in the city . Fred Meyer opened a 145 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 13 @,@ 500 m2 ) store along with space for 20 other businesses at their Old Town Square where Boones Ferry and Wilsonville roads meet . At the north end of town is the 42 @-@ acre ( 17 ha ) Argyle Square shopping center that opened in 2003 , which includes a Target store , Office Depot , and Costco as anchor tenants . South of the Willamette River , Charbonneau has a small commercial center with about 10 shops .
= = Culture = =
Media in Wilsonville consists of the 28 radio stations and 7 television stations broadcast in the Portland media market , regional newspapers such as The Oregonian , and the local paper , the Wilsonville Spokesman . The Spokesman is published once a week on Wednesdays and has a circulation of 3 @,@ 176 . There is a single movie theater operated by Regal Cinemas , which contains nine screens . The theater opened in 1996 and featured the first stadium style seating in the Northwest .
Wilsonville Public Library , founded in 1982 , is a member of Library Information Network of Clackamas County and had an annual circulation of 493 @,@ 000 in 2006 to 2007 . The library is located adjacent to Wilsonville Memorial Park , the largest and oldest of the city 's 12 parks . Memorial Park includes a water feature , athletic fields , and the Stein @-@ Boozier Barn used as meeting space , among other amenities . Town Center Park also has a water feature along with a visitor 's center operated by the Clackamas County and the Oregon Korean War Memorial . Other parks in the city are River Fox Park , Park at Merryfield , Montebello Park , Hathaway Park , Courtside Park , Tranquil Park , Willamette River Water Treatment Plant Park , Willow Creek / Landover Park , Canyon Creek Park , and Boones Ferry Park located on the Willamette River at the landing for the defunct Boones Ferry .
The Wilsonville Community Center holds classes and community programs as well as community meeting space . Wilsonville holds an annual arts fair each May called the Wilsonville Festival of Arts . Another annual event , Wilsonville Celebration Days , started in 2000 and replaced Boones Ferry Days . A farmers ' market started in 2009 at the Villebois development , held on Sundays from May into October . Charbonneau Golf Club is the only golf course in the city , with Langdon Farms and Sandelie just to the south and east respectively . Wilsonville also is along the Willamette Greenway series of open spaces and trails . Wilsonville is the setting for the 2008 film Wendy and Lucy .
= = Government = =
Wilsonville has a home rule charter and is a council @-@ manager governed municipality where the unelected city manager runs day @-@ to @-@ day operations . The current city manager is Bryan Cosgrove . The mayor and four @-@ person city council are elected to four @-@ year terms , with Tim Knapp as mayor ( term ends 2017 ) and council members of Julie Fitzgerald , Scott Starr , Charlotte Lehan and Susie Stevens .
Both fire protection and police protection are contracted to other area governmental agencies . Fire services are provided by Tualatin Valley Fire & Rescue , and that agency operates two fire stations in the city . Police service is contracted out to the Clackamas County Sheriff 's Office , with a lieutenant serving as the chief of police and officers using vehicles marked as Wilsonville Police . The city ’ s Parks and Recreation Department runs 12 parks , with Memorial Park the largest at 126 acres ( 51 ha ) .
Wilsonville also provides both its own water supply and wastewater treatment . The wastewater system was built in 1972 , while the water system was upgraded with a new treatment plant in 2002 . Water is drawn from the Willamette River from the Wilsonville Water Treatment Plant built at a cost of $ 46 million in conjunction with the Tualatin Valley Water District . Previously , the city used wells to provide drinking water , but those began to run dry in the late 1990s . The plant ’ s initial capacity was 15 million gallons per day , but can be expanded to 120 million gallons per day . Neighboring Sherwood will begin receiving water from the plant in 2012 .
The city has a single library branch , a 28 @,@ 677 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 2 @,@ 664 @.@ 2 m2 ) building on Wilsonville Road . The majority of the city is within the West Linn @-@ Wilsonville School District , but the Charbonneau area is part of the Canby School District . Public transit is provided by the city through SMART , though TriMet has connections via buses at the northern limits of the city and with the Westside Express Service commuter rail .
At the federal level , Wilsonville is primarily within Oregon 's 5th congressional district , represented by Kurt Schrader , but the portions lying within Washington County are in the 1st district , represented by Suzanne Bonamici . In the State Senate , the city is in District 13 , represented by Larry George . In the House , the city is represented by John Davis in House District 26 . In addition , Wilsonville lies within District 3 ( Carl Hosticka ) of the Metro regional government .
= = Education = =
Most of Wilsonville is in the West Linn @-@ Wilsonville School District ( WLWSD ) , however those portions south of the Willamette River are within the Canby School District . Areas just to the west lie within the Sherwood School District . Boeckman Creek and Boones Ferry primary schools serve K @-@ 5 students from Wilsonville in WLWSD . Students in grades 6 – 8 attend Inza R. Wood Middle School , and high school students attend Wilsonville High School or the Arts and Technology High School ( ArtTech ) . Neither the Canby or Sherwood districts operate schools within Wilsonville .
The city is also in the Clackamas Community College District and has a satellite campus on Town Center Loop . Opened in 1992 , the campus was originally known as the Oregon Advanced Technology Center . The private , for profit Pioneer Pacific College operates a campus , their main campus , in the city along Interstate 5 near the Boeckman Road overpass .
Boeckman Creek Primary School opened in 1990 and has 649 students , with a mascot of the Bobcats . Boones Ferry replaced the old Wilsonville Primary School in 2001 ; its 809 students make it the largest primary school in the district , and are known as the Dragonflies . Wood Middle School opened in 1980 and has 699 students , known as the Wolverines . Wilsonville High has been the home of the Wildcats since the 1 @,@ 002 @-@ student school opened in 1995 . The ArtTech charter high school has 85 students , and opened in 2005 .
= = Transportation = =
Interstate 5 runs north @-@ south through the middle of the city and crosses the Willamette River on the Boone Bridge . Wilsonville has two interchanges with the freeway north of the river , at Wilsonville Road on the south and where Boones Ferry Road meets Elligsen Road on the north end of town . To the south of the river , the Charbonneau interchange crosses I @-@ 5 at the southern limit of the city . Boeckman Road is the only other street that crosses I @-@ 5 and links the western and eastern parts of Wilsonville . Wilsonville Road , 95th Avenue , Boones Ferry Road ( northern portion is Oregon Route 141 ) , Boeckman Road , Town Center Loop , French Prairie Drive , Elligsen Road , Parkway Avenue , and Stafford Road are the main roads in the city .
Transit service was formerly provided by TriMet , but the city decided to " opt @-@ out " and now operates South Metro Area Regional Transit ( SMART ) . SMART has connections with Salem 's transit service , Canby 's transit service , and TriMet . The Westside Express Service ( WES ) , a commuter rail line to Beaverton , began operations in February 2009 . Wilsonville Station is the southern terminus of the nearly 15 @-@ mile ( 24 km ) line operated by TriMet , and the station is the hub for SMART services .
Freight rail service is provided by the Portland and Western Railroad over the same tracks as WES , with connections to BNSF Railway . These tracks run north @-@ south and cross the Willamette over the Portland and Western Railroad Bridge . The city does not have an airport , with Aurora State Airport to the south as the closest public field and Portland International Airport 17 miles north as the closest commercial airport . Although located along the river , there are not any port facilities , though there is a marina located on the eastbank ( south side ) of the Willamette .
= = Notable people = =
The city has been home to a variety of notable people ranging from politicians to athletes and authors . Famous politicians to call Wilsonville home include former governor George Law Curry , Congresswoman Edith Green , federal judge James M. Burns , and former mayor and state representative Jerry Krummel . Athletes of note have included football player Derek Devine , professional golfer Brian Henninger , and baseball player and manager Del Baker . Those prominent in the legal field are Gordon Sloan , and R. William Riggs . Others include children 's author Walt Morey , ferryman Alphonso Boone , businessman Tom Bruggere , and baseball coach Mel Krause , and actor Frank Cady .
= = Sister city = =
Wilsonville has one sister city relationship . The city established a relationship with Kitakata , in the Fukushima province in Japan in 1988 . Kitakata in the northern part of Honshū has an estimated population of around 55 @,@ 000 . Then Wilsonville Mayor Jerry Krummel visited Japan in 1994 to attend a ceremony honoring Kitakata 's 40th birthday . The mayor of Kitakata visited Wilsonville in 2008 to celebrate the twentieth anniversary of the relationship .
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= John Baker White ( West Virginia politician ) =
John Baker White DSO ( August 24 , 1868 – June 2 , 1944 ) was an American lawyer , military officer , and Democratic politician in the U.S. state of West Virginia . White served as a Captain in the West Virginia National Guard during the Spanish – American War and as a Lieutenant Colonel in the United States Army Judge Advocate General 's Corps during World War I. White was a member of the City Council and Board of Affairs of Charleston , West Virginia from 1907 to 1911 , and frequently served as the city 's mayor pro tempore . He was later appointed a member of the West Virginia Board of Control , where he served as the board 's treasurer , secretary , and president at various times .
White was a member of the White political family of Virginia and West Virginia and was the son of Hampshire County Clerk of Court and West Virginia Fish Commission President Christian Streit White ( 1839 – 1917 ) and the grandson of Hampshire County Clerk of Court John Baker White ( 1794 – 1862 ) . White was a nephew of West Virginia Attorney General Robert White ( 1833 – 1915 ) .
= = Early life and education = =
John Baker White was born on August 24 , 1868 , in Romney , West Virginia . He was the only child of Hampshire County Clerk of Court Christian Streit White ( 1839 – 1917 ) with his first wife Elizabeth " Bessie " Jane Schultze White ( 1837 – 1869 ) and the eldest of his father 's five children . He was a grandson of Hampshire County Clerk of Court John Baker White ( 1794 – 1862 ) , for whom White was named , and a great @-@ grandson of the prominent Virginia judge Robert White ( 1759 – 1831 ) . His uncle Robert White ( 1833 – 1915 ) served as Attorney General of West Virginia . Through his descent from Robert White and Reverend Christian Streit , White was eligible for and attained membership in the Society of the Cincinnati and Sons of the American Revolution .
White received an English education in both the local public schools and at his father 's residence in Romney . White further supplemented his education with " broadened courses of reading and private study " . Beginning at the age of 13 , White attended school from 9 a.m. until 4 p.m. and worked on his family 's farm before and after school , and during holidays . At the age of 16 , White left his schooling to work on the farm and in his father 's county court clerk office while studying privately at home .
= = Early political career = =
White departed his home in Romney for Charleston , West Virginia , where he was entirely dependent upon himself and his own resources . There , White commenced his career in public service in 1886 when he began serving as a messenger in the office of West Virginia Secretary of State Henry S. Walker . He received successive promotions within the Secretary of State 's office beginning with clerk , then to stationery clerk , and finally to chief clerk of the office during the latter part of Walker 's term in office . White was retained as the chief clerk of the office by Walker 's successor , William A. Ohley . White was affiliated with the Secretary of State 's office for seven years . He continued to fulfill that position until March 8 , 1893 , when he was appointed to serve as the private secretary to West Virginia Governor William A. MacCorkle . As a representative of Governor MacCorkle , White traveled across the state to high profile events , such as the June 1895 strikes at the Crozier Works on Elkhorn Creek in McDowell County , to urge calm and to provide the governor with situational awareness on the strike . White performed as Governor MacCorkle 's private secretary for four years until the end of his administration 's term in 1897 .
During the West Virginia general elections of 1892 and 1896 , White was recognized for his leadership efforts in support of the campaigns of Democratic candidates .
= = Law career = =
While he was employed at the West Virginia State Capitol , White began studying jurisprudence with legal coursebooks . He undertook his study of jurisprudence in the law firm of Chilton , MacCorkle and Chilton in Charleston . White was admitted to the bar in 1897 and afterward established a law practice in Charleston . White 's practice began arguing cases in county , state , and federal level courts within West Virginia . On December 19 , 1901 , the West Virginia Secretary of State office issued a charter authorizing $ 100 @,@ 000 in capital stock for the incorporation of Midland Railway , of which White was a corporator with one subscribed share of $ 100 .
= = Military career = =
In 1888 , White volunteered his service in the West Virginia National Guard , where he entered service with the rank of Private . White was gradually promoted and served in the West Virginia National Guard 's 2nd Battalion , 2nd West Virginia Infantry Regiment . White and his regiment were dispatched to the scenes of several strikes throughout West Virginia , where he performed as " a special representative " of the governor .
= = = Spanish – American War = = =
At the onset of the Spanish – American War and shortly after his admission to the bar in 1898 , White again volunteered for service with the West Virginia National Guard and served throughout the duration of the war . He received his commission from West Virginia Governor George W. Atkinson as Captain in command of Company B of the 1st West Virginia Infantry Regiment in the United States Volunteers . During his service in the Spanish – American War , White received a promotion to the rank of Major . After a year of serving with his regiment in the war , White received an honorable discharge and vacated the West Virginia National Guard following ten years of service in the guard as a military officer . According to Governor Atkinson in his Bench and Bar of West Virginia ( 1919 ) , White " served faithfully and efficiently until the close of the war " .
= = = World War I = = =
Following the entry of the United States into World War I in 1917 , White tendered his legal services to the United States Army and served in the Judge Advocate General 's Corps . White had previously attempted to enter the service of the United States Army through its various training schools to serve in World War I , but he had been rebuffed each time due to his advanced age of 49 . On December 6 , 1917 , White received " special permission " from United States President Woodrow Wilson to serve in the Army 's Judge Advocate General 's Corps with the rank of Major . Upon receiving his commission , White was ordered to London where he served as Assistant Judge Advocate General for United States Armed Forces personnel serving in the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland . White continued to carry out his duties in London until June 1919 when his base section there was closed and he was transferred to the United States military 's general headquarters in France .
From France , White deployed to the 3rd Infantry Division occupation headquarters in Koblenz , Germany , along the Rhine where he served as the division 's Judge Advocate General . While serving in that position in Koblenz , White was promoted to the rank of Lieutenant Colonel in April 1919 . He continued to serve as the Judge Advocate General for the 3rd Infantry Division until September 1919 , and shortly thereafter White was discharged from the United States Army and subsequently transferred to the United States Army Reserve .
For his service to the Allies in World War I , White was created a Companion of the Distinguished Service Order by George V on behalf of the British Empire . Following his relief from active military service in Europe , White embarked upon a global journey that consisted of Egypt , Palestine , India , Burma , the Malay Peninsula , Java , China , Japan , and the Philippines . He returned to the United States in June 1920 and soon thereafter resumed his law practice in Charleston .
= = Later political career = =
Following his service in the Spanish – American War , White ran for election as a Democrat and won a seat on the Charleston City Council . White also concurrently fulfilled a four @-@ year term from 1907 to 1911 as a member of the Charleston Board of Affairs during the period in which Charleston was organized under a commission form of government . While serving on the Board of Affairs , he frequently performed duties as the city 's mayor pro tempore . Around 1931 , White became a member of the West Virginia Board of Control and was serving as the board 's treasurer by 1932 . White later served as the board 's president for two years . In 1939 , Governor Homer A. Holt reappointed White to serve another term on the West Virginia Board of Control ending on June 30 , 1941 .
= = Marriage = =
On August 22 , 1939 , White married Mary Ann Williamson near Malvern in Chester County , Pennsylvania . Williamson was a native of Berkeley County , West Virginia , but resided in Athens , West Virginia , at the time of her marriage . Williamson was a graduate of Shepherd College in Shepherdstown , of Concord College in Athens , and of the University of Kentucky in Lexington . She had been a member of the faculty at Marshall College in Huntington since 1934 .
= = Later life and death = =
In his later years , White and his wife resided in St. Petersburg , Florida during the winter season . White died of heart failure on June 2 , 1944 at 1 p.m. at the age of 75 at his summer camp near Rupert , Greenbrier County , West Virginia . The medical certification of White 's death stated the cause of his heart failure was due to age and overexertion . White 's funeral was held in Charleston , and he was interred in the White family burial plot at Indian Mound Cemetery in Romney . At the time of his death , White was residing at 610 ½ Capitol Street in Charleston .
= = Affiliations and community service = =
White was a practicing Mason and Knights Templar affiliated with Royal Arch Masonry and the Thirty @-@ second Degree Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite of Freemasonry . In addition to the Society of the Cincinnati and the Sons of the American Revolution , White was also a member of the Military Order of Foreign Wars , United Spanish War Veterans , American Legion , and the Shriners .
White was also an inaugural stockholder and member in the Henry G. Davis Club , named for United States Senator from West Virginia Henry G. Davis , which received its charter on May 31 , 1906 . The Henry G. Davis Club was founded " for the study of political economy and the science of self @-@ government ; for the education of the young men of the State of West Virginia in these sciences and the promulgation of such information , literature and statistics as will in the judgment of its directors be best suited for such purposes " . White also served on the Entertainment Committee for the West Virginia Homecoming Week in Point Pleasant which took place October 7 – 10 , 1909 , to celebrate the Battle of Point Pleasant and the unveiling of the monument to that battle .
= = Legacy = =
In his Bench and Bar of West Virginia ( 1919 ) , Atkinson remarked of White 's service in Charleston city government : " His chief aim was to render a service that would advance the interests of the people , without showing favors to any class or classes of the citizens of Charleston . His service in that high office marked him as a man of high honor , firmness and probity . " Atkinson remarked further of White : " Such men are rarely found in this or any other portion of this wide world which we inhabit . "
In 1940 , the four @-@ story " Boys Dormitory " at Concord College ( presently known as Concord University ) in Athens , West Virginia , was renamed " John Baker White Hall " in honor of White , who was then serving as Secretary of the West Virginia Board of Control . White Hall was demolished in 2004 for the construction of Concord University 's Rahall Technology Center .
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= Golden Retriever ( song ) =
" Golden Retriever " is a song by Super Furry Animals . It was the first single to be issued from the album Phantom Power and reached number 13 on the UK Singles Chart on its release in July 2003 . The song is about the relationship between singer Gruff Rhys 's girlfriend 's two dogs and was written in the same key , with the same guitar tuning and around the same time as several other songs from Phantom Power .
Critical reaction to the track was generally positive with many reviewers commenting on its " catchiness " and " glam rock " style . A Jake & Jim directed music video was produced to accompany the song 's release as a single featuring the band dressed as yetis . A Killa Kela remix of " Golden Retriever " appears on the album Phantom Phorce and the DVD release of Phantom Power .
= = Recording and themes = =
" Golden Retriever " is about " the relationship between [ Gruff Rhys 's ] girlfriend 's two dogs - a male and a female " . Rhys has stated that the " road sign and driving theory vocabulary " that he had to absorb when he passed his driving test a few years before he wrote " Golden Retriever " found its way into the songs lyrics which are a parody of the blues . The song shares the same key , D major , the same guitar tuning , D @-@ A @-@ D @-@ D @-@ A @-@ D , and was written around the same time as several other songs from Phantom Power including the " Father Father " instrumentals , " Hello Sunshine " , " Cityscape Skybaby " and " Out of Control " . " Golden Retriever " was recorded at the Super Furry Animals ' own studio in Cardiff along with the rest of Phantom Power .
= = Musical structure = =
" Golden Retriever " is 2 minutes 28 seconds long and is in the key of D major . The track begins with a descending riff on acoustic guitar before the band joins on 2 seconds with an electric guitar playing a three note riff ( D , F and G ) through a fuzz pedal . The first verse follows on 9 seconds with Gruff Rhys singing about meeting The Devil at a roundabout . The first chorus enters at 24 seconds with Rhys being joined by falsetto harmony backing vocals and a distorted electric guitar playing chords rather than single notes . A breakdown verse follows , leading into the extended second chorus which features shouted backing vocals chanting the song 's title . The outro begins at 1 minute 55 seconds , with lead guitar lines and heavy drums , featuring flanging , bringing the track to a climax .
= = = Alternative version = = =
A Killa Kela remix of " Golden Retriever " is included on the DVD version of Phantom Power and the album Phantom Phorce . Largely dispensing with the track 's instrumental backing ( apart from distant bass and occasional acoustic guitar ) the remix features Kela 's beatboxing alongside Rhys 's lead vocal and follows the arrangement of the original . The track is 2 minutes 33 seconds long and ends with a brief clip of the band 's road manager , in the guise of ' Kurt Stern ' , lamenting the fact that this " perfect rocking track " is simply about a dog .
= = Critical response = =
Critical reaction to " Golden Retriever " was generally positive and many reviewers commented on the track 's glam rock style — PopMatters described the track as " a fun blast of glam rock " , the NME called it " an irresistibly catchy ... glam stomper " , and The Guardian stated that the " unhinged glammy romp " cannot be faulted . The track was also described as being a parody of Robert Johnson type blues by Entertainment Weekly and a " brilliantly catchy anthem " by Angry Ape . Several critics noted the " goofy " and " silly " nature of the song , with comparisons made between " Golden Retriever " and both the Doctor Who theme music and The KLF 's " Doctorin ' the Tardis " . Some criticism was leveled at the song for being " too Radio 1 friendly " and for simply being " more of the same " from the band . In a 2006 feature on the Super Furry Animals ' back catalogue Incendiary Magazine went as far as to call the track " hogwash " .
= = = Accolades = = =
= = Music video = =
The music video was directed by Jake & Jim and grew from an idea the band had to record a video in Iceland at the start of 2003 which didn 't come off . The video begins with a close up of a cardboard box featuring a logo of two apples with the title ' Golden ' . The band is shown playing along to " Golden Retriever " inside the box with Gruff Rhys wearing a red sports visor . Bassist Guto Pryce and keyboardist Cian Ciaran are both sat on settees with guitars on their laps which they are not playing . As the chorus begins the band transform into yetis and all begin playing " Golden Retriever " , several members headbanging in time with the track . The group wear their regular clothes for the second verse before the yeti costumes reappear for the second chorus . As the video ends the camera zooms out to show a Golden Retriever approach the box in an alleyway . The Super Furries raise their hands in the air and look up at the dog who then urinates on the box and runs away .
In an interview with BBC Manchester , drummer Dafydd Ieuan stated that , although he finds the video fun to watch , it was hard work to make because the yeti costumes were very heavy and incredibly hot . The band took the suits on tour with them but only wore them for " the last two minutes " of concerts because they were so warm . The video appears on the DVD release of the band 's greatest hits album Songbook : The Singles , Vol . 1 .
= = Single track listing = =
All songs by Super Furry Animals .
Digipak CD ( 6739062 ) , 7 " ( 6739067 )
" Golden Retriever " – 2 : 28
" Summer Snow " – 2 : 30
" Blue Fruit " – 4 : 43
DVD ( 6739069 )
" Golden Retriever ( Video ) " – 2 : 28
" Summer Snow " – 2 : 30
" Blue Fruit " – 4 : 43
= = Personnel = =
Gruff Rhys – vocals
Huw Bunford – guitar
Guto Pryce – bass guitar
Cian Ciaran – keyboards
Dafydd Ieuan – drums
Rachel Thomas – backing vocals
= = Singles chart positions = =
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= Simon Wiesenthal =
Simon Wiesenthal ( 31 December 1908 – 20 September 2005 ) was an Austrian Nazi hunter and writer . He was a Jewish Austrian Holocaust survivor who became famous after World War II for his work as a Nazi hunter .
He studied architecture and was living in Lviv ( Lwów ) at the outbreak of World War II . After being forced to work as a slave labourer in Nazi concentration camps such as Janowska , Plaszow , and Mauthausen during the war , Wiesenthal dedicated most of his life to tracking down and gathering information on fugitive Nazi war criminals so that they could be brought to trial . In 1947 he co @-@ founded the Jewish Historical Documentation Center in Linz , Austria , where he and others gathered information for future war crime trials and aided refugees in their search for lost relatives . He opened the Jewish Documentation Center in Vienna in 1961 and continued to try to locate missing Nazi war criminals . He played a small role in locating Adolf Eichmann , who was captured in Buenos Aires in 1960 , and worked closely with the Austrian justice ministry to prepare a dossier on Franz Stangl , who was sentenced to life imprisonment in 1971 .
In the 1970s and 1980s , Wiesenthal was involved in two high @-@ profile events involving Austrian politicians . Shortly after Bruno Kreisky was inaugurated as Austrian chancellor in April 1970 , Wiesenthal pointed out to the press that four of his new cabinet appointees had been members of the Nazi Party . Kreisky , angry , called Wiesenthal a " Jewish fascist " , likened his organisation to the Mafia , and accused him of collaborating with the Nazis . Wiesenthal successfully sued for libel , the suit ending in 1989 . In 1986 , Wiesenthal was involved in the case of Kurt Waldheim , whose Nazi past was revealed in the lead @-@ up to the 1986 Austrian presidential elections . Wiesenthal , embarrassed that he had previously cleared Waldheim of any wrongdoing , suffered much negative publicity as a result of this event .
With a reputation as a storyteller , Wiesenthal was the author of several memoirs containing tales that are only loosely based on actual events . In particular , he exaggerated his role in the capture of Eichmann in 1960 . Wiesenthal died in his sleep at age 96 in Vienna on 20 September 2005 and was buried in the city of Herzliya in Israel . The Simon Wiesenthal Center , located in Los Angeles , is named in his honor .
= = Early life = =
Wiesenthal was born at 11 : 30 pm on 31 December 1908 , in Buchach , Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria ( then part of Austria @-@ Hungary , now Ternopil Oblast , in Ukraine ) . His father , Asher Wiesenthal , was a wholesaler who had emigrated from the Russian Empire in 1905 to escape the frequent pogroms , violent campaigns against Jews . A reservist in the Austro @-@ Hungarian Army , Asher was called to active duty in 1914 at the start of World War I. He died in combat on the Eastern Front in 1915 . The remainder of the family — Simon , his younger brother Hillel , and his mother Rosa — fled to Vienna as the Russian army took control of Galicia . The two boys attended a German @-@ language Jewish school . The family returned to Buczacz in 1917 after the Russians retreated . The area changed hands several more times before the war ended in November 1918 .
Wiesenthal and his brother attended high school at the Humanistic Gymnasium in Buchach , where classes were taught in Polish . There Simon met his future wife , Cyla Müller , whom he would marry in 1936 . Hillel fell and broke his back in 1923 and died the following year . Rosa remarried in 1926 and moved to Dolyna with her new husband , Isack Halperin , who owned a tile factory there . Wiesenthal remained in Buczacz , living with the Müller family , until he graduated from high school — on his second attempt — in 1928 .
With an interest in art and drawing , Wiesenthal chose to study architecture . His first choice was to attend the Lwów Polytechnic ( Polish : Politechnika Lwowska ) , but he was turned away because the school 's Jewish quota had already been filled . He instead enrolled at the Czech Technical University in Prague , where he studied from 1928 until 1932 . He was apprenticed as a building engineer through 1934 and 1935 , spending most of that period in Odessa . He married Cyla in 1936 when he returned to Galicia .
Sources give differing reports of what happened next . Wiesenthal 's autobiographies contradict each other on many points ; he also over @-@ dramatised and mythologised events . One version has Wiesenthal opening an architectural office and finally being admitted to the Lwów Polytechnic for an advanced degree . He designed a tuberculosis sanitorium , along with some residential buildings during the course of his studies and was active in a student Zionist organisation . He wrote for the Omnibus , a satirical student newspaper , and graduated in 1939 . Author Guy Walters states that Wiesenthal 's earliest autobiography does not mention studies at Lwów . Walters quotes a curriculum vitae Wiesenthal prepared after World War II as stating he worked as a supervisor at a factory until 1939 and then worked as a mechanic in a different factory until the Nazis invaded in 1941 . Wiesenthal 's 1961 book Ich Jagte Eichmann ( " I Hunted Eichmann " ) states that he worked in Odessa as an engineer from 1940 to 1941 . Walters says that there is no record of Wiesenthal attending the university at Lwów , and that he does not appear in the Katalog Architektów i Budowniczych ( Catalogue of Architects and Builders ) for the appropriate period .
= = World War II = =
In Europe , World War II began in September 1939 with the Nazi invasion of Poland . As a result of the partitioning of Poland under the Molotov @-@ Ribbentrop Pact between Germany and the Soviet Union , the city of Lwów ( now Lviv ) was annexed by the Soviets and renamed Lvov . Wiesenthal 's stepfather , still living in Dolina , was arrested as a capitalist ; he later died in a Soviet prison . Wiesenthal 's mother came to live with Wiesenthal and Cyla in Lvov . He bribed an official to prevent his own deportation under Clause 11 , a rule that prevented all Jewish professionals and intellectuals from living within 100 kilometres ( 62 mi ) of the city , which was under Soviet occupation until the Germans invaded in June 1941 .
By mid @-@ July Wiesenthal and other Jewish residents had to register to do forced labour . Within six months , in November 1941 the Nazis had set up the Lwów Ghetto using Jewish forced labour . All Jews had to give up their homes and move there , a process completed in the following months . Several thousand Jews were murdered in Lvov by Ukrainian nationals and German Einsatzgruppen in June and July 1941 . In his autobiographies , Wiesenthal tells how he was arrested on 6 July , but saved from execution by his former foreman , a man named Bodnar , who was now a member of the Ukrainian Auxiliary Police . There are several versions of the story , which may be apocryphal .
In late 1941 , Wiesenthal and his wife were transferred to Janowska concentration camp and forced to work at the Eastern Railway Repair Works . He painted swastikas and other inscriptions on captured Soviet railway engines , and Cyla was put to work polishing the brass and nickel . In exchange for providing details about the railways , Wiesenthal obtained false identity papers for his wife from a member of the Armia Krajowa , a Polish underground organisation . She travelled to Warsaw , where she was put to work in a German radio factory . She spent time in two different labour camps as well . Conditions were harsh and her health was permanently damaged , but she survived the war . The couple was reunited in 1945 , and their daughter Paulinka was born the following year .
Every few weeks , the Nazis staged a roundup in the Lvov ghetto of people unable to work . These roundups typically took place while the able @-@ bodied were absent doing forced labour . In one such deportation , Wiesenthal 's mother and other elderly Jewish women were transported by freight train to Belzec extermination camp and killed in August 1942 . Around the same time , a Ukrainian policeman shot Cyla 's mother to death on the front porch of her home in Buczacz while she was being evicted . Cyla and Simon Wiesenthal lost 89 relatives during the Holocaust .
Forced labourers for the Eastern Railway were eventually kept in a separate closed camp , where conditions were a little better than at the main camp at Janowska . Wiesenthal prepared architectural drawings for Adolf Kohlrautz , the senior inspector , who submitted them under his own name . To obtain contracts , construction companies paid bribes to Kohlrautz , who shared some of the money with Wiesenthal . He was able to pass along further information about the railroads to the underground and occasionally left the compound to obtain supplies , even clandestinely obtaining weapons for the Armia Krajowa and two pistols for himself , which he took along when he escaped in autumn 1943 .
According to Wiesenthal , on 20 April 1943 , Second Lieutenant Gustav Wilhaus , second in command at the Janowska camp , decided to shoot 54 Jewish intellectuals in celebration of Hitler 's 54th birthday . Unable to find enough such people still alive at Janowska , Wilhaus ordered a roundup of prisoners from the satellite camps . Wiesenthal and two other inmates were taken from the Eastern Railway camp to the execution site , a trench 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) deep and 1 @,@ 500 feet ( 460 m ) long at a nearby sandpit . The men were stripped and led through " the Hose " , a six- or seven @-@ foot wide barbed wire corridor to the execution ground . The victims were shot and their bodies allowed to fall into the pit . Wiesenthal , waiting to be shot , heard someone called out his name . He was returned alive to the camp ; Kohlrautz had convinced his superiors that Wiesenthal was the best man available to paint a giant poster in honour of Hitler 's birthday .
On 2 October 1943 , according to Wiesenthal , Kohlrautz warned him that the camp and its prisoners were about to be liquidated . Kohlrautz gave Wiesenthal and fellow prisoner Arthur Scheiman passes to go to town , accompanied by a Ukrainian guard , to buy stationery . The two men escaped out the back of the shop while their guard waited at the front counter .
Wiesenthal did not mention either of these events — or Kohlrautz 's part in them — when testifying to American investigators in May 1945 , or in an affidavit he made in August 1954 about his wartime persecutions , and researcher Guy Walters questions their authenticity . Wiesenthal variously reported that Kohlrautz was killed on the Soviet Front in 1944 or in the Battle of Berlin on 19 April 1945 .
After several days in hiding , Scheiman rejoined his wife , and Wiesenthal was taken by members of the underground to the nearby village of Kulparkow , where he remained until the end of 1943 . Soon afterwards the Janowska camp was liquidated ; this made it unsafe to hide in the nearby countryside , so Wiesenthal returned to Lvov , where he spent three days hiding in a closet at the Scheiman 's apartment . He next moved to the apartment of Paulina Busch , for whom he had previously forged an identity card . He was arrested there , hiding under the floorboards , on 13 June 1944 and taken back to the remains of the camp at Janowska . Wiesenthal tried but failed to commit suicide to avoid being interrogated about his connections with the underground . In the end there was no time for interrogations , as Soviet forces were advancing into the area . SS @-@ Hauptsturmfuhrer Friedrich Warzok , the new camp commandant , rounded up the remaining prisoners and transported them to Przemyśl , 135 miles ( 217 km ) west of Lvov , where he put them to work building fortifications . By September Warzok and his men were reassigned to the front , and Wiesenthal and the other surviving captives were sent to the Kraków @-@ Płaszów concentration camp .
By October the inmates were evacuated to Gross @-@ Rosen concentration camp , where inmates were suffering from severe overcrowding and a shortage of food . Wiesenthal 's big toe on his right foot had to be amputated after a rock fell on it while he was working in the quarry . He was still ill in January when the advancing Soviets forced yet another evacuation , this time on foot , to Chemnitz . Using a broom handle for a walking stick , he was one of the few who survived the march . From Chemnitz the prisoners were taken in open freight cars to Buchenwald , and a few days later by truck to Mauthausen concentration camp , arriving in mid @-@ February 1945 . Over half the prisoners did not survive the journey . Wiesenthal was placed in a death block for the mortally ill , where he survived on 200 calories a day until the camp was liberated by the Americans on 5 May 1945 . Wiesenthal weighed 41 kilograms ( 90 lb ) when he was liberated .
= = Nazi hunter = =
Within three weeks of the liberation of Mauthausen , Wiesenthal had prepared a list of around a hundred names of suspected Nazi war criminals — mostly guards , camp commandants , and members of the Gestapo — and presented it to a War Crimes office of the American Counterintelligence Corps at Mauthausen . He worked as an interpreter , accompanying officers who were carrying out arrests , though he was still very frail . When Austria was partitioned in July 1945 , Mauthausen fell into the Soviet @-@ occupied zone , so the American War Crimes Office was moved to Linz . Wiesenthal went with them , and was housed in a displaced persons camp . He served as vice @-@ chairman of the area 's Jewish Central Committee , an organisation that attempted to arrange basic care for Jewish refugees and tried to help people gather information about their missing family members .
Wiesenthal worked for the American Office of Strategic Services for a year , and continued to collect information on both victims and perpetrators of the Holocaust . He assisted the Berihah , an underground organisation that smuggled Jewish survivors into the British Mandate for Palestine . Wiesenthal helped arrange for forged papers , food supplies , transportation , and so on . In February 1947 , he and 30 other volunteers founded the Jewish Historical Documentation Center in Linz to gather information for future war crimes trials . They collected 3 @,@ 289 depositions from concentration camp survivors still living in Europe . However , as the US and the Soviet Union lost interest in conducting further trials , a similar group headed by Tuviah Friedman in Vienna closed its office in 1952 , and Wiesenthal 's closed in 1954 . Almost all of the documentation collected at both centres was forwarded to the Yad Vashem archives in Israel . Wiesenthal , employed full @-@ time by two Jewish welfare agencies , continued his work with refugees . As it became clear that the former Allies were no longer interested in pursuing the work of bringing Nazi war criminals to justice , Wiesenthal persisted , believing the survivors were obligated to take on the task . His work became a way to memorialise and remember all the people that had been lost . He told biographer Alan Levy in 1974 :
When the Germans first came to my city in Galicia , half the population was Jewish : one hundred fifty thousand Jews . When the Germans were gone , five hundred were alive . ... Many times I was thinking that everything in life has a price , so to stay alive must also have a price . And my price was always that , if I lived , I must be deputy for many people who are not alive .
= = = Adolf Eichmann = = =
Though most of the Jews still alive in Linz after the war had emigrated , Wiesenthal decided to stay on , partly because the family of Adolf Eichmann lived a few blocks away from him . Eichmann had been in charge of the transportation and deportation of Jews in the Nazi Final Solution to the Jewish Question : a plan , finalised at the Wannsee Conference — at which Eichmann took the minutes — to exterminate all the Jews in Europe . After the war , Eichmann hid in Austria using forged identity papers until 1950 , when he left via Italy and moved to Argentina under an assumed name . Hoping to obtain information on Eichmann 's whereabouts , Wiesenthal continuously monitored the remaining members of the immediate family in Linz until they vanished in 1952 .
Wiesenthal learned from a letter shown to him in 1953 that Eichmann had been seen in Buenos Aires , and he passed along that information to the Israeli consulate in Vienna in 1954 . Fritz Bauer , prosecutor @-@ general of the state of Hesse in West Germany , received independent confirmation of Eichmann 's whereabouts in 1957 , but German agents were unable to find him until late 1959 . When Eichmann 's father died in 1960 , Wiesenthal made arrangements for private detectives to surreptitiously photograph members of the family , as Eichmann 's brother Otto was said to bear a strong family resemblance and there were no current photos of the fugitive . He provided these photographs to Mossad agents on 18 February . Zvi Aharoni , one of the Mossad agents responsible for Eichmann 's capture in Buenos Aires on 11 May 1960 , said the photos were useful in confirming Eichmann 's identity . On 23 May Israeli Prime Minister David Ben @-@ Gurion announced Eichmann was under arrest and in Israel . The next day Wiesenthal , while he was being interviewed by reporters , received a congratulatory telegram from Yad Vashem . He immediately became a minor celebrity , and began work on a book about his experiences . Ich jagte Eichmann : Tatsachenbericht ( I Chased Eichmann : A True Story ) was published six weeks before the trial opened in spring 1961 . Wiesenthal helped the prosecution prepare their case and attended a portion of the trial . Eichmann was sentenced to death and was hanged on 1 June 1962 .
Meanwhile , both of Wiesenthal 's employers terminated his services in 1960 , as there were too few refugees left in the city to justify the expense . Wiesenthal opened a new documentation centre in Vienna in 1961 . He became a Mossad operative , for which he received the equivalent of several hundred dollars per month . He maintained files on hundreds of suspected Nazi war criminals and located many , about six of whom were arrested as a result of his activities . Successes included locating and bringing to trial Erich Rajakowitsch , responsible for the deportation of Jews from the Netherlands , and Franz Murer , the commandant of the Vilna Ghetto . In 1963 Wiesenthal read in the newspaper that Karl Silberbauer , the man who had arrested famed diarist Anne Frank , had been located ; he was serving on the police force in Vienna . Wiesenthal 's publicity campaign led to Silberbauer being temporarily suspended from the force , but he was never prosecuted for arresting the Frank family .
In spite of Wiesenthal 's protests , in late 1963 his centre in Vienna was taken over by a local community group , so he immediately set up a new independent office , funded using donations and his stipend from the Mossad . As the 20 @-@ year statute of limitations for German war crimes was about to expire , Wiesenthal began lobbying to have it extended or removed entirely . In March 1965 the Bundestag deferred the matter for five years , effectively extending the expiration date . Similar action was taken by the Austrian government . But as time went on , it became more difficult to obtain prosecutions . Witnesses grew older and were less likely to be able to offer valuable testimony . Funding for trials was inadequate , as the governments of Austria and Germany became less interested in obtaining convictions for wartime events , preferring to forget the Nazi past .
= = = Franz Stangl = = =
Franz Stangl was a supervisor at the Hartheim Euthanasia Centre , part of Action T4 , an early Nazi euthanasia programme that was responsible for the deaths of over 70 @,@ 000 mentally ill or physically deformed people in Germany . In February 1942 , he was commander at the Sobibor extermination camp and in August of the same year he was transferred to Treblinka . During his time at these camps , he oversaw the deaths of nearly 900 @,@ 000 people . While in U.S. detention for two years , he remained unidentified as a war criminal because so few witnesses had survived Sobibor and Treblinka that authorities never realised who he was . He escaped while on a roadwork detail in Linz in May 1948 . After he made his way to Rome , the Caritas relief agency provided him with a Red Cross passport and a boat ticket to Syria . His family joined him there a year later and they emigrated to Brazil in 1951 .
It was probably Stangl 's brother @-@ in law who informed Wiesenthal of Stangl 's whereabouts in 1964 . Concerned that Stangl would be warned and escape , Wiesenthal quietly prepared a dossier with the assistance of Austrian Minister of Justice Hans Klecatsky . Stangl was arrested outside his home in São Paulo on 28 February 1967 and was extradited to Germany on 22 June . A month later Wiesenthal 's book The Murderers Among Us was released . Wiesenthal 's publishers advertised that he had been responsible for locating over 800 Nazis , a claim that had no basis in fact but was nonetheless repeated by reputable newspapers such as the New York Times . Stangl was sentenced to life in prison and died of heart failure in June 1971 , having confessed his guilt to biographer Gitta Sereny the previous day .
= = = Hermine Braunsteiner = = =
Known as " the Mare of Majdanek " , Hermine Braunsteiner was a guard who served at Majdanek and Ravensbrück concentration camps . A cruel and sadistic woman , she earned her nickname for her propensity to kick her victims to death . She served a three @-@ year sentence in Austria for her activities in Ravensbrück , but had not yet been charged for any of her crimes at Majdanek when she emigrated to the United States in 1959 . She became an American citizen in 1963 .
Wiesenthal was first told about Braunsteiner in early 1964 via a chance encounter in Tel Aviv with someone who had seen her performing selections at Majdanek — deciding who was to be assigned to slave labour and who was to immediately be killed in the gas chambers . When he returned to Vienna he had an operative visit one of her relatives to clandestinely collect information . Wiesenthal soon traced Braunsteiner 's whereabouts to Queens , New York , so he notified the Israeli police and the New York Times . In spite of Wiesenthal 's efforts to expedite the matter , Braunsteiner was not extradited to Germany until 1973 . Her trial was part of a joint indictment with nine other defendants accused of killing 250 @,@ 000 people at Majdanek . She was sentenced to life imprisonment in 1981 and died in 1999 .
= = = Josef Mengele = = =
Josef Mengele was a medical officer assigned to Auschwitz concentration camp from 1943 until the end of the war . As well as making most of the selections of inmates as they arrived by train from all over Europe , he performed unscientific and usually deadly experiments on the inmates . He left the camp in January 1945 as the Red Army approached and was briefly in American custody in Weiden in der Oberpfalz , but was released . He took work as a farm hand in rural Germany , remaining until 1949 , when he decided to flee the country ; he acquired a Red Cross passport and left for Argentina ; he set up a business in Buenos Aires in 1951 . Acting on information received from Wiesenthal , West German authorities tried to extradite Mengele in 1960 , but he could not be found ; he had in fact moved to Paraguay in 1958 . He moved to Brazil in 1961 and lived there until his death in 1979 .
Wiesenthal claimed to have information that placed Mengele in several locations : on the Greek island of Kythnos in 1960 , Cairo in 1961 , in Spain in 1971 , and in Paraguay in 1978 , the latter eighteen years after he had left . In 1982 , he offered a reward of $ 100 @,@ 000 for Mengele 's capture and insisted as late as 1985 — six years after Mengele 's death — that he was still alive . The Mengele family admitted to authorities in 1985 that he had died in 1979 ; the body was exhumed and its identity was confirmed . Earlier that year Wiesenthal had served as one of the judges at a mock trial of Mengele , held in Jerusalem .
= = = Simon Wiesenthal Center = = =
The Simon Wiesenthal Center in Los Angeles was founded in 1977 by Rabbi Marvin Hier using large donations from philanthropists Samuel Belzberg and Joseph Tennenbaum . Hier 's organisation paid Wiesenthal an honorarium for the right to use his name . The center helped with the campaign to remove the statute of limitations on Nazi crimes and continues the hunt for suspected Nazi war criminals , but today its primary activities include Holocaust remembrance , education , and fighting antisemitism . The center 's Holocaust museum , the largest in the United States , opened in 1993 . Moriah Films , the center 's media division , has won two Academy Awards , including one for the documentary Genocide ( 1982 ) . Wiesenthal was not always happy with the way the center was run . He thought the museum was not dignified enough and that he should have a larger say in the overall operations . He even wrote to the Board of Directors requesting Hier 's removal , but in the end had to be content with being a figurehead .
= = Austrian politics and later life = =
= = = Bruno Kreisky = = =
Shortly after Bruno Kreisky was inaugurated as Austrian chancellor in April 1970 , Wiesenthal pointed out to the press that four of his new cabinet appointees had been members of the Nazi Party . In an address in June , Kreisky 's Minister of Education and Culture Leopold Gratz characterised Wiesenthal 's Documentation Centre of the Association of Jewish Victims of the Nazi Regime as a private spy ring , invading the privacy of innocent parties . In an interview a week later , Kreisky himself described Wiesenthal as a " Jewish fascist " , a remark he later denied making . Wiesenthal discovered that he would be unable to sue , because under Austrian law Kreisky was protected by parliamentary immunity .
When his re @-@ election in 1975 seemed unsure , Kreisky proposed that his Social Democratic Party should form a coalition with the Freedom Party , headed by Friedrich Peter . Wiesenthal was in possession of information proving that Peter had been a member of the 1 SS Infantry Brigade , a unit that had exterminated over 13 @,@ 000 Jewish civilians in Ukraine in 1941 – 42 . He decided not to reveal this information to the press until after the election , but forwarded his dossier to President Rudolf Kirchschläger . Peter denied having participated in , or having knowledge of , any atrocities . In the end , Kreisky 's party won a clear majority and did not form the coalition .
In a press conference a short time after the election and Wiesenthal 's revelations , Kreisky said Wiesenthal used " the methods of a quasi @-@ political Mafia . " Wiesenthal filed a libel lawsuit ( although Kreisky had the power to declare immunity if he so chose ) , and when Kreisky later accused Wiesenthal of being an agent of the Gestapo , working with the Judenrat in Lvov , these accusations were incorporated into the lawsuit as well . The suit was decided in Wiesenthal 's favour in 1989 , but after Kreisky 's death nine months later his heirs refused to pay . When the relevant archives were later opened for research , no evidence was found that Wiesenthal had been a collaborator .
= = = Kurt Waldheim = = =
When Kurt Waldheim was named secretary @-@ general of the United Nations in 1971 , Wiesenthal reported — without checking very thoroughly — that there was no evidence that he had a Nazi past . This analysis had been supported by the opinions of the American Counterintelligence Corps and Office of Strategic Services when they examined his records right after the war . However , Waldheim 's 1985 autobiography did not include his war service following his recuperation from a 1941 injury . When he returned to active duty in 1942 , he was posted to Yugoslavia and Greece , and had knowledge of murders of civilians that took place in those locations during his service there . The Austrian news magazine Profil published a story in March 1986 — during his campaign for the presidency of Austria — that Waldheim had been a member of the Sturmabteilung ( SA ) . The New York Times soon reported that Waldheim had failed to reveal all of the facts about his war service . Wiesenthal , embarrassed , attempted to help Waldheim defend himself . The World Jewish Congress investigated the issue , but the Israeli attorney general concluded that their material was insufficient evidence for a conviction . Waldheim was elected president in July 1986 . A panel of historians tasked with investigating the case issued a report eighteen months later . They concluded that , while there was no evidence that Waldheim had committed atrocities , he must have known they were occurring , yet did nothing . Wiesenthal unsuccessfully demanded that Waldheim resign . The World Jewish Congress successfully lobbied to have Waldheim barred from entering the United States .
= = = Nobel Peace Prize nomination = = =
Wiesenthal was nominated for the Nobel Peace Prize in 1985 , the fortieth anniversary of the end of the war . Rumour had it that the Nobel Committee would give the prize to a Holocaust @-@ related candidate . Fellow Holocaust survivor and author Elie Wiesel , also nominated , began a campaign in hopes of winning the prize , travelling to France , Ethiopia and Oslo for speaking tours and humanitarian work . Rabbi Hier of the Wiesenthal Center urged Wiesenthal to lobby for the prize as well , but other than delivering a lecture in Oslo , Wiesenthal did little to promote his candidacy . When Wiesel was awarded the 1986 prize , Wiesenthal claimed the World Jewish Congress must have influenced the Committee 's decision , a claim the WJC denied . Biographer Tom Segev speculates that the loss may have been because of the negative publicity over the Waldheim affair .
= = = Retirement and death = = =
Wiesenthal received many death threats over the years . After a bomb placed by neo @-@ Nazis exploded outside his house in Vienna on 11 June 1982 , police guards were stationed outside his home 24 hours a day . Cyla found the stressful nature of her husband 's career and the dragged @-@ out legal matters regarding Kreisky to be overwhelming , and she sometimes suffered from depression .
Wiesenthal spent time at his office at the Documentation Centre of the Association of Jewish Victims of the Nazi Regime in Vienna even as he approached his ninetieth birthday . The last Nazi he had a hand in bringing to trial was Untersturmführer Julius Viel , who was convicted in 2001 of shooting seven Jewish prisoners . Cyla died on 10 November 2003 , at age 95 . Wiesenthal retired shortly afterward . " I have survived them all . If there were any left , they 'd be too old and weak to stand trial today . My work is done , " said Wiesenthal . Wiesenthal died on 20 September 2005 , at age 96 , and was buried in Herzliya , Israel . He is survived by his daughter , Paulinka Kreisberg , and three grandchildren .
In a statement on Wiesenthal 's death , Council of Europe chairman Terry Davis said , " Without Simon Wiesenthal 's relentless effort to find Nazi criminals and bring them to justice , and to fight anti @-@ Semitism and prejudice , Europe would never have succeeded in healing its wounds and reconciling itself . He was a soldier of justice , which is indispensable to our freedom , stability and peace . "
In 2010 the Austrian and Israeli governments jointly issued a commemorative stamp honouring Wiesenthal . He had been a lifelong stamp collector , and his collection sold at auction for nearly € 500 @,@ 000 after his death .
= = Dramatic portrayals = =
Wiesenthal was portrayed by Israeli actor Shmuel Rodensky in the film adaptation of Frederick Forsyth 's The Odessa File ( 1974 ) . After the film 's release , Wiesenthal received many reports of sightings of the subject of the film , Eduard Roschmann , commandant of the Riga Ghetto . These sightings proved to be false alarms , but in 1977 a person living in Buenos Aires who saw the movie reported to police that Roschmann was living nearby . The fugitive escaped to Paraguay , where he died of a heart attack a month later . In Ira Levin 's novel The Boys from Brazil , the character of Yakov Liebermann ( called Ezra Liebermann and played by Laurence Olivier in the film ) is modelled on Wiesenthal . Olivier visited Wiesenthal , who offered advice on how to play the role . Wiesenthal attended the film 's New York premiere in 1978 . Ben Kingsley portrayed him in the HBO film Murderers Among Us : The Simon Wiesenthal Story ( 1989 ) .
Wiesenthal has been the subject of several documentaries . The Art of Remembrance : Simon Wiesenthal was produced in 1994 by filmmakers Hannah Heer and Werner Schmiedel for River Lights Pictures . The documentary I Have Never Forgotten You : The Life and Legacy of Simon Wiesenthal , narrated by Nicole Kidman , was released by Moriah Films in 2007 . Wiesenthal is a one @-@ person show written and performed by Tom Dugan that premiered in 2014 .
= = Autobiographical inconsistencies = =
Wiesenthal wrote a number of books , some of which contain conflicting stories and tales , many of which were invented . Several authors , including Segev and British author Guy Walters , feel that Wiesenthal 's autobiographies are not reliable sources of information about his life and activities . For example , Wiesenthal would describe two people fighting over one of the lists he had prepared of survivors of the Holocaust ; the two look up and recognise each other and have a tearful reunion . In one account it is a man and wife , and in another telling it is two brothers . Wiesenthal 's memoirs variously claim he had spent time in as many as eleven concentration camps ; the actual number was five . A drawing he made in 1945 that he claimed was a scene he witnessed in Mauthausen had actually been sketched from photos that appeared in Life magazine that June . He particularly over @-@ emphasised his role in the capture of Eichmann , claiming that he prevented Veronika Eichmann from having her husband declared dead in 1947 , when in fact the declaration was denied " at the instigation of the authorities . " Wiesenthal said that he had retained his Eichmann file when he sent his research materials to Yad Vashem in 1952 ; in fact he sent all his materials there , and it was his counterpart , Tuviah Friedman in Vienna , who had retained materials on Eichmann . Isser Harel , director of the Mossad at the time , has stated that Wiesenthal had no role in the capture of Eichmann .
Walters and Segev both noted inconsistencies between Wiesenthal 's stories and his actual achievements . Segev concluded that Wiesenthal " lied as often as he did " because of his storytelling nature and survivor guilt . Daniel Finkelstein described Walters ' research in Hunting Evil as impeccable and quoted Ben Barkow : " Accepting that Wiesenthal was a showman and a braggart and , yes , even a liar , can live alongside acknowledging the contribution he made " .
= = List of books and journal articles = =
= = = Books = = =
Ich jagte Eichmann : Tatsachenbericht ( I Chased Eichmann : A True Story ) . Gütersloh : S. Mohn ( 1961 )
Writing under the pen name Mischka Kukin , Wiesenthal published Humor hinter dem Eisernen Vorhang ( " Humor Behind the Iron Curtain " ) . Gütersloh : Signum @-@ Verlag ( 1962 )
The Murderers Among Us : The Simon Wiesenthal Memoirs . New York : McGraw @-@ Hill ( 1967 )
Sails of Hope : The Secret Mission of Christopher Columbus . New York : Macmillan ( 1973 )
" Mauthausen : Steps beyond the Grave " . In Hunter and Hunted : Human History of the Holocaust . Gerd Korman , editor . New York : Viking Press ( 1973 ) . pp. 286 – 295 .
The Sunflower : On the Possibilities and Limits of Forgiveness New York : Schocken Books ( 1969 )
Max and Helen : A Remarkable True Love Story . New York : Morrow ( 1982 )
Every Day Remembrance Day : A Chronicle of Jewish Martyrdom . New York : Henry Holt ( 1987 )
Justice , Not Vengeance . New York : Grove @-@ Weidenfeld ( 1989 )
= = = Journal articles = = =
" Latvian War Criminals in USA " . Jewish Currents 20 , no . 7 ( July / August 1966 ) : 4 – 8 . Also in 20 , no . 10 ( November 1966 ) : 24 .
" There Are Still Murderers Among Us " . National Jewish Monthly 82 , no . 2 ( October 1967 ) : 8 – 9 .
" Nazi Criminals in Arab States " . In Israel Horizons 15 , no . 7 ( September 1967 ) : 10 – 12 .
Anti @-@ Jewish Agitation in Poland : ( Prewar Fascists and Nazi Collaborators in Unity of Action with Antisemites from the Ranks of the Polish Communist Party ) : A Documentary Report . Bonn : R. Vogel ( 1969 )
" Justice : Why I Hunt Nazis " . In Jewish Observer and Middle East Review 21 , no . 12 ( 24 March 1972 ) : 16 .
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= Crag martin =
The crag martins are four species of small passerine birds in the genus Ptyonoprogne of the swallow family . They are the Eurasian crag martin ( P. rupestris ) , the pale crag martin ( P. obsoleta ) , the rock martin ( P. fuligula ) and the dusky crag martin ( P. concolor ) . They are closely related to each other , and have formerly sometimes been considered to be one species . They are closely related to the Hirundo barn swallows and are placed in that genus by some authorities . These are small swallows with brown upperparts , paler underparts without a breast band , and a square tail with white patches . They can be distinguished from each other on size , the colour shade of the upperparts and underparts , and minor plumage details like throat colour . They resemble the sand martin , but are darker below , and lack a breast band .
These are species of craggy mountainous habitats , although all three will also frequent human habitation . The African rock martin and the south Asian dusky crag martin are resident , but the Eurasian crag martin is a partial migrant ; birds breeding in southern Europe are largely resident , but some northern breeders and most Asian birds are migratory , wintering in north Africa or India . They do not normally form large breeding colonies , but are more gregarious outside the breeding season . These martins build neat mud nests under cliff overhangs or in crevices in their mountain homes , and have readily adapted to the artificial cliffs provided by buildings and motorway bridges . Up to five eggs , white with dark blotches at the wider end , may be laid , and a second clutch is common . Ptyonoprogne martins feed mainly on insects caught in flight , and patrol cliffs near the breeding site with a slow hunting flight as they seek their prey . They may be hunted by falcons and infected with mites and fleas , but their large ranges and populations mean that none of the crag martins are considered to be threatened , and all are classed as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List .
= = Taxonomy = =
The four Ptyonoprogne species are the Eurasian crag martin ( P. rupestris ) described as Hirundo rupestris by Italian naturalist Giovanni Antonio Scopoli in 1769 , the pale crag martin ( P. obsoleta ) , described by Jean Cabanis in 1850 , the rock martin ( P. fuligula ) , described by German zoologist Martin Lichtenstein in 1842 , and the dusky crag martin ( P. concolor ) formally described in 1832 as Hirundo concolor by British soldier and ornithologist William Henry Sykes . They were moved to the new genus Ptyonoprogne by German ornithologist Heinrich Gustav Reichenbach in 1850 . The genus name is derived from the Greek ptuon ( φτυον ) , " a fan " , referring to the shape of the opened tail , and Procne ( Πρόκνη ) , a mythological girl who was turned into a swallow .
These are members of the swallow family of birds , and are placed in the Hirundininae subfamily which comprises all swallows and martins except the very distinctive river martins . DNA sequence studies suggest that there are three major groupings within the Hirundininae , broadly correlating with the type of nest built . The groups are the " core martins " including burrowing species like the sand martin , the " nest @-@ adopters " , which are birds like the tree swallow that utilise natural cavities , and the " mud nest builders " . Ptyonoprogne species construct a mud nest and therefore belong to the latter group ; They resemble the Hirundo species in that they make open cup nests , whereas Delichon martins build closed cups , and the Cecropis and Petrochelidon swallows , have retort @-@ like closed nests with an entrance tunnel . The genus Ptyonoprogne is closely related to the larger swallow genus Hirundo into which it is often subsumed , but a DNA analysis showed that a coherent enlarged Hirundo genus should contain all the mud @-@ builder genera . Although the nests of the Ptyonoprogne crag martins resembles those of typical Hirundo species like the barn swallow , the DNA research showed that if the Delichon house martins are considered to be a separate genus , as is normally the case , Cecropis , Petrochelidon and Ptyonoprogne should also be split off .
The small , pale northern subspecies of crag martin found in the mountains of North Africa and the Arabian peninsula is now usually split as the pale crag martin , Ptyonoprogne obsoleta . The remaining birds are now identified as Eurasian crag martin .
= = Description = =
These martins are 12 – 15 cm ( 4 @.@ 7 – 5 @.@ 9 in ) long with drab brown or grey plumage and a short square tail that has small white patches near the tips of all but the central and outermost pairs of feathers . The eyes are brown , the small bill is mainly black , and the legs are brownish @-@ pink . The sexes are similar , but juveniles show pale edges to the upperparts and flight feathers . The species differ in plumage shades and size , Eurasian crag martin being significantly larger than the others . The flight is slow , with rapid wing beats interspersed with flat @-@ winged glides . The songs of these birds are simple twitterings , and contact calls include a high @-@ pitched twee or chi , chi , and a tshir or trrt call like that of the house martin .
These drab martins can only be confused with each other , or with sand martins of the genus Riparia . Even the smaller Ptyonoprogne species are slightly larger and more robust than the sand martin and brown @-@ throated sand martin , and have the white tail spots which are absent from the Riparia martins . Where the ranges of Ptyonoprogne species overlap , the Eurasian crag martin is darker , browner and 15 % larger than the rock martin , and larger and paler , particularly on its underparts , than the dusky crag martin . The white tail spots of the Eurasian crag martin are significantly larger than those of both its relatives . In the east of its range , the rock martin always has lighter , more contrasted underparts than the dusky crag martin .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
These are exclusively Old World species . The rock martin breeds throughout Africa and through the Middle East as far as Afghanistan and Pakistan , and is replaced by the dusky crag martin further east in India and Indochina . The Eurasian crag martin breeds from Iberia and northwesternmost Africa through southern Europe , the Persian Gulf and the Himalayas to southwestern and northeastern China . Northern populations of the Eurasian crag martin are migratory , with European birds wintering in north Africa , Senegal , Ethiopia and the Nile Valley , and Asian breeders going to southern China , the Indian subcontinent and the Middle East . Some European birds stay north of the Mediterranean , and , like populations in warmer areas such as India , Turkey and Cyprus , just move to lower ground after breeding . The dusky crag martin and rock are largely resident apart from local movements after breeding , when many birds descend to lower altitudes , although some pale northern rock martins from North African and southern Arabian may winter further south alongside the local subspecies in Ethiopia , Mali and Mauritania .
The crag martins mainly breed on dry , warm and sheltered cliffs in mountainous areas with crags and gorges , and the Eurasian crag martin reaches 5 @,@ 000 m ( 16 @,@ 500 ft ) in Central Asia . The use of buildings as artificial cliffs has enabled breeding expansion into lowland areas , particularly for the two tropical species , and the rock martin breeds in desert towns . In South Asia , migrant Eurasian birds sometimes join with flocks of the dusky crag martin and roost communally on ledges of cliffs or buildings in winter .
= = Behaviour = =
= = = Breeding = = =
Martin pairs often nest alone , although where suitable sites are available small loose colonies may form . These are more common south of the Sahara , where up to 40 rock martin pairs together have been recorded . Crag martins aggressively defend their nesting territory against conspecifics and other species . The nest , built by both adults over several weeks , is made from several hundred mud pellets and lined with soft dry grass or sometimes feathers . It may be a half @-@ cup when constructed under an overhang on a vertical wall or cliff , or shaped as a bowl like that of the barn swallow when placed on a sheltered ledge . The nest may be built on a rock cliff face , in a crevice or on a man @-@ made structure , and is re @-@ used for the second brood and in subsequent years . Usually two broods are raised , and the rock martin may nest for a third time in a season .
The clutch is two to five eggs that are white with brownish , ruddy or grey blotches particularly at the wide end . The egg size ranges from an average 20 @.@ 2 x 14 @.@ 0 mm ( 0 @.@ 80 x 0 @.@ 55 in ) with a weight of 2 @.@ 08 g ( 0 @.@ 073 oz ) for the Eurasian crag martin to 17 @.@ 7 x 13 @.@ 0 mm ( 0 @.@ 70 x 0 @.@ 51 in ) with a weight of 1 @.@ 57 g ( 0 @.@ 06 oz ) for the dusky crag martin . Both adults incubate the eggs for 13 – 19 days to hatching , and feed the chicks at least ten times an hour until they fledge 24 – 27 days later . The fledged young continue to be fed by the parents for some time after they can fly .
= = = Feeding = = =
Ptyonoprogne martins feed mainly on insects caught in flight , although they will occasionally feed on the ground . When breeding , birds often fly back and forth along a rock face catching insects in their bills and usually feeding close to the nesting territory . To maintain the high frequency with which the young are fed , the adults mainly forage in the best hunting zones in the immediate vicinity of the nest , since the further they have to fly to catch insects , the longer it would take to bring food to the chicks in the nest . At other times , they may hunt low over open ground . The insects taken depend on what is locally available , but may include mosquitoes and other flies , aerial spiders , ants and beetles . Martins often feed alone , but sizeable groups may congregate if food is abundant , such as where insects are fleeing grass fires . The Eurasian crag martin may take aquatic species such as stoneflies , caddisflies and pond skaters . Cliff faces generate standing waves in the airflow which concentrate insects near vertical areas . Crag martins exploit the area close to the cliff when they hunt , relying on their high manoeuvrability and ability to perform tight turns .
= = Predators and parasites = =
The crag martins may be hunted by fast , agile birds of prey such as the African hobby or Eurasian hobby that specialise in catching swallows and martins in flight , and by other falcons such as the peregrine and Taita falcons . Crows may attack migrating Eurasian crag martins , and that species also treats common kestrels , Eurasian sparrowhawks , Eurasian jays and common ravens as predators if they approach the nesting cliffs . The dusky crag martin has been recorded in the diet of the greater false vampire bat , Megaderma lyra .
Crag martins may host parasites , including blood @-@ sucking mites of the genus Dermanyssus such as D. chelidonis , and the nasal mite Ptilonyssus ptyonoprognes . Invertebrate species first found in nests of crag martin species include the tick Argas ( A. ) africolumbae from a rock martin nest and the fly Ornithomya rupes and the flea Ceratophyllus nanshanensis from European crag martin nests .
= = Status = =
All four species have extensive ranges and large populations , and the increasing use of artificial nest sites has enabled range expansion . The rock martin often breeds in lowland and desert towns , the Eurasian crag martin 's range is expanding in Austria , Switzerland , the former Yugoslavia , Romania , and Bulgaria , and the dusky crag martin is spreading northeastwards into Guangxi , south into lowland Laos , and westwards to the hills and plains of Sindh . There is also a recent unconfirmed report from Cambodia . Their large ranges and presumed high numbers mean that none of the crag martins are considered to be threatened , and all are classed as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List .
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= Mycena arcangeliana =
Mycena arcangeliana ( commonly known as the angel 's bonnet or the late @-@ season bonnet ) is a species of Mycenaceae fungus . It has been known by a number of scientific names , and its taxonomy is still somewhat disputed . It produces small mushrooms with caps varying in colour from whitish to a darker grey @-@ brown , and stems of an olive @-@ greyish that fade with age . The mushrooms can be mistaken for the similar Mycena flavescens . They have a mild taste , but a strong smell of iodoform ; they are not edible . The species grows on dead wood in autumn months , and can be found throughout Europe .
= = Taxonomy , naming , and classification = =
Mycena arcangeliana was first described by Giacomo Bresadola in 1904 ; the species was listed along with 41 others found in Pisa , in an article by Egidio Barsali published in the Bollettino Della Societa Botanica Italiana ( Bulletin of the Botanical Society of Italy ) . Authors Roger Phillips and Paul Sterry both describe the name Mycena oortiana as synonymous ; M. oortiana was a name given by Frederich Hora in 1960 based on Robert Kühner 's 1938 name for the variety Mycena arcangeliana var. oortiana , an invalid name . Phillips had earlier considered M. arcangeliana var. oortiana to be a synonym of M. oortiana , and MycoBank lists it as a synonym of Lucien Quélet 's Mycena olivascens . However , Index Fungorum lists both M. olivascens and Kühner 's Mycena vitilis var. olivascens as synonyms of M. arcangeliana . The specific epithet arcangeliana may be in honour of Giovanni Arcangeli , who collected the species in the Orto botanico di Pisa . M. arcangeliana is commonly known as the angel 's bonnet , or the late @-@ season bonnet .
Within the genus Mycena , it is found in the section Filipedes , on account of the cheilocystidia covered with evenly spaced , short cylindrical excrescences , and its size and occurrence on wood . It can be separated from the other members of the section on account of a cap with yellowish to olive shades , gills with pinkish hints and stems with vaguely violet colouration .
= = Description = =
Mycena arcangeliana mushrooms have caps of between 1 and 5 centimetres ( 0 @.@ 4 and 2 in ) in diameter which are conical in shape in younger mushrooms , becoming bell @-@ shaped with a broad umbo in older specimens . The oldest mushrooms have caps which are almost completely flat . The colouration varies from a whitish to a darker grey @-@ brown , sometimes with tints of olive or yellow , and it has furrows on the typically translucent surface . However , it is hygrophanous , and dries to a much paler colour . The cylindrical stem measures between 20 and 40 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 8 and 2 in ) in length , by 1 and 2 mm ( 0 @.@ 04 and 0 @.@ 08 in ) in width . In young mushrooms , it is an olive @-@ greyish colour , tinted with lilac , though it fades as the mushroom ages . The very top of the stem is a whitish colour , while the base is covered in white hairs . It is smooth and silky in texture , and there is no ring . The crowded gills are adnexed , that is , connected to the stem by only part of their depth , and are white in colour , turning pinkish as the mushroom ages . The gill edges are somewhat toothed . The flesh has a mild taste , but a strong smell of iodoform . In the cap , it is white , while in the stem , it is grey . The mushrooms are not edible .
= = = Microscopic characteristics = = =
Mycena arcangeliana mushrooms leave a whitish spore print , while the spores are shaped like apple seeds and amyloid , meaning that they stain a dark colour in Melzer 's reagent or Lugol 's solution . The basidia are four @-@ spored . They measure from between 7 and 8 micrometres ( µm ) by 4 @.@ 5 and 5 µm . There are a large number of hyaline cheilocystidia ( cystidia on the edge of the gills ) which are club @-@ shaped or ovate . They have thin cell walls , and are covered in grain @-@ like warts . The pleurocystidia ( the cystidia on the face of the gill ) are similar in appearance . The pileipellis is made up of wart @-@ covered hyphae measuring between 2 and 4 @.@ 5 µm wide and up to 30 µm long . The outermost layer of the stem is made up hyphae with short , cylindrical hairs . The hyphae have clamp connections .
= = = Similar species = = =
Mycena arcangeliana is somewhat similar to the less common Mycena flavescens , a species found in both hardwood and softwood forests on the floor among leaf or needle litter or grassland . M. flavescens typically has a whiter cap and a smell reminiscent of radish . M. peyerimhoffi , known from Algeria , has a similar cap colour to M. arcangeliana , but has a yellow stem . M. limonia , known from the Netherlands , has a lemon @-@ yellow cap and stem and more gills . Another species similar in appearance is M. metata , which has a sweet taste .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
Mycena arcangeliana grows on dead deciduous wood , favouring beech and ash , where it grows in " small troops " . It has also been recorded less frequently on conifers , bracken and Japanese knotweed . There have been reports from grassland , but these are probably a misidentification of M. flavescens . It is infrequently to commonly found in late summer to autumn months in the British Isles , though it is more commonly encountered in the south . Its distribution is fairly widespread elsewhere in Europe , though it is less common . It has been listed as vulnerable on the Red List of Threatened Fungi in Norway . " Mycena oortiana " , which was rarely found in mycological literature , was described as a predominantly west @-@ European species ; however , M. arcangeliana has also been recorded in Scandinavia , Greenland , and Italy , from where it was first described .
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= Ayudhapurusha =
Ayudhapurusha is the anthropomorphic depiction of a divine weapon in Hindu art . Ayudhapurushas are sometimes considered as partial incarnates of their divine owners .
The sex of the personified weapon is determined by the gender of the weapon in the Sanskrit language . The suffix " purusha " ( man ) is added to masculine weapons and " devi " ( goddess ) to female ones . The weapons Shakti , Heti ( a Hatchet @-@ like weapon ) and Gada ( mace ) , especially Kaumodaki ( the mace of Vishnu ) , Dhanus / Dhanushya ( " bow " ) are women . Chakra , especially Vishnu 's Sudarshana Chakra ( discus of Vishnu ) , Shankha ( " conch " ) , Padma ( lotus ) , Ankusha ( elephant goad ) , Pasha ( noose ) , Trisula ( trident ) , vajra ( thunderbolt ) , Khadga ( sword ) , Danda ( a sceptre or club ) , Bana / Shara ( " arrow " ) and Bhindi ( sling ) are depicted male .
While weapons are personified in ancient Hindu epics like the Ramayana and the Mahabharata , the ayudhapurushas were depicted in sculpture starting from the Gupta era . They might be depicted as humans with the weapons against them or holding the weapon or with the weapon on their head or emerging from it . The most popular ayudhapurushas are associated with the god Vishnu and appear in his iconography .
= = Textual references = =
The first instance , where weapons are personified in Hindu scriptures , appears in the Hindu epic Ramayana . Two daughters of the Prajapati Daksha , Jaya and Vijaya are married to the sage Krisasva . For destruction of Asuras ( " demons " ) , Jaya bore fifty sons - powerful divine weapons who could take any form . Suprabha gave birth to fifty invincible sons who were called Samharas ( " destroyers " ) . These magical weapons were known as Shastra @-@ devatas – the gods of weapons - and were given to king Kaushika , who later became the sage Vishwamitra . The weapons served him and later his pupil Rama , an avatar of Vishnu . The Mahabharata records at the time of the chakra @-@ musala war , the weapons of Krishna – another avatar of Vishnu and his brother Balarama appear in human form from the heavens to watch the battle . They include Krishna 's Sudarshana Chakra and Kaumodaki , and Balarama 's Samvartak plough and Saunanda musala ( club ) . The Duta @-@ Vakya ( " envoy 's message " ) of the Sanskrit playwright Bhasa ( c . 2nd century BCE – 2nd century CE ) describes an episode from the Mahabharata when Krishna goes as an envoy to Kauravas ' court to broker peace between them and their cousins the Pandavas , on behalf of the latter . However , when the Kauravas try to arrest Krishna , Krishna assumes his Vishvarupa ( all pervading " Universal form " ) and summons his weapons , who appear as humans . The ayudhapurushas include the Sudarshana Chakra , the bow Saranga , Kaumodaki , Panchajanya the conch and Nandaka the sword , elaborate descriptions of whom are found in the text . This is the only Sanskrit play that depicts the weapons on stage as humans . The Raghuvamsa of Kalidasa mentions about dwarf @-@ like ayudhapurushas denoting Vishnu 's chakra , lotus , sword , bow and mace .
= = Textual descriptions = =
Treatises such as the Vishnudharmottara Purana and various Agamas describe the iconography of the ayudhapurushas . Shakti is depicted as a red @-@ hued woman seated on a wolf . The Danda is a fearful black @-@ complexioned man with wrathful red eyes . The Khadga is also a dark and angry man . Pasha is depicted as a male snake with seven hoods . Dhvaja ( " banner " ) is a yellow @-@ coloured strong man with his mouth wide open . The Trishula is a handsome black @-@ complexioned man with lovely eyebrows . The Shankha is described as a white male with adorable eyes . The Bana ( arrow ) is a red @-@ coloured man with beautiful eyes , however the Vaikhaashagama describes it to be a black @-@ complexioned eunuch with three eyes , dressed in white clothes and riding on the wind . The Dhanus ( bow ) is a red lotus coloured female with a stringed bow on her head . The Vishnudharmottara Purana describes Chakra as man with a fat belly and round eyes , decorated with various ornaments and holding a chamara ( chowry ) and with Vishnu 's left hand on his head . The slim @-@ waisted woman Gada holds a chowry in her hands and is adored with ornaments , with Vishnu 's right hand resting on her head .
While the Sudarshana Chakra is depicted as a subordinate figure with Vishnu , in many South Indian Vishnu temples , the Chakra as an ayudhapurusha is worshipped in its own shrine attached to the central temple . Here , the Chakra is regarded as an aspect of Vishnu and called Chakra @-@ rupi Vishnu – Vishnu in the form of the Chakra . In the outline of the ordinary circular Chakra with a hexagram inscribed in it ( shat @-@ kona @-@ chakra ) – stands the personified Chakra in fierce form generally with eight arms . Often , Yoga @-@ Narasimha , the lion @-@ man ferocious aspect of Vishnu is depicted on the back of the Chakra sculpture . The Shilparatna describes that the fierce Chakra @-@ rupi Vishnu should hold in his hands gada , chakra , a snake , a lotus , musala ( a pestle ) , tramsha , pasha and ankusha . He is depicted as radiant as the sun and with protruding tusks from the sides of his mouth . Another description describes the Chakra as a sixteen @-@ armed fierce form of Vishnu . He holds a chakra , shankha , bow , parashu , asi ( sword ) , arrow , trishula , pasha , ankusha , agni ( fire ) , khadga ( sword ) , shield , hala ( plough ) , musala , gada and kunta . Three @-@ eyed and golden @-@ coloured with protruding tusks , the Chakra stands in the shat @-@ kona @-@ chakra , with Narasimha on the reverse of the sculpture .
= = Sculptural depictions = =
An ayudhapurusha is generally depicted as a two @-@ armed figure , prescribed to shown with a karanda mukuta ( conical crown ) . An ayudhapurusha may be depicted as a dwarf , concurring with Kalidasa 's description in the Raghuvamsa . Such icons are present in Rajgir , Mahabalipuram and Badami . They may be depicted as normal humans as in Udayagiri Caves and in the Sheshashayi Vishnu panel of the Gupta era ( 320 – 550 CE ) Deogarh temple . At Deogarh , the Sudarshana Chakra is depicted against the Chakra / wheel and the Kaumodaki holding a gada . In another instance , the ayudhapurushas are depicted without their weapons , though C. Sivaramamurti opines that there is enough evidence to identify them as ayudhapurushas . The human Chakrapurusha depicted against the Chakra is seen on the chakra @-@ vikrama coin of the Gupta ruler Chandragupta II where the Chakrapurusha – here denoting the wheel of sovereignty – is dedicated bestowing the three pelets of sovereignty to the king . The Gupta era and medieval sculptures often depict the ayudhapurushas in normal human proportions . Chola and Chalukya sculptors continued the trend , mostly focussing on the Sudarshana Chakra in a fierce multiple @-@ armed human form . Sometimes , the ayudhapurusha is depicted emerging from the associated weapon .
In another variation , the ayushapurusha stands besides the deity with folded hands ( in anjali mudra posture ) with the weapon depicted on the head as part of the crown or the weapon mark on the forehead . The Sudarshana Chakra with the Chakra on his head in Deogarh and Chola era bronzes of Chakra and Gada in similar fashion are some illustrations .
In the last variation of the ayudhapurusha iconography , he / she holds the associated weapon . Common examples are the Sudarshana Chakra , the Shankha @-@ purusha and Kaumodaki , mostly found in Uttar Pradesh and Bengal art . Sharanga with the bow in his hand and Nandaka with the sword as in Deogarh are other examples .
In some cases , the weapon may be depicted as in both anthropomorphic and their true form . While the central icon of Vishnu may hold the weapons , the ayudhapurushas of the same weapon may stand at the feet of the central icon .
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= Black Hebrew Israelites =
Black Hebrew Israelites ( also called Black Hebrews , African Hebrew Israelites , and Hebrew Israelites ) are groups of African Americans who believe they are descendants of the ancient Israelites . Black Hebrews adhere in varying degrees to the religious beliefs and practices of both Christianity and Judaism . They are not recognized as Jews by the greater Jewish community . Many choose to identify as Hebrew Israelites or Black Hebrews rather than as Jews to indicate their claimed historic connections .
Many Black Hebrew groups were founded in the United States during the late 19th and early 20th centuries , from Kansas to New York City , by both Americans and West Indian immigrants . In the mid @-@ 1980s , the number of Black Hebrews in the United States was between 25 @,@ 000 and 40 @,@ 000 . In the 1990s , the Alliance of Black Jews ( which is no longer operating ) estimated that there were 200 @,@ 000 African @-@ American Jews ; this estimate was based on a 1990 survey conducted by the Council of Jewish Federations . The exact number of Black Hebrews within that surveyed group remains unspecified .
= = Overview = =
While Black Christians traditionally have identified spiritually with the Children of Israel , they never claimed to be physical descendants of the Israelites . In the late 19th century among some African Americans , an identification with the ancient Hebrews developed into an identification as ancient Hebrews . One of the first groups of Black Hebrews , the Church of God and Saints of Christ , was founded in 1896 in Kansas , but it retained elements of a messianic connection to Jesus . During the following decades , many more Black Hebrew congregations were established , some without any connection to Christianity .
After World War I , for example , Wentworth Arthur Matthew , an immigrant from Saint Kitts , founded a Black Hebrew congregation in Harlem , claiming descent from the ancient Israelites . He called it the Commandment Keepers of the Living God . Similar groups selected elements of Judaism and adapted them within a structure similar to that of the Black church . He incorporated it in 1930 and moved the congregation to Brooklyn , where he later founded the Israelite Rabbinical Seminary , where Black Hebrew rabbis have been educated and ordained .
The beliefs and practices of Black Hebrew groups vary considerably . The differences are so great that historian James Tinney has suggested the classification of the organizations into three groups : Black Jews , who maintain a Christological perspective and adopt Jewish rituals ; Black Hebrews , who are more traditional in their practice of Judaism ; and Black Israelites , who are most nationalistic and furthest from traditional Judaism .
Black Hebrew organizations have certain common characteristics . Anthropologist James E. Landing , author of Black Judaism , distinguishes the Black Hebrew movement , which he refers to as Black Judaism , from normative Judaism practiced by people who are Black ( " black Judaism " ) . Significantly , it does not depend on documented lineage to Jewish ancestors nor to recognized Orthodox or Conservative conversions :
Black Judaism is ... a form of institutionalized ( congregational ) religious expression in which black persons identify themselves as Jews , Israelites , or Hebrews ... in a manner that seems unacceptable to the " whites " of the world 's Jewish community , primarily because Jews take issue with the various justifications set forth by Black Jews in establishing this identity . Thus " Black Judaism , " as defined here , stands distinctly apart from " black Judaism , " or that Judaic expression found among black persons that would be acceptable to the world 's Jewish community , such as conversion or birth to a recognized Jewish mother . " Black Judaism " has been a social movement ; " black Judaism " has been an isolated social phenomenon .
Landing 's definition , and its underlying assumptions about race and normative Judaism , have been criticized .
= = Groups = =
During the late 19th and early 20th centuries , dozens of Black Hebrew organizations were established . In Harlem alone , at least eight such groups were founded between 1919 and 1931 . The Church of the Living God , the Pillar Ground of Truth for All Nations is the oldest @-@ known Black Hebrew group and the Church of God and Saints of Christ is one of the largest Black Hebrew organizations . The Commandment Keepers , founded by Wentworth Arthur Matthew in New York , are noted for their adherence to traditional Judaism . The African Hebrew Israelites of Jerusalem are widely known for having moved from the United States , primarily Chicago , to Israel in the late @-@ 20th century .
= = = Church of the Living God , the Pillar Ground of Truth for All Nations = = =
The oldest known Black Hebrew organization is the Church of the Living God , the Pillar Ground of Truth for All Nations . The group was founded by F. S. Cherry in Chattanooga , Tennessee , in 1886 , and later moved to Philadelphia . Theologically , the Church of the Living God mixed elements of Judaism and Christianity , counting the Bible — including the New Testament — and the Talmud as essential scriptures . The rituals of Cherry ’ s flock incorporated many Jewish practices and prohibitions alongside some Christian traditions . For example , during prayer the men wore skullcaps and congregants faced east . In addition , members of the Church were not permitted to eat pork . Prayers were accompanied by musical instruments and gospel singing . After Cherry 's death , members of the church believed he had left temporarily and would reappear soon in spirit to lead the church through his son .
= = = Church of God and Saints of Christ = = =
The Church of God and Saints of Christ was established in Lawrence , Kansas , in 1896 by African @-@ American William Saunders Crowdy . The group established its headquarters in Philadelphia in 1899 , and Crowdy later relocated to Washington , D.C. , in 1903 . After Crowdy 's death in 1908 , the church continued to grow under the leadership of William Henry Plummer , who moved the organization 's headquarters to its permanent location in Belleville , Virginia , in 1921 . In 1936 , the Church of God and Saints of Christ had more than 200 " tabernacles " ( congregations ) and 37 @,@ 000 members . Howard Zebulun Plummer succeeded his father and became head of the organization in 1931 . His son , Levi Solomon Plummer , became the church 's leader in 1975 . Since 2001 , the Church of God and Saints of Christ has been led by Rabbi Jehu A. Crowdy , Jr . , a great @-@ grandson of William Saunders Crowdy . As of 2005 , it had fifty tabernacles in the United States and dozens in Africa .
The Church of God and Saints of Christ describes itself as " the oldest African @-@ American congregation in the United States that adheres to the tenets of Judaism " . Founded by American William Saunders Crowdy in Kansas in 1896 , it teaches that all Jews had been black originally , and that African Americans are descendants of the lost tribes of Israel . Members believe that Jesus was neither God nor the son of God , but rather an adherent to Judaism and a prophet . They also consider William Saunders Crowdy , their founder in Kansas , to be a prophet .
The Church of God and Saints of Christ synthesizes rituals from both Judaism and Christianity . They have adopted rites drawn from both the Old Testament and the New Testament . Its Old Testament observances include use of the Jewish calendar , celebration of Passover , circumcision of infant males , commemoration of the Sabbath on Saturday , and wearing of yarmulkes . Its New Testament rites include baptism ( immersion ) and footwashing , both of which have Old Testament origins .
= = = Commandment Keepers = = =
Wentworth Arthur Matthew founded the Commandment Keepers Congregation in Harlem in 1919 . Matthew was influenced by the non @-@ black Jews he met and by Marcus Garvey and the Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League . Garvey used the Biblical Jews in exile as a metaphor for black people in North America . One of the accomplishments of Garvey 's movement was to strengthen the connection between black Americans and Africa , Ethiopia in particular . When Matthew later learned about the Beta Israel — Ethiopian Jews — he identified with them . But , Israel recognizes the Beta Israel people as being descended from historic Jews by ancestry .
Today the Commandment Keepers follow traditional Jewish practice and observe Jewish holidays . Members observe kashrut , circumcise newborn boys and celebrate Bar and Bat Mitzvahs , and their synagogue has a mechitza to separate men and women during worship .
The Commandment Keepers believe they are descendants of Solomon and the Queen of Sheba . Matthew taught that " the Black man is a Jew " and " all genuine Jews are Black men " , but he valued non @-@ black Jews as those who had preserved Judaism over the centuries . Matthew maintained cordial ties with non @-@ black Jewish leaders in New York and frequently invited them to worship at his synagogue .
Matthew established the Ethiopian Hebrew Rabbinical College ( later renamed the Israelite Rabbinical Academy ) in Brooklyn . He ordained more than 20 rabbis , who went on to lead congregations throughout the United States and the Caribbean . He remained the leader of the Commandment Keepers in Harlem , and in 1962 the congregation moved to a landmark building on 123rd Street .
Matthew died in 1973 , sparking an internal conflict over who would succeed him as head of the Harlem congregation . Shortly before his death Matthew named his grandson , David Matthew Doré , as the new spiritual leader . Doré was 16 years old at the time . In 1975 , the synagogue 's board elected Rabbi Willie White to be its leader . Rabbi Doré occasionally conducted services at the synagogue until the early 1980s , when White had Doré and some other members locked out of the building . Membership declined throughout the 1990s and by 2004 , only a few dozen people belonged to the synagogue . In 2007 the Commandment Keepers sold the building , while various factions among former members sued one another .
Beside the Harlem group , there are eight or ten Commandment Keeper congregations in the New York area , and others throughout North America and in Israel . Since 2000 , seven rabbis have graduated from the Israelite Rabbinical Academy founded by Matthew .
= = = African Hebrew Israelites of Jerusalem = = =
Ben Ammi Ben @-@ Israel established the African Hebrew Israelites of Jerusalem in Chicago , Illinois , in 1966 , at a time of black nationalism and the African @-@ American Civil Rights Movement ( 1954 – 68 ) . In 1969 , after a sojourn in Liberia , Ben Ammi and about 30 Hebrew Israelites moved to Israel . Over the next 20 years , nearly 600 more members left the United States for Israel . As of 2006 , about 2 @,@ 500 Hebrew Israelites live in Dimona and two other towns in the Negev region of Israel , where they are widely referred to as Black Hebrews . In addition , there are Hebrew Israelite communities in several major American cities , including Chicago , St. Louis , and Washington , D.C.
The Black Hebrews believe they are descended from members of the Tribe of Judah who were exiled from the Land of Israel after the Romans destroyed the Second Temple in 70 CE . The group incorporates elements of African @-@ American culture into their interpretation of the Bible . They do not recognize rabbinical Jewish interpretations such as the Talmud . The Black Hebrews observe Shabbat and biblically ordained Jewish holidays such as Yom Kippur and Passover . Men wear tzitzit on their African print shirts , women follow the niddah ( biblical laws concerning menstruation ) , and newborn boys are circumcised . In accordance with their interpretation of the Bible , the Black Hebrews follow a strictly vegan diet and wear only natural fabrics . Most men have more than one wife , and birth control is not permitted .
When the first Black Hebrews arrived in Israel in 1969 , they claimed citizenship under the Law of Return , which gives eligible Jews immediate citizenship . But , the Israeli government ruled in 1973 that the group did not qualify for automatic citizenship because they could not prove Jewish descent and had not undergone Orthodox conversion . The Black Hebrews were denied work permits and state benefits . The group accused the Israeli government of racist discrimination . In 1981 , a group of American civil rights activists led by Bayard Rustin investigated and concluded that racism was not the cause of the Black Hebrews ' situation . No official action was taken to return the Black Hebrews to the United States , but some individual members were deported for working illegally .
Some Black Hebrews renounced their American citizenship to try to prevent more deportations . In 1990 , Illinois legislators helped negotiate an agreement that resolved the Black Hebrews ' legal status in Israel . Members of the group are permitted to work and have access to housing and social services . The Black Hebrews reclaimed their American citizenship and have received aid from the U.S. government , which helped them build a school and additional housing . In 2003 the agreement was revised , and the Black Hebrews were granted permanent residency in Israel .
In 2009 , Elyakim Ben @-@ Israel became the first Black Hebrew to gain Israeli citizenship . The Israeli government said that more Black Hebrews may be granted citizenship .
The Black Hebrews of Israel have become well @-@ known for their gospel choir , which tours throughout Israel and the United States . The group owns restaurants in several Israeli cities . In 2003 the Black Hebrews garnered much public attention when singer Whitney Houston visited them in Dimona . In 2006 , Eddie Butler , a Black Hebrew , was chosen by the Israeli public to represent Israel in the Eurovision Song Contest .
= = Allegations of black supremacy and racism = =
In late 2008 , the Southern Poverty Law Center ( SPLC ) described as black supremacist what it called " the extremist fringe of the Hebrew Israelite movement " . It wrote that the members of such groups " believe that Jews are devilish impostors and ... openly condemn whites as evil personified , deserving only death or slavery " . The SPLC also said that " most Hebrew Israelites are neither explicitly racist nor anti @-@ Semitic and do not advocate violence " .
The Black Hebrew groups characterized as black supremacist by the SPLC include the Nation of Yahweh and the Israelite Church of God in Jesus Christ . Also , the Anti @-@ Defamation League has written that the " 12 Tribes of Israel " website , maintained by a Black Hebrew group , promotes black supremacy .
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= Utah Beach =
Utah Beach was the code name for one of the five sectors of the Allied invasion of German @-@ occupied France in the Normandy landings on June 6 , 1944 ( D @-@ Day ) , during World War II . The westernmost of the five landing beaches , Utah is on the Cotentin Peninsula , west of the mouths of the Douve and Vire rivers . Amphibious landings at Utah were undertaken by United States Army troops , with sea transport , mine sweeping , and a naval bombardment force provided by the United States Navy and Coast Guard as well as elements from the British , Canadian , Dutch and other Allied navies .
The objective at Utah was to secure a beachhead on the Cotentin Peninsula , the location of important port facilities at Cherbourg . The amphibious assault , primarily by the US 4th Infantry Division and 70th Tank Battalion , was supported by airborne landings of the 82nd and 101st Airborne Division . The intention was to rapidly seal off the Cotentin Peninsula , prevent the Germans from reinforcing Cherbourg , and capture the port as quickly as possible . Utah , along with Sword Beach on the eastern flank , was added to the invasion plan in December 1943 . These changes doubled the frontage of the invasion and necessitated a month @-@ long delay so that additional landing craft and personnel could be assembled in England . Allied forces attacking Utah Beach faced two battalions of the 919th Grenadier Regiment , part of the 709th Static Infantry Division . While improvements to fortifications had been undertaken under the leadership of Field Marshal Erwin Rommel beginning in October 1943 , the troops assigned to defend the area were mostly poorly equipped non @-@ German conscripts .
D @-@ Day at Utah began at 01 : 30 , when the first of the airborne units arrived , tasked with securing the key crossroads at Sainte @-@ Mère @-@ Église and controlling the causeways through the flooded farmland behind Utah Beach so the infantry could advance inland . While some airborne objectives were quickly met , many paratroopers landed far from their drop zones and were unable to fulfill their objectives on the first day . On the beach itself , infantry and tanks landed in four waves beginning at 06 : 30 and quickly secured the immediate area with minimal casualties . Meanwhile , engineers set to work clearing the area of obstacles and mines , and additional waves of reinforcements continued to arrive . At the close of D @-@ Day , Allied forces had only captured about half of the planned area and contingents of German defenders remained , but the beachhead was secure .
The 4th Infantry Division landed 21 @,@ 000 troops on Utah at the cost of only 197 casualties . Airborne troops arriving by parachute and glider numbered an additional 14 @,@ 000 men , with 2 @,@ 500 casualties . Around 750 men were lost in engineering units , 70th Tank Battalion , and seaborne vessels sunk by the enemy . German losses are unknown . Cherbourg was captured on June 26 , but by this time the Germans had destroyed the port facilities , which were not brought back into full operation until September .
= = Allied planning = =
The decision to undertake a cross @-@ channel invasion of continental Europe within the next year was taken at the Trident Conference , held in Washington in May 1943 . The Allies initially planned to launch the invasion on May 1 , 1944 , and a draft of the plan was accepted at the Quebec Conference in August 1943 . General Dwight D. Eisenhower was appointed commander of Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force ( SHAEF ) . General Bernard Montgomery was named as commander of the 21st Army Group , which comprised all of the land forces involved in the invasion .
On December 31 , 1943 , Eisenhower and Montgomery first saw the plan , which proposed amphibious landings by three divisions and two @-@ thirds of an airborne division . The two generals immediately insisted that the scale of the initial invasion be expanded to five divisions , with airborne descents by three divisions , to allow operations on a wider front . The change doubled the frontage of the invasion from 25 miles ( 40 km ) to 50 miles ( 80 km ) . This would allow for quicker offloading of men and materiel , make it more difficult for the Germans to respond , and speed up the capture of the port at Cherbourg . Eisenhower and Lieutenant General Omar Bradley selected for Utah the VII Corps . Major General J. Lawton Collins , who had experience with amphibious operations in the Pacific Theater of Operations ( though not in the initial assaults ) , replaced Major General Roscoe Woodruff as commander of VII Corps .
Utah Beach , the westernmost of the five landing beaches , is on the Cotentin Peninsula , west of the mouths of the Douve and Vire rivers . The terrain between Utah and the neighboring Omaha Beach was swampy and difficult to cross , which meant that the troops landing at Utah would be isolated . The Germans had flooded the farmland behind Utah , restricting travel off the beach to a few narrow causeways . To help secure the terrain inland of the landing zone , rapidly seal off the Cotentin Peninsula , and prevent the Germans from reinforcing the port at Cherbourg , two airborne divisions were assigned to airdrop into German territory in the early hours of the invasion .
The need to acquire or produce extra landing craft and troop carrier aircraft for the expanded operation meant that the invasion had to be delayed to June . Production of landing craft was ramped up in late 1943 and continued into early 1944 , and existing craft were relocated from other theaters . More than 600 Douglas C @-@ 47 Skytrain transport aircraft and their crews took a circuitous route to England in early 1944 from Baer Field , Indiana , bringing the number of available troop carrier planes to over a thousand .
= = = Plan of attack = = =
Amphibious landings at Utah were to be preceded by airborne landings further inland on the Cotentin Peninsula commencing shortly after midnight . Forty minutes of naval bombardment was to begin at 05 : 50 , followed by air bombardment , scheduled for 06 : 09 to 06 : 27 .
The amphibious landing was planned in four waves , beginning at 06 : 30 . The first consisted of 20 Landing Craft , Vehicle , Personnel ( LCVPs ) carrying four companies from the 8th Infantry Regiment . The ten craft on the right were to land on Tare Green beach , opposite the strongpoint at Les Dunes de Varreville . The ten craft on the left were intended for Uncle Red beach , 1 @,@ 000 yards ( 910 m ) south . Eight Landing Craft Tanks ( LCTs ) , each carrying four amphibious DD tanks of 70th Tank Battalion , were scheduled to land a few minutes before the infantry .
The second wave , scheduled for 06 : 35 , consisted of 32 LCVPs carrying four more companies of 8th Infantry , as well as combat engineers and naval demolition teams that were to clear the beach of obstacles . The third wave , scheduled for 06 : 45 , consisted of eight LCTs bringing more DD tanks plus armored bulldozers to assist in clearing paths off the beach . It was to be followed at 06 : 37 by the fourth wave , which had eight Landing Craft Mechanized ( LCM ) and three LCVPs with detachments of the 237th and 299th Combat Engineer Battalions , assigned to clear the beach between the high and low water marks .
Troops involved in Operation Overlord , including members of the 4th Division scheduled to land at Utah Beach , left their barracks in the second half of May and proceeded to their coastal marshalling points . To preserve secrecy , the invasion troops were as much as possible kept out of contact with the outside world . The men began to embark onto their transports on June 1 , and the 865 ships of Force U ( the naval group assigned to Utah ) began their journey from Plymouth on June 3 and 4 . A 24 @-@ hour postponement of the invasion necessitated by bad weather meant that one convoy , U @-@ 2A , had to be recalled and hastily refuelled at Portland . The ships met at a rendezvous point ( nicknamed " Piccadilly Circus " ) southeast of the Isle of Wight to assemble into convoys to cross the Channel . Minesweepers began clearing lanes on the evening of June 5 .
= = German preparations = =
Field Marshal Gerd von Rundstedt , overall commander on the Western Front , reported to Hitler in October 1943 regarding the weak defences in France . This led to the appointment of Field Marshal Erwin Rommel to oversee the construction of enhanced fortifications along the Atlantic Wall , with special emphasis on the most likely invasion front , which stretched from the Netherlands to Cherbourg . Rommel believed that the Normandy coast could be a possible landing point for the invasion , so he ordered the construction of extensive defensive works along that shore . In addition to concrete gun emplacements at strategic points along the coast , he ordered wooden stakes , metal tripods , mines , and large anti @-@ tank obstacles to be placed on the beach to delay the approach of landing craft and impede the movement of tanks . Expecting the Allies to land at high tide so that the infantry would spend less time exposed on the beach , he ordered many of these obstacles to be placed at the high @-@ tide mark . The terrain at Utah is flat , offering no high ground on which to place fortifications . The shallow beach varies in depth from almost nothing to 800 yards ( 730 m ) , depending on the tides . The Germans flooded the flat land behind the beach by damming up streams and opening the floodgates at the mouth of the Douve to admit seawater .
Defense of this sector of eastern coast of the Cotentin Peninsula was assigned to Generalleutnant Karl @-@ Wilhelm von Schlieben and his 709th Static Infantry Division . The unit was not well equipped , lacking motorized transport and provided with captured French , Soviet , and Czech equipment . Many of the men were Ostlegionen ( non @-@ German conscripts recruited from Soviet prisoners of war , Georgians , and Poles ) , known to be deeply unreliable . The southernmost 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) of the sector was manned by about 700 troops stationed in nine strongpoints spaced from 1 @,@ 100 to 4 @,@ 400 yd ( 1 @,@ 000 to 4 @,@ 000 m ) apart . Tangles of barbed wire , booby traps , and the removal of ground cover made both the beach and the terrain around the strongpoints hazardous for infantry . The German 91st Infantry Division and 6th Fallschirmjäger Regiment , who arrived in May , were stationed inland as reserves . Detecting this move , the Allies shifted their intended airborne drop zones to the southeast .
= = Units = =
= = D @-@ Day ( June 6 , 1944 ) = =
Bombing of Normandy began around midnight with over 2 @,@ 200 British and American bombers attacking targets along the coast and further inland . Some 1 @,@ 200 aircraft departed England just before midnight to transport the airborne divisions to their drop zones behind enemy lines . Paratroops from 101st Airborne were dropped beginning around 01 : 30 , tasked with controlling the causeways behind Utah Beach and destroying road and rail bridges over the Douve . Gathering together into fighting units was made difficult by a shortage of radios and by the bocage terrain , with its hedgerows , stone walls , and marshes . Troops of the 82nd Airborne began arriving around 02 : 30 , with the primary objective of destroying two additional bridges over the Douve and capturing intact two bridges over the Merderet . They quickly captured the important crossroads at Sainte @-@ Mère @-@ Église ( the first town liberated in the invasion ) and began working to protect the western flank . Generalleutnant Wilhelm Falley , commander of 91st Infantry Division , was trying to return to his headquarters near Picauville from war games at Rennes when he was killed by a paratrooper patrol . Two hours before the main invasion force landed , a raiding party of 132 members of 4th Cavalry Regiment swam ashore at 04 : 30 at Îles Saint @-@ Marcouf , thought to be a German observation post . It was unoccupied , but two men were killed and seventeen wounded by mines and German artillery fire .
Once the four troop transports assigned to Force U reached their assigned position 12 miles ( 19 km ) off the coast , 5 @,@ 000 soldiers of 4th Division and other units assigned to Utah boarded their landing craft in rough seas for the three @-@ hour journey to their designated landing point . The eighteen ships assigned to bombard Utah included the US Navy battleship Nevada , the Royal Navy monitor Erebus , and the heavy cruisers Hawkins ( Royal Navy ) and Tuscaloosa ( US Navy ) . Naval bombardment of areas behind the beach commenced at 05 : 45 , while it was still dark , with the gunners switching to pre @-@ assigned targets on the beach as soon as it was light enough to see , at 05 : 50 . USS Corry , a destroyer in the bombardment group , sunk after it struck a mine while evading fire from the Marcouf battery under the command of Oberleutnant zur See Walter Ohmsen . Since troops were scheduled to land at Utah and Omaha starting at 06 : 30 ( an hour earlier than the British beaches ) , these areas received only about 40 minutes of naval bombardment before the assault troops began to land on the shore . Coastal air bombardment was undertaken in the twenty minutes immediately prior to the landing by around 300 Martin B @-@ 26 Marauders of the IX Bomber Command . Due to cloud cover , the pilots decided to drop to low altitudes of 4 @,@ 000 to 6 @,@ 000 feet ( 1 @,@ 200 to 1 @,@ 800 m ) . Much of the bombing was highly effective , with the loss of only two aircraft .
= = = Landing on beach = = =
The first troops to reach the shore were four companies from the 2nd Battalion , 8th Infantry , arriving at 06 : 30 on 20 LCVPs . Companies B and C landed on the segment code @-@ named Tare Green , and Companies E and F to their left on Uncle Red . Leonard T. Schroeder , leading Company F , was the first man to reach the beach . The landing craft were pushed to the south by strong currents , and they found themselves near Exit 2 at Grande Dune , about 2 @,@ 000 yards ( 1 @.@ 8 km ) from their intended landing zones opposite Exit 3 at Les Dunes de Varreville . The first senior officer ashore , Supernumerary General Officer Brigadier General Theodore Roosevelt , Jr. of the 4th Infantry Division , personally scouted the nearby terrain . He determined that this landing site was actually better , as there was only one strongpoint in the immediate vicinity rather than two , and it had been badly damaged by bombers of IX Bomber Command . In addition , the strong currents had washed ashore many of the underwater obstacles . Deciding to " start the war from right here " , he ordered further landings to be re @-@ routed .
The second wave of assault troops arrived at 06 : 35 on 32 LCVPs . Companies A and D of 1st Battalion , 8th Infantry landed on Tare Green and G and H on Uncle Red . They were accompanied by engineers and demolition teams tasked with removing beach obstacles and clearing the area directly behind the beach of obstacles and mines .
A contingent of the 70th Tank Battalion , comprising 32 amphibious DD tanks on eight LCTs , were supposed to arrive about 10 minutes before the infantry . However , a strong headwind caused them to be about 20 minutes late , even though they launched the tanks 1 @,@ 500 yards ( 1 @,@ 400 m ) from shore rather than 5 @,@ 000 yards ( 4 @,@ 600 m ) as planned . Four tanks of Company A and their personnel were lost when their LCT hit a mine about 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) south of Iles St. Marcouf and was destroyed , but the remaining 28 arrived intact .
The third wave , arriving at 06 : 45 , included 16 conventional M4 Sherman tanks and 8 dozer tanks of the 70th Tank Battalion . They were followed at 06 : 37 by the fourth wave , which had eight LCMs and three LCVPs with detachments of the 237th and 299th Combat Engineer Battalions , assigned to clear the beach between the high and low water marks .
Company B came under small arms fire from defenders positioned in houses along the road as they headed to the enemy strongpoint WN7 near La Madeleine , northwest of La Grande Dune and 600 yards ( 550 m ) inland . They met little resistance at WN7 , the headquarters of 3rd Battalion , 919th Grenadiers . Company C disabled the enemy strongpoint WN5 at La Grande Dune , which had been heavily damaged in the preliminary bombardment . Companies E and F ( about 600 men ) proceeded inland about 700 yards ( 640 m ) to strongpoint WN4 at La Dune , which they captured after a short skirmish . They next travelled south on a farm road parallel to the beach towards Causeway 1 . Companies G and H moved south along the beach toward enemy strongpoint WN3 at Beau Guillot . They encountered a minefield and came under enemy machine gun fire , but soon captured the position . 70th Tank Battalion was expecting to have to help neutralize beach fortifications in the immediate area , but since this job was quickly completed by the infantry , they had little to do initially . The landing area was almost totally secure by 08 : 30 , at which point combat teams prepared to push further inland along the causeways . Meanwhile , additional waves of reinforcements continued to arrive on the beach .
Removal of mines and obstacles from the beach , a job that had to be performed quickly before the tide came in at 10 : 30 , was the assignment of 237th and 299th Combat Engineer Battalions and the eight dozer tanks . The teams used explosives to destroy beach obstacles and blow gaps in the sea wall to allow quicker access for troops and vehicles . The dozer tanks pushed the wreckage out of the way to create clear lanes for further landings .
= = = Moving inland = = =
The next move for the 4th Division was to begin movement down the three causeways through the flooded farmland behind the beach to link up with the 101st Airborne , who had dropped behind enemy lines before dawn . 2nd Battalion and several tanks headed down Causeway 1 towards Poupeville , which they discovered had already been captured by the 3 / 501st Parachute Infantry Regiment . A dozen German infantrymen , trapped between the two Allied forces , surrendered . Causeway 2 , directly behind La Grande Dune , eventually became the main exit road off the beach . Securing this causeway required the capture of Ste . Marie du Mont , about 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) inland . The Germans had blown a small bridge over a culvert , and movement was delayed while engineers made a repair and cleared two inoperable tanks from the road . Causeway 2 quickly became congested , so some units opted to walk through the flooded areas beside the road . Several hundred defenders were positioned in and around Ste . Marie du Mont , including 6th Fallschirmjäger Regiment of the 91st Infantry Division . Members of the 506th Parachute Infantry successfully attacked batteries at Holdy and Brécourt Manor and took Ste . Marie du Mont in house @-@ to @-@ house and street combat , clearing the way for 8th Infantry , 3rd Battalion to advance up Causeway 2 practically unopposed . 8th Infantry , 1st Battalion headed up Causeway 3 towards Audouville @-@ la @-@ Hubert , which had already been captured by the 502nd Parachute Infantry . As at Poupeville , enemy soldiers ( in this case several dozen ) were caught between the two converging forces and had to surrender .
Meanwhile , 22nd Infantry , 3rd Battalion and five tanks moved north along the beach , tasked with eliminating as many German strongpoints as possible . They discovered that tank fire could only destroy the concrete pillboxes via a direct hit on the embrasures , so they called for artillery fire from the naval vessels offshore . By evening they had combined with 12th Infantry , who had travelled directly across the flooded fields to a position far short of their target for the day , to form a defensive perimeter on the northern end of the beachhead . On the southern end of the beachhead , about 3 @,@ 000 men of the 6th Fallschirmjäger Regiment moved into position near Saint @-@ Côme @-@ du @-@ Mont , preventing the 501st Parachute Infantry from advancing any further on D @-@ Day .
In the center , the 82nd Airborne were able to consolidate their position at Sainte @-@ Mère @-@ Église in part due to the work of First Lieutenant Turner Turnbull and a squad of 43 men , who held off for more than two hours a far larger enemy force that was attempting to retake the crossroads from the north . A task force led by Colonel Edson Raff that included 16 Sherman tanks of the 746th Tank Battalion , four armored cars , and a squad of infantry worked their way up from the beach , but were stopped from reinforcing Sainte @-@ Mère @-@ Église by a line of German defenders 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) south of the town . Reinforcements arrived by glider around 04 : 00 ( Mission Chicago and Mission Detroit ) , and 21 : 00 ( Mission Keokuk and Mission Elmira ) , bringing additional troops and heavy equipment . Like the paratroopers , many landed far from their drop zones . Even those that landed on target experienced difficulty , with heavy cargo such as Jeeps shifting during landing , crashing through the wooden fuselage , and in some cases crushing personnel on board . German defenders also took a toll on the glider units , with heavy losses inflicted in the area near Sainte @-@ Mère @-@ Église in particular . Members of the 82nd Airborne who had landed west of the Merderet were widely scattered and surrounded by enemy forces . They quickly realized that they would be unable to achieve their D @-@ day objectives and would have to wait for reinforcements . It took several days for this to happen as the Germans set up defensive positions along the river . For 36 hours , 82nd Airborne were unable to establish radio contact with other units or with Collins aboard his command ship , USS Bayfield .
82nd Airborne were finally relieved by 90th Division , who began disembarking at 16 : 00 on D @-@ Day and were all ashore by June 8 . The original plan for the 90th had been that they should push north toward the port of Cherbourg , but Collins changed their assignment : they were to cut across the Cotentin Peninsula , isolating the German forces therein and preventing reinforcements from entering the area . Their poor performance led to their being replaced by the more experienced 82nd Airborne and 9th Infantry Division , who reached the west coast of the Cotentin on June 17 , cutting off Cherbourg . The 9th Division , joined by the 4th and 79th Infantry Divisions , took control of the peninsula in fierce fighting . Cherbourg fell during the Battle of Cherbourg on June 26 , but by this time the Germans had destroyed the port facilities , which were not brought back into full operation until September .
= = = Maps = = =
= = Success = =
The 4th Infantry Division did not meet all their D @-@ Day objectives at Utah Beach , partly because they had arrived too far to the south , but they landed 21 @,@ 000 troops at the cost of only 197 casualties . Airborne troops arriving by parachute and glider numbered an additional 14 @,@ 000 men , with 2 @,@ 500 casualties . Around 750 men were lost in engineering units , 70th Tank Battalion , and LCTs and other vessels sunk by the enemy . German losses are unknown .
Forces landing on Utah Beach cleared the immediate area in less than an hour , and penetrated 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) inland by the close of D @-@ Day . Within two hours of landing , the 82nd Airborne captured the important crossroads at Sainte @-@ Mère @-@ Église , but they failed to neutralize the line of defenses along the Merderet on D @-@ Day as planned . While many of the airborne forces landed far from their drop zones and were unable to meet all their D @-@ Day objectives , this widespread scattering of forces had the unintended side effect of confusing the German defenders , who were slow to react .
The highly trained 4th Division faced a mediocre German unit composed of conscripts ; all the best troops had been sent to the Eastern Front . The Allies achieved and maintained air superiority , which meant that the Germans were unable to make observations of preparations underway in Britain prior to the invasion and were unable to launch airborne counterassaults on D @-@ Day . Extensive Allied reconnaissance provided the attackers with detailed maps of the defenses and terrain . Unlike neighboring Omaha Beach , the preliminary aerial bombardment was highly effective at Utah . Indecisiveness and an overcomplicated command structure on the part of the German high command was also a factor in the Allied success at Utah and throughout the Normandy campaign .
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= Russian battleship Ekaterina II =
Ekaterina II ( Russian : Екатерина II Catherine II of Russia ) was the lead ship of the Ekaterina II @-@ class pre @-@ dreadnought battleships built for the Imperial Russian Navy in the 1880s . Her crew was considered unreliable when the crew of the battleship Potemkin mutinied in June 1905 and her engines were decoupled from the propellers to prevent her from joining Potemkin . She was turned over to the Sevastopol port authorities before being stricken on 14 August 1907 . She was re @-@ designated as Stricken Vessel Nr. 3 on 22 April 1912 before being sunk as a torpedo target for the Black Sea Fleet .
= = Design and description = =
Ekaterina II was 331 feet 8 @.@ 5 inches ( 101 @.@ 1 m ) long at the waterline and 339 feet 3 inches ( 103 @.@ 40 m ) long overall . She had a beam of 68 feet 11 inches ( 21 @.@ 0 m ) and a draft of 27 feet 11 inches ( 8 @.@ 5 m ) , 24 inches ( 610 mm ) more than designed . Her displacement was 11 @,@ 050 long tons ( 11 @,@ 230 t ) at load , almost 900 long tons ( 910 t ) more than her designed displacement of 10 @,@ 181 long tons ( 10 @,@ 344 t ) .
Ekaterina II had two 3 @-@ cylinder vertical compound steam engines built by the Baltic Works . Fourteen cylindrical boilers , also built by the Baltic Works , provided steam to the engines . The engines had a total designed output of 9 @,@ 000 indicated horsepower ( 6 @,@ 700 kW ) , but they produced 9 @,@ 101 ihp ( 6 @,@ 787 kW ) on trials and gave a top speed of 15 @.@ 25 knots ( 28 @.@ 24 km / h ; 17 @.@ 55 mph ) . At full load she carried 900 long tons ( 910 t ) of coal that provided her a range of 2 @,@ 800 nautical miles ( 5 @,@ 200 km ; 3 @,@ 200 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) and 1 @,@ 367 nautical miles ( 2 @,@ 532 km ; 1 @,@ 573 mi ) at 14 @.@ 5 knots ( 26 @.@ 9 km / h ; 16 @.@ 7 mph ) .
Ekaterina II differed from her sisters mainly in her 12 @-@ inch ( 305 mm ) gun mounts . Her guns used bulky , hydraulically powered Moncrieff disappearing gun mounts . They had a rate of fire of five minutes , ten seconds between aimed rounds . Each of the forward mounts could traverse 30 ° across the bow and 35 ° abaft the beam , or a total of 155 ° . Sixty rounds per gun were carried . The main guns were mounted very low , ( only 4 feet 6 inches ( 1 @.@ 4 m ) ) above the main deck , and caused extensive damage to the deck when fired over the bow or stern . The seven 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) Obukhov Model 1877 35 @-@ calibre guns were mounted on broadside pivot mounts in hull embrasures , except for one gun mounted in the stern in the hull . Six of the eight 47 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) five @-@ barrelled revolving Hotchkiss guns were mounted in small sponsons that projected from the hull with the aftermost pair mounted in embrasures in the hull to defend the ship against torpedo boats . Four 37 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) five @-@ barrelled revolving Hotchkiss guns were mounted in the fighting top . She carried seven above @-@ water 14 @-@ inch ( 356 mm ) torpedo tubes , one tube forward on each side , able to bear on forward targets , two other tubes mounted on each broadside forward and aft of the central citadel and the seventh tube was in the stern .
= = History = =
Ekaterina II was named after the Empress Catherine II of Russia . She was the only one of her class to be built by the Nikolayev Admiralty Dockyard at Nikolaev . The ship was laid down on 26 June 1883 , launched on 20 May 1886 , and completed in 1889 . She ran her first trials in 1888 , after she had been transferred to Sevastopol to be fitted out , and spent her career with the Black Sea Fleet . In 1897 the Naval General Staff proposed to re @-@ gun her with more powerful 12 @-@ inch 40 @-@ calibre guns and to replace the compound armour of her redoubt with Krupp armor , but this proved to be too expensive . Her machinery was upgraded between mid @-@ 1898 and 1902 . Her boilers were replaced with eighteen Belleville water @-@ tube boilers and her engines were converted to triple expansion . On trials after the refit she made 9 @,@ 978 ihp ( 7 @,@ 441 kW ) and a speed of 15 knots ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) on 8 November 1902 .
Her crew was considered sympathetic to the revolutionary movement when the crew of the battleship Potemkin mutinied in June 1905 and her engines were disabled to prevent her from joining Potemkin . She was turned over to the Sevastopol port authorities before being stricken on 14 August 1907 . She was re @-@ designated as Stricken Vessel Nr. 3 on 22 April 1912 before being sunk as a torpedo target . The remnants of the ship were salvaged in 1914 in Nikolaev .
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= Since U Been Gone =
" Since U Been Gone " is a song recorded by American pop rock singer Kelly Clarkson from her second studio album , Breakaway ( 2004 ) . The song , which was written and produced by Max Martin and Lukasz " Dr. Luke " Gottwald , was released as the lead single from Breakaway two weeks before the album was released . It is an uptempo pop rock , and power pop song that infuses electronic sound with a mixture of soft and loud alternative rock sound . Martin originally wrote " Since U Been Gone " with Pink in mind but she turned it down . It was then given to Hilary Duff but she rejected the song because she could not reach its higher notes . The song was finally given to Clarkson after Clive Davis convinced the writers to give it to her . Clarkson decided to add heavier guitars and harder drums to the song after noticing that the demo had an obvious pop sound . Lyrically , the song is written from a woman 's point of view where she expresses her sense of relief with the end of her troubled relationship .
" Since U Been Gone " received positive reviews from music critics who considered the song to be the highlight of Breakaway . Critics also felt that it was one of the best pop songs in the last decade . Rolling Stone ranked it at number 482 of the 500 Greatest Songs of All Time in 2010 . " Since U Been Gone " was a commercial success . In the United States , the song peaked at number two on the Billboard Hot 100 . It topped the US Pop 100 for six consecutive weeks and the US Pop Songs for seven consecutive weeks respectively . It was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for shipments of over one million copies sold . " Since U Been Gone " was also a worldwide success , peaking in the top five in Austria , Australia , Ireland , the Netherlands and the United Kingdom . It also peaked in the top ten in Norway , Germany and Switzerland .
Clarkson performed " Since U Been Gone " at the 2005 MTV Video Music Awards and at the 2006 BRIT Awards . It has been included on the set @-@ list of Clarkson 's many tours . The song 's accompanying music video was directed by Alex De Rakoff , which shows Clarkson ruining her ex @-@ boyfriend 's apartment . The music video was nominated for three awards in the 2005 MTV Music Awards , winning two out of the three awards namely Best Female Video and Best Pop Video . At the 48th Grammy Awards , the song won the award for Best Female Pop Vocal Performance . " Since U Been Gone " was covered by many artists , notably the American rock band A Day to Remember , indie rocker Ted Leo as well as the Canadian indie rock band , Tokyo Police Club , and used in Brazilian soap opera Malhação .
= = Background and writing = =
In an interview for Blender , Martin and Dr. Luke revealed that they had originally intended Pink to sing " Since U Been Gone " , however , she turned it down . Dr. Luke also explained that Hilary Duff 's management was interested in the song but rejected it because Duff could not reach the song 's higher notes . It was Clive Davis who convinced Martin and Dr. Luke to give the song to Clarkson , even though they were initially reluctant . Davis said , " Max was looking to move on from what he had done with Backstreet Boys , and I really spent time convincing them that an ' American Idol ' winner could bring all the feeling and passion that was required to the song . " According to MTV , Clarkson had already finished recording her materials for her second album , Breakaway in late 2004 when she was advised by her A & R to fly to Sweden to meet with Martin and Dr. Luke . Both Martin and Dr. Luke were associated with pop music but they wanted to produce rock songs . Realizing that her record was more into the rock , Clarkson finally agreed to collaborate with them . " In an interview with Billboard , Dr. Luke explained the genesis of " Since U Been Gone " , saying
" That was a conscious move by Max and myself , because we were listening to alternative and indie music and talking about some song – I don 't remember what it was . I said , ' Ah , I love this song , ' and Max was like , ' If they would just write a damn pop chorus on it ! ' It was driving him nuts , because that indie song was sort of on six , going to seven , going to eight , the chorus comes . . . and it goes back down to five . It drove him crazy . And when he said that , it was like , light bulb . ' Why don 't we do that , but put a big chorus on it ? ' It worked . "
" Since U Been Gone " was the last track that Clarkson recorded for Breakaway ; it was recorded in Sweden . At first , Clarkson was not fully convinced at the prospect of recording the song saying , " It didn 't have any lyrics and the melody really wasn 't finalized [ ... ] the track was done on a computer , there was no band on it . My record label was freaking out about it and I was , like , why ? " Clarkson also explained that when she first heard " Since U Been Gone " , she felt that it sounded a little bit pop for her direction and she decided to tweak the song musically by incorporating drums and guitars . Clarkson told MTV that the song is about a relationship turned sour although it was going well at the very beginning . The song was officially released to mainstream radio stations in the United States on November 16 , 2004 as the lead single of Breakaway .
= = Composition = =
" Since U Been Gone " was written and produced by Max Martin and Dr. Luke . The song , which is set in common time with a moderate tempo of 132 beats per minute , is written in the key of G major . Popdose staff noted that the song contains " electronics @-@ enhanced sheen " which infuses an appropriate dichotomy between the loud and soft sound of alternative @-@ rock . The song also incorporates ringing guitars with plaintive lyrics and a huge chorus . It has a chord progression of G @-@ Am – Em – F and Clarkson 's vocal range in the song spans two octaves from the low note of G3 to the high note of G5 . Film Laureate of Blogcritics praised " Since U Been Gone " for its " high energy , vocally powered , pop / rock jam with a hook that is infectious . " The same opinion was echoed by Entertainment Weekly staff who thought that the song highlighted Clarkson 's " sublime " vocals and praised the song for its " addictive " hook . Dave Donnelly of Sputnikmusic compared the musical arrangements of " Since U Been Gone " to Clarkson 's " Behind These Hazel Eyes " . He opined that the two songs allow the melodies to represent themselves because the tight musical arrangements complement Clarkson 's vocals .
The song 's narrative is in first person , from the point of view of a woman who is relieved with the end of her relationship . Steve Lampiris of ZME Music lauded Clarkson 's vocals as the heart of the song . He praised the way Clarkson sings the chorus , which implies that she was the one who ended the relationship . He also thought that the line " I can breathe for the first time / I ’ m so moving on , yeah yeah " was believable " that either her ex is a total prick or she 's deserves [ sic ] an Oscar nom . " In an interview with Dan Snierson of Entertainment Weekly , it was noted that Clarkson sang " So together but so broken up inside / ' Cause I can 't breathe " in " Behind These Hazel Eyes " but in " Since U Been Gone " , she sang " But since you been gone / I can breathe for the first time . " When asked whether she was a bipolar asthmatic , Clarkson responded that " Behind These Hazel Eyes " is about a dipstick who is unhappy because she has completely screwed up and " Since U Been Gone " is an expression of relief because her ex is now miserable .
= = Response = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
The song received positive reviews from music critics . In his review for Breakaway , Stephen Thomas Erlewine of MSN considered " Since U Been Gone " , " Walk Away " , and " You Found Me " as the spine of the album . He added that the songs sound mainstream and youthful . Rohin of Blogcritics gave a positive response to the song , emphasizing that " it is almost one of the best pieces of throwaway pop in recent history " . He also thought that the song represents a song " that you can roll down the windows of your car and proudly headbang your way through a yellow light somewhere on a suburban side street . " Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine thought that Clarkson did a good impression of Pat Benatar in " Since U Been Gone " . He concluded his review by emphasizing that Breakaway proves that Clarkson has successfully dodged the sophomore slump but " Since U Been Gone " helped her establish her success . The staff of Slant Magazine later ranked " Since U Been Gone " at number thirteen in their list of Best Singles of the Aughts , writing that the song proves Clarkson 's powerful ability as a vocalist as well as her versatility as an artist .
Stephen Thompson of NPR Music called the song " one of the decade 's finest pop anthems " which is infused with energy , charisma and full @-@ throated intensity . Steve Lampiris of ZME Music opined that the song is " one of very few perfect pop songs released in the last ten years , " stating that it is hard to determine the principal reason that makes the song very successful . Gary Trust of Billboard thought that " Since U Been Gone " is a defining song of the 2000s . He commented on its status as a blueprint for female pop songs , as seen in song productions by artists such as Miley Cyrus , Katy Perry and Pink . In 2014 , Ryan Kailath of NPR Music argued that the song succeeded by borrowing from musical trends that preceded it , such as 1990s R & B and alternative rock . In 2015 , Gary Trust of Billboard wrote that " Kelly Clarkson 's " Since U Been Gone , " co @-@ written by Max Martin , especially helped lead to pure pop 's reemergence , and the breakthroughs of Rihanna , Katy Perry , Swift and Lady Gaga would soon follow ( as well as Spears ' own revival ) " , stating that the song " began to erode hip @-@ hop 's early ' 00s reign , with women at the forefront of turning the tide " .
= = = Awards and recognition = = =
At the 48th Grammy Awards , " Since U Been Gone " won the category of Best Female Pop Vocal Performance . At the 2005 Teen Choice Awards , the song won the category of Choice Single . It also won the award for Best Pop Sing @-@ Along Song at the 2005 XM Nation Music Awards . The song received a nomination in the category of Song of the Year : Mainstream Hit Radio at the 2005 Radio Music Awards but lost to Mariah Carey 's " We Belong Together " . At the 2005 Billboard Music Awards , the song received nominations for two awards . It received a nomination for the Hot 100 Single of the Year but lost to Mariah Carey 's " We Belong Together " and for the Digital Song of the Year but lost to Gwen Stefani 's " Hollaback Girl " .
= = Chart performance = =
" Since U Been Gone " entered the Billboard Hot 100 at number seventy for the week ending December 18 , 2004 . On its second week , the song moved to number fifty @-@ three , before jumping to number thirty @-@ eight the following week . During the week ending April 9 , 2005 , " Since U Been Gone " ascended to a new peak of number two on the Billboard Hot 100 , second to 50 Cent 's " Candy Shop " . This made " Since U Been Gone " the first pop song by a solo female artist to reach the top two chart positions in 2005 . The song also became the first non @-@ R & B / hip hop song by a solo female artist to reach top two on the chart since Christina Aguilera 's " Beautiful " hit number two in February 2003 . Fred Bronson of Billboard noted that had " Since U Been Gone " moved to number one , it would become the 41st chart @-@ topper for the American Idol franchise . The song stayed in the top ten on the Billboard Hot 100 for twenty weeks . After the week ending March 26 , 2005 , the song topped the US Pop 100 for six consecutive weeks , through the week ending March 26 , 2005 . It also spent seven consecutive weeks at number one on the US Pop Songs . On the Billboard 's Radio Songs chart , the song peaked at number four on April 23 , 2005 . Since U Been Gone was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) on January 25 , 2006 . As of January 2014 , " Since U Been Gone " has sold 2 @,@ 736 @,@ 000 paid digital downloads .
Internationally , " Since U Been Gone " was a commercial success . In Australia , the song debuted and peaked at number three on February 13 , 2005 . It was certified platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) for shipments of over 70 @,@ 000 units . In New Zealand , Since U Been Gone debuted at number eighteen on the week ending March 21 , 2005 . Three weeks later , it peaked at number eleven and matched that position for three non @-@ consecutive weeks . On July 16 , 2005 , " Since U Been Gone " debuted and peaked at number five in the United Kingdom and as of April 2016 the song sold over 400 @,@ 000 copies there . In Ireland , it entered the Irish Singles Chart at number eight on the week ending July 7 , 2005 and peaked at number four three weeks later . Elsewhere in Europe , the song was also a success ; it peaked at number three in Austria , number seven in Switzerland , number nine in Norway , number ten in the Netherlands , and number 16 in Sweden .
= = Music video = =
= = = Background = = =
The music video for " Since U Been Gone " was directed by Alex De Rakoff in early November 2004 . Clarkson told MTV that she conceived the idea of the video after assuming that revenge is what every girl wants to do when their boyfriend cheats on them . She added , " You know , ' Why don 't I just go trash her house ? [ ... ] And so I do it in the video . All I do is break stuff . It 's a cool job . I could get used to this . " Clarkson expressed that in the music video , viewers would get to see her act out of character . She explained , " In the beginning , I 'm like tipping things over and smearing mud all over the walls and it seems like my apartment , but it ends up being the other girl 's that he 's with , so it 's a humorous video . " The music video premiered on Total Request Live on November 16 , 2004 .
= = = Synopsis = = =
The music video begins with Clarkson sitting on a couch in an apartment 's living room , holding a heart @-@ shaped locket in her hand . The next scene shows Clarkson in the bathroom where she fixes her face in the mirror , she opens the medicine cabinet and tossing all the pills in the medicine cabinet over her shoulder and messing all the bathroom items on the floor , squirting the toothpaste into the sink . When she gets to a container of birth control pills , she turns on the water in the sink , snaps the pills out , and drops them down the drain . Clarkson then starts to take other items ; she throws a container of makeup powder spray in the air and smears a container of facial mud mask on the wall . During the chorus , Clarkson and her band perform the song for a dancing crowd in a club . After the first chorus , Clarkson walks into a room full of closets . She cuts up dresses , rifling through the closets and pulling out clothes , destroying them and singing in a pile of them . After the second chorus , she walks into a bedroom and begins to tear the pillow on the bed , filling the room with feathers . The scenes of Clarkson singing with her band then alternate with a montage of her destroying the apartment , breaks the glass window from the door , breaks the vase , television , clock , fridge , lights , microwave , phone , furniture and the chair . Later , Clarkson takes a framed photo of her ex @-@ boyfriend with another girl in the living room , before pushing a tall CD rack over . She then smashes the framed photo through a glass table , breaking it in half . Having decimated the apartment , Clarkson walks out the door and down the hallway with a hat on her head , just as her ex @-@ boyfriend appears with his girlfriend , walking arm in arm . Clarkson hides her face as she walks away from them . The final scene shows the couple seeing their damaged apartment in shock and the scene of the locket swinging .
= = = Reception and accolades = = =
Stephen Thompson of NPR Music was disappointed with the music video because it " undercuts its message to an alarming degree : The words say ' Since you 've been gone / I can breathe for the first time , ' but the pictures say , ' Breaking up with you necessitates destroying all of your property . ' " At the 2005 MTV Video Music Awards , the music video received nominations for three awards ; it won Best Female Video and Best Pop Video , and received a nomination for the Viewer 's Choice Awards but lost to Green Day 's " Boulevard of Broken Dreams " . MusicOMH ranked the music video as the 86th best video of the last decade . In February 2012 , the music video received a Pop @-@ Up Video treatment by VH1 which shows " pops up " bubbles containing trivia , witticisms and borderline sexual innuendos throughout the video .
= = Live performances = =
Clarkson performed " Since U Been Gone " at the 2005 MTV Video Music Awards . Her performance garnered positive reviews from critics , who considered it one of the highlights in the event . Performing barefoot , Clarkson sang the song as rain cascaded onto the audience . Clarkson told People that one of her favourite moments on television was performing " Since U Been Gone " at the MTV Video Music Awards , saying " I hate being all dressed up , so the fact that I was soaking wet with mascara smeared all over my face was definitely the highlight of my evening ! " Becky Bain of Idolator thought that the performance was Clarkson 's most memorable live performances while Kelefa Sanneh of The New York Times thought Clarkson 's performance was very solid despite the feeling that she sounded better dry than drenched . Clarkson performed the song on Saturday Night Live in 2005 , along with the 2006 BRIT Awards which took place in Earls Court , London .
" Since U Been Gone " was performed by Clarkson in her many headlining tours . It was included in the setlist of her My December Tour as an encore . While performing at Mohegan Sun Arena , Uncasville , Connecticut , Clarkson performed " Since U Been Gone " and let the audience sing the song 's chorus . Clarkson 's performance of the song at the Beacon Theatre , New York City stirred crowd into a frenzy , causing the show to be closed abruptly . During her All I Ever Wanted Tour , Clarkson performed the song at the Hammerstein Ballroom , where Caryn Ganz of Rolling Stone remarked that " the room turned into an electric sea of flailing arms and pogo @-@ ing heads . " In 2011 , Clarkson performed " Since U Been Gone " as well as " Mr. Know It All " on The Ellen DeGeneres Show while promoting her fifth album , Stronger . At the VH1 Divas Celebrates Soul television special , Clarkson performed a medley of " You Keep Me Hangin ' On " , " Spotlight " , " Real Love " , and " Since U Been Gone " with Mary J. Blige and Jennifer Hudson . The song was also performed by Clarkson during her 2012 Stronger Tour . While touring at the Times Union Center , Albany , New York , Clarkson performed the song with a musical arrangement . Grey Haymes of Times Union remarked that the song was " re @-@ made and re @-@ modeled with a throbbing , fuzzed @-@ out bassline and an irresistible techno pulse as the foundation for her hook @-@ filled pop song . " He also added that it was one of the several surprises from the concert .
= = Cover versions and use in media = =
" Since U Been Gone " has been covered by many artists . On September 27 , 2011 , Joseph Gordon @-@ Levitt covered the song in the style of Axl Rose on Late Night with Jimmy Fallon . The song was also covered by American musician Butch Walker in his 2005 album , Cover Me Badd . Dave Donelly of Sputnikmusic praised Walker 's cover for sticking closely to Clarkson 's version . American rock band A Day to Remember recorded their own version of " Since U Been Gone " which was included in the reissued version of their album , For Those Who Have Heart . Indie rock artist Ted Leo recorded an acoustic version of " Since U Been Gone " for a videotaped web session a few hours after watching the song 's music video . He commented , " It 's just one great hook after another . I also really appreciate the more advanced pop pastiche aspects of it . It 's written in a way that is so transparent in terms of drawing from a lot of what 's vaguely edgy and popular right now , but put together in such a perfect little package . It 's undeniable . " A cover of the song by Canadian indie rock band Tokyo Police Club was included in their " Ten Days , Ten Covers , Ten Years " project where they covered a song every day for ten days . " Since U Been Gone " was sampled in Girl Talk 's " Here 's The Thing " on his 2008 album , Feed the Animals . The song was included as the opening track of the American Idol 10th Anniversary – The Hits , a compilation album that celebrates 10 years of American Idol which features tracks from nine winners of the show .
" Since U Been Gone " has also been covered by contestants from reality television singing competitions . The song was performed by Todrick Hall on the eighth season of American Idol . Despite fulfilling the judges ' desire to hear something original , his rendition of the song drew criticism from the judges , with Simon Cowell commenting that Hall seemed like a dancer trying to sing . On November 26 , 2011 , Amelia Lily performed the song on the eighth series of The X Factor UK . Her rendition was praised by the judges ; Louis Walsh felt that her performance was effortless while Kelly Rowland remarked that " Amelia Lily hits those notes in her sleep ! " The song was also covered by Luke O 'Dell on the third season of The X Factor Australia . On June 13 , 2012 , John Legend and his duet partner , Meleana Brown , covered " Since U Been Gone " in Duets . Katy Kroll of Rolling Stone lambasted their cover for being " pitchy " and " almost unlistenable " , Gord Craig of Leader @-@ Post felt that Brown did not deliver her best although she sounded great with Legend . In the third season of The Sing Off , the winning group Pentatonix sang a " mastermix " of " Since U Been Gone " and " Forget You " . All three judges were impressed with Ben Folds commenting " You guys gave voices to the instruments " while Shawn Stockman , praising the rhythm and percussion section , renamed Kevin and Avi " Meat and Potatoes " .
" Since U Been Gone " was performed by Ester Dean and Skylar Astin in the 2012 musical comedy film , Pitch Perfect . Lanford Beard of Entertainment Weekly noted that the song was used during the audition sequences in the film , writing " Set to Kelly Clarkson ’ s " Since U Been Gone , " it arranged the singers in a clever a cappella tapestry that simultaneously landed laughs and showed off their talents . " Christy Lemire of The Boston Globe was positive of the song 's incorporation in the film during the audition process due to its beautiful editing which makes " it feels like a fresh take on the tried @-@ and @-@ true , bad @-@ first @-@ date montage . " The song was used in twelfth season of Brazilian soap opera Malhação . The song was also used in the first season Supergirl .
= = Legacy = =
As of 2014 , the song has appeared in more than 40 different albums either remixed or in its original format . The song propelled Clarkson to success in mainstream pop music and was regarded as a pop rock milestone in the 2000s . Entertainment Weekly put it on its end @-@ of @-@ the @-@ decade " best @-@ of " list , saying , " Can anyone do bitter better ? Nothing packs more romantic rage than the original Idol 's 2004 kiss @-@ off to a coldhearted ex . " The song was ranked by Pitchfork Media as the 21st best track of the 2000s ; they wrote that " ' Since U Been Gone ' gave us one of the most blunt rallying cries of the last ten years , a perfectly realized sing @-@ along chorus that will be a karaoke staple for years . " Bill Lamb of About.com ranked the song as the 13th best pop song of all time , expressing that " Kelly Clarkson has stated that she insisted on adding the rock feel to the recording . The result was a record that captured the prevailing sound of mainstream pop with near perfection . " NME placed it at number 135 on its list of the " 150 Best Tracks of the Past 15 Years " , writing " What should have been a slice of American schlock power @-@ pop turned into a brilliant kiss @-@ off , in any genre . " The A.V. Club staff rated the song as one of their favorite gleeful breakup songs , writing " The minute that bass and drum machine start , this song is an anthem of the scorned , a call to self @-@ actualization , and an instant hands @-@ in @-@ the @-@ air dance party . " Rolling Stone ranked " Since U Been Gone " at number 482 of the 500 Greatest Songs of All Time in 2010 , whose readers listed it as the ninth @-@ ranked single of the last decade . The AOL Radio Staff put the song at number 10 on their list of 10 Best Break Up Songs . The song also appeared at number one in Sarah Muller of MTV 's Valentine 's Day Playlist : Top 10 Breakup Songs . On March 5 , 2013 , Billboard ranked the song at number one on its list of Top 100 American Idol Hits of All Time .
= = Track listing = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Recording
Recorded by Max Martin , Dr. Luke and Lasse Mårténat at Maratone Studios , Stockholm , Sweden .
Personnel
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Breakaway .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
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= USS Georgia ( BB @-@ 15 ) =
USS Georgia ( BB @-@ 15 ) was a United States Navy Virginia @-@ class battleship , the third of five ships of the class . She was built by the Bath Iron Works in Maine , with her keel laid in August 1901 and her launching in October 1904 . The completed battleship was commissioned into the fleet in September 1906 . The ship was armed with an offensive battery of four 12 @-@ inch ( 300 mm ) guns and eight 8 @-@ inch ( 200 mm ) guns , and she was capable of a top speed of 19 knots ( 35 km / h ; 22 mph ) .
Georgia spent the majority of her career in the Atlantic Fleet . In 1907 , she took part in the Jamestown Exposition and suffered an explosion in her aft 8 @-@ inch gun turret that killed or wounded 21 men . At the end of the year , she joined the Great White Fleet on its circumnavigation of the globe , which ended in early 1909 . Peacetime training followed for the next five years , and in 1914 she cruised in Mexican waters to protect American interests during the Mexican Revolution . In early 1916 , the ship was temporarily decommissioned .
When the United States entered World War I in April 1917 , the ship was tasked with training naval recruits for the expanding wartime fleet . Starting in September 1918 , she was used as a convoy escort . Her only casualties during the war were due to disease , the result of poor conditions and severe overcrowding aboard the ship . Georgia was used to transport American soldiers back from France in 1918 – 19 , and the following year she was transferred to the Pacific Fleet , where she served as the flagship of the 2nd Division , 1st Squadron . The Washington Naval Treaty , signed in 1922 , cut short the ship 's career , as it mandated severe draw @-@ downs in naval strength . Georgia was accordingly sold for scrap in November 1923 .
= = Design = =
Georgia was 441 feet 3 inches ( 134 @.@ 49 m ) long overall and had a beam of 76 ft 3 in ( 23 @.@ 24 m ) and a draft of 23 ft 9 in ( 7 @.@ 24 m ) . She displaced 14 @,@ 948 long tons ( 15 @,@ 188 t ) as designed and up to 16 @,@ 094 long tons ( 16 @,@ 352 t ) at full load . The ship was powered by two @-@ shaft triple @-@ expansion steam engines rated at 19 @,@ 000 indicated horsepower ( 14 @,@ 000 kW ) and twenty @-@ four coal @-@ fired Niclausse boilers , generating a top speed of 19 knots ( 35 km / h ; 22 mph ) . As built , she was fitted with heavy military masts , but these were quickly replaced by cage masts in 1909 . She had a crew of 812 officers and enlisted men .
The ship was armed with a main battery of four 12 inch / 40 Mark 4 guns in two twin gun turrets on the centerline , one forward and aft . The secondary battery consisted of eight 8 @-@ inch ( 203 mm ) / 45 guns and twelve 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) / 45 guns . The 8 @-@ inch guns were mounted in four twin turrets ; two of these were superposed atop the main battery turrets , with the other two turrets abreast the forward funnel . The 6 @-@ inch guns were placed in casemates in the hull . For close @-@ range defense against torpedo boats , she carried twelve 3 @-@ inch / 50 guns mounted in casemates along the side of the hull and twelve 3 @-@ pounder guns . As was standard for capital ships of the period , Georgia carried four 21 in ( 530 mm ) torpedo tubes , submerged in her hull on the broadside .
Georgia 's main armored belt was 11 in ( 279 mm ) thick over the magazines and the machinery spaces and 6 in ( 152 mm ) elsewhere . The main battery gun turrets ( and the secondary turrets on top of them ) had 12 @-@ inch ( 300 mm ) thick faces , and the supporting barbettes had the 10 in ( 250 mm ) of armor plating . The conning tower had 9 in ( 230 mm ) thick sides .
= = Service history = =
Georgia was laid down on 31 August 1901 at the Bath Iron Works in Maine . Her completed hull was launched on 11 October 1904 , after which fitting @-@ out work commenced . The ship was commissioned into the fleet on 24 September 1906 . Georgia conducted a shakedown cruise after fitting @-@ out work was completed , before joining the 2nd Division , 1 Squadron of the Atlantic Fleet . She steamed out of Hampton Roads on 26 March 1907 to join the rest of the fleet in Guantanamo Bay , Cuba ; there , the ships conducted gunnery training . Georgia then steamed to the Boston Navy Yard for repairs before attending the Jamestown Exposition , which commemorated the 300th anniversary of the founding of the Jamestown colony . An international fleet that included British , French , German , Japanese , and Austro @-@ Hungarian warships joined the US Navy at the event . On 10 June , the ship took part in a naval review for President Theodore Roosevelt . Two days later , she departed for target practice in Cape Cod Bay , arriving on 15 June . A propellant charge exploded in her aft 8 @-@ inch turret on 15 July , killing ten officers and men and wounding another eleven . Later that year , the ship took part in fleet maneuvers in the Atlantic , and on 24 September she went into dry dock at the Philadelphia Naval Shipyard for an overhaul .
Georgia joined the Great White Fleet on 16 December 1907 , when they departed Hampton Roads to begin their circumnavigation of the globe . The purpose of the cruise was a show of naval strength . The fleet cruised south to the Caribbean and then to South America , making stops in Port of Spain , Rio de Janeiro , Punta Arenas , and Valparaíso , among other cities . After arriving in Mexico in March 1908 , the fleet spent three weeks conducting gunnery practice . The fleet then resumed its voyage up the Pacific coast of the Americas , stopping in San Francisco and Seattle before crossing the Pacific to Australia , stopping in Hawaii on the way . Stops in the South Pacific included Melbourne , Sydney , and Auckland .
After leaving Australia , the fleet turned north for the Philippines , stopping in Manila , before continuing on to Japan where a welcoming ceremony was held in Yokohama . Three weeks of exercises followed in Subic Bay in the Philippines in November . The ships passed Singapore on 6 December and entered the Indian Ocean ; they coaled in Colombo before proceeding to the Suez Canal and coaling again at Port Said , Egypt . The fleet called in several Mediterranean ports before stopping in Gibraltar , where an international fleet of British , Russian , French , and Dutch warships greeted the Americans . The ships then crossed the Atlantic to return to Hampton Roads on 22 February 1909 , having traveled 46 @,@ 729 nautical miles ( 86 @,@ 542 km ; 53 @,@ 775 mi ) . There , they conducted a naval review for President Theodore Roosevelt .
Over the course of the following year and a half , Georgia conducted a peacetime routine of training maneuvers and gunnery drills . On 2 November 1910 , she took part in a naval review for President William Howard Taft in preparation for a cruise to western Europe with the Atlantic Fleet . The ships stopped in France and Britain , and conducted extensive maneuvers while on the cruise . Georgia and the rest of the fleet arrived back in Guantanamo Bay on 13 March 1911 . She returned to her peacetime training routine for the next two years . On 5 June 1913 , she conducted a training cruise for midshipmen from the United States Naval Academy , followed by an overhaul in the Boston Navy Yard . In early January , she was deployed to Mexican waters to protect American interests in the country during the Mexican Revolution . She remained there from 14 January 1914 to March , when she returned to Norfolk briefly . The ship was back cruising off Mexico during the summer , and from August to October she operated in Haitian waters to protect Americans in the country , which was also experiencing internal unrest .
The ship then went into drydock for an overhaul , before returning to Cuban waters for maneuvers with the fleet . She arrived there on 25 February 1915 . The rest of the year was spent with training exercises with the Atlantic Fleet . Another overhaul , at the Boston Navy Yard , from 20 January to January 1916 . On 27 January , Georgia was decommissioned temporarily . The same day as the United States ' declaration of war against Germany on 6 April 1917 , the ship was reactivated for service during World War I. She was assigned to the 3rd Division , Battleship Force , based in the York River , Virginia . She spent most of the war training gunners for the rapidly expanding wartime Navy and conducting tactical training exercises . During this period , the ship frequently had more than a thousand men aboard the ship , despite the fact that she had sleeping accommodations for only 750 . The ship 's commander at the time , Captain Sumner Kittelle , raised concerns about the over @-@ crowded conditions aboard the ship .
From September 1918 to the end of the conflict , Georgia was assigned to the Cruiser Force Atlantic as a convoy escort . The ship 's first operation was with troop ship convoy 67 , which departed New York on 23 September ; the rest of the escort consisted of the armored cruisers North Carolina and Montana and the destroyer Rathburne . Georgia had to take on 525 long tons ( 533 t ) of coal in addition to her normal stocks , which significantly degraded her seakeeping characteristics . The ship accordingly had to be battened down to reduce flooding from heavy seas , which had the effect of hastening the spread of disease . During the cruise , the crew suffered from 120 cases of influenza and 14 cases of pneumonia ; 7 men died from disease . Even with the additional coal , the ship did not have sufficient fuel to reach the hand off point and she had to break off from the convoy to return to port . Germany signed an Armistice with the Allied powers , ending the war on 11 November . On 10 December , the ship was equipped to serve as a transport to carry American soldiers back from France . This duty saw the ship transferred to the Cruiser and Transport Force . She made five trips between December 1918 and June 1919 , carrying almost 6 @,@ 000 soldiers in total . The first trip , made in company with the battleship Kansas , arrived in Brest , France on 22 December 1918 .
Georgia was transferred to the Pacific Fleet shortly thereafter , departing from Boston on 16 July 1919 . She transited the Panama Canal and arrived in San Diego , where she became the flagship of the 2nd Division , 1st Squadron . The ship went to the Mare Island Navy Yard for periodic maintenance on 20 September . The ship remained there until 15 July 1920 when she was decommissioned . Under the terms of the 1922 Washington Naval Treaty , the ship was sold for scrapping on 1 November 1923 and subsequently was broken up . The ship was formally stricken from the naval register on 10 November .
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= Gjøvik Olympic Cavern Hall =
Gjøvik Olympic Cavern Hall ( Norwegian : Gjøvik Olympiske Fjellhall or Fjellhallen ) is an ice hockey rink located within a mountain hall in Gjøvik , Norway . With a capacity for 5 @,@ 500 spectators , the hall also features a 25 @-@ meter swimming pool and telecommunications installations . Opened in 1993 and costing 134 @.@ 6 million Norwegian krone ( NOK ) , it was built for the 1994 Winter Olympics , where it hosted 16 ice hockey matches . It is the home of Gjøvik Hockey , has hosted the 1995 World Short Track Speed Skating Championships and is also used as an event venue . The structure is the world 's largest cavern hall for public use .
= = Construction = =
Because half the country 's surface consists of exposed rock , Norway has a tradition of building mountain cavern halls for many purposes , from tunnels via power plants to sport centers . These often double up as bomb shelters . Gjøvik Municipality opened Norway 's first underground swimming pool in 1974 . The idea to build an underground ice rink came from Consulting Engineer Jan A. Rygh while having dinner with Municipal Engineer Helge Simenstad in 1988 , after the latter said that Gjøvik had been awarded an ice rink for the Olympics . The first drafts were made on a napkin in the restaurant . An alternative proposal for a conventional rink was also made . Among the advantage of a cavern hall was that it would not take up valuable downtown property space or interfere with the town 's cityscape , yet it would be centrally located which would reduce travel costs , and there would be a stable year @-@ round natural temperature which would reduce cooling costs .
A budget was prepared by the Lillehammer Olympic Organizing Committee ( LOOC ) in December 1989 , and in April 1990 , the Parliament of Norway passed a grant . In October , LOOC and Gjøvik Municipality made an agreement to share the ownership of the venue . The municipal council took the decision to build underground on 24 January 1991 and the main planning was contracted to Fortifikasjon . Main architects were Moe – Levorsen . A research group was created , which had four main tasks : ventilation , energy , fire and safety ; the environment ; rock mechanism and geology ; and laws and regulations . The group also made marketing information to promote Norwegian underground technology internationally . In preparation for construction , drilling samples were taken and sent to SINTEF and the Norwegian Geotechnical Institute for testing . The rock is 800 to 1 @,@ 100 million year @-@ old gneiss which is well suited for creating caverns . Computer models were created , and estimates were based on the Q @-@ method .
Construction started on 1 April 1991 . Several points of attack were created to get the most rational work @-@ load . The first tunnel was created 10 meters ( 33 ft ) below the level of the roof of the cavern . First the roof was blasted , then work started downwards . The first eight months were used for excavation , and 140 @,@ 000 cubic meters ( 4 @,@ 900 @,@ 000 cu ft ) of rock in 29 @,@ 000 truckloads were removed . 170 tonnes ( 170 long tons ; 190 short tons ) of dynamite were used during blasting . The mass was used to build a new marina , a lake @-@ side promenade and a parking facility . Throughout construction , surveillance was made continually of the rock , and the crown of the roof was measured to have settled 8 to 10 millimeters ( 0 @.@ 31 to 0 @.@ 39 in ) , which was as expected . Safety planning was done in cooperation with the National Office of Building Technology and Administration , and included the use of uninflammable materials , creation of sufficient fire exits .
The hall cost NOK 134 @.@ 6 million , of which NOK 88 @.@ 5 million was grants from the government . The hall opened on 6 May 1993 , with a show televised on national television and with 5 @,@ 000 guests . It was the 29th indoor ice hockey rink in Norway , and the world 's largest cavern hall for public use . At the time of opening , the venue was estimated to incur an operating cost of NOK 3 to 4 four million , and an operating deficit of NOK 1 @.@ 7 million . To finance this , the state established a fund similar to other Olympic venues , but the fund only received NOK 1 million , and the rest of the operating costs would have to be taken by the municipality . The venue is owned through Gjøvik Olympiske Anlegg , originally owned 70 % by Gjøvik Municipality and 30 % by Lillehammer Olympiapark , but later taken entirely over by the municipality .
= = Facilities = =
The facility is located just west of the town center of Gjøvik , with the main hall 120 meters ( 390 ft ) into the mountain . It is covered by 25 to 55 meters ( 82 to 180 ft ) of bedrock . In addition to a main hall , there is a swimming pool , a cafeteria and a telecommunications facility operated by Telenor . The main hall is designed as a multi @-@ use venue , and can feature indoor football , handball , basketball , volleyball , rifling and tennis , as well as concerts , dining and events .
The gross area of the complex is 14 @,@ 910 square meters ( 160 @,@ 500 sq ft ) , while the net area is 10 @,@ 010 square meters ( 107 @,@ 700 sq ft ) . The stadium covers 1 @,@ 965 square meters ( 21 @,@ 150 sq ft ) , the public areas cover 2 @,@ 224 square meters ( 23 @,@ 940 sq ft ) , the media center covers 2 @,@ 110 square meters ( 22 @,@ 700 sq ft ) , the participant facilities cover 263 square meters ( 2 @,@ 830 sq ft ) , the administrative and VIP facilities cover 577 square meters ( 6 @,@ 210 sq ft ) , and the operations , management , technical , electrical and storage facilities cover 2 @,@ 253 square meters ( 24 @,@ 250 sq ft ) . The main hall cavern has is 61 meters ( 200 ft ) wide , 91 meters ( 299 ft ) long and 25 meters ( 82 ft ) high . Seating capacity for the ice rink is 5 @,@ 800 , although it was 5 @,@ 300 during the Olympics . The grandstands have a safety area under them ; in case of a fire , spectators can be evacuated to these areas where they would remain until evacuation is safe . The hall duplicates as a civil defense facility , and is designed to withstand nuclear , conventional and gas attacks .
The Olympic venues were designed to reflect Norwegian culture and character . The hall was designed to play on Scandinavian folklore , such as the Hall of the Mountain King in Henrik Ibsen 's Peer Gynt and the caves of fairy @-@ tale trolls . This has for instance been emulated through the use of shotcrete on the walls to give a dark and mysterious impression . Lighting is used to create high contrast , such as from the entrance which is dark with pools of light , to the main hall which is brightly lit , to emphasize its size . The dark entrance is also used to adjust the spectators ' eyes so the main hall seems brighter . A contrast has also been used between the grandstands ' slender lines and the coarse finish of the cavern rock . Red was chosen as the hall 's main color because of natural occurrence of red in the rock . Glass tiles are used as they give associations to ice . Ventilation , energy and other installations use shine metal , representing silver embedded in the rock . The main hall is designed as an amphitheater with close contact between spectators and athletes .
= = Events = =
Since the opening , the venue has hosted Gjøvik Hockey , which started in 1993 in the Fourth Division . During the 1994 Winter Olympics , Gjøvik Olympic Cavern Hall hosted 16 ice hockey matches between 12 and 26 February , including two quarter @-@ finals and one semi @-@ final . The remaining matches were played at the larger Håkons Hall in Lillehammer . In March 1995 , the operator announced that the ice would remain throughout the year . Because of the natural cooling of the mountain , the operator saved 1 @,@ 000 kilowatts in heating costs by reusing the cooling system to heat the rest of the cavern hall . On 4 April 1995 , the venue was used to host an international match between Norway and Sweden .
Originally the 1995 World Short Track Speed Skating Championships was planned to take place at Hamar Olympic Amphitheatre in Hamar , the same venue which hosted short track speed skating at the 1994 Winter Olympics . However , because Storhamar was at scheduled time playing play @-@ offs in the Norwegian Ice Hockey Championship , it was in December 1994 decided to move the tournament to Gjøvik . The championship opened on Friday 17 March with the 1500 meter races , and was followed by the 500 meter races the following day . The remaining events were held on 19 March . It is the only time the world championship has been held in Norway . There were set six world records during the championship . Chae Ji @-@ Hoon 's time 4 : 56 @.@ 29 in the men 's 3000 meter and Chun Lee @-@ Kyung at 5 : 02 @.@ 18 in the women 's 3000 meter . Kim Yun @-@ Mi set the record on the women 's 500 meter at 45 @.@ 33 in an introductory race , while Frederic Blackburn set a world record at 2 : 19 @.@ 71 in the semi @-@ final of the 1500 meter . Both the relay teams also set world records : Canada with the men 's record at 7 : 09 @.@ 76 and the China with the women 's at 4 : 26 @.@ 68 . The hall was one of seven venues used during the group state of the 1999 World Women 's Handball Championship . Lillehammer is scheduled to host the 2016 Winter Youth Olympics and Gjøvik is set to host short track speed skating .
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= Gus Winckel =
Willem Frederick August ( Gus ) Winckel ( 3 November 1912 – 17 August 2013 ) was a Dutch military officer and pilot who flew for the Royal Netherlands East Indies Air Force ( ML @-@ KNIL ) in World War II . During the attack on Broome , Western Australia , on 3 March 1942 , Winckel managed to land his plane full of refugees safely on the Broome airstrip just before the Japanese attack . He then dismounted the plane 's machine gun and shot down one of the Japanese fighters , the only Allied " kill " during the attack .
Shortly after the attack on Broome , Winckel was sent on a mission to Bandung , Java , to recover several officers from the Allied headquarters , which was under threat of being overrun . He served the remainder of the war with No. 18 ( Netherlands East Indies ) Squadron RAAF in Australia . After World War II , he fought in the Dutch Politionele acties .
= = Early life = =
Winckel was born on 3 November 1912 in Muntok , Bangka Island , in what was then the Dutch East Indies . On the island his parents ran a trading store in commodities such as rubber , tin and sugar . Winckel had an untroubled childhood and at age fifteen was sent back to the Netherlands to study at the nautical school in Delfzijl . He stayed with his grandparents while studying , and three years later became a seaman first class for the merchant marine . He specialised in navigation . In 1931 , when he was aged nineteen , Winckel started working as a quartermaster on the freighter Pallau , which sailed between the Netherlands and Java . After his work on the ship he went to the island of Borneo to work on oil rigs . By 1935 he returned to the Netherlands once more , this time to work for the Royal Netherlands Navy as a submarine torpedo calibrator . During his time at the Navy a friend showed him a flyer for a pilot position at the Netherlands East Indies Air Force , which was being formed at the time . Winckel joined the Air Force in 1935 and became a pilot at age 23 . Between 1935 and 1942 he flew transports across the Dutch East Indies , mainly in Lockheed Lodestars .
= = Attack on Broome and flight to Java = =
On 3 March 1942 , Flight Lieutenant Winckel was transporting refugees from the Bandung , Dutch East Indies , to Perth , Western Australia , in his Lockheed Lodestar . He had just stopped on the Broome Airfield to refuel when Broome was attacked by nine Japanese Zero fighter planes on a long @-@ distance raid from Kupang , Timor . Winckel saw the danger of his plane being on the open airstrip and proceeded to dismount the Colt 7.99mm machine gun from the plane . When one of the Zeros , piloted by Osamu Kudō , flew over at low altitude , Winckel managed to shoot him out of the air ; the crash killed Kudō . Winckel was thereby credited with the raid 's only " kill " on the Allied side . He also believed that he hit another Japanese plane that had to ditch in the sea . The Japanese destroyed 22 allied aircraft at Broome , many of them flying boats used for refugee transport and moored in Roebuck Bay . Winckel suffered severe burns to his hand during the attack , as he had to hold the machine @-@ gun barrel to aim . His hand was treated and Winckel flew medical evacuations for the next two days without rest .
Meanwhile , Japanese forces were taking over Java and threatening the Allied headquarters at Bandung . On 5 March , the Allied command decided that several senior RAF and RAAF officers had to be evacuated from Bandung . Winckel was chosen as the pilot . He protested the decision , arguing that his lack of rest would hinder his chances of finding Bandung in the dark as he did not have any electronic aids . However , Winckel was seen to be one of the most experienced pilots because of his terrain knowledge as a flight instructor at Bandung and his recent refugee flights . Another factor was that his Lodestar , although it had been damaged in the attack on Broome , was considered the most suitable plane for the evacuation mission . Winckel flew to Java , where he managed to land his plane on a road lit by jeep headlights . He picked up fourteen passengers , refuelled the plane and successfully returned to Australia .
= = Later service and life = =
Following the attack on Broome and his evacuation mission , Winckel was sent to Moruya , New South Wales , where he joined No. 18 ( Netherlands East Indies ) Squadron RAAF , which had been formed on 4 April 1942 . From Moruya he patrolled the Eastern Australian shore . At the end of May 1942 , a Japanese midget submarine attacked Sydney Harbour . Winckel and his fellow pilots were subsequently ordered to patrol for submarines . During a patrol on 5 June 1942 , Winckel managed to sink a Japanese submarine in his B @-@ 25 Mitchell bomber . The success was welcomed after the recent submarine attack and Winckel was personally congratulated by Australian Prime Minister John Curtin . Winckel spend the rest of the war with No. 18 Squadron and served from MacDonald Airfield and Batchelor Airfield in Northern Australia as a pilot on operations , and as an instructor working in Canberra . During the war , he was nicknamed " Lucky Bill " by his colleagues and " Babyface Killer " by the Japanese .
While a member of No. 18 Squadron , Winckel flew to the Dutch East Indies in late 1945 as part of an unauthorized " Recovery of Allied Prisoners of War and Internees " mission . Winckel was searching for his mother and sister but was unable to find them . Some time later another pilot flew over the Banjoe Biroe internment camp and saw the name ' NINI ' written on the ground with flour . This was the name of Winckel 's sister , to draw the attention of her brother , who she assumed was looking for her . Shortly afterwards , Winckel himself flew over the camp and dropped a letter to her , followed four days by a supply of food . After the war , Winckel was sent back to Indonesia to fight in the Dutch Politionele acties .
Winckel had met his future wife Yvonne prior to World War II ; they were married during the Dutch Politionele acties . The couple fled Indonesia after the country achieved its independence , and returned to the Netherlands where Winckel became an Air Force test pilot . The couple emigrated to New Zealand in 1951 . Winckel gained his commercial pilot license there and joined the Royal New Zealand Air Force Reserve . He flew de Havilland Tiger Moths out of Wanganui for a time but resigned as he considered the flying too dangerous owing to lax safety standards . The family moved to Nelson and Winckel found work in a flying school . He made his final flight in 1960 . Afterwards he ran several businesses and worked as an engineer until 1977 . He and his wife moved to Queensland , Australia , three years later . They returned to New Zealand in 2005 and settled down in Pukekohe .
In 2009 , a statue in Moruya was unveiled for Winckel and the other airmen that flew out of the airfield ; Winckel and Member of Parliament Mike Kelly attended . A street in Broome was also named after Winckel . He died on 17 August 2013 after suffering complications of a broken hip caused by a fall six months earlier ; he was survived by Yvonne and their three sons .
= = Decorations = =
1942 : Bronze Cross with Honorable Mention .
His Bronze Cross was later upgraded to a Bronze Lion .
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= Gate to the Northwest Passage =
Gate to the Northwest Passage is a 1980 sculpture by Alan Chung Hung , located adjacent to the Vancouver Maritime Museum in Vanier Park in the Kitsilano neighborhood of Vancouver , British Columbia , Canada . The 4 @.@ 6 @-@ metre ( 15 ft ) sculpture of a square , cut and twisted " like a paper clip " to form an arch , is composed of weathered Corten steel that rusts to provide a protective layer . The work was installed in 1980 to commemorate the arrival of Captain George Vancouver in Burrard Inlet , following a competition sponsored by Parks Canada one year prior . Gate to the Northwest Passage received an adverse reaction initially , but reception has improved over time . The sculpture has been included in walking tours of the surrounding neighborhoods as a highlight of Vanier Park .
= = Background = =
Gate to the Northwest Passage was designed by Alan Chung Hung ( 1946 – 1994 ) , who was born in Canton , China , moved to Vancouver in 1969 , and studied at the Vancouver School of Art . In 1979 , Parks Canada sponsored a competition for a permanent work to commemorate Captain George Vancouver , the first European to enter Burrard Inlet , in 1792 . Guidelines for the competition required the use of permanent materials other than wood and that the work should " not be in the likeness of a man " . Hugh Faulkner , Minister of Indian Affairs and Northern Development during 1977 – 1979 , offered the opportunity for the sculpture , and the project was recommended by the Historic Sites and Monuments Board of Canada . Gate to the Northwest Passage was selected by a five @-@ person jury , led by former parks superintendent Stuart Lefeaux , then confirmed by the Parks Board . The work was originally to be installed at Stanley Park 's Ferguson Point , but was sited in Vanier Park adjacent to the Vancouver Maritime Museum in 1980 . Chung Hung 's other works displayed in Vancouver include Spring ( 1981 ) and Clouds ( 1991 ) .
The 4 @.@ 6 @-@ metre ( 15 ft ) sculpture of a square , cut and twisted " like a paper clip " to form an arch , is composed of weathered Corten steel . Each of the square 's sides measure 0 @.@ 9 metres ( 3 @.@ 0 ft ) x 0 @.@ 9 metres ( 3 @.@ 0 ft ) . The Corten steel rusts , forming a protective layer at the surface . The work , sited on a plaza of paving stones that measures 7 @.@ 9 metres ( 26 ft ) x 8 @.@ 5 metres ( 28 ft ) , frames views of English Bay , the North Shore Mountains and the city . In their guide for public art in Vancouver , John Steil and Aileen Stalker suggested two sources for the sculpture 's design : Chung Hung 's training as a civil engineer , and the shapes of plane tables and quadrants , both navigational instruments used by George Vancouver . According to Chung Hung : " The objective of the sculpture is to create a symbolic image with definite visual expression , awakening an awareness in Captain George Vancouver 's contribution to the world , his remarkable and meticulous surveys which included the north Pacific coast . " The sculpture is owned by the City of Vancouver , with Parks Canada serving as the sponsoring organization .
= = Reception = =
According to the City of Vancouver Public Art Registry , Gate to the Northwest Passage initially received an adverse reaction from local residents . Michael Duncan , then chief curator of the Vancouver Maritime Museum , called it " a bloody monstrosity " . One member of the five @-@ person jury responded to the criticism : " If people think Hung 's sculpture is a poor catch , they should have seen the ones that got away . "
A 1983 article published in The Globe and Mail referred to the sculpture as the " world 's largest paper clip " . The same article included a statement from the city planning study : " Vancouver 's peerless natural setting is a permanent gift from nature . So massive and close are the North Shore mountains that no amount of human folly can ever obliterate them . "
Reception of the work , which has become a familiar landmark , has improved over time . One travel guide by Eyewitness Books referred to Gate to the Northwest Passage as an " imposing giant red steel " sculpture . Frommer 's includes the sculpture in walking tours for Vancouver as a highlight of Vanier Park .
In 2006 , the work was mentioned in a Sunday serial thriller for The Province by author Daniel Kalla . In the series , the sculpture is described as a " massive Greek letter pi " , and later a character is found dead , hanging from the sculpture .
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= M @-@ 168 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 168 was one of the shortest state trunkline highways in the US state of Michigan , extending 0 @.@ 953 miles ( 1 @.@ 534 km ) from a junction with M @-@ 22 in downtown Elberta to the former Ann Arbor Railroad ferry docks . It followed the south shore of Lake Betsie ( formed by the Betsie River before flowing into Lake Michigan ) . The highway was commissioned in 1931 and served as a connection to the car ferries until 1984 . The road was being reconstructed by the Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) in preparation to transfer it to village control . That transfer happened on April 24 , 2012 , and now the former highway is a village street .
= = Route description = =
M @-@ 168 began at a junction with M @-@ 22 just west of where M @-@ 22 crosses over Lake Betsie . Known as Frankfort Avenue , M @-@ 168 then traveled to the northwest near the shore of the lake through a mixed residential and commercial area before turning slightly westward onto Furnace Avenue . Along Furnace Avenue , the roadway is lined with homes on one side and lake frontage on the other . Eventually , the road curves to the west where it intersects Betsie Valley Trail coming to its terminus shortly thereafter at the former Ann Arbor Railroad ferry docks .
= = History = =
M @-@ 168 had existed in its current location since 1931 . It was originally assumed into the state trunkline system at 0 @.@ 8 miles ( 1 @.@ 3 km ) in length . Aside from a minor realignment of the junction with M @-@ 22 in 1987 , the route had remained in this configuration since 1931 . From its creation until 1984 , the road was the main entrance for cars bound for boarding the car ferry .
An MDOT document indicated that in 2010 , a $ 2 @.@ 1 million project would reconstruct M @-@ 168 . Upon completion of the project , the route would be jurisdictionally transferred to the Village of Elberta , thereby removing M @-@ 168 from the state trunkline system . This transfer was finalized on April 24 , 2012 , and afterwards , the former M @-@ 168 was reclassified a village street .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire highway was in Elberta , Benzie County .
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= Big Brother 11 ( U.S. ) =
Big Brother 11 was the eleventh season of the American reality television series Big Brother . It is based upon the Netherlands series of the same name , which gained notoriety in 1999 and 2000 . The series premiered on CBS on July 9 , 2009 and lasted ten weeks until the live finale on September 15 , 2009 . The eleventh season saw a slight increase in ratings when compared to the past season of the series , which had some of the lowest ratings to date . The season premiered to a total of 6 @.@ 59 million viewers , a slight increase from the previous season 's launch . Despite this , it is the second lowest premiere for a season behind Big Brother 10 . The season finale had a total of 7 @.@ 78 million viewers , continuing to average slightly above the past season . In total , the series averaged 7 @.@ 19 million viewers , higher than that of the previous two seasons . Big Brother 11 featured a total of 13 HouseGuests , one of which was a returning player from a previous season . The series ended after 73 days , in which HouseGuest Jordan Lloyd was crowned the winner and Natalie Martinez the runner @-@ up .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
Big Brother 11 was produced by Endemol USA and Allison Grodner Productions with Allison Grodner , Rich Meehan and Scott Einziger returned as executive producer . This season of the program was announced on September 18 , 2008 , two days after the season finale of Big Brother 10 . Casting for the program began during the final week of Big Brother 10 with potential applicants submitting video tape submissions . Open auditions began on April 1 , 2009 in Michigan by local CBS affiliate WLNS @-@ TV and continued across the nation in various cities including Los Angeles , California , Chicago , Illinois , Waverly , Iowa , and Columbus , Ohio . Applications and video tape submissions were due by May 4 , 2009 . Applicants chosen to be a finalist went to Los Angeles , California from which applicants were narrowed down to a pool of forty finalists . Julie Chen interviewed casting director Robyn Kass and former HouseGuests Mike Malin and Brian Hart about the upcoming season and their experiences going through casting on March 19 , 2009 . Julie Chen confirmed that she would continue to host Big Brother during her pregnancy despite tabloid rumors stating she would take maternity leave .
= = = Prizes = = =
The 13 HouseGuests this season were competing for the main prize of $ 500 @,@ 000 . The winner of the series , determined by the previously evicted HouseGuests , would win the $ 500 @,@ 000 prize , while the Runner @-@ Up would receive a $ 50 @,@ 000 prize . Other than the main prize , various luxuries and prizes were given out throughout the season .
= = Broadcast = =
Big Brother 11 was broadcast on CBS from July 9 , 2009 to September 15 , 2009 . This season lasted a total of 73 days , making it the third shortest season of the series to date . This season featured no changes to the schedule that was used in the previous edition , with episodes airing on Tuesdays , Thursday , and Sunday each week . The Thursday episode , which aired at 9 PM Eastern time , featured the live eviction and subsequent Head of Household competition taking place . During the live eviction , the show was hosted by Julie Chen . The Sunday episode , which aired at 8 PM Eastern time , featured the food competition and nomination ceremony , as well as some highlights from the previous days . The Tuesday episode featured the Power of Veto competition and the Power of Veto ceremony , along with more highlights of recent events in the game . Some changes to the scheduling format were made . Chima 's expulsion from the game , for example , led to various changes in the formatting of the television broadcasts , and led to the cancellation of the upcoming Double Eviction week . The series was broadcast on Global Television Network in Canada . For the first time in the history of the show , Big Brother had a two @-@ hour live season finale , which aired on September 15 , an increase from the usual hour .
Much like the previous editions , the live feeds were also available again for this season . HouseGuests enter the house a few days before the premiere , and the feeds are not live for the first few days . They later go live after the broadcast of the launch episode . This season saw the cancellation of the spin @-@ off series House Calls : The Big Brother Talk Show . This made it the first season since Big Brother 4 to not feature the companion show , though various events and talk shows have been hosted by the live feed providers since the show 's cancellation . This season did , however , see the return of the Big Brother : After Dark spin @-@ off series , which aired on Showtime Too nightly from 12 a.m. to 3 a.m. Eastern Time . The show served as a live feed into the house , and was edited only for slanderous statements and music copyrights . Much like the previous season , Big Brother 11 is available for digital purchasing on iTunes and Amazon.com. Big Brother maintained an online platform with live subscription feeds from RealNetworks , a redesigned and relaunched website , online videos , full episodes , a fantasy game and segments on Inside Dish with Ross Mathews . For the first time Big Brother launched two Twitter accounts ; one featured updates from the production staff and one featured updates from the current Head of Household . Episodes of Big Brother continued to be streamed on CBS Mobile Channel on FLOTV . Mobile users were also able to interact and influence the show through SMS text messaging and , for the first time , a simulation game based on Big Brother was also available to mobile customers .
= = House = =
As with each season since Big Brother 6 , the program was filmed at CBS Studios in Studio City , California . The production team was located in the second story of the House which included the story department , audio department and the switchers and shaders . The House was equipped with 52 cameras and 80 microphones to record the participants . The art department that created the competitions for the program was located outside the House . The House theme was eco @-@ friendly and modern California living was released on June 29 during media day , where select members of the press were invited to spend 12 hours inside the House . Official pictures of the House interior were released by CBS on the same day , showing the living room , bedrooms , kitchen , bathroom , lounge room and backyard . The living room featured chipboard walls with fake plants along the side .
The spa that was featured in the House since season nine was removed and replaced with exercise bikes that when operated would power a light bulb . The former spa room featured recycled products like wood , plastic and aluminum turned into wallpaper . There was also a shipping container @-@ based bathroom , an open kitchen that paid respects to the Pacific Rim and a portable garden where the HouseGuests would collect compost and grow their own herb garden was added to the backyard . The House included four bedrooms each varying in design and comfort . The Head of Household bedroom featured a penthouse design with a waterfall and a faux ocean front view while the first bedroom featured a VIP club lounge design , while the second bedroom resembled the bottom of a public pool and featured a slide and beds that were designed to look like flotation devices . The third room initially used by the HouseGuests was later turned into the Have @-@ Not room , which was a simplistic gray bedroom with metal slabs used as beds .
= = Format = =
The format remained largely unchanged from previous seasons . HouseGuests were incarcerated in the Big Brother House with no contact to and from the outside world . Each week , the HouseGuests took part in several compulsory challenges that determined who would win food , luxuries and power in the House . The winner of the Head of Household competition was immune from nominations and was instructed to nominate two fellow HouseGuests for eviction . After a HouseGuest became Head of Household he or she was ineligible to take part in the next Head of Household competition . The winner of the Power of Veto competition won the right to save one of the nominated HouseGuests from eviction . If the Veto winner exercised the power , the Head of Household then had to nominate another HouseGuest for eviction .
On eviction night all HouseGuests except for the Head of Household and the two nominees voted to evict one of the two nominees . Before the voting began the nominees had the chance to say a final message to their fellow HouseGuests . This compulsory vote was conducted in the privacy of the Diary Room by the host Julie Chen . In the event of a tie , the Head of Household would break the tie and reveal their vote in front of the other HouseGuests . Unlike other versions of Big Brother , the HouseGuests could discuss the nomination and eviction process open and freely . The nominee with the most votes from the other HouseGuests was evicted from the House on Thursday and interviewed by Julie Chen . HouseGuests could voluntarily leave the House at any time and those who broke the rules were expelled by Big Brother . The last seven evictiees of the season form the Jury that voted for the winner on the season finale , they were known as the jury members . The jury members were sequestered in a separate house and were not allowed to watch the show except for segments that included all of the HouseGuests . The jury members were not shown any Diary Room interviews or any footage that included strategy or details regarding nominations .
In a change from previous seasons , the food competitions were changed to Have vs. Have @-@ Not competitions . HouseGuests were divided into either the " Haves " or the " Have Nots " depending on their performance in the competitions . HouseGuests that became " Have Nots " for the week were only allowed to eat slop and a weekly food restriction , chosen by the viewing public , cold showers and sleeping on metal beds . A new rule was revealed this season , in the event a HouseGuest that would be part of the jury to determine the winner voluntarily leaves the House or is expelled by Big Brother the American public replaced that HouseGuest on the jury and voted for the winner along with the remaining jury members .
= = HouseGuests = =
Twelve of the thirteen HouseGuests were revealed during The Early Show on July 1 , 2009 by Julie Chen . During the season premiere the HouseGuests were split into four cliques and Jessie Godderz was revealed as the final HouseGuest during the season premiere on July 9 , 2009 after the Athletes clique won the first Head of Household competition .
= = = Future Appearance = = =
Winner Jordan Lloyd and fellow HouseGuest Jeff Schroeder competed in The Amazing Race 16 and they finished in 7th place , then returned for Big Brother 12 the following year to participate in a Power of Veto competition , while they later returned as HouseGuests to compete in Big Brother 13 in 2011 ; they placed 4th and 7th respectively , then returned in Big Brother 16 , in which Jeff proposed to Jordan with both their families present .
= = Summary = =
On Day 1 , the original twelve HouseGuests entered the house . Following introductions , the HouseGuests learned of the season 's twist , in which they would be playing as members of common high school cliques . Despite this , HouseGuests continued to play the game as individuals and competed in competitions as individuals , were nominated as individuals , and were evicted as individuals . They also learned that if a member of their clique won Head of Household , they could not be nominated for eviction . Upon entering the backyard to compete in their first Head of Household competition , the HouseGuests learned what cliques they would be playing as . HouseGuests Jeff , Natalie , and Russell were in the Athletes clique , while Chima , Michele , and Ronnie were in the Brains clique . Casey , Kevin , and Lydia were placed in the Offbeat clique , leaving Braden , Jordan , and Laura in the Popular clique . Following this , HouseGuests competed in the " The Wedgie " Head of Household competition . For this competition , HouseGuests wore a pair of over @-@ sized underwear and held onto a toilet seat while being suspended in air by the underwear . The last HouseGuest remaining in the air would earn a fourth member to their clique , with this member becoming the first Head of Household of the season . The four eligible HouseGuests to enter the game were former HouseGuests Michael " Cowboy " Ellis for the Offbeat clique , Jessica Hughbanks for the Popular clique , Brian Hart for the Brains clique , and Jessie Godderz for the Athletes clique . Natalie and Russell were the last two HouseGuests remaining , thus earned immunity for their clique and allowed them to earn a fourth clique member ; Jessie entered the house as their fourth clique member , and became the first Head of Household of the season . Jessie 's entrance to the house brought the total number of HouseGuests to thirteen . In an attempt to keep himself safe , Ronnie and Jessie later formed an alliance between the Brains clique and the Athletes clique . Hoping to hide their alliance , Jessie and Natalie later proposed Ronnie be nominated as a pawn , however , he quickly refused to do so .
On Day 4 , HouseGuests competed in the " Big Brother Rave " Have @-@ Not competition . For this competition , HouseGuests were required to construct a series of pipes to spell out the word " Have " while neon " Rave Juice " flowed through the piping . If done correctly , the pipes would cause the juice to spill onto a wheel and cause it to spin ; the last team to complete the task would be the Have @-@ Nots for the week . The Brains clique lost the competition , meaning Chima , Michele , and Ronnie were the Have @-@ Nots for the week . This greatly upset Chima , who stated on numerous occasions afterwards that she was debating walking from the game . Jessie took an immediate dislike to Laura , and hoped to put her up , though his clique members attempted to convince him that Lydia should be evicted that week . Due to Ronnie refusing to be nominated as a pawn , Chima later agreed to be nominated as a pawn . On Day 5 , Jessie chose to nominate Chima and Lydia for eviction , with Lydia being his target for eviction . Worried they might not have the votes to keep Chima , Jessie and Russell formed an alliance with Laura in attempt to get her to evict Lydia . When picking players for the Power of Veto competition , Russell , Natalie , and Jeff were selected to compete for the Power of Veto ; Casey was selected to host . On Day 7 , HouseGuests competed in the " Pop Goes the Veto ! " Power of Veto competition . For this competition , HouseGuests had to pop " pimples " on an over @-@ sized face , with various Scrabble tiles inside of them . The HouseGuests would collect tiles and attempt to spell a word with their collected tiles ; the HouseGuest with the longest correctly spelled word would win the Power of Veto . Russell was the winner of the Power of Veto . Following the competition , Jeff engaged in numerous arguments with Russell and Natalie , causing a rift in their clique . In an attempt to save herself , Lydia attempted to convince Russell and Jessie to backdoor Braden that week by taking her off the block as a way to hurt Jeff . Russell later told Ronnie that this was the plan , with Ronnie telling Braden , Jeff , and Jordan about the plan . On Day 9 , Russell chose to use the Power of Veto to remove Lydia from the block , with Braden being nominated in her place . Following Braden 's nomination , Jordan and Laura began campaigning to get the votes for him to stay , and appeared to have themselves , Casey , Jeff , Michele , and Ronnie in agreement ; Ronnie , however , was playing both sides and had no intention of keeping Braden in the game . On Day 12 , Braden became the first HouseGuest to be evicted from the house when Jessie cast the tie @-@ breaker vote in Chima 's favor .
Following Braden 's eviction , HouseGuests competed in the " Most Likely To ... " Head of Household competition . For this competition , HouseGuests attempted to correctly guess which clique the viewers felt best fit a certain scenario ; when a HouseGuest answered correctly they could eliminate one contestant from the competition , while an incorrect answer led to their own elimination . Ronnie was the winner . Following the eviction , those who evicted Chima began to speculate that Ronnie had been the HouseGuest to change his vote , though he continued to deny this and blamed Michele . Laura , being one of the first to realize that Ronnie had been the one to change his vote , attempted to turn the other HouseGuests against him , though Chima and Natalie later informed Ronnie of this . On Day 13 , HouseGuests competed in the " Who Knows The Ugly Truth ? " luxury competition . For this competition , former winner Dan Gheesling returned to host the competition , in which the HouseGuests were required to answer questions based on what a member of the opposite sex felt . The male and female winners of the competition would win the opportunity to see the film The Ugly Truth , as well as choose the Have @-@ Nots for the week . Casey and Chima are the winners of the prize , and choose the Popular clique , consisting of Jordan and Laura , to be the Have @-@ Nots for the week . Later that day , Ronnie chose to nominate Jeff and Laura for eviction . Ronnie revealed his intentions to be backdooring Russell that week , though his alliance felt as though Russell would have the votes to stay . Following a confrontation between Lydia and Russell , Lydia and Kevin approached Ronnie about backdooring Russell , and Natalie later debated turning on him as she felt he placed a target on her back . When picking players for the Power of Veto competition , Russell , Natalie , and Casey were selected to compete for the Power of Veto ; Lydia was selected to host . On Day 14 , HouseGuests competed in the " Big Brother Mint " Power of Veto competition . For this competition , HouseGuests were given an amount of money and had two minutes to attempt to get that amount of money in change . HouseGuests competed in rounds , and the HouseGuests farthest away from the goal amount each round was eliminated ; the last HouseGuest remaining would win the Power of Veto . Jeff was the winner of the Power of Veto . Despite initially planning on nominating Russell after the Power of Veto was used , Ronnie later began to see Laura as a bigger threat , feeling she was smart enough to figure out his plans . On Day 16 , Jeff chose to use the Power of Veto to remove himself from the block , with Jordan being nominated in his place . When Ronnie lied and stated that Russell was campaigning to keep Laura in the game , he was confronted by the majority of the HouseGuests and accused of lying and playing both sides of the house . Following these events , Russell followed Ronnie around the house calling him names and taunting him for days afterwards . On Day 19 , Laura became the second HouseGuest to be evicted from the house in a vote of eight to one .
Following Laura 's eviction , HouseGuests competed in the " Buzzworthy " Head of Household competition . For this competition , HouseGuests attempted to launch a ball into a group of buckets in the shape of a honeycomb with the goal of being closest to the center . The HouseGuest who was closest to the center would be the Head of Household . Jessie was the winner . Though numerous HouseGuests expected Ronnie to be nominated that week , Jessie informed Natalie and Russell that he would be making his own decisions that week , rather than listening to the other HouseGuests . Natalie and Russell , fearing he would come after them , suggested that Casey should be targeted that week . On Day 20 , HouseGuests competed in the " Back Yard Bash " Have @-@ Not competition . For this competition , one HouseGuest from each clique competed , and were required to attempt to fill their opponents cans with various plastic ice cubes ; the clique with the most ice cubes in there can would be the Have @-@ Nots for the week . The Brains clique , consisting of Chima , Michele , and Ronnie , were the Have @-@ Nots for the week . Later that day , Jessie chose to nominate Jordan and Michele for eviction , with the intention of seeing Casey be evicted that week . Despite Jessie 's nominations , Casey , Jeff , Jordan , and Michele were still under the impression that Ronnie was the target for eviction rather than Casey . When picking players for the Power of Veto competition , Jeff , Casey , and Chima were selected to compete ; Natalie was selected to host . On Day 21 , HouseGuests competed in the " When Pigs Fly " Power of Veto competition . For this competition , HouseGuests dressed as pigs and were required to dig through mud in an attempt to find various truffles with point values on them , with each HouseGuest selecting four truffles to keep ; the winner was the HouseGuest that had the highest total when combining the numbers on their truffles . Michele was the winner of the Power of Veto . On Day 23 , Michele chose to use the Power of Veto to remove herself from the block , with Casey being nominated in her place . On Day 26 , Casey became the third HouseGuest to be evicted from the house in a vote of seven to one .
Following Casey 's eviction , the HouseGuests learned that the " Cliques " twist had ended , and that all HouseGuests were playing the game as individuals . They also learned that the viewers would select one HouseGuest to win a " Mystery Power " , though it was not revealed what the power would be . The ten remaining HouseGuests then competed in the " Big Brother Graduation " Head of Household competition . For this competition , HouseGuests sat on " graduation caps " suspended in the air while being hit by a foam diploma ; the last HouseGuest remaining on their cap would be the new Head of Household . Russell was the winner . Jordan , as part of a twist in the competition , had to select three HouseGuests to be Have @-@ Nots for the week ; she chose Jessie , Kevin , and Natalie . Though the two initially had a feud , Jeff and Russell later chose to align with one another . On Day 27 , Russell chose to nominate Lydia and Ronnie for eviction , with Ronnie being his main target . Though Russell was adamant about seeing Ronnie evicted that week , Chima , Jessie , and Natalie hoped to see Lydia be evicted instead . When picking players for the Power of Veto competition , Jessie , Kevin , and Michele were selected to compete ; Chima was selected to host . On Day 28 , HouseGuests competed in the " Vini Vidi Veto " Power of Veto competition . For this competition , HouseGuests had to determine the quantity of an object used to make an object . Each round , HouseGuests could either stay or fold ; folding would allow them to continue in the game , but could not get a point whereas the HouseGuest with the answer closest to the correct one would earn a point , though the farthest was eliminated . Michele was the winner of the Power of Veto . On Day 30 , Michele chose not to use the Power of Veto on either nominee . Following this , Jeff learned that he had won the power of the " Coup d 'Etat " , in which he could overthrow the Head of Household and make his own nominations on the spot ; this power could only be used at the next two evictions , and the current Head of Household and Power of Veto holder were unable to be nominated . On Day 33 , Ronnie became the fourth HouseGuest to be evicted from the house in a vote of four to three .
Following Ronnie 's eviction , HouseGuests competed in the " Say what ? " Head of Household competition . For this competition , HouseGuests were asked true or false questions about fan @-@ submitted messages they had heard the previous night ; an incorrect answer resulted in elimination , and the last HouseGuest remaining was the winner . Chima was the winner . On Day 34 , HouseGuests competed in the " The Goods " luxury competition . For this competition , actor Jeremy Piven entered the house to inform the HouseGuests of the competition . The HouseGuests split into teams and were required to fill a station wagon with various items that were worth different amounts of points ; the team would only earn a point for the items they successfully fit into their car , and the team with the most points would earn the right to see the film The Goods . The team of Chima , Jordan , Jessie , Natalie , and Russell won the competition , meaning Jeff , Kevin , Lydia , and Michele were the Have @-@ Nots for the week . Later that day , Chima chose to nominate Lydia and Russell for eviction . When picking players for the Power of Veto competition , Jeff , Kevin , and Natalie were selected to compete ; Michele was selected to host . On Day 35 , HouseGuests competed in the " BB Farm " Power of Veto competition . For this competition , HouseGuests were required to reach through a fence and attempt to get twelve eggs from the opposite side of the fence to them ; the first HouseGuest to successfully get twelve eggs would win the Power of Veto . Kevin was the winner of the Power of Veto . On Day 37 , Kevin chose not to use the Power of Veto on either nominee . On Day 40 , Jeff chose to use the Coup d 'État , thus overthrowing Head of Household Chima . He chose to remove both Lydia and Russell from the block , replacing them with Jessie and Natalie . Due to using the Coup d 'État , Jeff was ineligible to vote during this eviction , as was Chima . Jessie then became the fifth HouseGuest to be evicted from the house in a vote of three to two . He became the first member of the Jury of Seven .
Following Jessie 's eviction , HouseGuests competed in the " Hit the Road " Head of Household competition . Due to the Coup d 'État being used , all of the HouseGuests were able to compete . For this competition , HouseGuests faced off two at a time and were asked questions about past competitions played this season ; the winner of each round would select the next two HouseGuests to face off , with the last HouseGuest remaining being the winner . Michele was the winner . On Day 41 , HouseGuests competed in the " Chaosserole " Have @-@ Not competition . For this competition , HouseGuests competed in pairs and had to find matching casseroles and place them on a podium labeled with a certain day of the week or luxury prize ; if the HouseGuests had put a correct pair on the podium , they would earn food for that day of the week . The HouseGuests earned food for everyday of the week except for Monday . Though the house was split , the HouseGuests were unsure of which side Michele would choose to stay with ; she later aligned herself with Jeff , Jordan , and Russell , and stated she hoped to see Chima evicted . Later that day , Michele chose to nominate Chima and Natalie for eviction . Though she had often disregarded the rules for the show , Chima began to break rules more consistently following Jessie 's eviction , including covering up cameras , refusing to go to the Diary Room , and not wearing her microphone . Early on Day 42 , Chima broke further rules when she refused to wear her microphone and later threw it into the jacuzzi when Kevin brought her microphone to her . Following this , Chima refused to take an exchange microphone from the storage room . Following further refusal to enter the Diary Room , producer Allison Grodner later spoke through the intercom and convinced Chima to come to the Diary Room . Hours later , the remaining HouseGuests learned that Chima had been expelled from the game . On Day 43 , the HouseGuests learned that Michele 's duty as Head of Household had been fulfilled as Chima was one of Michele 's nominations , and that a new Head of Household competition would take place later that day .
Following these events , HouseGuests competed in the " BB Invitational Golf Tournament " Head of Household competition . For this competition , HouseGuests took turns putting a golf ball in an attempt to get it into a hole . If a HouseGuest missed , their ball went into a rotating wheel , with various numbers labeling sections in the wheel . The HouseGuest who 's ball landed in the highest number each round was eliminated from the competition , with the last HouseGuest remaining winning the competition . When a HouseGuest was eliminated from the competition , they could claim a prize , one of which was the Head of Household position . Jordan was the winner . On Day 44 , Jordan chose to nominate Lydia and Natalie for eviction . Shortly afterwards , Kevin , in an attempt to save himself and his allies , lied to Jeff and claimed that he had heard Russell stating he would evict Jeff the following week ; Jeff quickly told this to Jordan , and the two believed him . When picking players for the Power of Veto competition , Jeff , Kevin , and Michele were selected to compete . On Day 47 , HouseGuests competed live in the " Before or After " Power of Veto competition . For this competition , HouseGuests had to determine whether one event in the house happened before or after another event by stepping either up or down on a staircase ; an incorrect answer resulted in elimination , and the last HouseGuest remaining was the winner . Jordan was the winner of the Power of Veto . Minutes later , she chose not to use the Power of Veto on either nominee . Lydia then became the sixth HouseGuest to be evicted from the house in a vote of three to one . She became the second member of the Jury of Seven .
Following Lydia 's eviction , HouseGuests competed in the " Can Do " Head of Household competition . For this competition , HouseGuests stood atop a platform and attempted to drop aluminum cans into plastic tubes ; the first HouseGuest to drop twenty @-@ four cans into their tube would be the winner . Jeff was the winner . Due to having the least amount of cans in their tubes , Michele and Russell became the Have @-@ Nots for the week . Due to the lie that Kevin had told Jeff , both Jeff and Jordan hoped to see Russell evicted . In an attempt to save themselves , Kevin and Natalie made a deal to get to the final four with Jeff and Jordan , and Jeff later told them he would nominate them as pawns in an attempt to backdoor Russell . On Day 48 , Jeff chose to nominate Kevin and Natalie for eviction . Though Jeff continued to assure Michele and Russell that the plan was to evict Kevin , the two became suspicious that the plan was to backdoor one of them . On Day 49 , HouseGuests competed in the " Otev the Ape " Power of Veto competition . For this competition , HouseGuests were given a riddle by Otev the Ape and were required to search through various bananas in the backyard with the names of previously evicted HouseGuests on them to find the banana that would solve the riddle . The last HouseGuest to bring Otev the correct banana , or the HouseGuest who brought an incorrect banana , were eliminated each round . Jeff was the winner of the Power of Veto . On Day 51 , Jeff chose to use the Power of Veto to remove Kevin from the block , with Russell being nominated in his place . Following his nomination , Russell engaged in numerous arguments with his fellow HouseGuests . On Day 54 , Russell became the seventh HouseGuest to be evicted from the house in a unanimous vote of three to zero . He became the third member of the Jury of Seven .
Following Russell 's eviction , HouseGuests competed in the " The S 'more , the Merrier " Head of Household competition . For this competition , HouseGuests were required to walk back and forth transferring cups of hot chocolate to a jar on the opposite side of the backyard . The first HouseGuest to fill up their jar and claim the ball inside would be the winner of the competition . Kevin was the winner . Despite making a deal with him the previous week , Kevin and Natalie later made a plan to backdoor Jeff as they saw him as their biggest threat . Though this was his plan , Kevin and Natalie also debated taking out Michele , and thus feared that Jeff could win the Power of Veto and save Jordan if she were to be nominated ; should Jeff use the Power of Veto on Jordan , it would force Kevin to nominate Natalie for eviction . On Day 55 , Kevin chose to nominate Jeff and Michele for eviction . Later that day , Kevin discovered a secret room in the Head of Household bedroom known as Pandora 's Box ; upon entering the room , he discovered a box and learned that placing his hand inside the box would release $ 10 @,@ 000 into the house . He did so , and became locked inside the box while the money fell into the backyard ; the HouseGuests were able to keep the money , and were required to find a key to unlock Kevin from the room . On Day 56 , HouseGuests competed in the " Morphomatic " Power of Veto competition . For this competition , HouseGuests had to correctly figure out which two faces of the HouseGuests made up a set of alien faces . The HouseGuest who finished the competition in the fastest amount of time was the winner . Michele was the winner of the Power of Veto . On Day 58 , Michele chose to use the Power of Veto to remove herself from the block , with Jordan being nominated in her place . On Day 61 , Jeff became the eighth HouseGuest to be evicted from the house when Kevin cast a tiebreaker vote in Jordan 's favor . He became the fourth member of the Jury of Seven .
Following Jeff 's eviction , HouseGuests competed in the " Fact or Fiction " Head of Household competition . For this competition , HouseGuests were given statements , and had to determine whether this statement was fact or fiction . Natalie was the winner . That night , HouseGuests competed in the " Big Brother Shopping Spree " luxury competition . For this competition , HouseGuests competed with a partner and were required to communicate with each other from across a wall in an attempt to find matching articles of clothing ; the group had ten minutes to complete a full outfit , with whatever time they had left over being used to give the HouseGuests a shopping spree . On Day 62 , Natalie was presented with Pandora 's Box and learned that her boyfriend was inside , however , if she chose to enter and see him she would give up her right to compete in the final Power of Veto competition ; she accepted the offer , and entered Pandora 's Box . Despite this , she later lied to her fellow HouseGuests about what had happened . Later that day , Natalie chose to nominate Kevin and Michele for eviction . On Day 63 , HouseGuests competed in the " There Ain 't No Party Like A Veto Block Party " final Power of Veto competition . For this competition , HouseGuests were given twenty clues , lined up ten by ten and were required to match blocks with HouseGuests names on them with the clues provided ; the HouseGuest to complete this in the fastest time would be the winner . Kevin was the winner of the final Power of Veto . On Day 66 , Kevin chose to use the Power of Veto to remove himself from the block , with Jordan being nominated in his place . Minutes later , he cast the sole vote to evict Michele from the house . She became the fifth member of the Jury of Seven .
Following Michele 's eviction , the final three HouseGuests began competing in the first part of the final Head of Household competition " Log Jam . " The HouseGuests held onto their key that was suspended in the air for as long as possible while trying not to fall off of a moving log . Jordan was the first to fall off of the log while Kevin won the first part of the competition and advanced to the third and final round . Jordan and Natalie were the only two HouseGuests to compete in the second round which , determined who would face Kevin in the final round . In the second round , called " Heads Will Roll " , each HouseGuest entered the backyard alone with a giant game table with the numbers one through ten . Each player used balls with names of previous Head of Household winners and place the ball with the correct name into the hole that corresponds with the numerical order in which they reigned . The player had a two @-@ minute time limit and the player with the most correct answers won . Jordan was the winner . Kevin and Jordan competed in the final part of the Head of Household competition called " Jury Statements . " The players had to guess the ending of statements made by the jury members . There were two possible answers and the players had to guess the correct ending by picking A or B. Jordan was the winner , becoming the final Head of Household of the season . Jordan chose to evict Kevin from the house , making Jordan and Natalie the Final Two . Jordan was later crowned the winner of Big Brother 11 in a vote of five to two , with Chima 's vote being replaced with a vote from the viewers .
= = Have @-@ Nots = =
For the first 3 weeks the houseguest competed in their cliques in the Have / Have Not competition . The HoH 's clique did not compete as they would instantly be haves for the week .
= = Voting history = =
Color key
– Athletes
– Brains
– Off @-@ beat
– Popular
= = Ratings and reception = =
The season premiere of Big Brother 11 , which aired on CBS on July 9 , attracted 6 @.@ 68 million viewers , with a 2 @.@ 3 rating in adults 18 @-@ 49 . The rating was the highest in its timeslot , with its nearest competition , a repeat of Bones on Fox bringing in 5 @.@ 65 million viewers . The season premiere was even in adults 18 @-@ 49 and adults 18 @-@ 34 demographics , added 280 @,@ 000 viewers and was up 5 % in households when compared to the season premiere of Big Brother 10 . Ratings for the show entered into a steady decline after the premiere , the following Sunday episode that was transmitted on July 12 was down .39 million viewers and pulled a 2 @.@ 0 rating in the adults 18 @-@ 49.Repeats of The Simpsons and King of the Hill on Fox won the adults 18 @-@ 34 demographic but placed second in all other measures . The program hit a season low in adults 18 @-@ 49 when the first eviction on Thursday , July 16 posted a 1 @.@ 9 in adults 18 @-@ 49 . The Sunday , July 19 episode attracted 5 @.@ 57 million viewers a season low in terms of viewership . Beginning with the Tuesday , July 21 episode viewership started to gradually increase with the episode attracting 5 @.@ 76 million viewers and a 2 @.@ 0 rating in the adults 18 @-@ 49 demographic . The second eviction which featured Laura Crosby being evicted from the House attracted 6 @.@ 39 million viewers and a 2 @.@ 1 rating in adults 18 @-@ 49 and a 4 @.@ 0 rating with an 8 share in households . The second eviction was up 8 % in households , 11 % in adults 18 @-@ 49 and 14 % in total viewers for the week at the time it was the second highest rated episode of the season behind the season premiere .
The following Sunday episode that aired on July 26 experienced a minor drop in ratings attracting 6 @.@ 08 million viewers and a 2 @.@ 0 rating in adults 18 @-@ 49 . The Sunday episode was up 5 % in adults 18 @-@ 49 , 6 % in households and added 510 @,@ 000 viewers ( up 9 % ) from the previous week . The episode highlighting the expulsion of Chima Simone was the highest rated episode in the adults 18 @-@ 49 demographic with a 3 @.@ 0 rating and the third highest in viewers and total households with 7 @.@ 98 million viewers and a 4 @.@ 8 respectively . The Sunday highlight episode fell to second place in its timeslot for the first time on August 9 when NBC Sunday Night Football began airing on NBC . By August 20 ratings for the season were up 5 % in overall viewers when compared to Big Brother 10 . The season finale attracted 7 @.@ 78 million viewers and was the second highest episode in the adults 18 @-@ 49 demographic for the entire season . Overall Big Brother 11 was up 7 % in total viewers ( 7 @.@ 19 million ) when compared to Big Brother 10 , up 5 % in adults 18 @-@ 34 , up 3 % in adults 25 @-@ 54 and even in adults 18 @-@ 49 . Big Brother 11 delivered 100 million page views and 15 @.@ 3 million videos on CBS.com and various affiliated sites by the end of the season . The viewing public placed more than 24 million votes during the season including over 11 million votes for the seventh jury vote .
= = = Television ratings = = =
" Rating " is the estimated percentage of all televisions tuned to the show , and " share " is the percentage of all televisions in use that are tuned in . " Viewers " is the estimated number viewers that watched a program either while it was broadcast or watched via DVR on the same day the program was broadcast .
^ Note 1 : Episode was delayed from its normal start time due to a sport overrun .
^ Note 2 : Individual information not available for rating / share for households due to a golf overrun .
= = = Comparison to British edition = = =
After two weeks into the season several news sites began to compare the American and British version of the show , which was six weeks into its series at the time . During the first several weeks ratings for both shows were declining . The launch of Big Brother 2009 aired on Channel 4 in the United Kingdom premiered on June 4 attracted 4 @.@ 8 million viewers , with a 22 % viewing share . The show was down compared to the launch of Big Brother 2008 but won its timeslot . Ratings continued to decline with the first official eviction of the series , that aired on June 12 only pulling in 2 @.@ 9 million people , 13 % of the viewing audience .
In an article by The Hollywood Reporter , an American trade publication , noted the tenth series of the British version was averaging 2 million viewers and a 10 @.@ 1 % audience share . At the time the show was six weeks into its run and was down 33 % on its performance from the previous year and very down when compared to previous series in where some average 6 million viewers per episode . Mimi Turner , author of the article , noted the show was " running out of steam " and until the tenth series the show delivered significant youth audiences on air and online . Bill Gorman of TVByTheNumbers , an American television website , commented on the article by saying " Not sure if this is a glimpse of things to come for the US version of Big Brother or not . "
Executives from Endemol , the production company for Big Brother worldwide , defended the format which is transmitted in 41 territories and noted the season premiere of the 11th season in America won its timeslot with year @-@ to @-@ year growth . Other comparisons noted was the finale of ninth season of Italy 's Grande Fratello pulled 7 @.@ 9 million viewers with a 36 % audience share and how in Argentina the show has been rested for a few years and returns with stronger ratings . Paul Jonson , global head of marketing and brand partnerships for Endemol Group , noted that using audience averages to figure out how the show performs wouldn 't work since the audience builds up until the finale . Jonson also noted that the series continued to rate very well when compared to the timeslot average for Channel 4 .
After ratings for Big Brother 11 in America began to increase Anna Pickard , for The Guardian in the United Kingdom , compared the two concurrent seasons noting the format differences between the American and British versions of the show calling the two " different beasts . " Various points mentioned that contributed to the increase in ratings was the number of episodes per week , format differences , lack of live feeds from the House in Britain . In another article on the same site noted the American version experienced a " ratings renaissance " in a market " which the format has not traditionally done well . " After the provisional cancellation of Big Brother in the United Kingdom , American trade publications like USA Today began reporting on the cancellation while others like Variety were also reporting various pickups around the world including the twelfth season of the American version , Big Brother 10 in Germany , Grande Fratello 10 in Italy and HaAh HaGadol 2 in Israel .
= = = Controversy = = =
During the first week of the program several HouseGuests made controversial remarks during several arguments on the live Internet feeds . Many homophobic comments made by Jeff during an argument with Russell after the first Power of Veto ceremony were edited out of the first Tuesday broadcast episode while the comments remained uncensored online .
Another HouseGuest , Braden , made several racist and derogatory comments after the first Power of Veto ceremony to fellow HouseGuests Kevin and Lydia in an argument . The argument was edited during the first live eviction show on Thursday but played unedited on the live feeds . During the live portion of the show , Chima brought up the comments made by Braden again during her final plea speech to her fellow HouseGuests . Chima also stated Braden used a sexually insulting word to describe Big Brother host Julie Chen . This comment was made at the conclusion of a " Julie Says " game played by the HouseGuests a couple nights earlier as viewed on Big Brother After Dark .
The editing of the events in question during the broadcast episodes created controversy for the show and CBS , the broadcaster of Big Brother . While the comments couldn 't air due to FCC regulations the way the events were edited caused critics and fans of the show to claim the show was being edited to make the HouseGuests look good to the viewing public . One critic suggests the recent decline in ratings is due to the editing process of the show .
Chima revealed to her fellow HouseGuests on the live Internet feeds and on Big Brother : After Dark after the eviction that she was informed in the Diary Room by Big Brother , the producers , that her comments were censored during the live broadcast .
" I said , I don 't think it 's fair because I don 't think they showed when it first was said , and I was like , ' If someone 's a racist , they should be portrayed as one . You shouldn 't edit it to make them look good . ' "
CBS released a statement on July 17 , 2009 regarding the censoring of the controversial statements saying the statements in question were offensive and did not meet the network 's standards . CBS also stated that " any views or opinions expressed in personal commentary by a houseguest appearing on Big Brother , either on any live feed from the house or the broadcast , are those of the individuals speaking and do not represent the views or opinions of CBS or the producers of the program . " National Public Radio 's pop culture correspondent Linda Holmes noted that CBS officially disavowing such statements while allowing them to continue amounts to a publicity grab for the show and for the network :
" This show is meant to get a good part of its attention from the difference between what you see online and what you see on the show . If it manages to cast a hard @-@ charging racist whose work only appears online , it can seize all the attention of a scandal while claiming that it 's tastefully trying to protect viewers from anything ' offensive . ' "
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= Music of the Mother series =
The Mother series is a role @-@ playing video game series created by Shigesato Itoi for Nintendo . The series started in 1989 with the Japan @-@ only release of Mother , which was followed up by Mother 2 , released as EarthBound outside Japan , for the Super NES in 1994 . A second sequel was released in Japan only , Mother 3 , for the Game Boy Advance in 2006 . The music of the Mother series includes the soundtracks to all three games ; the first game was composed for by Keiichi Suzuki and Hirokazu Tanaka , who were joined by Hiroshi Kanazu for the second game , while Mother 3 's score was written by Shogo Sakai .
The music has inspired several album releases . Mother saw the release in 1989 of an album primarily composed of vocal arrangements of pieces from its soundtrack ; this album was re @-@ released in 2004 in an expanded form . Earthbound had a soundtrack album associated with the game released in 1994 and again in 2004 that contained both original tracks from the game and medleys of multiple tracks . A compilation release , Mother 1 + 2 , received a soundtrack album release in 2003 , as well as an album of MIDI piano versions of songs from the two games in 2006 . The latest release in the series , Mother 3 , has two soundtrack albums : Mother 3 + , released in 2006 , and the online @-@ only release Mother 3i in 2007 .
The games ' soundtracks have received primarily positive reviews , and the music itself has gone on to some popularity . Multiple piano sheet music books of pieces from the series have been produced , and the " Eight Melodies " song originally featured in Mother has been included in some Japanese music textbooks . Music from the series has been used in the Super Smash Bros. series of fighting games , has been played in orchestral game music concerts , and been remixed for websites such as OverClocked Remix .
= = Mother = =
Mother ( マザー , Mazā ) , later re @-@ released as EarthBound Beginnings , is a role @-@ playing video game published by Nintendo for the Nintendo Entertainment System video game console in 1989 . The game 's soundtrack was composed by Keiichi Suzuki and Hirokazu Tanaka . Tanaka was a video game composer working for Nintendo who had previously composed for games such as Super Mario Land and Metroid , while Suzuki was a composer and musician for bands of many different genres . The NES was only able to play three notes at a time , which Suzuki has noted greatly limited what he was able to produce , as he could not create some of the sounds he wanted . Melodies and themes from some pieces from the soundtrack were reused in the other games in the series . ( " Pollyanna " and " Snowman " make an appearance in all three games . )
Some of the music from the game was recorded as a studio album by Suzuki and Tanaka in collaboration with various artists entitled Mother . The album was released by CBS / Sony on August 21 , 1989 . It consists of eleven tracks , seven of which are English vocal arrangements of songs from the game created by Suzuki , David Bedford , Takeshi Saitoh , and Michael Nyman . The lyrics to these arrangements were written by Linda Hennrick . Each of the first ten tracks were performed by a different artist or group such as Catherine Warwick and St Paul 's Cathedral Choir . The pieces were recorded at eight different studios in England , and a final 16 @-@ minute capstone track , " The World of Mother " , included most of the tracks from the game itself played back to back in their order of appearance in the game . The album cover shows the word " MOTHER " in a shade of brown over a red background ; the letter " O " of " MOTHER " is replaced by an image of planet Earth , also with a brownish tinge . The soundtrack was reissued on February 18 , 2004 by Sony Music Direct with its tracks digitally remastered , a song from EarthBound entitled " Smiles and Tears " was added , and the track " The World of Mother " was replaced with a version that is six minutes longer .
Despite being recorded in England , the album was only available in Japan , as the game was never released outside of the country until a Virtual Console release over 25 years later . Following a Kickstarter campaign , the American independent record label Ship to Shore PhonoCo worked with Sony Music to reissue the album on vinyl record in 2015 . Only 2 @,@ 000 copies were pressed , though a limited run of CD albums was also produced .
Slugmag 's Gavin Sheehan wrote : " This soundtrack is gorgeous , at least for the time it was created in . " He noted the experimental style of the tracks , which he credited to the experimental style of the game itself as well as the relative newness of the genre of video game music at the time . Reviewer Patrick Gann of RPGFan received the album well , saying that he enjoyed the variety of genres presented in it , though he noted that the lyrics were " trite and cheesy " , though still " catchy " . He also applauded the production value , calling it " incredible , especially for 1989 " . Square Enix Music Online , in their review of the album , called it " a happy little gem with quirks and surprises " . Though unlike RPGFan they felt that the sound production quality was not as good as it could be , they still felt that the pieces had " stood the test of time in terms of good music " .
= = EarthBound = =
EarthBound , known in Japan as Mother 2 : Gyiyg no Gyakushū ( MOTHER2ギーグの逆襲 , Mazā Tsū Gīgu no Gyakushū , lit . " Mother 2 : Gyiyg Strikes Back " ) , is a role @-@ playing video game published by Nintendo for the Super NES video game console in 1994 . Keiichi Suzuki and Hirokazu Tanaka reprised their roles from Mother as composers for the game , and were joined by assistant composers Hiroshi Kanazu and Toshiyuki Ueno . In an interview with Weekly Famitsu , Keiichi Suzuki commented on how the SNES gave the composers much more freedom to compose what they wanted than the NES , which made development of the music for EarthBound much easier than for its predecessor . This freedom was partially a result of the larger memory space available , because one of the many problems the composers had in the first game was trying to get all of their music on to the cartridge . Another advantage was that the SNES could support playing eight notes at the same time , which when combined with the increased sound quality meant that he could compose music for the game in a similar fashion to how he would compose music for real life . Suzuki cited John Lennon as an influential figure to all the composers while the soundtrack was being developed , as his songs about love matched up with the feeling of the game . Critics and players have noted similarities between parts of some songs in the game to popular songs , including several suspected homages to songs by Lennon and The Beatles . Legal issues surrounding these similarities were suspected to prevent the game from being released on the Virtual Console outside of Japan , but the rumors were ultimately proved untrue .
In a Famitsu interview , Shigesato Itoi said that the amount of music that they fit into eight megabits of space , one @-@ third of the total size of the game , would be enough to fill two Compact Discs if released as a full album . He ascribed the amount of music to the " disorderly " , or broad , amount of styles of music that were included by Tanaka and Suzuki . He also noted his belief that EarthBound was the first video game to include vibrato , or " string @-@ bending " , in its music , and described one of the differences between the music of EarthBound and Mother as that this game had more " jazzy " pieces . Suzuki has estimated that he composed over 100 pieces of music for EarthBound , including songs that did not make it into the game , and says that his favorite was the music played when the player rode a bicycle in the game , which he had actually composed before starting work on the game .
The soundtrack album for EarthBound was released by Sony Records in Japan on November 2 , 1994 . It was re @-@ released a decade later on February 18 , 2004 by Sony Music Direct . The album has 24 tracks , where many of these tracks are arrangements combining several pieces from the game into one piece . The final three tracks on the album consist of remixes of multiple tracks merged ; for example , " Room Number ( PSI MIX ) " is a remixed version of several pieces of music played in different shops and hotels in the game combined into one song . The album was released again in 2016 by Ship to Shore as a set of two vinyl LP records , with four color options for the discs . The album , named Mother 2 , uses the same tracks and artwork as the original soundtrack release .
Vincent Chorley , in his review of the album for RPGFan , praised the original game music , applauding it for " conveying emotion and atmosphere , and then playing around with this mental image " . As for the album itself , however , he was disappointed in the way that it merged tracks together and kept tracks based on a single song short , saying that " many of the tracks are so short that they are impossible to enjoy in their entirety " . The vinyl release was praised by Jeremy Parish of USGamer for its sound quality and the soundtrack 's " towering achievement in game music " , but he felt that the music was not very " listenable " on its own , and that the album did not fit the LP format as well as an album originally produced for the format would have .
= = Mother 1 + 2 = =
The video game Mother 1 + 2 ( MOTHER 1 + 2 , Mazā Wan Tsū ) is a port release of Mother and EarthBound ( Mother 2 ) by Nintendo for the Game Boy Advance , released in 2003 . Despite its title , the eponymous album is an arranged album . It was released by Toshiba @-@ EMI on August 20 , 2003 . The first ten tracks from the album are from Mother , while the last 16 are from Earthbound . Unlike the original soundtrack albums , the Mother tracks on this album did not include any vocal arrangements and the Earthbound tracks were not composed of tracks merged . Another album for the collection , Mother 1 + 2 midi Piano Version , was released three years later on May 27 , 2006 by Sky Port Publishing . The album contains MIDI piano arrangements by Shunsuke Sakamoto of songs from the two games with its music covering many different moods , from " lively to sedated " . Like the soundtrack album , Mother 1 + 2 midi Piano Version had its first ten tracks taken from Mother and the other 16 from Earthbound , but with several different tracks than the first album .
Kyle Miller of RPGFan , in his review of the Mother 1 + 2 album , called it " a quality collection of uplifting , passionate songs " . He preferred the Mother tracks to the Earthbound ones , as he felt that the second half of the album contained more " gimmick " tracks , but still called both halves " unique , fun , and well done overall " . In his review of the Mother 1 + 2 midi Piano Version album , he concluded that while " fans of midi piano music " would enjoy the album , that the soundtrack album was the superior of the two . His criticism was mainly based on the fact that , while the tracks were " well orchestrated pieces " , " played masterfully " , and retained the " quality of the compositions " of the originals , the " wacky instrumentation " of the original pieces did not translate to piano arrangements , causing the tunes to " lose some of the spirit that they are known for " .
= = Mother 3 = =
Mother 3 is a role @-@ playing video game published by Nintendo for the Game Boy Advance handheld game console in 2006 . The music for the game was composed exclusively by Shogo Sakai , who he had previously composed music for games such as Super Smash Bros. Melee and Kirby Air Ride . Series developer Shigesato Itoi stated that Sakai was given the position because he understood Mother 3 the most , given that he could not use Keiichi Suzuki or Hirokazu Tanaka , the composers for the first two games , as they were both busy with other projects . Itoi also said that given the massive amount of songs in the game , over 250 , he needed someone who had a lot of time to dedicate to the project and who could focus exclusively on it .
" Love Theme " , the main theme of Mother 3 , was composed late in the game 's development ; earlier in development Itoi intended to use the " Pigmask Army " theme as the main theme of the game . During creation of an important scene in the game , however , Sakai was asked to create a song that would have a greater impact than the Pigmask theme ; upon its creation it was chosen to be used as the main theme instead of the " Pigmask Army " song . Itoi claims that , given how quickly Sakai composed the song , that he had been " waiting for the order " to make a song like " Love Theme " . Itoi requested that " Love Theme " be playable on a piano with only one finger , as the " Eight Melodies " theme from Mother had gained popularity and been played in elementary schools due to its simplicity . The " OK desu ka ? " that plays after the player chooses the character 's name was recorded without Itoi 's knowledge by Hirokazu Tanaka more than a decade before the release of Mother 3 .
The MOTHER3 + soundtrack album was first released by Tokyo Itoi Shigesato Office on November 2 , 2006 , and then distributed through the iTunes Store on February 2 , 2007 , featuring an additional bonus track , " MOTHER3 – theme of LOVE " . Another album of music from the game , MOTHER3i , was released on February 6 , 2007 by Tokyo Itoi Shigesato Office in the iTunes Store and other online music services . Like the Earthbound soundtrack album each track of Mother3i is a combination of several tracks from the game itself , though it still does not cover all of the tracks from the game .
Kyle Miller of RPGFan gave a warm reception to Mother3 + in his review , saying that it " retains the same quirky , but thoughtful feel so well captured by the previous entries in the series " and was " a worthy addition to the Mother musical canon " . He enjoyed that it included both songs that were new to Mother 3 and pieces originally from previous entries in the series . He felt that the weakest tracks on the album were those that used real @-@ life instruments , while he named " Snowman " as the strongest . Square Enix Music Online was not as pleased with the album ; although the reviewer agreed with Miller on which tracks were the best and worst , they were very critical of the fact that the album contained " only nine or ten distinct themes from a pool of perhaps one hundred viable choices " . They also disliked the fact that the pieces were " by design short and repetitive " . They instead recommended the Mother3i album , which , though " missing the iconic ' Love ' theme and perennial series favorites like ' Pollyanna ' " , had " more engaging arrangements , less cloying sentimentality , and a wider variety of themes " . They also noted the improved sound quality of the album over the original Game Boy Advance version . Mother3 + reached position # 24 on the Japanese Oricon charts , and stayed on the charts for three weeks .
= = Legacy = =
Music from EarthBound was arranged for the piano and published by DOREMI Music Publishing in 1995 . The book contains 16 scores , with some covering more than one song from the game . " Onett 's Theme " was also included in " Game Music Piano Solo Album " , a book published by DOREMI with sheet music from many different games . Sky Port Publishing published a book of piano arrangements in 1996 for the release of Mother 1 + 2 containing 27 pieces . The " Eight Melodies " song from Mother received some popularity , and was included in some Japanese music textbooks due to its simplicity . A full sheet music book for Mother has never officially been made available , but after it 's release on the Virtual Console as Earthbound Beginnings , the entire soundtrack was transcribed by fans into sheet music . Super Smash Bros. , a series of fighting games published by Nintendo featuring characters and music from established video games , has included several songs from the Mother series . The 2016 Undertale , inspired by Earthbound , includes several homages to the game 's music in its soundtrack .
" Because I Love You " and " Eagle Land " from EarthBound were played by the Tokyo Memorial Orchestra for the second Orchestral Game Concert on September 15 , 1992 as part of a five concert tour , which was later released as a series of albums . " Because I Love You " was again played in their third concert , and was the only song to make an appearance in more than one concert in the tour . A medley of songs from all three games was performed at the " Press Start -Symphony of Games- 2006 " concert in Tokyo . Selections of remixes of music from the series also appear on Japanese remix albums , called Dōjin , and on English remixing websites such as OverClocked Remix . A group of remixes of Mother and Earthbound music was released as an unofficial download @-@ only album titled Bound Together by a group of artists from OverClocked Remix and elsewhere on October 29 , 2006 containing 48 remixes and almost three hours of music .
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= Hank Williams =
Hiram King " Hank " Williams , ( / hæŋk wɪljəmz / ; September 17 , 1923 – January 1 , 1953 ) was an American singer @-@ songwriter and musician . Regarded as one of the most significant and influential American singers and songwriters of the 20th century , Williams recorded 35 singles ( five released posthumously ) that reached the Top 10 of the Billboard Country & Western Best Sellers chart , including 11 that ranked number one ( three posthumously ) .
Born in Mount Olive , Butler County , Alabama , Williams moved to Georgiana , where he met Rufus Payne , a black street performer who gave him guitar lessons in exchange for meals or money . Payne had a major influence on Williams ' later musical style , along with Roy Acuff and Ernest Tubb . During this time , Williams informally changed his name to Hank , as he had always fantasized about having that name . He moved to Montgomery , where he began his music career in 1937 , when producers at radio station WSFA hired him to perform and host a 15 @-@ minute program . He formed as backup the Drifting Cowboys band , which was managed by his mother , and dropped out of school to devote his time to his career .
When several of his band members were conscripted into military service during World War II , Williams had trouble with their replacements , and WSFA terminated his contract because of his alcohol abuse . Williams eventually married Audrey Sheppard , who was his manager for nearly a decade . After recording " Never Again " and " Honky Tonkin ' " with Sterling Records , he signed a contract with MGM Records . In 1948 he released " Move It on Over " , which became a hit , and also joined the Louisiana Hayride radio program . One year later , he released a cover of " Lovesick Blues " , which carried him into the mainstream of music . After an initial rejection , Williams joined the Grand Ole Opry . He was unable to read or notate music to any significant degree . Among the hits he wrote were " Your Cheatin ' Heart " , " Hey , Good Lookin ' " , and " I 'm So Lonesome I Could Cry " .
Several years of back pain , alcoholism , and prescription drug abuse severely damaged Williams ' health . He divorced Sheppard and was dismissed by the Grand Ole Opry because of his unreliability and alcohol abuse . Williams died in 1953 at the age of 29 , from heart failure exacerbated by pills and alcohol . Despite his short life , Williams has had a major influence on 20th @-@ century popular music , especially country music . The songs he wrote and recorded have been covered by numerous artists and have been hits in various genres . He has been inducted into multiple music halls of fame , such as the Country Music Hall of Fame ( 1961 ) , the Songwriters Hall of Fame ( 1970 ) , and the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame ( 1987 ) .
= = Life and career = =
= = = Early life = = =
Williams was born in Butler County , Alabama , the son of Jessie Lillybelle " Lillie " ( née Skipper ; August 12 , 1898 – February 26 , 1955 ) and Elonzo Huble " Lon " Williams ( December 22 , 1891 – October 25 , 1970 ) . His parents married on November 12 , 1916 . Hank Williams was of English ancestry . Elonzo Williams worked as an engineer for the railroads of the W.T. Smith lumber company . He was drafted during World War I , serving from July 1918 until June 1919 . He was severely injured after falling from a truck , breaking his collarbone and suffering a severe blow to the head . After his return , the family 's first child , Irene , was born on August 8 , 1922 . Another son of theirs died shortly after birth . Their third child , Hiram , was born on September 17 , 1923 , in Mount Olive . Since Elonzo Williams was a Mason , and his wife was a member of Order of the Eastern Star the child was named after Hiram I of Tyre ( one of the three founders of the Masons , according to Masonic legend ) , but his name was misspelled as " Hiriam " on his birth certificate .
As a child , he was nicknamed " Harm " by his family and " Herky " or " Poots " by his friends . He was born with spina bifida occulta , a disorder of the spinal column , which gave him lifelong pain – a factor in his later abuse of alcohol and drugs . Williams ' father was frequently relocated by the lumber company railway for which he worked , and the family lived in many southern Alabama towns . In 1930 , when Williams was seven years old , his father began suffering from facial paralysis . At a Veterans Affairs ( VA ) clinic in Pensacola , Florida , doctors determined that the cause was a brain aneurysm , and Elonzo was sent to the VA Medical Center in Alexandria , Louisiana . He remained hospitalized for eight years , rendering him mostly absent throughout Hiram 's childhood . From that time on , Lillie Williams assumed responsibility for the family .
In the fall of 1934 the Williams family moved to Greenville , Alabama , where Lillie opened a boarding house next to the Butler County courthouse . In 1935 the Williams family settled in Garland , Alabama , where Lillie Williams opened a new boarding house . After a while they moved with his cousin Opal McNeil to Georgiana , Alabama where Lillie managed to find several side jobs to support her children , despite the bleak economic climate of the Great Depression . She worked in a cannery and served as a night @-@ shift nurse in the local hospital .
Their first house burned and the family lost its possessions . They moved to a new house on the other side of town on Rose Street , which Williams ' mother soon turned into a boarding house . The house had a small garden , on which they grew diverse crops that Williams and his sister Irene sold around Georgiana . At a chance meeting in Georgiana , Hank Williams met U.S. Representative J. Lister Hill while he was campaigning across Alabama . Williams told Hill that his mother was interested to talk with him about his problems and her need to collect Elonzo Williams ' disability pension . With Hill 's help , the family began collecting the money . Despite his medical condition , the family managed fairly well financially throughout the Great Depression .
There are several versions of how Williams got his first guitar . His mother stated that she bought it with money from selling peanuts , but many other prominent residents of the town claimed to have been the one who purchased the guitar for him . While living in Georgiana , Williams met Rufus " Tee @-@ Tot " Payne , a street performer . Payne gave Williams guitar lessons in exchange for meals prepared by Lillie Williams or money . Payne 's base musical style was blues . He taught Williams chords , chord progressions , bass turns , and the musical style of accompaniment that he would use in most of his future songwriting . Later on , Williams recorded one of the songs that Payne taught him , " My Bucket 's Got a Hole in It " . Williams musical style contained influences from Payne along with several other country influences , among them " the Singing Brakeman " Jimmie Rodgers , Moon Mullican , and Roy Acuff . In 1937 Williams got into a fight with his physical education coach about exercises the coach wanted him to do . His mother subsequently demanded that the school board terminate the coach ; when they refused , the family moved to Montgomery , Alabama . Payne and Williams lost touch , though eventually , Payne also moved to Montgomery , where he died in poverty in 1939 . Williams later credited him as his only teacher .
= = = Early career = = =
In July 1937 , the Williams and McNeil families opened a boarding house on South Perry Street in downtown Montgomery . It was at this time that Williams decided to change his name informally from Hiram to Hank , a name he said was better suited to his desired career in country music . During the same year he participated in a talent show at the Empire Theater . He won the first prize of $ 15 , singing his first original song " WPA Blues " . Williams wrote the lyrics and used the tune of Riley Puckett 's " Dissatisfied . " He never learned to read music and , for the rest of his career , based his compositions in storytelling . After school and on weekends Williams sang and played his Silvertone guitar on the sidewalk in front of the WSFA radio studios . His recent win at the Empire Theater and the street performances caught the attention of WSFA producers who occasionally invited him to perform on air . So many listeners contacted the radio station asking for more of " the singing kid " that the producers hired him to host his own 15 @-@ minute show twice a week for a weekly salary of US $ 15 ( equivalent to US $ 246 @.@ 90 in 2016 ) .
In August 1938 , Elonzo Williams was temporarily released from the hospital . He showed up unannounced at the family 's home in Montgomery . Lillie was unwilling to let him reclaim his position at the head of the household , so he stayed only long enough to celebrate Williams ' birthday in September before he returned to the medical center in Louisiana .
Williams ' successful radio show fueled his entry into a music career . His salary was enough for him to start his own band , which he dubbed the Drifting Cowboys . The original members were guitarist Braxton Schuffert , fiddler Freddie Beach , and comedian Smith " Hezzy " Adair . James E. ( Jimmy ) Porter was the youngest , being only 13 when he started playing steel guitar for Williams . Arthur Whiting was also a guitarist for The Drifting Cowboys . The band traveled throughout central and southern Alabama performing in clubs and at private parties . James Ellis Garner later played fiddle for him . Lillie Williams became the Drifting Cowboys ' manager . Williams dropped out of school in October 1939 so that the Drifting Cowboys could work full @-@ time . Lillie Williams began booking show dates , negotiating prices and driving them to some of their shows . Now free to travel without Williams ' schooling taking precedence , the band could tour as far away as western Georgia and the Florida Panhandle . The band started to play in theaters before the start of the movies and later in honky @-@ tonks . Williams ' alcohol problem started during the tours , on occasion spending an important part of the show revenues . Meanwhile , between tour schedules , Williams returned to Montgomery to host his radio show .
= = = 1940s = = =
The American entry into World War II in 1941 marked the beginning of hard times for Williams . All his band members were drafted to serve in the military , while he got a 4 @-@ F deferment from the military draft after falling from a bull during a rodeo in Texas . Many of their replacements refused to continue playing in the band because of Williams ' worsening alcoholism . He continued to show up for his radio show intoxicated , so in August 1942 radio station WSFA fired him for " habitual drunkenness . " During one of his concerts Williams met backstage his idol , Grand Ole Opry star Roy Acuff , who later warned him of the dangers of alcohol , saying , " You 've got a million @-@ dollar talent , son , but a ten @-@ cent brain . "
He worked for the rest of the war in a shipbuilding company in Mobile , Alabama , as well as singing in bars for soldiers . In 1943 Williams met Audrey Sheppard on a medicine show in Banks , Alabama . Williams and Sheppard lived and worked together in Mobile , Sheppard later told Williams that she wanted to move to Montgomery with him and start a band together and help him regain his radio show . The couple were married in 1944 in a Texaco Station in Andalusia , Alabama , by a justice of the peace . The marriage was declared illegal , since Sheppard 's divorce from her previous husband did not comply with the legally required sixty @-@ day trial reconciliation .
In 1945 , when he was back in Montgomery , Williams started to perform again for radio station WSFA . He wrote songs weekly to perform during the shows . As a result of the new variety of his repertoire , Williams published his first song book , Original Songs of Hank Williams . The book only listed lyrics , since its main purpose was to attract more audience . It included ten songs : " Mother Is Gone " , " Won 't You Please Come Back " , " My Darling Baby Girl " ( with Audrey Sheppard ) , " Grandad 's Musket " , " I Just Wish I Could Forget " , " Let 's Turn Back the Years " , " Honkey @-@ Tonkey " , " I Loved No One But You " , " A Tramp on the Street " , and " You 'll Love Me Again " . Williams became recognized as a songwriter , Sheppard became his manager and occasionally accompanied him on duets in some of his live concerts .
On September 14 , 1946 , Williams auditioned for Nashville 's Grand Ole Opry but was rejected . After the failure of his audition , Williams and Audrey Sheppard tried to interest the recently formed music publishing firm Acuff @-@ Rose Music . Williams and his wife approached Fred Rose , the president of the company , during one of his habitual ping @-@ pong games at WSM radio studios . Audrey Williams asked Rose if her husband could sing a song for him on that moment , Rose agreed , and he liked Williams ' musical style . Rose signed Williams to a six song contract , and leveraged this deal to sign Williams with Sterling Records . On December 11 , 1946 , in his first recording session , he recorded " Wealth Won 't Save Your Soul " , " Calling You " , " Never Again ( Will I Knock on Your Door ) " , and " When God Comes and Gathers His Jewels " . The recordings " Never Again " and " Honky Tonkin ' " became successful , and earned Williams the attention of MGM Records .
Williams signed with MGM Records in 1947 and released " Move It on Over " , which became a massive country hit . In 1948 he moved to Shreveport , Louisiana , and he joined the Louisiana Hayride , a radio show broadcast that propelled him into living rooms all over the southeast appearing on weekend shows . Williams eventually started to host a show on KWKH and started touring across western Louisiana and eastern Texas , always returning on Saturdays for the weekly broadcast of the Hayride . After a few more moderate hits , in 1949 he released his version of the 1922 Cliff Friend & Irving Mills song " Lovesick Blues " , made popular by Rex Griffin . Williams ' version became a huge country hit ; the song stayed at number one on the Billboard charts over four consecutive months , crossing over to mainstream audiences and gaining Williams a place in the Grand Ole Opry . On June 11 , 1949 , Williams made his debut at the Grand Ole Opry , where he became the first performer to receive six encores . He brought together Bob McNett ( guitar ) , Hillous Butrum ( bass ) , Jerry Rivers ( fiddle ) and Don Helms ( steel guitar ) to form the most famous version of the Drifting Cowboys , earning an estimated US $ 1 @,@ 000 per show ( equivalent to US $ 9 @,@ 945 @.@ 5 in 2016 ) . That year Audrey Williams gave birth to Randall Hank Williams ( Hank Williams , Jr . ) . During 1949 , he joined the first European tour of the Grand Ole Opry , performing in military bases in England , Germany and Azores . Williams released seven hit songs after " Lovesick Blues " , including " Wedding Bells " , " Mind Your Own Business " , " You 're Gonna Change ( Or I 'm Gonna Leave ) " , and " My Bucket 's Got a Hole in It " .
= = = 1950s = = =
In 1950 , Williams began recording as " Luke the Drifter " for his religious @-@ themed recordings , many of which are recitations rather than singing . Fearful that disc jockeys and jukebox operators would hesitate to accept these unusual recordings , Williams used this alias to avoid hurting the marketability of his name . Although the real identity of Luke the Drifter was supposed to be anonymous , Williams often performed part of the material of the recordings on stage . Most of the material was written by Williams , in cases with the help of Fred Rose and his son Wesley . The songs depicted Luke the Drifter traveling around from place to place , narrating stories from different characters and philosophizing about life . Some of the compositions were accompanied by a pipe organ .
Around this time Williams released more hit songs , such as " My Son Calls Another Man Daddy " , " They 'll Never Take Her Love from Me " , " Why Should We Try Anymore " , " Nobody 's Lonesome for Me " , " Long Gone Lonesome Blues " , " Why Don 't You Love Me " , " Moanin ' the Blues " , and " I Just Don 't Like This Kind of Living " . In 1951 " Dear John " became a hit , but it was the flip side , " Cold , Cold Heart " , that became one of his most @-@ recognized songs . A pop cover version by Tony Bennett released the same year stayed on the charts for 27 weeks , peaking at number one .
Hank 's career reached a peak in August – September 1951 with his Hadacol tour of the U.S. with actor Bob Hope and other luminaries . During the tour , Hank was photographed signing a motion picture deal with MGM . In October Hank recorded a demo , " There 's a Tear in My Beer " for a friend , " Big Bill Lister " , who recorded it in the studio . On November 14 , 1951 Hank flew to New York with his steel guitar player Don Helms where he appeared on television for the first time on " The Perry Como Show . " There he and Perry sang " Hey Good Lookin ' . " Photos but no existing footage remain of his appearance .
In November 1951 Hank suffered a fall during a hunting trip with his fiddler Jerry Rivers in Franklin , Tennessee . The fall reactivated his old back pains . He later started to consume painkillers , including morphine , and alcohol to ease the pain . On May 21 , he had been admitted to North Louisiana Sanitarium for the treatment of his alcoholism , leaving on May 24 . On December 13 , 1951 he had a spinal fusion at the Vanderbilt University Hospital , being released on December 24 . He lived during his recovery with his mother in Montgomery , and later moved to Nashville with Ray Price .
During March and April 1952 Hank flew to New York with steel guitarist Don Helms , where he made two appearances with other Grand Ole Opry members on " The Kate Smith Show . " He sang " Cold , Cold Heart , " " Hey Good Lookin ' , " " Glory Bound Train " with other cast members , and a duet , " I Can 't Help It if I 'm Still in Love with You " with Anita Carter . Footage remains of this appearance . That spring he had a brief affair with dancer Bobbi Jett , with whom he fathered a daughter , Jett Williams ( born January 6 , 1953 , two days after his interment ) .
In June 1952 , he recorded " Jambalaya , " " Window Shopping , " " Settin ' the Woods on Fire , " and " I 'll Never Get out of this World Alive . " In early July , Audrey Williams divorced Hank . The next day he recorded " You Win Again " and " I Won 't be Home No More . " About this time he met Billie Jean Jones , a girlfriend of country singer Faron Young , at the Grand Ole Opry . As a girl , Billy had lived down the street from Hank when he was with the Louisiana Hayride , and now Hank began to visit her frequently in Shreveport , causing him to miss many Grand Ole Opry appearances .
On August 11 , 1952 , Williams was dismissed from the Grand Ole Opry for habitual drunkenness and missing shows . He returned to Shreveport , Louisiana to perform in KWKH and WBAM shows and in the Louisiana Hayride , for which he toured again . His performances were acclaimed when he was sober , but despite the efforts of his work associates to get him to shows sober , his abuse of alcohol resulted in occasions when he did not appear or his performances were poor . In October 1952 he married Billie Jean Jones .
During his last recording session on September 23 , 1952 , Williams recorded " Kaw @-@ Liga , " along with " Your Cheatin ' Heart , " " Take These Chains from My Heart , " and " I Could Never be Ashamed of You . " Due to Williams ' excesses , Fred Rose stopped working with him . By the end of 1952 , Williams had started to suffer heart problems . He met Horace " Toby " Marshall in Oklahoma City , who said that he was a doctor . Marshall had been previously convicted for forgery , and had been paroled and released from the Oklahoma State Penitentiary in 1951 . Among other fake titles he said that he was a Doctor of Science . He purchased the DSC title for $ 35 from the Chicago School of Applied Science ; in the diploma , he requested that the DSC be spelled out as " Doctor of Science and Psychology " . Under the name of Dr. C. W. Lemon he prescribed Williams with amphetamines , Seconal , chloral hydrate , and morphine .
= = = Death = = =
Williams was scheduled to perform at the Municipal Auditorium in Charleston , West Virginia on Wednesday December 31 , 1952 . Advance ticket sales totaled US $ 3 @,@ 500 . That day , because of an ice storm in the Nashville area , Williams could not fly , so he hired a college student , Charles Carr , to drive him to the concerts . Carr called the Charleston auditorium from Knoxville to say that Williams would not arrive on time owing to the ice storm and was ordered to drive Williams to Canton , Ohio , for the New Year 's Day concert there .
They arrived at the Andrew Johnson Hotel in Knoxville , Tennessee , where Carr requested a doctor for Williams , as he was feeling the combination of the chloral hydrate and alcohol he had drunk on the way from Montgomery to Knoxville . Dr. P.H. Cardwell injected Williams with two shots of vitamin B12 that also contained a quarter @-@ grain of morphine . Carr and Williams checked out of the hotel ; the porters had to carry Williams to the car , as he was coughing and hiccuping . At around midnight on Thursday January 1 , 1953 , when they crossed the Tennessee state line and arrived in Bristol , Virginia , Carr stopped at a small all @-@ night restaurant and asked Williams if he wanted to eat . Williams said he did not , and those are believed to be his last words . Carr later drove on until he stopped for fuel at a gas station in Oak Hill , West Virginia , where he realized that Williams was dead . The filling station 's owner called the chief of the local police . In Williams ' Cadillac the police found some empty beer cans and unfinished handwritten lyrics .
Dr. Ivan Malinin performed the autopsy at the Tyree Funeral House . Malinin found hemorrhages in the heart and neck and pronounced the cause of death as " insufficiency of the right ventricle of the heart " . That evening , when the announcer at Canton announced Williams ' death to the gathered crowd , they started laughing , thinking that it was just another excuse . After Hawkshaw Hawkins and other performers started singing " I Saw the Light " as a tribute to Williams , the crowd , now realizing that he was indeed dead , sang along . Dr. Malinin also wrote that Williams had been severely beaten and kicked in the groin recently . Also local magistrate Virgil F. Lyons ordered an inquest into Williams ' death concerning the welt that was visible on his head .
His body was transported to Montgomery , Alabama , on Friday January 2 and placed in a silver coffin that was first shown at his mother 's boarding house for two days . His funeral took place on Sunday January 4 at the Montgomery Auditorium , with his coffin placed on the flower @-@ covered stage . An estimated 15 @,@ 000 to 25 @,@ 000 people passed by the silver coffin , and the auditorium was filled with 2 @,@ 750 mourners . His funeral was said to have been far larger than any ever held for any other citizen of Alabama and the largest event ever held in Montgomery . Williams ' remains are interred at the Oakwood Annex in Montgomery . The president of MGM told Billboard magazine that the company got only about five requests for pictures of Williams during the weeks before his death , but over three hundred afterwards . The local record shops sold out of all of their records , and customers were asking for all records ever released by Williams . His final single , released in November 1952 while he was still alive , was titled " I 'll Never Get Out of This World Alive " . " Your Cheatin ' Heart " was written and recorded in September 1952 but released in late January 1953 after Williams ' death . The song , backed by " Kaw @-@ Liga , " was number one on the country charts for six weeks . It provided the title for the 1964 biographical film of the same name , which starred George Hamilton . " Take These Chains From My Heart " was released in April 1953 and went to # 1 on the country charts . " I Won 't Be Home No More , " released in July , went to # 3 , and an overdubbed demo , " Weary Blues From Waitin , ' " written with Ray Price , went to # 7 .
= = = Personal life = = =
On December 15 , 1944 , Williams married Audrey Sheppard . It was her second marriage and his first . Their son , Randall Hank Williams , who would achieve fame in his own right as Hank Williams , Jr . , was born on May 26 , 1949 . The marriage , always turbulent , rapidly disintegrated , and Williams developed a serious problem with alcohol , morphine , and other painkillers prescribed for him to ease the severe back pain caused by his spina bifida . The couple divorced on May 29 , 1952 .
In June 1952 , Williams moved in with his mother , even as he released numerous hit songs , such as " Half as Much " in April , " Jambalaya ( On the Bayou ) " in July , " Settin ' the Woods on Fire " / " You Win Again " in September , and " I 'll Never Get Out of This World Alive " in November . His drug problems continued to spiral out of control as he moved to Nashville and officially divorced his wife . A relationship with a woman named Bobbie Jett during this period resulted in a daughter , Jett Williams , who was born five days after Williams ' death . His mother adopted Jett , who was made a ward of the state and then adopted by another couple after her grandmother died . Jett Williams did not learn that she was Hank Williams ' daughter until the early 1980s .
On October 18 , 1952 , Williams and Billie Jean Jones Eshlimar were married in Minden , Louisiana by a justice of the peace . It was the second marriage for both ( both being divorced with children ) . The next day two public ceremonies were also held at the New Orleans Civic Auditorium , where 14 @,@ 000 seats were sold for each . After Williams ' death , a judge ruled that the wedding was not legal because Jones Eshlimar 's divorce had not become final until eleven days after she married Williams . Williams ' first wife , Audrey , and his mother , Lillie Williams , were the driving forces behind having the marriage declared invalid and pursued the matter for years . Williams had also married Audrey Sheppard before her divorce was final , on the tenth day of a required sixty @-@ day reconciliation period .
Williams was a lifelong Republican and was a vocal supporter of Dwight D. Eisenhower . According to singer Jo Stafford , he sent Eisenhower a telegram on his birthday prior to the 1952 presidential election informing him that Williams considered it a personal honor to endorse a military figure to lead the nation in its coming future .
= = Legacy = =
Hank is widely recognized as " The King Of Country Music " , a title he shares with fellow artists Roy Acuff and George Strait .
Alabama governor Gordon Persons officially proclaimed September 21 " Hank Williams Day . " The first celebration , in 1954 featured the unveiling of a monument at the Cramton Bowl , that was later placed in the grave site of Williams . The ceremony featured Ferlin Husky interpreting " I Saw the Light . "
Williams had 11 number one hits in his career ( " Lovesick Blues " , " Long Gone Lonesome Blues " , " Why Don 't You Love Me " , " Moanin ' the Blues " , " Cold , Cold Heart " , " Hey , Good Lookin ' " , " Jambalaya ( On the Bayou ) " , " I 'll Never Get Out of This World Alive " , " Kaw @-@ Liga " , " Your Cheatin ' Heart " , and " Take These Chains from My Heart " ) , as well as many other top ten hits .
On February 8 , 1960 , Williams ' star was placed at 6400 Hollywood Boulevard on the Hollywood Walk of Fame . He was inducted into the Country Music Hall of Fame in 1961 and into the Alabama Music Hall of Fame in 1985 . When Downbeat magazine took a poll the year after Hank 's death , he was voted the most popular country and Western performer of all time — ahead of such giants as Jimmie Rodgers , Roy Acuff , Red Foley , and Ernest Tubb . In 1977 , a national organization of CB truck drivers voted " Your Cheatin ' Heart " as their favorite record of all time . In 1987 , he was inducted in the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame under the category Early Influence . He was ranked second in CMT 's 40 Greatest Men of Country Music in 2003 , behind only Johnny Cash . His son , Hank Jr . , was ranked on the same list . In 2004 Rolling Stone ranked him number 74 on its list of the 100 Greatest Artists of All Time . The website Acclaimedmusic , which collates recommendations of albums and recording artists , has a year @-@ by @-@ year recommendation for top artists . Hank Williams is ranked first for the decade 1940 – 1949 for his song " I 'm So Lonesome I Could Cry " . Many artists of the 1950s and 1960s , including Elvis Presley , Bob Dylan , Jerry Lee Lewis , Merle Haggard , Gene Vincent , Carl Perkins , Ricky Nelson , Jack Scott , and Conway Twitty recorded Williams songs during their careers .
In 2011 Williams ' 1949 MGM number one hit , " Lovesick Blues " , was inducted into the Recording Academy Grammy Hall of Fame . The same year Hank Williams : The Complete Mother ’ s Best Recordings … .Plus ! was honored with a Grammy nomination for Best Historical Album . In 1999 , Williams was inducted into the Native American Music Hall of Fame . On April 12 , 2010 , the Pulitzer Prize Board awarded Williams a posthumous special citation that paid tribute to his " craftsmanship as a songwriter who expressed universal feelings with poignant simplicity and played a pivotal role in transforming country music into a major musical and cultural force in American life " . Keeping his legacy alive , Williams ' son , Hank Williams , Jr . , daughter Jett Williams , grandson Hank Williams III , and granddaughters Hilary Williams and Holly Williams are also country musicians .
In 2006 , a janitor of Sony / ATV Music Publishing found in a dumpster the unfinished lyrics written by Williams that had been found in his car the night he died . The worker claimed that she sold Williams ' notes to a representative of the Honky @-@ Tonk Hall of Fame and the Rock @-@ N @-@ Roll Roadshow . The janitor was accused of theft , but the charges were later dropped when a judge determined that her version of events was true . The unfinished lyrics were later returned to Sony / ATV , which handed them to Bob Dylan in 2008 to complete the songs for a new album . Ultimately , the completion of the album included recordings by Alan Jackson , Norah Jones , Jack White , Lucinda Williams , Vince Gill , Rodney Crowell , Patty Loveless , Levon Helm , Jakob Dylan , Sheryl Crow and Merle Haggard . The album , named The Lost Notebooks of Hank Williams was released on October 4 , 2011 .
Material recorded by Williams , originally intended for radio broadcasts to be played when he was on tour , or for its distribution to radio stations nationwide resurfaced throughout time . In 1993 , a double @-@ disc set of recordings of Williams for the Health & Happiness Show was released . Broadcast in 1949 , the shows were recorded for the promotion of Hadacol . The set was re @-@ released on Hank Williams : The Legend Begins in 2011 . The album included unreleased songs . " Fan It " and " Alexander 's Ragtime Band " , recorded by Williams at age fifteen ; the homemade recordings of him singing " Freight Train Blues " , " New San Antonio Rose " , " St. Louis Blues " and " Greenback Dollar " at age eighteen ; and a recording for the 1951 March of Dimes . In May 2014 , further radio recordings by Williams were released . The Garden Spot Programs , 1950 , a series of publicity segments for plant nursery Naughton Farms originally aired in 1950 . The recordings were found by collector George Gimarc at radio station KSIB in Creston , Iowa . Gimarc contacted Williams ' daughter Jett , and Colin Escott , writer of a biography book on Williams . The material was restored and remastered by Michael Graves and released by Omnivore Recordings .
In June 2014 it was announced that British actor Tom Hiddleston would portray Williams in the upcoming biopic I Saw the Light , based on Colin Escott 's 1994 book Hank Williams : The Biography . Marc Abraham is directing the film . Filming took place in October through December 2014 and the film is set to release sometime in 2015 .
= = = Lawsuits over the estate = = =
After Williams ' death , Audrey Williams filed a suit in Nashville against MGM Records and Acuff @-@ Rose . The suit demanded that both of the publishing companies continue to pay her half of the royalties from Hank Williams ' records . Williams had an agreement giving his first wife half of the royalties , but allegedly there was no clarification that the deal was valid after his death . Because Williams may have left no will , the disposition of the other fifty percent was considered uncertain ; those involved included the second Mrs. Williams and her daughter and Hank Williams ' mother and sister . On October 22 , 1975 , a federal judge in Atlanta , Georgia , finally ruled Jones Eshlimar 's marriage was valid and that half of Williams ' future royalties belonged to her .
= = = = WSM 's Mother 's Best Flour = = = =
In 1951 , Williams hosted a fifteen @-@ minute show for Mother 's Best flour in WSM radio . Due to Williams ' tour schedules some of the shows were previously recorded to be played in his absence . The original acetates were in possession of Jett Williams , while existing duplicates were found and intended to be published by a third party . In February 2005 , the Tennessee Court of Appeals upheld a lower court ruling stating that Williams ' heirs — son , Hank Williams Jr . , and daughter , Jett Williams — have the sole rights to sell his recordings made for a Nashville radio station in 1951 . The court rejected claims made by Polygram Records and Legacy Entertainment in releasing recordings Williams made for the Mother 's Best Flour Show . The recordings , which Legacy Entertainment acquired in 1997 , include live versions of Williams ' hits and his cover version of other songs . Polygram contended that Williams ' contract with MGM Records , which Polygram now owns , gave them rights to release the radio recordings . A 3 @-@ CD selection of the tracks , restored by Joe Palmaccio , was released by Time @-@ Life in October 2008 titled The Unreleased Recordings .
= = = Tributes = = =
= = Awards = =
= = Discography = =
= = = = Books = = = =
= = = = Journals = = = =
" The Year 's Top Country & Western Artists / The Year 's Top Country & Western Records " . The Billboard : 19 . January 13 , 1951 . ISSN 0006 @-@ 2510 . Retrieved March 7 , 2011 .
Nielsen Business Media , Inc ( May 23 , 1953 ) . " File Action to Untangle Hank Williams Estate " . The Billboard : 15 . ISSN 0006 @-@ 2510 . Retrieved March 13 , 2011 .
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= Stakes ( miniseries ) =
Stakes is an American animated miniseries based on the show Adventure Time by Pendleton Ward . It aired as part of the show 's seventh season from November 16 , 2015 to November 19 , 2015 on Cartoon Network . Adventure Time follows the adventures of Finn ( voiced by Jeremy Shada ) , a human boy , and his best friend and adoptive brother Jake ( voiced by John DiMaggio ) , a dog with magical powers to change shape , grow and shrink at will . In this limited event series , Princess Bubblegum ( voiced by Hynden Walch ) removes Marceline the Vampire Queen 's ( voiced by Olivia Olson ) vampiric essence , which unleashes five recently resurrected vampires onto Ooo . Marceline , Bubblegum , Finn , Jake , and Peppermint Butler ( voiced by Steve Little ) are forced to deal with the fallout .
The miniseries ' story was developed by series creator Pendleton Ward , showrunner Adam Muto , head writer Kent Osborne , and staff writer Jack Pendarvis . The eight episodes were storyboarded by Ako Castuera , Jesse Moynihan , Muto , Hanna K. Nyström , Herpich , Seo Kim , Somvilay Xayaphone , Emily Partridge , and Luke Pearson , whilst Andres Salaff , Elizabeth Ito , and Muto handled supervising direction . Former Adventure Time storyboard artist Rebecca Sugar returned briefly to the show to voice Marceline 's mother , and to contribute a song , entitled " Everything Stays " . Stakes was a ratings success , and was met with mostly positive reviews , with Sugar 's song in particular being met with critical applause . With that being said , a few commentators felt that the miniseries did not meet expectations . Stakes was released on DVD on January 19 , 2016 .
= = Plot = =
Told in eight parts , Stakes documents the reemergence of five of Marceline the Vampire Queen 's most powerful vampiric foes : the Fool ( voiced by Ron Funches ) , the Empress Eyes ( voiced by Rebecca Romijn ) , the Hierophant ( voiced by Paul Williams ) , the Moon ( voiced by Beau Billingslea ) , and the Vampire King himself ( voiced by Billy Brown ) . The quintet remerges after Bubblegum tries to extract Marceline ’ s vampiric essence , in an attempt to return Marceline to her normal half @-@ demon state . The reappearance of these vampires forces Marceline , Bubblegum , Finn , Jake , and Peppermint Butler to stake them one @-@ by @-@ one .
= = Production = =
Stakes was announced in February 2015 alongside news of Long Live the Royals , a separate miniseries created by Sean Szeles , at an upfront regarding Cartoon Network 's programming for the 2015 to 2016 television season . Writing for Cartoon Brew , Amid Amidi speculated that both were commissioned following the success of Over the Garden Wall , the network 's first miniseries created by Patrick McHale ( a former writer for Adventure Time ) . Michael Ouweleen , the chief marketing officer of the network , later said that " miniseries provide the network with more opportunities to try different creative textures and give new properties a chance to get on air . " Despite being touted by some outlets as a " spin @-@ off " , Adventure Time showrunner Adam Muto later clarified that Stakes would air as part of the series ' seventh season .
At the 2015 New York Comic Con , Muto revealed that the miniseries originated with ideas that were initially developed during the show 's second season . He remarked , " There was this idea from season two about Marceline and ... how she got her powers to begin with . We kind of rolled with that and expanded that into eight episodes . " When Olivia Olson — the voice actress who plays Marceline — was informed that the show would be making an eight @-@ part series about her character , she reportedly cried because she was so excited . Due to the Marceline @-@ centric nature of the miniseries , a new opening was created that features Olson singing the theme song . This intro was storyboarded by Tom Herpich and animated by Masaaki Yuasa 's company Science SARU .
The miniseries ' story was developed by head writer Kent Osborne , series creator Pendleton Ward , Jack Pendarvis , and Muto . The eight episodes were storyboarded by Ako Castuera , Jesse Moynihan , Muto , Hanna K. Nyström , Herpich , Seo Kim , Somvilay Xayaphone , Emily Partridge , and Luke Pearson . Andres Salaff , Elizabeth Ito , and Muto served as the miniseries ' supervising directors . Notably , the miniseries saw the return of several artists who had previously left the series , like Castuera ( a storyboard artist who had left the series after storyboarding the fifth season finale " Billy 's Bucket List " ) , and Rebecca Sugar ( a storyboard artist and songwriter , who had left the series after storyboarding the fifth season episode " Simon & Marcy " ) . Castuera storyboarded the first , sixth , and seventh parts of Stakes alongside Moynihan , and Sugar wrote a new song for the miniseries entitled " Everything Stays " and voiced Marceline 's mother .
In regards to the miniseries ' song " Everything Stays " , Nyström revealed that , during the storyboarding of the episode of the same name , she found herself unable to write a lullaby for the scene between Marceline and her mother . She relayed her issue to Muto , who contacted Sugar and asked if she would be willing to pen the song . Sugar agreed and based the song on an incident in which she lost a stuffed animal in a garden . A year later , she found it ; the sun had bleached the exposed surfaces , but the underside was still the same . She explained , " [ The stuffed animal ] wasn ’ t better , or worse , just different . It was the first time I realized that things will change no matter what , even if they ’ re left alone , and stay completely still . " Muto was excited to have Sugar return to work on the show , and noted at the 2015 Adventure Time San Diego Comic @-@ Con International panel that " because [ Stakes ] was a Marceline miniseries , it wouldn 't really feel complete unless Rebecca Sugar wrote a song for it . "
Ghostshrimp , a background artist who worked on the series during seasons one through four , also returned to draw around 70 background pieces for this miniseries . Ghostshrimp , who had left the series during the middle of season four , noted : " I was super pumped that they wanted me to work on it , [ and ] it was great to return to that world for another go around . "
= = Cast = =
The miniseries features vocal performances courtesy of the show 's regular crew : Jeremy Shada ( who voices Finn the Human ) , John DiMaggio ( who portrays Jake the Dog ) , Olivia Olson ( who portrays Marceline ) , Tom Kenny ( who lends his voice to the Ice King ) , Hynden Walch ( who voices Princess Bubblegum ) , Steve Little ( who plays Peppermint Butler ) , and Pendleton Ward ( who voices Lumpy Space Princess ) . The Adventure Time cast records their lines together in group recordings as opposed to different recording sessions with each voice actor . This is to record more natural sounding dialogue among the characters . Hynden Walch has described these group recordings as akin to " doing a play reading — a really , really out there play . "
The miniseries also features several guest actors lending their voices to various characters . Sugar , in addition to her role as songwriter , was also brought on board to voice Marceline 's mother ; this role marks her first foray into voice acting . Other guest stars include Rebecca Romijn as Empress Eyes , Billy Brown as the Vampire King , Paul Williams as the Hierophant , Ron Funches as the Fool , Beau Billingslea as the Moon , Kyle Kinane as Cloud Dance , and Ava Acres as Young Marceline and the rabbit @-@ hatted child .
= = Release and reception = =
= = = Broadcast = = =
Although several sources suggested that the miniseries would air in October 2015 , the miniseries instead debuted on Cartoon Network on November 16 , 2015 . An exclusive sneak peek was screened at the New York Comic Con on October 9 . The first two episodes of Stakes debuted on November 16 , and , following this , two episodes aired every day for three days . On November 20 , the entirety of the miniseries re @-@ aired . On January 18 , 2016 , preceding the miniseries ' January 19 , 2016 , DVD release in the United States , Cartoon Network aired Stakes as an 88 @-@ minute standalone movie .
The miniseries made its international debut on Cartoon Network in Australia and New Zealand on January 18 , and concluded airing on January 21 , 2016 . Stakes premiered on Cartoon Network UK and Ireland on March 14 , 2016 , and concluded on March 17 , 2016 .
= = = Ratings = = =
According to a Cartoon Network press release distributed prior to Stakes being available on DVD , the miniseries was a " phenomenal success , ranking as the # 1 program in its time period with all key kids and boys audiences . " The premiere episodes , " Marceline the Vampire Queen " / " Everything Stays " , were collectively watched by 1 @.@ 87 million viewers and they both scored a 0 @.@ 45 in the 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ old demographic according to Nielsen ( Nielsen ratings are audience measurement systems that determine the audience size and composition of television programming in the United States ) ; this means that 0 @.@ 45 percent of all households with viewers aged 18 to 49 years old were watching television at the time of the episodes ' airing . This made the two episodes were the most @-@ watched installments of the series , in terms of viewers , since the sixth season episode " The Diary " , which was viewed by 1 @.@ 91 million viewers . The miniseries ' finale , " Checkmate " / " The Dark Cloud " , was viewed by 1 @.@ 7 million viewers , and scored a 0 @.@ 4 in the 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ old demographic .
= = = Critical reception = = =
Stakes was met with mostly positive reviews , although a few commentators felt that the miniseries did not meet expectations . Charlie Jane Anders of io9 applauded the miniseries , noting that it 's an interesting meditation of the concept of change , as well as the philosophical idea that everything is cyclical . In regards to the art and direction of the miniseries , Anders wrote : " There is so much insane gorgeous imagery in this [ miniseries ] , including a ton of really fantastic dream sequences . This show is really pushing its limits in terms of pure visual artistry . " Anders noted that , while some fans of the show have been suffering from " Adventure Time fatigue " — largely based on the belief that the show has not moved forward since Finn met his father — Stakes " really feels like a rejoinder to the people who complain the show isn ’ t moving fast enough with its plots " . Writing for Vox , Todd VanDerWerff wrote highly of the miniseries , arguing that it was an excellent example of the coming @-@ of @-@ age story that " shows off the kids series ' emotional maturity " . He did note that the miniseries is " less a cohesive whole than a bunch of short stories that feel as if they accidentally add up to something bigger " , and that the need for every installment to exist as a self @-@ contained unit made Stakes " a little clunky " . With that being said , he felt that it ended up being " suitably epic " and " rich with metaphor " . Ultimately , VanDerWerff felt that the moral message of the miniseries was : " Change is good . Growth is good . Supporting others ' growth is good . And accepting others when they need to change is the best thing you can do . "
Heather Hogan of Autostraddle lauded the miniseries for " color [ ing ] in some of Marceline 's past , answer [ ing ] lots of questions about her relationship with Bonnie , and promis [ ing ] her a richer future . " She argued that the miniseries as a whole was a commentary on depression , and that at the conclusion of Stakes , while Marceline had not vanquished depression , " fighting it helped her grow . " Brandon Russell of TechnoBuffalo wrote , " The miniseries does an excellent job of exploring themes of depression , change , and forgiveness . " Russell praised the miniseries for showing Marceline 's emotional transformation , noting that Marceline 's momentary depression in " The Dark Cloud " at the futility of her plight is " a reminder that , although change is hard , it 's necessary for growth . " However , Russell critiqued the fact that , due to the individual episodes ' lengths , some of the miniseries ' more poignant material was not explored to its full extent .
Oliver Sava of The A.V. Club awarded the miniseries a " B " , noting that the event " loses steam when it moves away from the introspective personal elements of the past to detail Marceline and her friends ' vampire hunting adventure in the present . " He also bemoaned the fact that only " Everything Stays " features flashbacks , arguing that " rushing through those past events is a missed opportunity to offer a more comprehensive look at where Marceline comes from and how those circumstances have shaped her " . With that being said , Sava was highly complimentary towards the voice acting , with praise being directed towards Olson and the actors who voice the villains ; Sava wrote , " The new characters ' personalities are quickly solidified by the guest stars ' expressive performances . " Eric Thurm of Pitchfork Media opined that Stakes " includes all sorts of cool action sequences and , best of all , it focuses on the backstory of the show 's most musical character : Marceline [ ... ] But Stakes , as fun as it is , ultimately fails to fully deliver , mostly because of a lack of , um , stakes . "
Sugar 's " Everything Stays " was met with critical praise . VanDerWerff described it as " beautiful " . Russell argued that it is " arguably the most beautiful and poignant song in the Adventure Time canon . " Sava called it " poignant " , noting that " Olson brings a mournful quality to the song when Marceline reprises it later , and the combination of her somber vocals with Sugar 's delicate songwriting gives the song a quiet power that highlights the importance of this melody in Marceline 's story . " Likewise , Thurm called it the " most exciting moment " in the miniseries and that the song " is pretty much a perfect Adventure Time song . It 's quiet , beautiful , and heartfelt — a lullaby for children at heart , no matter their age . "
= = Episodes = =
= = Home media = =
Warner Home Video released the entire miniseries on DVD on January 19 , 2016 . The individual episodes can be downloaded from both the iTunes Store and Amazon.com.
= = = DVD release = = =
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= George Rogers Clark =
George Rogers Clark ( November 19 , 1752 – February 13 , 1818 ) was a surveyor , soldier , and militia officer from Virginia and the highest ranking American military officer on the northwestern frontier during the American Revolutionary War . He served as leader of the Kentucky ( then part of Virginia ) militia throughout much of the war . Clark is best known for his celebrated captures of Kaskaskia ( 1778 ) and Vincennes ( 1779 ) during the Illinois Campaign , which greatly weakened British influence in the Northwest Territory . Because the British ceded the entire Northwest Territory to the United States in the 1783 Treaty of Paris , Clark has often been hailed as the " Conqueror of the Old Northwest " .
Clark 's military achievements all came before his 30th birthday . Afterwards he led militia in the opening engagements of the Northwest Indian War , but was accused of being drunk on duty . Despite his demand for a formal investigation into the accusations , he was disgraced and forced to resign . He left Kentucky to live on the Indiana frontier . Never fully reimbursed by Virginia for his wartime expenditures , Clark spent the final decades of his life evading creditors , and living in increasing poverty and obscurity . He was involved in two failed conspiracies to open the Spanish @-@ controlled Mississippi River to American traffic . After suffering a stroke and the loss of his leg , Clark was aided in his final years by family members , including his younger brother William , one of the leaders of the Lewis and Clark Expedition . Clark died of a stroke on February 13 , 1818 .
= = Early years = =
George Rogers Clark was born on November 19 , 1752 in Charlottesville , Virginia , near the home of Thomas Jefferson . He was the second of ten children of John Clark and Ann Rogers Clark , who were Anglicans of English and Scots ancestry . Five of their six sons became officers during the American Revolutionary War . Their youngest son , William Clark , was too young to fight in the Revolution , but later became famous as a leader of the Lewis and Clark Expedition . In about 1756 , after the outbreak of the French and Indian War ( part of the worldwide Seven Years ' War ) , the family moved away from the frontier to Caroline County , Virginia , and lived on a 400 @-@ acre ( 1 @.@ 6 km2 ) plantation that later grew to over 2 @,@ 000 acres ( 8 @.@ 1 km2 ) .
Little is known of Clark 's schooling . He lived with his grandfather so he could attend Donald Robertson 's school with James Madison and John Taylor of Caroline and received a common education . He was also tutored at home , as was usual for Virginian planters ' children of the period . Becoming a planter , he was taught to survey land by his grandfather .
At age nineteen , Clark left his home on his first surveying trip into western Virginia . In 1772 , as a twenty @-@ year @-@ old surveyor , Clark made his first trip into Kentucky via the Ohio River at Pittsburgh . Thousands of settlers were entering the area as a result of the Treaty of Fort Stanwix of 1768 . In 1774 , Clark was preparing to lead an expedition of ninety men down the Ohio River when war broke out with the American Indians . Although most of Kentucky was not inhabited by Indians , several tribes used the area for hunting . The tribes living in the Ohio country had not been party to the treaty signed with the Cherokee , which ceded the Kentucky hunting grounds to Britain for settlement . They attacked the European @-@ American settlers to try to push them out of the area , conflicts that eventually culminated in Lord Dunmore 's War . Clark served in the war as a captain in the Virginia militia .
= = Revolutionary War = =
As the American Revolutionary War began in the East , settlers in Kentucky were involved in a dispute over the region 's sovereignty . Richard Henderson , a judge and land speculator from North Carolina , had purchased much of Kentucky from the Cherokee in an illegal treaty . Henderson intended to create a proprietary colony known as Transylvania , but many Kentucky settlers did not recognize Transylvania 's authority over them . In June 1776 , these settlers selected Clark and John Gabriel Jones to deliver a petition to the Virginia General Assembly , asking Virginia to formally extend its boundaries to include Kentucky . Clark and Jones traveled via the Wilderness Road to Williamsburg , where they convinced Governor Patrick Henry to create Kentucky County , Virginia . Clark was given 500 lb ( 230 kg ) of gunpowder to help defend the settlements and was appointed a major in the Kentucky County militia . Clark was just 24 years old , but older settlers such as Daniel Boone , Benjamin Logan , and Leonard Helm looked to him as a leader .
= = = Illinois campaign = = =
In 1777 , the American Revolutionary War intensified in Kentucky . Armed and encouraged by British lieutenant governor Henry Hamilton at Fort Detroit , Native Americans waged war and raided the Kentucky settlers in hopes of reclaiming the region as their hunting ground . The Continental Army could spare no men for an invasion of the Northwest or the defense of distant Kentucky , so its defense was left entirely to the local population . Clark participated in several skirmishes against the Native American raiders . As a leader of the defense of Kentucky , Clark believed that the best way to end these raids was to seize British outposts north of the Ohio River , thereby destroying British influence with the Indians . Clark asked Governor Patrick Henry of Virginia for permission to lead a secret expedition to capture the nearest British posts , which were located in the Illinois country . Governor Henry commissioned Clark as a lieutenant colonel in the Virginia militia and authorized him to raise troops for the expedition .
In July 1778 , Clark and about 175 men crossed the Ohio River at Fort Massac and marched to Kaskaskia , taking it on the night of July 4 . Cahokia , Vincennes , and several other villages and forts in British territory were subsequently captured without firing a shot , because most of the French @-@ speaking and American Indian inhabitants were unwilling to take up arms on behalf of the British . To counter Clark 's advance , Henry Hamilton reoccupied Vincennes with a small force . In February 1779 , Clark returned to Vincennes in a surprise winter expedition and retook the town , capturing Hamilton in the process . The winter expedition was Clark 's most significant military achievement and became the source of his reputation as an early American military hero . When news of his victory reached General George Washington , Clark 's success was celebrated and was used to encourage the alliance with France . Washington recognized his achievement had been gained without support from the regular army in men or funds . Virginia capitalized on Clark 's success by laying claim to the whole of the Old Northwest , calling it Illinois County .
= = = Final years of the war = = =
Clark 's ultimate goal during the Revolutionary War was to seize British @-@ held Detroit , but he could never recruit enough men to make the attempt . The Kentucky militiamen generally preferred to defend their homes by staying closer to Kentucky rather than making a long and potentially perilous expedition to Detroit . In June 1780 , a mixed force of British and Indians , including Shawnee , Delaware , Wyandot and others , from Detroit invaded Kentucky with cannons , capturing two fortified settlements and carrying away hundreds of prisoners . In August 1780 , Clark led a retaliatory force that won a victory at the Shawnee village of Peckuwe , at what is now called George Rogers Clark Park near Springfield , Ohio .
The next year Clark was promoted to brigadier general by Governor Thomas Jefferson , and was given command of all the militia in the Kentucky and Illinois counties . He prepared again to lead an expedition against Detroit . Although Washington transferred a small group of regulars to assist Clark , the detachment was disastrously defeated in August 1781 before they could meet up with Clark , ending the campaign .
In August 1782 , another British @-@ Indian force defeated the Kentucky militia at the Battle of Blue Licks . Although Clark had not been present at the battle , as senior military officer , he was severely criticized in the Virginia Council for the disaster . In response , Clark led another expedition into the Ohio country , destroying several Indian towns along the Great Miami River in the last major expedition of the war .
The importance of Clark 's activities in the Revolutionary War has been the subject of much debate among historians . As early as 1779 he was called the Conqueror of the Northwest by George Mason . Because the British ceded the entire Old Northwest Territory to the United States in the 1783 Treaty of Paris , some historians , including William Hayden English , credit Clark with nearly doubling the size of the original Thirteen Colonies by seizing control of the Illinois country during the war . Clark 's Illinois campaign — particularly the surprise march to Vincennes — was greatly celebrated and romanticized . Other historians , such as Lowell Harrison , have downplayed the importance of the campaign in the peace negotiations and the outcome of the war , arguing that Clark 's " conquest " was little more than a temporary occupation .
= = Later years = =
Clark was just thirty years old when the Revolutionary War ended , but his greatest military achievements were already behind him . Ever since Clark 's victories in Illinois , settlers had been pouring into Kentucky , often illegally squatting on Indian land north of the Ohio River . From 1784 until 1788 Clark served as the superintendent @-@ surveyor for Virginia 's war veterans and surveyed the lands granted to them for their service in the war . The position brought a small income , but Clark devoted very little time to the enterprise . Clark helped to negotiate the Treaty of Fort McIntosh in 1785 and the Treaty of Fort Finney in 1786 with tribes north of the river , but violence between Native Americans and Kentucky settlers continued to escalate .
According to a 1790 U.S. government report , 1 @,@ 500 Kentucky settlers had been killed in Indian raids since the end of the Revolutionary War . In an attempt to end these raids , Clark led an expedition of 1 @,@ 200 drafted men against Indian towns on the Wabash River in 1786 , one of the first actions of the Northwest Indian War . The campaign ended without a victory : lacking supplies , about three hundred militiamen mutinied , and Clark had to withdraw , but not before concluding a ceasefire with the Indians . It was rumored , most notably by James Wilkinson , that Clark had often been drunk on duty . When Clark learned of the rumors he demanded an official inquiry be made , but his request was declined by Governor of Virginia , and Virginia Council condemned Clark 's actions . Clark 's reputation was tarnished , he never again led men in battle , and he left Kentucky , moving into the Indiana frontier near Clarksville
= = = Life in Indiana = = =
Clark lived most of the rest of his life in financial difficulties . Clark had financed the majority of his military campaigns with borrowed funds . When creditors began to come to him for these unpaid debts , he was unable to obtain recompense from Virginia or the United States Congress because record keeping on the frontier during the war had been haphazard . For his services in the war Virginia gave Clark a gift of 150 @,@ 000 acres ( 610 km2 ) of land . The soldiers who fought with Clark also received smaller tracts of land . Together with Clark 's Grant and his other holdings , his ownership encompassed all of present @-@ day Clark County , Indiana and most of the surrounding counties . Although Clark had claims to tens of thousands of acres of land resulting from his military service and land speculation , he was " land @-@ poor " , meaning that he owned much land but lacked the means to make money from it .
With his career seemingly over and his prospects for prosperity doubtful , on February 2 , 1793 , Clark offered his services to Edmond @-@ Charles Genêt , the controversial ambassador of revolutionary France , hoping to earn money to maintain his estate . Western Americans were outraged that the Spanish , who controlled Louisiana , denied Americans free access to the Mississippi River , their only easy outlet for long distance commerce . The Washington Administration was also seemingly deaf to western concerns about opening the Mississippi to U.S. commerce . Clark proposed to Genêt that , with French financial support , he could lead an expedition to drive the Spanish out of the Mississippi Valley . Genêt appointed Clark " Major General in the Armies of France and Commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the French Revolutionary Legion on the Mississippi River " . Clark began to organize a campaign to seize New Madrid , St. Louis , Natchez , and New Orleans , getting assistance from old comrades such as Benjamin Logan and John Montgomery , and winning the tacit support of Kentucky governor Isaac Shelby . Clark spent $ 4 @,@ 680 ( $ 59 @,@ 161 in 2009 chained dollars ) of his own money for supplies . In early 1794 , however , President Washington issued a proclamation forbidding Americans from violating U.S. neutrality and threatened to dispatch General Anthony Wayne to Fort Massac to stop the expedition . The French government recalled Genêt and revoked the commissions he granted to the Americans for the war against Spain . Clark 's planned campaign gradually collapsed , and he was unable to convince the French to reimburse him for his expenses .
Due to his growing debt , it became impossible for Clark to continue holding his land , since it became subject to seizure . Much of his land he deeded to friends or transferred to family members where it could be held for him , so that it would not be lost to his creditors . After a few years , the lenders and their assignees closed in and deprived the veteran of almost all of the property that remained in his name . Clark , once the largest landholder in the Northwest Territory , was left with only a small plot of land in Clarksville , where he built a small gristmill which he worked with two African American slaves . Clark lived on for another two decades , and continued to struggle with alcohol abuse , a problem which had plagued him on @-@ and @-@ off for many years . He was very bitter about his treatment and neglect by Virginia , and blamed his misfortune on the state .
The Indiana Territory chartered the Indiana Canal Company in 1805 to build a canal around the Falls of the Ohio , near Clarksville . Clark was named to the board of directors and was part of the surveying team that assisted in laying out the route of the canal . The company collapsed the next year before construction could begin , when two of the fellow board members , including Vice President Aaron Burr , were arrested for treason . A large part of the company 's $ 1 @.@ 2 million ( $ 60 @.@ 5 million in 2009 chained dollars ) in investments was unaccounted for , and where the funds went was never determined .
= = = Return to Kentucky = = =
In 1809 Clark suffered a severe stroke . Falling into an operating fireplace , he suffered a burn on one leg so severe as to necessitate the amputation of the limb . It was impossible for Clark to continue to operate his mill , so he became a dependent member of the household of his brother @-@ in @-@ law , Major William Croghan , a planter at Locust Grove farm eight miles ( 13 km ) from the growing town of Louisville . During 1812 , the Virginia General Assembly granted Clark a pension of four hundred dollars per year , and finally recognized his services in the Revolution by granting him a ceremonial sword . After a second stroke , Clark died at Locust Grove , February 13 , 1818 , and was buried at Locust Grove Cemetery two days later .
In his funeral oration , Judge John Rowan succinctly summed up the stature and importance of George Rogers Clark during the critical years on the Trans @-@ Appalachian frontier : " The mighty oak of the forest has fallen , and now the scrub oaks sprout all around . "
Clark 's body was exhumed along with the rest of his family members on October 29 , 1869 , and reburied at Cave Hill Cemetery in Louisville .
Several years after Clark 's death the state of Virginia granted his estate $ 30 @,@ 000 ( $ 568 @,@ 853 in 2009 chained dollars ) as a partial payment on the debts that they owed him . The government of Virginia continued to find debt to Clark for decades , with the last payment to his estate being made in 1913 . Clark never married and he kept no account of any romantic relationships , although his family held that he had once been in love with Teresa de Leyba , sister of Don Fernando de Leyba , the Lieutenant Governor of Spanish Louisiana . Writings from his niece and cousin in the Draper Manuscripts attest to their belief in Clark 's lifelong disappointment over the failed romance .
= = Legacy = =
On May 23 , 1928 , President Calvin Coolidge ordered a memorial to George Rogers Clark to be erected in Vincennes . Completed in 1933 , the George Rogers Clark Memorial , built in Roman Classical style , stands on what was then believed to be the site of Fort Sackville , and is now the George Rogers Clark National Historical Park . It includes a statue of Clark by Hermon Atkins MacNeil . On February 25 , 1929 , to commemorate the 150th anniversary of the surrender of Fort Sackville , the U.S. Post Office Department issued a 2 @-@ cent postage stamp that depicted the surrender . In April 1929 , the Paul Revere Chapter of the Daughters of the American Revolution of Muncie , Indiana erected a monument to George Rogers Clark on Washington Avenue in Fredericksburg , Virginia . The marker doesn 't identify the connection between General Clark and Fredericksburg , so this choice of location is currently a mystery . In 1975 , the Indiana General Assembly designated February 25 George Rogers Clark Day in Indiana . Built in 1929 , the George Rogers Clark Memorial Bridge ( Second Street Bridge ) carries U.S. Highway 31 , over the Ohio River at Louisville , Kentucky .
Other statues of Clark can be found in :
Metropolis , Fort Massac , Illinois , by sculptor Leon Hermant , placed by the Daughters of the American Revolution in the early 1900s .
Louisville , Kentucky , by sculptor Felix de Weldon , at Riverfront Plaza / Belvedere , next to the wharf on the Ohio River .
Springfield , Ohio , by Charles Keck at the site of the Battle of Piqua .
Charlottesville , Virginia , by Robert Aitken on the grounds of the University of Virginia .
Quincy , Illinois , in Riverview Park , on the eastern bank of the Mississippi River .
Indianapolis , Indiana , by sculptor John H. Mahoney , on Monument Circle .
Places named for Clark include counties in Illinois , Indiana , Kentucky ( home to George Rogers Clark High School ) , Ohio ( home to Clark State Community College ) , and Virginia , and communities in West Virginia ( Clarksburg ) , Indiana ( Clarksville ) , and Tennessee ( also Clarksville ) . Clark Street in Chicago , Illinois is named for him , as is a campsite in the Woodland Trails Scout Reservation , Camden , Ohio .
Schools named after Clark include :
George Rogers Clark College in Indianapolis , Indiana ( closed 1992 )
George Rogers Clark Elementary School in Clarksville , Indiana ( closed 2010 )
George Rogers Clark Middle / High School in Hammond , Indiana
George Rogers Clark High School in Winchester , Kentucky
Clark Middle School in Winchester , Kentucky
Clark Elementary School in Charlottesville , Virginia
George Rogers Clark Middle School in Vincennes , Indiana
George Rogers Clark Elementary School of Chicago .
George Rogers Clark Elementary School in Paducah , Kentucky
|
= Superunknown =
Superunknown is the fourth album by American rock band Soundgarden , released on March 8 , 1994 through A & M Records . It is the band 's second album with bassist Ben Shepherd , and features new producer Michael Beinhorn . Soundgarden began work on the album after touring in support of its previous album , Badmotorfinger ( 1991 ) . Superunknown continued a departure from the band 's earlier releases while displaying a more diverse range of influences .
Superunknown was a critical and commercial success and became the band 's breakthrough album . It debuted at number one on the Billboard 200 , selling 310 @,@ 000 copies in its opening week and reached high positions on charts worldwide . Five singles were released from the album : " The Day I Tried to Live " , " My Wave " , " Fell on Black Days " , " Spoonman " , and " Black Hole Sun " , the latter two of which won Grammy Awards and helped Soundgarden reach mainstream popularity . In 1995 , the album was nominated for the Grammy Award for Best Rock Album . The album has been certified five times platinum by the RIAA in the United States and has sold around 9 million copies worldwide and remains Soundgarden 's most successful album . Superunknown also enters many lists regarding the best rock albums ever released .
= = Recording = =
Soundgarden began work on the album about two months after finishing its stint on the 1992 Lollapalooza tour . The individual band members would work on material on their own and then bring in demos to which the other members of the band would contribute . Frontman Chris Cornell said that the band members allowed each other more freedom than on past records . Thayil observed that even though the band spent as much time writing and arranging as it had on previous albums , it spent a lot more time working on recording the songs . After two albums with producer Terry Date , the band decided to seek another collaborator , as guitarist Kim Thayil said , " We just thought we 'd go for a change . " Eventually they settled on producer Michael Beinhorn , who " didn 't have his own trademark sound which he was trying to tack on to Soundgarden " and had ideas the band approved .
The album 's recording sessions took place from July 1993 to September 1993 at Bad Animals Studio in Seattle , Washington , as according to Cornell " there was never a decent studio in Seattle and now there 's one with a Neve console , so it seemed obvious to use it . " . Bad Animals ' resident engineer Adam Kasper , who went on to produce Soundgarden 's following albums , assisted Beinhorn on the recording process . Soundgarden took the approach of recording one song at a time . The drum and bass parts were recorded first for each song , and then Cornell and Thayil would lay down their parts over top . Cornell said that getting to know Beinhorn contributed to the length of time Soundgarden spent working on the album . The band spent time experimenting with different drum and guitar sounds , as well as utilizing techniques such as layering , resulting in an expansive production sound . Cornell said , " Michael Beinhorn was so into sounds . He was so , almost , anal about it , that it took the piss out of us a lot of the time ... By the time you get the sounds that you want to record the song , you 're sick and tired of playing it . " Beinhorn tried to add many of his preferred musicians to mold the band 's sound , in what Billboard described as " weaning the band from brute force , giving it the impetus to invest in a more subtle power " . For instance , prior to recording the vocals of " Black Hole Sun " , Beinhorn made Cornell listen to Frank Sinatra .
Superunknown lasts for 15 songs clocking on approximately 70 minutes because according to Cornell , " we didn ’ t really want to argue over what should be cut " . Soundgarden took a break in the middle of recording to open for Neil Young on a ten @-@ day tour of the United States . The band then brought in Brendan O 'Brien to mix the album , as Beinhorn felt the band needed " a fresh pair of ears " ; O 'Brien had come recommended by Pearl Jam guitarist Stone Gossard . Thayil called the mixing process " very painless , " and bassist Ben Shepherd said it was " the fastest part of the record . "
= = Composition = =
The songs on Superunknown captured the metal influences of the band 's previous works while showcasing the group 's newly evolving style . Steve Huey of AllMusic said that the band 's " earlier punk influences are rarely detectable , replaced by surprisingly effective appropriations of pop and psychedelia . " Cornell labeled the album as more " challenging " and " versatile " than the band 's previous releases . The songs on the album are more experimental and diverse than the band 's previous recordings , with some songs having a Middle @-@ Eastern or Indian flavor ( for example " Half " , sung by Shepherd ) . Some songs also show a Beatles influence , such as " Head Down " and " Black Hole Sun " . In a 1994 interview with Guitar World , Thayil explained , " We looked deep down inside the very core of our souls and there was a little Ringo sitting there . Oh sure , we like telling people it 's John Lennon or George Harrison ; but when you really look deep inside of Soundgarden , there 's a little Ringo wanting to get out . " Drummer Matt Cameron said that the experimentation on the album was " just a matter of refinement . " According to The A.V. Club , the album " both redefined and transcended grunge " . Michael Beinhorn stated that to achieve the intensity of Superunknown , he sought influence from European electronic music , such as the British Aphex Twin and the Dutch genre of Gabber , described by him as " some of the rawest music made " .
Soundgarden utilized alternative tunings and odd time signatures on several of the album 's songs . " Spoonman " , " Black Hole Sun " , " Let Me Drown " and " Kickstand " were performed in drop D tuning while " Mailman " and " Limo Wreck " employed CGDGBE tuning . Some songs used more unorthodox tunings : " My Wave " and " The Day I Tried to Live " are both in an EEBBBB tuning . " Head Down " and " Half " used CGCGGE tuning and " Like Suicide " is performed in DGDGBC tuning . Soundgarden 's use of odd time signatures was varied as well ; " My Wave " uses 5 / 4 , " Fell On Black Days " is in 6 / 4 , " Limo Wreck " is played in 15 / 8 , " The Day I Tried to Live " and " Spoonman " both alternate between 7 / 4 and 4 / 4 sections , and " Black Hole Sun " is in 4 / 4 and 9 / 8 . Thayil has said that Soundgarden usually did not consider the time signature of a song until after the band had written it , and said that the use of odd meters was " a total accident . "
Lyrically , the album is quite dark and mysterious , as much of it is often interpreted to be dealing with issues such as substance abuse , suicide , and depression , with running themes of revenge , annihilation , seclusion , fear , loss , death , and discovery . Cornell was inspired by the writings of Sylvia Plath at the time . Commenting on the album 's lyrics , Thayil said that " a lot of Superunknown seems to me to be about life , not death . Maybe not affirming it , but rejoicing — like the Druids [ put it ] : ' Life is good , but death 's gonna be even better ! " Cameron said that the lyrics on the album are " a big fuck @-@ you to the world , a plea to ' leave us alone . ' " Cornell stated that " Let Me Drown " is about " crawling back to the womb to die , " " Fell on Black Days " is about realizing " you 're unhappy in the extreme , " " Black Hole Sun " is about a " surreal dreamscape , " " Limo Wreck " is a " ' shame @-@ on @-@ decadence ' song , " " The Day I Tried to Live " is about " trying to step out of being patterned and closed off and reclusive , " and " 4th of July " is about using LSD . Cornell talked about " Mailman " at a concert saying , " This next one is about killing your boss . It 's about coming to work early one morning cause you have a special agenda and you 're going to shoot him in the fucking head . " Conversely , " Like Suicide " was literal , written by Cornell after a bird flew into a window of his house . He found the severely injured animal and killed it , hitting it with a brick to end its suffering .
The song " Spoonman " is notable for featuring a performance by Artis the Spoonman , a street entertainer in Seattle . The title of the song is credited to bassist Jeff Ament of Pearl Jam . While on the set of the movie Singles , Ament produced a list of song titles for the fictional band featured in the movie . Cornell took it as a challenge to write songs for the film using those titles , and " Spoonman " was one of them . An acoustic demo version of the song appears in the movie . Cornell said that the song is about " the paradox of who [ Artis ] is and what people perceive him as . "
= = Packaging = =
The album 's cover art ( known as the ' Screaming Elf ' ) is a distorted photograph of the band members , photographed by Kevin Westenberg , above a black and white upside @-@ down burning forest . Concerning the artwork , Cornell said , " Superunknown relates to birth in a way ... Being born or even dying — getting flushed into something that you know nothing about . The hardest thing is to nail down a visual image to put on a title like that . The first thing we thought of was a forest in grey or black . Soundgarden has always been associated with images of flowers and lush colors and this was the opposite . It still seemed organic but it was very dark and cold ... I was into those stories as a kid where forests were full of evil and scary things as opposed to being happy gardens that you go camping in . " In a 1994 Pulse ! magazine interview , Cornell said that the inspiration for the album 's title came from his misreading of a video entitled Superclown . He added , " I thought it was a cool title . I 'd never heard it before , never saw it before , and it inspired me . " The album also saw a limited release on 12 " colored vinyl ( blue , orange , and clear ) , as a double @-@ LP in a gatefold sleeve .
= = Release and commercial performance = =
Superunknown was Soundgarden 's breakout album , earning the band international recognition . Upon its release in March 1994 , Superunknown debuted at number one on the Billboard 200 album chart , and eventually closed the year as the 13th best @-@ selling album of 1994 , with 2 @,@ 5 million copies sold . The album Superunknown has been certified five times platinum by the RIAA in the United States , three times platinum in Canada , and gold in the United Kingdom , Sweden , and the Netherlands .
Superunknown has sold around 9 million copies worldwide , with an estimated 3 @,@ 794 @,@ 000 in the U.S. The album spawned the EP Songs from the Superunknown and the CD @-@ ROM Alive in the Superunknown , both released in 1995 .
= = = 20th anniversary reissues = = =
The 20th @-@ anniversary reissue of " Superunknown " was made available in two deluxe versions . The Deluxe Edition was a 2 @-@ CD package featuring the remastered album along with disc two consisting of demos , rehearsals , B @-@ sides and more . The Super Deluxe Edition was a 5 @-@ CD package featuring the remastered album , additional demos , rehearsals and B @-@ sides and the fifth disc is the album mixed in Blu @-@ ray Audio 5 @.@ 1 Surround Sound . The Super Deluxe Edition was packaged in a hardbound book with a lenticular cover , liner notes by David Fricke and newly reimagined album artwork designed by Josh Graham . It also featured never @-@ before @-@ seen band photography by Kevin Westerberg . A 2 @-@ LP gatefold of the original 16 vinyl tracks remastered on 200 @-@ gram vinyl in a gatefold jacket was also made available . In addition , the " Superunknown " singles and associated b @-@ sides with newly interpreted artwork sleeves by Josh Graham was reissued on Record Store Day , 19 April 2014 , as a set of five limited @-@ edition 10 @-@ inch vinyl records . "
= = Critical reception = =
Superunknown received positive reviews from critics . Q said " Soundgarden dealt in unreconstructed heavy rock : a heavy guitar sound , depth @-@ charge drumming .... Yet Superunknown also includes more measured moments " . Rolling Stone magazine 's J. D. Considine was impressed by the record 's range and despite criticizing " Black Hole Sun " and " Half " , he said " at its best , Superunknown offers a more harrowing depiction of alienation and despair than anything on In Utero . " Jon Pareles from The New York Times credited the band with trying to transcend conventional heavy metal : " Superunknown actually tries to broaden its audience by breaking heavy @-@ metal genre barriers that Soundgarden used to accept . " In Entertainment Weekly , David Browne wrote , " Soundgarden is pumped and primed on Superunknown , and they deliver the goods . " He praised it as a " hard @-@ rock milestone @-@ a boiling vat of volcanic power , record @-@ making smarts , and ' 90s anomie and anxiety that sets a new standard for anything called metal . " Ann Powers from Blender said that on the album " guitarist Thayil helps create the stoner @-@ rock template , " and that it " stands as Soundgarden ’ s masterpiece . " Village Voice critic Robert Christgau , who had " mocked " Soundgarden 's " conceptual pretentions for years " , still felt their foredooming , pessimistic lyrics lacked much substance , but said they had improved composing , arranging , and producing on an album that was " easily the best — most galvanizing , kinetic , sensational , catchy — Zep rip in history . " In a retrospective review , AllMusic editor Steve Huey wrote , " It 's obvious that Superunknown was consciously styled as a masterwork , and it fulfills every ambition . " It received a nomination in the Best Rock Album category for the 1995 Grammy Awards .
= = = Accolades = = =
The critical acclaim garnered by Superunknown has led to its inclusion in many lists of the greatest albums .
= = Tour = =
The band began touring in January 1994 in Oceania and Japan , areas where the record came out early . The band had never toured these regions before . This round of touring ended in February 1994 , and then in March 1994 the band moved on to Europe . The band began a theater tour in the United States on May 27 , 1994 . The opening acts were Tad and Eleven . In late 1994 , after touring in support of Superunknown , doctors discovered that Cornell had severely strained his vocal cords . Soundgarden cancelled several shows to avoid causing any permanent damage . Cornell said , " I think we kinda overdid it ! We were playing five or six nights a week and my voice pretty much took a beating . Towards the end of the American tour I felt like I could still kinda sing , but I wasn 't really giving the band a fair shake . You don 't buy a ticket to see some guy croak for two hours ! That seemed like kind of a rip off . " The band would make up the dates later in 1995 .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written and composed by Chris Cornell , except where noted .
= = Outtakes = =
Although the album 's singles featured quite a few B @-@ sides , only " Exit Stonehenge " ( from the " Spoonman " single ) was sourced from the Superunknown recording sessions in 1993 . " Cold Bitch " ( also from " Spoonman " ) was recorded during the Badmotorfinger recording sessions in 1991 , " Kyle Petty , Son of Richard " and " Motorcycle Loop " ( both from the " Fell on Black Days " single ) were recorded by Stuart Hallerman at Avast Studios in Seattle in 1994 . " Kyle Petty , Son of Richard " was later featured on the 1996 Home Alive compilation . " Tighter & Tighter " , " No Attention " , and " An Unkind " , all of which later appeared on the band 's 1996 album , Down on the Upside , were attempted during the Superunknown recording sessions . Cameron said that the band wasn 't pleased with the recording of " No Attention " that came out of the sessions . An instrumental entitled " Ruff Riff @-@ Raff " and a light @-@ hearted song called " Bing Bing Goes to Church " were recorded at album rehearsals but were presumably not recorded during the Superunknown recording sessions . Both were released in 2014 on the 20th anniversary Super Deluxe edition .
= = Personnel = =
= = = Soundgarden = = =
Chris Cornell – vocals , rhythm guitar
Kim Thayil – lead guitar
Ben Shepherd – bass guitar , drums and percussion ( track 6 ) , backing vocals ( track 8 ) , lead vocals and guitar ( track 14 )
Matt Cameron – drums , percussion , mellotron ( track 4 ) , pots and pans ( track 8 )
= = = Additional personnel = = =
April Acevez – viola ( track 14 )
Artis the Spoonman - spoons ( track 8 )
Michael Beinhorn – piano ( track 1 ) , production
Fred Chalenor – harmonic guidance ( track 9 )
David Collins – mastering
Jason Corsaro – engineering
Justine Foy – cello ( track 14 )
Adam Kasper – assistant engineering
Kelk – front cover design
Gregg Keplinger – drums and percussion ( track 6 ) , studio assistance
Tony Messina – studio assistance
Brendan O 'Brien – mixing
Reyzart – layout
Natasha Shneider – clavinet ( track 12 )
Soundgarden – production
Kevin Westenberg – band photography
= = Chart positions = =
= = = Singles = = =
|
= United Airlines Flight 93 =
United Airlines Flight 93 was a domestic scheduled passenger flight that was hijacked by four Al @-@ Qaeda terrorists on board , as part of the September 11 attacks . It crashed into a field near the Diamond T. Mine in Stonycreek Township , Somerset County , Pennsylvania , near Indian Lake and Shanksville , during an attempt by some of the passengers to regain control , killing all 44 people aboard including the four hijackers . No one on the ground was injured . The aircraft involved , a Boeing 757 – 222 , was flying United Airlines ' daily scheduled morning domestic flight from Newark International Airport in New Jersey to San Francisco International Airport in California .
The hijackers breached the aircraft 's cockpit and overpowered the flight crew approximately 46 minutes after takeoff . Ziad Jarrah , a trained pilot , took control of the aircraft and diverted it back toward the east coast of the United States in the direction of Washington , D.C. Although the specific target is not known , it is believed that the hijackers were intending to crash the plane into either the White House or the Capitol Building .
After the hijackers took control of the plane , several passengers and flight attendants were able to make phone calls and learn that attacks had already been made by other hijacked airliners on the World Trade Center in New York City and the Pentagon in Arlington County , Virginia . Many of the passengers then attacked the hijackers in an attempt to gain control of the aircraft . During the struggle , the hijackers decided to crash the plane rather than cede control : the plane crashed into a field near a reclaimed strip mine in Stonycreek Township , near Indian Lake and Shanksville in Somerset County , Pennsylvania , about 65 miles ( 105 km ) southeast of Pittsburgh and 130 miles ( 210 km ) northwest of Washington , D.C. A few witnessed the impact from the ground and news agencies began reporting the event within an hour .
Subsequent analysis of the flight recorders recovered from the crash site revealed how the actions taken by the passengers prevented the aircraft from reaching the hijackers ' intended target . Of the four aircraft hijacked on September 11 – the others were American Airlines Flight 11 , American Airlines Flight 77 and United Airlines Flight 175 – United Airlines Flight 93 was the only one that did not reach its hijackers ' intended target .
A temporary memorial has stood on the site since the attacks ; the first phase of construction of the permanent Flight 93 National Memorial at the crash site was dedicated on September 10 , 2011 .
= = Hijackers = =
The hijacking of Flight 93 was led by Ziad Jarrah , a member of al @-@ Qaeda . Jarrah was born in Lebanon to a wealthy family and had a secular upbringing . He intended to become a pilot and moved to Germany in 1996 , enrolling at the University of Greifswald to study German . A year later , he moved to Hamburg and began studying aeronautical engineering at Hamburg University of Applied Sciences . While living in Hamburg , Jarrah became a devout Muslim and associated with the radical Hamburg cell .
In November 1999 , Jarrah left Hamburg for Afghanistan , where he spent three months . While there , he met with al @-@ Qaeda leader Osama bin Laden in January 2000 . Jarrah returned to Hamburg at the end of January and obtained a clean passport in February by reporting his passport as stolen .
In May , Jarrah received a visa from the U.S. Embassy in Berlin , and he arrived in Florida in June 2000 . There , he began taking flying lessons as well as training in hand @-@ to @-@ hand combat . Jarrah maintained contact with his girlfriend in Germany and his family in the months preceding the attacks . This close contact upset Mohamed Atta , the tactical leader of the plot , and al @-@ Qaeda planners may have considered another operative , Zacarias Moussaoui , to replace him if he backed out .
Four " muscle " hijackers were trained to storm the cockpit and overpower the crew , and three accompanied Jarrah on Flight 93 . The first , Ahmed al @-@ Nami , arrived in Miami , Florida , on May 28 , 2001 , on a six @-@ month tourist visa with United Airlines Flight 175 hijackers Hamza al @-@ Ghamdi and Mohand al @-@ Shehri . The second Flight 93 hijacker , Ahmed al @-@ Haznawi , arrived in Miami on June 8 with Flight 11 hijacker Wail al @-@ Shehri . The third Flight 93 muscle hijacker , Saeed al @-@ Ghamdi , arrived in Orlando , Florida , on June 27 with Flight 175 hijacker Fayez Banihammad .
On August 3 , 2001 , an intended fifth hijacker , Mohammed al @-@ Qahtani , flew into Orlando from Dubai . He was questioned by officials , who were dubious that he could support himself with only $ 2 @,@ 800 cash to his name , and suspicious that he intended to become an illegal immigrant as he was using a one @-@ way ticket . He was sent back to Dubai , and subsequently returned to Saudi Arabia .
Ziad Jarrah and Saeed al @-@ Ghamdi 's passports were recovered from the Flight 93 crash site . Jarrah 's family asserted that he had been an " innocent passenger " on board the flight .
= = Flight = =
The aircraft involved in the hijacking was a Boeing 757 – 222 , registration N591UA , delivered to the airline in 1996 . The airplane had a capacity of 182 passengers ; the September 11 flight carried 37 passengers and seven crew , a load factor of 20 percent , considerably below the 52 percent average Tuesday load factor for Flight 93 . The seven crew members were Captain Jason Dahl , First Officer LeRoy Homer , Jr . , and flight attendants Lorraine Bay , Sandra Bradshaw , Wanda Green , CeeCee Lyles and Deborah Welsh .
= = = Boarding = = =
The four hijackers checked in for the flight between 07 : 03 and 07 : 39 Eastern Time . At 07 : 03 , Ghamdi checked in without any luggage while Nami checked in two bags . At 07 : 24 , Haznawi checked in one bag and at 07 : 39 , Jarrah checked in without any luggage . Haznawi was the only hijacker selected for extra scrutiny by the Computer Assisted Passenger Prescreening System ( CAPPS ) . His checked bag underwent extra screening for explosives , with no extra scrutiny required by CAPPS at the passenger @-@ security checkpoint . None of the security checkpoint personnel reported anything unusual about the hijackers .
Haznawi and Ghamdi boarded the aircraft at 07 : 39 and sat in first class seats 6B and 3D respectively . Nami boarded one minute later and sat in first class seat 3C . Jarrah boarded at 07 : 48 and sat in seat 1B . The aircraft was scheduled to depart at 08 : 00 and pushed back from gate A17 at 08 : 01 . It remained delayed on the ground and did not take off until 08 : 42 because of heavy airport congestion . The three other hijacked flights all departed within fifteen minutes of their scheduled times . By the time Flight 93 became airborne , Flight 11 was four minutes away from hitting the North Tower and Flight 175 was being hijacked ; Flight 77 was climbing normally and was nine minutes away from being hijacked . By 09 : 02 , one minute before Flight 175 hit the South Tower , Flight 93 reached its cruising altitude of 35 @,@ 000 feet ( 11 @,@ 000 m ) . With the attacks unfolding , air traffic officials began issuing warnings through the Aircraft Communication Addressing and Reporting System ( ACARS ) . Ed Ballinger , the United flight dispatcher , began sending text cockpit warnings to United Airlines flights at 09 : 19 , 17 minutes after he became aware of Flight 175 's impact . As Ballinger was responsible for multiple flights , he did not send the message to Flight 93 until 09 : 23 . Ballinger received a routine ACARS message from Flight 93 at 09 : 21 . At 09 : 22 , after learning of the events at the World Trade Center , LeRoy Homer 's wife , Melody Homer , had an ACARS message sent to her husband in the cockpit asking if he was okay . At 09 : 24 , Flight 93 received Ballinger 's ACARS warning , " Beware any cockpit intrusion — two a / c [ aircraft ] hit World Trade Center " . At 09 : 26 , the pilot sent an ACARS message back , " Ed , confirm latest mssg plz — Jason " . At 09 : 27 : 25 , the flight crew responded to routine radio traffic from air traffic control . This was the last communication made by the flight crew before the hijacking .
= = = Hijacking = = =
The hijacking on Flight 93 began at 09 : 28 . By this time , Flights 11 and 175 had already crashed into the World Trade Center and Flight 77 was within 9 minutes of striking the Pentagon . The hijackers on those flights had waited no more than 30 minutes to commandeer the aircraft , most likely striking after the seat @-@ belt sign had been turned off and cabin service had begun . It is unknown why the hijackers on Flight 93 waited approximately 46 minutes to begin their assault . At 09 : 28 : 17 , First Officer Homer managed to transmit to the ground , shouting , " Mayday ! Mayday ! Get out ! " over the radio amidst sounds of violence . A Cleveland Air Traffic Controller replied , " Somebody call Cleveland ? " but received no reply .
Thirty @-@ five seconds after the first Mayday call , the crew made another transmission . Homer shouted , " Mayday ! Mayday ! Get out of here ! We 're all gonna die here ! " The flight suddenly dropped 685 feet ( 209 m ) in half a minute before the hijackers managed to stabilise the aircraft . The exact time at which Flight 93 came under the hijackers ' control cannot be determined . Officials believe that at 09 : 28 , the hijackers assaulted the cockpit and moved the passengers to the rear of the plane at the same time to minimize any chance of either the crew or the passengers interfering with the attack . While the other hijacked flights were taken by five @-@ man teams , Flight 93 had only four hijackers , leading to speculation of a possible 20th hijacker . The 9 / 11 Commission believes that Mohammed al @-@ Qahtani was the likely candidate for this role , but was unable to participate as he had been denied entry into the United States one month earlier . With many passengers saying in phone calls that they saw only three hijackers , the 9 / 11 Commission believes Jarrah remained seated until the crew were overpowered and passengers were moved to the back the aircraft and then took over the flight controls out of sight of the passengers .
The flight recordings suggest that Dahl and Homer survived the initial attack and were still alive on the floor of the cockpit after the hijackers took over the plane , as sounds of moaning can be heard and the hijackers were rebuking someone in the cockpit . Dahl 's and Homer 's wives believes that Dahl and Homer took actions to interfere with the hijackers , including putting the plane on autopilot just before the hijackers took over , and switching the output of the pilots ' microphones from the cabin address speakers to the radio transmitter so that Jarrah 's attempts to communicate with the passengers would instead be heard by air traffic controllers .
The cockpit voice recorder began recording the final 30 minutes of Flight 93 at 09 : 31 : 57 . At this moment , it recorded Jarrah announcing , " Ladies and gentlemen : here the captain . Please sit down , keep remaining seating . We have a bomb on board . So sit . " The controller understood the transmission , but chose to respond , " Calling Cleveland center , you 're unreadable . Say again , slowly . " A woman , presumably first @-@ class flight attendant Debbie Welsh , is heard struggling with the hijackers before being killed or otherwise silenced , followed by one of the hijackers saying in Arabic , " Everything is fine . I finished . "
Jarrah instructed the autopilot to turn the plane and head east at 09 : 35 : 09 . The aircraft ascended to 40 @,@ 700 feet ( 12 @,@ 400 m ) and air traffic controllers immediately moved several aircraft out of Flight 93 's flightpath .
At 09 : 39 , two minutes after Flight 77 impacted the Pentagon , air traffic controllers overheard Jarrah say , " Here 's the captain : I would like to tell you all to remain seated . We have a bomb aboard , and we are going back to the airport , and we have our demands . So please remain quiet . " Air traffic controllers did not hear from the flight again . Passengers and crew began making phone calls to officials and family members starting at 09 : 30 using GTE airphones and mobile phones . Altogether , the passengers and crew made 35 airphone calls and two cell phone calls from the flight . Ten passengers and two crew members were able to successfully connect , providing information to family , friends , and others on the ground . Tom Burnett made several phone calls to his wife beginning at 09 : 30 : 32 from rows 24 and 25 , though he was assigned a seat in row four . Burnett explained that the plane had been hijacked by men claiming to have a bomb . He also said that a passenger had been stabbed with a knife and that he believed the bomb threat was a ruse to control the passengers . During one of Tom Burnett 's calls , his wife informed him of the attacks on the World Trade Center and he replied that the hijackers were " talking about crashing this plane . ... Oh my God . It 's a suicide mission . " He began pumping her for information about the attacks , interrupting her from time to time to tell the others nearby what she was saying . Then he hung up . He ended his last call by saying , " Don 't worry , we 're going to do something . " An unknown flight attendant attempted to contact the United Airlines maintenance facility at 09 : 32 : 29 . The call lasted 95 seconds , but was not received as it may have been in queue . Flight attendant Sandra Bradshaw called the maintenance facility at 09 : 35 : 40 from row 33 . She reported the flight had been hijacked by men with knives who were in the cabin and flight deck and had stabbed another flight attendant , possibly Debbie Welsh .
Mark Bingham called his mother at 09 : 37 : 03 from row 25 . He reported that the plane had been hijacked by three men who claimed to have a bomb . Jeremy Glick called his wife at 09 : 37 : 41 from row 27 and told her the flight was hijacked by three dark @-@ skinned men that looked " Iranian " , wearing red bandanas and wielding knives . Glick remained connected until the end of the flight . He reported that the passengers voted whether to " rush " the hijackers . The United air traffic control coordinator for West Coast flights , Alessandro " Sandy " Rogers , alerted the Federal Aviation Administration ( FAA ) Herndon Command Center in Herndon , Virginia , that Flight 93 was not responding and was off course . A minute later , the transponder was turned off , but the Cleveland controller continued to monitor the flight on primary radar . The Herndon Center relayed information on Flight 93 to FAA headquarters . Joseph DeLuca called his father at 09 : 43 : 03 from row 26 to inform him the flight had been hijacked . Todd Beamer attempted to call his wife from row 32 at 09 : 43 : 48 , but was routed to GTE phone operator Lisa D. Jefferson . Beamer told the operator that the flight was hijacked and the pilots were on the floor dead or dying . He said one of the hijackers had a red belt with what looked to be a bomb strapped to his waist . When the hijackers veered the plane sharply south , Beamer briefly panicked , exclaiming , " We 're going down ! We 're going down ! " Meanwhile , the hijackers were not able to disengage the autopilot . Dahl continued to struggle in the cockpit , refusing to allow a hijacker to deactivate the autopilot so he could fly the plane manually . The hijackers were heard to say " Inform them , and tell him to talk to the pilot ; bring back the pilot " , possibly referring to Homer ( CVR transcripts ) . A United employee in San Francisco , California , sent an ACARS message to the flight at 09 : 46 , " Heard report of incident . Plz confirm all is normal . " Linda Gronlund called her sister , Elsa Strong , at 09 : 46 : 05 and left her a message saying there were " men with a bomb . "
Flight attendant CeeCee Lyles called her husband at 09 : 47 : 57 and left him a message saying the plane had been hijacked . Marion Britton called her friend , Fred Fiumano , at 09 : 49 : 12 . Fiumano recalled , " she said , ' We 're gonna . They 're gonna kill us , you know , We 're gonna die . ' And I told her , ' Don 't worry , they hijacked the plane , they 're gonna take you for a ride , you go to their country , and you come back . You stay there for vacation . ' You don 't know what to say — what are you gonna say ? I kept on saying the same things , ' Be calm . ' And she was crying and — you know — more or less crying and screaming and yelling . " Flight attendant Sandra Bradshaw called her husband at 09 : 50 : 04 and told him she was preparing scalding water to throw at the hijackers . Passenger Lauren Grandcolas called her husband twice , once before takeoff and once during the hijacking . He missed both of her calls . She then passed her phone to Honor Elizabeth Wainio . Wainio called her stepmother at 09 : 53 : 43 and concluded , four and a half minutes later , by saying , " I have to go . They 're breaking into the cockpit . I love you . " Jarrah dialed in the VHF omnidirectional range ( VOR ) frequency for the VOR navigational aid at Reagan National Airport at 09 : 55 : 11 to direct the plane toward Washington , D.C. Bradshaw , on the phone with her husband , said " Everyone is running up to first class . I 've got to go . Bye . " Beamer told Jefferson that the group was planning to " jump on " the hijackers and fly the plane into the ground before the hijackers ' plan could be followed through . Beamer recited the Lord 's Prayer and the 23rd Psalm with Jefferson , prompting others to join in . Beamer requested of Jefferson , " If I don 't make it , please call my family and let them know how much I love them . " After this , Jefferson heard muffled voices and Beamer clearly answering , " Are you ready ? Okay . Let 's roll . " These were Beamer 's last words to Jefferson .
During the hijacking , Flight 93 passed within 1 @,@ 000 feet ( 300 m ) ( instead of the normal 2 @,@ 000 feet ( 610 m ) ) of a NASA KC @-@ 135 returning from a microgravity flight over Lake Ontario . NASA pilot Dominic Del Rosso recalled how odd the silence on the radio was that morning .
= = = Passenger revolt = = =
The passenger revolt on Flight 93 began at 09 : 57 , after the passengers took a vote amongst themselves about whether to act . By this time , Flight 77 had struck the Pentagon and Flights 11 and 175 had struck the World Trade Center towers . As the revolt began and the hijackers started maneuvering the plane around violently , the plane went off of its Washington , D.C. course . The hijackers in the cockpit became aware of the revolt at 09 : 57 : 55 , Jarrah exclaiming , " Is there something ? A fight ? "
Edward Felt dialed 9 @-@ 1 @-@ 1 from his cell phone from the lavatory of the aircraft seeking information . His call was answered by dispatcher John Shaw , and Felt was able to tell him about the hijacking before the call was disconnected . Multiple news reports ( originally based on a 911 supervisor 's account after having overheard the call ) asserted that Edward Felt reported hearing an explosion and seeing smoke from an undetermined location on the plane . These reports were not corroborated by Shaw or Felt 's wife , Sandra , who listened to the recording afterwards .
CeeCee Lyles called her husband once more from a cell phone and told him the passengers were forcing their way into the cockpit . Jarrah began to roll the airplane left and right to knock the passengers off balance . He told another hijacker in the cockpit at 09 : 58 : 57 , just two seconds before the South Tower collapsed , " They want to get in here . Hold , hold from the inside . Hold from the inside . Hold . " Jarrah changed tactics at 09 : 59 : 52 and pitched the nose of the airplane up and down to disrupt the assault .
The cockpit voice recorder captured the sounds of crashing , screaming , and the shattering of glass and plates . Three times in a period of five seconds there were shouts of pain or distress from a hijacker outside the cockpit . Jarrah stabilized the plane at 10 : 00 : 03 . Five seconds later , he asked , " Is that it ? Shall we finish it off ? " Another hijacker responded , " No . Not yet . When they all come , we finish it off . " Jarrah once again pitched the airplane up and down . A passenger in the background cried , " In the cockpit . If we don 't , we 'll die " at 10 : 00 : 25 . Sixteen seconds later , another passenger yelled , " Roll it ! " , possibly referring to using the food cart . The voice recorder did record the sound of the passengers using the food cart as a battering ram against the cockpit door . Jarrah ceased the violent maneuvers at 10 : 01 : 00 and said Allāhu Akbar ( God is Great ) several times . He then asked another hijacker , " Is that it ? I mean , shall we put it down ? " The other hijacker responded , " Yes , put it in it , and pull it down . " Nevertheless , the passengers continued their assault and at 10 : 02 : 17 , a male passenger said , " Turn it up ! " A second later , a hijacker said , " Pull it down ! Pull it down ! " At 10 : 02 : 33 , Jarrah was heard to plead , " Hey ! Hey ! Give it to me ! Give it to me ! Give it to me ! Give it to me ! Give it to me ! Give it to me ! Give it to me ! Give it to me ! " , possibly referring to the plane 's yoke . The airplane plummeted into a nosedive with the yoke turned hard to the right . The airplane rolled upside down , and one of the hijackers began shouting Allāhu Akbar . Amidst the continued sounds of the passenger counterattack , the aircraft picked up speed , whooshing and shrieking picked up on the recorder , and then finally plowed into an empty field in Stonycreek , Pennsylvania , about 20 minutes ' flying time from Washington , D.C. The last entry on the voice recorder was made at 10 : 03 : 09 . The last piece of flight data was recorded at 10 : 03 : 10 . There is some controversy between some of the family members of the passengers and the investigative officials as to whether the passengers managed to breach the cockpit . The 9 / 11 Commission Report concluded that " the hijackers remained at the controls but must have judged that the passengers were only seconds from overcoming them . " However , many of the passengers ' family members , having heard the audio recordings , believe that the passengers breached the cockpit and killed at least one of the hijackers guarding the cockpit door ; some interpreted the audio as suggesting that both the passengers and hijackers struggled for control of the yoke .
= = = Crash = = =
At 10 : 03 : 11 , near Indian Lake and Shanksville , Pennsylvania , the plane crashed into a field near a reclaimed coal strip mine known as the Diamond T. Mine owned by PBS Coals in Stonycreek Township in Somerset County . The National Transportation Safety Board reported that the flight impacted at 563 mph ( 906 km / h , 252 m / s , or 489 knots ) at a 40 @-@ degree nose @-@ down , inverted attitude . The impact left a crater eight to ten feet deep ( c . 3 m ) , and 30 to 50 feet wide ( c . 12 m ) . All 44 people on board died . Many media reports and eyewitness accounts said the time of the crash was 10 : 06 or 10 : 10 ; an initial analysis of seismographic data in the area concluded that the crash occurred at 10 : 06 , but the 9 / 11 Commission report states that this analysis was not definitive and was retracted . Other media outlets and the 9 / 11 Commission reported the time of impact as 10 : 03 , based on when the flight recorders stopped , analysis of radar data , infrared satellite data , and air traffic control transmissions .
Kelly Leverknight , a local resident , was watching news of the attacks when she heard the plane . " I heard the plane going over and I went out the front door and I saw the plane going down . It was headed toward the school , which panicked me , because all three of my kids were there . Then you heard the explosion and felt the blast and saw the fire and smoke . " Another witness , Eric Peterson , looked up when he heard the plane , " It was low enough , I thought you could probably count the rivets . You could see more of the roof of the plane than you could the belly . It was on its side . There was a great explosion and you could see the flames . It was a massive , massive explosion . Flames and then smoke and then a massive , massive mushroom cloud . " Val McClatchey had been watching footage of the attacks when she heard the plane . She saw it briefly , then heard the impact . The crash knocked out the electricity and phones . McClatchey grabbed her camera and took the only known picture of the smoke cloud from the explosion . Ten years after 9 / 11 , a video of the rising smoke cloud filmed by Dave Berkebile ( deceased by 2011 ) from his yard located eight miles away from the crash site was published on YouTube .
The first responders arrived at the crash site after 10 : 06 . Cleveland Center controllers , unaware the flight had crashed , notified the Northeast Air Defense Sector ( NEADS ) at 10 : 07 that Flight 93 had a bomb on board and passed the last known position . This call was the first time the military was notified about the flight . Ballinger sent one final ACARS message to Flight 93 at 10 : 10 , " Don 't divert to DC . Not an option . " He repeated the message one minute later . The Herndon Command Center alerted FAA headquarters that Flight 93 had crashed at 10 : 13 . NEADS called the Washington Air Route Traffic Control Center for an update on Flight 93 and received notification that the flight had crashed .
At 10 : 37 , CNN correspondent Aaron Brown , covering the collapse of the World Trade Center , announced , " We are getting reports and we are getting lots of reports and we want to be careful to tell you when we have confirmed them and not , but we have a report that a 747 is down in Pennsylvania , and that remains unconfirmed at this point . " He followed that up at 10 : 49 by reporting that , " We have a report now that a large plane crashed this morning , north of the Somerset County Airport , which is in western Pennsylvania , not too terribly far from Pittsburgh , about 80 miles or so , a Boeing 767 jet . Don 't know whose airline it was , whose airplane it was , and we don 't have any details beyond that which I have just given you . " In the confusion , he also erroneously reported a second hijacked plane heading for the Pentagon after the crash of the first .
= = Aftermath = =
Flight 93 fragmented violently upon impact . Most of the aircraft wreckage was found near the impact crater . Investigators found some very light debris including paper and nylon scattered up to eight miles ( 13 km ) from the impact point in New Baltimore , Pennsylvania . Other tiny aircraft fragments were found 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) away at Indian Lake , Pennsylvania . All human remains were found within a 70 @-@ acre ( 28 ha ) area surrounding the impact point . Somerset County Coroner Wally Miller was involved in the investigation and identification of the remains . In examining the wreckage , the only human body part he could see was part of a backbone . Miller later found and identified 1 @,@ 500 pieces of human remains totaling about 600 pounds ( 272 kg ) , or eight percent of the total . The rest of the remains were consumed by the impact . Investigators identified four victims by September 22 and eleven by September 24 . They identified another by September 29 . Thirty @-@ four passengers were identified by October 27 . All the people on board the flight were identified by December 21 . Human remains were so fragmented that investigators could not determine whether any victims were dead before the plane crashed . Death certificates for the 40 victims listed the cause of death as homicide and listed the cause of death for the four hijackers as suicide . The remains and personal effects of the victims were returned to the families . The remains of the hijackers , identified by the process of elimination , were turned over to the Federal Bureau of Investigation ( FBI ) as evidence .
Investigators also found a knife concealed in a cigarette lighter . They located the flight data recorder on September 13 and the cockpit voice recorder the following day . The voice recorder was found buried 25 feet ( 8 m ) below the crater . The FBI initially refused to release the voice recording , rejecting requests by Congresswoman Ellen Tauscher and family members of those on board . The FBI subsequently allowed the relatives of the Flight 93 victims to listen to the recording in a closed session on April 18 , 2002 . Jurors for the Zacarias Moussaoui trial heard the tape as part of the proceedings and the transcript was publicly released on April 12 , 2006 .
Since it never reached a target , the exact place intended to be hit by Flight 93 has never been decisively confirmed . Before the attacks , Khalid Sheikh Mohammed , Osama bin Laden , and Mohammed Atef developed a list of potential targets . Bin Laden wanted to destroy the White House and the Pentagon . Sheikh Mohammed wanted to strike the World Trade Center and all three wanted to hit the Capitol . No one else was involved in the initial selection of targets . Bin Laden told 9 / 11 planner Ramzi bin al @-@ Shibh to advise Mohamed Atta that he preferred the White House over the Capitol as a target . Atta cautioned bin al @-@ Shibh that this would be difficult , but agreed to include the White House as a possible target and suggested they keep the Capitol as an alternative in case the White House proved too difficult . Eventually , Atta told bin al @-@ Shibh that Jarrah planned to hit the Capitol . Atta briefly mentioned the possibility of striking a nuclear facility , but balked after the other attack pilots voiced their opposition . Based on an exchange between Atta and bin al @-@ Shibh two days before the attacks , the White House would be the primary target for the fourth plane and the Capitol the secondary target .
Immediately after the attacks , there was speculation that Camp David was the intended target . According to testimony by captured al @-@ Qaeda member Abu Zubaydah , U.S. officials believed the White House was the intended target . A post @-@ 9 / 11 interview with Sheikh Mohammed and bin al @-@ Shibh by Al Jazeera reporter Yosri Fouda revealed that Flight 93 was headed for the Capitol . The 9 / 11 Commission Report cited the actions of the crew and passengers in preventing the destruction of either the White House or the Capitol . According to further testimony by Sheikh Mohammed , bin Laden preferred the Capitol over the White House as a target and Sheikh Mohammed revealed that the interview to Fouda was a lie to make the 9 / 11 attacks seem larger than they were . Salim Hamdan , bin Laden 's driver , told interrogators that he knew the flight was headed for the Capitol .
All passengers and crew on board Flight 93 were nominated for the Congressional Gold Medal on September 19 , 2001 . Congressman Bill Shuster introduced a bill to this effect in 2006 , and they were granted on September 11 , 2014 .
Beamer 's final words , " let 's roll " , became a national catchphrase . The Port Authority of New York and New Jersey changed the name of Newark 's airport from Newark International Airport to Newark Liberty International Airport and a flag now flies over Terminal A 's Gate A17 . Flight 93 has been the subject of various films and documentaries including The Flight That Fought Back , Flight 93 , and the feature film United 93 .
In keeping with standard airline practice after disasters , the flight number " 93 " was discontinued by United Airlines after the hijacking . United has many nonstops from Newark to San Francisco . As of May 2016 there is still an 8 : 00 A.M. flight from Newark to San Francisco , and is still using a Boeing 757 , but is now Flight 497 . It was reported in May 2011 that United was reactivating flight numbers 93 and 175 as a codeshare operated by Continental , sparking an outcry from some in the media and the labor union representing United pilots . United said the reactivation was a mistake and said the numbers were " inadvertently reinstated " , and would not be reactivated .
= = = Fighter jet response = = =
A fighter pilot based at Andrews Air Force base , Billy Hutchison , claims that while in the air he spotted Flight 93 on his scope and planned to first fire his training rounds into the engine and cockpit , and then ram the airplane with his own jet . His account was published in Lynn Spencer 's book Touching History . John Farmer , Senior Counsel to the 9 / 11 commission , pointed out that this account would have been impossible , as Hutchison 's Air Andrews Squadron wasn 't in the air until 10 : 38 , almost 30 minutes after Flight 93 had crashed . When the 9 / 11 commission asked Hutchinson why he gave this false claim he stormed out of the room and refused to give an answer .
Two F @-@ 16 fighter jets from the 121st Fighter Squadron of the D.C. Air National Guard were scrambled and ordered to intercept Flight 93 ; the pilots intended to ram it since they did not have time to arm the jets . They never reached Flight 93 and did not learn of its crash until hours afterwards .
The North American Aerospace Defense Command ( NORAD ) insisted to the 9 / 11 Commission that fighters would have intercepted Flight 93 before it reached its target in Washington , D.C. , but the commission disagreed , stating that " NORAD did not even know the plane was hijacked until after it had crashed " and concluding that had it not crashed it probably would have arrived in Washington by 10 : 23 . The 9 / 11 Commission Report stated that NEADS fighters pursued Delta Air Lines Flight 1989 , a flight thought to be hijacked . The commission found that NORAD and the FAA gave inaccurate testimony .
= = = Memorials = = =
A temporary memorial formed from spontaneous tributes left by visitors in the days after the attacks at the crash site . Foundations across the country began to raise money to fund a memorial to the victims within a month of the crash .
Two years after the attacks , federal officials formed the Flight 93 National Memorial Advisory Commission responsible for making design recommendations for a permanent memorial . A national design competition was held to create a public memorial in the Pennsylvania field where Flight 93 crashed . The winning design , " Crescent of Embrace , " was selected out of a pool of 1 @,@ 011 submissions on September 7 , 2005 . The site plan features a large crescent pathway with red maples and sugar maples planted along the outer arc . This design ran into opposition over funding , size , and appearance . Republican Congressman Charles H. Taylor blocked $ 10 million in federal funds toward the project as he saw it as " unrealistic . " Republican Congressional leaders later persuaded him to acquiesce to political pressure and began approving some federal funds . The proposed design has also attracted critics who see Islamic symbolism in the crescent design . An important milestone was announced August 31 , 2009 , marking an agreement between the landowners and the National Park Service to allow the purchase of land for around 9 @.@ 5 million dollars . The memorial was dedicated on September 10 , 2011 , the day before the 10th anniversary of the crash of Flight 93 .
CeeCee Lyles was one of the flight attendants on board . In 2003 , a statue of Lyles was unveiled in her hometown of Fort Pierce , Florida , which has since gained national recognition as one of the many monuments to the attacks .
On August 9 , 2007 , a portion of U.S. 219 in Somerset County , near the Flight 93 National Memorial , was co @-@ signed as the Flight 93 Memorial Highway .
At the National September 11 Memorial , the names of the 40 victims of Flight 93 are inscribed on Panels S @-@ 67 and S @-@ 68 at the South Pool . Years after the incident US singer Patti Austin revealed that she had been scheduled to be on onboard United Flight 93 on September 11 , 2001 , but because her mother suffered a stroke days before her flight she cancelled it for an earlier one .
= = Nationalities of the passengers = =
Note : This list does not include the nationalities of the four hijackers of the plane .
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= Death toll of the Nanking Massacre =
The total death toll of the Nanking Massacre is a highly contentious subject in Chinese and Japanese historiography . Following the outbreak of the Second Sino @-@ Japanese War , the Japanese Imperial Army marched from Shanghai to the Chinese capital city of Nanking , and though a large number of Chinese POWs and civilians were slaughtered by the Japanese following their entrance into Nanking on December 13 , 1937 , the precise number remains unknown . Since the late @-@ 1960s when the first academic works on the Nanking Massacre were produced , estimating the approximate death toll of the massacre has been a major topic of scholarly debate .
A wide range of numbers have been proposed by historians but , in addition to differing interpretations of the evidence , there have been persistent difficulties in defining the scope of the massacre and determining who among the dead to include as " massacre victims " . Scholars who believe that the massacre took place over a larger geographic range and a longer period of time , and who define " massacre victim " more broadly , have generally produced larger estimates for the death toll . For example , the historian Ikuhiko Hata , who estimates the death toll at 40 @,@ 000 , has argued that the Nanking Massacre took place only with the city of Nanking between December 13 , 1937 , and early February 1938 and that only civilians and disarmed POWs should be included as " massacre victims " . By contrast , the historian Tokushi Kasahara , who estimates the death toll at nearly 200 @,@ 000 , has argued that the Nanking Massacre took place in both the city of Nanking and in surrounding rural areas between December 4 , 1937 , and late March 1938 and that some Chinese soldiers killed on the battlefield should be included alongside POWs and civilians as " massacre victims " .
Currently , the most reliable and widely agreed upon figures place the total between the broad range of 40 @,@ 000 to 200 @,@ 000 massacre victims in the entire Nanking Special Administrative District , though numbers even smaller or larger than this have been put forward by Japanese revisionists and the government of China respectively .
= = Background = =
In July 1937 war broke out in northern China between China and Japan , and by August the fighting had spread to the city of Shanghai . After capturing Shanghai the Japanese Army decided on December 1 to continue its military campaign to the capital city of the Nationalist government of China , Nanking , which is roughly 300 kilometers west of Shanghai . Although the Japanese succeeded in surrounding Nanking and defeating the Chinese garrison stationed there by December 13 , few of the Chinese soldiers within the city formally surrendered . Instead they threw away their uniforms and weapons and hid among the city 's civilian population . Over the course of its subsequent occupation of Nanking the Japanese Army hunted down the former Chinese soldiers within the city and in a large number of cases summarily executed them . At the same time soldiers of the Japanese Army also committed random acts of murder against civilians , and engaged in rape , arson , and looting . These events are collectively known as the Nanking Massacre .
= = Early estimates = =
The Nanking Massacre was reported internationally within a week of occurring and the first estimate of the full death toll was published on January 24 , 1938 , in the New China Daily . Here Australian journalist Harold Timperley was quoted as stating that 300 @,@ 000 civilians had been killed . However , Timperley 's source for this number was the French humanitarian Father Jacquinot , who was in Shanghai at the time of the massacre , and it might also have included civilian casualties of the Battle of Shanghai . Timperley included a second estimate in his book published later the same year , Japanese Terror In China , which quoted " a foreign member of the University faculty " as stating that " close to 40 @,@ 000 unarmed persons were killed within and near the walls of Nanking " . The source of this information was Miner Searle Bates , an American resident in Nanking who had used the burial records of the Red Swastika Society in his calculations .
Between then and the late 1940s these two estimates were commonly cited by reporters and the media . For example , Edgar Snow stated in his 1941 book , The Battle for Asia , that 42 @,@ 000 were massacred in Nanking and 300 @,@ 000 in total between Nanking and Shanghai , figures which were apparently based on these estimates . The 1944 film , The Battle of China , stated that 40 @,@ 000 were killed in the Nanking Massacre .
Another early estimate was that of China 's state @-@ run Central News Agency , which reported in February 1938 that the Japanese had slaughtered 60 @,@ 000 to 70 @,@ 000 POWs in Nanking . The same month a representative of the Nationalist Government of China claimed that the Japanese had killed 20 @,@ 000 civilians during the Nanking Massacre . However , in a 1942 speech Chiang Kai @-@ shek raised that figure to " over 200 @,@ 000 civilians " . In 1938 the Red Army of the Communist Party of China reported the total death toll at 42 @,@ 000 massacred . John Rabe , the German head of the International Committee for the Nanking Safety Zone , estimated that between 50 @,@ 000 and 60 @,@ 000 Chinese were killed in Nanking , though this estimate included both military casualties and massacred civilians .
After the end of the war between China and Japan in 1945 , these estimates were in turn supplanted by the findings of two war crime trials , the International Military Tribunal of the Far East and the Nanking War Crimes Tribunal . In one estimate the Nanking War Crimes Tribunal put the death toll at more than 300 @,@ 000 , though the Tribunal also recorded other estimates including one of 430 @,@ 000 . The International Military Tribunal of the Far East tallied up 155 @,@ 000 victims of the massacre , though in their verdict against General Iwane Matsui this figure was modified somewhat to " upwards of 100 @,@ 000 people " . However , the prosecution at these trials made little effort to verify the accuracy of their death toll estimates and a considerable amount of dubious and now discredited data was accepted by both tribunals .
The first historian to make an academic estimate of the death toll of the Nanking Massacre was Tomio Hora in his 1967 book Kindai Senshi no Nazo ( " Riddles of Modern War History " ) , who argued in favor of 200 @,@ 000 . Since then the death toll of the massacre has been a major topic of discussion among historians across the world . However , emotional arguments and political interference in the debate have tended to hinder the construction of an academic consensus on the number of people killed in the atrocity .
= = Debate on the scope of the massacre = =
In reference to the greatly divergent ways in which various scholars have delineated the massacre , Askew has affirmed that the debate on the death toll " is meaningless if two completely different definitions are being used " . Noting that different definitions produce vastly different estimates , he believes that even the significant disagreements between the historians Tokushi Kasahara and Ikuhiko Hata would disappear if they had been using the same definitions .
= = = Chinese soldiers and POWs as massacre victims = = =
The first academic accounts of the Nanking Massacre included as massacre victims all Chinese who were killed by the Japanese Army in and around Nanking , including Chinese soldiers who were killed in action . This definition was supported by Hora and other early scholars . In 1986 Ikuhiko Hata became the first historian to call this definition into question . Hata argued that Chinese troops killed on the battlefield were part of the Battle of Nanking rather than Nanking Massacre , and that only civilians and disarmed POWs should be counted as massacre victims .
Since then Kasahara has proposed a definition between these two . He agrees with Hata that Chinese soldiers actively engaged in combat were not massacre victims , but he also includes in his definition of the massacre any Chinese soldiers who were killed on the battlefield but not actively resisting , noting that many confrontations between the Chinese and Japanese Armies were more like one @-@ sided slaughters than battles . For instance , after routing the Chinese in Nanking , Japanese soldiers fired upon and killed a large number of Chinese soldiers who were attempting to escape the battlefield by swimming across the Yangtze River . Many historians including Kasahara view incidents like these where the Japanese fired upon retreating troops to be atrocities , whereas Hata sees them as extensions of combat and not massacres .
By contrast Yoshiaki Itakura adopted an even stricter standard than Hata , advocating that only Chinese soldiers captured in uniform and then killed be included as massacre victims . He argued that Chinese soldiers who had thrown away their uniforms were legally executed because the laws of war at the time did not apply to them , though this line of reasoning is hotly disputed by other historians . Most Japanese ultranationalists who deny the Nanking Massacre admit that the Japanese Army killed a large number of Chinese POWs , though they consider these to be legal executions , an argument denounced by mainstream historians .
= = = Geographic range and duration = = =
The International Military Tribunal for the Far East stated that the massacre took place in the parts of Nanking captured on December 13 , 1937 , and after and lasted until early February 1938 . Though many still support the IMTFE 's geographic scope for the massacre , in 1984 the journalist Katsuichi Honda became the first individual to voice disapproval of this definition . Honda argued that the Japanese Army 's atrocities had not suddenly started when the Japanese reached the city of Nanking proper on December 13 , but rather were part of a continuous process which started soon after the Japanese Army left Shanghai early in November . Honda believes all those atrocities that were committed on " the road to Nanking " were part of the massacre .
Then in 1997 Kasahara formulated a definition between the two . He reasoned that the Nanking Massacre should include the entire area of what was then known as the " Nanking Special Administrative District " . This district encompassed not only the city of Nanking proper , occupied by the Japanese from December 13 , but also the six rural counties surrounding it , namely Jiangning , Lishui , Jurong , Jiangpu , Luhe , and Gaochun . This definition , though considerably larger than the IMTFE 's , keeps the massacre contained to " Nanking " without including cities on the outskirts of Shanghai like Suzhou and Wuxi which Honda does include . Kasahara believes that including massacre victims from the surrounding rural parts of Nanking adds 30 @,@ 000 victims onto the death toll .
However , the expansion of the definition of the Nanking Massacre to include areas outside of Nanking has not been without controversy . The argument in favor of this made by Katsuichi Honda in 1984 was seen by some scholars involved in the debate on the massacre as a " partial admission of defeat " by Honda . In their view Honda , who had previously put forward the idea that more than 100 @,@ 000 people were murdered in the city of Nanking alone , was failing to prove his argument and therefore sought to extend the boundaries of the massacre until a larger figure for the death toll could be achieved . French historian Jean @-@ Louis Margolin , for instance , has strongly criticized Honda 's argument , noting that " As , in our present knowledge , it is impossible to get convincing figures for such large areas , such methods may be considered as attempts to blur hopelessly the debate . "
Apart from geographical scope , some historians including Kasahara deny that the massacre ended in early February and instead put the end date at March 28 , though such a long time range is disputed by other historians . On the other hand , at least one historian has noted that the atrocity in Nanking could be equated with the entire war waged by Japan on China . By this definition the " Nanking Massacre " can symbolically be said to have lasted from 1931 to 1945 , extended over the whole of China , and included ten million victims .
= = Japanese views = =
In the early 1970s , Japanese historian Hora 's estimate of 200 @,@ 000 massacre victims was challenged for the first time by the journalist Akira Suzuki , who suggested that " several tens of thousands " had been killed . Soon after some revisionists claimed that no massacre had taken place at all . Nanking Massacre studies in Japan eventually became divided into three camps based on their death toll estimates : the " illusion " school of Nanking Massacre deniers , the " great massacre " school which believes hundreds of thousands were killed , and the " middle @-@ of @-@ the @-@ road " or " centrist " school which puts the number in the tens of thousands .
However , when Shokun ! magazine surveyed members of each " school " for their opinions on the massacre , many of the so @-@ called " centrists " advocated extremely low figures for the total number of victims , including Dokkyo University professor Akira Nakamura , journalist Yoshiko Sakurai , and researcher Toshio Tanabe , who each counted about 10 @,@ 000 massacred , and military historian Takeshi Hara who selected 20 @,@ 000 . In reviewing this survey , Askew concluded that all of its " centrists " were effectively deniers of the atrocity except for Hara . By contrast Bob Wakabayashi sets the bar higher and believes that the estimate of 40 @,@ 000 victims put forward by Ikuhiko Hata is the lowest reasonable estimate of the total death toll and considers numbers below this to be attempts at minimizing the atrocity . Today most Japanese historians of the so @-@ called " great massacre " school have reduced their death toll estimates somewhat and now advocate the figure of " 100 @,@ 000 plus " in contrast with the old consensus of 200 @,@ 000 . According to historians Haruo Tohmatsu and HP Willmott , Japanese scholars generally consider the estimate of roughly 40 @,@ 000 massacre victims to be " the most academically reliable estimate " .
= = Stance of the Chinese government = =
The official stance of the People 's Republic of China is that 300 @,@ 000 or more Chinese were massacred in Nanking . Initially , this figure was generally accepted as including both massacre victims and Chinese soldiers killed in combat , though during the 1980s it came to be interpreted as including only massacre victims .
Today many mainstream historians concur that this estimate is exaggerated . The figure was originally based on the verdict of the Nanking War Crimes Tribunal which added the burial records of 155 @,@ 300 bodies with 72 @,@ 291 destroyed corpses to arrive at a total of 279 @,@ 586 , though there was an apparent adding mistake in this calculation . Furthermore , this estimate includes an accusation that the Japanese Army murdered 57 @,@ 418 Chinese POWs at Mufushan , though the latest research indicates that between 4 @,@ 000 and 20 @,@ 000 were massacred , and it also includes the 112 @,@ 266 corpses allegedly buried by the Chongshantang , though today many historians agree that the Chongshantang 's records were at least exaggerated if not entirely fabricated . Bob Wakabayashi concludes from this that estimates over 200 @,@ 000 are not credible . Ikuhiko Hata considers the number of 300 @,@ 000 to be a " symbolic figure " representative of China 's wartime suffering and not a figure to be taken literally .
Nevertheless , the Chinese government has maintained a hard line on its estimate of 300 @,@ 000 victims . Within China scholars focus on defending the official figures and in the past the government has imposed censorship on historians who have suggested alternative numbers . Joshua A. Fogel , a historian of China at York University , has decried the efforts of many Chinese to exaggerate the death toll of the atrocity and then " silence anyone who disagrees " .
In 2006 , Kaz Ross , a historian with the University of Tasmania , anonymously interviewed a number of university researchers in the city of Nanking to learn their private views on the death toll of the Nanking Massacre . She found that Chinese historians favor estimates between 40 @,@ 000 and 150 @,@ 000 and that they " speculated that reducing the official Chinese estimate of victims would pave the way for greater reconciliation between Japan and China " . However , they feared that speaking out openly " would be detrimental to their careers . " In contrast with the People 's Republic of China , the official history of the Second Sino @-@ Japanese War released by the Republic of China states that the death toll of the massacre was " more than 100 @,@ 000 people " .
= = Western views = =
By the year 2000 very little research had been done by Western scholars concerning the death toll of the Nanking Massacre , and instead most Western sources simply repeated the early death toll estimates , including those proposed in the 1930s and 1940s by the International Military Tribunal of the Far East , which put the toll at 100 @,@ 000 or more , and by Miner Searle Bates , who said roughly 40 @,@ 000 . In The Cambridge History of China , historian Lloyd Eastman asserted that the death toll was " at least 42 @,@ 000 " , whereas military officer Frank Dorn wrote in his book The Sino @-@ Japanese War , 1937 @-@ 41 that the death toll was " over 200 @,@ 000 civilians " .
According to Canadian scholar David Bruce MacDonald , the higher range of estimates of over 100 @,@ 000 victims are more likely to be accurate , whereas by contrast the Irish historian LM Cullen argues that the lower range of estimates , which put the death toll in tens of thousands , " are probably the most credible . "
= = Death toll estimates = =
Currently , the most reliable and widely agreed upon figures place the total death toll of the massacre between the broad range of 40 @,@ 000 to 200 @,@ 000 massacre victims in the entire Nanking Special Administrative District . Some individual estimates by scholars and eyewitnesses are included in the following table .
= = Concerns about victim counts = =
The debate on the death toll has gone on for many decades to the point where some historians have begun to question its usefulness on the grounds that excessive quibbling over the precise death toll has distracted from the study of other more important facets of the massacre . Daqing Yang , a historian at George Washington University , believes that " an obsession with figures reduces an atrocity to abstraction and serves to circumvent a critical examination of the causes of and responsibilities for these appalling atrocities " and Carol Gluck concurs that " The crucial historical question remains the moral one : how could ordinary Japanese have done what they did ? Numerological arguments about the death count and distinctions of comparative atrocities do not address this point . " However , Masahiro Yamamoto printed a rebuttal of Gluck 's statement in his book Nanking : Anatomy of an Atrocity , arguing that " To determine the extent and nature of [ Japan 's ] responsibility , the ' numerological arguments about the death count and distinctions of comparative atrocities , ' which [ Gluck ] termed as irrelevant to the moral question , are essential . Only after firmly establishing ' historical particularities ' can one clearly define Japan ’ s responsibility . And based on a clear definition of the responsibility there can be an answer to the ' moral ' question . "
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= Star Wars Jedi Knight : Dark Forces II =
Star Wars Jedi Knight : Dark Forces II is a 1997 first @-@ person shooter video game developed and published by LucasArts for Microsoft Windows . It was made available on Steam on September 16 , 2009 . The game is set in the Star Wars fictional universe and is a sequel to the 1995 game Star Wars : Dark Forces . Jedi Knight was very well received by critics , and holds aggregate scores of 88 @.@ 69 % on GameRankings and 91 out of 100 on Metacritic .
The storyline in Jedi Knight follows Kyle Katarn , who first appeared in Dark Forces . Katarn 's father had been murdered by a Dark Jedi over the location of " The Valley of the Jedi " and the game follows Katarn 's attempts to find the Valley and confront his father 's killers .
Jedi Knight adds some technical and gameplay improvements over its predecessor . It uses a more powerful game engine that supports 3D acceleration using Direct3D 5 @.@ 0 . Jedi Knight also includes a multiplayer mode that allows players to compete over the internet or a local area network . On January 31 , 1998 , Star Wars Jedi Knight : Mysteries of the Sith was released as an expansion to Jedi Knight . The game was a large success and as a result , the next game in the series followed in 2002 , Star Wars Jedi Knight II : Jedi Outcast .
= = Gameplay = =
= = = Single @-@ player = = =
Jedi Knight is primarily a first @-@ person shooter , although it does offer the choice of a third @-@ person view . The game consists of twenty @-@ one levels with objectives which the player must complete before being able to continue to the next level . There are weapons available in each level and after level three , the player has the use of a lightsaber , along with the Force . In addition to being an effective weapon , the lightsaber is also a useful tool for the player , providing light in dark areas , deflecting incoming blaster fire and cutting through some obstacles .
There are three types of Force powers ; light , dark and neutral . Light Force powers provide nonviolent advantages such as being able to restore health or persuade enemies to ignore the player . Dark Force powers are violent and give the ability to throw objects or choke enemies . Neutral powers enhance athletic abilities such as being able to jump higher or run faster . There are fourteen powers in total , four of each type and a bonus power in each light and dark if the Jedi stays true to that path . Players earn stars to allocate toward Force powers by completing specific levels . By finding all the secrets in a level , players can also gain one bonus star to use . Between levels , the player can choose which Force powers to enhance by allocating stars to that power . Stars cannot be reclaimed from powers later on .
Some levels contain puzzles that may require use of the Force to overcome , or by locating certain objects in the level . There are a variety of hostile and non @-@ hostile non @-@ player characters ( NPCs ) within each level with whom the player can interact . Other enemies include monsters and vehicles . There are two endings to Jedi Knight , depending on how the player plays the game . If the player does not harm non @-@ hostile NPCs and focuses on collecting light Force powers , the player will get the light side ending . Conversely if the player harms non @-@ hostile NPCs and collects dark Force powers , the game will end with the dark side ending .
= = = Multiplayer = = =
Jedi Knight includes a multiplayer mode that allows up to eight people to compete with one another on a local area network and up to thirty two people online . Online gaming was hosted by the MSN Gaming Zone . The player creates an avatar within Jedi Knight and selects a ranking , with higher rankings having access to more Force powers . The player can also edit their avatar 's " skin " and lightsaber color . There are two types of game in Jedi Knight 's multiplayer mode , " Capture the flag " and " Jedi Training " , similar to deathmatch . The players can customize the settings to play a deathmatch the way they desire ; for example , by limiting the use of Force powers or playing on teams .
= = Plot = =
The game is set one year after the events of Return of the Jedi . The player controls Kyle Katarn ( voiced by Jason Court ) , who made his first appearance as a mercenary in Dark Forces . On Nar Shaddaa , Katarn meets with an information broker droid named 8t88 ( Denny Delk ) who tells Katarn that his father , Morgan Katarn ( Jacob Witkin ) , was killed by a Dark Jedi named Jerec ( Christopher Neame ) , who also intends to rebuild the Empire under his rule . After a lengthy firefight , Kyle retrieves a disk from 8t88 that can only be read by WeeGee , the Katarn 's family droid . The disk 's message , coupled with WeeGee giving Kyle a lightsaber , compel Kyle to undertake a journey to confront his father 's murderers and discover his own latent Force abilities . While on this journey , Kyle learns that seven Dark Jedi are intent on finding the " Valley of the Jedi " , a focal point for the Force and sacred ground for the Jedi .
Katarn retrieves the Valley 's location and travels with Rebel Alliance agent and close friend Jan Ors ( Angela Harry ) to Ruusan , the planet on which the Valley is located . Jerec captures Ors and offers Katarn the choice to execute her or die . The decision Katarn makes here depends on the player 's actions within the game up to this point . If Katarn has fallen to the dark side he kills Ors , but if he has remained true to the light path he spares her . With both paths , Katarn has a final confrontation with Jerec in the Valley of the Jedi 's core . If the player chose the dark path , the game ends with Katarn becoming the new Emperor ; if the player chose the light side , the game concludes with Katarn being reunited with Ors and carving a monument to Rahn and his dead father .
= = Development = =
Development of Jedi Knight was led by Justin Chin , who had also worked on the previous game . The most significant developments for Jedi Knight are the use of The Force and the lightsaber . The Force plays an integral role in how the player plays the game and shapes the way the game is played . The method of allocating credits to Force powers was designed with a role @-@ playing video game style in mind , allowing the player the choice of which powers to improve . Chin said in an early interview that progress in the game is based upon the abilities the player develops .
Jedi Knight uses both 3D graphics and surround sound . It is one of the early games to adopt the use of 3D graphics hardware acceleration using Microsoft Direct3D . The 3D sound technology was tweaked extensively to give an immersive feel to the game . This was achieved by experimentation using many different sound effects and playback styles . Between levels Jedi Knight features full motion video cutscenes . The characters are represented by live actors while the backgrounds are pre @-@ rendered graphics . The cutscenes included the first lightsaber footage filmed since Return of the Jedi in 1983 .
= = = Mysteries of the Sith = = =
After the release of Jedi Knight , LucasArts developed Star Wars Jedi Knight : Mysteries of the Sith as an expansion pack . It was released on January 31 , 1998 and received positive reviews from critics . The expansion includes a single @-@ player mode and fifteen multiplayer maps . There are also technical improvements over Jedi Knight , including colored lighting , new textures and models , and developments to the artificial intelligence .
The single @-@ player story in Mysteries of the Sith is set five years after the events of Jedi Knight . The player once more takes control of Kyle Katarn , but later in the game is given control of Mara Jade , one of the most popular Star Wars expanded universe characters .
= = Reception = =
Star Wars Jedi Knight : Dark Forces II was well received . The game holds an aggregate score of 91 out of 100 on Metacritic , based on ten reviews , and 88 @.@ 69 % on GameRankings , based on thirteen reviews . The combination of puzzles and gameplay drew praise from critics , who indicated that the game builds upon the qualities found in Dark Forces . The user control of the game was praised , especially the control of the lightsaber . The game was compared positively with Doom , a significant game in the first @-@ person shooter genre .
The gameplay did not escape criticism , however , with Tom Chick of IGN criticising the layout of the levels : " The levels can be awfully linear , throwing you up against some frustrating brick walls where you don 't know where to go or what you 're supposed to do next . There are some bald key hunts . " The artificial intelligence of hostile NPCs received mixed reactions . GameSpot 's Ron Dulin praised the AI , saying that they help the suspension of disbelief . Chi Kong Lui of Gamecritics.com , however , gave the opposite view : " Enemy artificial intelligence is still pretty mindless and blasting them doesn 't require much skill . "
Jedi Knight 's graphics received mixed reviews . Critics stated the non @-@ 3D accelerated version of the game looks poor . Game Revolution 's Calvin Hubble argued that the game only really looks good if played on a system with a powerful 3D card . Other graphical aspects received praise . The character animations were considered more detailed than similar games . The graphical presentation of the levels received specific praise from IGN : " No other first person shooter has come close to Jedi Knight 's dizzying sense of scale and its vast levels . " The full @-@ motion video sequences between levels received both praise and criticism .
The use of John Williams ' soundtrack from the Star Wars films was met with praise , though one reviewer believed that the music is overused in Star Wars video games . The sound effects were also lauded , and seen as providing a good atmosphere for the game , in particular the lightsaber sound and its implementation .
The addition of a multiplayer mode to Jedi Knight was met positively , but questions arose to why there are so few multiplayer maps and why single @-@ player maps cannot be used in the multiplayer mode . Tom Chick of IGN believes this was corrected with the release of Mysteries of the Sith .
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= Grand Teton National Park =
Grand Teton National Park is a United States National Park in northwestern Wyoming . At approximately 310 @,@ 000 acres ( 480 sq mi ; 130 @,@ 000 ha ; 1 @,@ 300 km2 ) , the park includes the major peaks of the 40 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 64 km ) Teton Range as well as most of the northern sections of the valley known as Jackson Hole . It is only 10 miles ( 16 km ) south of Yellowstone National Park , to which it is connected by the National Park Service @-@ managed John D. Rockefeller , Jr . Memorial Parkway . Along with surrounding National Forests , these three protected areas constitute the almost 18 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 @-@ acre ( 7 @,@ 300 @,@ 000 ha ) Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem , one of the largest intact mid @-@ latitude temperate ecosystems in the world .
Human history of the Grand Teton region dates back at least 11 @,@ 000 years , when the first nomadic hunter @-@ gatherer Paleo @-@ Indians began migrating into the region during warmer months pursuing food and supplies . In the early 19th century , the first White explorers encountered the eastern Shoshone natives . Between 1810 and 1840 , the region attracted fur trading companies that vied for control of the lucrative beaver pelt trade . U.S. Government expeditions to the region commenced in the mid @-@ 19th century as an offshoot of exploration in Yellowstone , with the first permanent white settlers in Jackson Hole arriving in the 1880s . Efforts to preserve the region as a national park commenced in the late 19th century , and in 1929 Grand Teton National Park was established , protecting the major peaks of the Teton Range . The valley of Jackson Hole remained in private ownership until the 1930s , when conservationists led by John D. Rockefeller , Jr. began purchasing land in Jackson Hole to be added to the existing national park . Against public opinion and with repeated Congressional efforts to repeal the measures , much of Jackson Hole was set aside for protection as Jackson Hole National Monument in 1943 . The monument was abolished in 1950 and most of the monument land was added to Grand Teton National Park .
Grand Teton National Park is named for Grand Teton , the tallest mountain in the Teton Range . The naming of the mountains is attributed to early 19th @-@ century French @-@ speaking trappers — les trois tétons ( the three teats ) was later anglicized and shortened to Tetons . At 13 @,@ 775 feet ( 4 @,@ 199 m ) , Grand Teton abruptly rises more than 7 @,@ 000 feet ( 2 @,@ 100 m ) above Jackson Hole , almost 850 feet ( 260 m ) higher than Mount Owen , the second @-@ highest summit in the range . The park has numerous lakes , including 15 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 24 km ) Jackson Lake as well as streams of varying length and the upper main stem of the Snake River . Though in a state of recession , a dozen small glaciers persist at the higher elevations near the highest peaks in the range . Some of the rocks in the park are the oldest found in any U.S. National Park and have been dated at nearly 2 @.@ 7 billion years .
Grand Teton National Park is an almost pristine ecosystem and the same species of flora and fauna that have existed since prehistoric times can still be found there . More than 1 @,@ 000 species of vascular plants , dozens of species of mammals , 300 species of birds , more than a dozen fish species and a few species of reptiles and amphibians exist . Due to various changes in the ecosystem , some of them human @-@ induced , efforts have been made to provide enhanced protection to some species of native fish and the increasingly threatened whitebark pine .
Grand Teton National Park is a popular destination for mountaineering , hiking , fishing and other forms of recreation . There are more than 1 @,@ 000 drive @-@ in campsites and over 200 miles ( 320 km ) of hiking trails that provide access to backcountry camping areas . Noted for world @-@ renowned trout fishing , the park is one of the few places to catch Snake River fine @-@ spotted cutthroat trout . Grand Teton has several National Park Service @-@ run visitor centers , and privately operated concessions for motels , lodges , gas stations and marinas .
= = Human history = =
= = = Paleo @-@ Indians and Native Americans = = =
Paleo @-@ Indian presence in what is now Grand Teton National Park dates back more than 11 @,@ 000 years . Jackson Hole valley climate at that time was colder and more alpine than the semi @-@ arid climate found today , and the first humans were migratory hunter @-@ gatherers spending summer months in Jackson Hole and wintering in the valleys west of the Teton Range . Along the shores of Jackson Lake , fire pits , tools and what are thought to have been fishing weights have been discovered . One of the tools found is of a type associated with the Clovis culture , and tools from this cultural period date back at least 11 @,@ 500 years . Some of the tools are made of obsidian which chemical analysis indicates came from sources near present @-@ day Teton Pass , south of Grand Teton National Park . Though obsidian was also available north of Jackson Hole , virtually all the obsidian spear points found are from a source to the south , indicating that the main seasonal migratory route for the Paleo @-@ Indian was from this direction . Elk , which winter on the National Elk Refuge at the southern end of Jackson Hole and northwest into higher altitudes during spring and summer , follow a similar migratory pattern to this day . From 11 @,@ 000 to about 500 years ago , there is little evidence of change in the migratory patterns amongst the Native American groups in the region and no evidence that indicates any permanent human settlement .
When white American explorers first entered the region in the first decade of the 19th century , they encountered the eastern tribes of the Shoshone people . Most of the Shoshone that lived in the mountain vastness of the greater Yellowstone region continued to be pedestrian while other groups of Shoshone that resided in lower elevations had limited use of horses . The mountain @-@ dwelling Shoshone were known as " Sheep @-@ eaters " or " Tukudika " as they referred to themselves , since a staple of their diet was the Bighorn Sheep . The Shoshones continued to follow the same migratory pattern as their predecessors and have been documented as having a close spiritual relationship with the Teton Range . A number of stone enclosures on some of the peaks , including on the upper slopes of Grand Teton ( known simply as The Enclosure ) are thought to have been used by Shoshone during vision quests . The Teton and Yellowstone region Shoshone relocated to the Wind River Indian Reservation after it was established in 1868 . The reservation is situated 100 mi ( 160 km ) southeast of Jackson Hole on land that was selected by Chief Washakie .
= = = Fur trade exploration = = =
The Lewis and Clark Expedition ( 1804 – 1806 ) passed well north of the Grand Teton region . During their return trip from the Pacific Ocean , expedition member John Colter was given an early discharge so he could join two fur trappers who were heading west in search of beaver pelts . Colter was later hired by Manuel Lisa to lead fur trappers and to explore the region around the Yellowstone River . During the winter of 1807 / 08 Colter passed through Jackson Hole and was the first Caucasian to see the Teton Range . Lewis and Clark expedition co @-@ leader William Clark produced a map based on the previous expedition and included the explorations of John Colter in 1807 , apparently based on discussions between Clark and Colter when the two met in St. Louis , Missouri in 1810 . Another map attributed to William Clark indicates John Colter entered Jackson Hole from the northeast , crossing the Continental Divide at either Togwotee Pass or Union Pass and left the region after crossing Teton Pass , following the well established Native American trails . In 1931 , the Colter Stone , a rock carved in the shape of a head with the inscription " John Colter " on one side and the year " 1808 " on the other , was discovered in a field in Tetonia , Idaho , which is west of Teton Pass . The Colter Stone has not been authenticated to have been created by John Colter and may have been the work of later expeditions to the region .
John Colter is widely considered the first mountain man and , like those that came to the Jackson Hole region over the next 30 years , he was there primarily for the profitable fur trapping ; the region was rich with the highly sought after pelts of beaver and other fur bearing animals . Between 1810 and 1812 , the Astorians traveled through Jackson Hole and crossed Teton Pass as they headed east in 1812 . After 1810 , American and British fur trading companies were in competition for control of the North American fur trade , and American sovereignty over the region was not secured until the signing of the Oregon Treaty in 1846 . One party employed by the British North West Company and led by explorer Donald Mackenzie entered Jackson Hole from the west in 1818 or 1819 . The Tetons , as well as the valley west of the Teton Range known today as Pierre 's Hole , may have been named by French speaking Iroquois or French Canadian trappers that were part of Mackenzie 's party . Earlier parties had referred to the most prominent peaks of the Teton Range as the Pilot Knobs . The French trappers ' les trois tétons ( the three breasts ) was later shortened to the Tetons .
Formed in the mid @-@ 1820s , the Rocky Mountain Fur Company partnership included Jedediah Smith , William Sublette and David Edward Jackson or " Davey Jackson " . Jackson oversaw the trapping operations in the Teton region between 1826 and 1830 . Sublette named the valley east of the Teton Range " Jackson 's Hole " ( later simply Jackson Hole ) for Davey Jackson . As the demand for beaver fur declined and the various regions of the American West became depleted of beaver due to over trapping , American fur trading companies folded ; however , individual mountain men continued to trap beaver in the region until about 1840 . From the mid @-@ 1840s until 1860 , Jackson Hole and the Teton Range were generally devoid of all but the small populations of Native American tribes that had already been there . Most overland human migration routes such as the Oregon and Mormon Trails crossed over South Pass , well to the south of the Teton Range , and Caucasian influence in the Teton region was minimal until the U.S. Government commenced organized explorations .
= = = Organized exploration and settlement = = =
The first U.S. Government sponsored expedition to enter Jackson Hole was the 1859 – 60 Raynolds Expedition . Led by U.S. Army Captain William F. Raynolds and guided by mountain man Jim Bridger , it included naturalist F. V. Hayden , who later led other expeditions to the region . The expedition had been charged with exploring the Yellowstone region , but encountered difficulties crossing mountain passes due to snow . Bridger ended up guiding the expedition south over Union Pass then following the Gros Ventre River drainage to the Snake River and leaving the region over Teton Pass . Organized exploration of the region was halted during the American Civil War but resumed when F. V. Hayden led the well @-@ funded Hayden Geological Survey of 1871 . In 1872 , Hayden oversaw explorations in Yellowstone , while a branch of his expedition known as the Snake River Division was led by James Stevenson and explored the Teton region . Along with Stevenson was photographer William Henry Jackson who took the first photographs of the Teton Range . The Hayden Geological Survey named many of the mountains and lakes in the region . The explorations by early mountain men and subsequent expeditions failed to identify any sources of economically viable mineral wealth . Nevertheless , small groups of prospectors set up claims and mining operations on several of the creeks and rivers . By 1900 all organized efforts to retrieve minerals had been abandoned . Though the Teton Range was never permanently inhabited , pioneers began settling the Jackson Hole valley to the east of the range in 1884 . These earliest homesteaders were mostly single men who endured long winters , short growing seasons and rocky soils that were hard to cultivate . The region was mostly suited for the cultivation of hay and cattle ranching . By 1890 , Jackson Hole had an estimated permanent population of 60 . Menor 's Ferry was built in 1892 near present @-@ day Moose , Wyoming to provide access for wagons to the west side of the Snake River . Ranching increased significantly from 1900 to 1920 , but a series of agricultural related economic downturns in the early 1920s left many ranchers destitute . Beginning in the 1920s , the automobile provided faster and easier access to areas of natural beauty and old military roads into Jackson Hole over Teton and Togwotee Passes were improved to accommodate the increased vehicle traffic . In response to the increased tourism , dude ranches were established , some new and some from existing cattle ranches , so urbanized travelers could experience the life of a cattleman .
= = = Establishment of the park = = =
To the north of Jackson Hole , Yellowstone National Park had been established in 1872 , and by the close of the 19th century , conservationists wanted to expand the boundaries of that park to include at least the Teton Range . By 1907 , in an effort to regulate water flow for irrigation purposes , the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation had constructed a log crib dam at the Snake River outlet of Jackson Lake . This dam failed in 1910 and a new concrete Jackson Lake Dam replaced it by 1911 . The dam was further enlarged in 1916 , raising lake waters 39 ft ( 12 m ) as part of the Minidoka Project , designed to provide irrigation for agriculture in the state of Idaho . Further dam construction plans for other lakes in the Teton Range alarmed Yellowstone National Park superintendent Horace Albright , who sought to block such efforts . Jackson Hole residents were opposed to an expansion of Yellowstone , but were more in favor of the establishment of a separate National Park which would include the Teton Range and six lakes at the base of the mountains . After congressional approval , President Calvin Coolidge signed the executive order establishing the 96 @,@ 000 @-@ acre ( 39 @,@ 000 ha ) Grand Teton National Park on February 26 , 1929 .
The valley of Jackson Hole remained primarily in private ownership when John D. Rockefeller , Jr. and his wife visited the region in the late 1920s . Horace Albright and Rockefeller discussed ways to preserve Jackson Hole from commercial exploitation , and in consequence , Rockefeller started buying Jackson Hole properties through the Snake River Land Company for the purpose of later turning them over to the National Park Service . In 1930 , this plan was revealed to the residents of the region and was met with strong disapproval . Congressional efforts to prevent the expansion of Grand Teton National Park ended up putting the Snake River Land Company 's holdings in limbo . By 1942 Rockefeller had become increasingly impatient that his purchased property might never be added to the park , and wrote to the Secretary of the Interior Harold L. Ickes that he was considering selling the land to another party . Secretary Ickes recommended to President Franklin Roosevelt that the Antiquities Act , which permitted Presidents to set aside land for protection without the approval of Congress , be used to establish a National Monument in Jackson Hole . Roosevelt created the 221 @,@ 000 @-@ acre ( 89 @,@ 000 ha ) Jackson Hole National Monument in 1943 , using the land donated from the Snake River Land Company and adding additional property from Teton National Forest . The monument and park were adjacent to each other and both were administered by the National Park Service , but the monument designation ensured no funding allotment , nor provided a level of resource protection equal to the park . Members of Congress repeatedly attempted to have the new National Monument abolished .
After the end of World War II national public sentiment was in favor of adding the monument to the park , and though there was still much local opposition , the monument and park were combined in 1950 . In recognition of John D. Rockefeller , Jr . ' s efforts to establish and then expand Grand Teton National Park , a 24 @,@ 000 @-@ acre ( 9 @,@ 700 ha ) parcel of land between Grand Teton and Yellowstone National Parks was added to the National Park Service in 1972 . This land and the road from the southern boundary of the park to West Thumb in Yellowstone National Park was named the John D. Rockefeller , Jr . Memorial Parkway . The Rockefeller family owned the JY Ranch , which bordered Grand Teton National Park to the southwest . In November 2007 , the Rockefeller family transferred ownership of the ranch to the park for the establishment of the Laurance S. Rockefeller Preserve , which was dedicated on June 21 , 2008 .
= = = History of mountaineering = = =
During the last 25 years of the 19th century , the mountains of the Teton Range became a focal point for explorers wanting to claim first ascents of the peaks . However , white explorers may not have been the first to climb many of the peaks and the earliest first ascent of even the formidable Grand Teton itself might have been achieved long before written history documented it . Native American relics remain including The Enclosure , an obviously man @-@ made structure that is located about 530 ft ( 160 m ) below the summit of Grand Teton at a point near the Upper Saddle ( 13 @,@ 160 ft ( 4 @,@ 010 m ) ) . Nathaniel P. Langford and James Stevenson , both members of the Hayden Geological Survey of 1872 , found The Enclosure during their early attempt to summit Grand Teton . Langford claimed that he and Stevenson climbed Grand Teton , but were vague as to whether they had made it to the summit . Their reported obstacles and sightings were never corroborated by later parties . Langford and Stevenson likely did not get much further than The Enclosure . The first ascent of Grand Teton that is substantiated was made by William O. Owen , Frank Petersen , John Shive and Franklin Spencer Spalding on August 11 , 1898 . Owen had made two previous attempts on the peak and after publishing several accounts of this first ascent , discredited any claim that Langford and Stevenson had ever reached beyond The Enclosure in 1872 . The disagreement over which party first reached the top of Grand Teton may be the greatest controversy in the history of American mountaineering . After 1898 no other ascents of Grand Teton were recorded until 1923 .
By the mid @-@ 1930s , more than a dozen different climbing routes had been established on Grand Teton including the northeast ridge in 1931 by Glenn Exum . Glenn Exum teamed up with another noted climber named Paul Petzoldt to found the Exum Mountain Guides in 1931 . Of the other major peaks on the Teton Range , all were climbed by the late 1930s including Mount Moran in 1922 and Mount Owen in 1930 by Fritiof Fryxell and others after numerous previous attempts had failed . Both Middle and South Teton were first climbed on the same day , August 29 , 1923 , by a group of climbers led by Albert R. Ellingwood . New routes on the peaks were explored as safety equipment and skills improved and eventually climbs rated at above 5 @.@ 9 on the Yosemite Decimal System difficulty scale were established on Grand Teton . The classic climb following the route first pioneered by Owen , known as the Owen @-@ Spalding route , is rated at 5 @.@ 4 due a combination of concerns beyond the gradient alone . Rock climbing and bouldering had become popular in the park by the mid 20th century . In the late 1950s , gymnast John Gill came to the park and started climbing large boulders near Jenny Lake . Gill approached climbing from a gymnastics perspective and while in the Tetons became the first known climber in history to use gymnastic chalk to improve handholds and to keep hands dry while climbing . During the latter decades of the 20th century , extremely difficult cliffs were explored including some in Death Canyon , and by the mid @-@ 1990s , 800 different climbing routes had been documented for the various peaks and canyon cliffs .
= = Park management = =
Grand Teton National Park is one of the ten most visited national parks in the U.S. , with an average of 2 @.@ 5 million visitors annually . The National Park Service is a federal agency of the United States Department of the Interior and manages both Grand Teton National Park and the John D. Rockefeller , Jr . Memorial Parkway . Grand Teton National Park has an average of 100 permanent and 180 seasonal employees . The park also manages 27 concession contracts that provide services such as lodging , restaurants , mountaineering guides , dude ranching , fishing and a boat shuttle on Jenny Lake . The National Park Service works closely with other federal agencies such as the U.S. Forest Service , the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service , the Bureau of Reclamation , and also , in consequence of Jackson Hole Airport 's presence in the park , the Federal Aviation Administration . Initial construction of the airstrip north of the town of Jackson was completed in the 1930s . When Jackson Hole National Monument was designated , the airport was inside it . After the monument and park were combined , the Jackson Hole Airport became the only commercial airport within a U.S. National Park . Jackson Hole Airport has some of the strictest noise abatement regulations of any airport in the U.S. The airport has night flight curfews and overflight restrictions , with pilots being expected to approach and depart the airport along the east , south or southwest flight corridors . As of 2010 , 110 privately owned property inholdings , many belonging to the state of Wyoming , are located within Grand Teton National Park . Efforts to purchase or trade these inholdings for other federal lands are ongoing and through partnerships with other entities , 10 million dollars is hoped to be raised to acquire private inholdings by 2016 . Some monies are allocated from congress via the Land and Water Conservation Fund , but Grand Teton National Park may not get all the money needed from the fund as it is divided up between four different federal agencies . Efforts to exchange federal land from other areas for inholdings were still in the negotiation phase in 2012 .
= = Geography = =
Grand Teton National Park is located in the northwestern region of the U.S. state of Wyoming . To the north the park is bordered by the John D. Rockefeller , Jr . Memorial Parkway , which is administered by Grand Teton National Park . The scenic highway with the same name passes from the southern boundary of Grand Teton National Park to West Thumb in Yellowstone National Park . Grand Teton National Park covers approximately 310 @,@ 000 acres ( 130 @,@ 000 ha ) , while the John D. Rockefeller , Jr . Memorial Parkway includes 23 @,@ 700 acres ( 9 @,@ 600 ha ) . Most of the Jackson Hole valley and virtually all the major mountain peaks of the Teton Range are within the park . The Jedediah Smith Wilderness of Caribou @-@ Targhee National Forest lies along the western boundary and includes the western slopes of the Teton Range . To the northeast and east lie the Teton Wilderness and Gros Ventre Wilderness of Bridger @-@ Teton National Forest . The National Elk Refuge is to the southeast , and migrating herds of elk winter there . Privately owned land borders the park to the south and southwest . Grand Teton National Park , along with Yellowstone National Park , surrounding National Forests and related protected areas constitute the 18 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 @-@ acre ( 7 @,@ 300 @,@ 000 ha ) ( 28 @,@ 000 sq mi ( 73 @,@ 000 km2 ) ) Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem . The Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem spans across portions of three states and is one of the largest intact mid @-@ latitude ecosystems remaining on Earth . By road , Grand Teton National Park is 290 mi ( 470 km ) from Salt Lake City , Utah and 550 mi ( 890 km ) from Denver , Colorado .
= = = Teton Range = = =
The youngest mountain range in the Rocky Mountains , the Teton Range began forming between 6 and 9 million years ago . It runs roughly north to south and rises from the floor of Jackson Hole without any foothills along a 40 mi ( 64 km ) long by 7 to 9 mi ( 11 to 14 km ) wide active fault @-@ block mountain front . The range tilts westward , rising abruptly above Jackson Hole valley which lies to the east but more gradually into Teton Valley to the west . A series of earthquakes along the Teton Fault slowly displaced the western side of the fault upward and the eastern side of the fault downward at an average of 1 foot ( 30 cm ) of displacement every 300 – 400 years . Most of the displacement of the fault occurred in the last 2 million years . While the fault has experienced up to 7 @.@ 5 – earthquake magnitude events since it formed , it has been relatively quiescent during historical periods , with only a few 5 @.@ 0 – magnitude or greater earthquakes known to have occurred since 1850 .
In addition to 13 @,@ 775 ft ( 4 @,@ 199 m ) high Grand Teton , another nine peaks are over 12 @,@ 000 ft ( 3 @,@ 700 m ) above sea level . Eight of these peaks between Avalanche and Cascade Canyons make up the often @-@ photographed Cathedral Group . The most prominent peak north of Cascade Canyon is the monolithic Mount Moran ( 12 @,@ 605 ft ( 3 @,@ 842 m ) ) which rises 5 @,@ 728 ft ( 1 @,@ 746 m ) above Jackson Lake . To the north of Mount Moran , the range eventually merges into the high altitude Yellowstone Plateau . South of the central Cathedral Group the Teton Range tapers off near Teton Pass and blends into the Snake River Range .
West to east trending canyons provide easier access by foot into the heart of the range as no vehicular roads traverse the range except at Teton Pass , which is south of the park . Carved by a combination of glacier activity as well as by numerous streams , the canyons are at their lowest point along the eastern margin of the range at Jackson Hole . Flowing from higher to lower elevations , the glaciers created more than a dozen U @-@ shaped valleys throughout the range . Cascade Canyon is sandwiched between Mount Owen and Teewinot Mountain to the south and Symmetry Spire to the north and is situated immediately west of Jenny Lake . North to south , Webb , Moran , Paintbrush , Cascade , Death and Granite Canyons slice through Teton Range .
= = = Jackson Hole = = =
Jackson Hole is a 55 mi ( 89 km ) long by 6 to 13 mi ( 10 to 21 km ) wide graben valley with an average elevation of 6 @,@ 800 ft ( 2 @,@ 100 m ) , its lowest point is near the southern park boundary at 6 @,@ 350 ft ( 1 @,@ 940 m ) . The valley sits east of the Teton Range and is vertically displaced downward 30 @,@ 000 ft ( 9 @,@ 100 m ) , making the Teton Fault and its parallel twin on the east side of the valley normal faults with the Jackson Hole block being the hanging wall and the Teton Mountain block being the footwall . Grand Teton National Park contains the major part of both blocks . Erosion of the range provided sediment in the valley so the topographic relief is only 7 @,@ 700 ft ( 2 @,@ 300 m ) . Jackson Hole is comparatively flat , with only a modest increase in altitude south to north , however a few isolated buttes such as Blacktail Butte and hills including Signal Mountain dot the valley floor . In addition to a few outcroppings , the Snake River has eroded terraces into Jackson Hole . Southeast of Jackson Lake , glacial depressions known as kettles are numerous . The kettles were formed when ice situated under gravel outwash from ice sheets melted as the glaciers retreated .
= = = Lakes and rivers = = =
Most of the lakes in the park were formed by glaciers and the largest of these lakes are located at the base of the Teton Range . In the northern section of the park lies Jackson Lake , the largest lake in the park at 15 mi ( 24 km ) in length , 5 mi ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) wide and 438 ft ( 134 m ) deep . Though Jackson Lake is natural , the Jackson Lake Dam was constructed at its outlet before the creation of the park and the lake level was raised almost 40 ft ( 12 m ) consequently . East of the Jackson Lake Lodge lies Emma Matilda and Two Ocean Lakes . South of Jackson Lake , Leigh , Jenny , Bradley , Taggart and Phelps Lakes rest at the outlets of the canyons which lead into the Teton Range . Within the Teton Range , small alpine lakes in cirques are common , and there are more than 100 scattered throughout the high country . Lake Solitude , located at an elevation of 9 @,@ 035 ft ( 2 @,@ 754 m ) , is in a cirque at the head of the North Fork of Cascade Canyon . Other high altitude lakes can be found at over 10 @,@ 000 ft ( 3 @,@ 000 m ) in elevation and a few , such as Icefloe Lake , remain ice clogged for much of the year . The park is not noted for large waterfalls ; however , 100 @-@ foot ( 30 m ) high Hidden Falls just west of Jenny Lake is easy to reach after a short hike .
From its headwaters on Two Ocean Plateau in Yellowstone National Park , the Snake River flows north to south through the park , entering Jackson Lake near the boundary of Grand Teton National Park and John D. Rockefeller , Jr . Memorial Parkway . The Snake River then flows through the spillways of the Jackson Lake Dam and from there southward through Jackson Hole , exiting the park just west of the Jackson Hole Airport . The largest lakes in the park all drain either directly or by tributary streams into the Snake River . Major tributaries which flow into the Snake River include Pacific Creek and Buffalo Fork near Moran and the Gros Ventre River at the southern border of the park . Through the comparatively level Jackson Hole valley , the Snake River descends an average of 19 feet per mile ( 3 @.@ 6 m / km ) , while other streams descending from the mountains to the east and west have higher gradients due to increased slope . The Snake River creates braids and channels in sections where the gradients are lower and in steeper sections , erodes and undercuts the cobblestone terraces once deposited by glaciers .
= = = Glaciation = = =
The major peaks of the Teton Range were carved into their current shapes by long vanished glaciers . Commencing 250 @,@ 000 – 150 @,@ 000 years ago , the Tetons went through several periods of glaciation with some areas of Jackson Hole covered by glaciers 2 @,@ 000 ft ( 610 m ) thick . This heavy glaciation is unrelated to the uplift of the range itself and is instead part of a period of global cooling known as the Quaternary glaciation . Beginning with the Buffalo Glaciation and followed by the Bull Lake and then the Pinedale glaciation , which ended roughly 15 @,@ 000 years ago , the landscape was greatly impacted by glacial activity . During the Pinedale glaciation , the landscape visible today was created as glaciers from the Yellowstone Plateau flowed south and formed Jackson Lake , while smaller glaciers descending from the Teton Range pushed rock moraines out from the canyons and left behind lakes near the base of the mountains . The peaks themselves were carved into horns and arêtes and the canyons were transformed from water @-@ eroded V @-@ shapes to glacier @-@ carved U @-@ shaped valleys . Approximately a dozen glaciers currently exist in the park , but they are not ancient as they were all reestablished sometime between 1400 and 1850 AD during the Little Ice Age . Of these more recent glaciers , the largest is Teton Glacier , which sits below the northeast face of Grand Teton . Teton Glacier is 3 @,@ 500 ft ( 1 @,@ 100 m ) long and 1 @,@ 100 ft ( 340 m ) wide , and nearly surrounded by the tallest summits in the range . Teton Glacier is also the best studied glacier in the range , and researchers concluded in 2005 that the glacier could disappear in 30 to 75 years . West of the Cathedral Group near Hurricane Pass , Schoolroom Glacier is tiny but has well defined terminal and lateral moraines , a small proglacial lake and other typical glacier features in close proximity to each other .
= = Geology = =
Grand Teton National Park has some of the most ancient rocks found in any U.S. National Park . The oldest rocks dated so far are 2 @,@ 680 ± 12 million years old , though even older rocks are believed to exist in the park . Formed during the Archean Eon ( 4 to 2 @.@ 5 billion years ago ) , these metamorphic rocks include gneiss , schist and amphibolites . Metamorphic rocks are the most common types found in the northern and southern sections of the Teton Range . 2 @,@ 545 million years ago , the metamorphic rocks were intruded by igneous granitic rocks , which are now visible in the central Tetons including Grand Teton and the nearby peaks . The light colored granites of the central Teton Range contrast with the darker metamorphic gneiss found on the flanks of Mount Moran to the north . Magma intrusions of diabase rocks 765 million years ago left dikes that can be seen on the east face of Mount Moran and Middle Teton . Granite and pegmatite intrusions also worked their way into fissures in the older gneiss . Precambrian rocks in Jackson Hole are buried deep under comparatively recent Tertiary volcanic and sedimentary deposits , as well as Pleistocene glacial deposits .
By the close of the Precambrian , the region was intermittently submerged under shallow seas , and for 500 million years various types of sedimentary rocks were formed . During the Paleozoic ( 542 to 251 million years ago ) sandstone , shale , limestone and dolomite were deposited . Though most of these sedimentary rocks have since eroded away from the central Teton Range , they are still evident on the northern , southern and western flanks of the range . One notable exception is the sandstone Flathead Formation which continues to cap Mount Moran . Sedimentary layering of rocks in Alaska Basin , which is on the western border of Grand Teton National Park , chronicles a 120 million year period of sedimentary deposition . Fossils found in the sedimentary rocks in the park include algae , brachiopods and trilobites . Sedimentary deposition continued during the Mesozoic ( 250 – 66 million years ago ) and the coal seams found in the sedimentary rock strata indicate the region was densely forested during that era . Numerous coal seams of 5 to 10 ft ( 1 @.@ 5 to 3 @.@ 0 m ) in thickness are interspersed with siltstone , claystone and other sedimentary rocks . During the late Cretaceous , a volcanic arc west of the region deposited fine grained ash that later formed into bentonite , an important mineral resource .
From the end of the Mesozoic to present , the region went through a series of uplifts and erosional sequences . Commencing 66 million years ago the Laramide orogeny was a period of mountain @-@ building and erosion in western North America that created the ancestral Rocky Mountains . This cycle of uplift and erosion left behind one of the most complete non @-@ marine Cenozoic rock sequences found in North America . Conglomerate rocks composed of quartzite and interspersed with mudstone and sandstones were deposited during erosion from a now vanished mountain range that existed to the northwest of the current Teton Range . These deposits also have trace quantities of gold and mercury . During the Eocene and Oligocene , volcanic eruptions from the ancestral Absaroka Range buried the region under various volcanic deposits . Sedimentary basins developed in the region due to drop faulting , creating an ancestral Jackson Hole and by the Pliocene ( 10 million years ago ) , an ancestral Jackson Lake known as Teewinot Lake . During the Quaternary , landslides , erosion and glacial activity deposited soils and rock debris throughout the Snake River valley of Jackson Hole and left behind terminal moraines which impound the current lakes . The most recent example of rapid alteration to the landscape occurred in 1925 just east of the park , when the Gros Ventre landslide was triggered by spring melt from a heavy snowpack as well as heavy rain .
= = Ecology = =
= = = Flora = = =
Grand Teton National Park and the surrounding region host over 1000 species of vascular plants . With an altitude variance of over 7 @,@ 000 ft ( 2 @,@ 100 m ) , the park has a number of different ecological zones including alpine tundra , the Rocky Mountains subalpine zone where spruce @-@ fir forests are dominant , and the valley floor , where a mixed conifer and deciduous forest zone occupies regions with better soils intermixed with sagebrush plains atop alluvial deposits . Additionally , wetlands near some lakes and in the valley floor adjacent to rivers and streams cover large expanses , especially along the Snake River near Oxbow Bend near Moran and Willow Flats near the Jackson Lake Lodge . Altitude , available soils , wildfire incidence , avalanches and human activities have a direct impact on the types of plant species in an immediate area . Where these various niches overlap is known as an ecotone .
The range of altitude in Grand Teton National Park impacts the types of plant species found at various elevations . In the alpine zone above the tree line , which in Grand Teton National Park is at approximately 10 @,@ 000 ft ( 3 @,@ 000 m ) , tundra conditions prevail . In this treeless region , hundreds of species of grass , wildflower , moss and lichen are found . In the subalpine region from the tree line to the base of the mountains , whitebark pine , limber pine , subalpine fir , and Engelmann spruce are dominant . In the valley floor , lodgepole pine is most common but Rocky Mountain Douglas @-@ fir , and blue spruce inhabit drier areas , while aspen , cottonwood , alder , and willow are more commonly found around lakes , streams and wetlands . However , the tablelands above the Snake River channel are mostly sagebrush plains and in terms of acreage is the most widespread habitat in the park . The sagebrush plains or flats have 100 species of grasses and wildflowers . Slightly more elevated sections of the plains of the northern sections of Jackson Hole form forest islands with one such obvious example being Timbered Island . In this ecotone , forested islands surrounded by sagebrush expanses provide shelter for various animal species during the day and nearby grasses for night time foraging .
While the flora of Grand Teton National Park is generally healthy , the whitebark pine , and to a lesser degree the lodgepole pine , are considered at risk . In the case of the whitebark pine , an invasive species of fungus known as white pine blister rust weakens the tree , making it more susceptible to destruction from endemic mountain pine beetles . Whitebark pines generally thrive at elevations above 8 @,@ 000 ft ( 2 @,@ 400 m ) and produce large seeds that are high in fat content and an important food source for various species such as the grizzly bear , red squirrel and Clark 's nutcracker . The species is considered to be a keystone and a foundation species ; keystone in that its " ecological role ( is ) disproportionately large relative to its abundance " and foundation in that it has a paramount role that " defines ecosystem structure , function , and process " . Whitebark pine has generally had a lower incidence of blister rust infection throughout the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem than in other regions such as Glacier National Park and the Cascade Range . The incidence of blister rust on whitebark pines in Yellowstone National Park is slightly lower than in Grand Teton . Though blister rust is not in itself the cause of increased mortality , its weakening effect on trees allows native pine beetles to more easily infest the trees , increasing mortality . While general practice in National Parks is to allow nature to take its course , the alarming trend of increased disease and mortality of the vital whitebark pine trees has sparked a collaborative effort amongst various government entities to intervene to protect the species .
= = = Fauna = = =
Sixty @-@ one species of mammals have been recorded in Grand Teton National Park . This includes the gray wolf , which had been extirpated from the region by the early 1900s but migrated into the Grand Teton National Park from adjacent Yellowstone National Park after the species had been reintroduced there . The re @-@ establishment of the wolves has ensured that every indigenous mammal species now exists in the park . In addition to gray wolves , another 17 species of carnivores reside within Grand Teton National Park including grizzlies and the more commonly seen American black bear . Relatively common sightings of coyote , river otter , marten and badger and occasional sightings of cougar , Canadian lynx and wolverine are reported annually . A number of rodent species exist including yellow @-@ bellied marmot , least chipmunk , muskrat , beaver , Uinta ground squirrel , pika , snowshoe hare , porcupine , and six species of bats .
Of the larger mammals the most common are elk , which exist in the thousands . Their migration route between the National Elk Refuge and Yellowstone National Park is through Grand Teton National Park , so while easily seen anytime of the year , they are most numerous in the spring and fall . Other ungulates include bison and pronghorn — the fastest land mammal in the western hemisphere — which are found throughout Jackson Hole as are moose , which tend to stay near waterways and wetlands . Between 100 – 125 bighorn sheep dwell in the alpine and rocky zones of the peaks .
Over 300 species of birds have been sighted in the park including the calliope hummingbird , the smallest bird species in North America , as well as trumpeter swans , which is North America 's largest waterfowl . In addition to trumpeter swans , another 30 species of waterfowl have been recorded including blue @-@ winged teal , common merganser , American wigeon and the colorful but reclusive harlequin duck which is occasionally spotted in Cascade Canyon . Both bald and golden eagles and other birds of prey such as the osprey , red @-@ tailed hawk , American kestrel and occasional sightings of peregrine falcon have been reported . Of the 14 species of owls reported , the most common is the great horned owl , though the boreal owl and great grey owl are also seen occasionally . A dozen species of woodpeckers have been reported , as have a similar number of species of warblers , plovers and gulls . The vocal and gregarious black @-@ billed magpie frequents campgrounds while Steller 's jay and Clark 's nutcracker are found in the backcountry . The sage covered plains of Jackson Hole are favored areas for sage grouse , Brewer 's sparrow and sage thrashers , while the wetlands are frequented by great blue heron , American white pelican , sandhill crane and on rare occasions it 's endangered relative , the whooping crane .
The Snake River fine @-@ spotted cutthroat trout ( or Snake River cutthroat trout ) is the only native trout species in Grand Teton National Park . It is also the only subspecies of cutthroat trout that is exclusively native to large streams and rivers . Various researchers have not been able to identify any genetic differences between the Snake River fine @-@ spotted cutthroat trout and the Yellowstone cutthroat trout , though in terms of appearances , the Snake River subspecies has much smaller spots which cover a greater portion of the body , and the two subspecies inhabit different ecological niches . The Snake River fine @-@ spotted cutthroat trout was identified by some researchers as a separate subspecies by the mid @-@ 1990s , and is managed as a distinct subspecies by the state of Wyoming , but is not yet recognized as such by the neighboring states of Idaho and Montana . Snake River fine @-@ spotted cutthroat trout is found only in the Snake River and tributaries below the Jackson Lake dam to the Palisades Reservoir in Idaho . Other non @-@ native species of trout such as the rainbow trout and lake trout were introduced by the Wyoming Fish and Game Department or migrated out of Yellowstone . Today five trout species inhabit park waters . Native species of fish include the mountain whitefish , longnose dace , mountain sucker and non @-@ native species include the Utah chub and Arctic grayling .
Only four species of reptiles are documented in the park : three species of snakes which are the wandering garter snake , the less commonly seen valley garter snake and rubber boa , as well as one lizard species , the northern sagebrush lizard , that was first reported in 1992 . None of the species are venomous . Six amphibian species have been documented including the Columbia spotted frog , boreal chorus frog , tiger salamander and the increasingly rare boreal toad and northern leopard frog . A sixth amphibian species , the bullfrog , was introduced . An estimated 10 @,@ 000 insect species frequent the park ; they pollinate plants , provide a food source for birds , fish , mammals and other animals , and help in the decomposition of wood . In one example of the importance of insects to the ecosystem , swarms of Army cutworm moths die in huge numbers after mating and provide a high fat and protein diet for bears and other predators . One study concluded that when this moth species is most available , bears consume 40 @,@ 000 moths per day which is roughly 20 @,@ 000 kcal / day .
Grand Teton National Park is the only U.S. National Park that permits hunting , but only of elk in an effort to keep the populations of that species regulated . This provision was included in the legislation that combined Jackson Hole National Monument and Grand Teton National Park in 1950 . While some National Parks in Alaska permit subsistence hunting by indigenous natives and a few other National Park Service managed areas allow hunting under highly regulated circumstances , hunting in U.S. National Parks is not generally allowed . In Grand Teton National Park , hunters are required to obtain Wyoming hunting licenses and be deputized as park rangers . Hunting is restricted to areas east of the Snake River and north of Moran , Wyoming , the hunt is permitted only east of U.S. Route 89 . Proponents of continuing the elk hunt , which occurs in the fall , argue that the elk herd would become overpopulated without it , leading to vegetation degradation from overgrazing elk herds . Opponents cite that there has been an increase of predators such as the wolf and grizzly bear in Grand Teton National Park , rendering the annual hunt unnecessary and exposing hunters to attacks by grizzly bears as they become accustomed to feeding on remains left behind from the hunt .
= = = Fire ecology = = =
The role of wildfire is an important one for plant and animal species diversity . Many tree species have evolved to mainly germinate after a wildfire . Regions of the park that have experienced wildfire in historical times have greater species diversity after reestablishment than those regions that have not been influenced by fire . Though the Yellowstone fires of 1988 had minimal impact on Grand Teton National Park , studies conducted before and reaffirmed after that event concluded than the suppression of natural wildfires during the middle part of the 20th century decreased plant species diversity and natural regeneration of plant communities . One study conducted 15 years before the 1988 Yellowstone National Park fires concluded that human suppression of wildfire had adversely impacted Aspen tree groves and other forest types . The majority of conifer species in Grand Teton National Park are heavily dependent on wildfire and this is particularly true of the Lodgepole Pine . Though extremely hot canopy or crown fires tend to kill Lodgepole Pine seeds , lower severity surface fires usually result in a higher post wildfire regeneration of this species . In accordance with a better understanding of the role wildfire plays in the environment , the National Park Service and other land management agencies have developed Fire Management Plans which provide a strategy for wildfire management and are expected to best enhance the natural ecosystem .
= = = Climate = = =
Grand Teton National Park has a semi @-@ arid climate with the wettest months between November and January , mostly in the form of snow . The park averages 450 inches ( 1 @,@ 100 cm ) of snow in the mountains and 191 inches ( 490 cm ) in the valley annually . In January , the daily temperature range averages between 26 ° F ( − 3 ° C ) during the day to 1 ° F ( − 17 ° C ) at night . During the month of July , the daily temperature range is 80 and 41 ° F ( 27 and 5 ° C ) . The record high is 93 ° F ( 34 ° C ) and the record low is − 66 ° F ( − 54 ° C ) . Temperatures above the valley in the mountains during the summer average 1 ° F ( 0 @.@ 56 ° C ) cooler for every 1 @,@ 000 ft ( 300 m ) of altitude gained , so high altitude passes may remain snow @-@ covered until mid @-@ July . Thunderstorms are common during the summer , especially over the mountains ; by contrast , no tornados have ever been reported within the park . The F4 Teton @-@ Yellowstone tornado was a high altitude tornado which touched down northeast of the park on the border of the Teton Wilderness of Bridger @-@ Teton National Forest and Yellowstone National Park .
= = = Air and water quality = = =
Grand Teton National Park is more than 100 mi ( 160 km ) air distance from any major urban or industrial area , and localized human activities have generally had a very low environmental impact on the surrounding region . However , levels of ammonium and nitrogen have been trending slightly upwards due to deposition from rain and snow that is believed to originate from regional agricultural activities . Additionally , there has also been a slight increase in mercury and pesticides that have been detected in snow and some alpine lakes . Ozone and haze may be impacting overall visibility levels . Grand Teton National Park , in partnership with other agencies , erected the first air quality monitoring station in the park in 2011 . The station is designed to check for various pollutants as well as ozone levels and weather .
A 2005 study of the water of Jackson , Jenny and Taggart Lakes indicated that all three of these lakes had virtually pristine water quality . Of the three lakes , only on Taggart Lake are motorized boats prohibited , yet little difference in water quality was detected in the three lakes . In a study published in 2002 , the Snake River was found to have better overall water quality than other river systems in Wyoming , and low levels of pollution from anthropogenic sources .
= = Recreation = =
= = = Mountaineering = = =
Grand Teton National Park is a popular destination for mountain and rock climbers partly because the mountains are easily accessible by road . Trails are well marked and routes to the summits of most peaks are long established , and for the experienced and fit , most peaks can be climbed in one day . The highest maintained trails climb from the floor of Jackson Hole over 4 @,@ 000 ft ( 1 @,@ 200 m ) to mountain passes that are sometimes called saddles or divides . From these passes , the climbs follow routes that require varying skill levels . Climbers do not need a permit but are encouraged to voluntarily register their climbing plans with the National Park Service and inform associates of their itinerary . Any climb requiring an overnight stay in the backcountry does require a permit . Climbers are essentially on their own to determine their own skill levels and are encouraged to not take unnecessary risks . The Exum Mountain Guides , which is considered one of the finest mountaineering guide services in the U.S. , as well as the Jackson Hole Mountain Guides , offer instruction and climbing escorts for those who are less experienced or unfamiliar with various routes .
An average of 4 @,@ 000 climbers per year make an attempt to summit Grand Teton and most ascend up Garnet Canyon to a mountain pass called the Lower Saddle , which is between Grand Teton and Middle Teton . From the Lower Saddle , climbers often follow the Owen @-@ Spalding or Exum Ridge routes to the top of Grand Teton though there are 38 distinct routes to the summit . The north face route to the summit of Grand Teton is a world renowned climb involving a dozen distinct pitches and is rated at grade 5 @.@ 8 in difficulty for the 3 @,@ 000 @-@ foot ( 910 m ) vertical ascent . On a connecting ridge and just north of Grand Teton lies Mount Owen , and though lower in altitude , this peak is considered more difficult to ascend . Middle Teton is another popular climb that is most easily summited from a saddle between it and South Teton . Well north of Grand Teton lies Mount Moran , which is further from trailheads and more difficult to access and ascend . The Direct South Buttress of Mount Moran provides a vertical mile of climbing that was considered the most difficult climb in the U.S. when first accomplished in 1953 . Other popular climbing destinations include Buck Mountain , Symmetry Spire , Mount Saint John , Mount Wister , Teewinot Mountain and Nez Perce Peak and each mountain has at least six established routes to their summits .
= = = Camping and hiking = = =
Grand Teton National Park has five front @-@ country vehicular access campgrounds . The largest are the Colter Bay and Gros Ventre campgrounds , and each has 350 campsites which can accommodate large recreational vehicles . Lizard Creek and Signal Mountain campgrounds have 60 and 86 campsites respectively , while the smaller Jenny Lake campground has only 49 sites for tent use only . Additionally , full hookups for recreational vehicles are at the concessionaire managed 112 campsites at Colter Bay Village and another 100 at Flagg Ranch in the John D. Rockefeller Memorial Parkway . Though all front @-@ country campgrounds are only open from late spring to late fall , primitive winter camping is permitted at Colter Bay near the visitor center .
All campsites accessible only on foot or by horseback are considered backcountry campsites and they are available by permit only , but camping is allowed in most of these backcountry zones year @-@ round . The National Park Service has a combination of specific sites and zones for backcountry camping with a set carrying capacity of overnight stays per zone to protect the resources from overcrowding . Open fires are not permitted in the backcountry and all food must be stored in an Interagency Grizzly Bear Committee approved bear @-@ resistant container . As of 2012 , only four brands of bear @-@ resistant containers had been approved for use in the Grand Teton National Park backcountry . Additionally , hikers may use an approved bear spray to elude aggressive bears .
The park has 200 mi ( 320 km ) of hiking trails , ranging in difficulty from easy to strenuous . The easiest hiking trails are located in the valley , where the altitude changes are generally minimal . In the vicinity of Colter Bay Village , the Hermitage Point Trail is 9 @.@ 4 mi ( 15 @.@ 1 km ) long and considered easy . Several other trails link Hermitage Point with Emma Matilda Lake and Two Ocean Lake Trails , also considered to be relatively easy hikes in the Jackson Lake Lodge area . Other easy hikes include the Valley Trail which runs from Trapper Lake in the north to the south park boundary near Teton Village and the Jenny Lake Trail which circles the lake . Ranging from moderate to strenuous in difficulty , trails leading into the canyons are rated based on distance and more importantly on the amount of elevation change . The greatest elevation change is found on the Paintbrush Canyon , Alaska Basin and Garnet Canyon Trails , where elevation increases of over 4 @,@ 000 ft ( 1 @,@ 200 m ) are typical . Horses and pack animals are permitted on almost all trails in the park , however there are only five designated backcountry camping locations for pack animals and these campsites are far from the high mountain passes . Bicycles are limited to vehicle roadways only and the park has widened some roads to provide a safer biking experience . A paved multi @-@ use pathway opened in 2009 and provides non @-@ motorized biking access from the town of Jackson to South Jenny Lake .
= = = Boating and fishing = = =
Grand Teton National Park allows boating on all the lakes in Jackson Hole , but motorized boats can only be used on Jackson and Jenny Lakes . While there is no maximum horsepower limit on Jackson Lake ( though there is a noise restriction ) , Jenny Lake is restricted to 10 horsepower . Only non – motorized boats are permitted on Bearpaw , Bradley , Emma Matilda , Leigh , Phelps , String , Taggart and Two Ocean Lakes . There are four designated boat launches located on Jackson Lake and one on Jenny Lake . Additionally , sailboats , windsurfers and water skiing are only allowed on Jackson Lake and no jet skis are permitted on any of the park waterways . All boats are required to comply with various safety regulations including personal flotation devices for each passenger . Only non – motorized watercraft are permitted on the Snake River . All other waterways in the park are off limits to boating , and this includes all alpine lakes and tributary streams of the Snake River .
In 2010 , Grand Teton National Park started requiring all boats to display an Aquatic Invasive Species decal issued by the Wyoming Game and Fish Department or a Yellowstone National Park boat permit . In an effort to keep the park waterways free of various invasive species such as the Zebra mussel and whirling disease , boaters are expected to abide by certain regulations including displaying a self @-@ certification of compliance on the dashboard of any vehicle attached to an empty boat trailer .
Grand Teton National Park fisheries are managed by the Wyoming Fish and Game Department and a Wyoming state fishing license is required to fish all waterways in Grand Teton National Park . The creel limit for trout is restricted to six per day , including no more than three cutthroat trout with none longer than 12 in ( 30 cm ) , while the maximum length of other trout species may not exceed 20 in ( 51 cm ) , except those taken from Jackson Lake , where the maximum allowable length is 24 in ( 61 cm ) . There are also restrictions as to the seasonal accessibility to certain areas as well as the types of bait and fishing tackle permitted .
= = = Winter activities = = =
Visitors are allowed to snowshoe and do cross @-@ country skiing and are not restricted to trails . The Teton Park Road between the Taggart Lake trailhead to Signal Mountain Campground is closed to vehicular traffic during the winter and this section of the road is groomed for skiing and snowshoeing traffic . The park service offers guided snowshoe tours daily from the main headquarters located in Moose , Wyoming . Overnight camping is allowed in the winter in the backcountry with a permit and visitors should inquire about avalanche dangers .
The only location in Grand Teton National Park where snowmobiles are permitted is on Jackson Lake . The National Park Service requires that all snowmobiles use " Best Available Technology " ( BAT ) and lists various models of snowmobiles that are permitted , all of which are deemed to provide the least amount of air pollution and maximize noise abatement . All snowmobiles must be less than 10 years old and have odometer readings of less than 6 @,@ 000 mi ( 9 @,@ 700 km ) . Additionally , snowmobile use is for the purposes of accessing ice fishing locations only . Snowmobile access was permitted between Moran Junction and Flagg Ranch adjacent to the John D. Rockefeller , Jr . Memorial Parkway so that travelers using the Continental Divide Snowmobile Trail could traverse between Bridger @-@ Teton National Forest and Yellowstone National Park . However , in 2009 , winter use planners closed this since unguided snowmobile access into Yellowstone National Park was also discontinued .
= = Tourism = =
= = = Visitor centers = = =
The Craig Thomas Discovery and Visitor Center adjacent to the park headquarters at Moose , Wyoming , is open year round . Opened in 2007 to replace an old , inadequate visitor center , the facility is named for the late U.S. Senator Craig Thomas and designed by acclaimed architect , Bohlin Cywinski Jackson . It was financed with a combination of federal grants and private donations . An adjoining 154 @-@ seat auditorium was opened to the public in April 2011 . To the north at Colter Bay Village on Jackson Lake , the Colter Bay Visitor Center & Indian Arts Museum is open from the beginning of May to the early October . The Colter Bay Visitor Center & Indian Arts Museum has housed the David T. Vernon Indian Arts Exhibit since 1972 . The Colter Bay Visitor Center was built in 1956 and was determined in 2005 to be substandard for the proper care and display of the Indian arts collection . During the winter of 2011 – 2012 , a $ 150 @,@ 000 renovation project was completed at the center and a portion of the arts collection was made available for viewing when the center opened for the season in May 2012 .
South of Moose on the Moose – Wilson Road , the Laurance S. Rockefeller Preserve Center is located on land that was privately owned by Laurance S. Rockefeller and is situated on Phelps Lake . Donated to Grand Teton National Park and opened to the public in 2008 , the property was once part of the JY Ranch , the first dude ranch in Jackson Hole . At Jenny Lake , the Jenny Lake Visitor Center is open from mid – May to mid – September . This visitor center is within the Jenny Lake Ranger Station Historic District and is the same structure photographer Harrison Crandall had constructed as an art studio in the 1920s .
= = = Accommodations = = =
Contracted through the National Park Service , various concessionaire entities manage lodging facilities inside the park . The largest such facility is the Jackson Lake Lodge , which is managed by the Grand Teton Lodge Company . Located near Jackson Lake Dam , the Jackson Lake Lodge has a total of 385 rooms , meeting facilities , a retail shop and a restaurant . The Grand Teton Lodge Company also manages the Jenny Lake Lodge , which consists of cabins and a restaurant and Colter Bay Village , which has cabins , a restaurant , a grocery store , a laundry and a marina . South of Jackson Lake Dam , the Signal Mountain Lodge is managed by Forever Resorts and provides cabins , a marina , a gas station and a restaurant . The American Alpine Club has hostel dormitory style accommodations primarily reserved for mountain climbers at the Grand Teton Climber 's Ranch . Adjacent to the Snake River in Moose , Wyoming , Dornan 's is an inholding on private land which has year @-@ round cabin accommodations and related facilities . Lodging is also available at the Triangle X Ranch , another private inholding in the park and the last remaining dude ranch within park boundaries .
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= Hero of Belarus =
Hero of Belarus ( Belarusian : Герой Беларусi ; Łacinka : Hieroj Biełarusi ; Russian : Герой Беларуси , transliterated Geroy Belarusi ) is the highest title that can be bestowed on a citizen of Belarus . The title is awarded to those " who perform great deeds in the name of freedom , independence and prosperity of the Republic of Belarus " . The deed can be for military performance , economic performance or great service to the State and society . The design of the medal is similar to that of its predecessor , Hero of the Soviet Union . Similar titles to the Hero of Belarus include the Russian Hero of the Russian Federation , Ukrainian Hero of Ukraine , and Uzbek Hero of Uzbekistan . Since its creation , the title has been awarded to ten people .
= = Legislation = =
The title and other Belarusian state awards , their creation , nomination and awarding , are regulated by a set of legal documents : Belarusian Constitution , Law N 288 @-@ З " About state awards of the Republic of Belarus " and presidential decrees .
The title was created by the Belarus Supreme Soviet on April 13 , 1995 , with the passage of Resolution N 3726 @-@ XII , titled " System of State Awards for the Republic of Belarus " . Alongside the Hero of Belarus title , the resolution authorized the creation of medals , orders , and titles that can be presented by the Belarusian government . The creation of the awards was a way to honor those who have made valuable contributions to Belarus , irrespective of whether they were performed by a citizen or a foreigner .
This resolution was outlawed and replaced by Law N 288 @-@ З on May 18 , 2004 .
= = Recommendation process and awarding = =
To be considered for title , a person must perform a deed that greatly benefits the state and Belarusian society at large . The title can be awarded to those serving in the military , public service or private enterprise . It can only be awarded once to an individual , and can be awarded posthumously . The official criteria are stated in Chapter 2 , Article 5 of Law N 288 @-@ З . Chapter 3 , Article 60 of Law N 288 @-@ З allows any group ( association ) of workers to submit a recommendation ( petition ) for an individual to be awarded the title . Governmental bodies , the National Assembly , the Council of Ministers , cabinet officials and public unions , among others , are also eligible to submit nominations for the title . The candidate is evaluated , and if deemed worthy , the nomination is forwarded to the Council of Ministers and then , after having been allowed by the Governmental Secretariat of the Belarusian Security Council , to the President of the Republic .
Under the Belarus Constitution ( Part 4 , Chapter 3 , Article 84 ) , the President of the Republic has the power to bestow state awards . To announce an award , the President issues a decree conferring the title to a person . Within two months , the title will be presented by the President in a formal setting , usually at the Presidential Palace in the capital city of Minsk . A certificate ( gramota ) will also be presented to the recipient , signed by the President of the Republic .
= = Privileges = =
Initially , social privileges for those , who achieved Hero of Belarus , according to the Resolution of the Supreme Council of the Republic of Belarus under April 13 , 1995 N 3727 @-@ XII , were equal to the privileges for people , whom Hero of Soviet Union , Hero of Socialist Labour , Order of Glory or Order of Labor Glory was given . These privileges are regulated by Resolution of the Supreme Council of the Republic of Belarus under February 21 , 1995 N 3599 @-@ XII .
Now this question is regulated by Law of the Republic of Belarus under June 14 , 2007 N 239 @-@ З " About social privileges , rights and guarantees to a definite category of citizens " .
According to it , Heroes of Belarus have rights :
of free supplying with medicines in the list of main medicines , which are given under recipes in hospitals ;
of free production and repairing of dentures in governmental organizations domiciliary and of free supplying with other technical means of rehabilitation in accordance with the Governmental register of technical means of social rehabilitation ;
of pecuniary aid for recovery or , instead of pecuniary aid , of free out @-@ of @-@ turn sanitary @-@ resort recovery ;
of free trip on all kinds of urban transport ( except taxi ) irrespective of domicile ;
of free trip on the transport ( railway , water , auto , but not taxi ) of suburban traffic ;
of one free roundtrip by rail , airplane , or truck per year of interurban traffic ;
rent @-@ free housing , utilities , and services within 20 square meters of living space ;
of free home phone installation if the extension of the subscriber line is less than 500 meters ;
of free usage of the home phone ( except interurban and international talks ) .
The consumptions , connected with these privileges , are financed from means of republican and local budgets and of governmental social insurance .
= = Construction and display = =
The recipient of the title is given a medal called the Medal of the Hero of Belarus ( Belarusian : медаль Героя Беларусі , Russian : медаль Героя Беларуси ) . The star and suspension are made of gold , and thus it is nicknamed " Gold Star " , as was its predecessor , the Hero of the Soviet Union . The star has a total diameter of 33 millimeters , and is attached to a rectangular suspension device ( boot tree ) . In the center of the rectangle is a ribbon of two sections of red and one section of green . The red and green bars on the ribbon evoke the design and colors of the national flag . The amount of gold is set at 585 @-@ 1 Test , with the total weight of the medal being 19 grams . The present design was enacted into law by Presidential Decree Number 516 on September 6 , 1999 .
The design of the medal is modeled after one used for the Hero of the Soviet Union . Unlike the Hero of the Soviet Union , Hero of Socialist Labor and the Hero of the Russian Federation titles , there is no engraving on the reverse of the star . The ribbon also copies the Soviet Hero medal 's ribbon , since a flag design was also used to make the ribbon of that medal . The medal is always worn in full on the left side of the breast above all other medals and orders . Chapter 4 , Article 69 of Law N 288 @-@ З states that any awards and titles presented by the Soviet Union and the Byelorussian SSR must be placed after awards from the Republic of Belarus . The same one can reed in the Presidential decree N 168 on April 8 , 2005 .
= = = 1996 medal = = =
When the title was created , a suggested medal was drafted and designed by the government . The major difference between this medal and the current medal is the design of the suspension and the star medallion at the bottom : the top suspension is longer than the bottom , and the bottom star is outlined differently and is adorned with rubies . The suspension was made from gold @-@ plated silver , while the suspension of the current medal is made from gold , as the medal . The design of the star evokes the Marshal 's Star , which Soviet Marshals wore around their necks . This medal was adopted by Presidential Decree Number 26 on May 15 , 1996 .
= = Recipients = =
The first award in history was given to Uladzimir Karvat ( posthumous ) in 1996 . The first " group awarding " took place on June 30 , 2001 to Pavel Mariev , Mikhail Karchmit , Vital Kramko and Alaksandar Dubko ( posthumous ) , while Kirill Vakhromeev , Mikhail Savicki , Mikhail Vysotsky , Piotr Prokopovich and Vasily Revyako were presented their titles on March 1 , 2006 .
Uladzimir Karvat , a military pilot , was flying his training aircraft Sukhoi Su @-@ 27p on May 23 , 1996 . The plane caught fire and Karvat was ordered to eject to safety . Unknown to the ground crew , the plane would have crashed in an area full of civilians . Seeing the civilians on the ground , Karvat steered the plane away until it crashed one kilometer from the Brest Voblast settlements of Arabawshchyna and Vyalikaye Hatsishcha , killing him instantly . President Alexander Lukashenko issued Decree Number 484 on November 21 , 1996 , which posthumously awarded Karvat the title Hero of Belarus . The crash site has been converted to a memorial for Karvat , where a copy of Lukashenko 's decree is on the tail fin of the Sukhoi Su @-@ 27p .
Pavel Mariev was awarded the title for his work in the automobile industry as manager of Belarusian Auto Works , a leading producer of Belarusian automobiles .
Vital Kramko and Mikhail Karchmit were awarded for their work in the agriculture industry . Kramko is the chairman of the Hrodna Voblast agricultural collective " October " , while Karchmit was the director of the Minsk Voblast cooperative " Snov " until his death in 2004 .
Alaksandar Dubko was posthumously awarded the hero title for his long service to the Belarusian and Soviet governments .
Kirill Vakhromeev , the current Metropolitan of Minsk and Slutsk , the Patriarchal Exarch of All Belarus , was awarded the hero title for his work to restore spirituality among the Belarusian population .
Mikhail Savicki was awarded the hero title for his long contributions to the Belarusian arts and for helping to set up art academies in the republic .
Mikhail Vysotsky was awarded for running the research enterprise " Belavtotraktorostroyeniye " , a part of the National Academy of Sciences .
Piotr Prokopovich was awarded for his work as the chairman of the National Bank of Belarus .
Vasily Revyako was awarded for his work at the Hrodna Voblast agricultural co @-@ op " Progress @-@ Vertelishki " .
Darya Domracheva was awarded for her progress in biathlon after The Olympic Games in Sochi , where Darya won 3 gold medal in personal starts .
= = In culture = =
The medal was featured on a stamp , released by Belposhta , commemorating the 3rd year of Karvat 's death . Designed by V. Volynets , the 25 @,@ 000 rouble stamp featured the medal on the left and Karvat 's photo on the right in full color . In the white text below the medal , it says " Hero of Belarus , Uładzimir Mikalaevič Karvat , ( 28 @.@ 11 @.@ 1958 – 23 @.@ 05 @.@ 1996 ) " . It was issued on August 12 , 1999 , and had a print run of 90 @,@ 000 .
The hero title was also featured in a set of stamps released by BELPOST in December 2006 , depicting the state awards of Belarus . On the first issue card , the medal is displayed in full color next to drawings of the state emblem , state flag and the Presidential Palace . A first day postal marking from Minsk also uses an outline of the medal , which is adorned with wreaths and the text " National Decorations of the Republic of Belarus " written in the Belarusian language .
Another set of stamps , devoted to orders and medals of Belarus , was put into circulation by Ministry of communication and informatization of Belarus in August 2008 . The designers are Ivan Lukin and Oleg Gaiko . The printing is offset and full @-@ color . Paper is chalk @-@ overly and rubberized . The size of stamps are 29,6х52 mm .
Television channel " CTV ( Minsk ) " released a film , devoted to the Heroes of Belarus .
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= SummerSlam ( 1993 ) =
SummerSlam ( 1993 ) was the sixth annual SummerSlam professional wrestling pay @-@ per @-@ view ( PPV ) event produced by the World Wrestling Federation ( WWF ) . It took place on August 30 , 1993 , at The Palace of Auburn Hills in Auburn Hills , Michigan .
All three championships were defended at SummerSlam . The Steiner Brothers defended the WWF Tag Team Championship against The Heavenly Bodies , and Shawn Michaels defended the WWF Intercontinental Championship against Mr. Perfect . The main event saw Lex Luger challenge Yokozuna for the WWF World Heavyweight Championship . In addition to the title matches , Bret Hart and Jerry Lawler were scheduled to wrestle to settle their feud and determine who would be named " Undisputed King of the World Wrestling Federation . "
History of Wrestling gave the event a rating of 54 / 100 in The Complete WWF Video Guide Volume 3
= = Background = =
Two of the matches at SummerSlam 1993 were a result of Razor Ramon 's loss to The Kid ( later the 1 @-@ 2 @-@ 3 Kid ) on the May 17 , 1993 edition of Monday Night Raw . Following Ramon 's loss to the newcomer , Money Inc . ( Ted DiBiase and Irwin R. Schyster ) teased Ramon about the match . DiBiase offered Ramon a job as a servant , which Ramon angrily refused . Ramon began teaming with the 1 @-@ 2 @-@ 3 Kid for a series of matches against Money Inc . DiBiase asked for a singles match against the Kid , and the Kid accepted the challenge . Ramon helped the Kid win the match by distracting DiBiase . It was decided that the feuds would be settled in two singles matches at SummerSlam , with Ramon facing DiBiase and Schyster facing the 1 @-@ 2 @-@ 3 Kid .
The match between the Steiner Brothers and The Heavenly Bodies received little buildup . The Bodies were a successful tag team in Jim Cornette 's Smoky Mountain Wrestling , and an interpromotional agreement allowed them to challenge for the WWF Tag Team Championship .
The rivalry between Shawn Michaels and Mr. Perfect began at WrestleMania IX . During a fight after the match between Lex Luger and Mr. Perfect , Shawn Michaels appeared and attacked Perfect . Mr. Perfect gained revenge by distracting Michaels at the May 17 , 1993 edition of Monday Night Raw , allowing Marty Jannetty to pin Michaels and win the WWF Intercontinental Championship . Michaels regained the belt the following month with the help of his new bodyguard , Diesel .
Bret Hart and Jerry Lawler had a heated feud , stemming from Lawler interrupting Hart 's victory ceremony at the 1993 King of the Ring tournament . Lawler insisted that he was the true king of the WWF and attacked Hart . The feud intensified as Lawler taunted and attacked Bret 's family , including his parents and his younger brother Owen .
According to a story relayed by Bret Hart on the TSN sports show Off The Record , Hart was originally supposed to wrestle Hulk Hogan for the WWF World Heavyweight Championship . However , the match did not happen because Hogan changed his mind , as he was supposedly not happy with the planned finish . As a result , Hogan lost the belt to Yokozuna at King of the Ring 1993 instead .
Marty Jannetty was originally supposed to face Rick Martel , but Ludvig Borga replaced Martel well before the match . The match received little buildup , although Borga appeared in several vignettes leading up to the match . He criticized the United States for such reasons as its pollution . Jannetty vowed to defend America 's pride in his match against Borga .
The buildup for the match between Giant Gonzalez and The Undertaker after the Undertaker had defeated Kamala in a Coffin match at Survivor Series 1992 . Kamala 's manager Harvey Wippleman vowed revenge and introduced Gonzalez at Royal Rumble 1993 , with Gonzalez attacking and eliminating the Undertaker . Gonzalez and the Undertaker wrestled at WrestleMania IX , and Gonzalez knocked the Undertaker unconscious with a chloroform @-@ soaked rag . The feud intensified when Wippleman , Gonzalez and Mr. Hughes attacked the Undertaker and his manager , Paul Bearer . They stole the urn , the supposed source of the Undertaker 's strength , and used it to assault Paul Bearer , who was not seen again until SummerSlam . The feud came to a head at SummerSlam in a Rest In Peace match .
The six @-@ man match at SummerSlam was originally supposed to be a mixed tag @-@ team match between the team of Tatanka and Sherri Martel and the team of Bam Bam Bigelow and Luna Vachon . However , Luna broke her arm and Sherri left the WWF in July 1993 , however , forcing the WWF to change the match . Two reasons have been given for Sherri 's departure : her decision to enroll in cosmetology school and failed drug tests . As a result , Tatanka teamed with The Smoking Gunns and Bigelow teamed with The Headshrinkers . The Gunns and Headshrinkers were rivals in the tag team division but had no real storyline . The feud between Bigelow and Tatanka originated When Tatanka came to the help of Sherri , who had interrupted an interview with Bigelow . Subsequently , Bigelow ambushed Tatanka and cut some of the hair Tatanka had dyed red as a tribute to his Lumbee heritage .
Lex Luger 's rivalry with Yokozuna began on July 4 at the Yokozuna Bodyslam Challenge on the deck of the USS Intrepid . After several wrestlers and other athletes attempted to body slam Yokozuna , Luger arrived in a helicopter . He was able to body slam Yokozuna , which led to a title shot at SummerSlam . To build support for Luger , the WWF had him ride across the country in a bus named the Lex Express . Yokozuna 's spokesperson , Jim Cornette , agreed to the match , but he made Lex Luger agree to two conditions . Luger would not receive a rematch if he lost , and he had to wear protective padding over the steel plate in his forearm .
= = Event = =
The pay @-@ per @-@ view took place in front of a crowd of 23 @,@ 954 at the Palace of Auburn Hills .
Before the event aired on PPV , " The Rocket " Owen Hart defeated longtime jobber Barry Horowitz in a dark match .
The first televised match was Razor Ramon versus Ted DiBiase . DiBiase got off to a quick start by attacking Ramon before the match began . Ramon quickly turned the match around with several clotheslines . DiBiase regained control before untying a turnbuckle cover . Ramon won the match after ramming DiBiase 's head into the exposed turnbuckle and using the Razor 's Edge to get the pin .
The Steiner Brothers were the audience favorites in the WWF Tag Team Championship match , as they were defending the belts in their hometown . Before the match began , The Heavenly Bodies attacked them . When the match began , the Bodies executed several double @-@ team maneuvers on Rick Steiner . Scott tagged in and took control of the match . The Bodies soon regained the advantage , and Jim Cornette got involved by hitting Scott in the throat with a tennis racket . Rick tagged back in and hit several Steiner @-@ Lines before Prichard attacked him with Cornette 's tennis racket . Del Ray accidentally hit Prichard with a moonsault , however , allowing Scott to hit a Frankensteiner and Rick to get the pin .
The match between Shawn Michaels and Mr. Perfect began with a series of wrestling holds . The match remained primarily technical until Diesel distracted Perfect , allowing Michaels to superkick him in the face . Michaels worked on Perfect 's injured back until Perfect took control of the match . After a series of attacks on Michaels , Perfect used the Perfect Plex . Diesel pulled him out of the ring and threw him into the steel ring steps , however , allowing Michaels to win by countout .
Irwin R. Schyster remained in control for the majority of his match against the 1 @-@ 2 @-@ 3 Kid . Although the Kid hit several kicks , Schyster regained control every time . Schyster used his usual abdominal stretch while using the ring ropes for leverage before the Kid made a brief comeback by hitting a moonsault . Schyster hit a Write Off , however , and got the pin .
Bret Hart came to the ring for his match with Jerry Lawler . Lawler , however , appeared on crutches and claimed that he had been injured in a car accident . He announced that his court jester , Doink the Clown ( portrayed by Matt Osborne ) , would wrestle Hart in his place . Doink threw a bucket of water on Bret 's brother , Bruce Hart , prompting Bret to attack Doink outside of the ring . The match consisted of angry brawling until Doink slowed the pace with a couple of submission holds . After Doink missed a Whoopie Cushion attempt , Bret took full control of the match and locked Doink in the Sharpshooter . With Doink in the sharpshooter , Lawler then attacked Bret with a crutch , revealing that he was not injured and thus causing an unofficial disqualification ( no official announcement was made ) . WWF President Jack Tunney came to the ring and had Howard Finkel announce that Lawler would be given a lifetime ban if he refused to compete in the scheduled match . The match between Lawler and Hart consisted almost exclusively of brawling . The two attacked each other with a milk pail and crutches and traded punches and kicks . Bret used Lawler 's signature move , the piledriver , before putting him in the Sharpshooter . Lawler submitted , but Bret refused to release him for three and a half minutes . The referee then reversed his decision and gave the victory and title of " Undisputed King of the World Wrestling Federation " to Lawler .
Ludvig Borga dominated the majority of a squash match against Marty Jannetty . He attacked Jannetty immediately with a series of punches and knees . Jannetty managed a couple of brief comebacks but was unable to mount a serious offense . Borga used his strength to control the match and won the match by submission with a backbreaker .
Harvey Wippleman was at ringside with the urn as the Undertaker faced Giant Gonzalez . The two wrestlers brawled , using the ring steps and steel chairs . Halfway through the match , Paul Bearer appeared , carrying a black wreath . He attacked Wippleman and took back the urn . The Undertaker quickly took control of the match , attacking Gonzalez with a flying clothesline to win by pinfall . After the match , Gonzalez turned on Wippleman and attacked him with a chokeslam .
The next match on the card was the Six @-@ Man tag team match . The Headshrinkers ' manager Afa interfered by attacking Billy Gunn outside the ring . At one point , Tatanka looked like he was gaining control , as he began his usual war dance . Bigelow kicked him in the back of the head , however , to end his momentum . Near the end of the match , Bigelow and the Headshrinkers each climbed the turnbuckles to attempt simultaneous diving headbutts , but Tatanka rolled out of the way . Tatanka seized the opportunity and pinned Samu for the win .
Before the main event , Kiotika Suzuki sang the Japanese national anthem . Akio Sato , formerly a member of The Orient Express , was the flag bearer for Yokozuna . Randy Savage then introduced Aaron Neville , who sang the American anthem .
The main event began with a stare down . Luger gained the early advantage and managed to knock Yokozuna down by kicking the ring ropes into Yokozuna 's groin . Luger tried to bodyslam Yokozuna , but the sumo wrestler 's weight was too much . Yokozuna knocked him out of the ring and choked him . Yokozuna had his manager , Mr. Fuji , throw him a salt bucket , which he used to attack Luger . Yokozuna wore Luger down , and after a brief comeback by the all @-@ American , hit a leg drop on Luger and pulled him to the corner for a Banzai Drop . After Yokozuna missed , Luger succeeded in bodyslamming Yokozuna , and he attacked Mr. Fuji when the manager tried to get involved . Luger knocked Yokozuna out of the ring with a forearm smash , and followed this up by attacking Jim Cornette . Yokozuna was counted out , but he retained the title because championships change hands only by pinfall or submission . Several faces came to the ring to celebrate with Luger as red , white and blue balloons fell from the ceiling to celebrate the victory .
= = Aftermath = =
The SummerSlam match was DiBiase 's final appearance as a WWF wrestler . He injured his neck and back in January 1994 and was forced to retire from wrestling . Meanwhile , Ramon received a push in Fall 1993 that led to the first of four Intercontinental championships .
The Heavenly Bodies did not become serious contenders to the tag team title , and the Steiners soon began a feud with The Quebecers , a new team in the WWF .
Shawn Michaels was suspended in late 1993 and forced to vacate the Intercontinental Championship , while Mr. Perfect began a feud with Diesel . The WWF planned to have Perfect and Diesel face each other as part of an elimination match at Survivor Series 1993 , but Mr. Perfect was replaced by Randy Savage at the last minute . Mr. Perfect would not wrestle another pay per view match for the company until Royal Rumble 2002 .
The match between Hart and Doink was significant for a couple of reasons . It marked Doink 's final match as a heel , as he turned on Jerry Lawler shortly after the match . In addition , Matt Osborne , who had portrayed Doink since the character 's creation , was fired that fall because of drug problems .
The feud between Jerry Lawler and Bret Hart remained unsettled and led to several storylines over the next two years . The final pay per view event featuring this feud was SummerSlam 1995 , which saw Hart beat Lawler 's " dentist " Isaac Yankem , D.D.S.
Borga received a main event push after his SummerSlam match . After the event , he confronted Luger in the locker room . This began a feud that led to a match between the All @-@ Americans and Foreign Fanatics at Survivor Series 1993 .
Luger continued to work as a main event wrestler , although he never won the WWF World Heavyweight Championship . He competed in another match with Yokozuna at WrestleMania X after co @-@ winning the 1994 Royal Rumble but was again unsuccessful in taking the belt from Yokozuna .
= = Results = =
= = Other on @-@ screen talent = =
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= Siege of Constantinople ( 674 – 678 ) =
The First Arab Siege of Constantinople in 674 – 678 was a major conflict of the Arab – Byzantine Wars , and the first culmination of the Umayyad Caliphate 's expansionist strategy towards the Byzantine Empire , led by Caliph Mu 'awiya I. Mu 'awiya , who had emerged in 661 as the ruler of the Muslim Arab empire following a civil war , renewed aggressive warfare against Byzantium after a lapse of some years and hoped to deliver a lethal blow by capturing the Byzantine capital , Constantinople .
As reported by the Byzantine chronicler Theophanes the Confessor , the Arab attack was methodical : in 672 – 673 Arab fleets secured bases along the coasts of Asia Minor , and then proceeded to install a loose blockade around Constantinople . They used the peninsula of Cyzicus near the city as a base to spend the winter , and returned every spring to launch attacks against the city 's fortifications . Finally , the Byzantines , under Emperor Constantine IV , managed to destroy the Arab navy using a new invention , the liquid incendiary substance known as Greek fire . The Arab land army in Asia Minor was also defeated by the Byzantines , forcing the Arabs to lift the siege . The Byzantine victory was of major importance for the survival of the Byzantine state , as the Arab threat receded for a time . A peace treaty was signed soon after , and following the outbreak of another Muslim civil war , the Byzantines even experienced a period of ascendancy over the Caliphate .
The siege left several traces in the legends of the nascent Muslim world , although it is conflated with accounts of another expedition against the city a few years previously , led by the future Caliph Yazid I. As a result , the veracity of Theophanes 's account has been questioned by recent scholarship , which places more emphasis on the Arabic and Syriac sources .
= = Background = =
Following the disastrous Battle of Yarmouk in 636 , the Byzantine Empire withdrew the bulk of its remaining forces from the Levant into Asia Minor , which was shielded by the Taurus Mountains from the Muslim expansion . This left the field open for the warriors of the nascent Rashidun Caliphate to complete their conquest of Syria , with Egypt too falling shortly after . Muslim raids against the Cilician frontier zone and deep into Asia Minor began as early as 640 , and continued under the leadership of the Rashidun governor of Syria , Mu 'awiya . The energetic Mu 'awiya also spearheaded the development of a Muslim navy , which within a few years grew sufficiently strong to occupy Cyprus and raid as far as Kos , Rhodes and Crete in the Aegean Sea . Finally , the young Muslim navy scored a crushing victory over its Byzantine counterpart in the Battle of Phoenix in 655 . Following the murder of Caliph Uthman and the outbreak of the First Muslim Civil War , however , Arab attacks against Byzantium stopped . In 659 , Mu 'awiya even concluded a truce with Byzantium , including payment of tribute to the Empire .
The peace lasted until the end of the Muslim civil war in 661 , from which Mu 'awiya and his clan emerged victorious , establishing the Umayyad Caliphate . From the next year , Muslim attacks recommenced , with pressure mounting as Muslim armies began wintering on Byzantine soil west of the Taurus range , maximizing the disruption caused to the Byzantine economy . These land expeditions were sometimes coupled with naval raids against the coasts of southern Asia Minor . In 668 , the Arabs sent aid to Saborios , strategos of the Armeniac Theme , who had rebelled and proclaimed himself emperor . The Arab troops under Fadhala ibn ' Ubayd arrived too late to assist Saborios , who had died after falling from his horse , and they spent the winter in the Hexapolis around Melitene awaiting reinforcements .
In spring 669 , after receiving additional troops , Fadhala entered Asia Minor and advanced as far as Chalcedon , on the Asian shore of the Bosporus across from the Byzantine capital , Constantinople . The Arab attacks on Chalcedon were repelled , and the Arab army was decimated by famine and disease . Mu 'awiya dispatched another army , led by his son ( and future Caliph ) Yazid , to Fadhala 's aid . Accounts of what followed differ . The Byzantine chronicler Theophanes the Confessor reports that the Arabs remained before Chalcedon for a while before returning to Syria , and that on their way they captured and garrisoned Amorium . This was the first time the Arabs tried to hold a captured fortress in the interior of Asia Minor beyond the campaigning season , and probably meant that the Arabs intended to return next year and use the town as their base , but Amorium was retaken by the Byzantines during the subsequent winter . The Arab sources on the other hand report that the Muslims crossed over into Europe and launched an unsuccessful attack on Constantinople itself , before returning to Syria . Given the lack of any mention of such an assault in Byzantine sources , it is most probable that the Arab chroniclers — taking account of Yazid 's presence and the fact that Chalcedon is a suburb of Constantinople — " upgraded " the attack on Chalcedon to an attack on the Byzantine capital itself .
= = Opening moves : the campaigns of 672 and 673 = =
The campaign of 669 clearly demonstrated to the Arabs the possibility of a direct strike at Constantinople , as well as the necessity of having a supply base in the region . This was found in the peninsula of Cyzicus on the southern shore of the Sea of Marmara , where a raiding fleet under Fadhala ibn ' Ubayd wintered in 670 or 671 . Mu 'awiya now began preparing his final assault on the Byzantine capital . In contrast to Yazid 's expedition , Mu 'awiya intended to take a coastal route to Constantinople . The undertaking was not haphazard , but followed a careful , phased approach : first the Muslims had to secure strongpoints and bases along the coast , and then , with Cyzicus as a base , Constantinople would be blockaded by land and sea and cut off from its agrarian hinterland , on which it depended for its food supply .
Accordingly , in 672 three great Muslim fleets were dispatched to secure the sea lanes and establish bases between Syria and the Aegean . Muhammad ibn Abdallah 's fleet wintered at Smyrna , a fleet under a certain Qays ( perhaps Abdallah ibn Qays ) wintered in Lycia and Cilicia , and a third fleet , under Khalid , joined them later . According to the report of Theophanes , the Emperor Constantine IV ( r . 661 – 685 ) , upon learning of the Arab fleets ' approach , began equipping his own fleet for war . Constantine 's armament included siphon @-@ bearing ships intended for the deployment of a newly developed incendiary substance , Greek fire . In 673 , another Arab fleet , under Gunada ibn Abu Umayya , captured Tarsus in Cilicia , as well as Rhodes . The latter , located midway between Syria and Constantinople , was converted into a forward supply base and centre for Muslim naval raids . Its garrison of 12 @,@ 000 men was regularly rotated back to Syria , a small fleet was attached to it for defence and raiding , and the Arabs even sowed wheat and brought along animals to graze on the island . The Byzantines attempted to obstruct the Arab plans with a naval attack on Egypt , but it was unsuccessful . Throughout this period , overland raids into Asia Minor continued , and the Arab troops wintered on Byzantine soil .
= = Arab attacks and related expeditions in 674 – 678 = =
In 674 , the Arab fleet sailed from its bases in the eastern Aegean and entered the Sea of Marmara . According to the account of Theophanes , they landed on the Thracian shore near Hebdomon in April , and until September were engaged in constant clashes with the Byzantine troops . As the Byzantine chronicler reports , " Every day there was a military engagement from morning until evening , between the outworks of the Golden Gate and the Kyklobion , with thrust and counter @-@ thrust " . Then the Arabs departed and made for Cyzicus , which they captured and converted into a fortified camp to spend the winter in . This set the pattern that continued throughout the siege : each spring , the Arabs crossed the Marmara and assaulted Constantinople , withdrawing to Cyzicus for the winter . In fact , the " siege " of Constantinople was a series of engagements around the city , which may even be stretched to include Yazid 's 669 attack . It should also be noted that both Byzantine and Arab chroniclers record the siege as lasting for seven years instead of five . This can be reconciled either by including the opening campaigns of 672 – 673 , or by counting the years until the final withdrawal of the Arab troops from their forward bases , in 680 .
The details of the clashes around Constantinople are unclear , as Theophanes condenses the siege in his account of the first year , and the Arab chroniclers do not mention the siege at all but merely provide the names of leaders of unspecified expeditions into Byzantine territory . Thus from the Arab sources it is only known that Abdallah ibn Qays and Fadhala ibn ' Ubayd raided Crete and wintered there in 675 , while in the same year Malik ibn Abdallah led a raid into Asia Minor . The Arab historians Ibn Wadih and al @-@ Tabari report that Yazid was dispatched by Mu 'awiya with reinforcements to Constantinople in 676 , and record that Abdallah ibn Qays led a campaign in 677 , whose target is unknown . At the same time , the Byzantines had to face a Slavic attack on Thessalonica and Lombard attacks in Italy . Finally , in autumn 677 or early 678 Constantine IV resolved to confront the Arab besiegers in a head @-@ on engagement . His fleet , equipped with Greek fire , routed the Arab fleet . It is probable that the death of admiral Yazid ibn Shagara , reported by Arab chroniclers for 677 / 678 , is related to this defeat . At about the same time , the Muslim army in Asia Minor , under the command of Sufyan ibn ' Awf , was defeated by the Byzantine army under the generals Phloros , Petron and Cyprian , losing 30 @,@ 000 men according to Theophanes . These defeats forced the Arabs to abandon the siege in 678 . On its way back to Syria , the Arab fleet was almost annihilated in a storm off Syllaion .
The essential outline of Theophanes ' account may be corroborated by the only near @-@ contemporary Byzantine reference to the siege , a celebratory poem by the otherwise unknown Theodosius Grammaticus , which was earlier believed to refer to the second Arab siege of 717 – 718 . Theodosius ' poem commemorates a decisive naval victory before the walls of the city — with the interesting detail that the Arab fleet too possessed fire @-@ throwing ships — and makes a reference to " the fear of their returning shadows " , which may be interpreted as confirming the recurring Arab attacks each spring from their base in Cyzicus .
= = Importance and aftermath = =
Constantinople was the nerve centre of the Byzantine state . Had it fallen , the Empire 's remaining provinces would have been unlikely to hold together , and would have become easy prey for the Arabs . At the same time , the failure of the Arab attack on Constantinople was a momentous event in itself . It marked the culmination of Mu 'awiya 's campaign of attrition , pursued steadily since 661 . Immense resources were poured into the undertaking , including the creation of a huge fleet . Its failure had similarly important repercussions , and represented a major blow to the Caliph 's prestige . Conversely , Byzantine prestige reached new heights , especially in the West : Constantine IV received envoys from the Avars and the Balkan Slavs , bearing gifts and congratulations and acknowledging Byzantine supremacy . The subsequent peace also gave a much @-@ needed respite from constant raiding to Asia Minor , and allowed the Byzantine state to recover its balance and consolidate itself following the cataclysmic changes of the previous decades .
The failure of the Arabs before Constantinople coincided with the increased activity of the Mardaites , a Christian group living in the mountains of Syria that resisted Muslim control and raided the lowlands . Faced with this new threat , and after the immense losses suffered against the Byzantines , Mu 'awiya began negotiations for a truce , with embassies exchanged between the two courts . These were drawn out until 679 , giving the Arabs time for a last raid into Asia Minor under ' Amr ibn Murra , perhaps intended to put pressure on the Byzantines . The peace treaty , of a nominal 30 @-@ year duration , provided that the Caliph would pay an annual tribute of 3 @,@ 000 nomismata , 50 horses and 50 slaves . The Arab garrisons were withdrawn from their bases on the Byzantine coastlands , including Rhodes , in 679 – 680 .
Constantine IV used the peace to proceed against the mounting Bulgar menace in the Balkans , but his huge army , comprising all the available forces of the Empire , was decisively beaten , opening the way for the establishment of a Bulgar state in the northeastern Balkans . In the Muslim world , after the death of Mu 'awiya in 680 , the various forces of opposition within the Caliphate manifested themselves . The Caliphate 's division during this Second Muslim Civil War allowed Byzantium to achieve not only peace , but also a position of predominance on its eastern frontier . Armenia and Iberia reverted for a time to Byzantine control , and Cyprus became a condominium between Byzantium and the Caliphate . The peace lasted until Justinian II ( r . 685 – 695 and 705 – 711 ) broke it in 693 , with devastating consequences : the Byzantines were defeated , Justinian was deposed and a twenty @-@ year period of anarchy followed . Muslim incursions intensified , leading to a second Arab attempt at conquering Constantinople in 717 – 718 , which also proved unsuccessful .
= = Cultural impact = =
Later Arab sources dwell extensively on the events of Yazid 's 669 expedition and supposed attack on Constantinople , including various mythical anecdotes , which are taken by modern scholarship to refer to the events of the 674 – 678 siege . Several important personalities of early Islam are mentioned as taking part , such as Ibn Abbas , Ibn Umar and Ibn al @-@ Zubayr . The most prominent among them in later tradition is Abu Ayyub al @-@ Ansari , one of the early companions ( Ansari ) and standard @-@ bearer of Muhammad , who died of illness before the city walls during the siege and was buried there . According to Muslim tradition , Constantine IV threatened to destroy his tomb , but the Caliph warned that if he did so , the Christians under his rule would suffer . Thus the tomb was left in peace , and even became a site of veneration by the Byzantines , who prayed there in times of drought . The tomb was " rediscovered " after the Fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Turks in 1453 by the dervish Sheikh Ak Shams al @-@ Din , and Sultan Mehmed II ( r . 1444 – 1446 , 1451 – 1481 ) ordered the construction of a marble tomb and a mosque adjacent to it . It became a tradition that Ottoman sultans were girt with the Sword of Osman at the Eyüp mosque upon their accession . Today it remains one of the holiest Muslim shrines in Istanbul .
= = Modern reassessment of the events = =
The narrative on the siege accepted by modern historians relies largely on Theophanes ' account , while the Arab and Syriac sources do not mention any siege , but rather individual campaigns , only a few of which reached as far as Constantinople . Thus the capture of an island named Arwad " in the sea of Kustantiniyya " is recorded for 673 / 674 , although it is unclear if this refers to the Sea of Marmara or the Aegean , and Yazid 's 676 expedition is also said to have reached Constantinople . The Syriac chroniclers also disagree with Theophanes in placing the decisive battle and destruction of the Arab fleet by Greek fire in 674 , during an Arab expedition against the coasts of Lycia and Cilicia , rather than Constantinople . This was followed by the landing of Byzantine forces in Syria in 677 / 678 , which began the Mardaite uprising that threatened the Caliphate 's grip on Syria enough to result in the peace agreement of 678 / 679 .
Based on a re @-@ evaluation of the original sources used by the medieval historians , the Oxford scholar James Howard @-@ Johnston , in his acclaimed 2010 book Witnesses to a World Crisis : Historians and Histories of the Middle East in the Seventh Century , rejects the traditional interpretation of events , based on Theophanes , in favour of the Syriac chroniclers ' version . Howard @-@ Johnston asserts that no siege actually took place , based not only on its absence in the eastern sources , but also on the logistical impossibility of such an undertaking for the duration reported . Instead , he believes that the reference to a siege was a later interpolation , influenced by the events of the second Arab siege of 717 – 718 , by an anonymous source that was then used by Theophanes . According to Howard @-@ Johnston , " The blockade of Constantinople in the 670s is a myth which has been allowed to mask the very real success achieved by the Byzantines in the last decade of Mu 'awiya ’ s caliphate , first by sea off Lycia and then on land , through an insurgency which , before long , aroused deep anxiety among the Arabs , conscious as they were that they had merely coated the Middle East with their power " .
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= Patrick Kisnorbo =
Patrick Fabio Maxime Kisnorbo ( born 24 March 1981 ) is a former Australian international football player who is currently an assistant youth team coach at A @-@ League club Melbourne City . Kisnorbo was an Australian international with 18 caps . He is also known by his nickname Paddy .
Kisnorbo played at centre @-@ back but has also played as a defensive midfielder . He was a fans ' favourite at Leicester City , accumulating over 100 appearances in his four years at the club . During his time with Leicester , he was at the centre of a number of refereeing controversies in which officiating calls were later shown to be wrong . He has also suffered some injuries that affected his playing ability for a time . Kisnorbo has represented Australia at international level in three tournaments ; the 2002 and 2004 Nation Cups and the 2007 Asian Cup . He started his professional career at South Melbourne and later played for the Scottish club Hearts before joining Leicester and then transferring to Leeds United .
Kisnorbo won the 2009 – 10 fans Player of The Season award and also the Players Player Award for Leeds United in his debut season . During his first 2 years at Leeds , Kisnorbo wore a headband bandage when playing football as ' tradition ' after initially wearing it after suffering a head injury on his Leeds debut .
= = Early life = =
Kisnorbo was born in Melbourne to a Mauritian father and an Italian mother who was from Trieste . Because of his mother 's birth , Kisnorbo holds an Italian passport , which allows him to bypass European Union work permit restrictions .
= = Career = =
= = = Club = = =
Kisnorbo began playing football as a youth in his hometown with Essendon City and Bulleen . He then played in the South Melbourne youth team for two seasons before being selected for the senior team , which was competing in the now defunct National Soccer League .
= = = = Hearts = = = =
Following the collapse of the Australian National Soccer League , he made his move from South Melbourne to the Edinburgh @-@ based Scottish Premier League club Hearts in July 2003 , signing a two @-@ year contract . He was recommended to Hearts by former player Dave McPherson . Kisnorbo quickly became a regular for the first team where he made 48 appearances in two seasons , scoring his only league goal in a 2 – 1 win over Hibernian on 24 October 2004 .
Kisnorbo also played in the UEFA Cup against such clubs as Bordeaux , Feyenoord , Schalke 04 and Ferencváros , and scored a goal against Portuguese club SC ( Sporting Club ) Braga . He spent 18 months at Hearts , playing a total of 64 competitive games , before his contract expired at the end of the 2004 – 05 season . It was not renewed by the club .
= = = = Leicester City = = = =
Kisnorbo joined Leicester City in April 2005 after leaving Hearts , signing a pre @-@ contract agreement in January . He followed former Hearts boss Craig Levein , teammates Mark de Vries and Alan Maybury across the border to the Midlands club .
Kisnorbo 's first goal for Leicester came on 15 October 2005 against Watford at Vicarage Road , which turned out to be the match winner . His initial appearances for Leicester were as a midfielder , and at first he failed to adjust and was booed by his own fans during a 2 – 1 defeat to Sheffield Wednesday . However , a move back to defence resulted in a change in fortunes for Kisnorbo , and his partnership with then @-@ teammate Paddy McCarthy was instrumental in helping Leicester avoid relegation to League One that season .
Transfer speculation linked Kisnorbo to Wigan Athletic at the end of the 2005 – 06 season , but he decided to extend his stay with Leicester by signing a new three @-@ year contract , less than 12 months after joining the club . Kisnorbo began the 2006 – 07 season well , scoring two goals and putting in fine rear @-@ guard displays against Coventry City and Southend United , helping the club survive relegation yet again . He was linked with a move to Fulham during the January transfer window . His performance in the 2006 – 07 season earned him the players ' player of the season award from his teammates . It was also at this point that he became a fan favourite .
= = = = = 2007 – 08 season = = = = =
In the 2007 – 08 season , Kisnorbo was relegated to League One with the club , but was also on the receiving end of no less than three controversial refereeing decisions . His first was a goal against Scunthorpe United on 20 October , which referee Scott Mathieson ruled out for an offside , depriving Leicester of an away win . Video replay showed that Kisnorbo 's disallowed goal was actually onside , greatly frustrating him , while Leicester coach Gerry Taggart commented " We have all seen the replay of Patrick 's goal in the dressing room and he is clearly not offside . " Kisnorbo 's second was a red card by referee Phil Joslin for what the linesman claimed was a foul on Pablo Couñago . Joslin awarded Ipswich Town a penalty kick , and Ipswich won 3 – 1 . Joslin admitted his mistake , and had the ban rescinded the following day after video replays showed Kisnorbo actually won the ball outside the penalty area . Leicester 's then @-@ manager Ian Holloway described the sending off as a " complete kerfuffle " . The Leicester club was fined £ 3 @,@ 000 by The Football Association , however , because of Kisnorbo 's teammates ' angry appeals to Joslin during the game . Kisnorbo 's third was another red card by referee Mike Pike for a foul on Billy Sharp on 5 April 2008 . Pike awarded Sheffield United a penalty kick as they won 3 – 0 . Video replays , however , showed no contact between the two , confirming that Sharp was diving . Holloway branded Pike 's decision " embarrassing " , saying " that was the biggest blunder I 've seen in a long time . " Leicester also succeeded in their appeal against the second red card .
Further misfortune came when Kisnorbo suffered damaged knee ligaments in 3 – 1 defeat to Sheffield Wednesday on 26 April 2008 , sidelining him for six months . His injury badly affected Leicester 's hopes of surviving in the Championship . He played his 100th game and scored his last ever goal for Leicester in a 2 – 0 home win over Ipswich on 26 December 2007 .
= = = = = 2008 – 09 season = = = = =
Kisnorbo returned to action the following season in a 3 – 0 reserve team win over Rushden & Diamonds on 2 October . He later returned for the first team coming on as a substitute in a 1 – 1 draw against Oldham Athletic on 18 October 2008 . However , he was struck with another ligament injury to his other knee in a 3 – 0 FA Cup win over Stevenage Borough on 9 November , putting him out for two more months . Kisnorbo made his competitive return as a second @-@ half substitute in a 1 – 0 win over Millwall on 14 March 2009 , but by then was facing competition in the first team from teammates Wayne Brown , Jack Hobbs , Michael Morrison and Aleksandar Tunchev . He started just three games in the second half of the season , which saw the club secure their promotion as League One champions .
It was reported on 28 April that manager Nigel Pearson told Kisnorbo he could leave on a free transfer the following summer as the club began their preparations for their Championship campaign the following season . Leicester on 29 May released Kisnorbo at the end of his contract , along with Paul Henderson , Marc Edworthy , Bruno N 'Gotty and Barry Hayles . Kisnorbo stated he was " very disappointed to have been released " , and made it clear that he wanted " to show Leicester next season what they are missing because I 'm desperate to stay in the Championship . " He had trials with Crystal Palace and Derby County , but was unable to secure a move to either club .
= = = = Leeds United = = = =
= = = = = 2009 – 10 season = = = = =
On 22 July 2009 , Kisnorbo signed for Leeds United on a two @-@ year contract . He made his debut in a 2 – 1 win over Exeter City on 8 August . On his debut Kisnorbo suffered a head wound which required stitches , after receiving stitches to the wound off the pitch he came out wearing a head bandage . After playing for Australia on 12 August , Kisnorbo became Leeds 's 100th full international player . Whilst at Leeds he established himself as a fans ' favourite for his solid performances and his brave style of play . After suffering the head injury , which required 12 stitches , Kisnorbo wore a protective headband . He rejected plastic surgery to avoid losing his place in the team : " I can 't see myself going for [ surgery ] at the moment because I 've got bigger things to worry about than getting this sorted . "
Kisnorbo scored his first goal for Leeds against Millwall on his return to the starting lineup after missing the previous game against Norwich City having picked up an illness on international duty . His international call @-@ ups along with other internationals at Leeds resulted in games against Swindon Town and Bristol Rovers being postponed . Kisnorbo missed the games against Kettering Town , Oldham Athletic and local rivals Huddersfield Town through an injury he picked up in training . He had not recovered from injury to be able to have a part in the squad in the FA Cup replay to Kettering . Instead , the Australia international returned to the Leeds starting line up against Brentford .
Kisnorbo played against Manchester United when Leeds won 1 – 0 away at Old Trafford on 3 January in the FA Cup , during which he and Richard Naylor " bolted the door against the assaults of Wayne Rooney and Dimitar Berbatov " , after which he was described as a hero . Kisnorbo missed the Football League Trophy Northern Section Final first leg loss against Carlisle United with a calf injury . Kisnorbo returned to Leeds ' starting lineup , and played the full 90 minutes , in the next game where Leeds earned a 2 – 2 draw against Tottenham Hotspur in the FA Cup .
Kisnorbo was part of the Leeds defence , who were defeated 3 – 0 by Swindon Town . Kisnorbo was omitted from the Leeds squad in the next game against Colchester United after being ruled out by injury . The injury also forced him to miss the FA Cup replay at Elland Road against Tottenham Hotspur , the League One game against Hartlepool United and the Football League Trophy Northern Section final second leg against Carlisle .
Kisnorbo 's season prematurely ended after he suffered a suspected ruptured acchilles tendon against Millwall in March , ending his hopes of playing in Leeds 's promotion charge , and also his dream of playing in the 2010 FIFA World Cup . Leeds as a result signed Neill Collins on loan from Preston to cover his absence .
In May 2010 , he was selected in the Football League One PFA Team of the Year for the 2009 – 10 season . On the final day of the season Kisnorbo was named as the fans ' Leeds United Player Of The Season and also the Players ' Player Of The Season . Leeds were promoted to the Football League Championship after finishing in 2nd place in League 1 and thus earning automatic promotion .
= = = = = 2010 – 11 season = = = = =
Kisnorbo joined the Leeds squad on the pre @-@ season tour of Slovakia despite being injured . Grayson confirmed that Kisnorbo was looking to return from his Achilles tendon rupture injury around December / January time meaning he would miss at least half of the 2010 / 11 season for Leeds . Manager Simon Grayson revealed contract talks with Kisnorbo would start once the defender returned from injury and managed to prove his fitness . After having another operation on his injury in October 2010 , Grayson said that Kisnorbo was looking to return later than planned , with an estimated return around February / March 2011 .
On 20 November , Grayson reiterated his desire to keep Kisnorbo but stated that he had to prove his fitness before being offered a new deal at Leeds . Kisnorbo got an infection on his Achilles tendon injury , and stepped up his rehab by going to the USA for treatment . Kisnorbo returned to Leeds ' training ground Thorp Arch during mid January . However , on 11 March 2011 , it was confirmed that he would not play again in the 2010 – 11 season . As Kisnorbo 's contract was set to expire in June 2011 , he had to prove his fitness to the coaching staff at Leeds in the hope of earning a new contract , or be free to join another club . In March 2011 , Kisnorbo returned to full training with Leeds after his long spell out injured .
In Leeds ' penultimate game of the season , against Burnley , Kisnorbo made the provisional squad but failed to make the substitutes bench . On 6 May , Grayson revealed the club were going to offer Kisnorbo a new contract on a short term deal , which , if he accepted , would allow him more time to earn a new long term deal once he proved his fitness . On 7 May , Kisnorbo was named on the bench for Leeds against Queens Park Rangers , the first time he was included in a matchday squad since suffering his ruptured Achilles tendon . Kisnorbo made his first appearance of the season as a second @-@ half substitute against QPR in the final game of the season .
= = = = = 2011 – 12 season = = = = =
With Kisnorbo only on a short term contract to prove his fitness , Crystal Palace and Brighton & Hove Albion were linked with signing the player . Manager Simon Grayson then claimed that he was looking for Kisnorbo to prove his fitness before offering him a longer term contract . After completing his injury rehab in his native Australia , Kisnorbo returned to pre @-@ season training for Leeds United a week later than his team mates . After returning from his long injury lay off , and proving his fitness , Kisnorbo signed a new two @-@ year contract at Leeds on 10 July . Kisnorbo revealed he wouldn 't be wearing his iconic head bandage for the 2011 – 12 season as he wanted it to represent a new start for him . Kisnorbo scored the opening goal in the pre @-@ season friendly victory against Newcastle United . Kisnorbo started for Leeds on the opening day of the season as they suffered a 3 – 1 defeat against Southampton . It was his first competitive start for Leeds since picking up his injury against Millwall 17 months earlier .
Kisnorbo was handed the captaincy in the absence of suspended captain Jonny Howson on 16 August against Hull City . Kisnorbo scored an own goal against West Ham United on 21 August . Kisnorbo 's poor form continued when he was sent off and gave away a penalty for Leeds in the match against Bristol City on 17 September . As a result of the suspension , Kisnorbo missed the League Cup game against fierce rivals Manchester United . After a spell on the bench due to the partnership of Tom Lees and Darren O 'Dea , Kisnorbo came on as a substitute replacing O 'Dea in Leeds ' 1 – 1 draw against Cardiff City on 30 October . After starting in the 5 – 0 loss against Blackpool , Kisnorbo put in an impressive performance against his old side Leicester City on 6 November to help earn Leeds a clean sheet in a 1 – 0 win .
Due to the knee injury sustained by Captain Jonny Howson , Kisnorbo took over the captain 's armband , starting with Leeds ' 1 – 1 draw against Watford on 10 December , in which Kisnorbo gave away a penalty which was saved by Leeds keeper Alex McCarthy with Leeds 1 – 0 down . The save proved crucial as Leeds scored a last minute equaliser .
Kisnorbo 's season was ended on 2 January when he sustained a serious knee injury in Leeds ' 2 – 1 win over Burnley . In April , Kisnorbo revealed he had stepped up in his comeback and had started running again in training , but there was no timescale put on his return .
= = = = = 2012 – 13 season = = = = =
Manager , Neil Warnock revealed on 3 May that he was hoping that Kisnorbo may return from injury in time for the start of the 2012 – 13 pre @-@ season . With Kisnorbo missing several pre @-@ season games he wasn 't allocated a number for the 2012 – 13 season , losing his number 3 squad number to Adam Drury . Kisnorbo returned to the Leeds squad on 4 August in the pre @-@ season friendly against Preston North End . Kisnorbo was allocated the squad number 6 for the upcoming season and was named on the bench for the first game of the season against Shrewsbury Town on 11 August .
Kisnorbo made his first start of the season on 28 August 2012 in a League Cup match against Oxford United .
On 3 May 2013 , it was announced that Kisnorbo , along with 10 other players were being released from the club .
= = = = = Ipswich Town loan = = = = =
In January 2013 , he signed for Ipswich Town on a one @-@ month loan .
= = = = Melbourne City = = = =
On 9 September 2013 , it was announced that Kisnorbo had signed a one @-@ year contract with Melbourne Heart FC as a replacement for the injured Orlando Engelaar . Kisnorbo was appointed captain of Melbourne City for the 2014 / 15 season .
= = = Retirement = = =
On 1 May 2016 , Kisnorbo announced his retirement from professional football .
= = International = =
Kisnorbo was part of Australia 's 2001 Youth World Cup campaign , playing five matches for the under @-@ 20 team in Oceania qualifiers , including a goal against Papua New Guinea . He remained on the squad for the finals , appearing in all the matches leading up to Australia 's second @-@ round elimination at the hands of Brazil . His performances in the under @-@ 20 level led to his first international appearance on 6 July 2002 against Vanuatu in Australia 's first match of the 2002 OFC Nations Cup . He made three appearances in the tournament including the defeat to New Zealand in the final .
In 2004 Kisnorbo was again selected for the squad for the Oceania Cup . In Australia 's last group match against Solomon Islands he was sent off for receiving two yellow cards , ending his tournament . He declined to join the " Olyroos " squad for an Olympic preparation tour in July , electing to concentrate on cementing a place at Hearts in the pre @-@ season . This decision harmed his national team aspirations , as he was left out of the squad that eventually lost to Iraq in the quarter @-@ finals .
Kisnorbo made appearances for Australia in friendlies against Ghana , Denmark , China and Uruguay . These performances led to his selection for the Australian 2007 AFC Asian Cup squad , playing in the first two group matches against Oman and Iraq . After Australia tied the first match and lost the second , Kisnorbo was dropped from the starting line @-@ up amongst a host of changes . He played no further part in the tournament as Australia were eventually knocked out by Japan .
It was widely regarded that Kisnorbo 's poor performance at the Asian Cup had ruined his chances of ever returning to international level , and he remained outside the Australian national squad for over two years , however , following admirable performances with his new club Leeds United , Kisnorbo regained his international place in 2009 and started in a 3 – 0 friendly win over Republic of Ireland on 12 August 2009 , nearly scoring a goal in the 22nd minute when his header was saved at pointblank range by goalkeeper Shay Given . On 5 September 2009 , Kisnorbo scored his first goal for Australia in a game against South Korea . Kisnorbo was subsequently selected in the Australian squad for a friendly against the Netherlands on 10 October 2009 .
Kisnorbo 's ruptured Achilles tendon injury suffered against Millwall in March 2010 ruled him out of the 2010 World Cup for Australia .
In June 2011 , Kisnorbo was recalled to the Australia national side for the first time since recovering from his Achilles tendon injury when he was called up to train with the national side in a non playing role ahead of the friendly against Serbia .
= = Coaching = =
= = = Melbourne City = = =
Upon retiring , Kisnorbo was appointed as an assistant youth coach at Melbourne City under Joe Palatsides .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Club = = =
As of 28 April 2016
= = = International = = =
= = Honours = =
= = = Club = = =
South Melbourne
National Soccer League Premiership : 2000 – 01
Leicester City
Football League One : 2008 – 09
= = = Country = = =
Australia national football team
OFC U @-@ 20 Championship : 2001
OFC Nations Cup Champions : 2004
= = = Individual = = =
League One PFA Team of the Year : 2009 – 10
Leeds United Player of the Year : 2009 – 10
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= Postelsia =
Postelsia palmaeformis , also known as the sea palm ( not to be confused with the southern sea palm ) or palm seaweed , is a species of kelp and classified within brown algae . The sea palm is found along the western coast of North America , on rocky shores with constant waves . It is one of the few algae that can survive and remain erect out of the water ; in fact , it spends most of its life cycle exposed to the air . It is an annual , and edible , though harvesting of the alga is discouraged due to the species ' sensitivity to overharvesting .
= = History = =
The sea palm was known by the natives of California by the name of Kakgunu @-@ chale before any Europeans entered the region . Postelsia was first scientifically described by Franz Josef Ruprecht ( 1814 – 1870 ) in 1852 from a specimen found near Bodega Bay in California . Ruprecht , an Austro @-@ Hungarian who became curator of botany at the Academy of Sciences in St. Petersburg in 1839 , studied seaweed specimens collected by botanist Ilya Vosnesensky , and published a paper describing one seagrass and five seaweeds , one of which was Postelsia . The sea palm has been used by several textbooks , such as the Campbell – Reece Biology textbook , as an example of multicellular protists , as well as an example of the class Phaeophyceae .
= = Etymology = =
The generic name , Postelsia honors Alexander Philipov Postels , an Estonian @-@ born geologist and artist who worked with Ruprecht , while the specific name , palmaeformis , describes the alga 's superficial similarity in appearance to true palms .
= = Fossil record = =
Fossils from Monte Bolca , a lagerstätte near Verona , were originally named Zoophycos caput @-@ medusae and previously thought to be trace fossils , but were later found to be plants instead and given the name Algarum by French zoologist Henri Milne @-@ Edwards in 1866 . The type specimen collected by Italian paleobotanist Abramo Bartolommeo Massalongo before 1855 is at the Natural History Museum of Verona and was preserved in a lithographic limestone upper and lower slab .
When Italian botanist Achille Forti ( 1878 – 1937 ) worked on the specimens in 1926 , they were reinterpreted as close relatives of Postelsia , now known to be a brown algae , which had lived in the coastal waters of the Eocene sea . Forti renamed the species Postelsiopsis caput @-@ medusae commemorating the fossils ' extreme similarity to the extant Postelsia palmaeformis . The appearance of the plant fossil is a holdfast on the bottom , with a stem @-@ like stipe between there and the fronds which are about 5 centimetres ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) to 10 cm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) . In life , the fronds would have hung vertically whenever the plant was submerged during high tide , and would have flopped over the stipe when the plant was exposed during low tide in a habitus similar to that of the living sea palm .
Other specimens from this deposit collected and described by Massalongo in 1855 were actually trace fossils , and they remain assigned to Zoophycos ; only the specimens of Z. caput @-@ medusae have been assigned to Postelsiopsis , as those are fossils of the original plant , and not trace fossils .
= = Morphology = =
Postelsia has two distinct morphologies : one for its diploid , monoicous sporophyte stage , which is the dominant portion of the life cycle , and one for its smaller , haploid , dioecious gametophyte stage . Like all seaweeds , the sporophyte stage of Postelsia consists of a thallus , which is made up of a stem @-@ like stipe topped with possibly over 100 leaf @-@ like blades , and rests on a root @-@ like holdfast . The holdfast anchors the organism to the rocks it lives on . The sea palm has no vascular system ; the stipe is only for support of the organism and holds the fronds up over other organisms so they can receive more light . The stipe is merely a firm , hollow tube , able to withstand the open air of low tide conditions as well as the crashing waves of high tide . The blades are grooved , with the sporangia held within these grooves . The gametophyte stage is microscopic , consisting of only a few cells . The gametophytes produce sperm and eggs to create new sporophytes .
Like all phaeophytes , sea palms use the pigments chlorophyll a , chlorophyll c , fucoxanthin , and carotenes in photosynthesis . Their cell walls are composed of alginate . They use laminarin and mannitol for storage .
= = Life cycle and growth = =
Like most brown algae , Postelsia goes through alternation of generations , and is an annual species . The diploid sporophyte produces , through meiosis , haploid spores , which drip down through the grooves in the blades onto the substrate , which may be mussels , barnacles , or bare rock . These spores develop , through mitosis , into small , multicellular haploid gametophytes , male and female . The male and female gametphytes create sperm and eggs , respectively . The sperm of the male reaches the female egg and fertilizes , resulting in a diploid zygote , which develops into a new sporophyte .
Postelsia are green in color as juveniles , and change to a golden brown as they age , reaching a height of 50 – 75 cm ( 20 – 30 in ) .
As a Postelsia alga grows , its stipe thickens in the same manner as a tree 's trunk . The cells beneath the epidermis , called the meristoderm , divide rapidly to form rings of growth , again , like a tree . However , the greater flexibility of Postelsia 's stipe over that of a woody tree makes for some distinct differences . Postelsia must be thicker than a tree of equal height in order to support itself . However , the stipe is very much more suited to the coastal habitat , as it allows the seaweed to bend with the constant wave action . Such an environment would cause the inflexible , woody tree to break .
The blades of the new sporophyte grow from one or two initial blades by splitting . A tear forms in the middle of the blade at its base , which then continues along the entire length of the blade until it is split in two .
= = Habitat = =
Sea palms are found on the rocky shores of western North America , from as far north as Vancouver Island , to the southern central coast of California . They live in the middle to upper intertidal zones in very wavy areas . High wave action may increase nutrient availability and moves the blades of the thallus , allowing more sunlight to reach the organism so that it can photosynthesize . In addition , the constant wave action removes competitors , such as the California mussel . Recent studies have shown that Postelsia grows in greater numbers when such competition exists . A control group with no competition produced fewer offspring than an experimental group with mussels ; from this it is thought that the mussels provide protection for the developing gametophytes . Alternatively , it is thought that the mussels may prevent the growth of competing algae such as Corallina or Halosaccion , allowing Postelsia to grow freely after wave action removes the mussels .
When Postelsia release their spores , they tend to fall within a few meters of the parent sporophyte for two reasons . The first is that though spores are flagellated and can swim , they are often released at low tide and are deposited directly to the substrate below . Secondly , Postelsia gametophytes need to be close to each other in order for fertilization to occur . As such , sea palms tend to live very close to each other in large aggregations . Some juvenile sporophytes will grow on competing organisms , like mussels or barnacles , and rip them from the rocks when the waves come , gripping them with holdfasts of incredible strength .
= = Epiphytes = =
Two other , smaller brown algae , of the family Ectocarpaceae , Ectocarpus commensalis and Pylaiella gardneri , as well as the two red algae Microcladia borealis and Porphyra gardneri , are epiphytic on Postelsia . Pylaiella gardneri is an obligate epiphyte to Postelsia . As with all epiphytes , these algae are not harmful to Postelsia , and merely use the larger alga as a substrate to grow upon .
= = Edibility = =
The blades ( and less often , the stipes ) of Postelsia are sometimes used in certain dishes , usually in California . Postelsia is a protected species , however , and harvesting it is illegal throughout much of its range , as clipping the blades too low , below the meristem , prevents reproduction . Postelsia can regenerate blades cut above the meristem , but removing the blades can limit a sporophyte 's ability to produce spores and contribute to subsequent populations . Postelsia has also been in danger of overharvesting at some points . It is illegal to harvest Postelsia in British Columbia , Washington and Oregon . In California , Postelsia is a partially protected species : recreational harvesting is illegal , but commercial harvesting is legal . Between 2000 and 2001 , an estimated 2 to 3 tons of Postelsia were harvested in California . The blades are eaten raw or are dried , and dried blades sell for up to US $ 45 per pound . Commercial harvesters of Postelsia must purchase a $ 100 license , pay a royalty to the State of California ( $ 24 per wet ton of algae harvested ) , and submit a monthly harvest log .
An experiment done to try to prove or disprove the claims of Postelsia harvesters that their gathering methods are sustainable yielded results stating that recovery from collection depended greatly on the season of collection .
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= SM UB @-@ 2 =
SM UB @-@ 2 was a German Type UB I submarine or U @-@ boat in the German Imperial Navy ( German : Kaiserliche Marine ) during World War I. She sank eleven ships during her career and was broken up in Germany in 1920 .
UB @-@ 2 was ordered in October 1914 and was laid down at the Germaniawerft shipyard in Kiel in November . UB @-@ 2 was a little more than 28 metres ( 92 ft ) in length and displaced between 127 and 142 tonnes ( 125 and 140 long tons ) , depending on whether surfaced or submerged . She carried two torpedoes for her two bow torpedo tubes and was also armed with a deck @-@ mounted machine gun . She was launched and commissioned as SM UB @-@ 2 in February 1915 .
When UB @-@ 2 sailed to join the Flanders Flotilla in May 1915 , she became the only member of her class to not be shipped by rail to Antwerp to join the unit . While in the flotilla , UB @-@ 2 sank eleven British ships of 1 @,@ 374 gross register tons ( GRT ) under the command of Kptlt . Werner Fürbringer . The U @-@ boat was assigned to the Baltic Flotilla in March 1916 relegated to a training role from December that same year . At the end of the war , UB @-@ 2 was deemed unseaworthy and unable to surrender at Harwich with the rest of Germany 's U @-@ boat fleet . She remained in Germany where she was broken up by Stinnes in February 1920 .
= = Design and construction = =
After the German Army 's rapid advance along the North Sea coast in the earliest stages of World War I , the German Imperial Navy found itself without suitable submarines that could be operated in the narrow and shallow environment off Flanders . Project 34 , a design effort begun in mid @-@ August 1914 , produced the Type UB I design : a small submarine that could be shipped by rail to a port of operations and quickly assembled . Constrained by railroad size limitations , the UB I design called for a boat about 28 metres ( 92 ft ) long and displacing about 125 tonnes ( 123 long tons ) with two torpedo tubes . UB @-@ 2 was part of the initial allotment of eight submarines — numbered UB @-@ 1 to UB @-@ 8 — ordered on 15 October from Germaniawerft of Kiel , just shy of two months after planning for the class began .
UB @-@ 2 was laid down by Germaniawerft on 1 November , one of the first two boats of the class started . She was launched at Kiel on 13 February 1915 . As built , UB @-@ 2 was 28 @.@ 10 metres ( 92 ft 2 in ) long , 3 @.@ 15 metres ( 10 ft 4 in ) abeam , and had a draft of 3 @.@ 03 metres ( 9 ft 11 in ) . She had a single 59 @-@ brake @-@ horsepower ( 44 kW ) Daimler 4 @-@ cylinder diesel engine for surface travel , and a single 119 @-@ shaft @-@ horsepower ( 89 kW ) Siemens @-@ Schuckert electric motor for underwater travel , both attached to a single propeller shaft . Her top speeds were 6 @.@ 47 knots ( 11 @.@ 98 km / h ; 7 @.@ 45 mph ) , surfaced , and 5 @.@ 51 knots ( 10 @.@ 20 km / h ; 6 @.@ 34 mph ) , submerged . At more moderate speeds , she could sail up to 1 @,@ 650 nautical miles ( 3 @,@ 060 km ; 1 @,@ 900 mi ) on the surface before refueling , and up to 45 nautical miles ( 83 km ; 52 mi ) submerged before recharging her batteries . Like all boats of the class , UB @-@ 2 was rated to a diving depth of 50 metres ( 160 ft ) , and could completely submerge in 33 seconds .
UB @-@ 2 was armed with two 45 @-@ centimeter ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedoes in two bow torpedo tubes . She was also outfitted for a single 8 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 31 in ) machine gun on deck . UB @-@ 2 's standard complement consisted of one officer and thirteen enlisted men .
= = Service career = =
The submarine was commissioned into the German Imperial Navy as SM UB @-@ 2 on 20 February under the command of Kapitänleutnant Werner Fürbringer , a 26 @-@ year @-@ old native of Braunschweig , and underwent trials in German home waters .
UB @-@ 2 sailed from Germany to Flanders to join the Flanders Flotilla ( German : U @-@ boote des Marinekorps U @-@ Flotille Flandern ) on 10 May 1915 , and was the only UB I or UC I boat in the flotilla to not be shipped to Antwerp by rail . When UB @-@ 2 joined the flotilla , Germany was in the midst of its first submarine offensive , begun in February . During this campaign , enemy vessels in the German @-@ defined war zone ( German : Kriegsgebiet ) , which encompassed all waters around the United Kingdom ( including the English Channel ) , were to be sunk . Vessels of neutral countries were not to be attacked unless they definitively could be identified as enemy vessels operating under a false flag .
The UB I boats of the Flanders Flotilla were initially limited to patrols in the Hoofden , the southern portion of the North Sea between the United Kingdom and the Netherlands . On 9 and 10 June , while patrolling in this area 50 to 60 nautical miles ( 93 to 111 km ; 58 to 69 mi ) southeast of Lowestoft , UB @-@ 2 sank six British fishing smacks with a combined tonnage of just under 300 GRT , the largest being Intrepid of 59 tons . All six of the smacks — sailing vessels traditionally rigged with red ochre sails — were stopped , boarded by crewmen from UB @-@ 2 , and sunk with explosives .
After UB @-@ 2 's sister boat UB @-@ 6 pioneered a route around past British anti @-@ submarine nets and mines in the Straits of Dover in late June , boats of the flotilla began to patrol the western English Channel . UB @-@ 2 , UB @-@ 5 , and UB @-@ 10 soon followed with patrols in the Channel . Even though none of the boats sank any ships , by successfully completing their voyages they helped further prove the feasibility of defeating the British countermeasures in the Straits of Dover .
On 28 August , UB @-@ 2 was patrolling in the Corton – Yarmouth area when she sank the British trawler Miura . At 297 tons , Miura bested Intrepid as the largest vessel sunk by UB @-@ 2 to @-@ date . Early the following month , UB @-@ 2 sank another two fishing smacks 44 nautical miles ( 81 km ; 51 mi ) east @-@ southeast of Lowestoft : the 57 @-@ ton Constance , and the 44 @-@ ton Emanuel . Three days later , UB @-@ 2 sank 47 @-@ ton smack Boy Ernie about 58 nautical miles ( 107 km ; 67 mi ) east of Cromer . As with the six vessels sunk in June , all three were stopped by UB @-@ 2 and sunk with explosives .
Germany 's submarine offensive was suspended on 18 September by the chief of the Admiralstab , Admiral Henning von Holtzendorff , In response to American demands after German submarines had sunk the Cunard Line steamer Lusitania in May 1915 and other high profile sinkings in August and September . Holtzendorff 's directive from ordered all U @-@ boats out of the English Channel and the South @-@ Western Approaches and required that all submarine activity in the North Sea be conducted strictly along prize regulations . UB @-@ 2 did not sink any vessels over the next four months .
The German Imperial Navy began its second submarine offensive in February 1916 , declaring , among other provisions , that all enemy vessels in the war zone were to be destroyed without warning . On 26 February 1916 , UB @-@ 2 torpedoed and sank the cargo ship Arbonne , in what was ultimately her last wartime success . The British steamer — at 672 GRT , the largest ship sunk by UB @-@ 2 — went down with a loss of all fourteen of her crew .
In early March , Kapitänleutnant Fürbringer was succeeded by the former commander of UB @-@ 13 , Kptlt . Karl Neumann , who had been in the same cadet class as Fürbringer . Fürbringer went on to command six other U @-@ boats , and was responsible for sinking nearly 100 @,@ 000 tons of shipping . In 1933 he published a memoir of his World War I U @-@ boat service , Alarm ! Tauchen ! ! : U @-@ boot in Kampf und Sturm , which included an overview of his career , including his time on UB @-@ 2 .
Fürbringer went on to command six other U @-@ boats , and was responsible for sinking nearly 100 @,@ 000 tons of shipping . In 1933 he published a memoir of his World War I U @-@ boat service , Alarm ! Tauchen ! ! : U @-@ boot in Kampf und Sturm , which included an overview of his career , including his time on UB @-@ 2 .
By early February , the Flanders Flotilla was beginning to receive the newer , larger Type UB II boats . UB @-@ 2 was transferred into the Baltic Flotilla ( German : U @-@ boote der Ostseetreitträfte V. U @-@ Halbflotille ) about a week after Neumann took command . Boats of the Baltic flotilla were based at either Kiel , Danzig , or Libau , but where UB @-@ 2 was stationed during this time is not reported in sources . While UB @-@ 2 was in the Baltic Flotilla , Neumann was succeeded by Oberleutnant zur See ( Oblt.z.S. ) Thomas Bieber in April , who was in turn succeeded by Oblt.z.S. Harald von Keyserlingk in July . In early December , Keyserlingk was reassigned from UB @-@ 2 to UB @-@ 36 , and UB @-@ 2 was transferred to training duties . According to authors R.H. Gibson and Maurice Prendergast , submarines assigned to training duties were " war @-@ worn craft " unfit for service .
At the end of the war , the Allies required all German U @-@ boats to be sailed to Harwich for surrender . UB @-@ 2 was one of eight U @-@ boats deemed unseaworthy and allowed to remain in Germany . UB @-@ 2 was broken up by Stinnes on 3 February 1920 .
= = Summary of raiding history = =
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= Death of Edgar Allan Poe =
The death of Edgar Allan Poe on October 7 , 1849 , has remained mysterious : the circumstances leading up to it are uncertain and the cause of death is disputed . On October 3 , Poe was found delirious on the streets of Baltimore , Maryland , " in great distress , and ... in need of immediate assistance " , according to the man who found him , Joseph W. Walker . He was taken to the Washington College Hospital , where he died at 5 a.m. on Sunday , October 7 . Poe was never coherent enough to explain how he came to be in this condition .
Much of the extant information about the last few days of Poe 's life comes from his attending physician , Dr. John Joseph Moran , though his credibility is questionable . Poe was buried after a small funeral at the back of Westminster Hall and Burying Ground , but his remains were moved to a new grave with a larger monument in 1875 . The newer monument also marks the burial place of Poe 's wife , Virginia , and his mother @-@ in @-@ law , Maria . Theories as to what caused Poe 's death include suicide , murder , cholera , Hypoglycemia , rabies , syphilis , influenza , and that Poe was a victim of cooping . Evidence of the influence of alcohol is strongly disputed .
After Poe 's death , Rufus Wilmot Griswold wrote his obituary under the pseudonym " Ludwig " . Griswold , who became the literary executor of Poe 's estate , was actually a rival of Poe and later published his first full biography , depicting him as a depraved , drunk , drug @-@ addled madman . Much of the evidence for this image of Poe is believed to have been forged by Griswold , and though friends of Poe denounced it , this interpretation had lasting impact .
= = Chronology = =
On September 27 , 1849 , Poe left Richmond , Virginia , on his way home to New York . No reliable evidence exists about Poe 's whereabouts until a week later on October 3 , when he was found delirious on the streets of Baltimore , outside Ryan 's Tavern ( sometimes referred to as Gunner 's Hall ) . A printer named Joseph W. Walker sent a letter requesting help from an acquaintance of Poe , Dr. Joseph E. Snodgrass . His letter reads :
Snodgrass later claimed the note said that Poe was " in a state of beastly intoxication " , but the original letter proves otherwise .
Snodgrass 's first @-@ hand account describes Poe 's appearance as " repulsive " , with unkempt hair , a haggard , unwashed face and " lusterless and vacant " eyes . His clothing , Snodgrass said , which included a dirty shirt but no vest and unpolished shoes , was worn and did not fit well . Dr. John Joseph Moran , who was Poe 's attending physician , gives his own detailed account of Poe 's appearance that day : " a stained faded , old bombazine coat , pantaloons of a similar character , a pair of worn @-@ out shoes run down at the heels , and an old straw hat " . Poe was never coherent long enough to explain how he came to be in this condition , and it is believed the clothes he was wearing were not his own , not least because wearing shabby clothes was out of character for Poe .
Moran cared for Poe at the for @-@ profit Washington College Hospital on Broadway and Fayette Street . He was denied any visitors and was confined in a prison @-@ like room with barred windows in a section of the building reserved for drunk people . Poe is said to have repeatedly called out the name " Reynolds " on the night before his death , though no one has ever been able to identify the person to whom he referred . One possibility is that he was recalling an encounter with Jeremiah N. Reynolds , a newspaper editor and explorer who may have inspired the novel The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym of Nantucket . Another possibility is Henry R. Reynolds , one of the judges overseeing the Fourth Ward Polls at Ryan 's Tavern , who may have met Poe on Election Day . Poe may have instead been calling for " Herring " , as the author had an uncle @-@ in @-@ law in Baltimore named Henry Herring . In later testimonies Moran avoided reference to Reynolds but mentioned a visit by a " Misses Herring " . He also claimed he attempted to cheer up Poe during one of the few times Poe was awake . When Moran told his patient that he would soon be enjoying the company of friends , Poe allegedly replied that " the best thing his friend could do would be to blow out his brains with a pistol " .
In Poe 's distressed state , he made reference to a wife in Richmond . He may have been delusional , thinking that his wife , Virginia , was still alive , or he may have been referring to Sarah Elmira Royster , to whom he had recently proposed . He did not know what had happened to his trunk of belongings which , it transpired , had been left behind at the Swan Tavern in Richmond . Moran reported that Poe 's final words were " Lord , help my poor soul " before dying on October 7 , 1849 .
= = = Credibility of Moran = = =
Because Poe did not have visitors , Moran was probably the only person to see the author in his last days . Even so , Moran 's credibility has been questioned repeatedly , if not considered altogether untrustworthy . Throughout the years after Poe 's death , his story changed as he wrote and lectured on the topic . He claimed ( in 1875 and again in 1885 , for example ) that he had immediately contacted Poe 's aunt ( and mother @-@ in @-@ law ) , Maria Clemm , to let her know about Poe 's death ; in fact , he wrote to her only after she had requested it on November 9 , almost a full month after the event . He also claimed that Poe had said , quite poetically , as he prepared to draw his last breath : " The arched heavens encompass me , and God has his decree legibly written upon the frontlets of every created human being , and demons incarnate , their goal will be the seething waves of blank despair . " The editor of the New York Herald , which published this version of Moran 's story , admitted , " We cannot imagine Poe , even if delirious , constructing [ such sentences ] . " Poe biographer William Bittner attributes Moran 's claim to a convention of assigning pious last words to console mourners .
Moran 's accounts even altered dates . At different points , he claimed Poe was brought to the hospital on October 3 at 5 p.m. , on October 6 at 9 a.m. , or on October 7 ( the day he died ) at " 10 o 'clock in the afternoon " . For each published account , he claimed to have the hospital records as reference . A search for hospital records a century later , specifically an official death certificate , found nothing . Some critics claim Moran 's inconsistencies and errors were due only to a lapse of memory , an innocent desire to romanticize , or even to senility . At the time he wrote and published his last account in 1885 , Moran was 65 .
= = Cause of death = =
All medical records and documents , including Poe 's death certificate , have been lost , if they ever existed . The precise cause of Poe 's death is disputed , but many theories exist . Many biographers have addressed the issue and reached different conclusions , ranging from Jeffrey Meyers ' assertion that it was hypoglycemia to John Evangelist Walsh 's conspiratorial murder plot theory . It has also been suggested that Poe 's death might have resulted from suicide related to depression . In 1848 , he nearly died from an overdose of laudanum , readily available as a tranquilizer and pain killer . Though it is unclear if this was a true suicide attempt or just a miscalculation on Poe 's part , it did not lead to Poe 's death a year later .
Snodgrass was convinced that Poe died from alcoholism and did a great deal to popularize this idea . He was a supporter of the temperance movement and found Poe a useful example in his temperance work . However , Snodgrass 's writings on the topic have been proven untrustworthy . Moran contradicted Snodgrass by stating in his own 1885 account that Poe did not die under the effect of any intoxicant . Moran claimed that Poe " had not the slightest odor of liquor upon his breath or person " . Even so , some newspapers at the time reported Poe 's death as " congestion of the brain " or " cerebral inflammation " , euphemisms for deaths from disgraceful causes such as alcoholism . In a study of Poe , a psychologist suggested that Poe had dipsomania .
Poe 's characterization as an uncontrollable alcoholic is disputed . His drinking companion for a time , Thomas Mayne Reid , admitted that the two engaged in wild " frolics " but that Poe " never went beyond the innocent mirth in which we all indulge ... While acknowledging this as one of Poe 's failings , I can speak truly of its not being habitual " . Some believe Poe had a severe susceptibility to alcohol and became drunk after one glass of wine . He only drank during difficult periods of his life and sometimes went several months at a time without alcohol . Adding further confusion about the frequency of Poe 's use of alcohol was his membership in the Sons of Temperance at the time of his death . William Glenn , who administered Poe 's pledge , wrote years later that the temperance community had no reason to believe Poe had violated his pledge while in Richmond . Suggestions of a drug overdose have also been proven to be untrue , though it is still often reported . Thomas Dunn English , an admitted enemy of Poe and a trained doctor , insisted that Poe was not a drug user . He wrote : " Had Poe the opium habit when I knew him ( before 1846 ) I should both as a physician and a man of observation , have discovered it during his frequent visits to my rooms , my visits at his house , and our meetings elsewhere – I saw no signs of it and believe the charge to be a baseless slander . "
Numerous other causes of death have been proposed over the years , including several forms of rare brain disease or a brain tumor , diabetes , various types of enzyme deficiency , syphilis , apoplexy , delirium tremens , epilepsy and meningeal inflammation . A doctor named John W. Francis examined Poe in May 1848 and believed Poe had heart disease , which Poe later denied . A 2006 test of a sample of Poe 's hair provides evidence against the possibility of lead poisoning , mercury poisoning , and similar toxic heavy @-@ metal exposures . Cholera has also been suggested . Poe had passed through Philadelphia in early 1849 during a cholera epidemic . He got sick during his time in the city and wrote a letter to his aunt , Maria Clemm , saying that he may " have had the cholera , or spasms quite as bad " .
Because Poe was found on the day of an election , it was suggested as early as 1872 that he was the victim of cooping . This was a ballot @-@ box @-@ stuffing scam in which victims were shanghaied , drugged , and used as a pawn to vote for a political party at multiple locations . Cooping had become the standard explanation for Poe 's death in most of his biographies for several decades , though his status in Baltimore may have made him too recognizable for this scam to have worked . More recently , analysis suggesting that Poe 's death resulted from rabies has been presented .
= = Funeral = =
Poe 's funeral was a simple one , held at 4 p.m. on Monday , October 8 , 1849 . Few people attended the ceremony . Poe 's uncle , Henry Herring , provided a simple mahogany coffin , and a cousin , Neilson Poe , supplied the hearse . Moran 's wife made his shroud . The funeral was presided over by the Reverend W. T. D. Clemm , cousin of Poe 's wife , Virginia . Also in attendance were Dr. Snodgrass , Baltimore lawyer and former University of Virginia classmate Zaccheus Collins Lee , Poe 's first cousin Elizabeth Herring and her husband , and former schoolmaster Joseph Clarke . The entire ceremony lasted only three minutes in the cold , damp weather . Reverend Clemm decided not to bother with a sermon because the crowd was too small . Sexton George W. Spence wrote of the weather : " It was a dark and gloomy day , not raining but just kind of raw and threatening . " Poe was buried in a cheap coffin that lacked handles , a nameplate , cloth lining , or a cushion for his head .
On October 10 , 2009 , Poe received a second funeral in Baltimore . Actors portrayed Poe 's contemporaries and other long @-@ dead writers and artists . Each paid their respects and read eulogies adapted from their writings about Poe . The funeral included a replica of Poe 's casket and wax cadaver .
= = Burial and reburial = =
Poe is buried on the grounds of Westminster Hall and Burying Ground , now part of the University of Maryland School of Law in Baltimore . Even after his death , he created controversy and mystery .
Poe was originally buried without a headstone towards the rear corner of the churchyard near his grandfather , David Poe , Sr. A headstone of white Italian marble , paid for by Poe 's cousin Neilson Poe , was destroyed before it reached the grave when a train derailed and plowed through the monument yard where it was being kept . Instead , it was marked with a sand @-@ stone block that read " No. 80 " . In 1873 , Southern poet Paul Hamilton Hayne visited Poe 's grave and published a newspaper article describing its poor condition and suggesting a more appropriate monument . Sara Sigourney Rice , a teacher in Baltimore 's public schools , took advantage of renewed interest in Poe 's grave site and personally solicited for funds . She even had some of her elocution students give public performances to raise money . Many in Baltimore and throughout the United States contributed ; the final $ 650 came from Philadelphia publisher and philanthropist George William Childs . The new monument was designed by architect George A. Frederick and built by Colonel Hugh Sisson , and included a medallion of Poe by artist Adalbert Volck . All three men were from Baltimore . The total cost of the monument , with the medallion , amounted to slightly more than $ 1 @,@ 500 . ( $ 31 @,@ 600 in 2014 dollars )
Poe was reburied on October 1 , 1875 , at a new location close to the front of the church . A celebration was held at the dedication of the new tomb on November 17 . His original burial spot was marked with a large stone donated by Orin C. Painter , though it was originally placed in the wrong spot . Attendees included Neilson Poe , who gave a speech and called his cousin " one of the best hearted men that ever lived " , as well as Nathan C. Brooks , John Snodgrass , and John Hill Hewitt . Though several leading poets were invited to the ceremony , Walt Whitman was the only one to attend . Alfred Tennyson contributed a poem which was read at the ceremony :
Probably unknown to the reburial crew , the headstones on all the graves , previously facing to the east , had been turned to face the West Gate in 1864 . The crew digging up Poe 's remains had difficulty finding the right body : they first exhumed a 19 @-@ year @-@ old Maryland militiaman , Philip Mosher , Jr . When they correctly located Poe , they opened his coffin and one witness noted : " The skull was in excellent condition — the shape of the forehead , one of Poe 's striking features , was easily discerned . "
A few years later , the remains of Poe 's wife , Virginia , were moved to this spot as well . In 1875 , the cemetery in which she lay was destroyed , and she had no kin to claim her remains . William Gill , an early Poe biographer , gathered her bones and stored them in a box he hid under his bed . Virginia 's remains were finally buried with her husband 's on January 19 , 1885 , the 76th anniversary of her husband 's birth and nearly 10 years after his present monument was erected . George W. Spence , the man who served as sexton during Poe 's original burial as well as his exhumation and reburial , attended the rites that brought his body to rest with Virginia and Virginia 's mother , Maria Clemm .
= = Posthumous character assassination = =
On October 9 , the day of Poe 's burial , an obituary appeared in the " New York Tribune " . Signed only " Ludwig " , the obituary floridly alternated between praising the dead author 's abilities and eloquence and damning his temperament and ambition . " Ludwig " said that " literary art lost one of its most brilliant , but erratic stars " but also claimed Poe was known for walking the streets in delirium , muttering to himself and claimed Poe was excessively arrogant , that he assumed all men were villains , and that he was quick to anger . " Ludwig " was later revealed to be Rufus Wilmot Griswold , a former colleague and acquaintance of Poe . Even while Poe was still alive , Griswold had engaged in character assassination . Much of his characterization in the obituary was lifted almost verbatim from that of the fictitious Francis Vivian in The Caxtons by Edward Bulwer @-@ Lytton . The Ludwig obituary quickly became the standard characterization of Poe .
Griswold also claimed that Poe had asked him to be his literary executor . Griswold had served as an agent for several American authors , but it is unclear whether Poe appointed him to be the executor or whether Griswold became executor through a trick or a mistake by Poe 's aunt and mother @-@ in @-@ law , Maria . In 1850 he presented , in collaboration with James Russell Lowell and Nathaniel Parker Willis , a collection of Poe 's work that included a biographical article titled " Memoir of the Author " , in which Poe was depicted as a depraved , drunk , drug @-@ addled madman . Many parts of it were believed to have been fabricated by Griswold , and it was denounced by those who had known Poe , including Sarah Helen Whitman , Charles Frederick Briggs , and George Rex Graham . This account became popularly accepted , in part because it was the only full biography available and was widely reprinted . It also remained popular because many readers assumed that Poe was similar to his fictional characters or were thrilled at the thought of reading the works of an " evil " man .
A more accurate biography of Poe did not appear until John Henry Ingram 's of 1875 . Even so , historians continued to use Griswold 's depiction as a model for their own biographies of Poe , including W. H. Davenport in 1880 , Thomas R. Slicer in 1909 , and Augustus Hopkins Strong in 1916 . Many used Poe as a cautionary tale against alcohol and drugs . In 1941 , Arthur Hobson Quinn presented evidence that Griswold had forged and re @-@ written a number of Poe 's letters that were included in his " Memoir of the Author " . By then , Griswold 's depiction of Poe was entrenched in the mind of the public , not only in America but around the world , and this distorted image of Poe has become part of the Poe legend despite attempts to dispel it .
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= Hurricane Greta ( 1956 ) =
Hurricane Greta was an extremely large late @-@ season Atlantic hurricane in the 1956 Atlantic hurricane season . Originating from a tropical depression near Jamaica on October 30 , the system initially featured non @-@ tropical characteristics as it tracked northward . By November 2 , the system began producing gale @-@ force winds around the low pressure area ; however , winds near the center of circulation were calm . By November 3 , the system intensified into a tropical storm and was named Greta . Steadily strengthening , Greta attained hurricane intensity on November 4 , eventually reaching a peak intensity with 100 mph ( 155 km / h ) winds . Shortly after , Greta began to gradually weaken as it tracked over cooler waters . The storm eventually became extratropical on November 7 over the central Atlantic . Although Greta did not directly impact land as a tropical storm or hurricane , it generated large swells that impacted numerous areas . One person was killed in Puerto Rico and coastal damages from the waves amounted to roughly $ 3 @.@ 6 million ( 1956 USD ) .
= = Meteorological history = =
Hurricane Greta originated out of a tropical disturbance in the Intertropical Convergence Zone near Jamaica on October 30 , 1956 . A Navy reconnaissance plane recorded sustained winds of 35 mph ( 55 km / h ) and found an area of low pressure . Around this time , the system was classified as a tropical depression . Although a ship near the system discovered a cold @-@ core circulation — a feature of non @-@ tropical cyclones — it was classified as tropical . By October 31 , the depression passed near the western edge of Haiti and later crossed the eastern tip of Cuba before entering the Atlantic Ocean . By the afternoon of November 1 , the depression had moved through the central Bahamas and turned towards the northeast .
By this time , the central pressure of the depression had decreased to 998 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 47 inHg ) and gale @-@ force winds were recorded over a large area , and the system was upgraded to a tropical storm that morning . The system was compared to that of a Kona low , a large @-@ scale subtropical cyclone that forms near Hawaii . Early on November 2 , the storm turned northwest in response to an area of high pressure over the central Atlantic . Later that day , the first scientific mission into a hurricane with two planes took place when two research aircraft flew into Greta . During the day , an Air Force B @-@ 50 aircraft and NHRP B @-@ 47 high altitude jet flew into the storm . The storm executed a counter @-@ clockwise loop , ending on November 3 , during which time numerous reconnaissance missions were flown into the system . By this time , the storm had also begun a southeastward track .
Continuing to gradually intensify , Greta attained hurricane status on November 4 and later that day it attained Category 2 status on the modern day Saffir – Simpson Hurricane Scale . After reaching this intensity , the hurricane turned northeastward and accelerated , although it did not intensify further . A reconnaissance mission around this time recorded a minimum pressure of 970 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 64 inHg ) .
Around the time it first reached peak intensity , Greta was an extraordinarily large hurricane , with the gale @-@ diameter of the storm extending roughly 1 @,@ 200 mi ( 1 @,@ 930 km ) . After attaining its peak intensity , the storm began to move over cooler waters , resulting in the circulation becoming elongated , however it did not weaken over the next couple days . On the morning of November 6 , Greta transitioned into an exceptionally large and intense extratropical cyclone .
= = Preparations and impact = =
Although Greta did not directly track over land as a tropical storm or hurricane , the size of the system contributed to large waves , exceeding 20 ft ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) in height over a large expanse of the Atlantic . Impacts from the storm were felt as far away as the eastern United States . The National Weather Bureau warned ships in the vicinity of the system to take precautions . St. Croix was nearly isolated and stressed into an emergency due to Greta after the storm 's swells destroyed docks and prevented ships carrying food from reaching the island . Several light vessels were destroyed by Greta 's gale @-@ force winds and only schooners with little carrying capacity were able to make it to the island . Along the coast of Jacksonville , Florida alone , coastal structures sustained roughly $ 1 @.@ 2 million ( 1956 USD ; $ 9 @.@ 6 million 2009 USD ) in damages . In Puerto Rico , waves up to 20 ft ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) caused significant damage and resulted in the death of one person after he did not evacuate his home . Swells up to 25 ft ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) were recorded in the Virgin Islands . In Guadeloupe , 80 % of the port installations were destroyed by rough seas . In all , damages from Greta amounted to roughly $ 3 @.@ 6 million ( 1956 USD ; $ 31 @.@ 3 million 2016 USD ) .
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= Nicol David =
Template : Infobox squash playeR
Datuk Nicol Ann David ( born 26 August 1983 ) is a Malaysian female professional squash player , currently ranked world number 3 . Beginning in August 2006 , David was the world number one for a record @-@ breaking 108 consecutive months , finally ceding the ranking in July 2015 to Raneem El Weleily . She has won the World Open title a record 8 times in 2005 , 2006 , 2008 , 2009 , 2010 , 2011 , 2012 and 2014 , as well as the British Open title in 2005 , 2006 , 2008 , 2012 and 2014 .
David is the first squash player to have won the World Junior title twice ; in 1999 and 2001 under the tutelage of Richard Glanfield . She remained the only female squash player to have achieved this , until Raneem El Weleily emulated David 's feat by winning her second World Junior Championship in 2007 . David joined WISPA and turned professional in 2000 when she won her first WISPA title , after only a month on the tour . The victory came in February , when she defeated Salma Shabana in the final of the Savcor Finnish Open . On 7 June 2008 , David was honoured with the Order of Merit ( Darjah Bakti ) or D.B. in conjunction with the birthday of the His Majesty Tuanku Mizan Zainal Abidin . She was the first recipient of the award which was established on 26 June 1975 . David was also invited to carry the Olympic torch for Malaysia during the build up to the Athens Olympics in 2004 and being appointed as UNDP National Goodwill Ambassador for Malaysia .
Considered by some to be one of the greatest women 's squash players of all time , David 's other notable achievements include the Asian Squash Championship , which she won a record nine times ( in 1998 , 2000 , 2002 , 2004 , 2006 , 2008 , 2010 , 2011 and 2015 ) . She also held a 13 @-@ month , 51 @-@ match winning streak , from March 2006 until April 2007 , when she finally lost to Natalie Grinham in the final of the 2007 Seoul Open . David has also obtained the WSA Player of the Year on seven occasions , 2005 @-@ 2010 and 2012 .
= = Personal life = =
Born in Penang , David is the daughter of Ann Marie David , a retired Malaysian Chinese school teacher , and Desmond David , a Malaysian Indian engineer , who is also a former state athlete and footballer . She has two sisters , Lianne and Cheryl , both of whom are accomplished squash players at the national level . As a youngster , mathematics was David 's best subject at school ; she dreamed of one day becoming an engineer . Her primary education was at Sekolah Kebangsaan Convent Green Lane ( Convent Green Lane Primary School ) . David scored seven A 's for her Penilaian Menengah Rendah and obtained seven A 's in her Sijil Pelajaran Malaysia ( the equivalent to GCSE ) , which she studied at Convent Green Lane Secondary School in Green Lane , Penang . She was raised a Roman Catholic .
= = Awards and recognition = =
On 7 June 2008 , David was honoured with the Order of Merit ( Darjah Bakti ) or D.B. in conjunction with the birthday of His Majesty Tuanku Mizan Zainal Abidin . She was the first recipient of the award which was established on 26 June 1975 . The award is limited to 10 recipients who have made significant contributions in the arts , sciences and the humanities .
On 12 July 2008 , David was among 497 people honoured in conjunction with the 70th birthday of the Penang State Governor Tun Abdul Rahman Abbas . David was also one of the 28 people who received the Darjah Setia Pangkuan Negeri award ( DSPN ) , which carries the title Datuk , making her the youngest person ever to be conferred Datukship in Penang . The former Prime Minister of Malaysia Tun Abdullah Ahmad Badawi , a fellow Penangite , once quipped that David is " now more famous than me " . In July 2007 , David received Master of Arts honoris causa ; an honorary degree by the University of Nottingham . David has also obtained the WISPA Player of the Year on six consecutive occasions , from 2005 until 2010 .
David was given the honour of carrying the Olympic torch for Malaysia during the build up to the Athens Olympics of 2004 , and was appointed UNDP National Goodwill Ambassador for Malaysia .
= = Squash career = =
= = = Pre – 2000 : Junior years = = =
David played squash when she was five years old , and received coaching at the age of eight . While training at the Bukit Dumbar Squash Centre , David was talent spotted by Ee Phoeh Hoon , who led her to represent her home state of Penang , along with her sisters . David 's squash career began in 1992 when she won silver in the Under @-@ 14 category of the Penang State Junior Championship . Her first national level victory was also in 1992 at the Milo @-@ Dunlop Sport National Junior Interstate Championship , where she won silver in the Under @-@ 16 category . In 1994 , David was chosen to join the Penang state squash team for the Malaysian Games ( SUKMA ) tournament where she helped Penang win a gold medal in the team event , despite being ill at the time . In the same year , she won her first two international titles – the Hong Kong U @-@ 13 and the Scottish Junior Open Under @-@ 12 .
David won the Women 's World Junior Squash Championships of 1999 in Antwerp , Belgium , making her the youngest woman to become the world junior champion at the age of 15 . In the process , she defeated three players ranked in the world top 20 . She successfully defended the title in Penang in 2001 , becoming one of only two players in the history of squash to have won it twice ; her coach was Richard Glanfield .
In 1999 , David began to win major junior tournaments , including the British Junior Open ( Under @-@ 17 champion ) , the German Junior Open ( Under @-@ 19 , Champion ) , the SEA Games ( Champion in the Senior and Team categories ) , and the Asian Junior Champion for both individual and team events .
David 's biggest win , however , was the World Junior Championships , played in Antwerp . It took just half an hour for the then 15 @-@ year @-@ old Malaysian schoolgirl to obtain world junior champion status when she beat compatriot Leong Siu Lynn 9 – 5 , 9 – 3 and 9 – 2 in the final of the women 's individual event to become the youngest ever winner of the title . David reached the quarterfinals of the previous World Junior Championships in August 1997 in Brazil , as a thirteen @-@ year @-@ old and has since claimed both the Asian junior and senior titles , as well as the gold medal in the Asian Games in December 1998 . David also is one of a few squash player to have won all the age categories in the British Junior Open .
= = = 2000 – 2004 : Early professional career = = =
David joined WISPA and turned professional in 2000 when she won her first WISPA title , after only a month in the tour . The victory came in February , when she defeated Salma Shabana in the final of the Savcor Finnish Open with a score of 9 – 1 , 9 – 0 and 9 – 5 . Within a month , Hotel Equatorial announced its two @-@ year worldwide sponsorship for her . David also won a sponsorship on the WISPA tour by Dunlop squash .
In 2001 , David , who has played under Dunlop Sport sponsorship for most of her junior career and WISPA career , signed a two @-@ year deal to play with Head rackets with local conglomerate Mulpha Sports . In July , David won the World Junior title for a second time , beating Omneya Abdel Kawy in just 17 minutes with a score of 9 – 2 , 9 – 4 and 9 – 2 in the final . She remained the only female squash player to have achieved this until 2007 , when Raneem El Weleily won her second World Junior Championship . David also won the individual event in the Asian Junior Squash Championships by defeating her compatriot Tricia Chuah in the final with a score of 9 – 5 , 9 – 6 and 9 – 0 ; and helped the Malaysian team to the team event title .
In 2002 David , together with her mixed double event partner Ong Beng Hee , won a Commonwealth Games silver medal for Malaysia after losing to Glen Wilson and Leilani Rorani in the final . Earlier in the year , David defeated Ellen Petersen of Denmark with a score of 9 – 2 , 9 – 7 , 8 – 10 , 9 – 4 to win the second Kuala Lumpur Open title of her career . David failed to retain her Asian Games gold medal in 2002 , when she lost 9 – 7 , 9 – 5 and 9 – 7 to Rebecca Chiu of Hong Kong in the final in Busan , South Korea .
David was the losing finalist twice in 2003 , losing to the more experienced Cassie Jackman on her home ground and then to Linda Elriani in the Monte Carlo Classic in November . She reached the semi @-@ final of the World Open in Hong Kong , losing to Cassie Jackman with a score of 9 – 6 , 9 – 3 , 9 – 4 in the final . David did not perform well in the other major WISPA events ; she was eliminated in the first round of the Carol Weymuller US Open , in the British Open and in the Texas Open . In the Qatar Classic Open , David lost in the second round to Natalie Grinham with a score of 9 – 2 , 7 – 9 , 9 – 0 and 9 – 4 .
In 2004 David again failed to win any title . Her achievements included getting into the final of both the Kuala Lumpur Open and the Malaysian Open . David started to progress in the very last month of the year by reaching the final of the Shanghai WISPA WorldStars Championship and the semi @-@ finals of the World Open , to rise two places to number four in the January 2005 WISPA rankings .
= = = 2005 – 2006 : World champion and rise to the top = = =
Defeated only twice in 2005 , the 21 @-@ year @-@ old from Penang returned to her home country in July after winning the gold medal at the World Games in Germany . she then became the first local player to win the Women 's CIMB Malaysian Open Squash Championship title in the event ’ s 31 @-@ year history . In October , David proved that her success in the World Games and in the Malaysian Open was not by chance by becoming the first Malaysian to win a British Open title , the first Asian to win the women 's crown , when she beat Australia 's Natalie Grinham in the women 's final in straight games that lasted in 55 minutes . Within two months after the British Open and the World Games win , David won the World Open in Hong Kong for the first time and world number one ranking for the first time in January 2006 . Later in the year , she was voted by her fellow members of the Women 's International Squash Players Association as the WISPA Player of The Year 2005 . David became the World 's number 1 female squash player in January 2006 at the age of 23 to become the first Malaysian and the first Asian woman to be ranked World number 1 in the sport . She also became the twelfth holder of the position since the rankings were first produced in April 1983 . David started the year on a low , losing twice to Vanessa Atkinson in February , in the Apawamis Open and in the Kuala Lumpur Open , both in the final . The two straight loses to Atkinson saw David 's world rank dropped to number 2 . David started to show progress later in the year and recovered from the setback to win six straight tour titles and reclaimed the World number 1 spot . David successfully defended her World Open title on 25 November 2006 , at the Ulster Hall in Belfast by defeating Natalie Grinham in the final that was said to be " one of the great finals of the Women ’ s World Open " . She became the first Malaysian athlete to win a world championship title for the second consecutive time , and the fourth person in history to retain the World Open Squash Championship . David also captured the Qatar Airways Challenge Open , the Dunlop British Open Championship , the Hong Kong Open , the Penang Open and the CIMB Malaysian Open . David topped the December WISPA ranking with a points average of almost twice that of her nearest rival , Rachael Grinham , and in the same month , in the second annual WISPA Awards , she was voted best female player of the year for the second time .
= = = 2007 – 2008 : Winning streak and dominance = = =
David captured another six titles in the early months of 2007 , then lost the final of the British Open to Australian Rachael Grinham in a five set final lasting 87 minutes . A month later , David again failed to defend her World Open title when she stumbled in the second round , losing to Shelley Kitchen with a score of 0 – 9 , 1 – 9 , 9 – 2 , 9 – 3 and 6 – 9 in 69 minutes . It was the first time since April 2004 that David did not qualify for the quarters of a tournament , losing to the same person who denied her the bronze medal of the Commonwealth Games in Melbourne 9 months previously . In December , David won the inaugural Asian Sportswoman of the Year , beating more than 100 competitors who represented 25 sporting bodies .
In 2008 , David won ten tour titles and was unbeaten . David completed her most successful year to date , retaining her Cathay Pacific Hong Kong Open title for the third successive year in November to bring her 2008 WISPA World Tour title total to ten , extending her unbeaten Tour record since October 2007 to 53 matches . David celebrated her second full calendar year as world number one in the December Women 's World Squash Rankings thus bringing her reign at the top of women ’ s squash to 30 straight months . David 's WISPA title successes in 2008 began with the Apawamis Open in New York in February , and continued with the KL Open on home soil in Malaysia , the British Open title in England , Seoul Open in Korea , Malaysian Open , the Singapore Masters , Dutch Open , World Open in England , Qatar Classic and the Hong Kong Open . Away from the tour , David secured her sixth successive biennial Asian Championship crown in February , after winning the first in July 1998 when aged just 14 , and then lead Malaysia to the bronze medal in the Women 's World Team Championship in Cairo .
= = = 2009 – present : Achieving records = = =
With a lead over her nearest rival , she led in the Women 's World Squash Rankings published on 1 January 2009 by the Women 's International Squash Players ' Association ( WISPA ) – thus moving into her 30th successive month as the world ’ s number one female player . David headed an unchanged top four , with Natalie Grinham ( Netherlands ) at No. 2 ; her older sister Rachael Grinham ( Australia ) at No. 3 ; and Natalie Grainger , of the United States , at No. 4 . In her first tournament of the year , the Kuala Lumpur Open , David 's 17 @-@ month , 56 @-@ match winning run was brought to an end when she lost to Natalie Grainger in the final . After the defeat , David recovered to capture the inaugural Cayman Islands Open . She managed to avenge her loss to Grainger early in the year by beating her 11 – 8 , 11 – 6 and 11 – 5 in the final . It is her 35th tour crown and her 50th appearance in a WISPA Tour final . A week later , David went on to win her second title of the year by again dispatching Grainger , this time in four sets .
Twenty @-@ one days after winning the Texas Open title , David captured her second Seoul City Open crown by defeating Jenny Duncalf in four sets . A month later , on 24 July , she retained her World Games women 's singles title with a win over arch rival Natalie Grinham of the Netherlands in straight sets . A week later , on 1 August , David picked up her fifth consecutive Malaysian Open title , winning 11 – 6 , 11 – 8 , 9 – 11 , 11 – 7 in a 60 @-@ minute match against 25 @-@ year @-@ old Londoner , Alison Waters . David thus became the first player to win five Malaysian Open titles in a row since its inception in 1975 .
Dominating on the squash courts , David beat Natalie Grinham to win her third consecutive Singapore Masters championship , and her third title within a month . She overcame Natalie in three sets with a score of 11 – 9 , 11 – 8 and 11 – 9 for her fifth WISPA title of the year . David celebrated another milestone in her squash career by moving into her 41st month as world number one in the September Women 's World Rankings thus surpassing her mentor Sarah Fitz @-@ Gerald as the player with the third longest ever reign at the top of the women 's rankings . On 12 September , David lost to Madeline Perry in the British Open quarter @-@ final in a five set match that lasted for 76 minutes ; 15 days later , she recovered to defeat arch @-@ rival Natalie Grinham in the final of the World Open Championship , obtaining the title for a record fourth time . David ended the year on a low when she lost in the semis to Jenny Duncalf in both the Qatar Classic and the US Open , the former ending in five sets .
David started 2010 ranked number 1 for the 42nd consecutive month . She appeared in the WISPA calendar for the month of January . David competed in her first tournament in March , the US $ 53 @,@ 000 Chennai Open ; she won all her matches in straight sets and was crowned as the champion , avenging two straight defeats to Jenny Duncalf in late 2009 . Thirteen days later , in the Kuala Lumpur Open , David defeated the fourth seeded Egyptian Omneya Abdel Kawy who upset second seed Jenny Duncalf in the semi @-@ finals in straight sets to win her second successive WISPA title of the year . It was David 's sixth title in the Kuala Lumpur Open tournament as she had previously won it in 2000 , 2002 , 2005 , 2007 and 2008 .
David had won five more tour titles since April . This include winning the " prestigious " World Open title on 22 September . The World Open win was David fifth thus equalling Sarah Fitz @-@ Gerald 's record for the most times World Open win . In October , in the women 's singles final of the 2010 Commonwealth Games in Delhi , David defeated Jenny Duncalf 11 – 3 , 11 – 5 , 11 – 7 in 40 minutes to win the gold medal . David did not drop a game in the entire tournament , just as she did in the 2010 World Open in Egypt .
Nicol David added another feather to her cap , becoming the first player – male or female – to win the US Open for the third straight year . The 31 @-@ year @-@ old Nicol , a seven @-@ time world champion and five @-@ time British Open winner , exacted sweet revenge over Egyptian teenager Nour El Sherbini to win the US $ 115 @,@ 000 ( RM374,000 ) tournament in Philadelphia .
= = = Rivalry between David and Natalie Grinham = = =
David and Natalie Grinham have a long rivalry history . As of March 2012 , they have met 36 times , with David leading their overall head @-@ to @-@ head series 29 – 7 . Grinham is David 's most frequent opponent on tour and 16 of their matches have been in tournament finals , including two in the World Open tournament . The World Open 2006 final between David and Grinham was said to be " one of the great finals of the Women ’ s World Open " .
The longest match between the duo is in the 2007 CIMB Kuala Lumpur Open ; which saw David went on to win in a five set match that lasted in 102 minutes . David won 6 – 9 , 9 – 3 , 9 – 6 , 7 – 9 , 9 – 6 . On 27 September 2009 in the $ 118 @,@ 000 2009 Women 's World Open final , David won the match in four sets 3 – 11 , 11 – 6 , 11 – 3 , 11 – 8 to become only the third player in the history of the championships to win four titles , alongside Australia 's Sarah Fitz @-@ Gerald and New Zealander Susan Devoy .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = WISPA titles ( 80 ) = = =
All results for David in WISPA World Tour tournaments :
= = = WISPA finals ( runner @-@ up ) ( 20 ) = = =
= = = World Open = = =
= = = = Finals : 8 ( 8 titles , 0 runner @-@ up ) = = = =
Source :
= = = Major World Series final appearances = = =
= = = = British Open : 7 finals ( 5 titles , 2 runner @-@ up ) = = = =
= = = = Hong Kong Open : 10 finals ( 10 titles , 0 runner @-@ up ) = = = =
= = = = Qatar Classic : 5 finals ( 5 titles , 0 runner @-@ up ) = = = =
= = = = Malaysian Open : 11 finals ( 8 titles , 3 runner @-@ up ) = = = =
= = = Other titles = = =
1998 Asian Championship – Singles Champion ( 1 ) , Asian Games – Singles Gold ( 1 )
2000 Asian Championship – Singles Champion ( 2 )
2002 Asian Championship – Singles Champion ( 3 ) , Asian Championship – Team Champion ( 1 ) , Asian Games – Singles Silver , Commonwealth Games – Mixed Doubles Silver
2004 Asian Championship – Singles Champion ( 4 ) , Asian Championship – Team Champion ( 2 )
2005 World Games – Singles Champion ( 1 )
2006 Asian Championship – Singles Champion ( 5 ) , Asian Championship – Team Champion ( 3 ) , Asian Games – Singles Gold ( 2 )
2008 Asian Championship – Singles Champion ( 6 ) , Asian Championship – Team Champion ( 4 )
2009 World Games – Singles Champion ( 2 )
2010 Asian Championship – Singles Champion ( 7 ) , Asian Games – Singles Gold ( 3 ) , Asian Games – Team Gold ( 1 ) , Commonwealth Games – Singles Gold ( 1 ) , Commonwealth Games – Mixed Doubles Bronze
2011 Asian Championship – Singles Champion ( 8 )
2013 World Games – Singles Champion ( 3 )
2014 Asian Championship – Team Champion ( 5 ) , Asian Games – Singles Gold ( 4 ) , Asian Games – Team Gold ( 2 ) , Commonwealth Games – Singles Gold ( 2 )
2015 Asian Championship – Singles Champion ( 9 )
= = = Junior titles = = =
1995 Scottish Junior Open – Under @-@ 14 Champion
1996 British Junior Open – Under @-@ 14 Champion , Scottish Junior Open – Under @-@ 14 Champion
1997 British Junior Open – Under @-@ 14 Champion , Scottish Junior Open – Under @-@ 16 Champion , Australian Junior Open – Under @-@ 15 Champion , Australian Junior Open – Under @-@ 17 Champion
1998 British Junior Open – Under @-@ 16 Champion , Scottish Junior Open – Under @-@ 17 Champion , Asian Junior Squash Grand Circuit Final – Under @-@ 19 Champion
1999 World Junior Champion ( 1 ) , British Junior Open – Under @-@ 17 Champion , British Junior Open – Under @-@ 19 Champion , Asian Junior Championship – Singles Champion ( 1 ) , Asian Junior Championship – Team Champion ( 1 ) , German Junior Open – Champion , Malaysian Junior Open – Champion
2001 World Junior Champion ( 2 ) , Asian Junior Championship – Singles Champion ( 2 ) , Asian Junior Championship – Team Champion ( 2 )
= = = Singles performance timeline = = =
To prevent confusion and double counting , information in this table is updated only once a tournament or the player 's participation in the tournament has concluded .
Note : NA = Not Available
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= Baseball =
Baseball is a bat @-@ and @-@ ball game played between two teams of nine players each , who take turns batting and fielding .
The batting team attempts to score runs by hitting a ball that is thrown by the pitcher with a bat swung by the batter , then running counter @-@ clockwise around a series of four bases : first , second , third , and home plate . A run is scored when a player advances around the bases and returns to home plate .
Players on the batting team take turns hitting against the pitcher of the fielding team , which tries to prevent runs by getting hitters out in any of several ways . A player on the batting team who reaches a base safely can later attempt to advance to subsequent bases during teammates ' turns batting , such as on a hit or by other means . The teams switch between batting and fielding whenever the fielding team records three outs . One turn batting for both teams , beginning with the visiting team , constitutes an inning . A game is composed of nine innings , and the team with the greater number of runs at the end of the game wins . Baseball has no game clock , although almost all games end in the ninth inning .
Baseball evolved from older bat @-@ and @-@ ball games already being played in England by the mid @-@ 18th century . This game was brought by immigrants to North America , where the modern version developed . By the late 19th century , baseball was widely recognized as the national sport of the United States . Baseball is now popular in North America and parts of Central and South America , the Caribbean , and East Asia .
In the United States and Canada , professional Major League Baseball ( MLB ) teams are divided into the National League ( NL ) and American League ( AL ) , each with three divisions : East , West , and Central . The major league champion is determined by playoffs that culminate in the World Series . The top level of play is similarly split in Japan between the Central and Pacific Leagues and in Cuba between the West League and East League .
= = History = =
= = = Origins = = =
The evolution of baseball from older bat @-@ and @-@ ball games is difficult to trace with precision . A French manuscript from 1344 contains an illustration of clerics playing a game , possibly la soule , with similarities to baseball . Other old French games such as thèque , la balle au bâton , and la balle empoisonnée also appear to be related . Consensus once held that today 's baseball is a North American development from the older game rounders , popular in Great Britain and Ireland . Baseball Before We Knew It : A Search for the Roots of the Game ( 2005 ) , by David Block , suggests that the game originated in England ; recently uncovered historical evidence supports this position . Block argues that rounders and early baseball were actually regional variants of each other , and that the game 's most direct antecedents are the English games of stoolball and " tut @-@ ball . " It has long been believed that cricket also descended from such games , though evidence uncovered in early 2009 suggests that cricket may have been imported to England from Flanders .
The earliest known reference to baseball is in a 1744 British publication , A Little Pretty Pocket @-@ Book , by John Newbery . It contains a rhymed description of " base @-@ ball " and a woodcut that shows a field set @-@ up somewhat similar to the modern game — though in a triangular rather than diamond configuration , and with posts instead of ground @-@ level bases . David Block discovered that the first recorded game of " Bass @-@ Ball " took place in 1749 in Surrey , and featured the Prince of Wales as a player . William Bray , an English lawyer , recorded a game of baseball on Easter Monday 1755 in Guildford , Surrey . This early form of the game was apparently brought to Canada by English immigrants . Rounders was also brought to the USA by Canadians of both British and Irish ancestry . The first known American reference to baseball appears in a 1791 Pittsfield , Massachusetts , town bylaw prohibiting the playing of the game near the town 's new meeting house . By 1796 , a version of the game was well @-@ known enough to earn a mention in a German scholar 's book on popular pastimes . As described by Johann Gutsmuths , " englische Base @-@ ball " involved a contest between two teams , in which " the batter has three attempts to hit the ball while at the home plate . " Only one out was required to retire a side .
By the early 1830s , there were reports of a variety of uncodified bat @-@ and @-@ ball games recognizable as early forms of baseball being played around North America . These games were often referred to locally as " town ball " , though other names such as " round @-@ ball " and " base @-@ ball " were also used . Among the earliest examples to receive a detailed description — albeit five decades after the fact , in a letter from an attendee to Sporting Life magazine — took place in Beachville , Ontario , in 1838 . There were many similarities to modern baseball , and some crucial differences : five bases ( or byes ) ; first bye just 18 feet ( 5 @.@ 5 m ) from the home bye ; batter out if a hit ball was caught after the first bounce . The once widely accepted story that Abner Doubleday invented baseball in Cooperstown , New York , in 1839 has been conclusively debunked by sports historians .
In 1845 , Alexander Cartwright , a member of New York City 's Knickerbocker Club , led the codification of the so @-@ called Knickerbocker Rules . The practice , common to bat @-@ and @-@ ball games of the day , of " soaking " or " plugging " — effecting a putout by hitting a runner with a thrown ball — was barred . The rules thus facilitated the use of a smaller , harder ball than had been common . Several other rules also brought the Knickerbockers ' game close to the modern one , though a ball caught on the first bounce was , again , an out and only underhand pitching was allowed . While there are reports that the New York Knickerbockers played games in 1845 , the contest long recognized as the first officially recorded baseball game in U.S. history took place on June 19 , 1846 , in Hoboken , New Jersey : the " New York Nine " defeated the Knickerbockers , 23 – 1 , in four innings ( three earlier games have recently been discovered ) . With the Knickerbocker code as the basis , the rules of modern baseball continued to evolve over the next half @-@ century .
= = = History of baseball in the United States = = =
= = = = The game turns professional = = = =
In the mid @-@ 1850s , a baseball craze hit the New York metropolitan area . By 1856 , local journals were referring to baseball as the " national pastime " or " national game . " A year later , sixteen area clubs formed the sport 's first governing body , the National Association of Base Ball Players . In 1858 in Corona , Queens New York , at the Fashion Race Course , the first games of baseball to charge admission took place . The games , which took place between the all stars of Brooklyn , including players from the Brooklyn Atlantics , Excelsior of Brooklyn , Putnams and Eckford of Brooklyn , and the All Stars of New York ( Manhattan ) , including players from the New York Knickerbockers , Gothams ( predecessors of the San Francisco Giants ) , Eagles and Empire , are commonly believed to be the first all @-@ star baseball games . In 1863 , the organization disallowed putouts made by catching a fair ball on the first bounce . Four years later , it barred participation by African Americans . The game 's commercial potential was developing : in 1869 the first fully professional baseball club , the Cincinnati Red Stockings , was formed and went undefeated against a schedule of semipro and amateur teams . The first professional league , the National Association of Professional Base Ball Players , lasted from 1871 to 1875 ; scholars dispute its status as a major league .
The more formally structured National League was founded in 1876 . As the oldest surviving major league , the National League is sometimes referred to as the " senior circuit . " Several other major leagues formed and failed . In 1884 , African American Moses Walker ( and , briefly , his brother Welday ) played in one of these , the American Association . An injury ended Walker 's major league career , and by the early 1890s , a gentlemen 's agreement in the form of the baseball color line effectively barred black players from the white @-@ owned professional leagues , major and minor . Professional Negro leagues formed , but quickly folded . Several independent African American teams succeeded as barnstormers . Also in 1884 , overhand pitching was legalized . In 1887 , softball , under the name of indoor baseball or indoor @-@ outdoor , was invented as a winter version of the parent game . Virtually all of the modern baseball rules were in place by 1893 ; the last major change — counting foul balls as strikes — was instituted in 1901 . The National League 's first successful counterpart , the American League , which evolved from the minor Western League , was established that year . The two leagues , each with eight teams , were rivals that fought for the best players , often disregarding each other 's contracts and engaging in bitter legal disputes .
A modicum of peace was eventually established , leading to the National Agreement of 1903 . The pact formalized relations both between the two major leagues and between them and the National Association of Professional Base Ball Leagues , representing most of the country 's minor professional leagues . The World Series , pitting the two major league champions against each other , was inaugurated that fall , albeit without express major league sanction : The Boston Americans of the American League defeated the Pittsburgh Pirates of the National League . The next year , the series was not held , as the National League champion New York Giants , under manager John McGraw , refused to recognize the major league status of the American League and its champion . In 1905 , the Giants were National League champions again and team management relented , leading to the establishment of the World Series as the major leagues ' annual championship event .
As professional baseball became increasingly profitable , players frequently raised grievances against owners over issues of control and equitable income distribution . During the major leagues ' early decades , players on various teams occasionally attempted strikes , which routinely failed when their jobs were sufficiently threatened . In general , the strict rules of baseball contracts and the reserve clause , which bound players to their teams even when their contracts had ended , tended to keep the players in check . Motivated by dislike for particularly stingy owner Charles Comiskey and gamblers ' payoffs , real and promised , members of the Chicago White Sox conspired to throw the 1919 World Series . The Black Sox Scandal led to the formation of a new National Commission of baseball that drew the two major leagues closer together . The first major league baseball commissioner , Kenesaw Mountain Landis , was elected in 1920 . That year also saw the founding of the Negro National League ; the first significant Negro league , it would operate until 1931 . For part of the 1920s , it was joined by the Eastern Colored League .
Professional baseball was played in northeastern cities with a large immigrant @-@ ethnic population ; they gave strong support to the new sport . The Irish Catholics dominated in the late 19th century , comprising a third or more of the players and many of the top stars and managers . Historian Jerrold Casway argues that :
Baseball for Irish kids was a shortcut to the American dream and to self @-@ indulgent glory and fortune . By the mid @-@ 1880s these young Irish men dominated the sport and popularized a style of play that was termed heady , daring , and spontaneous .... Ed Delahanty personified the flamboyant , exciting spectator @-@ favorite , the Casey @-@ at @-@ the @-@ bat , Irish slugger . The handsome masculine athlete who is expected to live as large as he played .
= = = = Rise of Ruth and racial integration = = = =
Compared with the present , professional baseball in the early 20th century was lower @-@ scoring and pitchers , the likes of Walter Johnson and Christy Mathewson , were more dominant . The " inside game , " which demanded that players " scratch for runs " , was played much more aggressively than it is today : the brilliant and often violent Ty Cobb epitomized this style . The so @-@ called dead @-@ ball era ended in the early 1920s with several changes in rule and circumstance that were advantageous to hitters . Strict new regulations governing the ball 's size , shape and composition along with a new rule officially banning the spitball , along with other pitches that depended on the ball being treated or roughed @-@ up with foreign substances after the death of Ray Chapman who was hit by a pitch in August 1920 , coupled with superior materials available after World War I , resulted in a ball that traveled farther when hit . The construction of additional seating to accommodate the rising popularity of the game often had the effect of bringing the outfield fences closer in , making home runs more common . The rise of the legendary player Babe Ruth , the first great power hitter of the new era , helped permanently alter the nature of the game . The club with which Ruth set most of his slugging records , the New York Yankees , built a reputation as the majors ' premier team . In the late 1920s and early 1930s , St. Louis Cardinals general manager Branch Rickey invested in several minor league clubs and developed the first modern " farm system " . A new Negro National League was organized in 1933 ; four years later , it was joined by the Negro American League . The first elections to the Baseball Hall of Fame took place in 1936 . In 1939 Little League Baseball was founded in Pennsylvania . By the late 1940s , it was the organizing body for children 's baseball leagues across the United States .
With America 's entry into World War II , many professional players had left to serve in the armed forces . A large number of minor league teams disbanded as a result and the major league game seemed under threat as well . Chicago Cubs owner Philip K. Wrigley led the formation of a new professional league with women players to help keep the game in the public eye – the All @-@ American Girls Professional Baseball League existed from 1943 to 1954 . The inaugural College World Series was held in 1947 , and the Babe Ruth League youth program was founded . This program soon became another important organizing body for children 's baseball . The first crack in the unwritten agreement barring blacks from white @-@ controlled professional ball occurred the previous year : Jackie Robinson was signed by the National League 's Brooklyn Dodgers — where Branch Rickey had become general manager — and began playing for their minor league team in Montreal . In 1947 , Robinson broke the major leagues ' color barrier when he debuted with the Dodgers . Larry Doby debuted with the American League 's Cleveland Indians the same year . Latin American players , largely overlooked before , also started entering the majors in greater numbers . In 1951 , two Chicago White Sox , Venezuelan @-@ born Chico Carrasquel and black Cuban @-@ born Minnie Miñoso , became the first Hispanic All @-@ Stars .
Facing competition as varied as television and football , baseball attendance at all levels declined . While the majors rebounded by the mid @-@ 1950s , the minor leagues were gutted and hundreds of semipro and amateur teams dissolved . Integration proceeded slowly : by 1953 , only six of the 16 major league teams had a black player on the roster . That year , the Major League Baseball Players Association was founded . It was the first professional baseball union to survive more than briefly , but it remained largely ineffective for years . No major league team had been located west of St. Louis until 1958 , when the Brooklyn Dodgers and New York Giants relocated to Los Angeles and San Francisco , respectively . The majors ' final all @-@ white bastion , the Boston Red Sox , added a black player in 1959 . With the integration of the majors drying up the available pool of players , the last Negro league folded the following year . In 1961 , the American League reached the West Coast with the | Los Angeles Angels expansion team , and the major league season was extended from 154 games to 162 . This coincidentally helped Roger Maris break Babe Ruth 's long @-@ standing single @-@ season home run record , one of the most celebrated marks in baseball . Along with the Angels , three other new franchises were launched during 1961 – 62 . With this , the first major league expansion in 60 years , each league now had ten teams .
= = = = Attendance records and the age of steroids = = = =
The players ' union became bolder under the leadership of former United Steelworkers chief economist and negotiator Marvin Miller , who was elected executive director in 1966 . On the playing field , major league pitchers were becoming increasingly dominant again . After the 1968 season , in an effort to restore balance , the strike zone was reduced and the height of the pitcher 's mound was lowered from 15 to 10 inches . In 1969 , both the National and American leagues added two more expansion teams , the leagues were reorganized into two divisions each , and a post @-@ season playoff system leading to the World Series was instituted . Also that same year , Curt Flood of the St. Louis Cardinals made the first serious legal challenge to the reserve clause . The major leagues ' first general players ' strike took place in 1972 . In another effort to add more offense to the game , the American League adopted the designated hitter rule the following year . In 1975 , the union 's power — and players ' salaries — began to increase greatly when the reserve clause was effectively struck down , leading to the free agency system . In 1977 , two more expansion teams joined the American League . Significant work stoppages occurred again in 1981 and 1994 , the latter forcing the cancellation of the World Series for the first time in 90 years . Attendance had been growing steadily since the mid @-@ 1970s and in 1994 , before the stoppage , the majors were setting their all @-@ time record for per @-@ game attendance .
The addition of two more expansion teams after the 1993 season had facilitated another restructuring of the major leagues , this time into three divisions each . Offensive production — the number of home runs in particular — had surged that year , and again in the abbreviated 1994 season . After play resumed in 1995 , this trend continued and non @-@ division @-@ winning wild card teams became a permanent fixture of the post @-@ season . Regular @-@ season interleague play was introduced in 1997 and the second @-@ highest attendance mark for a full season was set . The next year , Mark McGwire and Sammy Sosa both surpassed Maris 's decades @-@ old single season home run record and two more expansion franchises were added . In 2000 , the National and American leagues were dissolved as legal entities . While their identities were maintained for scheduling purposes ( and the designated hitter distinction ) , the regulations and other functions — such as player discipline and umpire supervision — they had administered separately were consolidated under the rubric of Major League Baseball ( MLB ) .
In 2001 , Barry Bonds established the current record of 73 home runs in a single season . There had long been suspicions that the dramatic increase in power hitting was fueled in large part by the abuse of illegal steroids ( as well as by the dilution of pitching talent due to expansion ) , but the issue only began attracting significant media attention in 2002 and there was no penalty for the use of performance @-@ enhancing drugs before 2004 . In 2007 , Bonds became MLB 's all @-@ time home run leader , surpassing Hank Aaron , as total major league and minor league attendance both reached all @-@ time highs . Even though McGwire , Sosa , and Bonds — as well as many other players , including storied pitcher Roger Clemens — have been implicated in the steroid abuse scandal , their feats and those of other sluggers had become the major leagues ' defining attraction . In contrast to the professional game 's resurgence in popularity after the 1994 interruption , Little League enrollment was in decline : after peaking in 1996 , it dropped 1 percent a year over the following decade . With more rigorous testing and penalties for performance @-@ enhancing drug use a possible factor , the balance between bat and ball swung markedly in 2010 , which became known as the " Year of the Pitcher " . Runs per game fell to their lowest level in 18 years , and the strikeout rate was higher than it had been in half a century .
Before the start of the 2012 season , MLB altered its rules to double the number of wild card teams admitted into the playoffs to two per league . The playoff expansion resulted in the addition of annual one @-@ game playoffs between the wild card teams in each league .
= = = Baseball around the world = = =
Baseball , widely known as America 's pastime , is well established in several other countries as well . The history of baseball in Canada has remained closely linked with that of the sport in the United States . As early as 1877 , a professional league , the International Association , featured teams from both countries . While baseball is widely played in Canada and many minor league teams have been based in the country , the American major leagues did not include a Canadian club until 1969 , when the Montreal Expos joined the National League as an expansion team . In 1977 , the expansion Toronto Blue Jays joined the American League . The Blue Jays won the World Series in 1992 and 1993 , the first and still the only club from outside the United States to do so . After the 2004 season , Major League Baseball relocated the Expos to Washington , D.C. , where the team is now known as the Nationals .
In 1847 , American soldiers played what may have been the first baseball game in Mexico at Parque Los Berros in Xalapa , Veracruz . A few days after the Battle of Cerro Gordo , they used the " wooden leg captured ( by the Fourth Illinois regiment ) from General Santa Anna " . The first formal baseball league outside of the United States and Canada was founded in 1878 in Cuba , which maintains a rich baseball tradition and whose national team has been one of the world 's strongest since international play began in the late 1930s ( all organized baseball in the country has officially been amateur since the Cuban Revolution ) . The Dominican Republic held its first islandwide championship tournament in 1912 . Professional baseball tournaments and leagues began to form in other countries between the world wars , including the Netherlands ( formed in 1922 ) , Australia ( 1934 ) , Japan ( 1936 ) , Mexico ( 1937 ) , and Puerto Rico ( 1938 ) . The Japanese major leagues — the Central League and Pacific League — have long been considered the highest quality professional circuits outside of the United States . Japan has a professional minor league system as well , though it is much smaller than the American version — each team has only one farm club in contrast to MLB teams ' four or five .
After World War II , professional leagues were founded in many Latin American nations , most prominently Venezuela ( 1946 ) and the Dominican Republic ( 1955 ) . Since the early 1970s , the annual Caribbean Series has matched the championship clubs from the four leading Latin American winter leagues : the Dominican Professional Baseball League , Mexican Pacific League , Puerto Rican Professional Baseball League , and Venezuelan Professional Baseball League . In Asia , South Korea ( 1982 ) , Taiwan ( 1990 ) , and China ( 2003 ) all have professional leagues .
Many European countries have professional leagues as well , the most successful , other than the Dutch league , being the Italian league founded in 1948 . Compared to those in Asia and Latin America , the various European leagues and the one in Australia historically have had no more than niche appeal . In 2004 , Australia won a surprise silver medal at the Olympic Games . The Israel Baseball League , launched in 2007 , folded after one season . The Confédération Européene de Baseball ( European Baseball Confederation ) , founded in 1953 , organizes a number of competitions between clubs from different countries , as well as national squads . Other competitions between national teams , such as the Baseball World Cup and the Olympic baseball tournament , were administered by the International Baseball Federation ( IBAF ) from its formation in 1938 until its 2013 merger with the International Softball Federation to create the current joint governing body for both sports , the World Baseball Softball Confederation ( WBSC ) . By 2009 , the IBAF had 117 member countries . Women 's baseball is played on an organized amateur basis in many of the countries where it is a leading men 's sport . Since 2004 , the IBAF and now WBSC have sanctioned the Women 's Baseball World Cup , featuring national teams .
After being admitted to the Olympics as a medal sport beginning with the 1992 Games , baseball was dropped from the 2012 Summer Olympic Games at the 2005 International Olympic Committee meeting . It remained part of the 2008 Games . The elimination of baseball , along with softball , from the 2012 Olympic program enabled the IOC to consider adding two different sports , but none received the votes required for inclusion . While the sport 's lack of a following in much of the world was a factor , more important was Major League Baseball 's reluctance to have a break during the Games to allow its players to participate , as the National Hockey League now does during the Winter Olympic Games . Such a break is more difficult for MLB to accommodate because it would force the playoffs deeper into cold weather . Seeking reinstatement for the 2016 Summer Olympics , the IBAF proposed an abbreviated competition designed to facilitate the participation of top players , but the effort failed . Major League Baseball initiated the World Baseball Classic , scheduled to precede the major league season , partly as a replacement , high @-@ profile international tournament . The inaugural Classic , held in March 2006 , was the first tournament involving national teams to feature a significant number of MLB participants . The Baseball World Cup was discontinued after its 2011 edition in favor of an expanded World Baseball Classic .
= = Rules and gameplay = =
A game is played between two teams , each composed of nine players , that take turns playing offense ( batting and baserunning ) and defense ( pitching and fielding ) . A pair of turns , one at bat and one in the field , by each team constitutes an inning . A game consists of nine innings ( seven innings at the high school level and in doubleheaders in college and minor leagues ) . One team — customarily the visiting team — bats in the top , or first half , of every inning . The other team — customarily the home team — bats in the bottom , or second half , of every inning . The goal of the game is to score more points ( runs ) than the other team . The players on the team at bat attempt to score runs by circling or completing a tour of the four bases set at the corners of the square @-@ shaped baseball diamond . A player bats at home plate and must proceed counterclockwise to first base , second base , third base , and back home in order to score a run . The team in the field attempts both to prevent runs from scoring and to record outs , which remove opposing players from offensive action until their turn in their team 's batting order comes up again . When three outs are recorded , the teams switch roles for the next half @-@ inning . If the score of the game is tied after nine innings , extra innings are played to resolve the contest . Many amateur games , particularly unorganized ones , involve different numbers of players and innings .
The game is played on a field whose primary boundaries , the foul lines , extend forward from home plate at 45 @-@ degree angles . The 90 @-@ degree area within the foul lines is referred to as fair territory ; the 270 @-@ degree area outside them is foul territory . The part of the field enclosed by the bases and several yards beyond them is the infield ; the area farther beyond the infield is the outfield . In the middle of the infield is a raised pitcher 's mound , with a rectangular rubber plate ( the rubber ) at its center . The outer boundary of the outfield is typically demarcated by a raised fence , which may be of any material and height ( many amateur games are played on unfenced fields ) . Fair territory between home plate and the outfield boundary is baseball 's field of play , though significant events can take place in foul territory , as well .
There are three basic tools of baseball : the ball , the bat , and the glove or mitt :
The baseball is about the size of an adult 's fist , around 9 inches ( 23 centimeters ) in circumference . It has a rubber or cork center , wound in yarn and covered in white cowhide , with red stitching .
The bat is a hitting tool , traditionally made of a single , solid piece of wood . Other materials are now commonly used for nonprofessional games . It is a hard round stick , about 2 @.@ 5 inches ( 6 @.@ 4 centimeters ) in diameter at the hitting end , tapering to a narrower handle and culminating in a knob . Bats used by adults are typically around 34 inches ( 86 centimeters ) long , and not longer than 42 inches ( 106 centimeters ) .
The glove or mitt is a fielding tool , made of padded leather with webbing between the fingers . As an aid in catching and holding onto the ball , it takes various shapes to meet the specific needs of different fielding positions .
Protective helmets are also standard equipment for all batters .
At the beginning of each half @-@ inning , the nine players on the fielding team arrange themselves around the field . One of them , the pitcher , stands on the pitcher 's mound . The pitcher begins the pitching delivery with one foot on the rubber , pushing off it to gain velocity when throwing toward home plate . Another player , the catcher , squats on the far side of home plate , facing the pitcher . The rest of the team faces home plate , typically arranged as four infielders — who set up along or within a few yards outside the imaginary lines between first , second , and third base — and three outfielders . In the standard arrangement , there is a first baseman positioned several steps to the left of first base , a second baseman to the right of second base , a shortstop to the left of second base , and a third baseman to the right of third base . The basic outfield positions are left fielder , center fielder , and right fielder . A neutral umpire sets up behind the catcher . Other umpires will be distributed around the field as well , though the number will vary depending on the level of play , amateur or children 's games may only have an umpire behind the plate , while as many as six umpires can be used for important Major League Baseball games .
Play starts with a batter standing at home plate , holding a bat . The batter waits for the pitcher to throw a pitch ( the ball ) toward home plate , and attempts to hit the ball with the bat . The catcher catches pitches that the batter does not hit — as a result of either electing not to swing or failing to connect — and returns them to the pitcher . A batter who hits the ball into the field of play must drop the bat and begin running toward first base , at which point the player is referred to as a runner ( or , until the play is over , a batter @-@ runner ) . A batter @-@ runner who reaches first base without being put out ( see below ) is said to be safe and is now on base . A batter @-@ runner may choose to remain at first base or attempt to advance to second base or even beyond — however far the player believes can be reached safely . A player who reaches base despite proper play by the fielders has recorded a hit . A player who reaches first base safely on a hit is credited with a single . If a player makes it to second base safely as a direct result of a hit , it is a double ; third base , a triple . If the ball is hit in the air within the foul lines over the entire outfield ( and outfield fence , if there is one ) , it is a home run : the batter and any runners on base may all freely circle the bases , each scoring a run . This is the most desirable result for the batter . A player who reaches base due to a fielding mistake is not credited with a hit — instead , the responsible fielder is charged with an error .
Any runners already on base may attempt to advance on batted balls that land , or contact the ground , in fair territory , before or after the ball lands . A runner on first base must attempt to advance if a ball lands in play . If a ball hit into play rolls foul before passing through the infield , it becomes dead and any runners must return to the base they were at when the play began . If the ball is hit in the air and caught before it lands , the batter has flied out and any runners on base may attempt to advance only if they tag up or touch the base they were at when the play began , as or after the ball is caught . Runners may also attempt to advance to the next base while the pitcher is in the process of delivering the ball to home plate — a successful effort is a stolen base .
A pitch that is not hit into the field of play is called either a strike or a ball . A batter against whom three strikes are recorded strikes out . A batter against whom four balls are recorded is awarded a base on balls or walk , a free advance to first base . ( A batter may also freely advance to first base if the batter 's body or uniform is struck by a pitch outside the strike zone , provided the batter does not swing and attempts to avoid being hit . ) Crucial to determining balls and strikes is the umpire 's judgment as to whether a pitch has passed through the strike zone , a conceptual area above home plate extending from the midpoint between the batter 's shoulders and belt down to the hollow of the knee .
A strike is called when one of the following happens :
The batter lets a well @-@ pitched ball ( one within the strike zone ) go through to the catcher .
The batter swings at any ball ( even one outside the strike zone ) and misses , or foul tips it directly into the catcher 's hands .
The batter hits a foul ball — one that either initially lands in foul territory or initially lands within the diamond but moves into foul territory before passing first or third base . If there are already two strikes on the batter , a foul ball is not counted as a third strike ; thus , a foul ball cannot result in the immediate strikeout of the batter . ( There is an exception to this exception : a two @-@ strike foul bunt is recorded as a third strike . )
A ball is called when the pitcher throws a pitch that is outside the strike zone , provided the batter has not swung at it .
While the team at bat is trying to score runs , the team in the field is attempting to record outs . Among the various ways a member of the batting team may be put out , five are most common :
The strikeout : as described above , recorded against a batter who makes three strikes before putting the ball into play or being awarded a free advance to first base ( see also uncaught third strike ) .
The flyout : as described above , recorded against a batter who hits a ball in the air that is caught by a fielder , whether in fair territory or foul territory , before it lands , whether or not the batter has run .
The ground out : recorded against a batter ( in this case , batter @-@ runner ) who hits a ball that lands in fair territory which , before the batter @-@ runner can reach first base , is retrieved by a fielder who touches first base while holding the ball or relays it to another fielder who touches first base while holding the ball .
The force out : recorded against a runner who is required to attempt to advance — either because the runner is on first base and a batted ball lands in fair territory , or because the runner immediately behind on the basepath is thus required to attempt to advance — but fails to reach the next base before a fielder touches the base while holding the ball . The ground out is technically a special case of the force out .
The tag out : recorded against a runner who is touched by a fielder with the ball or a glove holding the ball , while the runner is not touching a base .
It is possible to record two outs in the course of the same play — a double play . Even three — a triple play — is possible , though this is very rare . Players put out or retired must leave the field , returning to their team 's dugout or bench . A runner may be stranded on base when a third out is recorded against another player on the team . Stranded runners do not benefit the team in its next turn at bat — every half @-@ inning begins with the bases empty of runners .
An individual player 's turn batting or plate appearance is complete when the player reaches base , hits a home run , makes an out , or hits a ball that results in the team 's third out , even if it is recorded against a teammate . On rare occasions , a batter may be at the plate when , without the batter 's hitting the ball , a third out is recorded against a teammate — for instance , a runner getting caught stealing ( tagged out attempting to steal a base ) . A batter with this sort of incomplete plate appearance starts off the team 's next turn batting ; any balls or strikes recorded against the batter the previous inning are erased . A runner may circle the bases only once per plate appearance and thus can score at most a single run per batting turn . Once a player has completed a plate appearance , that player may not bat again until the eight other members of the player 's team have all taken their turn at bat . The batting order is set before the game begins , and may not be altered except for substitutions . Once a player has been removed for a substitute , that player may not reenter the game . Children 's games often have more liberal substitution rules .
If the designated hitter ( DH ) rule is in effect , each team has a tenth player whose sole responsibility is to bat ( and run ) . The DH takes the place of another player — almost invariably the pitcher — in the batting order , but does not field . Thus , even with the DH , each team still has a batting order of nine players and a fielding arrangement of nine players .
= = Personnel = =
= = = Player rosters = = =
Roster , or squad , sizes differ between different leagues and different levels of organized play . Major League Baseball teams maintain 25 @-@ player active rosters . A typical 25 @-@ man roster in a league without the DH rule , such as MLB 's National League , features :
eight position players — catcher , four infielders , three outfielders — who play on a regular basis
five starting pitchers who constitute the team 's pitching rotation or starting rotation
six relief pitchers , including one specialist closer , who constitute the team 's bullpen ( named for the off @-@ field area where pitchers warm up )
one backup , or substitute , catcher
two backup infielders
two backup outfielders
one specialist pinch hitter , or a second backup catcher , or a seventh reliever
In the American League and others with the DH rule , there will usually be nine offensive regulars ( including the DH ) , five starting pitchers , seven or eight relievers , a backup catcher and two or three other reserves ; the need for late inning pinch @-@ hitters ( usually in the pitcher 's spot ) is reduced by the DH .
= = = Other personnel = = =
The manager , or head coach of a team , oversees the team 's major strategic decisions , such as establishing the starting rotation , setting the lineup , or batting order , before each game , and making substitutions during games — in particular , bringing in relief pitchers . Managers are typically assisted by two or more coaches ; they may have specialized responsibilities , such as working with players on hitting , fielding , pitching , or strength and conditioning . At most levels of organized play , two coaches are stationed on the field when the team is at bat : the first base coach and third base coach , occupying designated coaches ' boxes just outside the foul lines , assist in the direction of baserunners when the ball is in play , and relay tactical signals from the manager to batters and runners during pauses in play . In contrast to many other team sports , baseball managers and coaches generally wear their team 's uniforms ; coaches must be in uniform in order to be allowed on the playing field during a game .
Any baseball game involves one or more umpires , who make rulings on the outcome of each play . At a minimum , one umpire will stand behind the catcher , to have a good view of the strike zone , and call balls and strikes . Additional umpires may be stationed near the other bases , thus making it easier to judge plays such as attempted force outs and tag outs . In Major League Baseball , four umpires are used for each game , one near each base . In the playoffs , six umpires are used : one at each base and two in the outfield along the foul lines .
= = Strategy and tactics = =
Many of the pre @-@ game and in @-@ game strategic decisions in baseball revolve around a fundamental fact : in general , right @-@ handed batters tend to be more successful against left @-@ handed pitchers and , to an even greater degree , left @-@ handed batters tend to be more successful against right @-@ handed pitchers . A manager with several left @-@ handed batters in the regular lineup who knows the team will be facing a left @-@ handed starting pitcher may respond by starting one or more of the right @-@ handed backups on the team 's roster . During the late innings of a game , as relief pitchers and pinch hitters are brought in , the opposing managers will often go back and forth trying to create favorable matchups with their substitutions : the manager of the fielding team trying to arrange same @-@ handed pitcher @-@ batter matchups , the manager of the batting team trying to arrange opposite @-@ handed matchups . With a team that has the lead in the late innings , a manager may remove a starting position player — especially one whose turn at bat is not likely to come up again — for a more skillful fielder .
= = = Pitching and fielding tactics = = =
The tactical decision that precedes almost every play in a baseball game involves pitch selection . By gripping and then releasing the baseball in a certain manner , and by throwing it at a certain speed , pitchers can cause the baseball to break to either side , or downward , as it approaches the batter . Among the resulting wide variety of pitches that may be thrown , the four basic types are the fastball , the changeup ( or off @-@ speed pitch ) , and two breaking balls — the curveball and the slider . Pitchers have different repertoires of pitches they are skillful at throwing . Conventionally , before each pitch , the catcher signals the pitcher what type of pitch to throw , as well as its general vertical and / or horizontal location . If there is disagreement on the selection , the pitcher may shake off the sign and the catcher will call for a different pitch . With a runner on base and taking a lead , the pitcher may attempt a pickoff , a quick throw to a fielder covering the base to keep the runner 's lead in check or , optimally , effect a tag out . Pickoff attempts , however , are subject to rules that severely restrict the pitcher 's movements before and during the pickoff attempt . Violation of any one of these rules could result in the umpire calling a balk against the pitcher , with the result being runners on base , if any , advance one base with impunity . If an attempted stolen base is anticipated , the catcher may call for a pitchout , a ball thrown deliberately off the plate , allowing the catcher to catch it while standing and throw quickly to a base . Facing a batter with a strong tendency to hit to one side of the field , the fielding team may employ a shift , with most or all of the fielders moving to the left or right of their usual positions . With a runner on third base , the infielders may play in , moving closer to home plate to improve the odds of throwing out the runner on a ground ball , though a sharply hit grounder is more likely to carry through a drawn @-@ in infield .
= = = Batting and baserunning tactics = = =
Several basic offensive tactics come into play with a runner on first base , including the fundamental choice of whether to attempt a steal of second base . The hit and run is sometimes employed with a skillful contact hitter : the runner takes off with the pitch drawing the shortstop or second baseman over to second base , creating a gap in the infield for the batter to poke the ball through . The sacrifice bunt calls for the batter to focus on making contact with the ball so that it rolls a short distance into the infield , allowing the runner to advance into scoring position even at the expense of the batter being thrown out at first — a batter who succeeds is credited with a sacrifice . ( A batter , particularly one who is a fast runner , may also attempt to bunt for a hit . ) A sacrifice bunt employed with a runner on third base , aimed at bringing that runner home , is known as a squeeze play . With a runner on third and fewer than two outs , a batter may instead concentrate on hitting a fly ball that , even if it is caught , will be deep enough to allow the runner to tag up and score — a successful batter in this case gets credit for a sacrifice fly . The manager will sometimes signal a batter who is ahead in the count ( i.e. , has more balls than strikes ) to take , or not swing at , the next pitch .
= = Distinctive elements = =
Baseball has certain attributes that set it apart from the other popular team sports in the countries where it has a following , including American and Canadian football , basketball , ice hockey , and soccer . All of these sports use a clock ; in all of them , play is less individual and more collective ; and in none of them is the variation between playing fields nearly as substantial or important . The comparison between cricket and baseball demonstrates that many of baseball 's distinctive elements are shared in various ways with its cousin sports .
= = = No clock to kill = = =
In clock @-@ limited sports , games often end with a team that holds the lead killing the clock rather than competing aggressively against the opposing team . In contrast , baseball has no clock ; a team cannot win without getting the last batter out and rallies are not constrained by time . At almost any turn in any baseball game , the most advantageous strategy is some form of aggressive strategy . In contrast , again , the clock comes into play even in the case of multi @-@ day Test and first @-@ class cricket : the possibility of a draw often encourages a team that is batting last and well behind to bat defensively , giving up any faint chance at a win to avoid a loss . Baseball offers no such reward for conservative batting .
While nine innings has been the standard since the beginning of professional baseball , the duration of the average major league game has increased steadily through the years . At the turn of the 20th century , games typically took an hour and a half to play . In the 1920s , they averaged just less than two hours , which eventually ballooned to 2 : 38 in 1960 . By 1997 , the average American League game lasted 2 : 57 ( National League games were about 10 minutes shorter — pitchers at the plate making for quicker outs than designated hitters ) . In 2004 , Major League Baseball declared that its goal was an average game of merely 2 : 45 . By 2014 , though , the average MLB game took over three hours to complete . The lengthening of games is attributed to longer breaks between half @-@ innings for television commercials , increased offense , more pitching changes , and a slower pace of play with pitchers taking more time between each delivery , and batters stepping out of the box more frequently . Other leagues have experienced similar issues . In 2008 , Nippon Professional Baseball took steps aimed at shortening games by 12 minutes from the preceding decade 's average of 3 : 18 .
= = = Individual focus = = =
Although baseball is a team sport , individual players are often placed under scrutiny and pressure . In 1915 , a baseball instructional manual pointed out that every single pitch , of which there are often more than two hundred in a game , involves an individual , one @-@ on @-@ one contest : " the pitcher and the batter in a battle of wits " . Contrasting the game with both football and basketball , scholar Michael Mandelbaum argues that " baseball is the one closest in evolutionary descent to the older individual sports " . Pitcher , batter , and fielder all act essentially independent of each other . While coaching staffs can signal pitcher or batter to pursue certain tactics , the execution of the play itself is a series of solitary acts . If the batter hits a line drive , the outfielder is solely responsible for deciding to try to catch it or play it on the bounce and for succeeding or failing . The statistical precision of baseball is both facilitated by this isolation and reinforces it . As described by Mandelbaum ,
It is impossible to isolate and objectively assess the contribution each [ football ] team member makes to the outcome of the play ... [ E ] very basketball player is interacting with all of his teammates all the time . In baseball , by contrast , every player is more or less on his own ... Baseball is therefore a realm of complete transparency and total responsibility . A baseball player lives in a glass house , and in a stark moral universe ... Everything that every player does is accounted for and everything accounted for is either good or bad , right or wrong .
Cricket is more similar to baseball than many other team sports in this regard : while the individual focus in cricket is mitigated by the importance of the batting partnership and the practicalities of tandem running , it is enhanced by the fact that a batsman may occupy the wicket for an hour or much more . There is no statistical equivalent in cricket for the fielding error and thus less emphasis on personal responsibility in this area of play .
= = = Uniqueness of each baseball park = = =
Unlike those of most sports , baseball playing fields can vary significantly in size and shape . While the dimensions of the infield are specifically regulated , the only constraint on outfield size and shape for professional teams following the rules of Major League and Minor League Baseball is that fields built or remodeled since June 1 , 1958 , must have a minimum distance of 325 feet ( 99 m ) from home plate to the fences in left and right field and 400 feet ( 122 m ) to center . Major league teams often skirt even this rule . For example , at Minute Maid Park , which became the home of the Houston Astros in 2000 , the Crawford Boxes in left field are only 315 feet ( 96 m ) from home plate . There are no rules at all that address the height of fences or other structures at the edge of the outfield . The most famously idiosyncratic outfield boundary is the left @-@ field wall at Boston 's Fenway Park , in use since 1912 : the Green Monster is 310 feet ( 94 m ) from home plate down the line and 37 feet ( 11 m ) tall .
Similarly , there are no regulations at all concerning the dimensions of foul territory . Thus a foul fly ball may be entirely out of play in a park with little space between the foul lines and the stands , but a foulout in a park with more expansive foul ground . A fence in foul territory that is close to the outfield line will tend to direct balls that strike it back toward the fielders , while one that is farther away may actually prompt more collisions , as outfielders run full speed to field balls deep in the corner . These variations can make the difference between a double and a triple or inside @-@ the @-@ park home run . The surface of the field is also unregulated . While the image to the left shows a traditional field surfacing arrangement ( and the one used by virtually all MLB teams with naturally surfaced fields ) , teams are free to decide what areas will be grassed or bare . Some fields — including several in MLB — use an artificial surface , such as AstroTurf . Surface variations can have a significant effect on how ground balls behave and are fielded as well as on baserunning . Similarly , the presence of a roof ( seven major league teams play in stadiums with permanent or retractable roofs ) can greatly affect how fly balls are played . While football and soccer players deal with similar variations of field surface and stadium covering , the size and shape of their fields are much more standardized . The area out @-@ of @-@ bounds on a football or soccer field does not affect play the way foul territory in baseball does , so variations in that regard are largely insignificant .
These physical variations create a distinctive set of playing conditions at each ballpark . Other local factors , such as altitude and climate , can also significantly affect play . A given stadium may acquire a reputation as a pitcher 's park or a hitter 's park , if one or the other discipline notably benefits from its unique mix of elements . The most exceptional park in this regard is Coors Field , home of the Colorado Rockies . Its high altitude — 5 @,@ 282 feet ( 1 @,@ 610 m ) above sea level — is responsible for giving it the strongest hitter 's park effect in the major leagues . Wrigley Field , home of the Chicago Cubs , is known for its fickle disposition : a hitter 's park when the strong winds off Lake Michigan are blowing out , it becomes more of a pitcher 's park when they are blowing in . The absence of a standardized field affects not only how particular games play out , but the nature of team rosters and players ' statistical records . For example , hitting a fly ball 330 feet ( 100 m ) into right field might result in an easy catch on the warning track at one park , and a home run at another . A team that plays in a park with a relatively short right field , such as the New York Yankees , will tend to stock its roster with left @-@ handed pull hitters , who can best exploit it . On the individual level , a player who spends most of his career with a team that plays in a hitter 's park will gain an advantage in batting statistics over time — even more so if his talents are especially suited to the park .
= = Statistics = =
Organized baseball lends itself to statistics to a greater degree than many other sports . Each play is discrete and has a relatively small number of possible outcomes . In the late 19th century , a former cricket player , English @-@ born Henry Chadwick of Brooklyn , New York , was responsible for the " development of the box score , tabular standings , the annual baseball guide , the batting average , and most of the common statistics and tables used to describe baseball . " The statistical record is so central to the game 's " historical essence " that Chadwick came to be known as Father Baseball . In the 1920s , American newspapers began devoting more and more attention to baseball statistics , initiating what journalist and historian Alan Schwarz describes as a " tectonic shift in sports , as intrigue that once focused mostly on teams began to go to individual players and their statistics lines . "
The Official Baseball Rules administered by Major League Baseball require the official scorer to categorize each baseball play unambiguously . The rules provide detailed criteria to promote consistency . The score report is the official basis for both the box score of the game and the relevant statistical records . General managers , managers , and baseball scouts use statistics to evaluate players and make strategic decisions .
Certain traditional statistics are familiar to most baseball fans . The basic batting statistics include :
At bats : plate appearances , excluding walks and hit by pitches — where the batter 's ability is not fully tested — and sacrifices and sacrifice flies — where the batter intentionally makes an out in order to advance one or more baserunners
Hits : times reached base because of a batted , fair ball without fielding error or fielder 's choice
Runs : times circling the bases and reaching home safely
Runs batted in ( RBIs ) : number of runners who scored due to a batter 's action ( including the batter , in the case of a home run ) , except when batter grounded into double play or reached on an error
Home runs : hits on which the batter successfully touched all four bases , without the contribution of a fielding error
Batting average : hits divided by at bats — the traditional measure of batting ability
The basic baserunning statistics include :
Stolen bases : times advancing to the next base entirely due to the runner 's own efforts , generally while the pitcher is preparing to deliver or delivering the ball
Caught stealing : times tagged out while attempting to steal a base
The basic pitching statistics include :
Wins : credited to pitcher on winning team who last pitched before the team took a lead that it never relinquished ( a starting pitcher must pitch at least five innings to qualify for a win )
Losses : charged to pitcher on losing team who was pitching when the opposing team took a lead that it never relinquished
Saves : games where the pitcher enters a game led by the pitcher 's team , finishes the game without surrendering the lead , is not the winning pitcher , and either ( a ) the lead was three runs or less when the pitcher entered the game ; ( b ) the potential tying run was on base , at bat , or on deck ; or ( c ) the pitcher pitched three or more innings
Innings pitched : outs recorded while pitching divided by three ( partial innings are conventionally recorded as , e.g. , " 5 @.@ 2 " or " 7 @.@ 1 " , the last digit actually representing thirds , not tenths , of an inning )
Strikeouts : times pitching three strikes to a batter
Winning percentage : wins divided by decisions ( wins plus losses )
Earned run average ( ERA ) : runs allowed , excluding those resulting from fielding errors , per nine innings pitched
The basic fielding statistics include :
Putouts : times the fielder catches a fly ball , tags or forces out a runner , or otherwise directly effects an out
Assists : times a putout by another fielder was recorded following the fielder touching the ball
Errors : times the fielder fails to make a play that should have been made with common effort , and the batting team benefits as a result
Total chances : putouts plus assists plus errors
Fielding average : successful chances ( putouts plus assists ) divided by total chances
Among the many other statistics that are kept are those collectively known as situational statistics . For example , statistics can indicate which specific pitchers a certain batter performs best against . If a given situation statistically favors a certain batter , the manager of the fielding team may be more likely to change pitchers or have the pitcher intentionally walk the batter in order to face one who is less likely to succeed .
= = = Sabermetrics = = =
Sabermetrics refers to the field of baseball statistical study and the development of new statistics and analytical tools . The term is also used to refer directly to new statistics themselves . The term was coined around 1980 by one of the field 's leading proponents , Bill James , and derives from the Society for American Baseball Research ( SABR ) .
The growing popularity of sabermetrics since the early 1980s has brought more attention to two batting statistics that sabermetricians argue are much better gauges of a batter 's skill than batting average :
On @-@ base percentage measures a batter 's ability to get on base . It is calculated by taking the sum of the batter 's successes in getting on base ( hits plus walks plus hit by pitches ) and dividing that by the batter 's total plate appearances ( at bats plus walks plus hit by pitches plus sacrifice flies ) , except for sacrifice bunts .
Slugging percentage measures a batter 's ability to hit for power . It is calculated by taking the batter 's total bases ( one per each single , two per double , three per triple , and four per home run ) and dividing that by the batter 's at bats .
Some of the new statistics devised by sabermetricians have gained wide use :
On @-@ base plus slugging ( OPS ) measures a batter 's overall ability . It is calculated by adding the batter 's on @-@ base percentage and slugging percentage .
Walks plus hits per inning pitched ( WHIP ) measures a pitcher 's ability at preventing hitters from reaching base . It is calculated exactly as its name suggests .
= = Popularity and cultural impact = =
Writing in 1919 , philosopher Morris Raphael Cohen described baseball as America 's national religion . In the words of sports columnist Jayson Stark , baseball has long been " a unique paragon of American culture " — a status he sees as devastated by the steroid abuse scandal . Baseball has an important place in other national cultures as well : Scholar Peter Bjarkman describes " how deeply the sport is ingrained in the history and culture of a nation such as Cuba , [ and ] how thoroughly it was radically reshaped and nativized in Japan . " Since the early 1980s , the Dominican Republic , in particular the city of San Pedro de Macorís , has been the major leagues ' primary source of foreign talent . Hall @-@ of @-@ Famer Roberto Clemente remains one of the greatest national heroes in Puerto Rico 's history . While baseball has long been the island 's primary athletic pastime , its once well @-@ attended professional winter league has declined in popularity since 1990 , when young Puerto Rican players began to be included in the major leagues ' annual first @-@ year player draft . In the Western Hemisphere , baseball is also one of the leading sports in Canada , Colombia , Mexico , the Netherlands Antilles , Nicaragua , Panama , and Venezuela . In Asia , it is among the most popular sports in Japan , South Korea and Taiwan .
The major league game in the United States was originally targeted toward a middle @-@ class , white @-@ collar audience : relative to other spectator pastimes , the National League 's set ticket price of 50 cents in 1876 was high , while the location of playing fields outside the inner city and the workweek daytime scheduling of games were also obstacles to a blue @-@ collar audience . A century later , the situation was very different . With the rise in popularity of other team sports with much higher average ticket prices — football , basketball , and hockey — professional baseball had become among the most blue @-@ collar @-@ oriented of leading American spectator sports .
In the late 1900s and early 2000s , baseball 's position compared to football in the United States moved in contradictory directions . In 2008 , Major League Baseball set a revenue record of $ 6 @.@ 5 billion , matching the NFL 's revenue for the first time in decades . A new MLB revenue record of $ 6 @.@ 6 billion was set in 2009 . On the other hand , the percentage of American sports fans polled who named baseball as their favorite sport was 16 % , compared to pro football at 31 % . In 1985 , the respective figures were pro football 24 % , baseball 23 % . Because there are so many more major league baseball games played , there is no comparison in overall attendance . In 2008 , total attendance at major league games was the second @-@ highest in history : 78 @.@ 6 million , 0 @.@ 7 % off the record set the previous year . The following year , amid the U.S. recession , attendance fell by 6 @.@ 6 % to 73 @.@ 4 million . Attendance at games held under the Minor League Baseball umbrella also set a record in 2007 , with 42 @.@ 8 million ; this figure does not include attendance at games of the several independent minor leagues .
In Japan , where baseball is inarguably the leading spectator team sport , combined revenue for the twelve teams in Nippon Professional Baseball ( NPB ) , the body that oversees both the Central and Pacific leagues , was estimated at $ 1 billion in 2007 . Total NPB attendance for the year was approximately 20 million . While in the preceding two decades , MLB attendance grew by 50 percent and revenue nearly tripled , the comparable NPB figures were stagnant . There are concerns that MLB 's growing interest in acquiring star Japanese players will hurt the game in their home country . In Cuba , where baseball is by every reckoning the national sport , the national team overshadows the city and provincial teams that play in the top @-@ level domestic leagues . Revenue figures are not released for the country 's amateur system . Similarly , according to one official pronouncement , the sport 's governing authority " has never taken into account attendance ... because its greatest interest has always been the development of athletes " .
As of 2007 , Little League Baseball oversees more than 7 @,@ 000 children 's baseball leagues with more than 2 @.@ 2 million participants – 2 @.@ 1 million in the United States and 123 @,@ 000 in other countries . Babe Ruth League teams have over 1 million participants . According to the president of the International Baseball Federation , between 300 @,@ 000 and 500 @,@ 000 women and girls play baseball around the world , including Little League and the introductory game of Tee Ball .
A varsity baseball team is an established part of physical education departments at most high schools and colleges in the United States . In 2008 , nearly half a million high schoolers and over 35 @,@ 000 collegians played on their schools ' baseball teams . The number of Americans participating in baseball has declined since the late 1980s , falling well behind the number of soccer participants . By early in the 20th century , intercollegiate baseball was Japan 's leading sport . Today , high school baseball in particular is immensely popular there . The final rounds of the two annual tournaments — the National High School Baseball Invitational Tournament in the spring , and the even more important National High School Baseball Championship in the summer — are broadcast around the country . The tournaments are known , respectively , as Spring Koshien and Summer Koshien after the 55 @,@ 000 @-@ capacity stadium where they are played . In Cuba , baseball is a mandatory part of the state system of physical education , which begins at age six . Talented children as young as seven are sent to special district schools for more intensive training — the first step on a ladder whose acme is the national baseball team .
= = = Baseball in popular culture = = =
Baseball has had a broad impact on popular culture , both in the United States and elsewhere . Dozens of English @-@ language idioms have been derived from baseball ; in particular , the game is the source of a number of widely used sexual euphemisms . The first networked radio broadcasts in North America were of the 1922 World Series : famed sportswriter Grantland Rice announced play @-@ by @-@ play from New York City 's Polo Grounds on WJZ – Newark , New Jersey , which was connected by wire to WGY – Schenectady , New York , and WBZ – Springfield , Massachusetts . The baseball cap has become a ubiquitous fashion item not only in the United States and Japan , but also in countries where the sport itself is not particularly popular , such as the United Kingdom .
Baseball has inspired many works of art and entertainment . One of the first major examples , Ernest Thayer 's poem " Casey at the Bat " , appeared in 1888 . A wry description of the failure of a star player in what would now be called a " clutch situation " , the poem became the source of vaudeville and other staged performances , audio recordings , film adaptations , and an opera , as well as a host of sequels and parodies in various media . There have been many baseball movies , including the Academy Award – winning The Pride of the Yankees ( 1942 ) and the Oscar nominees The Natural ( 1984 ) and Field of Dreams ( 1989 ) . The American Film Institute 's selection of the ten best sports movies includes The Pride of the Yankees at number 3 and Bull Durham ( 1988 ) at number 5 . Baseball has provided thematic material for hits on both stage — the Adler – Ross musical Damn Yankees — and record — George J. Gaskin 's " Slide , Kelly , Slide " , Simon and Garfunkel 's " Mrs. Robinson " , and John Fogerty 's " Centerfield " . The baseball @-@ founded comedic sketch " Who 's on First " , popularized by Abbott and Costello in 1938 , quickly became famous . Six decades later , Time named it the best comedy routine of the 20th century . Baseball is also featured in various video games including MLB : The Show , Wii Sports , Kinect Sports : Season 2 and Mario Baseball .
Literary works connected to the game include the short fiction of Ring Lardner and novels such as Bernard Malamud 's The Natural ( the source for the movie ) , Robert Coover 's The Universal Baseball Association , Inc . , J. Henry Waugh , Prop . , and W. P. Kinsella 's Shoeless Joe ( the source for Field of Dreams ) . Baseball 's literary canon also includes the beat reportage of Damon Runyon ; the columns of Grantland Rice , Red Smith , Dick Young , and Peter Gammons ; and the essays of Roger Angell . Among the celebrated nonfiction books in the field are Lawrence S. Ritter 's The Glory of Their Times , Roger Kahn 's The Boys of Summer , and Michael Lewis 's Moneyball . The 1970 publication of major league pitcher Jim Bouton 's tell @-@ all chronicle Ball Four is considered a turning point in the reporting of professional sports .
Baseball has also inspired the creation of new cultural forms . Baseball cards were introduced in the late 19th century as trade cards . A typical example would feature an image of a baseball player on one side and advertising for a business on the other . In the early 1900s they were produced widely as promotional items by tobacco and confectionery companies . The 1930s saw the popularization of the modern style of baseball card , with a player photograph accompanied on the rear by statistics and biographical data . Baseball cards — many of which are now prized collectibles — are the source of the much broader trading card industry , involving similar products for different sports and non @-@ sports @-@ related fields .
Modern fantasy sports began in 1980 with the invention of Rotisserie League Baseball by New York writer Daniel Okrent and several friends . Participants in a Rotisserie league draft notional teams from the list of active Major League Baseball players and play out an entire imaginary season with game outcomes based on the players ' latest real @-@ world statistics . Rotisserie @-@ style play quickly became a phenomenon . Now known more generically as fantasy baseball , it has inspired similar games based on an array of different sports . The field boomed with increasing Internet access and new fantasy sports – related websites . By 2008 , 29 @.@ 9 million people in the United States and Canada were playing fantasy sports , spending $ 800 million on the hobby . The burgeoning popularity of fantasy baseball is also credited with the increasing attention paid to sabermetrics — first among fans , only later among baseball professionals .
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= Call of Duty 4 : Modern Warfare =
Call of Duty 4 : Modern Warfare is a 2007 first @-@ person shooter video game developed by Infinity Ward and published by Activision for Microsoft Windows , OS X , PlayStation 3 , Xbox 360 , and Wii . A handheld game was made for the Nintendo DS . The game was released in North America , Australia , and Europe in November 2007 for video game consoles and Microsoft Windows . It was released for OS X in September 2008 , then released for the Wii in November 2009 , given the subtitle Reflex Edition . It is the fourth installment in the Call of Duty video game series , excluding expansion packs , and is the first in the Modern Warfare line of the franchise , followed by a direct sequel , Call of Duty : Modern Warfare 2 as well as the first game in the series to have a Mature rating . The game breaks away from the World War II setting of previous games in the series and is instead set in modern times . Developed for over two years , the game uses a proprietary game engine . On September 10 , 2009 , it was published in Japan by Square Enix .
The story takes place in the year 2011 , where a radical leader has executed the president of an unnamed country in the Middle East , and an ultranationalist movement starts a civil war in Russia . The conflicts are seen from the perspectives of a U.S. Force Reconnaissance Marine and a British SAS commando , and are set in various locales , such as the United Kingdom , the Middle East , Azerbaijan , Russia , and Ukraine . The multiplayer portion of the game features various game modes , and contains a leveling system that allows the player to unlock additional weapons , weapon attachments , and camouflage schemes as they advance .
Critically acclaimed , the game received an aggregated score of 94 % from both GameRankings and Metacritic . The gameplay and story received particular praise , while criticism targeted the failure of the game to substantially innovate the first @-@ person shooter genre . The game won numerous awards from gaming websites , including IGN 's Best Xbox 360 Game . It was the top @-@ selling game worldwide for 2007 , selling around seven million copies by January 2008 and almost sixteen million by November 2013 .
A remastered version of the game will be released on PlayStation 4 , Xbox One and PC alongside Call of Duty : Infinite Warfare on November 4 , 2016 .
= = Gameplay = =
As opposed to earlier games in the Call of Duty series , the game features modern equipment and new features , many exclusive to the multiplayer part of the game , such as " killstreaks " ; killing a number of enemies without the player dying in between kills allows access to various assets including airstrikes and helicopter support . A character can be positioned in one of three stances : standing , crouching , or prone , each affecting the character 's rate of movement , accuracy , and stealth . Using cover helps the player avoid enemy fire or recover health after taking significant damage . As such , there are no armor or health power ups . When the character has taken damage , the edges of the screen glow red and the character 's heartbeat increases . If the character stays out of fire , the character can recover . When the character is within the blast radius of a live grenade , a marker indicates the direction of the grenade , helping the player to either flee or toss it back to the enemy .
= = = Campaign = = =
The player takes on the role of various characters during a single @-@ player campaign . The characters ' involvement in the plot occurs simultaneously and overlaps the events in the game . As such , the player 's perspective changes from one character to another between missions . Each mission features a series of objectives ; the player is led to each objective with the heads up display , which marks its direction and distance . Some objectives require that the player arrives at a checkpoint , while other objectives require the player to eliminate enemies in a specified location , stand their ground to defend an objective , or plant explosive charges on an enemy installation . After the credits , a special epilogue mission is unlocked for play , featuring a four @-@ man squad retrieving a VIP from terrorists who have hijacked an airliner . The SAS rescue the VIP and escape before the plane is destroyed .
= = = Multiplayer = = =
Call of Duty 4 : Modern Warfare features team @-@ based and deathmatch @-@ based multiplayer modes on various maps . Each mode has an objective that requires unique strategies to complete . Players can call in UAV reconnaissance scans , air strikes , and attack helicopters , when they achieve three- , five- , and seven @-@ enemy kill streaks respectively . A game ends when either a team or player has reached a predefined number of points , or the allotted time expires in which case the team or player with the most points wins . If the points are even when the time expires , Sudden Death mode is activated in which there is no re @-@ spawning and the team who either has the last man standing , or achieves the objective first are the winners . If the player is in either of the two matches , then there is an Overtime match , in which the next team to win is rewarded the victory .
The player 's performance in the multiplayer mode is tracked with experience points , which can be earned by killing opposing players , completing challenges , completing objectives , or by completing a round or match . As the player gains experience , they advance in level , unlocking new weapons , perks , challenges , and gameplay modes . The highest obtainable level is 55 , but on the console versions of the game , the player has the option to enter " Prestige " mode , which returns their level to one and removes all accumulated unlockables . This process can be repeated up to 10 times with a different insignia being given each time .
Completing a challenge grants experience points and may unlock weapon attachments . As a player 's level increases by gaining experience points within online games , it unlocks new weapons , perks , or challenges . As the player advances in levels , they earn the ability to customize their classes ; this includes selecting their main weapon , side arm and special grenade type . Additionally , the player can select 3 perks , one from each of the three " Tiers " , that can customize their character further . Perk effects include , but are not limited to , extra ammunition , increasing bullet damage by the player , or dropping a live grenade when the player is killed . The player is also given the choice to complete challenges in order to receive even more experience points ; challenges include achieving a certain number of kills with a specific weapon , shooting down a helicopter or performing a number of head shots . Additionally , when the player attains a certain amount of headshots with a specific weapon , excluding sidearms , the player unlocks extra weapon " camos " , or camouflage , to use for that specific weapon .
= = Campaign = =
= = = Characters = = =
During the single player campaign , the player controls six different characters from a first @-@ person perspective . The player assumes the role of recent British Special Air Service ( SAS ) recruit Sergeant John " Soap " MacTavish for most of the game , starting with his enrollment in the 22nd SAS Regiment . Sergeant Paul Jackson is part of USMC 1st Force Recon deployed to the Middle East , and the player controls Jackson 's character during five levels of Act 1 . Captain John Price ( voiced by actor Billy Murray ) is an SAS officer who is playable in two flashback missions from 1996 in which he is still Lieutenant . The player also assumes the role of an American thermal @-@ imaging TV operator aboard a Lockheed AC @-@ 130 gunship during one level , and a British SAS operative infiltrating a hijacked airliner to save a VIP in a secret level titled " Mile High Club " . Finally , the player may control Yasir Al @-@ Fulani , the president of the unnamed Middle Eastern country in the game before he is executed , although he has no freedom of action beyond turning his head .
The game 's non @-@ playable characters ( NPCs ) feature prominently in the story : Captain Price and his right @-@ hand man , Gaz ( voiced by Craig Fairbrass ) , serve as mentors to Soap . Jackson 's USMC platoon is led by Lieutenant Vasquez ( voiced by David Sobolov ) and Staff Sergeant Griggs ( voiced by and modeled after Infinity Ward lead animator Mark Grigsby ) ; Griggs later accompanies Soap in Russia . Sergeant Kamarov leads the Russian loyalists that aid SAS and USMC forces . " Nikolai " is a Russian informant who helps the SAS . Captain MacMillan is Price 's mentor and commanding officer during a flashback .
The antagonists in the story include Imran Zakhaev ( voiced by Yevgeni Lazarev ) , the leader of the Russian ultranationalist party and the main antagonist of the game ; Khaled Al @-@ Asad , the commander of the revolutionary forces in the Middle East and an ally of Imran Zakhaev ; and Victor Zakhaev , the son of Imran Zakhaev and a priority figure in the ultranationalist party .
= = = Plot = = =
In 2011 , a civil war has broken out in Russia between its government and ultranationalists who seek to restore Russia to its Soviet @-@ era glamor . Meanwhile , a separatist group led by Khaled Al @-@ Asad seizes power in a " small but oil @-@ rich " country in the Middle East through a coup d 'état . Al @-@ Asad is ruthless and has extreme anti @-@ Western views , which prompts the United States to invade the country . In the afternoon of the second day of invasion , a platoon of USMC 1st Force Recon is sent to capture Al @-@ Asad . The platoon attacks a TV station in which Al @-@ Asad was thought to be broadcasting live and then engages in urban combat in an unnamed city south of the capital . In the meantime , a British Special Air Service ( SAS ) squad led by Captain Price conducts two important operations , one on a ship in the Bering Strait and one in Russia . Intelligence gathered from the two missions indicates that Al @-@ Asad may be in possession of a Russian nuclear device .
In evening of the third day , the U.S. launches a full @-@ scale assault on Al @-@ Asad 's presidential palace in spite of the SAS warning about the possible nuclear device . As U.S. Navy SEALs invade the palace , the Marines engage Al @-@ Asad 's ground forces . The assault , however , ends in catastrophe when the nuclear device suddenly detonates , wiping out most of the city along with everyone in it .
Refusing to assume Al @-@ Asad dead , Price 's strike team supported by Russian loyalists attacks a potential safe house in a village in Azerbaijan to eradicate the occupying Russian forces and capture Al @-@ Asad . Shortly into the interrogation , Al @-@ Asad 's phone rings . After hearing the voice of the caller , Price executes Al @-@ Asad and reveals that the caller was the leader of the ultranationalists : Imran Zakhaev .
Price tells the story of a mission in Pripyat , Ukraine in 1996 . In the aftermath of the Chernobyl disaster and the collapse of the Soviet Union , Zakhaev took advantage of the turmoil to profit from nuclear proliferation and used his new wealth to lure soldiers from the Soviet Army to form his ultranationalist party . Price was part of a black operation to assassinate Zakhaev . From his vantage point on the top floor of an abandoned hotel , Price fired upon Zakhaev with a Barrett M82 sniper rifle , but the shot only severed Zakhaev 's arm . Pursued across the city by Zakhaev 's henchmen , Price barely escaped .
A joint task force composed of the SAS , Force Recon , and the Loyalists attempt to capture Zakhaev 's son , Victor , to learn Zakhaev 's whereabouts but as they corner him on the roof of an apartment building , Victor commits suicide . Enraged , Zakhaev retaliates by launching nuclear intercontinental ballistic missiles at the U.S. Eastern Seaboard , which could kill 41 million people . The SAS and Force Recon , however , manage to seize the launch facility 's command room and remotely destroy the missiles over the Atlantic Ocean . They escape the facility in military trucks with Zakhaev 's forces in hot pursuit .
An ultranationalist Mi @-@ 24 Hind helicopter destroys a vital bridge and traps the joint force . The ensuing fight with ultranationalists leaves everyone in the joint force either dead or severely wounded . Zakhaev himself arrives and begins killing wounded soldiers when loyalists suddenly destroy his Mi @-@ 24 Hind and join the fray . Zakhaev is shot dead . Loyalist forces start tending to the wounded immediately .
In the outro , the missiles incident and the ultranationalists ' support of Al @-@ Asad are hushed up , thus causing the events of Call of Duty : Modern Warfare 2 .
= = Development = =
Call of Duty 4 : Modern Warfare was developed by a team of a hundred people , over the course of two years . After Call of Duty 2 , the Infinity Ward team decided to move away from the World War II environment of previous games in the series . This resulted in three game concepts : Call of Duty 4 : Modern Warfare , Call of Duty : Modern Warfare 2 and Call of Duty : Modern Warfare 3 . While developing the story for Call of Duty 4 , Infinity Ward chose to avoid referencing current , real @-@ life wars , and keep the series ' common theme of two opposing forces of similar strength . To enhance the realistic feel of the game , the development team attended a live @-@ fire exercise at Marine Corps Air Ground Combat Center Twentynine Palms , a training facility in the California desert . This helped the developers to simulate the effects of being near an Abrams tank when it fires . The team also talked with U.S. Marines who were recently in combat to get a feel for the background , emotions , and attitude of Marines in combat . Veterans were also recruited to supervise motion capture sessions and the artificial intelligence design of the game .
The development team designed the online multiplayer component to be balanced and rewarding for new players while still offering something for experienced players . An early idea to implement air support ( air strikes and attack helicopters ) involved players fighting over special zones to access a trigger for air support against enemies . This idea was discarded because it discouraged the type of deathmatch gameplay they intended . The kill streak reward system was put in its place to encourage the improvement of player skills . Players were allowed to select weapons before matches to get accustomed to weapons more easily and minimize weapon hunting . Maps were designed primarily for deathmatch games — the developers felt such designs suited other types of gameplay as well . Map layouts were designed to minimize locations players could hide from enemy gunfire .
= = = Audio = = =
Most of the music for Call of Duty 4 : Modern Warfare was written by British composer Stephen Barton , who had also contributed to film scores by Harry Gregson @-@ Williams , to whom , composed the main theme of the game . Several music tracks from the game are available on Infinity Ward 's " 7 Days of Modern Warfare " website , and some are available at Barton 's own web site . The rap song played during the end credits is performed by Call of Duty 4 's lead animator , Mark Grigsby .
= = = Game engine = = =
Call of Duty 4 : Modern Warfare runs on the IW engine , specifically IW 3 @.@ 0 , featuring true world @-@ dynamic lighting , HDR lighting effects , dynamic shadows and depth of field . Bullet penetration is calculated by the engine , taking into account factors such as surface type and entity thickness . The game runs in a native resolution of 600p on the Xbox 360 and PS3 .
Certain objects , such as cars and some buildings , are destructible . This makes distinguishing cover from concealment important , as the protection provided by objects such as wooden fences and thin walls do not completely protect players from harm . Bullet stopping power is decreased after penetrating an object , and the decrease is dependent on the thickness and surface type of the object . The game makes use of a dynamic physics engine , not implemented in previous Call of Duty titles . Death animations are a combination of pre @-@ set animations and ragdoll physics . Console versions of Call of Duty 4 : Modern Warfare run at a consistent 60 frames per second , and the Wii version runs at 30 frames per second . Code was included to determine spawning points based on the nearby weapons and the relationship between enemy positions and line of sight to the points . The various criteria are meant to minimize players dying immediately after rejoining a match , or being " spawn @-@ killed " due to players simply waiting for others to " respawn " . However , enemies may still respawn infinitely , a notable feature in Call of Duty game engines .
The game engine has also been used for the development of two other Activision games . An enhanced version of the original engine was used in Call of Duty : World at War , the fifth installment in the Call of Duty series after Call of Duty 4 : Modern Warfare , while a slightly altered version has been used for the James Bond video game Quantum of Solace as well as GoldenEye 007 using a heavily modified version .
= = Marketing and release = =
On April 27 , 2007 , the day before the release of the game 's official trailer , Infinity Ward launched a website called " Charlie Oscar Delta " to provide information on the game . Charlie Oscar Delta features a ranking system that allows users to complete missions to increase their rank and compete for prizes . Charlie Oscar Delta is derived from the NATO phonetic alphabet and the initials of Call of Duty . The first Call of Duty 4 : Modern Warfare trailer featuring game footage was released on April 28 , 2007 . An Xbox 360 Call of Duty 4 : Modern Warfare public beta test was announced on August 30 , 2007 . The beta test was designed to test the servers , find glitches , and help balance out the weapons . It was originally only for residents of the US , but was later available to other countries . The beta concluded on September 30 , 2007 . The maximum rank for the beta was initially level 16 , but was increased to level 25 towards the end of the beta . Three multiplayer maps were available for play : Crash , Vacant , and Overgrown . A single @-@ player demo for the PC was released on October 11 , 2007 as a Yahoo ! exclusive download , and is now available for free download . The demo includes one level , " The Bog , " which showcases the advanced night vision and associated graphics capabilities .
= = = Retail versions = = =
The game was released as a standard version and a collector 's edition . The Collector 's Edition contains the standard retail game and a DVD containing a documentary film entitled " Great SAS Missions , " which consists of archive footage of the SAS in action and accounts from former SAS members . The DVD contains a " making @-@ of " featurette and a level walkthrough by the developers . Also included is a limited edition poster and an exclusive hardcover art book featuring never @-@ before @-@ seen concept , development , and final artwork . These elements were packaged in a larger cardboard version of the standard retail box . The collector 's edition was originally only available in the U.S. , but was later released in other countries . A " Game of the Year " edition was later released on PC , Xbox 360 , and PlayStation 3 . The PlayStation 3 version included the Variety map pack on the disc , and while the Xbox 360 Game of the Year edition initially included an insert in the packaging which could be redeemed on Xbox Live Marketplace to download the Variety map pack , later releases did not contain the inserts , and so were no different from the original release of the game .
Call of Duty 4 : Modern Warfare was released for consoles and Windows in North America on November 6 , 2007 , in Australia on November 7 , 2007 , and in Europe on November 9 , 2007 . The Mac OS X version of the game was developed by Aspyr and released on September 26 , 2008 . It was released on the Mac App Store on or Around January 16 , 2011 . It was rated 15 by the BBFC , M for Mature by the ESRB , MA 15 + by the OFLC , 16 + by the PEGI , and 18 by the USK . The Wii port of the game , titled Call of Duty : Modern Warfare : Reflex , was developed by Treyarch and released on November 10 , 2009 , alongside Call of Duty : Modern Warfare 2 and Call of Duty : Modern Warfare : Mobilized .
= = = Downloadable content = = =
As part of an exclusivity deal between Microsoft and Activision , multiplayer map packs for the Call of Duty franchise , beginning with Modern Warfare , were released first on Xbox 360 . The deal would ultimately last until Black Ops III in 2015 , which introduces a new deal with Sony and PlayStation platforms .
Infinity Ward released the Variety Map Pack for the Xbox 360 on April 4 , 2008 . It includes the multiplayer maps " Killhouse " , " Creek " , " Chinatown " , and " Broadcast " . The same map pack was released for the PlayStation 3 on April 24 , 2008 . The Variety Map Pack was downloaded by over one million people in its first nine days of release , a record for paid Xbox Live downloadable content , valued at US $ 10 million . It was released as a free download for Windows on June 5 , 2008 , sponsored by NVIDIA , along with patch 1 @.@ 6 . A further patch for the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 versions of the game was announced over a year later in August 2009 ; the patch primarily addressed online multiplayer exploits . Patch 1 @.@ 7 was released in June 2008 . This patch can be applied to the Game of the Year edition directly with no prior patches . Earlier versions must have patch 1 @.@ 6 applied first .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
Call of Duty 4 : Modern Warfare on release received critical acclaim from many video game publications . The gameplay has been cited by reviewers to bring the genre to " a new level of immersion and intensity that we had never seen before . " Official Xbox Magazine said about the multiplayer , " it 's the multiplayer mode that solidifies the game 's instant @-@ classic status " and that " the campaign never lets up . " GameSpot gave a favorable review for Call of Duty 4 : Modern Warfare , saying that the " high quality of that campaign and its terrific multiplayer options make Call of Duty 4 a fantastic package . " X @-@ Play commented that " while it may not have revolutionized the genre , it comes damn close to perfecting it . " GamePro claims that " the amazingly deep multiplayer rivals Halo 3 's in terms of reach and scope . "
The game 's story has received a considerable amount of acclaim from reviewers . GamePro notes that " the intense single @-@ player campaign offers up an action packed experience that features a tremendously compelling narrative ; there are moments in the game that will send chills down your spine . " GameSpot mentioned that the fact the " single @-@ player campaign is over in a flash " as the only major flaw . While IGN described the campaign as " still very linear " like that of its predecessors , " eschewing the concept of sandbox gameplay , " it noted that this resulted in " a much richer , more focused experience " with " beautifully scripted set pieces . " IGN 's Voodoo Extreme similarly remarked that it " virtually plays on a rail , but that 's part of its charm . " In contrast to later entries in the Call of Duty franchise , Ben " Yahtzee " Croshaw of Zero Punctuation gave the game a positive review , praising how it " never sacrifices gameplay for story , or vice versa " and that it featured " less of the smarmy , black @-@ and @-@ white , ' My Country , ' Tis of Thee ' jingoism that turns me off most war games " .
Nevertheless , the game has also received criticism . Xbox World 360 stated " It 's smoke and mirrors and a host of cheap tricks , " commenting on the notion that the game did not revolutionize the genre . Pelit also remarked that " the structure of the single player game should ... have been updated " and that " barging from one invisible checkpoint to the next throughout the whole campaign just isn 't good enough anymore . "
= = = Wii version = = =
Modern Warfare – Reflex Edition was ported by Treyarch . The Wii version of Call of Duty 4 : Modern Warfare has fewer features than the other console versions . It does not support split @-@ screen multiplayer , and the graphics are not as developed . However , it supports co @-@ operative gameplay in the campaign on a single screen . At any moment , a second Wii remote can be activated giving the second player their own aiming crosshairs . The game received an aggregated score of 76 % on Metacritic . IGN gave the Wii version of the game , Call of Duty : Modern Warfare – Reflex Edition , a score of 7 @.@ 0 , saying the visuals and pointer controls are not as polished as the Wii version of World at War , though they did mention the customization options and multiplayer are impressive . Official Nintendo Magazine gave it 80 % , praising it for packing everything from its next @-@ gen counterpart , but again criticizing the visuals . GameTrailers gave the game an 8 @.@ 8 , saying that despite some sacrifices , it retains everything good from its original version . Game Informer scored the game at a 6 @.@ 5 , stating that while the game was rather poor graphically , even by Wii standards , the bigger problem was the Wii remote , stating that it did not have enough buttons to support Modern Warfare 's control scheme , and also that it was quite imprecise , contrasting it with the dual analog system used by the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 versions , and the mouse and keyboard system on the Windows version of the game . GameSpot gave the game an 8 @.@ 5 , stating that the online was as addictive as the other versions , they also said that the controls " are precise and customizable enough to let you be all you can be " .
= = = Sales = = =
Before Call of Duty 4 : Modern Warfare was released , it was predicted to sell even more copies than the highly successful Halo 3 ; it had received reviews as high as Halo 3 's , it was launching on three systems as opposed to one for Halo 3 , and demand for the game led to a wide range of retailers only having enough available to satisfy pre @-@ orders . It fulfilled the prediction and the Xbox 360 version became the best @-@ selling video game in the United States from November 2007 to January 2008 according to the NPD Group . The Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 versions would go on to sell 1 @.@ 57 million and 444 @,@ 000 units , respectively , in the United States in November 2007 . 1 @.@ 47 million units of the Xbox 360 version were sold in December 2007 ; the game sold 331 @,@ 000 copies for the Xbox 360 and 140 @,@ 000 copies for the PlayStation 3 in January 2008 . The Xbox 360 version was the third best @-@ selling video game of 2007 in the U.S. with 3 @.@ 04 million units sold , behind Halo 3 , which sold 4 @.@ 82 million units , according to the NPD Group . By January 2008 , Call of Duty 4 : Modern Warfare had sold more than 7 million copies worldwide , and was the best @-@ selling game of 2007 . On June 3 , 2008 , Infinity Ward reported that the game had sold over 10 million units . During a May 2009 conference call , Activision announced that the game has sold 13 million copies , surpassing Super Mario Galaxy as the best selling game released that week of November 2007 . By November 2013 , the game had sold 15 @.@ 7 million copies .
Call of Duty 4 : Modern Warfare was widely distributed online in the form of infringing copies . Robert Bowling , Community Manager at Infinity Ward stated , " We pulled some disturbing numbers this past week about the amount of PC players currently playing Multiplayer ... What wasn 't fantastic was the percentage of those numbers who were playing on stolen copies of the game on stolen / cracked CD keys of pirated copies . "
= = = Awards = = =
Call of Duty 4 : Modern Warfare received awards from various gaming sites and publications . Both GameSpot and GameTrailers gave the game the Best Graphics of E3 2007 award , and the Best PlayStation 3 Game of 2007 award , and later ranked it as the third best first @-@ person shooter on its " Top 10 FPS Games Ever ! " list . It gained high praise from both video game magazine GamePro and GameSpy , having been named the Best Overall Game of 2007 by the former , and Game of the Year by the latter . Game Critics also named the game " Best Action Game . " From other authorities such as IGN and X @-@ play , and the Spike Video Game Awards , the game won awards for areas such as Best Sound Design , Best Shooter of 2007 , and Best Military Game . From the Academy of Interactive Arts & Sciences , the game won Console Game of the Year , Action game of the Year , and Overall Game of the Year . From the British Academy Video Games Awards , The game also won Best Gameplay of the Year , Best Story and Character of the Year , and People 's Choice Game of the Year . The game was awarded with the Academy of Video Games Awards Game of the Year 2007 Award . The readers of PlayStation Official Magazine voted it the 7th greatest PlayStation title ever released .
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= Thoroughbred =
The Thoroughbred is a horse breed best known for its use in horse racing . Although the word thoroughbred is sometimes used to refer to any breed of purebred horse , it technically refers only to the Thoroughbred breed . Thoroughbreds are considered " hot @-@ blooded " horses that are known for their agility , speed and spirit .
The Thoroughbred as it is known today was developed in 17th- and 18th @-@ century England , when native mares were crossbred with imported Oriental stallions of Arabian , Barb , and Turkoman breeding . All modern Thoroughbreds can trace their pedigrees to three stallions originally imported into England in the 17th century and 18th century , and to a larger number of foundation mares of mostly English breeding . During the 18th and 19th centuries , the Thoroughbred breed spread throughout the world ; they were imported into North America starting in 1730 and into Australia , Europe , Japan and South America during the 19th century . Millions of Thoroughbreds exist today , and more than 118 @,@ 000 foals are registered each year worldwide .
Thoroughbreds are used mainly for racing , but are also bred for other riding disciplines such as show jumping , combined training , dressage , polo , and fox hunting . They are also commonly crossbred to create new breeds or to improve existing ones , and have been influential in the creation of the Quarter Horse , Standardbred , Anglo @-@ Arabian , and various warmblood breeds .
Thoroughbred racehorses perform with maximum exertion , which has resulted in high accident rates and health problems such as bleeding from the lungs . Other health concerns include low fertility , abnormally small hearts and a small hoof @-@ to @-@ body @-@ mass ratio . There are several theories for the reasons behind the prevalence of accidents and health problems in the Thoroughbred breed , and research is ongoing .
= = Breed characteristics = =
The typical Thoroughbred ranges from 15 @.@ 2 to 17 @.@ 0 hands ( 62 to 68 inches , 157 to 173 cm ) high , averaging 16 hands ( 64 inches , 163 cm ) . They are most often bay , dark bay or brown , chestnut , black , or gray . Less common colors recognized in the United States include roan and palomino . White is very rare , but is a recognized color separate from gray . The face and lower legs may be marked with white , but white will generally not appear on the body . Coat patterns that have more than one color on the body , such as Pinto or Appaloosa , are not recognized by mainstream breed registries . Good @-@ quality Thoroughbreds have a well @-@ chiseled head on a long neck , high withers , a deep chest , a short back , good depth of hindquarters , a lean body , and long legs . Thoroughbreds are classified among the " hot @-@ blooded " breeds , which are animals bred for agility and speed and are generally considered spirited and bold .
Thoroughbreds born in the Northern Hemisphere are officially considered a year older on the first of January each year ; those born in the Southern Hemisphere officially are one year older on the first of August . These artificial dates have been set to enable the standardization of races and other competitions for horses in certain age groups .
= = Terminology = =
The Thoroughbred is a distinct breed of horse , although people sometimes refer to a purebred horse of any breed as a thoroughbred . The term for any horse or other animal derived from a single breed line is purebred . While the term probably came into general use because the English Thoroughbred 's General Stud Book was one of the first breed registries created , in modern usage horse breeders consider it incorrect to refer to any animal as a thoroughbred except for horses belonging to the Thoroughbred breed . Nonetheless , breeders of other species of purebred animals may use the two terms interchangeably , though thoroughbred is less often used for describing purebred animals of other species . The term is a proper noun referring to this specific breed , though often not capitalized , especially in non @-@ specialist publications , and outside the US . For example , the Australian Stud Book , The New York Times , and the BBC do not capitalize the word .
= = History = =
= = = Beginnings in England = = =
= = = = Early racing = = = =
Flat racing existed in England by at least 1174 , when four @-@ mile races took place at Smithfield , in London . Racing continued at fairs and markets throughout the Middle Ages and into the reign of King James I of England . It was then that handicapping , a system of adding weight to attempt to equalize a horse 's chances of winning as well as improved training procedures , began to be used . During the reigns of Charles II , William III , Anne , and George I , the foundation of the Thoroughbred was laid . Under James ' grandson , Charles II , a keen racegoer and owner , and James ' great @-@ granddaughter Queen Anne , royal support was given to racing and the breeding of race horses . With royal support , horse racing became popular with the public , and by 1727 , a newspaper devoted to racing , the Racing Calendar , was founded . Devoted exclusively to the sport , it recorded race results and advertised upcoming meets .
= = = = Foundation stallions = = = =
All modern Thoroughbreds trace back to three stallions imported into England from the Middle East in the late 17th and early 18th centuries : the Byerley Turk ( 1680s ) , the Darley Arabian ( 1704 ) , and the Godolphin Arabian ( 1729 ) . Other stallions of oriental breeding were less influential , but still made noteworthy contributions to the breed . These included the Alcock 's Arabian , D 'Arcy 's White Turk , Leedes Arabian , and Curwen 's Bay Barb . Another was the Brownlow Turk , who , among other attributes , is thought to be largely responsible for the gray coat color in Thoroughbreds . In all , about 160 stallions of Oriental breeding have been traced in the historical record as contributing to the creation of the Thoroughbred . The addition of horses of Eastern bloodlines , whether Arabian , Barb , or Turk , to the native English mares ultimately led to the creation of the General Stud Book ( GSB ) in 1791 and the practice of official registration of horses . According to Peter Willett , about 50 % of the foundation stallions appear to have been of Arabian bloodlines , with the remainder being evenly divided between Turkoman and Barb breeding .
Each of the three major foundation sires was , coincidentally , the ancestor of a grandson or great @-@ great @-@ grandson who was the only male descendant to perpetuate each respective horse 's male line : Matchem was the only descendant of his grandsire , the Godolphin Arabian , to maintain a male line to the present ; the Byerley Turk 's male line was preserved by Herod ( or King Herod ) , a great @-@ great @-@ grandson ; and the male line of the Darley Arabian owes its existence to great @-@ great @-@ grandson Eclipse , who was the dominant racehorse of his day and never defeated . One genetic study indicates that 95 % of all male Thoroughbreds trace their direct male line ( via the Y chromosome ) to the Darley Arabian . However , in modern Thoroughbred pedigrees , most horses have more crosses to the Godolphin Arabian ( 13 @.@ 8 % ) than to the Darley Arabian ( 6 @.@ 5 % ) when all lines of descent ( maternal and paternal ) are considered . Further , as a percentage of contributions to current Thoroughbred bloodlines , Curwen 's Bay Barb ( 4 @.@ 2 % ) appears more often than the Byerley Turk ( 3 @.@ 3 % ) . The majority of modern Thoroughbreds alive today trace to a total of only 27 or 28 stallions from the 18th and 19th centuries .
= = = = Foundation mares = = = =
The mares used as foundation breeding stock came from a variety of breeds , some of which , such as the Irish Hobby , had developed in northern Europe prior to the 13th century . Other mares were of oriental breeding , including Barb , Turk and other bloodlines , although most researchers conclude that the number of Eastern mares imported into England during the 100 years after 1660 was small . The 19th century researcher Bruce Lowe identified 50 mare " families " in the Thoroughbred breed , later augmented by other researchers to 74 . However , it is probable that fewer genetically unique mare lines existed than Lowe identified . Recent studies of the mtDNA of Thoroughbred mares indicate that some of the mare lines thought to be genetically distinct may actually have had a common ancestor ; in 19 mare lines studied , the haplotypes revealed that they traced to only 15 unique foundation mares , suggesting either a common ancestor for foundation mares thought to be unrelated or recording errors in the GSB .
= = = Later development in Britain = = =
By the end of the 18th century , the English Classic races had been established . These are the St. Leger Stakes , founded in 1776 , the Epsom Oaks , founded in 1779 , and the Epsom Derby in 1780 . Later , the 2 @,@ 000 Guineas Stakes and the 1 @,@ 000 Guineas Stakes were founded in 1809 and 1814 . The 1 @,@ 000 Guineas and the Oaks are restricted to fillies , but the others are open to racehorses of either sex aged three years . The distances of these races , ranging from 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) to 1 @.@ 75 miles ( 2 @.@ 82 km ) , led to a change in breeding practices , as breeders concentrated on producing horses that could race at a younger age than in the past and that had more speed . In the early 18th century , the emphasis had been on longer races , up to 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) , that were run in multiple heats . The older style of race favored older horses , but with the change in distances , younger horses became preferred .
Selective breeding for speed and racing ability led to improvements in the size of horses and winning times by the middle of the 19th century . Bay Middleton , a winner of the Epsom Derby , stood over 16 hands high , a full hand higher than the Darley Arabian . Winning times had improved to such a degree that many felt further improvement by adding additional Arabian bloodlines was impossible . This was borne out in 1885 , when a race was held between a Thoroughbred , Iambic , considered a mid @-@ grade runner , and the best Arabian of the time , Asil . The race was over 3 miles ( 4 @,@ 800 m ) , and although Iambic was handicapped by carrying 4 @.@ 5 stone ( 29 kg ; 63 lb ) more than Asil , he still managed to beat Asil by 20 lengths . An aspect of the modern British breeding establishment is that they breed not only for flat racing , but also for steeplechasing . Up until the end of the 19th century , Thoroughbreds were bred not only for racing but also as saddle horses .
Soon after the start of the 20th century , fears that the English races would be overrun with American @-@ bred Thoroughbreds because of the closing of US racetracks in the early 1910s , led to the Jersey Act of 1913 . It prohibited the registration of any horse in the General Stud Book ( GSB ) if they could not show that every ancestor traced to the GSB . This excluded most American @-@ bred horses , because the 100 @-@ year gap between the founding of the GSB and the American Stud Book meant that most American @-@ bred horses possessed at least one or two crosses to horses not registered in the GSB . The act was not repealed until 1949 , after which a horse was only required to show that all its ancestors to the ninth generation were registered in a recognized Stud Book . Many felt that the Jersey Act hampered the development of the British Thoroughbred by preventing breeders in the United Kingdom from using new bloodlines developed outside the British Isles .
= = = In America = = =
The first Thoroughbred horse in the American Colonies was Bulle Rock , imported in 1730 . Maryland and Virginia were the centers of Colonial Thoroughbred breeding , along with South Carolina and New York . During the American Revolution importations of horses from England practically stopped but were restarted after the signing of a peace treaty . Two important stallions were imported around the time of the Revolution ; Messenger in 1788 and Diomed before that . Messenger left little impact on the American Thoroughbred , but is considered a foundation sire of the Standardbred breed . Diomed , who won the Derby Stakes in 1780 , had a significant impact on American Thoroughbred breeding , mainly through his son Sir Archy . John F. Wall , a racing historian , said that Sir Archy was the " first outstanding stallion we can claim as native American . " He was retired from the racetrack because of lack of opponents .
After the American Revolution , the center of Thoroughbred breeding and racing in the United States moved west . Kentucky and Tennessee became notable centers . Andrew Jackson , later President of the United States , was a breeder and racer of Thoroughbreds in Tennessee . Famous match races held in the early 19th century helped popularize horse racing in the United States . One took place in 1823 , in Long Island , New York , between Sir Henry and American Eclipse . Another was a match race between Boston and Fashion in 1838 that featured bets of $ 20 @,@ 000 from each side . The last major match races before the American Civil War were both between Lexington and Lecompte . The first was held in 1854 in New Orleans and was won by Lecompte . Lexington 's owner then challenged Lecompte 's owner to a rematch , held in 1855 in New Orleans and won by Lexington . Both of these horses were sons of Boston , a descendant of Sir Archy . Lexington went on to a career as a breeding stallion , and led the sires list of number of winners for sixteen years , fourteen of them in a row .
After the American Civil War , the emphasis in American racing changed from the older style of four @-@ mile ( 6 km ) races in which the horses ran in at least two heats . The new style of racing involved shorter races not run in heats , over distances from five furlongs up to 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) . This development meant a change in breeding practices , as well as the age that horses were raced , with younger horses and sprinters coming to the fore . It was also after the Civil War that the American Thoroughbred returned to England to race . Iroquois became the first American @-@ bred winner of the Epsom Derby in 1881 . The success of American @-@ bred Thoroughbreds in England led to the Jersey Act in 1913 , which limited the importation of American Thoroughbreds into England . After World War I , the breeders in America continued to emphasize speed and early racing age but also imported horses from England , and this trend continued past World War II . After World War II , Thoroughbred breeding remained centered in Kentucky , but California , New York , and Florida also emerged as important racing and breeding centers .
Thoroughbreds in the United States have historically been used not only for racing but also to improve other breeds . The early import Messenger was the foundation of the Standardbred , and Thoroughbred blood was also instrumental in the development of the American Quarter Horse . The foundation stallion of the Morgan breed is held by some to have been sired by a Thoroughbred . Between World War I and World War II , the U.S. Army used Thoroughbred stallions as part of their Remount Service , which was designed to improve the stock of cavalry mounts .
= = = In Europe = = =
Thoroughbreds began to be imported to France in 1817 and 1818 with the importation of a number of stallions from England , but initially the sport of horse racing did not prosper in France . The first Jockey Club in France was not formed until 1833 , and in 1834 the racing and regulation functions were split off to a new society , the Societe d 'Encouragement pour l 'Amelioration des Races de Chevaux en France , better known as the Jockey @-@ Club de Paris . The French Stud Book was founded at the same time by the government . By 1876 , French @-@ bred Thoroughbreds were regularly winning races in England , and in that year a French breeder @-@ owner earned the most money in England on the track . World War I almost destroyed French breeding because of war damage and lack of races . After the war , the premier French race , the Grand Prix , resumed and continues to this day . During World War II , French Thoroughbred breeding did not suffer as it had during the first World War , and thus was able to compete on an equal footing with other countries after the war .
Organized racing in Italy started in 1837 , when race meets were established in Florence and Naples and a meet in Milan was founded in 1842 . Modern flat racing came to Rome in 1868 . Later importations , including the Derby Stakes winners Ellington ( 1856 ) and Melton ( 1885 ) , came to Italy before the end of the 19th century . Modern Thoroughbred breeding in Italy is mostly associated with the breeding program of Federico Tesio , who started his breeding program in 1898 . Tesio was the breeder of Nearco , one of the dominant sires of Thoroughbreds in the later part of the 20th century .
Other countries in Europe have Thoroughbred breeding programs , including Germany , Russia , Poland , and Hungary .
= = = In Australia and New Zealand = = =
Horses arrived in Australia with the First Fleet in 1788 along with the earliest colonists . Although horses of part @-@ Thoroughbred blood were imported into Australia during the late 18th century , it is thought that the first pureblood Thoroughbred was a stallion named Northumberland who was imported from England in 1802 as a coach horse sire . By 1810 , the first formal race meets were organized in Sydney , and by 1825 the first mare of proven Thoroughbred bloodlines arrived to join the Thoroughbred stallions already there . In 1825 , the Sydney Turf Club , the first true racing club in Australia , was formed . Throughout the 1830s , the Australian colonies began to import Thoroughbreds , almost exclusively for racing purposes , and to improve the local stock . Each colony formed its own racing clubs and held its own races . Gradually , the individual clubs were integrated into one overarching organization , now known as the Australian Racing Board . Thoroughbreds from Australia were imported into New Zealand in the 1840s and 1850s , with the first direct importation from England occurring in 1862 .
= = = In other areas = = =
Thoroughbreds have been exported to many other areas of the world since the breed was created . Oriental horses were imported into South Africa from the late 17th century in order to improve the local stock through crossbreeding . Horse racing was established there in the late 18th and early 19th centuries , and Thoroughbreds were imported in increasing numbers . The first Thoroughbred stallions arrived in Argentina in 1853 , but the first mares did not arrive until 1865 . The Argentine Stud Book was first published in 1893 . Thoroughbreds were imported into Japan from 1895 , although it was not until after World War II that Japan began a serious breeding and racing business involving Thoroughbreds .
= = Registration , breeding , and population = =
About 37 @,@ 000 Thoroughbred foals are registered each year in North America , with the largest numbers being registered in the states of Kentucky , Florida and California . Australia is the second largest producer of Thoroughbreds in the world with almost 30 @,@ 000 broodmares producing about 18 @,@ 250 foals annually . Britain produces about 5 @,@ 000 foals a year , and worldwide , there are more than 195 @,@ 000 active broodmares , or females being used for breeding , and 118 @,@ 000 newly registered foals in 2006 alone . The Thoroughbred industry is a large agribusiness , generating around $ 34 billion in revenue annually in the United States and providing about 470 @,@ 000 jobs through a network of farms , training centers and race tracks .
Unlike a significant number of registered breeds today , a horse cannot be registered as a Thoroughbred ( with The Jockey Club registry ) unless conceived by live cover , the witnessed natural mating of a mare and a stallion . Artificial insemination ( AI ) and embryo transfer ( ET ) , though commonly used and allowable in many other horse breed registries , cannot be used with Thoroughbreds . One reason is that a greater possibility of error exists in assigning parentage with AI , and although DNA and blood testing eliminate many of those concerns , AI still requires more detailed record keeping . The main reason , however , may be economic ; a stallion has a limited number of mares who can be serviced by live cover . Thus the practice prevents an oversupply of Thoroughbreds , although modern management still allows a stallion to live cover more mares in a season than was once thought possible . As an example , in 2008 , the Australian stallion Encosta De Lago covered 227 mares . By allowing a stallion to cover only a couple of hundred mares a year rather than the couple of thousand possible with AI , it also preserves the high prices paid for horses of the finest or most popular lineages .
Concern exists that the closed stud book and tightly regulated population of the Thoroughbred is at risk of loss of genetic diversity because of the level of inadvertent inbreeding inevitable in such a small population . According to one study , 78 % of alleles in the current population can be traced to 30 foundation animals , 27 of which are male . Ten foundation mares account for 72 % of maternal ( tail @-@ female ) lineages , and , as noted above , one stallion appears in 95 % of tail male lineages . Thoroughbred pedigrees are generally traced through the maternal line , called the distaff line . The line that a horse comes from will often determine the price paid regardless of the actual talent or potential of the horse .
= = Value = =
Prices of Thoroughbreds vary greatly , depending on age , pedigree , conformation , and other market factors . In 2007 , Keeneland Sales , a United States @-@ based sales company , sold 9 @,@ 124 horses at auction , with a total value of $ 814 @,@ 401 @,@ 000 , which gives an average price of $ 89 @,@ 259 . As a whole for the United States in 2007 , The Jockey Club auction statistics indicated that the average weanling sold for $ 44 @,@ 407 , the average yearling sold for $ 55 @,@ 300 , average sale price for two @-@ year @-@ olds was $ 61 @,@ 843 , broodmares averaged $ 70 @,@ 150 , and horses over two and broodmare prospects sold for an average of $ 53 @,@ 243 . For Europe , the July 2007 Tattersall 's Sale sold 593 horses at auction , with a total for the sale of 10 @,@ 951 @,@ 300 guineas , for an average of 18 @,@ 468 guineas . Also in 2007 , Doncaster Bloodstock Sales , another British sales firm , sold 2 @,@ 248 horses for a total value of 43 @,@ 033 @,@ 881 guineas , making an average of 15 @,@ 110 guineas per horse . Australian prices at auction during the 2007 @-@ 2008 racing and breeding season were as follows : 1 @,@ 223 Australian weanlings sold for a total of $ 31 @,@ 352 @,@ 000 , an average of $ 25 @,@ 635 each . 4 @,@ 903 yearlings sold for a total value of A $ 372 @,@ 003 @,@ 961 , an average of A $ 75 @,@ 853 . Five hundred two @-@ year @-@ olds sold for A $ 13 @,@ 030 @,@ 150 , an average of A $ 26 @,@ 060 , and 2 @,@ 118 broodmares totalled A $ 107 @,@ 720 @,@ 775 , an average of A $ 50 @,@ 860 .
Averages , however , can be deceiving . For example , at the 2007 Fall Yearling sale at Keeneland , 3 @,@ 799 young horses sold for a total of $ 385 @,@ 018 @,@ 600 , for an average of $ 101 @,@ 347 per horse . However , that average sales price reflected a variation that included at least 19 horses that sold for only $ 1 @,@ 000 each and 34 that sold for over $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 apiece .
The highest price paid at auction for a Thoroughbred was set in 2006 at $ 16 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 for a two @-@ year @-@ old colt named The Green Monkey . Record prices at auction often grab headlines , though they do not necessarily reflect the animal 's future success ; in the case of The Green Monkey , injuries limited him to only three career starts before being retired to stud in 2008 , and he never won a race . Conversely , even a highly successful Thoroughbred may be sold by the pound for a few hundred dollars to become horsemeat . The best @-@ known example of this was the 1986 Kentucky Derby winner Ferdinand , exported to Japan to stand at stud , but was ultimately slaughtered in 2002 , presumably for pet food .
However , the value of a Thoroughbred may also be influenced by the purse money it wins . In 2007 , Thoroughbred racehorses earned a total of $ 1 @,@ 217 @,@ 854 @,@ 602 in all placings , an average earnings per starter of $ 16 @,@ 924 . In addition , the track record of a race horse may influence its future value as a breeding animal .
Stud fees for stallions that enter breeding can range from $ 2 @,@ 500 to $ 500 @,@ 000 per mare in the United States , and from ₤ 2000 pounds to £ 75 @,@ 000 pounds or more in Britain . The record stud fee to date was set in the 1980s , when the stud fee of the late Northern Dancer reached $ 1 million . During the 2008 Australian breeding season seven stallions stood at a stud fee of A $ 110 @,@ 000 or more , with the highest fee in the nation at A $ 302 @,@ 500 .
= = Uses = =
Although the Thoroughbred is primarily bred for racing , the breed is also used for show jumping and combined training because of its athleticism , and many retired and retrained race horses become fine family riding horses , dressage horses , and youth show horses . The larger horses are sought after for hunter / jumper and dressage competitions , whereas the smaller horses are in demand as polo ponies .
= = = Horse racing = = =
Thoroughbred horses are primarily bred for racing under saddle at the gallop . Thoroughbreds are often known for being either distance runners or sprinters , and their conformation usually reflects what they have been bred to do . Sprinters are usually well muscled , while stayers , or distance runners , tend to be smaller and slimmer . The size of the horse is one consideration for buyers and trainers when choosing a potential racehorse . Although there have been champion racehorses of every height , from Zenyatta who stood 17 @.@ 2 hands , to Man o ' War and Secretariat who both stood at 16 @.@ 2 hands , down to Hyperion , who was only 15 @.@ 1 , the best racehorses are generally of average size . Larger horses mature more slowly and have more stress on their legs and feet , predisposing them to lameness . Smaller horses are considered by some to be at a disadvantage due to their shorter stride and a tendency of other horses to bump them , especially in the starting gate . Historically , Thoroughbreds have steadily increased in size : the average height of a Thoroughbred in 1700 was about 13 @.@ 3 hands high . By 1876 this had increased to 15 @.@ 3 .
In 2007 , there were 71 @,@ 959 horses who started in races in the United States , and the average Thoroughbred racehorse in the United States and Canada ran 6 @.@ 33 times in that year . In Australia , there were 31 @,@ 416 horses in training during 2007 , and those horses started 194 @,@ 066 times for A $ 375 @,@ 512 @,@ 579 of prize money . During 2007 , in Japan , there were 23 @,@ 859 horses in training and those horses started 182 @,@ 614 times for A $ 857 @,@ 446 @,@ 268 of prize money . In Britain , the British Racing Authority states there were 8 @,@ 556 horses in training for flat racing for 2007 , and those horses started 60 @,@ 081 times in 5 @,@ 659 races .
Statistically , fewer than 50 % of all race horses ever win a race , and less than 1 % ever win a stakes race such as the Kentucky Derby or the Epsom Derby . Any horse who has yet to win a race is known as a maiden .
Horses finished with a racing career that are not suitable for breeding purposes often become riding horses or other equine companions . A number of agencies exist to help make the transition from the racetrack to another career , or to help find retirement homes for ex @-@ racehorses .
= = = Other disciplines = = =
In addition to racing , Thoroughbreds compete in eventing , show jumping and dressage at the highest levels of international competition , including the Olympics . They are also used as show hunters , steeplechasers , and in western riding speed events such as barrel racing . Mounted police divisions employ them in non @-@ competitive work , and recreational riders also use them . Thoroughbreds are one of the most common breeds for use in polo in the United States . They are often seen in the fox hunting field as well .
= = = Crossbreeding = = =
Thoroughbreds are often crossed with horses of other breeds to create new breeds or to enhance or introduce specific qualities into existing ones . They have been influential on many modern breeds , including the American Quarter Horse , the Standardbred , and possibly the Morgan , a breed that went on to influence many of the gaited breeds in North America . Other common crosses with the Thoroughbred include crossbreeding with Arabian bloodlines to produce the Anglo @-@ Arabian as well as with the Irish Draught to produce the Irish Sport Horse . Thoroughbreds are often crossed with various Warmblood breeds due to their refinement and performance capabilities .
= = Health issues = =
Although Thoroughbreds are seen in the hunter @-@ jumper world and in other disciplines , modern Thoroughbreds are primarily bred for speed , and racehorses have a very high rate of accidents as well as other health problems .
One tenth of all Thoroughbreds suffer orthopedic problems , including fractures . Current estimates indicate that there are 1 @.@ 5 career @-@ ending breakdowns for every 1 @,@ 000 horses starting a race in the United States , an average of two horses per day . The State of California reported a particularly high rate of injury , 3 @.@ 5 per 1000 starts . Other countries report lower rates of injury , with the United Kingdom having 0 @.@ 9 injuries / 1 @,@ 000 starts ( 1990 – 1999 ) and the courses in Victoria , Australia , producing a rate of 0 @.@ 44 injuries / 1 @,@ 000 starts ( 1989 – 2004 ) . Thoroughbreds also have other health concerns , including a majority of animals who are prone to bleeding from the lungs ( exercise induced pulmonary hemorrhage ) , 10 % with low fertility , and 5 % with abnormally small hearts . Thoroughbreds also tend to have smaller hooves relative to their body mass than other breeds , with thin soles and walls and a lack of cartilage mass , which contributes to foot soreness , the most common source of lameness in racehorses .
= = = Selective breeding = = =
One argument for the health issues involving Thoroughbreds suggests that inbreeding is the culprit . It has also been suggested that capability for speed is enhanced in an already swift animal by raising muscle mass , a form of selective breeding that has created animals designed to win horse races . Thus , according to one postulation , the modern Thoroughbred travels faster than its skeletal structure can support . Veterinarian Robert Miller states that " We have selectively bred for speeds that the anatomy of the horse cannot always cope with . "
Poor breeding may be encouraged by the fact that many horses are sent to the breeding shed following an injury . If the injury is linked to a conformational fault , the fault is likely to be passed to the next generation . Additionally , some breeders will have a veterinarian perform straightening procedures on a horse with crooked legs . This can help increase the horse 's price at a sale and perhaps help the horse have a sounder racing career , but the genes for poor legs will still be passed on .
= = = Excess stress = = =
A high accident rate may also occur because Thoroughbreds , particularly in the United States , are first raced as 2 @-@ year @-@ olds , well before they are completely mature . Though they may appear full @-@ grown and are in superb muscular condition , their bones are not fully formed . However , catastrophic injury rates are higher in 4- and 5 @-@ year @-@ olds than in 2- and 3 @-@ year @-@ olds . Some believe that correct , slow training of a young horse ( including foals ) may actually be beneficial to the overall soundness of the animal . This is because , during the training process , microfractures occur in the leg followed by bone remodeling . If the remodeling is given sufficient time to heal , the bone becomes stronger . If proper remodeling occurs before hard training and racing begins , the horse will have a stronger musculoskeletal system and will have a decreased chance of injury .
Studies have shown that track surfaces , horseshoes with toe grabs , use of certain legal medications , and high @-@ intensity racing schedules may also contribute to a high injury rate . One promising trend is the development of synthetic surfaces for racetracks , and one of the first tracks to install such a surface , Turfway Park in Florence , Kentucky , saw its rate of fatal breakdowns drop from 24 in 2004 – 05 to three in the year following Polytrack installation . The material is not perfected , and some areas report problems related to winter weather , but studies are continuing .
= = = Medical challenges = = =
The level of treatment given to injured Thoroughbreds is often more intensive than for horses of lesser financial value but also controversial , due in part to the significant challenges in treating broken bones and other major leg injuries . Leg injuries that are not immediately fatal still may be life @-@ threatening because a horse 's weight must be distributed evenly on all four legs to prevent circulatory problems , laminitis , and other infections . If a horse loses the use of one leg temporarily , there is the risk that other legs will break down during the recovery period because they are carrying an abnormal weight load . While horses periodically lie down for brief periods of time , a horse cannot remain lying in the equivalent of a human 's " bed rest " because of the risk of developing sores , internal damage , and congestion .
Whenever a racing accident severely injures a well @-@ known horse , such as the major leg fractures that led to the euthanization of 2006 Kentucky Derby winner Barbaro , or 2008 Kentucky Derby runner @-@ up Eight Belles , animal rights groups have denounced the Thoroughbred racing industry . On the other hand , advocates of racing argue that without horse racing , far less funding and incentives would be available for medical and biomechanical research on horses . Although horse racing is hazardous , veterinary science has advanced . Previously hopeless cases can now be treated , and earlier detection through advanced imaging techniques like scintigraphy can keep at @-@ risk horses off the track .
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= Flatline ( song ) =
" Flatline " is a song by English girl group Mutya Keisha Siobhan , which consists of the original line @-@ up of the group Sugababes . Written by the trio alongside British artist Dev Hynes , who also produced it , it was released via digital retailers on 6 September 2013 by Polydor Records , who signed the band in 2012 . It is a synthpop song in which the drums and the male backing vocals get gradually stronger until a climactic part . Lyrically , it addresses the deterioration of a relationship .
Upon its release , " Flatline " received acclaim from music journalists , who favoured its production and the singers ' vocal harmonies . Commercially , the song charted at number 50 on the UK Singles Chart , however , it reached number 14 in Ireland . To promote the song , the group released a music video , directed by Auleta and filmed at Venice Beach . They have also performed " Flatline " at their Sacred Three Tour , and other headlining sets including Scala and G @-@ A @-@ Y.
= = Conception and release = =
In April 2012 , it was reported that the original line @-@ up of the Sugababes had signed a £ 1 million record deal with Polydor Records . In July 2012 , it was officially confirmed that the group had reformed under the name Mutya Keisha Siobhan and were writing songs for a new album under Polydor . The name was officially registered through the European Union on 27 June 2012 .
" Flatline " was written by Keisha Buchanan , Mutya Buena and Siobhán Donaghy , alongside British musician Dev Hynes . It was entirely developed and recorded in Los Angeles in February 2013 , after composing most of the material for their debut as Mutya Keisha Siobhan . The group specifically went to the city to record a " killer " lead single for their album . Travelling to Los Angeles resulted in the trio composing the song entirely in their first day in the city . Hynes started randomly playing the keyboard and bass , and invited the trio to " vibe with him " . The group pursued a Coldplay @-@ influenced sound for the song 's chorus , however after realizing that their voices were not " manly enough " , Hynes contacted band Spector member Fred Macpherson to sing backing vocals for the track ,
On 4 June 2013 , Mutya Keisha Siobhan announced the title of the song . They later uploaded a one @-@ minute , eleven @-@ second preview of the track to their official SoundCloud page on 13 June . The track was originally scheduled for release in the UK and Ireland on 1 September 2013 , but was then delayed until 15 September for unknown reasons . The release date was then changed a second time , being brought forward to 6 September . The release of the actual song was preceded by Polydor sending an EP to digital retailers , including 4 remixes of the song .
= = Composition = =
Having a length of three minutes and fifty @-@ one seconds ( 3 : 51 ) , " Flatline " is styled in the genres of pop and R & B , and was produced by Dev Hynes . It is composed in the key of G major , and contains a metronome of 128 beats per minute . Musically , it carries out a chord progression of D – Em – Bm – C , while the group members ' vocal ranges go from the notes of G3 to E5 . Lyrically , the song addresses the deterioration of a relationship , which is more visible on the song 's chorus , where the trio sings " I can feel a flatline , that ought to be a wave " .
It commences with a " noodly " guitar riff , set against a 90s @-@ inspired piano @-@ driven R & B melodies and " bubbling " 80s pop beats , which is reminiscent of the production found in American recording artist Solange Knowles ' extended play True — which , much like " Flatline " , was produced entirely by Hynes . Siobhán Donaghy sings the first verse of the track , being followed by Keisha Buchanan , who gives her vocals during the pre @-@ chorus , in which she references the playing cards King and Queen . After the chorus , the second verse is sung by Mutya Buena , and the song eventually enters a crescendo , as the backing vocals get louder and the drums stronger . This section of the song was described by Michael Cragg of The Guardian as being " Florence @-@ esque " , in which the group sings the chorus repeatedly along with several ad @-@ libs . A writer from Fact wrote that the song " build [ s ] from Robyn @-@ style melodrama into fist @-@ pumping stadium fare " .
= = Response = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
Since its release , the song has received widespread critical acclaim . Eve Barlow from NME claimed that it was " worth the 12 @-@ year wait " and dismissed the current Sugababes line @-@ up . Robert Copsey of Digital Spy was extremely positive about the song , awarding it five stars out of five , and commented : " [ It ] isn 't the sort of smack around the face you 'd normally expect but rather one that draws you in slowly but surely before swallowing you whole . " Writing for The Guardian , Michael Cragg said there was " something indescribably captivating " about the song , and likened it to the group 's debut single " Overload " — as the Sugababes . Laura Snapes from Pitchfork Media was enthusiastic about Hynes ' production , classifying it as " immaculate " , and highlighted the group 's vocal harmonies .
Billboard 's Jason Lipshutz called it an " immediately affecting " 2013 song and favoured the use of the word " miscellaneous " on its lyrics . Robbie Daw from the music website Idolator was in sync with the aforementioned comments , calling it a " synthy , handclappy , glorious pop gem that comes just in time for the summer " . Carl Smith of Sugarscape.com deemed " Flatline " " a bit amazing " and believed that the artists ' harmonies could rival the group Little Mix , while noting that the song did not follow any current musical trend . Bradley Stern from MuuMuse opined that the song had " revitalized the very essence " of the Sugababes , named it one of the best of 2013 and commented that it sounded like a newly recorded version of One Touch . Much like previous critics , Michelle Kambasha of DIY highlighted the singers ' harmonies and noted that Hynes had " inject [ ed ] his solid @-@ gold formula " to the song 's production .
Drowned in Sound 's writing staff picked " Flatline " included it in their list of 2013 's best songs on number sixteenth , as did Edge on the Net , that put it on seventh place .
= = = Chart performance = = =
Only entering two European charts , " Flatline " reached number 14 on the Irish Singles Chart , however it peaked at number 50 on the UK Singles Chart . The group denied allegations of it being a " flop " : " I don 't think our song got lost on the radio . I think there were certain things that happened behind the scenes that couldn 't be helped . Our goal was to put a song out that people liked and we think we 've done that " . They also expressed preference in going on tour and releasing an album than having a " throw @-@ away hit " on the charts . " To NME , Buchanan reiterated those sentiments and denied rumours floating at the time that speculated that the group had been dropped by Polydor .
= = Promotion = =
The official lyric video for " Flatline " was released online on 19 July 2013 . It was created by a fan named Jonas , who sent the visual to the group 's Twitter account . One week after , the singers announced that they would make it their official lyric video , and thanked him for the submission . The clip sees the group adopting " mod @-@ style " graphics , as the lyrics are spelled out in the screen in a colourful , 3D way . During their headline set at Scala , a nightclub in London , held on 1 August 2013 , Mutya Keisha Siobhan played various Sugababes @-@ era hits alongside new album songs , and closed the performance with a medley that mixed " Flatline " with select verses of " Push the Button " . On 19 August , it was announced that their first televised performance of " Flatline " would be on Alan Carr : Chatty Man . They eventually performed the single on 6 September episode of the show . Eleven days after , the trio performed the track during their set at gay nightclub G @-@ A @-@ Y. The trio also performed it during their tour , entitled The Sacred Three Tour .
= = Music video = =
The official music video for " Flatline " was shot by fashion photographer KT Auleta at the Venice Beach in Venice , Los Angeles , during the week of 8 — 14 July 2013 . The trio revealed that they had seen her work on the Italian edition of Vogue and thought it was " amazing " , therefore , they picked her to film the visual . The group described the video treatment which Auleta wrote as having " summed up how [ they ] felt about the song " , and further revealed that they opted to film the video in Los Angeles as it was the city in which they wrote " Flatline " with Hynes . The singers teased the music video with pictures of them at the set . The video was ultimately released on 19 August 2013 .
The visual begins with a shot of the three singers walking down a street in Venice Beach , followed by them getting ice cream and being on top of a motorcycle . As the singers lip @-@ sync their verses , the camera zooms in each singer . These are interspersed with clips of the trio standing in front of a wall with several graffitis . Later on , they are seen sitting on chairs on a beach , with " coquettish " sunglasses ; walking near the sea . As the song builds to its last compass , they run to an orange convertible , in which they drive to a desert . They reach the desert and are joined by a marching band , who play the drums heard in the song . The group exits the car and start dancing to the sound of the drums . The very last scene of the music video sees Siobhan driving them away as they have their hands in the air , and the screen fades to black .
For Popjustice , Michael Cragg said that the video did not " help the song " , and negatively regarded that it resembled a behind @-@ the @-@ scenes video of a photoshoot .
= = Track listing = =
= = Charts = =
= = Release history = =
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= Tree : A Life Story =
Tree : A Life Story ( or Tree : A Biography in Australia ) is a Canadian non @-@ fiction book written by David Suzuki and Wayne Grady , and illustrated by Robert Bateman . The book profiles the life of a Douglas @-@ fir tree , from seed to maturity to death . The story provides ecological context by describing interactions with other lifeforms in the forest and historical context through parallels with world events that occur during the tree 's 700 years of life . Digressions from the biographical narrative , scattered throughout the book , provide background into related topics , such as the history of botany .
Suzuki was inspired to write a biography of a tree when he noticed a Douglas @-@ fir with an uncharacteristic curve in its trunk and speculated what caused it to grow into that shape . Suzuki studied the topic with the help of a research assistant and solicited Grady to help write the book . Vancouver publishers Greystone Books released the book in September 2004 . In the Canadian market , it peaked at number three in the Maclean 's and the National Post 's non @-@ fiction best seller lists and was nominated for several awards . In February 2005 it was published in Australia by Allen & Unwin . The premise and writing were well received by critics . While several reviewers found that the authors succeeded in using accessible language , others found it too technical .
= = Background = =
Inspiration for the book came from a Douglas @-@ fir tree with a curve in its trunk . While sitting by the tree , at his home on Quadra Island , near Vancouver , David Suzuki realized that even though his family had played on it for years , he did not know how old it was or how its uncharacteristic curve had developed . Suzuki , a science writer and broadcaster , and former zoologist , speculated that the soil might have slid when the tree was young or that another plant might have blocked the sunlight . He thought that the tree must have endured much hardship throughout its life and made a connection between biographies of people and the story of this tree 's life . It also reminded him of an idea he had for a children 's book about interconnectivity of life , especially within plants . Along with a research assistant , he studied the topic . Suzuki started to write a draft but a busy schedule interfered so he sought a collaborator . Science writer and former Harrowsmith editor Wayne Grady agreed to participate . Suzuki provided the research , framework , and some original writing and Grady did most of the writing . Together , Grady in Ontario and Suzuki in Vancouver , went through five drafts . Wildlife artist Robert Bateman was brought into the project through social connections between the wives of Bateman and Suzuki . In creating the book , their intention was to illustrate the complexity and interconnectivity of this ecosystem by focusing on one tree 's role over time .
= = Synopsis = =
The book consists of five chapters : " Birth " , " Taking Root " , " Growth " , " Maturity " , and " Death " . The book opens with acknowledgments and an introduction , and closes with selected references and an index . In the introduction , Suzuki describes the tree at his home and the series of ideas and events that led to the writing of the book . Along with the narrative of the tree 's life , the book includes digressions into related topics , such as the history of botany and animal life in the forest . The tree written about in the book is not any specific Douglas @-@ fir , but rather a generic one .
The first chapter , " Birth " , begins with lightning starting a forest fire . The heat dries the Douglas @-@ fir cones enough for their scales to spread and release winged seeds . Rain water transports one seed to a sunlit area with well @-@ drained soil . Rodents and insectivores , whose food stashes were destroyed in the fire , eat truffles , which survived underground , and leave feces containing nitrogen @-@ fixing bacteria in the soil . Following one dormant winter stage , the seed begins to germinate .
In the second chapter , " Taking Root " , the embryonic root emerges through a small opening in the seed coat and through cell division , aided by plant hormones , it grows downward . Water and nutrients enter the root by osmosis and are transported to the seedling . A symbiotic relationship develops between the roots and the truffles . The roots give its extra sugars to the truffles , which it uses for energy , and the truffles assist the roots ' uptake of water and nutrients . From excess starches and nutrients gathered by the root , a stem similar to the root but surrounded with thin , grayish bark , grows upwards . As the starch reserves are exhausted , its first needles sprout and photosynthesis begins . The tree anchors itself with a deep taproot and a web of roots begin to grow laterally . Some roots develop symbiotic relationships with near @-@ by red alders which excel at nitrogen @-@ fixation but lack the storage capacity that the Douglas @-@ fir can offer . In early April of every year , a new layer grows between the bark and wood . As this new layer takes over transportation of fluids throughout the tree , last year 's layer of cells die and form a ring in the wood .
After about 20 years , the tree begins to develop fertile cones . Buds form where auxins accumulate ; these become either new needles or cones . The buds remain undifferentiated until July and continue to develop throughout the fall and winter . The next year , some buds will open in mid @-@ May exposing a new set of needles . The cone buds on the lower end of the tree while other buds burst open in April releasing a mist of pollen . The cones at the top of the tree open their scales for wind @-@ borne pollen to enter . Within the cone , the pollen fertilizes a seed which is released in September . The quantity and quality of seed production varies year @-@ to @-@ year but a particularly effective crop is produced about every 10 years . Less than 0 @.@ 1 % of seeds survive Douglas squirrels , dark @-@ eyed juncos , and other seed @-@ eating animals .
Over the centuries , the tree grows thicker and taller as successive rings develop around its trunk and new buds grow on the branches . The tree becomes part of an old growth forest with a shaded and damp understory of broadleaf trees , shrubs , and ferns . In the canopy , a mat of dead needles and lichen accumulate on the wide upper branches . Exposed to light , air , and rain , the needles decompose and the mat becomes colonized by insects , fungus , and new plants .
In the opening of the final chapter , " Death " , the tree is 550 years old and stands 80 meters ( 260 feet ) tall . Under the weight of too much snow accumulating on the canopy mat , a branch breaks off . Stresses from a long winter with a dry summer weaken the tree 's immune system . The exposed area where the branch broke becomes infected with insects and fungus . Insect larvae eat the buds and the fungus spreads into the middle of the tree and down to the roots . With its vascular tissue system compromised , the tree diverts nutrients elsewhere , resulting in needles turning orange on the abandoned branches . Death takes years to occur as successive parts are slowly starved of nutrients . As a snag , it becomes home to a succession of animals , like woodpeckers , owls , squirrels , and bats . Eventually the roots rot enough that a rainstorm blows it down . Mosses and fungi grow on the deadfall , followed by colonies of termites , ants , and mites , which all help decompose the remaining wood .
= = Genre and style = =
Tree is a popular science book , intended to profile the life of single tree using terminology targeted at a general audience . The narrative provides ecological context , describing animals and plants that interact with the tree , as well as historical context . Parallels to the tree 's age are made with historical events , like the tree taking root as empirical science was taking root in Europe during the life of 13th century philosopher Roger Bacon . The book is most commonly described , and marketed , as a " biography " . One reviewer grouped it with the 2005 book The Golden Spruce as part of a new genre : an " arbobiography " .
The book is written in the third person , omniscient , style . Grady 's writing moderates Suzuki 's characteristic rhetoric to create writing that is accessible , with a tone described as " a breezy casualness that welcomes the reader " . According to Suzuki , making the book accessible required telling the story from a human perspective , including some anthropomorphism of biological processes .
= = Publication = =
The book was published by Greystone Books , an imprint of Douglas & McIntyre based in Vancouver that specializes in nature , travel , and sports topics . They published the hardcover version of Tree in September 2004 . The book is small , measuring only 19 × 14 cm ( 7 @.@ 6 × 5 @.@ 4 inches ) with 192 pages . Suzuki and Grady promoted it through media interviews and book signing events across Canada . In February 2005 , Allen & Unwin published it in Australia as Tree : A Biography . The Recording for the Blind & Dyslexic released the audio book in April 2006 . Greystone Books published the trade paperback in February 2007 .
= = Reception = =
In the Canadian market , the hardcover edition peaked at number three in the MacLean 's and the National Post 's non @-@ fiction best seller lists . The magazine Science & Spirit published an excerpt in the January – February 2005 edition . It was nominated for the 2004 Canadian Science Writers ' Association 's Science in Society Journalism Award for ' General Audience Book ' , the 2005 B.C. Booksellers ' Choice Award and the 2006 Council on Botanical and Horticultural Libraries ' Annual Litereature Award for best ' General Interest ' book . The French translation was nominated for the 2006 Governor General 's Awards for best English to French translation .
The premise of a biography for a tree was well received . The writing was called engaging , lyrical , and compelling . Robert Wiersema wrote , " Tree is science writing at its finest . It 's sweeping but focused , keenly aware of both the minutiae and the big picture . ... Although some of the concepts are complex , the writing is always accessible ... Scientific matters are explained in layman 's terms , and the text never bogs down or bottlenecks . " However , some reviewers found the language too technical . In the Montreal Gazette , Bronwyn Chester wrote that the scientific language " dilut [ es ] our feeling and concern for this tree through too much information " . Robert Bateman 's black and white illustrations , while skilled , were said to add little to the narrative .
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= Glastonbury Festival =
Glastonbury Festival is a five @-@ day festival of contemporary performing arts that takes place near Pilton , Somerset . In addition to contemporary music , the festival hosts dance , comedy , theatre , circus , cabaret , and other arts . Leading pop and rock artists have headlined , alongside thousands of others appearing on smaller stages and performance areas . Films and albums recorded at Glastonbury have been released , and the festival receives extensive television and newspaper coverage . Glastonbury is the largest greenfield festival in the world , and is now attended by around 175 @,@ 000 people , requiring extensive infrastructure in terms of security , transport , water , and electricity supply . The majority of staff are volunteers , helping the festival to raise millions of pounds for good causes .
The festival is inspired by the ethos of the hippie , counterculture , and free festival movements . It retains vestiges of these traditions , such as the Green Fields area , which includes sections known as the Green Futures and Healing Fields . After the 1970s , the festival took place almost every year and grew in size , with the number of attendees sometimes being swollen by gatecrashers . Michael Eavis hosted the first festival , then called Pilton Festival , after seeing an open @-@ air Led Zeppelin concert at the 1970 Bath Festival of Blues and Progressive Music .
Glastonbury Festival was held intermittently from 1970 until 1981 ; since then , it has been held every year , except for " fallow years " taken every five years , intended to give the land , local population , and organisers a break .
= = History = =
A series of concerts , lectures and recitals called the Glastonbury Festivals was established with a summer school in the town of Glastonbury between 1914 and 1926 by classical composer Rutland Boughton ( 1878 – 1960 ) , and with their location attracted a bohemian audience by the standards of the time . They featured works by then @-@ contemporary composers , sponsored by the Clark family , as well as a wide range of traditional works , from Everyman to James Shirley 's Cupid and Death .
= = = 1970s = = =
= = = = Pilton Festival 1970 = = = =
Glastonbury was heavily influenced by hippie ethics and the free festival movement in the early 1970s , beginning with the Isle of Wight Festival , which featured performances by The Who , amongst many other artists . Organiser Michael Eavis decided to host the first festival , then called Pilton Festival , after seeing an open @-@ air concert headlined by Led Zeppelin at the 1970 Bath Festival of Blues and Progressive Music at the nearby Bath and West Showground in 1970 . The festival retains vestiges of this tradition such as the Green Fields area , encompassing the Green Futures and Healing Field .
The first festival at Worthy Farm was the Pilton Pop , Blues & Folk Festival , mounted by Michael Eavis on Saturday 19 September 1970 , and attended by 1 @,@ 500 people . The original headline acts were The Kinks and Wayne Fontana and the Mindbenders but these acts were replaced at short notice by Tyrannosaurus Rex , later known as T. Rex . Tickets were £ 1 . Other billed acts of note were Quintessence , Stackridge , and Al Stewart .
= = = = Glastonbury Free Festival 1971 = = = =
The " Glastonbury Fair " of 1971 was instigated by Andrew Kerr after being found and introduced to Michael Eavis by David Trippas and organised with help from Jean Bradbery , Kikan Eriksdotter , John Massara , Jeff Dexter , Arabella Churchill , Thomas Crimble , Bill Harkin , Gilberto Gil , Mark Irons , John Coleman , and Jytte Klamer . The 1971 festival featured the first incarnation of the " Pyramid Stage " . Conceived by Bill Harkin the stage was a one @-@ tenth replica of the Great Pyramid of Giza built from scaffolding and metal sheeting and positioned over a blind spring which was found by dowsing .
Performers included David Bowie , Mighty Baby , Traffic , Fairport Convention , Gong , Hawkwind , Skin Alley , The Worthy Farm Windfuckers and Melanie . It was paid for by its supporters and advocates of its ideal , and embraced a mediaeval tradition of music , dance , poetry , theatre , lights , and spontaneous entertainment . The 1971 festival was filmed by Nicolas Roeg and David Puttnam and was released as a film called simply Glastonbury Fayre .
= = = = Glastonbury Festival 1979 = = = =
There was a small unplanned event in 1978 , when the convoy of vehicles from the Stonehenge festival was directed by police to Worthy Farm ; the festival was then revived the following year ( 1979 ) by Churchill , Crimble , Kerr and Eavis , in an event for the Year of the Child , which lost money .
= = = 1980s = = =
The 1980s saw the festival become an annual fixture , barring periodic fallow years . In 1981 , Michael Eavis took control of the festival , and it was organised in conjunction with the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament ( CND ) . That year a new Pyramid Stage was constructed from telegraph poles and metal sheeting ( repurposed from materials of the Ministry of Defence ) , a permanent structure which doubled as a hay @-@ barn and cow @-@ shed during the winter .
In the 1980s , the children 's area of the festival ( which had been organised by Arabella Churchill and others ) became the starting point for a new children 's charity called Children 's World . 1981 was the first year that the festival made profits , and Eavis donated £ 20 @,@ 000 of them to CND . In the following years , donations were made to a number of organisations , and since the end of the Cold War the main beneficiaries have been Oxfam , Greenpeace and WaterAid , who all contribute towards the festival by providing features and volunteers , who work at the festival in exchange for free entry .
Since 1983 , large festivals have required licences from local authorities . This led to certain restrictions being placed on the festival , including a crowd limit and specified times during which the stages could operate . The crowd limit was initially set at 30 @,@ 000 but has grown every year to over 100 @,@ 000 .
1984 saw the stage invaded by children during The Smiths set . Weather Report played the main stage , and Elvis Costello headlined the last night for almost three hours .
In 1985 , the festival grew too large for Worthy Farm , but neighbouring Cockmill Farm was purchased . That year saw a wet festival with considerable rain ; Worthy Farm is a dairy farm and what washed down into the low areas was a mixture of mud and liquefied cow dung . This did not prevent festival @-@ goers from enjoying the knee @-@ deep slurry in front of the pyramid stage .
1989 was the first year that impromptu , unofficial sound systems sprung up around the festival site - a portent of things to come . These sound systems would play loud , electronic acid house music ' round the clock , with the largest , the Hypnosis sound system , rivaling the volume of some of the official stages and running non @-@ stop throughout the festival . These systems were seen by some as a refreshing wind of change that would rejuvenate a tired subculture , and by others as a blessed nuisance .
= = = 1990s = = =
The biggest festival yet was held in 1990 ; however , the day after the festival ended , violence - between the security guards and new age travellers ( the so @-@ called Battle of Yeoman 's Bridge ) - led to the organisers taking 1991 off to rethink the festival . An expanded festival returned in 1992 , and this proved a great success . 1992 was the first year that the new age travellers were not initially allowed onto the site free , and a sturdier fence was designed . This success was carried through to 1993 which , like 1992 , was hot and dry .
In 1994 , the Pyramid Stage burned down just over a week before the festival ; a temporary main stage was erected in time for the festival . The 1994 festival also introduced a 150 kW wind turbine which provided some of the festival power . This festival also included the setting of a new world record on 26 June when 826 people , juggling at least three objects each , kept 2 @,@ 478 objects in the air . This was also the year the festival was first televised by Channel 4 ; concentrating on the main two music stages , providing a glimpse of the festival for those who knew little of it . Channel 4 televised the festival the following year as well , which proved to be very successful .
The enhanced TV coverage in 1994 was a crucial factor in ensuring that Orbital 's performance at the festival achieved legendary status . As a result of Channel 4 's coverage , living rooms across the country were able to experience what a rave might look like , and suddenly dance music - which had been attacked by the establishment and mainstream press for years - didn 't seem so dangerous . Indeed , 1994 was a crucial turning point for dance music 's role at the festival . Speaking to The Guardian in 2013 about the Orbital gig , Michael Eavis noted that it marked dance music 's appearance on the mainstream agenda . " What was previously underground made it on to one of the big stages , and there was no going back from there . As the police and the council made me very well aware , the buzz had been around the raves and the market sound systems and in the travellers ' fields for years . But it needed a showcase to make it legal . " The gig opened the way for others such as the Chemical Brothers , Massive Attack and Underworld , who all played high @-@ profile stages in the following years – developments that led to the launch of the festival 's Dance Village in 1997 .
1995 saw the attendance rise drastically due to the security fence being breached on the Friday of the festival . Estimates suggest there may have been enough fence @-@ jumpers to double the size of the festival . This aside , 1995 proved to be a highly successful year with memorable performances from Oasis , Elastica , Pulp , PJ Harvey , Jeff Buckley , Jamiroquai and The Cure . This was also the first year of the festival having a dance tent to cater for the rise in popularity of dance music , following the success of Orbital 's headline appearance the previous year . The dance acts of 1995 were led by Massive Attack on the Friday and Carl Cox on the Saturday . The festival took a year off in 1996 to allow the land to recover and give the organisers a break . This would be a pattern which would be followed every five years until 2011 , with the gap year moving to 2012 . 1996 also saw the release of Glastonbury the Movie which was filmed at the 1993 and 1994 festivals .
The festival returned in 1997 bigger than ever . This time there was major sponsorship from The Guardian and the BBC , who had taken over televising the event from Channel 4 . This was also the year of the mud , with the site suffering severe rainfalls which turned the entire site into a muddy bog . However those who stayed for the festival were treated to many memorable performances , including Radiohead 's headlining Pyramid Stage set on the Saturday which is said to be one of the greatest ever Glastonbury performances . The live recording of " Paranoid Android " from this performance , as well as others such as " The Day Before Yesterday 's Man " by The Supernaturals , were released on a BBC CD entitled Mud For It .
In 1998 the festival was once again struck with severe floods and storms , and again some festival goers departed early - but those who stayed were treated to performances from acts such as Pulp , Robbie Williams and Blur . Tony Bennett , however , overcame the messy environment in an immaculate white suit and tie . 1998 was also the first year that attendance officially broke the 100 @,@ 000 mark .
Another hot dry year was recorded in 1999 , much to the relief of organisers and festival goers . The festival was again overcrowded due to fence @-@ jumpers , but this would not prove to be a major problem until the following year , when an additional 100 @,@ 000 people gatecrashed the site , increasing the attendance to an estimated 250 @,@ 000 people total . The 1999 festival is also remembered for the Manic Street Preachers requesting and being given their own backstage toilets ; however , it was revealed by the band that this was a joke - the " reserved " sign on the toilet was not at the authorisation of the management .
= = = 2000s = = =
2000 saw a new Pyramid Stage introduced as well as new features such as The Glade and The Leftfield . The festival was headlined by Pet Shop Boys and David Bowie playing 30 years after his first appearance . The Pyramid Stage also hosted an unusual event on the Saturday morning , with the wedding of two festival @-@ goers , who had written to the organisers asking for permission to get married there , taking place and conducted by actor Keith Allen in front of a small group of friends and any other festival @-@ goers who still happened to be awake . This year also saw an estimated 250 @,@ 000 people attend the festival ( only 100 @,@ 000 tickets were sold ) due to gatecrashers . This led to public safety concerns and the local District Council refused any further licences until the problem was solved . The organisers took 2001 off to devise anti @-@ gatecrashing measures and secure the future of the festival , after the Roskilde Festival 2000 accident ( though this was also a scheduled break , one which took place every five years from 1991 , the year after the battle of Yeoman 's Bridge , until the 2012 Olympics extended the five @-@ year sequence from the planned 2011 rest year ) . It was at this point that the Mean Fiddler Organisation was invited to help , which was seen by some as a " sell @-@ out " to corporate culture .
In 2002 , the festival returned after its planned fallow year , with the controversial Mean Fiddler now handling the logistics and security — especially installing a substantial surrounding fence ( dubbed the " superfence " ) that reduced numbers to the levels of a decade earlier . The lower attendance led to a much more relaxed atmosphere and massively reduced crime levels compared to previous years . There were some incidents outside the fence involving frustrated individuals who arrived at the festival assuming they would be able to simply jump the fence and not pay for the music and performances , but despite this the event was hailed as a great success by the media companies that had taken an interest in the festival . 2002 also saw Coldplay headline the Pyramid Stage for the first time while the show was closed by a set from Rod Stewart on the Sunday night .
There were some criticisms of the 2002 festival that it lacked atmosphere , because of the reduced number of people , which reflected the smaller numbers jumping the fence . The number of tickets was increased to 150 @,@ 000 for 2003 which sold out within one day of going on sale , in marked contrast to the two months it took to sell 140 @,@ 000 in 2002 . It was also the first year that tickets sold out before the full line @-@ up was announced . This was also the year Radiohead returned to headline the Pyramid Stage . Revenue raised for good causes from ticket and commercial licence sales topped £ 1 million , half of which went to Oxfam , Greenpeace and Water Aid .
In 2004 , tickets sold out within 24 hours amid much controversy over the ticket ordering process , which left potential festival goers trying for hours to connect to the overloaded telephone and internet sites . The website got two million attempted connections within the first five minutes of the tickets going on sale and an average of 2 @,@ 500 people on the phone lines every minute . The festival was not hit by extreme weather , but high winds on the Wednesday delayed entry , and steady rain throughout Saturday turned some areas of the site to mud . The festival ended with Muse headlining the Pyramid Stage on Sunday , after Oasis had headlined on Friday . Franz Ferdinand and Sir Paul McCartney also performed . In the British press publications appeared about the use of psychedelic drugs by festival visitors . The magazine NME pronounced that 2004 would be " the third summer of love " due to the resurgence of the " shroom " that was praised as a natural alternative to ecstasy , which was said to be declining in popularity ( LSD fuelled the first summer of love in 1967 ; ecstasy and LSD the second in 1988 ) .
After the 2004 festival , Michael Eavis commented that 2006 would be a year off — in keeping with the previous history of taking one " fallow year " in every five to give the villagers and surrounding areas a rest from the yearly disruption . This was confirmed after the licence for 2005 was granted .
In 2005 the 112 @,@ 500 ticket quota sold out rapidly — in this case in 3 hours 20 minutes . For 2005 , the enclosed area of the festival was over 900 acres ( 3 @.@ 6 km2 ) , had over 385 live performances , and was attended by around 150 @,@ 000 people . The Sunday headliner was originally scheduled to be Kylie Minogue , who instead pulled out in May to receive treatment for breast cancer . Basement Jaxx were announced as a replacement on 6 June . Both Coldplay and Basement Jaxx performed a cover of Kylie 's " Can 't Get You Out Of My Head " during their concert . 2005 saw a big increase in the number of dance music attractions , with the multiple tents of the Dance Village replacing the solitary dance tent of previous years . This new area contained the East and West dance tents , the Dance Lounge , Roots Stage , and Pussy Parlour , as well as a relocated G Stage , formerly situated in the Glade . The introduction of the innovative silent disco by Emily Eavis allowed revellers to party into the early hours without disturbing the locals — a requirement of the festival 's licensing . Following the death of DJ John Peel in the autumn of 2004 , the New Tent was renamed the John Peel Tent , in homage to his encouragement and love of new bands at Glastonbury . The opening day of the 2005 festival was delayed by heavy rain and thunderstorms : Several stages , including the Acoustic Tent ( and one of the bars ) , were struck by lightning , and the valley was hit with flash floods that left some areas of the site under more than four feet of water . The severity of the weather flooded several campsites , the worst affected being the base of Pennard Hill , and seriously disrupted site services . However Mendip District Council 's review of the festival called it one of the " safest ever " and gives the festival a glowing report in how it dealt with the floods .
There was no festival in 2006 . Instead , a documentary film directed by Julien Temple was released to make up for the lack of a festival . The film consists of specially shot footage by Temple at the festival , as well as footage sent in by fans and archive footage . Glastonbury was released in the UK on 14 April 2006 .
Glastonbury 2007 ( 20 – 24 June ) was headlined by Arctic Monkeys , The Killers , and The Who on Friday , Saturday and Sunday , respectively . Dame Shirley Bassey was also featured . In 2007 , over 700 acts played on over 80 stages and the capacity expanded by 20 @,@ 000 to 177 @,@ 000 . This was the first year that " The Park " area opened . Designed by Emily Eavis , its main stage featured extra sets by several artists playing on the main stages including Pete Doherty and Gruff Rhys , whilst the BBC launched their new " Introducing " stage in the area . The festival had the largest attendance since the construction of the security fence , and the largest legitimate attendance to date : ticket allocation was raised by 27 @,@ 500 to 137 @,@ 500 , which were charged at £ 145 and sold out in 1 hour 45 minutes . As an extra precaution against touts ( scalpers ) , purchasers had to pre @-@ register , including submission of a passport photo which was security printed into the ticket . Continued periods of rain throughout much of the festival caused muddy conditions , though without the flooding of 2005 , in part due to the new £ 750 @,@ 000 flood defences . However this constant rain made the general conditions within the site worse than 2 years before and more like the mud plains of 1998 . It was difficult to find anywhere to sit down that had not turned to mud and key choke points , such as the thoroughfare at the front right of the Pyramid stage , turned into a quagmire . Muddy conditions on the temporary roads on the periphery of the site led to delays for people leaving the site . On 25 June , when the vast majority of festival goers were attempting to leave the festival , cars in the western car parks took over nine hours to exit the site . There was no stewarding provision in these areas , no information was disseminated regarding the delays , no organised marshalling of traffic was undertaken by the festival organisers , and no provision of drinking water was made to people stranded in their vehicles . Verbal and physical violence was witnessed between festival goers . When cars were finally allowed to leave the site the surrounding roads were found to be clear . Reported crime was down from 2005 but the number of arrests were " well up " , after a proactive operation of the police and security on site . There were 236 reported crimes , down from 267 in 2005 ; of these , 158 were drug related ( 183 in 2005 ) . 1 @,@ 200 people required medical aid with 32 hospitalised , most of which were accidents caused by the mud . There was one fatality : a West Midlands man found unconscious early on the Saturday morning died in Yeovil District Hospital of a suspected drugs overdose .
On 20 December 2007 , Arabella Churchill , an instrumental figure in the conception of the 1971 festival and since the 1980s area coordinator of the Theatre Field , died at St Edmund 's Cottages , Bove Town , Glastonbury at the age of 58 . She had suffered a short illness due to pancreatic cancer , for which she had refused chemotherapy and radiotherapy . She was a convert to Buddhism , and arrangements following her death respected her belief . Michael Eavis , paying tribute to her after her death , said " Her vitality and great sense of morality and social responsibility have given her a place in our festival history second to none " .
The Glastonbury Festival 2008 was held on 27 , 28 and 29 June , headlined by Kings of Leon , Jay @-@ Z and The Verve on Friday , Saturday and Sunday , respectively , with other notable acts including Neil Diamond , Shakin ' Stevens , The Levellers , and Stackridge , who opened the first festival in 1970 . Continuing the procedure introduced in 2007 , ticket buyers had to pre @-@ register and submit a passport photo between the 1 February and 14 March in order to buy tickets which went on sale at 9 am on Sunday 6 April . Following 40 @,@ 000 tickets not being sold , the pre @-@ registration process was reopened on 8 April . Several reasons have been cited for this , including the poor weather of the previous four years and the controversial choice of featuring the hip hop artist , Jay @-@ Z , as a headlining act . A day before the festival began , Michael Eavis announced that there were still around 3 @,@ 000 tickets remaining , making it possible that it would be the first festival in 15 years not to sell out in advance . It had also been announced that any remaining tickets would be sold from major branches of HMV . This year saw the introduction of a new field adjacent to the Sacred space and Park Stage . Not named by the organisers , the festival goers themselves called it " Flagtopia " in reference to the flags located there . After the huge number of tents left behind in 2007 and when one of Michael Eavis 's cows died after ingesting a metal tent @-@ peg left in the soil , the Festival devised its Love the Farm , Leave No Trace campaign which gently pushed revellers to respect the environment and clear up after themselves . The Festival had always pushed a green agenda and new initiatives in 2008 included biodegradable tent pegs handed out free to all campers and biotractors running on waste vegetable oil . These new efforts were rewarded with The Greener Festival Award for 2008 alongside a number of other festivals also committed to environmentally friendly music festivals . The 2008 festival was reported to have cost £ 22 million to produce .
The Glastonbury Festival 2009 took place between 24 and 28 June 2009 . In marked contrast with previous years , the 137 @,@ 500 tickets went on sale on 5 October 2008 , earlier than ever before , with pre @-@ registered customers able either to pay in full , or place a £ 50 reserve deposit to be paid by 1 February . Tickets for the festival sold out . The full line up was released on 25 May 2009 and included headliners Blur , Bruce Springsteen and Neil Young on the Pyramid stage . The Other stage was headlined by The Prodigy , Bloc Party and Franz Ferdinand . Other notable performers included Jarvis Cocker , Rolf Harris , Fairport Convention ( who played at the first Glastonbury Festival ) , Tom Jones , Steel Pulse , Doves , Lady Gaga , Jason Mraz , Nick Cave , Pete Doherty , Hugh Cornwell , Status Quo , The Gaslight Anthem ( in which Springsteen appeared on stage during their song " The ' 59 Sound " ) , Madness , Dizzee Rascal , Crosby , Stills & Nash , Lily Allen , Kasabian , Florence and the Machine , Alejandro Toledo and the Magic Tombolinos .
= = = 2010s = = =
The Glastonbury Festival 2010 took place between 23 and 28 June . On the last night , Michael Eavis appeared on the main stage with headline artist Stevie Wonder to sing the chorus of the latter 's " Happy Birthday " , marking the festival 's 40th year . Tickets went on sale on 4 October 2009 , using the same £ 50 deposit scheme introduced the previous year ; unlike the previous two years , and more in common with earlier festivals , the tickets for the 2010 edition sold out in less than 24 hours . U2 were due to headline the Pyramid Stage on Friday night at Glastonbury 2010 , but due to Bono sustaining a back injury they were forced to pull out . According to the media , Bono was " gutted " , even having written a song especially for the festival . Damon Albarn 's Gorillaz were brought in to replace U2 , and joined Muse and Stevie Wonder for the Saturday and Sunday headline slots respectively . It would be Damon Albarn 's second headlining act in two years . Pet Shop Boys returned after 10 years to headline the Other Stage on the Saturday Night . The entire stage set from their Pandemonium Tour was brought in for the performance which was extremely well received . Radiohead 's Thom Yorke and Jonny Greenwood made a surprise appearance with a nine song set . The weather at the festival was among some of the best ever , the festival @-@ goers enjoying 3 days of abundant sunshine and very warm to hot temperatures , which reached close to 30 degrees on the Sunday ; it was the first rain @-@ free festival since 2002 and the hottest since the festival began .
During 2010 Michael Eavis received a donation from British Waterways of timber from the old gates at Caen Hill Locks in Wiltshire . This was used to construct a new bridge which was dedicated to the memory of Arabella Churchill . The following year more of the redundant lock gates were used to build the Campo Pequeno amphitheatre .
The Glastonbury Festival 2011 took place from Wednesday 22 until Sunday 26 June 2011 . The tickets were sold out within 4 hours of going on sale on Sunday 3 October 2010 . Headline acts for 2011 were U2 on the Friday night , Coldplay on the Saturday and Beyoncé on Sunday . This made Beyoncé the first woman to headline at the festival since 1999 .
The festival was not held in 2012 , giving the site and organisers a " fallow year " which originally would have been in 2011 , in keeping with the tradition of taking a break every fifth year . Michael Eavis cited the shortage and likely cost of portable toilets and policing , due to the needs of the 2012 Summer Olympics , as being amongst the reasons . The decision to move the fallow year to 2012 also proved to be a fortunate one , as Somerset experienced spells of persistent heavy rain in the period up to and including the week that the festival would normally have been held . Indeed , Emily Eavis suggested that the festival itself might have been called off , such was the severity of the weather . Registration for tickets to the 2013 festival began in June 2011 and ticket booking opened at 9am on Sunday 7 October 2012 , with 135 @,@ 000 selling out in a record time of one hour and forty minutes .
To mark the 2012 Glastonbury weekend , Eavis was invited to guest edit the local paper , the Western Daily Press , on Saturday 23 June .
During the 2014 festival , a 26 @-@ year @-@ old Berkshire man suffered from a suspected reaction to Ketamine and later died in Bristol Royal Infirmary . Despite this , police reported that crime was down 30 % from last year but reminded festival goers to look after their possessions .
Before the 2015 festival Foo Fighters frontman Dave Grohl fell off a stage during a show in Gothenburg a few weeks before and broke his leg , forcing their late withdrawal from the line @-@ up . Florence and the Machine were moved from second @-@ top on the bill to Friday 's headliner , while Florence 's vacant gap was filled by Reading & Leeds headliners The Libertines , and their performance was well received . Kanye West and The Who were the headliners for the Saturday and Sunday , respectively . Other notable acts who performed included Motorhead ( their final festival appearance in the UK before Lemmy 's death ) , Pharrell Williams , Deadmau5 , Patti Smith , the Strypes , Lionel Richie , Catfish and the Bottlemen , Enter Shikari , the Chemical Brothers , Alt @-@ J , Paloma Faith , Mary J. Blige and Paul Weller , as well as an appearance by the 14th Dalai Lama .
On 28 August 2015 it was announced that hundreds of pairs of discarded wellington boots from the 2015 festival were donated to the migrant camp at Calais .
= = Organisation = =
Since 1981 , the festival has been organised by local farmer and site owner Michael Eavis ( through his company Glastonbury Festivals Ltd ) . Eavis ran the festival with his wife Jean until her death in 1999 , and is now assisted by his daughter Emily Eavis . Since 2002 , Festival Republic ( a company consisting of both Live Nation and MCD ) has taken on the job of managing the logistics and security of the festival through a 40 % stake in the festival management company . Each year a company , joint owned by Glastonbury Festivals Ltd and Festival Republic , is created to run the festival , with profits going to the parent companies . Glastonbury Festivals Ltd donates most of their profits to charities , including donations to local charity and community groups and paying for the purchase and restoration of the Tithe Barn in Pilton .
Several stages and areas are managed independently , such as The Left Field which is managed by a cooperative owned by Battersea and Wandsworth TUC , Worthy FM and a field run by Greenpeace . The sound systems on site have a total power of 650 @,@ 000 watts , with the main stage having 250 speakers . There are over 4 @,@ 000 toilets , 2000 long @-@ drop and 1300 compost , with water supplies including two reservoirs holding 2 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 litres ( 440 @,@ 000 imp gal ) of water .
With the exception of technical and security staff , the festival is mainly run by volunteers . Some 2000 stewards are organised by the aid charity Oxfam . In return for their work at the festival Oxfam receive a donation , which in 2005 was £ 200 @,@ 000 . Medical facilities are provided by Festival Medical Services who have done so since 1979 . The bars are organised by the Workers Beer Company , sponsored by Carlsberg ( previously Budweiser ) , who recruit teams of volunteer staff from small charities and campaign groups . In return for their help , typically around 18 hours over the festival , volunteers are paid in free entry , transport and food , while their charities receive the wages the volunteers earn over the event .
Catering , and some retail services , are provided by various small companies , typically mobile catering vans , with over 400 food stalls on site in 2010 . The camping retail chain Millets , and independent shops , set up makeshift outlets at the festival . Additionally charities and organisations run promotional or educational stalls , such as the Hare Krishna tent which provide free vegetarian food . Network Recycling manage refuse on the site , and in 2004 recycled 300 tonnes and composted 110 tonnes of waste from the site .
Significant logistical operations take place to bring people into the festival by public transport each year . Additional festival trains are provided to Castle Cary railway station , mostly from London Paddington . The station operates as a mini hub with waiting shuttle buses transferring passengers from Castle Cary to the festival site as required . This is an intensive operation on the Wednesday and Thursday each year with local bus and coach operators providing these buses over the two days . Additional extra buses normally provided by Go South Coast run from Bristol to the festival . On the Monday , passengers are transferred back in just one day with additional buses provided to meet the increased requirement . National Express provide extra coaches direct to the festival site from major UK towns and much of this work is subcontracted to smaller coach operators to provide the capacity required .
The festival is powered by Aggreko who provide over 27 megawatts of power to the site with 250 bio @-@ diesel generators , run on 60 @,@ 000 litres of waste vegetable oil ( WVO ) fuel . The power generated is enough to power the city of Bath and the Pyramid Stage is powered by 4 generators itself . There is 24 km of festoon lighting around the site , also installed by Aggreko . This is run with time clocks so the lights are only on when they are needed , contributing to the festival 's green requirements .
= = Location = =
The festival takes place in south west England at Worthy Farm between the small villages of Pilton and Pylle in Somerset , six miles east of Glastonbury , overlooked by the Glastonbury Tor in the " Vale of Avalon " . The area has a number of legends and spiritual traditions , and is a " New Age " site of interest : ley lines are considered to converge on the Tor . The nearest town to the festival site is Shepton Mallet , three miles ( 5 km ) north east , but there continues to be interaction between the people espousing alternative lifestyles living in Glastonbury and the festival . The farm is situated between the A361 and A37 roads .
Worthy Farm is situated at grid reference ST 590 397 in a valley at the head of the Whitelake River , between two low limestone ridges , part of the southern edge of the Mendip Hills . On the site is a confluence of the two small streams that make the Whitelake River . In the past the site has experienced problems with flooding , though after the floods that occurred during the 1997 and 1998 festival , drainage was improved . This did not prevent flooding during the 2005 festival , but allowed the flood water to dissipate within hours . The Highbridge branch of the Somerset and Dorset Joint Railway ran through the farm on an embankment , but was dismantled in 1966 and now forms a main thoroughfare across the site . Another prominent feature is the high @-@ voltage electricity line which crosses the site east @-@ west .
In recent years the site has been organised around a restricted backstage compound , with the Pyramid stage on the north , and Other stage on the south of the compound . Attractions on the east of the site include the acoustic tent , comedy tent and circus . To the south are the green fields , which include displays of traditional and environmentally friendly crafts . In King 's Meadow , the hill at the far south of the site , is a small megalith circle which , like Stonehenge , is coordinated with the summer solstice , and since 1990 represents a Stone circle .
= = Lineups = =
= = Accommodation = =
Most people who stay at Glastonbury Festival camp in a tent . There are many different camping areas , each with its own atmosphere . Limekilns and Hitchin Hill Ground are quieter camping areas , whereas Pennard Hill Ground is a lively campsite . Cockmill Meadow is a family campsite and Wicket Ground was introduced in 2011 as a second family @-@ only campsite . A disabled campsite is also available in Spring Ground . Campsite accommodation is provided in the cost of a standard entry ticket but festival @-@ goers must bring their own tents . Tipis have been at the festival for many years . A limited number of fixed tipis are available for hire at the tipi field near the stone circle . Up to six adults can stay in each tipi and each one comes with a groundsheet and raincatcher . Internal bedding and camping equipment is not provided . Tipi Park also offers solar showers and a log @-@ fired yurt sauna to cap off the experience .
Campervans , caravans and trailer tents are not allowed into the main festival site . However the purchase of a campervan ticket in addition to the main ticket allows access to fields just outside the boundary fence ; and the cost includes access for the campervan or towing vehicle and the caravan ; the car , or other vehicle used to tow the caravan , may be parked alongside it but sleeping is only authorised in the campervan / caravan and connected awning , not in the accompanying vehicle . One additional tent may accompany the caravan / campervan if space within the plot allows . Some people choose to bring or hire a motorhome , though drivers of larger vehicles or motorhomes may have to purchase a second campervan ticket if they cannot fit within the defined plot . The 2009 festival saw changes to the campervan fields ; commercial vehicles were no longer classed as ' campervans ' , all campervans had to have a fitted sleeping area and either washing or cooking facilities , and caravans and trailer tents were allowed back at the festival . Prior to this only campervans were allowed on site , caravans and trailers being banned in the early 1990s after a number were stuck in the mud and abandoned .
Festival @-@ goers can stay at local B & B accommodation but most are not within walking distance of the festival . There are several independent Glastonbury accommodation providers close to the main site , which include smaller campsites for tents , gypsy caravans , geo @-@ domes , private cottages and more - some festival goers choose to be ferried between the festival and their accommodation by quad @-@ bike or even private helicopter .
= = Cultural references = =
Various artists have written songs entitled Glastonbury or about the festival including Nizlopi , The Waterboys and Scouting for Girls . Cosmic Rough Riders included " Glastonbury Revisited " on their album Enjoy The Melodic Sunshine ( Poptones ) in 2000 . Amy Macdonald , in her song " Let 's Start a Band " referenced Glastonbury : " Give me a festival and I 'll be your Glastonbury star . " Robbie Williams , in his song " The 90s " , refers to his surprise appearance on stage with Oasis in 1995 , which ultimately led to him leaving Take That : " Everybody 's worried ' what the fuck 's wrong with Robbie ? He 's not answering his phone , he 's not talking to me , I saw him on the telly at Glastonbury ' . " Joe Strummer wrote the song " Coma Girl " about his experiences at Glastonbury , — in a BBC interview Bruce Springsteen cited the song as inspiring him to play the 2009 festival . U2 wrote a song titled " Glastonbury " that was supposed to premier with their appearance at the festival , but an injury to Bono forced them to cancel . They instead premièred it in a concert in Turin on their 360 ° Tour . Marcus Brigstocke 's comic creation Giles Wemmbley Hogg had a special mock @-@ documentary made about him going to Glastonbury as part of the Giles Wemmbley @-@ Hogg Goes Off series . Deborah Crombie 's novel A Finer End takes place in Glastonbury with references to a fictional account of an original 1914 Glastonbury Fayre as well as the contemporary festival . Glastonbury is also a setting in John Osborne 's 2014 Radio 4 show The New Blur Album .
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= Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter =
Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter ( MRO ) is a multipurpose spacecraft designed to conduct reconnaissance and exploration of Mars from orbit . The US $ 720 million spacecraft was built by Lockheed Martin under the supervision of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory ( JPL ) . The mission is managed by the California Institute of Technology , at the JPL , in La Cañada Flintridge , California , for the NASA Science Mission Directorate , Washington , D.C. It was launched August 12 , 2005 , and attained Martian orbit on March 10 , 2006 . In November 2006 , after five months of aerobraking , it entered its final science orbit and began its primary science phase . As MRO entered orbit , it joined five other active spacecraft that were either in orbit or on the planet 's surface : Mars Global Surveyor , Mars Express , 2001 Mars Odyssey , and the two Mars Exploration Rovers ( Spirit and Opportunity ) ; at the time , this set a record for the most operational spacecraft in the immediate vicinity of Mars . Mars Global Surveyor and the Spirit rover have since ceased to function ; the remainder remain operational as of March 2016 .
MRO contains a host of scientific instruments such as cameras , spectrometers , and radar , which are used to analyze the landforms , stratigraphy , minerals , and ice of Mars . It paves the way for future spacecraft by monitoring Mars ' daily weather and surface conditions , studying potential landing sites , and hosting a new telecommunications system . MRO 's telecommunications system will transfer more data back to Earth than all previous interplanetary missions combined , and MRO will serve as a highly capable relay satellite for future missions .
= = Pre @-@ launch = =
One of two missions considered for the 2003 Mars launch window , the MRO proposal lost against what became known as the Mars Exploration Rovers . The orbiter mission was rescheduled for launch in 2005 , and NASA announced its final name , Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter , on October 26 , 2000 .
MRO is modeled after NASA 's highly successful Mars Global Surveyor to conduct surveillance of Mars from orbit . Early specifications of the satellite included a large camera to take high resolution pictures of Mars . In this regard , James B. Garvin , the Mars exploration program scientist for NASA , proclaimed that MRO would be a " microscope in orbit " . The satellite was also to include a visible @-@ near @-@ infrared spectrograph .
On October 3 , 2001 , NASA chose Lockheed Martin as the primary contractor for the spacecraft 's fabrication . By the end of 2001 all of the mission 's instruments were selected . There were no major setbacks during MRO 's construction , and the spacecraft was moved to John F. Kennedy Space Center on May 1 , 2005 to prepare it for launch .
= = Mission objectives = =
MRO science operations were initially scheduled to last two Earth years , from November 2006 to November 2008 . One of the mission 's main goals is to map the Martian landscape with its high @-@ resolution cameras in order to choose landing sites for future surface missions . The MRO played an important role in choosing the landing site of the Phoenix Lander , which explored the Martian Arctic in Green Valley . The initial site chosen by scientists was imaged with the HiRISE camera and found to be littered with boulders . After analysis with HiRISE and the Mars Odyssey 's THEMIS instrument a new site was chosen . Mars Science Laboratory , a highly maneuverable rover , also had its landing site inspected . The MRO provided critical navigation data during their landings and acts as a telecommunications relay .
MRO is using its onboard scientific equipment to study the Martian climate , weather , atmosphere , and geology , and to search for signs of liquid water in the polar caps and underground . In addition , MRO was tasked with looking for the remains of the previously lost Mars Polar Lander and Beagle 2 spacecraft . Beagle 2 was found by the orbiter at the beginning of 2015 . After its main science operations are completed , the probe 's extended mission is to be the communication and navigation system for landers and rover probes .
= = Launch and orbital insertion = =
On August 12 , 2005 , MRO was launched aboard an Atlas V @-@ 401 rocket from Space Launch Complex 41 at Cape Canaveral Air Force Station . The Centaur upper stage of the rocket completed its burns over a fifty @-@ six @-@ minute period and placed MRO into an interplanetary transfer orbit towards Mars .
MRO cruised through interplanetary space for seven and a half months before reaching Mars . While en route most of the scientific instruments and experiments were tested and calibrated . To ensure proper orbital insertion upon reaching Mars , four trajectory correction maneuvers were planned and a fifth emergency maneuver was discussed . However , only three trajectory correction maneuvers were necessary , which saved 60 pounds ( 27 kg ) fuel that would be usable during MRO 's extended mission .
MRO began orbital insertion by approaching Mars on March 10 , 2006 , and passing above its southern hemisphere at an altitude of 370 – 400 kilometers ( 230 – 250 mi ) . All six of MRO 's main engines burned for 27 minutes to slow the probe from 2 @,@ 900 to 1 @,@ 900 meters per second ( 9 @,@ 500 to 6 @,@ 200 ft / s ) . The helium pressurization tank was colder than expected , which reduced the pressure in the fuel tank by about 21 kilopascals ( 3 @.@ 0 psi ) . The reduced pressure caused the engine thrust to be diminished by 2 % , but MRO automatically compensated by extending the burn time by 33 seconds .
Completion of the orbital insertion placed the orbiter in a highly elliptical polar orbit with a period of approximately 35 @.@ 5 hours . Shortly after insertion , the periapsis – the point in the orbit closest to Mars – was 426 km ( 265 mi ) from the surface ( 3 @,@ 806 km ( 2 @,@ 365 mi ) from the planet 's center ) . The apoapsis – the point in the orbit farthest from Mars – was 44 @,@ 500 km ( 27 @,@ 700 mi ) from the surface ( 47 @,@ 972 km ( 29 @,@ 808 mi ) from the planet 's center ) .
On March 30 , 2006 , MRO began the process of aerobraking , a three @-@ step procedure that cuts in half the fuel needed to achieve a lower , more circular orbit with a shorter period . First , during its first five orbits of the planet ( one Earth week ) , MRO used its thrusters to drop the periapsis of its orbit into aerobraking altitude . This altitude depends on the thickness of the atmosphere because Martian atmospheric density changes with its seasons . Second , while using its thrusters to make minor corrections to its periapsis altitude , MRO maintained aerobraking altitude for 445 planetary orbits ( about five Earth months ) to reduce the apoapsis of the orbit to 450 kilometres ( 280 mi ) . This was done in such a way so as to not heat the spacecraft too much , but also dip enough into the atmosphere to slow the spacecraft down . After the process was complete , MRO used its thrusters to move its periapsis out of the edge of the Martian atmosphere on August 30 , 2006 .
In September 2006 MRO fired its thrusters twice more to fine @-@ tune its final , nearly circular orbit to approximately 250 to 316 km ( 155 to 196 mi ) above the Martian surface , with a period of about 112 minutes . The SHARAD radar antennas were deployed on September 16 . All of the scientific instruments were tested and most were turned off prior to the solar conjunction that occurred from October 7 to November 6 , 2006 . After the conjunction ended the " primary science phase " began .
On November 17 , 2006 NASA announced the successful test of the MRO as an orbital communications relay . Using the NASA rover " Spirit " as the point of origin for the transmission , the MRO acted as a relay for transmitting data back to Earth .
= = Timeline = =
On September 29 , 2006 ( sol 402 ) , MRO took its first high resolution image from its science orbit . This image is said to resolve items as small as 90 cm ( 3 feet ) in diameter . On October 6 , NASA released detailed pictures from the MRO of Victoria crater along with the Opportunity rover on the rim above it . In November , problems began to surface in the operation of two MRO spacecraft instruments . A stepping mechanism in the Mars Climate Sounder ( MCS ) skipped on multiple occasions resulting in a field of view that is slightly out of position . By December normal operations of the instrument was suspended , although a mitigation strategy allows the instrument to continue making most of its intended observations . Also , an increase in noise and resulting bad pixels has been observed in several CCDs of the High Resolution Imaging Science Experiment ( HiRISE ) . Operation of this camera with a longer warm @-@ up time has alleviated the issue . However , the cause is still unknown and may return .
HiRISE continues to return images that have enabled discoveries regarding the geology of Mars . Foremost among these is the announcement of banded terrain observations indicating the presence and action of liquid carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) or water on the surface of Mars in its recent geological past . HiRISE was able to photograph the Phoenix lander during its parachuted descent to Vastitas Borealis on May 25 , 2008 ( sol 990 ) .
The orbiter continued to experience recurring problems in 2009 , including four spontaneous resets , culminating in a four @-@ month shut @-@ down of the spacecraft from August to December . While engineers have not determined the cause of the recurrent resets , they have created new software to help troubleshoot the problem should it recur .
On March 3 , 2010 , the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter passed another significant milestone , having transmitted over 100 terabits of data back to Earth , which was more than all other interplanetary probes sent from Earth combined .
On August 6 , 2012 ( sol 2483 , the orbiter passed over Gale crater , the landing site of the Mars Science Laboratory mission , during its EDL phase . It captured an image via the HiRISE camera of the Curiosity rover descending with its backshell and supersonic parachute .
NASA reported that the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter , as well as the Mars Odyssey Orbiter and MAVEN orbiter had a chance to study the Comet Siding Spring flyby on October 19 , 2014 .
On July 29 , 2015 , the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter was placed into a new orbit to provide communications support during the arrival of the InSight Mars lander mission on September 28 , 2016 . The maneuver 's engine burn lasted for 75 seconds .
= = Instruments = =
Three cameras , two spectrometers and a radar are included on the orbiter along with two " science @-@ facility instruments " , which use data from engineering subsystems to collect science data . Three technology experiments will test and demonstrate new equipment for future missions . It is expected MRO will obtain about 5 @,@ 000 images per year .
= = = HiRISE ( camera ) = = =
The High Resolution Imaging Science Experiment camera is a 0 @.@ 5 m ( 1 ft 8 in ) reflecting telescope , the largest ever carried on a deep space mission , and has a resolution of 1 microradian ( μrad ) , or 0 @.@ 3 m ( 1 ft 0 in ) from an altitude of 300 km ( 190 mi ) . In comparison , satellite images of Earth are generally available with a resolution of 0 @.@ 5 m ( 1 ft 8 in ) , and satellite images on Google Maps are available to 1 m ( 3 ft 3 in ) . HiRISE collects images in three color bands , 400 to 600 nm ( blue @-@ green or B @-@ G ) , 550 to 850 nm ( red ) and 800 to 1 @,@ 000 nm ( near infrared or NIR ) .
Red color images are 20 @,@ 264 pixels across ( 6 km ( 3 @.@ 7 mi ) wide ) , and B @-@ G and NIR are 4 @,@ 048 pixels across ( 1 @.@ 2 km ( 0 @.@ 75 mi ) wide ) . HiRISE 's onboard computer reads these lines in time with the orbiter 's ground speed , and images are potentially unlimited in length . Practically however , their length is limited by the computer 's 28 Gigabit ( Gb ) memory capacity , and the nominal maximum size is 20 @,@ 000 × 40 @,@ 000 pixels ( 800 megapixels ) and 4 @,@ 000 × 40 @,@ 000 pixels ( 160 megapixels ) for B @-@ G and NIR images . Each 16 @.@ 4 Gb image is compressed to 5 Gb before transmission and release to the general public on the HiRISE website in JPEG 2000 format . To facilitate the mapping of potential landing sites , HiRISE can produce stereo pairs of images from which topography can be calculated to an accuracy of 0 @.@ 25 m ( 9 @.@ 8 in ) . HiRISE was built by Ball Aerospace & Technologies Corp.
= = = CTX ( camera ) = = =
The Context Camera ( CTX ) provides grayscale images ( 500 to 800 nm ) with a pixel resolution up to about 6 m ( 20 ft ) . CTX is designed to provide context maps for the targeted observations of HiRISE and CRISM , and is also used to mosaic large areas of Mars , monitor a number of locations for changes over time , and to acquire stereo ( 3D ) coverage of key regions and potential future landing sites . The optics of CTX consist of a 350 mm ( 14 in ) focal length Maksutov Cassegrain telescope with a 5 @,@ 064 pixel wide line array CCD . The instrument takes pictures 30 km ( 19 mi ) wide and has enough internal memory to store an image 160 km ( 99 mi ) long before loading it into the main computer . The camera was built , and is operated by Malin Space Science Systems . CTX mapped 50 % of Mars by February 2010 . In 2012 it found the impacts of six 55 @-@ pound ( 25 @-@ kilogram ) entry ballast masses from Mars Science Laboratory 's landing of Curiosity rover .
= = = MARCI ( camera ) = = =
The Mars Color Imager ( MARCI ) is a wide @-@ angle , relatively low @-@ resolution camera that views the surface of Mars in five visible and two ultraviolet bands . Each day , MARCI collects about 84 images and produces a global map with pixel resolutions of 1 to 10 km ( 0 @.@ 62 to 6 @.@ 21 mi ) . This map provides a daily weather report for Mars , helps to characterize its seasonal and annual variations , and maps the presence of water vapor and ozone in its atmosphere . The camera was built and is operated by Malin Space Science Systems . It has a 180 @-@ degree fisheye lens with the seven color filters bonded directly a single CCD sensor .
= = = CRISM ( spectrometer ) = = =
The Compact Reconnaissance Imaging Spectrometer for Mars ( CRISM ) instrument is a visible and near infrared ( VNIR ) spectrometer that is used to produce detailed maps of the surface mineralogy of Mars . It operates from 370 to 3920 nm , measures the spectrum in 544 channels ( each 6 @.@ 55 nm wide ) , and has a resolution of 18 m ( 59 ft ) at an altitude of 300 km ( 190 mi ) . CRISM is being used to identify minerals and chemicals indicative of the past or present existence of water on the surface of Mars . These materials include iron , oxides , phyllosilicates , and carbonates , which have characteristic patterns in their visible @-@ infrared energy .
= = = Mars Climate Sounder = = =
The Mars Climate Sounder ( MCS ) looks both down and horizontally through the atmosphere in order to quantify the global atmosphere ’ s vertical variations . It is a spectrometer with one visible / near infrared channel ( 0 @.@ 3 to 3 @.@ 0 μm ) and eight far infrared ( 12 to 50 μm ) channels selected for the purpose . MCS observes the atmosphere on the horizon of Mars ( as viewed from MRO ) by breaking it up into vertical slices and taking measurements within each slice in 5 km ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) increments . These measurements are assembled into daily global weather maps to show the basic variables of Martian weather : temperature , pressure , humidity , and dust density .
This instrument , supplied by NASA ’ s Jet Propulsion Laboratory , Pasadena , California , utilizes technological advances to achieve the measurement objectives of a heavier , larger instrument originally developed at JPL for the 1992 Mars Observer and 1998 Mars Climate Orbiter missions .
= = = SHARAD ( radar ) = = =
MRO 's Shallow Subsurface Radar ( SHARAD ) experiment is designed to probe the internal structure of the Martian polar ice caps . It also gathers planet @-@ wide information about underground layers of ice , rock and possibly liquid water that might be accessible from the surface . SHARAD uses HF radio waves between 15 and 25 MHz , a range that allows it to resolve layers as thin as 7 m ( 23 ft ) to a maximum depth of 1 km ( 0 @.@ 6 mi ) . It has a horizontal resolution of 0 @.@ 3 to 3 km ( 0 @.@ 2 to 1 @.@ 9 mi ) . SHARAD is designed to operate in conjunction with the Mars Express MARSIS , which has lower resolution but penetrates to a much greater depth . Both SHARAD and MARSIS were made by the Italian Space Agency .
= = = Engineering instruments = = =
In addition to its imaging equipment , MRO carries a variety of engineering instruments . The Gravity Field Investigation Package measures variations in the Martian gravitational field through variations in the spacecraft 's velocity . Velocity changes are detected by measuring doppler shifts in MRO 's radio signals received on Earth . The package also includes sensitive onboard accelerometers used to deduce the in situ atmospheric density of Mars during aerobraking .
The Electra communications package is a UHF software @-@ defined radio ( SDR ) that provides a flexible platform for evolving relay capabilities . It is designed to communicate with other spacecraft as they approach , land , and operate on Mars . In addition to protocol controlled inter @-@ spacecraft data links of 1 kbit / s to 2 Mbit / s , Electra also provides Doppler data collection , open loop recording and a highly accurate timing service based on a 5e − 13 USO . Doppler information for approaching vehicles can be used for final descent targeting or descent and landing trajectory recreation . Doppler information on landed vehicles will also enable scientists to accurately determine the surface location of Mars landers and rovers . The two MER spacecraft currently on Mars utilize an earlier generation UHF relay radio providing similar functions through the Mars Odyssey orbiter . The Electra radio has proven its functionality by relaying information to and from the MER spacecraft , Phoenix Mars lander and Curiosity rover .
The Optical Navigation Camera images the Martian moons , Phobos and Deimos , against background stars to precisely determine MRO 's orbit . Although moon imaging is not mission critical , it was included as a technology test for future orbiting and landing of spacecraft . The Optical Navigation Camera was tested successfully in February and March 2006 . There is a proposal to search for small moons , dust rings , and old orbiters with it .
= = Engineering data = =
= = = Structure = = =
Workers at Lockheed Martin Space Systems in Denver assembled the spacecraft structure and attached the instruments . Instruments were constructed at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory , the University of Arizona Lunar and Planetary Laboratory in Tucson , Arizona , Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory in Laurel , Maryland , the Italian Space Agency in Rome , and Malin Space Science Systems in San Diego . The total cost of the spacecraft was $ 720 million USD .
The structure is made of mostly carbon composites and aluminum @-@ honeycombed plates . The titanium fuel tank takes up most of the volume and mass of the spacecraft and provides most of its structural integrity . The spacecraft 's total mass is less than 2 @,@ 180 kg ( 4 @,@ 810 lb ) with an unfueled dry mass less than 1 @,@ 031 kg ( 2 @,@ 273 lb ) .
= = = Power systems = = =
MRO gets all of its electrical power from two solar panels , each of which can move independently around two axes ( up @-@ down , or left @-@ right rotation ) . Each solar panel measures 5 @.@ 35 m × 2 @.@ 53 m ( 17 @.@ 6 ft × 8 @.@ 3 ft ) and has 9 @.@ 5 m2 ( 102 sq ft ) covered with 3 @,@ 744 individual photovoltaic cells . Its high @-@ efficiency triple junction solar cells are able to convert more than 26 % of the Sun 's energy directly into electricity and are connected together to produce a total output of 32 volts . At Mars , each of the panels produces more than 1 @,@ 000 watts of power ; in contrast , the panels would generate 3 @,@ 000 watts in a comparable Earth orbit by being closer to the Sun .
MRO has two rechargeable nickel @-@ hydrogen batteries used to power the spacecraft when it is not facing the Sun . Each battery has an energy storage capacity of 50 ampere @-@ hours ( 180 kC ) . The full range of the batteries cannot be used due to voltage constraints on the spacecraft , but allows the operators to extend the battery life — a valuable capability , given that battery drain is one of the most common causes of long @-@ term satellite failure . Planners anticipate that only 40 % of the batteries ' capacities will be required during the lifetime of the spacecraft .
= = = Electronic systems = = =
MRO 's main computer is a 133 MHz , 10 @.@ 4 million transistor , 32 @-@ bit , RAD750 processor . This processor is a radiation @-@ hardened version of a PowerPC 750 or G3 processor with a specially built motherboard . The RAD750 is a successor to the RAD6000 . This processor may seem underpowered in comparison to a modern PC processor , but it is extremely reliable , resilient , and can function in solar flare @-@ ravaged deep space . The operating system software is VxWorks and has extensive fault protection protocols and monitoring .
Data is stored in a 160 Gb ( 20 GB ) flash memory module consisting of over 700 memory chips , each with a 256 Mbit capacity . This memory capacity is not actually that large considering the amount of data to be acquired ; for example , a single image from the HiRISE camera can be as large as 28 Gb .
= = = Telecommunications system = = =
The Telecom Subsystem on MRO is the best digital communication system sent into deep space so far and for the first time using capacity approaching turbo @-@ codes . The Electra communications package is a UHF software @-@ defined radio ( SDR ) that provides a flexible platform for evolving relay capabilities . It is designed to communicate with other spacecraft as they approach , land , and operate on Mars . The system consists of a very large ( 3 metres ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) ) antenna , which is used to transmit data through the Deep Space Network via X @-@ band frequencies at 8 GHz , and it demonstrates the use of the Ka band at 32 GHz for higher data rates . Maximum transmission speed from Mars is projected to be as high as 6 Mbit / s , a rate ten times higher than previous Mars orbiters . The spacecraft carries two 100 @-@ watt X @-@ band amplifiers ( one of which is a backup ) , one 35 @-@ watt Ka @-@ band amplifier , and two Small Deep Space Transponders ( SDSTs ) .
Two smaller low @-@ gain antennas are also present for lower @-@ rate communication during emergencies and special events , such as launch and Mars Orbit Insertion . These antennas do not have focusing dishes and can transmit and receive from any direction . They are an important backup system to ensure that MRO can always be reached , even if its main antenna is pointed away from the Earth .
The Ka @-@ band subsystem was used for demonstration purposes . Due to lack of spectrum at 8 @.@ 41 GHz X @-@ band , future high @-@ rate deep space missions will use 32 GHz Ka @-@ band . NASA Deep Space Network ( DSN ) implemented Ka @-@ band receiving capabilities at all three of its complexes ( Goldstone , Canberra and Madrid ) over its 34 @-@ m beam @-@ waveguide ( BWG ) antenna subnet . During the cruise phase , spacecraft Ka @-@ band telemetry was tracked 36 times by these antennas proving functionality at all antennas . Ka @-@ band tests were also planned during the science phase , but during aerobraking a switch failed , limiting the X @-@ band high gain antenna to a single amplifier . If this amplifier fails all high @-@ speed X @-@ band communications will be lost . The Ka downlink is the only remaining backup for this functionality , and since the Ka @-@ band capability of one of the SDST transponders has already failed , ( and the other might have the same problem ) JPL decided to halt all Ka @-@ band demonstrations and hold the remaining capability in reserve .
By November 2013 , the MRO had passed 200 terabits in the amount of science data returned . The data returned by the mission alone is more than three times the total data returned via NASA 's Deep Space Network for all the other missions managed by NASA 's Jet Propulsion Laboratory over the past 10 years .
= = = Propulsion and attitude control = = =
The spacecraft uses a 1 @,@ 175 l ( 258 imp gal ; 310 US gal ) fuel tank filled with 1 @,@ 187 kg ( 2 @,@ 617 lb ) of hydrazine monopropellant . Fuel pressure is regulated by adding pressurized helium gas from an external tank . Seventy percent of the propellant was used for orbital insertion , and it has enough propellant to keep functioning into the 2030s .
MRO has twenty rocket engine thrusters on board . Six large thrusters each produce 170 N ( 38 lbf ) of thrust for a total of 1 @,@ 020 N ( 230 lbf ) meant mainly for orbital insertion . These thrusters were originally designed for the Mars Surveyor 2001 Lander . Six medium thrusters each produce 22 N ( 4 @.@ 9 lbf ) of thrust for trajectory correction maneuvers and attitude control during orbit insertion . Finally , eight small thrusters each produce 0 @.@ 9 N ( 0 @.@ 20 lbf ) of thrust for attitude control during normal operations .
Four reaction wheels are also used for precise attitude control during activities requiring a highly stable platform , such as high @-@ resolution imaging , in which even small motions can cause blurring of the image . Each wheel is used for one axis of motion . The fourth ( skewed ) wheel is a backup in case one of the other three wheels fails . Each wheel weighs 10 kg ( 22 lb ) and can be spun as fast as 100 Hz or 6 @,@ 000 rpm .
In order to determine the spacecraft 's orbit and facilitate maneuvers , sixteen Sun sensors – eight primaries and eight backups – are placed around the spacecraft to calibrate solar direction relative to the orbiter 's frame . Two star trackers , digital cameras used to map the position of catalogued stars , provide NASA with full , three @-@ axis knowledge of the spacecraft orientation and attitude . A primary and backup Miniature Inertial Measurement Unit ( MIMU ) , provided by Honeywell , measures changes to the spacecraft attitude as well as any non @-@ gravitationally induced changes to its linear velocity . Each MIMU is a combination of three accelerometers and three ring @-@ laser gyroscopes . These systems are all critically important to MRO , as it must be able to point its camera to a very high precision in order to take the high @-@ quality pictures that the mission requires . It has also been specifically designed to minimize any vibrations on the spacecraft , so as to allow its instruments to take images without any distortions caused by vibrations .
= = Discoveries and photographs = =
= = = Water ice in ice cap measured = = =
Results published in 2009 of radar measurements of the north polar ice cap determined that the volume of water ice in the cap is 821 @,@ 000 cubic kilometres ( 197 @,@ 000 cu mi ) , equal to 30 % of the Earth 's Greenland ice sheet .
= = = Ice exposed in new craters = = =
An article in the journal Science in September 2009 , reported that some new craters on Mars have excavated relatively pure water ice . After being exposed , the ice gradually fades as it sublimates away . These new craters were found and dated by the CTX camera , and the identification of the ice was confirmed with the Compact Imaging Spectrometer ( CRISM ) on board the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter ( MRO ) . The ice was found in a total of five locations . Three of the locations are in the Cebrenia quadrangle . These locations are 55 @.@ 57 ° N 150 @.@ 62 ° E / 55 @.@ 57 ; 150 @.@ 62 ; 43 @.@ 28 ° N 176 @.@ 9 ° E / 43 @.@ 28 ; 176 @.@ 9 ; and 45 ° N 164 @.@ 5 ° E / 45 ; 164 @.@ 5 . Two others are in the Diacria quadrangle : 46 @.@ 7 ° N 176 @.@ 8 ° E / 46 @.@ 7 ; 176 @.@ 8 and 46 @.@ 33 ° N 176 @.@ 9 ° E / 46 @.@ 33 ; 176 @.@ 9 .
= = = Ice in lobate debris aprons = = =
Radar results from SHARAD suggested that features termed lobate debris aprons ( LDAs ) contain large amounts of water ice . Of interest from the days of the Viking Orbiters , these LDA are aprons of material surrounding cliffs . They have a convex topography and a gentle slope ; this suggests flow away from the steep source cliff . In addition , lobate debris aprons can show surface lineations just as rock glaciers on the Earth . SHARAD has provided strong evidence that the LDAs in Hellas Planitia are glaciers that are covered with a thin layer of debris ( i.e. rocks and dust ) ; a strong reflection from the top and base of LDAs was observed , suggesting that pure water ice makes up the bulk of the formation ( between the two reflections ) . Based on the experiments of the Phoenix lander and the studies of the Mars Odyssey from orbit , water ice is known to exist just under the surface of Mars in the far north and south ( high latitudes ) .
= = = Chloride deposits = = =
Using data from Mars Global Surveyor , Mars Odyssey and the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter , scientists have found widespread deposits of chloride minerals . Evidence suggests that the deposits were formed from the evaporation of mineral enriched waters . The research suggests that lakes may have been scattered over large areas of the Martian surface . Usually chlorides are the last minerals to come out of solution . Carbonates , sulfates , and silica should precipitate out ahead of them . Sulfates and silica have been found by the Mars Rovers on the surface . Places with chloride minerals may have once held various life forms . Furthermore , such areas could preserve traces of ancient life .
= = = Other aqueous minerals = = =
In 2009 , a group of scientists from the CRISM team reported on 9 to 10 different classes of minerals formed in the presence of water . Different types of clays ( also called phyllosilicates ) were found in many locations . The physilicates identified included aluminum smectite , iron / magnesium smectite , kaolinite , prehnite , and chlorite . Rocks containing carbonate were found around the Isidis basin . Carbonates belong to one class in which life could have developed . Areas around Valles Marineris were found to contain hydrated silica and hydrated sulfates . The researchers identified hydrated sulfates and ferric minerals in Terra Meridiani and in Valles Marineris . Other minerals found on Mars were jarosite , alunite , hematite , opal , and gypsum . Two to five of the mineral classes were formed with the right pH and sufficient water to permit life to grow .
= = = Avalanches = = =
The Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter CTX and HiRISE cameras have photographed a number of avalanches off the scarps of the northern polar cap as they were occurring .
= = = Other spacecraft = = =
= = = Flowing salty water = = =
On August 4 , 2011 ( sol 2125 ) , NASA announced that MRO had detected what appeared to be flowing salty water on the surface or subsurface of Mars . On September 28 , 2015 , this finding was confirmed at a special NASA news conference .
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= Concealing @-@ Coloration in the Animal Kingdom =
Concealing @-@ Coloration in the Animal Kingdom : An Exposition of the Laws of Disguise Through Color and Pattern ; Being a Summary of Abbott H. Thayer ’ s Discoveries is a book published ostensibly by Gerald H. Thayer in 1909 , and revised in 1918 , but in fact a collaboration with and completion of his father Abbott Handerson Thayer 's major work .
The book , illustrated artistically by Abbott Thayer , sets out the controversial thesis that all animal coloration has the evolutionary purpose of camouflage . Thayer rejected Charles Darwin 's theory of sexual selection , arguing in words and paintings that even such conspicuous animal features as the peacock 's tail or the brilliant pink of flamingoes or roseate spoonbills were effective as camouflage in the right light .
The book introduced the concepts of disruptive coloration to break up an object 's outlines , of masquerade , as when a butterfly mimics a leaf , and especially of countershading , where an animal 's tones make it appear flat by concealing its self @-@ shadowing .
The book was criticised by big game hunter and politician Theodore Roosevelt for its central assertion that every aspect of animal coloration is effective as camouflage . Roosevelt 's detailed reply attacked the biased choice of examples to suit Abbott Thayer 's thesis and the book 's reliance on unsubstantiated claims in place of evidence . The book was more evenly criticised by zoologist and camouflage researcher Hugh Cott , who valued Thayer 's work on countershading but regretted his overenthusiastic attempts to explain all animal coloration as camouflage . Thayer was mocked to a greater or lesser extent by other scientific reviewers .
= = Overview = =
Abbott Thayer ( 1849 @-@ 1921 ) was an American artist , known for his figure paintings , often of " virginal , spiritual beauty " , which were sometimes , as in his most famous painting , Angel , modeled on his children . He had studied at an art school in Paris , but unlike James McNeill Whistler he returned to the United States . Along with seeking timeless beauty , Thayer also became obsessed with nature , which he felt contained the pure beauty that he was seeking to capture in his paintings .
Thayer 's close observation led him to notice what scientists such as Edward Bagnall Poulton were just beginning to describe . This was that many animals were " painted " the opposite way to how painters create the appearance of solidity in figures . A canvas is flat , and areas of uniform color painted on a canvas also appear flat . To make a body appear to have depth and solidity , the artist paints in shadows on the body itself . The top of an animal 's back , facing the sky , remains bright , while it must become darker towards its underside . Thayer was excited to realize that by reversing such shading , nature could and did make animals appear flat . He was so passionate about this " concealing coloration " theory that he called it his " second child " . Poulton had noticed countershading in certain caterpillars , but he had not realized that the phenomenon was widespread , and he championed Thayer 's theory in a 1902 article in Nature .
However , Thayer was not a scientist , and he lacked a scientist 's inclination to attempt to test and disprove every aspect of a new theory . Instead , Thayer came to believe that the theory belonged to artists , with their trained perception : " The whole basis of picture making consists in contrasting against its background every object in the picture " , he argued .
The obsession led him to deny that animals could be colored for other reasons : for protection by mimicry , as the naturalist Henry Walter Bates had proposed , supported by many examples of butterflies from South America ; through sexual selection , as Charles Darwin had argued , again supported by many observations . The unbalanced treatment of animal coloration in Concealing @-@ Coloration in the Animal Kingdom encapsulates Thayer 's partial understanding and his rejection of other theories .
The same obsession led him , later , to attempt to persuade the military to adopt camouflage based on his ideas , traveling to London in 1915 , and writing " passionate letters " to the Assistant Secretary to the US Navy , Franklin Delano Roosevelt , in 1917 .
= = Approach = =
= = = Text = = =
Gerald Thayer describes the book as having two main purposes : to present Abbott Thayer 's research to naturalists ; and to make the subject available to a wider readership .
The book 's list of contents reveals Thayer 's heavy reliance on bird examples , filling 16 of the 27 chapters . Other vertebrates occupy 5 chapters . Insects receive 3 chapters , of which two are dedicated to lepidoptera - one to caterpillars , one to adult butterflies and moths ; the remaining one devotes 14 pages to all other insects , starting with orthoptera including the leaf @-@ mimic grasshoppers .
= = = Illustrations = = =
The book has 16 colored plates of paintings by Abbott Thayer and Richard S. Meryman , including the well known frontispiece " Peacock amid foliage " , and the heavily criticised images of wood ducks , blue jays against snow , roseate spoonbills and flamingoes " at dawn or sunset , and the skies they picture " . The last 4 colored plates are of caterpillars . Gerald Thayer claims that " The illustrations are of particular importance , inasmuch as they include what we believe to be the first scientific paintings ever published of animals lighted as they actually are in nature " .
There are 140 black and white figures , mainly photographs with a few diagrams and drawings . Half the photographs are of birds . The photographs are from various sources , " gleaned from periodicals , or secured by special advertising . "
= = Contents = =
Introduction by Abbott H. Thayer . An essay on the psychological and other basic principles of the subject .
Outline of the book 's scope . " The Law which underlies Protective Coloration "
Definition of terms . Obliterative Shading
First principles of the use of markings with obliterative shading
Picture @-@ patterns , with obliterative shading , on birds . American Woodcock , and Snipe
Picture @-@ patterns on obliteratively @-@ shaded birds , continued . Terrestrial Goatsuckers
Picture @-@ patterns on counter @-@ shaded birds . Forest Grouse , Owls , European Woodcock
Picture @-@ patterns on counter @-@ shaded birds , continued . Grass @-@ patterns , heather @-@ patterns
Picture @-@ patterns on counter @-@ shaded birds , continued . Scansorial ( climbing ) birds
Picture @-@ patterns on counter @-@ shaded birds , continued . Shore @-@ birds
Picture @-@ patterns on counter @-@ shaded birds , continued . Reed @-@ patterns , etc . , of Bitterns
Background @-@ picturing on counter @-@ shaded birds , continued . Marsh @-@ birds . Wood Duck
Background @-@ picturing on counter @-@ shaded birds , continued . Birds of the ocean
Birds , etc . The inherent ' obliterative ' power of markings . ' Ruptive ' and ' Secant ' patterns
Birds , etc . Special functions of markings
Birds . Masking of bill and feet for offensive purposes
Birds , etc . The manifold obliterative power of iridescence
Birds , etc . Appendages , and their part in ' obliteration'
Birds : miscellany . " Mimicry " ( vs ' obliteration ' )
Birds , concluded
Mammals
Mammals , continued
Mammals , concluded
Fishes
Reptiles and Amphibians
Caterpillars
A glance at Insects other than Lepidoptera
Butterflies and Moths
= = Outline = =
Chapter 1 sets out the " long @-@ ignored laws " of " protective coloration " , an act which " has waited for an artist " to perceive . Thayer explains the principle of countershading with a diagram , arguing that a naive view of being " colored like their surroundings " does not explain how animal camouflage works . He acknowledges the prior work of Edward Bagnall Poulton ( The Colours of Animals , 1890 ) in identifying countershading in caterpillars , quoting some passages where Poulton describes how larvae and pupae can appear flat . Countershading is named as " the law which underlies protective coloration " , rather than as one of several principles .
Chapter 2 defines the book 's terms , equating " mimicry " with " protective resemblance " , so that it becomes a form of " protective or disguising coloration " . Thayer distinguishes " concealing @-@ colors " ( mainly countershading for " invisibility " ) from the " other " branch of protective coloration , which includes most kinds of mimicry , for " deceptive visibility " . The two branches are then named " obliterative coloration " and " mimicry " . Mimicry is dismissed as playing " a very insignificant part " in the " higher orders " , i.e. it is limited mainly to invertebrates . A fine photograph of a " white fowl , lacking counter @-@ shading , against a flat white cloth " demonstrates that camouflage is more than color matching . Thayer then gives several examples of what he considers countershaded animals .
Chapter 3 describes the combination of markings with countershading , with photographs of a model bird and of a woodcock , showing how in the correct position these are well camouflaged with " wonderful obliterative picture @-@ patterns " , but wrongly positioned or upside down ( with a photograph of a dead woodcock ) they are easily visible .
Chapters 4 and 5 illustrate more " picture @-@ patterns " in well camouflaged birds including Wilson 's snipe and whip @-@ poor @-@ will ( nighthawks and goatsuckers , Caprimulgidae ) . Thayer describes these as showing " obliteration , or merging with the background " but that their patterning is close to mimicry as they " perfectly " resemble objects such as " a stone or mossy log " .
Chapter 6 argues that some birds such as the ruffed grouse have patterns designed as camouflage against distant backgrounds , with a painting of a bird against a forest background as evidence . " The bird is in plain sight , but invisible " . For the great horned owl , a piece of the wing is " super @-@ imposed " on a photograph of a wood , " to show how closely the owl 's patterns reproduce such a forest interior . " The text describes the owl as having " a highly developed forest @-@ vista pattern " . Chapter 7 similarly argues for grass and heather patterns on " terrestrial " ( as opposed to arboreal ) birds . The disruptively patterned white @-@ tailed ptarmigan is shown in " a very remarkable photograph " by Evan Lewis . Thayer attempts to classify the camouflage types , for example writing
The principal feature of the pattern made by grasses over ground is a more or less intricate lace @-@ work of crisscrossing , light @-@ colored , linear forms , some straight , some curled and twisted , relieving with varying intensity against dark .
Chapter 8 continues the theme with " scansorial " or tree climbing birds . Chapter 9 claims that " obliterative shading , pure and simple , is the rule among the Shore Birds " such as sandpipers and curlew . Chapter 10 describes the " background @-@ picturing " of bitterns , birds which live in reedbeds , where
The light stripes on the bill were repeated and continued by the light stripes on the sides of the head and neck , and together they imitated very closely the look of separate , bright reed @-@ stems ; while the dark stripes pictured reeds in shadow , or the shadowed interstices between the stems .
Chapter 11 argues ( in a way that was heavily criticised when the book appeared , see below ) that water birds , some of them highly conspicuous like the jacana and notoriously the male wood duck , are colored for camouflage : " The beautifully contrasted black @-@ and @-@ white bars on the flanks of the Wood Duck ( Aix sponsa ) are ripple pictures , and as potent [ as camouflage ] , in their place , as the most elaborate markings of land birds " . Chapter 12 argues that the " pure white " of ocean birds such as gulls and terns equally functions as camouflage . Thayer admits that these often appear conspicuous , but argues that against varied backgrounds , white offers " the greatest average inconspicuousness against the ocean " ( his italics ) or against the bright sky when seen from below .
Chapter 13 analyses " markings and patterns in detail , starting with a color plate that shows the effect of disruptive patterning , which Thayer calls " strong ' secant ' and ' ruptive ' patterns " . Using a photograph of an oystercatcher at its nest by Cherry and Richard Kearton , Thayer argues that the boldly marked bird ( mainly black above , white below , with red beak ) is both countershaded and " ruptively " patterned . Chapter 14 discusses the barred markings of hawks and owls , with further fine plates of photographs by the Keartons of disruptively patterned waders and their cryptic chicks . The ringed plover is described as having " eye @-@ masking and ' obliterative ' shadow @-@ and @-@ hole @-@ picturing pattern " .
Chapter 15 describes the leg feather patterns of hawks , asserting that these " pantaloons " mask these " dangerous talons " to facilitate attack , just as their beaks , like the beaks of wading birds , are masked paradoxically with " gaudy colors " . Chapter 16 controversially claims that the iridescent colours of , for example , the speculum wing patch of the mallard and other ducks is " obliterative " , the " brightly changeable plumage " serving to camouflage the wearer in varying conditions . Thayer asserts that such brightly colored species as the European kingfisher and the purple gallinule are camouflaged :
Iridescence should perhaps be considered second only to obliterative [ counter ] shading as a factor in the disguisement of birds ; its universality attests its value .
Chapter 17 argues that bird plumage has " many devices " to conceal the animals ' outlines . Even the " enormously developed feather @-@ appendages " of the birds of paradise are argued to provide camouflage in this way . Sexual display is mentioned but dismissed as not being the sole reason for the colours , outlines and patterns of the male birds . Chapter 18 briefly discusses mimicry , before returning to " the evident paramount importance of the obliterative function " , this time of the " brilliant , flowerlike " heads of hummingbirds . The one case that Thayer admits is mimetic is the goatsucker of Trinidad , a plant mimic that perches " by day and night " on a tree stump or branch , where the purpose of the mimicry is crypsis . Chapter 19 concludes the description of bird plumage , claiming that birds from the tropical forests to the " snowy north " , including woodpeckers and the blue jay are all " colored for inconspicuousness " .
Chapters 20 , 21 , and 22 discuss the " disguising @-@ coloration " of mammals , including the whales which " are equipped with a full obliterative shading of surface @-@ colors " . The bats are admitted to have very little in the way of countershading , unlike all other families in the order . Thayer notes that a few species with strong defences such as hedgehogs , porcupines , echidnas , pangolins and " some armadillos " are exceptions , along with some beasts which " enjoy a like security by virtue of their gigantic bigness " , including the elephants , rhinoceroses , and hippopotami . The domestic hare is shown to be strongly countershaded with a pair of photographs " from life " , one sitting and one " laid on its back , outdoors , so that the obliterative shading is reversed " . Chapter 21 asserts that zebras " must be extraordinarily inconspicuous " against vegetation , a claim derided by Theodore Roosevelt ( see below ) . Chapter 22 addresses the problem of the " few [ beasts ] whose bold , clear patterns seem to defy that foremost obliterative law . " These include the skunks , the African zoril ( striped polecat ) and the teledu ( stink badger ) of Java , which all have dark underparts and white upperparts . Thayer dismisses the aposematism of these species , instead asserting the effectiveness of their camouflage :
Skunks , teledus , and the rest , long believed by naturalists to be colored for warning conspicuousness ( proclaimant of their foul defensive equipment ) , have , in fact , the universal obliterative coloration .
Several photographs using stuffed skins of skunks attempt to prove the point . The chapter goes on to claim that roseate spoonbills , flamingoes , and prongbuck are all obliteratively colored . The raccoon 's head resembles " the end of a hollow stump or log " , while its tail is said to be " distractive " , the strong banding serving like an eyespot to divert the attention of a predator to the tail rather than the head while the animal dives down a hole . But Thayer is unable to resist arguing that when " quiet , their tail @-@ bands act obliteratively " .
Chapter 23 looks at fish , admitting frankly that the authors " know next to nothing about fishes from the standpoint of systematic science " , but saying that they have gathered a " trustworthy general estimate " of their " disguising coloration " from market stalls , museums and books . Many fish are countershaded . The bioluminescence of some deep sea fish and other animals is seen as a problem as it is not " obliterative " ; the possibility of counterillumination camouflage is not considered .
Chapter 24 considers the reptiles and amphibians . These are noted to be predominantly green , often with " ruptive " patterns . Plate 11 treats a " Copperhead snake on dead leaves " , the caption explaining that " This is a bona @-@ fide study of a Copperhead Snake among dead leaves — its normal situation . " There is a full @-@ page sheet of card , cut out in the shape of the snake lying on a bed of leaves . When this is folded back , a painting by Rockwell Kent and Abbott Thayer " ( Also G.H. Thayer and E.B. Thayer ) " is revealed , showing the snake 's outline powerfully disrupted by its zigzag pattern among the light and shade of the leaf litter .
Chapter 24 mentions that some terrestrial salamanders " are rather brightly pied with black and whitish , or yellow " , while other amphibians " are extremely gaudy — wearing much bright blue , green , purple and sometimes red . " It suggests that some of these markings are " baits or targets " , again to distract predators from striking at the head , while the salamander markings are left as a problem as the authors " know too little about the habits " of these species . It is admitted that " the disguising coloration of many of them is very obscure . "
The final chapters 25 , 26 and 27 turn to the insects . Chapter 25 looks at caterpillars , with , as Poulton had earlier noted , convincing examples of countershading . Plate 13 shows caterpillars including the " larger @-@ spotted beech @-@ leaf @-@ edge caterpillar " both in position " passing for a part of the leaf on which it is feeding " , strongly cryptic and flattened like a slightly browning leaf , and inverted , when its countershading makes it appear conspicuously solid . Chapter 26 looks at other insects and spiders , noting the " famous leaf @-@ mimicking Kallima inachus " butterfly of India , but again claiming that even conspicuous butterflies are in fact " obliterative " . Eye @-@ spots are mentioned , but instead of noting that these might be distractive , they are asserted to be " dazzling " , appearing as holes , and thus functioning as disruptive camouflage .
The text ends with a paragraph that asks if it is " any wonder that artists should feel keen delight in looking at the disguising @-@ patterns worn by animals ? " These are " triumphs of art " , where the student can find " in epitome , painted and perfected by Nature herself " , the typical color and pattern scheme of each kind of landscape .
Color and pattern , line and shading , — all are true beyond the power of man to imitate , or even fully to discern .
An appendix provides extracts from a " very remarkable addition to our subject " , Poulton 's 1907 observations of color change in chameleons .
= = Reception = =
= = = Contemporary reviews = = =
= = = = Theodore Roosevelt = = = =
The Thayers ' views were vigorously criticised in 1911 by Theodore Roosevelt , an experienced big game hunter and naturalist familiar with animal camouflage as well as a politician , in a lengthy article in the Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History .
Roosevelt begins by writing that the Thayers expounded the " doctrine " of concealing coloration " in its extreme form " , which he thought had been " pushed to such a fantastic extreme and to include such wild absurdities as to call for the application of common sense thereto . " Then , " to show the sweeping claims made " , Roosevelt quotes verbatim eight passages from the book , one after the other , 500 words in all , the last one being " ' All patterns and colors whatsoever of all animals that ever prey or are preyed upon are under certain normal circumstances obliterative . ' "
He then observes that the Thayers ' claims , both in " pictures " and in writing , are not so much arguments as plain " misstatements of facts , or wild guesses put forward as facts . " He puts these down to enthusiasm rather than dishonesty , and as an example critiques the picture ( the book 's frontispiece ) of the peacock in a tree
with the blue sky showing through the leaves in just sufficient quantity here and there to warrant the author @-@ artists explaining that the wonderful blue hues of the peacock 's neck are obliterative because they make it fade into the sky .
This , Roosevelt writes , would be an extremely rare sight in nature . Worse , the female ( the peahen ) would , he argues , be conspicuous in those conditions . The Thayers have chosen a blue sky to argue that the peacock is camouflaged ; but then they choose a white sky to allow the prongbuck 's white rump to fade into that background . This , Roosevelt argues , is so dishonest that an engineer who constructed a report in that way would at once be dismissed , and the directors of a corporation who " tried to float shares on the strength of such a report " would be liable to " prosecution for fraud " .
Roosevelt had recently returned from his African safari , having seen , admired and shot large numbers of animals . He was scornful of Thayer 's theories , which he described as " phantasmagoria " , and the writer as " a well meaning and ill @-@ balanced enthusiast " . Thayer 's suggestion that the white markings on the body of the harnessed bush buck are meant to resemble " flecks of water shine " is dismissed as wild , with the observation from personal experience that bush buck spend little time in watery places , while the " situtunga or lechwe , which lack the spots " spend more . Roosevelt does not refrain from harshness : he describes the camouflaged flamingo theory as " probably the wildest " of " all the wild absurdities to which Mr. Thayer has committed himself " .
= = = = The Auk = = = =
Thayer was also roundly criticised in 1911 by herpetologist Thomas Barbour and conservation pioneer John C. Phillips in The Auk , where they wrote that
Mr. Thayer , however , along with most other enthusiasts in a field with which they can be but partially familiar , has gone too far and claimed too much .
Barbour and Phillips warmly welcome Thayer 's work on countershading " which he has so excellently demonstrated " ; they " protest gently " against his " slightly patronizing " treatment of the camouflage of birds like woodcock and grouse " which has been known and recognized since ornithology began " ; and go on to the attack on his claims for the flamingo :
Flamingoes hardly need this carefully arranged protection that is of value but a few minutes each day , and to be sure we see the curious cloud arrangement depicted on but very few days of the year – if ever .
They are equally critical of his roseate spoonbill , observing that the painting looks nothing like " actual skins of the species " . As for the wood duck , they point out its [ sexual ] " dimorphism of plumage " , and that the male spends the summer in eclipse plumage , while he is
most brilliant during the late autumn , winter , and early spring , when their surroundings are of a dead and monotonous color . Hence , if we attributed any protective importance to such color patterns , we should be inclined to consider this of distinct disadvantage . "
Barbour and Phillips note that Thayer " in his enthusiasm , has ignored or glossed over [ sexual dimorphism ] with an artistic haze . " They also question whether every animal needs protection . " By skilful jugglings we are shown how anything and everything may be rendered inconspicuous , " citing the skunk among other boldly black and white animals with both the skunk coloration and the " well @-@ known skunk smell " . They conclude by writing that they have " purposely omitted calling special attention to the strong features of the book " and that they have no axe to grind .
= = = = The Making of Species = = = =
The English ornithologists Douglas Dewar and Frank Finn write in their book The Making of Species that Thayer " seems to be of opinion that all animals are cryptically or , as he calls it , concealingly or obliteratively coloured " . They note that Edward Bagnall Poulton had written approvingly of Thayer , and that Thayer had asserted that almost all animals were countershaded . They agree that countershading exists , but to his suggestion that it is universal " we feel sorely tempted to poke fun at him " , and promptly ask any reader who agrees with Thayer that every animal is countershaded to look at a flock of rooks at sunset . They admit that camouflage is in general advantageous , but point out that the different plumages of seasonally and sexually dimorphic birds cannot all be explained as camouflage , considering the conspicuous colours of the male birds :
Now , if it be a matter of life @-@ and @-@ death importance to a bird to be protectively coloured , we should expect the showily coloured cock birds to be far less numerous than the dull @-@ plumaged hens ... [ but ] cock birds ... appear to be as least as numerous as the hens . Nor can it be said that this is due to their more secretive habits .
They counter the further argument that hens may be in more danger than cocks , through sitting on nests , by observing that in many dimorphic species , the showy cock shares the work of incubating the eggs .
= = = Modern assessment = = =
= = = = Hugh Cott = = = =
The zoologist and camouflage expert Hugh Cott , in his 1940 book Adaptive Coloration in Animals , writes that
The theory of concealing coloration has been brought to some discredit through the tendency of certain writers to be carried away from the facts by their own enthusiasm , and they have brought down storms of criticism which are sometimes misdirected against the theory itself ... Thus we find Thayer straining the theory to a fantastic extreme in an endeavour to make it cover almost every type of coloration in the animal kingdom .
Cott attacks Thayer 's comprehensive assertion that " all patterns and colors whatsoever ... are obliterative " , and continues more specifically with a detailed rebuttal of both the text and Thayer 's contrived paintings :
Unfortunately certain of Thayer 's explanations and illustrations misrepresent nature and are deceptive because they depend upon observations made under abnormal circumstances .
Cott then gives the examples of the peacock in the woods with the blue sky behind the neck ; the " flock of red Flamingoes matching a red sunset sky " , and the roseate spoonbill " whose pink plumage matches a pink cloud scheme " . He then lists the cases of the white flamingo , the skunk and the white rump of the prongbuck , quoting Roosevelt ( " The raven 's coloration is of course concealing if it is put into a coal scuttle " ) , notes " How unreasonable are extreme views like that adopted by Thayer " , and admits that criticisms of " certain of Thayer 's conclusions " are justified , before returning to the attack on those critics , robustly defending the " theory of protective and aggressive resemblance " .
More favourably , Cott explicitly recognises Thayer 's work on countershading , though granting Edward Bagnall Poulton 's partial anticipation with his work on the chrysalis of the purple emperor butterfly . Further , Cott quotes Thayer 's description of countershading , and Cott 's Figure 1 , of countershaded fish , is captioned " Diagrams illustrating Thayer 's principle of obliterative shading " . Implicitly , also , Cott follows Thayer in his Figure 3 " Larva of Eyed Hawk @-@ moth " in both " natural ( e.g. ' up @-@ side @-@ down ' ) " and " unnatural " positions ; in his Figure 5 drawing of the disruptive effect of the stripes and bold markings of woodcock chicks ( like Thayer 's Figure 81 ) ; in his Plate 7 , with ( just like Thayer 's Figure 7 ) a photograph of a white cock against a white background ; in his Figure 18 and front cover drawings of a copperhead snake lying on a bed of leaves , with and without its disruptive pattern ( like Thayer 's Plate 11 ) and so on .
= = = = John Endler and Peter Forbes = = = =
The evolutionary biologist John Endler , reviewing the topic of camouflage in Proceedings of the Royal Society B in 2006 , cites Thayer 's 1909 book three times : for disruption , with " conspicuous elements [ which ] distract the predator 's attention and break up the body outline , making detection of the prey difficult " ; for " masquerade , [ where ] the prey is detected as distinct from the visual background but not recognized as edible .. , for example by resembling a leaf " ; and for countershading , where " False gradients are common in animal colour patterns , leading to misleading appearance of shape , even when they do not disrupt the body outline " . Thayer is by far the earliest source used by Endler ; the only other early source he cites ( for disruption ) is Hugh Cott 's 1940 Adaptive Coloration in Animals .
The art and science writer Peter Forbes notes that Thayer became obsessed by the " flattening effect " of countershading , and that far from being a scientist , he was " an artist whose idealist fervour , edged by deep insecurity , led him to regard his findings less as discovery than as revelation . " Describing Concealing @-@ Coloration as a " magnum opus " , Forbes writes that by 1909 " Thayer 's prophetic intolerance was in full flood " , that he was overcompensating for his need for approval of his artwork , and that he failed to see that acceptance of ideas in science does not depend on " the vehemence with which they are expressed " . In Forbes 's view , Thayer was battling for the rights of artists over scientists , citing Thayer ( " it properly belongs to the realm of pictorial art " ) in evidence . Apart from Thayer 's " bizarre " flamingos , Forbes calls Thayer 's opposition to Batesian mimicry " extreme " . For Forbes , " Reading Thayer 's book today is a strange experience . He sets out with the idea that every single creature is perfectly camouflaged " , and then " tries to bludgeon his readers " into agreeing . Forbes is critical of Thayer 's rejection of warning coloration , quoting Thayer 's daughter Gladys as writing " My father 's special mission was tasting butterflies " ; Thayer apparently wanted to prove that mimicry was the wrong explanation as both model and mimic tasted the same . Forbes observes that natural selection did not have to contend with human reactions to the taste of butterflies .
= = = = David Rothenburg = = = =
The philosopher and jazz musician David Rothenberg , in his 2012 book Survival of the Beautiful on the relationship between aesthetics and evolution , argues that while the Thayers ' book set out the principles of camouflage : " From observation of nature ... art contributed to the military needs of society " , Thayer , following Charles Darwin , was " swept up in the idea that every animal had evolved to perfectly live in its surroundings " , but was emotionally unable to accept the other " half " of Darwin 's view of animal coloration :
Thayer was quite troubled by Darwin 's whole notion of sexual selection to explain the evolution of taste and beauty ... On the contrary , all animal patterning can be explained by the need to remain .. hidden .. Even what appears garish , including the tail of the peacock , is in fact a sophisticated form of camouflage that can dupe even such a great scientist as Charles Darwin .
Rothenberg then discusses the Thayers ' account of the wood duck , which Rothenburg calls " our most garishly colored duck " . He explains that the Thayers believed they , " trained as artists " , had seen what earlier observers had missed :
The black and white patches and stripes are ' ripple pictures depicting motion and reflections in the water ' , all ingeniously evolved to hide the bird not by inconspicuousness but by ' disruptive conspicuousness ' .
= = = = Smithsonian American Art Museum = = = =
The Smithsonian American Art Museum 's website , describing the Thayers ' book as " controversial " , writes sceptically that
Even bright pink flamingoes would vanish against a similar colored sky at sunset or sunrise . No matter that at times their brilliant feathers were highly visible , their coloration would protect them from predators at crucial moments so that " the spectator seems to see right through the space occupied by an opaque animal . " Not all readers were convinced .
= = = Primary = = =
This list identifies the places in Thayer 's book where quotations come from .
= = = Secondary = = =
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= Tropical Storm Frances ( 1998 ) =
Tropical Storm Frances caused extensive flooding in Mexico and Texas in September 1998 . The sixth tropical cyclone and sixth named storm of the annual hurricane season , Frances developed from a low pressure area in the Gulf of Mexico on September 8 . The cyclone moved northward through the western Gulf of Mexico , making landfall across the central Texas coastline before recurving across the Midwest through southeast Canada and New England . A large tropical cyclone for the Atlantic Basin , yet an average sized system by western Pacific standards , the storm produced heavy rains across the Isthmus of Tehuantepec , Texas , western Louisiana and the Great Plains .
The interaction between developing Frances and Pacific Tropical Storm Javier produced torrential rainfall in southeastern Mexico , causing flooding that killed over 200 people and caused $ 63 million in damage . Coastal flooding overran the coasts of Louisiana and Texas , which worsened river flooding across the region . Federal disaster declarations were made for the states of Louisiana and Texas on September 23 for damage relating to this tropical cyclone . Damage totaled US $ 500 million ( 1998 dollars ) , mainly from flooding . There was one direct death and one indirect death associated with the tropical storm . Frances was the second tropical cyclone to hit Texas during the 1998 season , with Charley being the other .
= = Meteorological history = =
Before the storm formed , sea surface temperatures were above normal in the Bay of Campeche and tropical eastern Pacific Ocean . After Hurricane Earl developed and moved away from the region , a broad area of low pressure formed in the southwest Caribbean on September 4 . It moved to the northwest and slowly organized in the Gulf of Mexico , although a series of tropical waves prevented rapid development . By September 8 , there was a large area of convection located over the western Gulf of Mexico . That day , the system developed into Tropical Depression Six while 160 miles ( 260 km ) east @-@ southeast of Brownsville , Texas . Initially , the depression was large , without a well @-@ defined center of circulation . It more resembled a monsoon depression commonly seen in the Western Pacific Ocean and the Northern Indian Ocean . The depression drifted southward and strengthened into Tropical Storm Frances on September 9 .
Frances turned to the northwest and strengthened with warm water temperatures of 30 ° C ( 86 ° F ) , weak vertical shear , and a large anticyclone aloft . Just before making landfall on Corpus Christi , Texas , the storm reached a peak of 65 mph ( 105 km / h ) , and quickly weakened as it continued inland . Shortly after landfall , the storm executed a small loop before turning to the north and dissipating as a tropical cyclone on September 13 . The remnant low of Frances persisted another day , becoming a frontal wave over Iowa . This frontal wave moved across the Great Lakes and New England into the north Atlantic by the 16th .
= = Preparations = =
A tropical storm warning was issued for the Texas coast between High Island and Brownsville on the afternoon of the 8th . The next afternoon , the warning area was extended southward into northeast Mexico to Tampico . By the afternoon of the 10th , strong winds along the Louisiana coast led to an extension of the tropical storm warning eastward to the Pearl River . On the 11th , as Frances moved inland , tropical storm warnings were slowly lifted .
= = Impact = =
Federal disaster declarations were made for the states of Louisiana and Texas on September 23 for damage relating to this tropical cyclone . Although there was little wind damage , Frances caused $ 500 million ( 1998 USD ) in damage , mostly from flooding . In addition , it killed one person . Several counties in Texas and Louisiana were declared disaster areas .
= = = Mexico = = =
Simultaneous to Frances 's development , Tropical Storm Javier was located to the west of Mexico in the Pacific , although its moisture produced an area of thunderstorms that extended to the east toward southeastern Mexico . The interaction between the depression that became Frances and Javier produced three days of heavy rainfall along the Sierra Madre de Chiapas . On September 6 , a station named Guadalupe Victoria recorded 15 @.@ 79 in ( 401 mm ) of rainfall . The highest rainfall total in the country was 44 @.@ 06 in ( 1 @,@ 119 mm ) at Escuintla , Chiapas . In the period from 1981 to 2010 , this was the highest rainfall total in Chiapas related to a tropical cyclone .
About one @-@ third of the population of Chiapas , or about 800 @,@ 000 people , was directly affected by the flooding , most significantly in Motozintla and Pijijiapan . In Motozintla , near Mexico 's border with Chiapas , a two @-@ day rainfall total of 12 in ( 305 mm ) produced flash floods and mudslides . The rainfall total represented about 36 % of the town 's average annual precipitation . About 600 homes were destroyed in the town alone , and there were 30 fatalities . The rains caused 36 river basins to exceed their banks . Following the floods , officials in Motozintla created a channel to divert flooding . Throughout Chiapas , the floods damaged or destroyed 40 bridges , and there was damage to Mexican Federal Highway 200 along the Pacific coast ; this interrupted travel for several weeks . About 16 @,@ 000 houses were damaged , forcing about 25 @,@ 000 people in government shelters . The floods affected 51 @,@ 159 ha ( 126 @,@ 420 acres ) of croplands . Overall , damage was estimated at $ 63 million ( 1998 USD ) , representing Mexico 's worst natural disaster since the 1985 Mexico City earthquake . Along Sierra Madre de Chiapas , the disaster was considered a 1 in 50 year event . There were at least 229 deaths , although a government report on the flooding indicated there were over 1000 people killed or missing . After the storm , the Mexican government established a study to determine the cause and the impact of the flooding .
= = = Louisiana = = =
Though on the outskirts of the storm , Tropical Storm Frances dropped 10 to 15 inches ( 250 to 380 mm ) of rain across southwest Louisiana , and over 23 inches ( 580 mm ) of rainfall near New Orleans , Louisiana . This rainfall helped relieve drought conditions . Along the coast , the system caused a storm surge of 5 @.@ 1 feet ( 1 @.@ 6 m ) in Cameron , the worst experienced along the coast of southwest Louisiana since Hurricane Carla . The storm surge swept away five houses , destroyed a fishing pier , and submerged Grand Isle . A tornado in the outer bands of the storm killed one person in Lafourche Parish , while six others were injured . At least eight tornadoes were witnessed statewide , with seven touching down across Acadiana . In addition , the storm caused an indirect death in the New Orleans area in an automobile accident. m Also , two Pacific Coast League Playoff games involving the 1998 Triple A baseball champion New Orleans Zephyrs were cancelled due to the rain from Francis , and a third almost got called off , but thanks to the assistance from Zephyr Field ground crews and the Panther Helicopters , the Third game went on as planned , and the Zephyrs won 2 @-@ 1 , Sending them to the Pacific coast League Championship series
= = = Texas = = =
Winds gusted as high as 66 miles per hour ( 106 km / h ) at Sea Rim State Park as Frances lashed the coast . The lowest pressure reported from a land station was 29 @.@ 33 inches of mercury ( 993 hPa ) at Rockport , Texas . Three tornadoes touched down across the Lone Star State , at Caney Creek , La Porte , and Galveston . A major disaster declaration was issued for Brazoria , Galveston , and Harris counties .
Tropical Storm Frances caused significant amounts of flooding across southeastern Texas , with a peak of 21 @.@ 46 inches ( 545 mm ) in Houston , Texas metropolitan area . Severe flooding was also reported in Harris County and Houston . More than 1 @,@ 400 homes and businesses in and around Houston were either damaged or destroyed by the floods . In addition , three main highways in Houston were washed out , leaving many motorists stranded .
Sections of the Middle Texas coast , closer to the point of landfall , and the Golden Triangle of southeast Texas reported over 10 inches ( 250 mm ) of rainfall as well , resulting in significant flood damage . Roads and bridges were submerged near Corpus Christi . Flooding was also reported along the San Bernard River where several roads and a subdivision was flooded . The flooding also disrupted barge traffic at the Phillips Petroleum facility .
Coastal flooding occurred well in advance of the cyclone 's landfall . A storm surge of 5 @.@ 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 6 m ) was measured at Sabine Pass , Texas and 8 feet ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) was measured at the Matagorda Locks . Meacom 's pier and San Luis Pass pier were severely damaged . Coastal flooding worsened backwater flooding in area rivers since their waters were blocked from flowing southeast into the Gulf of Mexico . Sabine Pass was cut off from the mainland for a week , until Hermine 's passage to the east eased coastal flooding conditions .
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= England in the Middle Ages =
England in the Middle Ages concerns the history of England during the medieval period , from the end of the 5th century through to the start of the Early Modern period in 1485 . When England emerged from the collapse of the Roman Empire , the economy was in tatters and many of the towns abandoned . After several centuries of Germanic immigration , new identities and cultures began to emerge , developing into predatory kingdoms that competed for power . A rich artistic culture flourished under the Anglo @-@ Saxons , producing epic poems such as Beowulf and sophisticated metalwork . The Anglo @-@ Saxons converted to Christianity in the 7th century and a network of monasteries and convents were built across England . In the 8th and 9th centuries England faced fierce Viking attacks , and the fighting lasted for many decades , establishing Wessex as the most powerful kingdom and promoting the growth of an English identity . Despite repeated crises of succession and a Danish seizure of power at the start of the 11th century , by the 1060s England was a powerful , centralised state with a strong military and successful economy .
The Norman invasion of England in 1066 led to the defeat and replacement of the Anglo @-@ Saxon elite with Norman and French nobles and their supporters . William the Conqueror and his successors took over the existing state system , repressing local revolts and controlling the population through a network of castles . The new rulers introduced a feudal approach to governing England , eradicating the practice of slavery but creating a much wider body of unfree labourers called serfs . The position of women in society changed as laws regarding land and lordship shifted . England 's population more than doubled during the 12th and 13th centuries , fuelling an expansion of the towns , cities and trade , helped by warmer temperatures across Northern Europe . A new wave of monasteries and friaries were established , while ecclesiastical reforms led to tensions between successive kings and archbishops . Despite developments in England 's governance and legal system , infighting between the Anglo @-@ Norman elite resulted in multiple civil wars and the loss of Normandy .
The 14th century in England saw the Great Famine and the Black Death , catastrophic events that killed around half of England 's population , throwing the economy into chaos and undermining the old political order . Social unrest followed , in the form of the Peasants ' Revolt of 1381 , while the changes in the economy resulted in the emergence of a new class of gentry , and the nobility began to exercise power through a system termed bastard feudalism . Nearly 1 @,@ 500 villages were deserted by their inhabitants and many men and women sought new opportunities in the towns and cities . New technologies were introduced , and England produced some of the great medieval philosophers and natural scientists . English kings in the 14th and 15th centuries laid claim to the French throne , resulting in the Hundred Years ' War . At times England enjoyed huge military success , with the economy buoyed by profits from the international wool and cloth trade , but by 1450 the country was in crisis , facing military failure in France and an ongoing recession . More social unrest broke out , followed by the Wars of the Roses , fought between rival factions in the English nobility . Henry VII 's victory in 1485 typically marks the end of the Middle Ages in England and the start of the Early Modern period .
= = Political history = =
= = = Early Middle Ages ( 600 – 1066 ) = = =
At the start of the Middle Ages , England was a part of Britannia , a former province of the Roman Empire . The English economy had once been dominated by imperial Roman spending on a large military establishment , which in turn helped to support a complex network of towns , roads , and villas . At the end of the 4th century , however , Roman forces had been largely withdrawn , and the English economy collapsed . Germanic immigrants began to arrive in increasing numbers during the 5th century , initially peacefully , establishing small farms and settlements . New political and social identities emerged , including an Anglian culture in the east of England and a Saxon culture in the south , with local groups establishing regiones , small polities ruled over by powerful families and individuals . By the 7th century , some rulers , including those of Wessex , East Anglia , Essex , and Kent , had begun to term themselves kings , living in villa regalis , royal centres , and collecting tribute from the surrounding regiones ; these kingdoms are often referred to as the Heptarchy .
In the 7th century , the kingdom of Mercia rose to prominence under the leadership of King Penda . Mercia invaded neighbouring lands until it loosely controlled around 50 regiones covering much of England . Mercia and the remaining kingdoms , led by their warrior elites , continued to compete for territory throughout the 8th century . Massive earthworks , such as the defensive dyke built by Offa of Mercia , helped to defend key frontiers and towns . In 789 , however , the first Scandinavian raids on England began ; these Viking attacks grew in number and scale until in 856 the Danish micel here or Great Army , invaded England , captured York and defeated the kingdom of East Anglia . Mercia and Northumbria fell in 875 and 876 , and Alfred of Wessex was driven into internal exile in 878 .
However , Alfred eventually won a sequence of victories against the Danes , exploiting the fear of the Viking threat to raise large numbers of men and using a network of defended towns called burhs to defend his territory and mobilise royal resources . Suppressing internal opposition to his rule , Alfred contained the invaders within a region known as the Danelaw and confirmed the kings of Wessex as the rulers of the Angelcynn , all of the English . Wessex expanded further north into Mercia and the Danelaw , and by the 950s and the reigns of Eadred and Edgar , York was finally permanently retaken from the Danes . Punitive raids into neighbouring areas , including Wales and Northumbria , followed as the kingdom flexed its new military power .
With the death of Edgar , however , the royal succession became problematic . Æthelred took power in 978 following the murder of his brother Edward , but England was then invaded by Sweyn Forkbeard , the son of a Danish king . Attempts to bribe Sweyn not to attack using danegeld payments failed , and he took the throne in 1013 . Swein 's son , Cnut , liquidated many of the older English families following his seizure of power in 1016 . Æthelred 's son , Edward the Confessor , had survived in exile in Normandy and returned to claim the throne in 1042 . Edward was childless , and the succession again became a concern . England became dominated by the Godwin family , who had taken advantage of the Danish killings to acquire huge wealth . When Edward died in 1066 , Harold Godwinson claimed the throne , defeating his rival Norwegian claimant , Harald Hardrada , at the battle of Stamford Bridge .
= = = High Middle Ages ( 1066 – 1272 ) = = =
In 1066 , William , the Duke of Normandy , took advantage of the English succession crisis to invade . With an army of Norman followers and mercenaries , he defeated Harold at the battle of Hastings and rapidly occupied the south of England . William used a network of castles to control the major centres of power , granting extensive lands to his main Norman followers and co @-@ opting or eliminating the former Anglo @-@ Saxon elite . Major revolts followed , which William suppressed before intervening in the north @-@ east of England , establishing Norman control of York and devastating the region . Some Norman lords used England as a launching point for attacks into South and North Wales , spreading up the valleys to create new Marcher territories . By the time of William 's death in 1087 , England formed the largest part of an Anglo @-@ Norman empire , ruled over by a network of nobles with landholdings across England , Normandy , and Wales . England 's growing wealth was critical in allowing the Norman kings to project power across the region , including funding campaigns along the frontiers of Normandy .
Norman rule , however , proved unstable ; successions to the throne were contested , leading to violent conflicts between the claimants and their noble supporters . William II inherited the throne but faced revolts attempting to replace him with his older brother Robert or his cousin Stephen of Aumale . In 1100 , William II died while hunting . Despite Robert 's rival claims , his younger brother Henry I immediately seized power . War broke out , ending in Robert 's defeat at Tinchebrai and his subsequent life imprisonment . Robert 's son Clito remained free , however , and formed the focus for fresh revolts until his death in 1128 . Henry 's only legitimate son , William , died aboard the White Ship disaster of 1120 , sparking a fresh succession crisis : Henry 's nephew , Stephen of Blois , claimed the throne in 1135 , but this was disputed by the Empress Matilda , Henry 's daughter . Civil war broke out across England and Normandy , resulting in a long period of warfare later termed the Anarchy . Matilda 's son , Henry , finally agreed to a peace settlement at Winchester and succeeded as king in 1154 .
Henry II was the first of the Angevin rulers of England , so @-@ called because he was also the Count of Anjou in Northern France . Henry had also acquired the huge duchy of Aquitaine by marriage , and England became a key part of a loose @-@ knit assemblage of lands spread across Western Europe , later termed the Angevin Empire . Henry reasserted royal authority and rebuilt the royal finances , intervening to claim power in Ireland and promoting the Anglo @-@ Norman colonisation of the country . Henry strengthened England 's borders with Wales and Scotland , and used the country 's wealth to fund a long @-@ running war with his rivals in France , but arrangements for his succession once again proved problematic . Several revolts broke out , led by Henry 's children who were eager to acquire power and lands , sometimes backed by France , Scotland and the Welsh princes . After a final confrontation with Henry , his son Richard succeeded to the throne in 1189 .
Richard spent his reign focused on protecting his possessions in France and fighting in the Third Crusade ; his brother , John , inherited England in 1199 but lost Normandy and most of Aquitaine after several years of war with France . John fought successive , increasingly expensive , campaigns in a bid to regain these possessions . John 's efforts to raise revenues , combined with his fractious relationships with many of the English barons , led to confrontation in 1215 , an attempt to restore peace through the signing of the Magna Carta , and finally the outbreak of the First Barons ' War . John died having fought the rebel barons and their French backers to a stalemate , and royal power was re @-@ established by barons loyal to the young Henry III . England 's power structures remained unstable and the outbreak of the Second Barons ' War in 1264 resulted in the king 's capture by Simon de Montfort . Henry 's son , Edward , defeated the rebel factions between 1265 and 1267 , restoring his father to power .
= = = Late Middle Ages ( 1272 – 1485 ) = = =
On becoming king , Edward I rebuilt the status of the monarchy , restoring and extending key castles that had fallen into disrepair . Uprisings by the princes of North Wales led to Edward mobilising a huge army , defeating the native Welsh and undertaking a programme of English colonisation and castle building across the region . Further wars were conducted in Flanders and Aquitaine . Edward also fought campaigns in Scotland , but was unable to achieve strategic victory , and the costs created tensions that nearly led to civil war . Edward II inherited the war with Scotland and faced growing opposition to his rule as a result of his royal favourites and military failures . The Despenser War of 1321 – 22 was followed by instability and the subsequent overthrow , and possible murder , of Edward in 1327 at the hands of his French wife , Isabella , and a rebel baron , Roger Mortimer . Isabella and Mortimer 's regime lasted only a few years before falling to a coup , led by Isabella 's son Edward III , in 1330 .
Like his grandfather , Edward III took steps to restore royal power , but during the 1340s the Black Death arrived in England . The losses from the epidemic , and the recurring plagues that followed it , had a major impact on events in England for many years to come . Meanwhile , Edward , under pressure from France in Aquitaine , made a challenge for the French throne . Over the next century , English forces fought many campaigns in a long @-@ running conflict that became known as the Hundred Years ' War . Despite the challenges involved in raising the revenues to pay for the war , Edward 's military successes brought an influx of plundered wealth to many parts of England and enabled substantial building work by the king . Many members of the English elite , including Edward 's son the Black Prince , were heavily involved in campaigning in France and administering the new continental territories .
Edward 's grandson , the young Richard II , faced political and economic problems , many resulting from the Black Death , including the Peasants ' Revolt that broke out across the south of England in 1381 . Over the coming decades , Richard and groups of nobles vied for power and control of policy towards France until Henry of Bolingbroke seized the throne with the support of parliament in 1399 . Ruling as Henry IV , he exercised power through a royal council and parliament , while attempting to enforce political and religious conformity . His son , Henry V , reinvigorated the war with France and came close to achieving strategic success shortly before his death in 1422 . Henry VI became king at the age of only nine months and both the English political system and the military situation in France began to unravel .
A sequence of bloody civil wars , later termed the Wars of the Roses , finally broke out in 1455 , spurred on by an economic crisis and a widespread perception of poor government . Edward IV , leading a faction known as the Yorkists , removed Henry from power in 1461 but by 1469 fighting recommenced as Edward , Henry , and Edward 's brother George , backed by leading nobles and powerful French supporters , vied for power . By 1471 Edward was triumphant and most of his rivals were dead . On his death , power passed to his brother Richard of Gloucester , who initially ruled on behalf of the young Edward V before seizing the throne himself as Richard III . The future Henry VII , aided by French and Scottish troops , returned to England and defeated Richard at the battle of Bosworth in 1485 , bringing an end to the majority of the fighting , although lesser rebellions against his Tudor dynasty would continue for several years afterwards .
= = Government and society = =
= = = Governance and social structures = = =
= = = = Early Middle Ages ( 600 – 1066 ) = = = =
The Anglo @-@ Saxon kingdoms were hierarchical societies , each based on ties of allegiance between powerful lords and their immediate followers . At the top of the social structure was the king , who stood above many of the normal processes of Anglo @-@ Saxon life and whose household had special privileges and protection . Beneath the king were thegns , nobles , the more powerful of which maintained their own courts and were termed ealdormen . The relationship between kings and their nobles was bound up with military symbolism and the ritual exchange of weapons and armour . Freemen , called churls , formed the next level of society , often holding land in their own right or controlling businesses in the towns . Geburs , peasants who worked land belonging to a thegn , formed a lower class still . The very lowest class were slaves , who could be bought and sold and who held only minimal rights .
The balance of power between these different groups changed over time . Early in the period , kings were elected by members of the late king 's council , but primogeniture rapidly became the norm for succession . The kings further bolstered their status by adopting Christian ceremonies and nomenclature , introducing ecclesiastical coronations during the 8th century and terming themselves " Christ 's deputy " by the 11th century . Huge estates were initially built up by the king , bishops , monasteries and thegns , but in the 9th and 10th centuries these were slowly broken up as a consequence of inheritance arrangements , marriage settlements and church purchases . In the 11th century , the royal position worsened further , as the ealdormen rapidly built up huge new estates , making them collectively much more powerful than the king — this contributed to the political instability of the final Anglo @-@ Saxon years . As time went by , the position of the churls deteriorated , as their rights were slowly eroded and their duties to their lords increased .
The kingdom of Wessex , which eventually laid claim to England as a whole , evolved a centralised royal administration . One part of this was the king 's council , the witenagemot , comprising the senior clergy , ealdormen , and some of the more important thegns ; the council met to advise the king on policy and legal issues . The royal household included officials , thegns and a secretariat of clergy which travelled with the king , conducting the affairs of government as it went . Under the Danish kings , a bodyguard of housecarls also accompanied the court . At a regional level , ealdormen played an important part in government , defence and taxation , and the post of sheriff emerged in the 10th century , administering local shires on behalf of an ealdorman . Anglo @-@ Saxon mints were tightly controlled by the kings , providing a high quality currency , and the whole country was taxed using a system called hidage .
The Anglo @-@ Saxon kings built up a set of written laws , issued either as statutes or codes , but these laws were never written down in their entirety and were always supplemented by an extensive oral tradition of customary law . In the early part of the period local assemblies called moots were gathered to apply the laws to particular cases ; in the 10th century these were replaced by hundred courts , serving local areas , and shire moots dealing with larger regions of the kingdom . Many churchmen and thegns were also given permission by the king to hold their own local courts . The legal system depended on a system of oaths , in which the value of different individuals swearing on behalf of the plaintiff or defendant varied according to their social status - the word of a companion of the king , for example , was worth twelve times that of a churl . If fines were imposed , their size similarly varied accord to the oath @-@ value of the individual . The Anglo @-@ Saxon authorities struggled to deal with the bloodfeuds between families that emerged following violent killings , attempting to use a system of weregild , a payment of blood money , as a way of providing an alternative to long @-@ running vendettas .
= = = = High Middle Ages ( 1066 – 1272 ) = = = =
Within twenty years of the Norman conquest , the former Anglo @-@ Saxon elite were replaced by a new class of Norman nobility , with around 8 @,@ 000 Normans and French settling in England . The new earls ( successors to the ealdermen ) , sheriffs and church seniors were all drawn from their ranks . In many areas of society there was continuity , as the Normans adopted many of the Anglo @-@ Saxon governmental institutions , including the tax system , mints and the centralisation of law @-@ making and some judicial matters ; initially sheriffs and the hundred courts continued to function as before . The existing tax liabilities were captured in Domesday Book , produced in 1086 .
Changes in other areas soon began to be felt . The method of government after the conquest can be described as a feudal system , in that the new nobles held their lands on behalf of the king ; in return for promising to provide military support and taking an oath of allegiance , called homage , they were granted lands termed a fief or an honour . Major nobles in turn granted lands to smaller landowners in return for homage and further military support , and eventually the peasantry held land in return for local labour services , creating a web of loyalties and resources enforced in part by new honorial courts . This system had been used in Normandy and concentrated more power in the king and the upper elite than the former Anglo @-@ Saxon system of government . The practice of slavery declined in the years after the conquest , as the Normans considered the practice backward and contrary to the teachings of the church . The more prosperous peasants , however , lost influence and power as the Normans made holding land more dependent on providing labour services to the local lord . They sank down the economic hierarchy , swelling the numbers of unfree villeins or serfs , forbidden to leave their manor or seek alternative employment .
At the centre of power , the kings employed a succession of clergy as chancellors , responsible for running the royal chancery , while the familia regis , the military household , emerged to act as a bodyguard and military staff . England 's bishops continued to form an important part in local administration , alongside the nobility . Henry I and Henry II both implemented significant legal reforms , extending and widening the scope of centralised , royal law ; by the 1180s , the basis for the future English common law had largely been established , with a standing law court in Westminster — an early Common Bench — and travelling judges conducting eyres around the country . King John extended the royal role in delivering justice , and the extent of appropriate royal intervention was one of the issues addressed in the Magna Carta of 1215 . The emerging legal system reinvigorated the institution of serfdom in the 13th century by drawing an increasingly sharp distinction between freemen and villeins .
Many tensions existed within the system of government . Royal landownings and wealth stretched across England , and placed the king in a privileged position above even the most powerful of the noble elite . Successive kings , though , still needed more resources to pay for military campaigns , conduct building programmes or to reward their followers , and this meant exercising their feudal rights to interfere in the land @-@ holdings of nobles . This was contentious and a frequent issue of complaint , as there was a growing belief that land should be held by hereditary right , not through the favour of the king . Property and wealth became increasingly focused in the hands of a subset of the nobility , the great magnates , at the expense of the wider baronage , encouraging the breakdown of some aspects of local feudalism . As time went by , the Norman nobility intermarried with many of the great Anglo @-@ Saxon families , and the links with the Duchy began to weaken . By the late 12th century , mobilising the English barons to fight on the continent was proving difficult , and John 's attempts to do so ended in civil war . Civil strife re @-@ emerged under Henry III , with the rebel barons in 1258 – 59 demanding widespread reforms , and an early version of Parliament was summoned in 1265 to represent the rebel interests .
= = = = Late Middle Ages ( 1272 – 1485 ) = = = =
On becoming king in 1272 , Edward I reestablished royal power , overhauling the royal finances and appealing to the broader English elite by using Parliament to authorise the raising of new taxes and to hear petitions concerning abuses of local governance . This political balance collapsed under Edward II and savage civil wars broke out during the 1320s . Edward III restored order once more with the help of a majority of the nobility , exercising power through the exchequer , the common bench and the royal household . This government was better organised and on a larger scale than ever before , and by the 14th century the king 's formerly peripatetic chancery had to take up permanent residence in Westminster . Edward used Parliament even more than his predecessors to handle general administration , to legislate and to raise the necessary taxes to pay for the wars in France . The royal lands — and incomes from them — had diminished over the years , and increasingly frequent taxation was required to support royal initiatives . Edward held elaborate chivalric events in an effort to unite his supporters around the symbols of knighthood . The ideal of chivalry continued to develop throughout the 14th century , reflected in the growth of knightly orders ( including the Order of the Garter ) , grand tournaments and round table events .
Society and government in England in the early 14th century were challenged by the Great Famine and the Black Death . The economic and demographic crisis created a sudden surplus of land , undermining the ability of landowners to exert their feudal rights and causing a collapse in incomes from rented lands . Wages soared , as employers competed for a scarce workforce . Legislation was introduced to limit wages and to prevent the consumption of luxury goods by the lower classes , with prosecutions coming to take up most of the legal system 's energy and time . A poll tax was introduced in 1377 that spread the costs of the war in France more widely across the whole population . The tensions spilled over into violence in the summer of 1381 in the form of the Peasants ' Revolt ; a violent retribution followed , with as many as 7 @,@ 000 alleged rebels executed . A new class of gentry emerged as a result of these changes , renting land from the major nobility to farm out at a profit . The legal system continued to expand during the 14th century , dealing with an ever wider set of complex problems .
By the time that Richard II was deposed in 1399 , the power of the major noble magnates had grown considerably ; powerful rulers such as Henry IV would contain them , but during the minority of Henry VI they controlled the country . The magnates depended upon their income from rent and trade to allow them to maintain groups of paid , armed retainers , often sporting controversial livery , and buy support amongst the wider gentry ; this system has been dubbed bastard feudalism . Their influence was exerted both through the House of Lords at Parliament and through the king 's council . The gentry and wealthier townsmen exercised increasing influence through the House of Commons , opposing raising taxes to pay for the French wars . By the 1430s and 1440s the English government was in major financial difficulties , leading to the crisis of 1450 and a popular revolt under the leadership of Jack Cade . Law and order deteriorated , and the crown was unable to intervene in the factional fighting between different nobles and their followers . The resulting Wars of the Roses saw a savage escalation of violence between the noble leaderships of both sides : captured enemies were executed and family lands attainted . By the time that Henry VII took the throne in 1485 , England 's governmental and social structures had been substantially weakened , with whole noble lines extinguished .
= = = Women in society = = =
Medieval England was a patriarchal society and the lives of women were heavily influenced by contemporary beliefs about gender and authority . However , the position of women varied considerably according to various factors , including their social class ; whether they were unmarried , married , widowed or remarried ; and in which part of the country they lived . Significant gender inequities persisted throughout the period , as women typically had more limited life @-@ choices , access to employment and trade , and legal rights than men .
In Anglo @-@ Saxon society , noblewomen enjoyed considerable rights and status , although the society was still firmly patriarchal . Some exercised power as abbesses , exerting widespread influence across the early English Church , although their wealth and authority diminished with the monastic reforms of the 9th century . Anglo @-@ Saxon queens began to hold lands in their own right in the 10th century and their households contributed to the running of the kingdom . Although women could not lead military forces , in the absence of their husbands some noblewomen led the defence of manors and towns . Most Anglo @-@ Saxon women , however , worked on the land as part of the agricultural community , or as brewers or bakers .
After the Norman invasion , the position of women in society changed . The rights and roles of women became more sharply defined , in part as a result of the development of the feudal system and the expansion of the English legal system ; some women benefited from this , while others lost out . The rights of widows were formally laid down in law by the end of the 12th century , clarifying the right of free women to own property , but this did not necessarily prevent women from being forcibly remarried against their wishes . The growth of governmental institutions under a succession of bishops reduced the role of queens and their households in formal government . Married or widowed noblewomen remained significant cultural and religious patrons and played an important part in political and military events , even if chroniclers were uncertain if this was appropriate behaviour . As in earlier centuries , most women worked in agriculture , but here roles became more clearly gendered , with ploughing and managing the fields defined as men 's work , for example , and dairy production becoming dominated by women .
The years after the Black Death left many women widows ; in the wider economy labour was in short supply and land was suddenly readily available . In rural areas peasant women could enjoy a better standard of living than ever before , but the amount of work being done by women may have increased . Many other women travelled to the towns and cities , to the point where they outnumbered men in some settlements . There they worked with their husbands , or in a limited number of occupations , including spinning , making clothes , victualling and as servants . Some women became full @-@ time ale brewers , until they were pushed out of business by the male @-@ dominated beer industry in the 15th century . Higher status jobs and apprenticeships , however , remained closed to women . As in earlier times , noblewomen exercised power on their estates in their husbands ' absence and again , if necessary , defended them in sieges and skirmishes . Wealthy widows who could successfully claim their rightful share of their late husband 's property could live as powerful members of the community in their own right .
= = = Identity = = =
An English cultural identity first emerged from the interaction of the Germanic immigrants of the 5th and 6th centuries and the indigenous Romano @-@ British inhabitants . Although early medieval chroniclers described the immigrants as Angles and Saxons , they came from a much wider area across Northern Europe , and represented a range of different ethnic groups . Over the 6th century , however , these different groups began to coalesce into stratified societies across England , roughly corresponding to the later Angle and Saxon kingdoms recorded by Bede in the 8th century . By the 9th century , the term the Angelcynn was being officially used to refer to a single English people , and promoted for propaganda purposes by chroniclers and kings to inspire resistance to the Danish invasions .
The Normans and French who arrived after the conquest saw themselves as different from the English . They had close family and economic links to the Duchy of Normandy , spoke Norman French and had their own distinctive culture . For many years , to be English was to be associated with military failure and serfdom . During the 12th century , the divisions between the English and Normans began to dissolve as a result of intermarriage and cohabitation . By the end of the 12th century , and possibly as early as the 1150 , contemporary commentators believed the two peoples to be blending , and the loss of the Duchy in 1204 reinforced this trend . The resulting society still prized wider French cultural values , however , and French remained the language of the court , business and international affairs , even if Parisians mocked the English for their poor pronunciation . By the 14th century , however , French was increasingly having to be formally taught , rather than being learnt naturally in the home , although the aristocracy would typically spend many years of their lives in France and remained entirely comfortable working in French .
During the 12th and 13th centuries , the English began to consider themselves superior to the Welsh , Scots and Bretons . The English perceived themselves as civilised , economically prosperous and properly Christian , while the Celtic fringe was considered lazy , barbarous and backward . Following the invasion of Ireland in the late 12th century , similar feelings were expressed about the Irish , with the distinctions clarified and reinforced in 14th @-@ century English legislation . The English also felt strongly about the foreign traders who lived in the special enclaves in London in the Late Middle Ages ; the position of the Jews is described below , but Italian and Baltic traders were also regarded as aliens and were frequently the targets of violence during economic downturns . Even within England , different identities abounded , each with their own sense of status and importance . Regional identities could be important - men and women from Yorkshire , for example , had a clear identity within English society , and professional groups with a distinct identity , such as lawyers , engaged in open fighting with others in cities such as London .
= = = Jews = = =
The Jewish community in England played an important role in England throughout much of the period . The first Jews arrived in England in the aftermath of the Norman invasion , when William the Conqueror brought over wealthy members of the Rouen community in Normandy to settle in London . The Jewish community expanded out across England and provided essential money @-@ lending and banking services that were otherwise banned by the usury laws . During the 12th century , the Jewish financial community grew richer still , operating under royal protection and providing the king with a source of ready credit . All major towns had Jewish centres , and even the smaller towns saw visits by travelling Jewish merchants . Towards the end of Henry II 's reign , however , the king ceased to borrow from the Jewish community and instead turned to extracting money from them through arbitrary taxation and fines . The Jews became vilified and accusations were made that they conducted ritual child murder , encouraging the pogroms carried out against Jewish communities in the reign of Richard I. After an initially peaceful start to John 's reign , the king again began to extort money from the Jewish community and , with the breakdown in order in 1215 , the Jews were subject to fresh attacks . Henry III restored some protection and Jewish money @-@ lending began to recover . Despite this , the Jewish community became increasingly impoverished and was finally expelled from England in 1290 by Edward I , being replaced by foreign merchants .
= = Religion = =
= = = Rise of Christianity = = =
Christianity had been the official imperial religion of the Roman Empire , and the first churches were built in England in the second half of the 4th century , overseen by a hierarchy of bishops and priests . Many existing pagan shrines were converted to Christian use and few pagan sites still operated by the 5th century . The collapse of the Roman system in the late 5th century , however , brought about the end of formal Christian religion in the east of England , and the new Germanic immigrants arrived with their own polytheistic gods , including Woden , Thunor and Tiw , still reflected in various English place names . Despite the resurgence of paganism in England , Christian communities still survived in more western areas such as Gloucestershire and Somerset .
The movement towards Christianity began again in the late 6th and 7th centuries , helped by the conversion of the Franks in Northern France , who carried considerable influence in England . Pope Gregory I sent a team of missionaries to convert King Æthelberht of Kent and his household , starting the process of converting Kent . Augustine became the first Archbishop of Canterbury and started to build new churches across the South @-@ East , reusing existing pagan shrines . Oswald and Oswiu , kings of Northumbria , were converted in the 630s and 640s , and the wave of change carried on through the middle of the 7th century across the kingdoms of Mercia , the South Saxons and the Isle of Wight . The process was largely complete by the end of the 7th century , but left a confusing and disparate array of local practices and religious ceremonies . This new Christianity reflected the existing military culture of the Anglo @-@ Saxons : as kings began to convert in the 6th and 7th centuries , conversion began to be used as a justification for war against the remaining pagan kingdoms , for example , while Christian saints were imbued with martial properties .
The Viking invasions of the 8th and 9th centuries reintroduced paganism to North @-@ East England , leading in turn to another wave of conversion . Indigenous Scandinavian beliefs were very similar to other Germanic groups , with a pantheon of gods including Odin , Thor and Ullr , combined with a belief in a final , apocalyptic battle called Ragnarok . The Norse settlers in England were converted relatively quickly , assimilating their beliefs into Christianity in the decades following the occupation of York , which the Archbishop had survived . The process was largely complete by the early 10th century and enabled England 's leading Churchmen to negotiate with the warlords . As the Norse in mainland Scandinavia started to convert , many mainland rulers recruited missionaries from England to assist in the process .
= = = Religious institutions = = =
With the conversion of much of England in the 6th and 7th centuries , there was an explosion of local church building . English monasteries formed the main basis for the church , however , and were often sponsored by local rulers , taking various forms , including mixed communities headed by abbesses , bishop @-@ led communities of monks , and others formed around married priests and their families . Cathedrals were constructed , staffed either with secular canons in the European tradition or , uniquely to England , chapters of monks . These institutions were badly affected in the 9th century by Viking raids and predatory annexations by the nobility . By the start of the 10th century , monastic lands , financial resources and the quality of monasteries ' religious work had been much diminished . Reforms followed under the kings of Wessex who promoted the Benedictine rule then popular on the Continent . A reformed network of around 40 monastic institutions across the south and east of England , under the protection of the king , helped re @-@ establish royal control over the reconquered Danelaw .
The 1066 Norman conquest brought a new set of Norman and French churchmen to power ; some adopted and embraced aspects of the former Anglo @-@ Saxon religious system , while others introduced practices from Normandy . Extensive English lands were granted to monasteries in Normandy , allowing them to create daughter priories and monastic cells across the kingdom . The monasteries were brought firmly into the web of feudal relations , with their holding of land linked to the provision of military support to the crown . The Normans adopted the Anglo @-@ Saxon model of monastic cathedral communities , and within seventy years the majority of English cathedrals were controlled by monks ; every English cathedral , however , was rebuilt to some extent by the new rulers . England 's bishops remained powerful temporal figures , and in the early 12th @-@ century raised armies against Scottish invaders and built up extensive holdings of castles across the country .
New orders began to be introduced into England . As ties to Normandy waned , the French Cluniac order became fashionable and their houses were introduced in England . The Augustinians spread quickly from the beginning of the 12th century onwards , while later in the century the Cistercians reached England , creating houses with a more austere interpretation of the monastic rules and building the great abbeys of Rievaulx and Fountains . By 1215 , there were over 600 monastic communities in England , but new endowments slowed during the 13th century , creating long @-@ term financial problems for many institutions . The Dominican and Franciscan friars arrived in England during the 1220s , establishing 150 friaries by the end of the 13th century ; these mendicant orders rapidly became popular , particularly in towns , and heavily influenced local preaching . The religious military orders that became popular across Europe from the 12th century onwards acquired possessions in England , including the Templars , Teutons and Hospitallers .
= = = Church , state and heresy = = =
The Church had a close relationship with the English state throughout the Middle Ages . The bishops and major monastic leaders played an important part in national government , having key roles on the king 's council . Bishops often oversaw towns and cities , managing local taxation and government . This frequently became untenable with the Viking incursions of the 9th century , and in locations such as Worcester the local bishops came to new accommodations with the local ealdormen , exchanging some authority and revenue for assistance in defence . The early English church was racked with disagreement on doctrine , which was addressed by the Synod of Whitby in 664 ; some issues were resolved , but arguments between the archbishops of Canterbury and York as to which had primacy across Britain began shortly afterwards and continued throughout most of the medieval period .
William the Conqueror acquired the support of the Church for the invasion of England by promising ecclesiastical reform . William promoted celibacy amongst the clergy and gave ecclesiastical courts more power , but also reduced the Church 's direct links to Rome and made it more accountable to the king . Tensions arose between these practices and the reforming movement of Pope Gregory VII , which advocated greater autonomy from royal authority for the clergy , condemned the practice of simony and promoted greater influence for the papacy in church matters . Despite the bishops continuing to play a major part in royal government , tensions emerged between the kings of England and key leaders within the English Church . Kings and archbishops clashed over rights of appointment and religious policy , and successive archbishops including Anselm , Theobald of Bec , Thomas Becket and Stephen Langton were variously forced into exile , arrested by royal knights or even killed . By the early 13th century , however , the church had largely won its argument for independence , answering almost entirely to Rome .
In the 1380s , several challenges emerged to the traditional teachings of the Church , resulting from the teachings of John Wycliffe , a member of Oxford University . Wycliffe argued that scripture was the best guide to understanding God 's intentions , and that the superficial nature of the liturgy , combined with the abuses of wealth within the Church and the role of senior churchmen in government , distracted from that study . A loose movement that included many members of the gentry pursued these ideas after Wycliffe 's death in 1384 and attempted to pass a Parliamentary bill in 1395 : the movement was rapidly condemned by the authorities and was termed " Lollardy " . The English bishops were charged to control and counter this trend , disrupting Lollard preachers and to enforcing the teaching of suitable sermons in local churches . By the early 15th century , combating Lollard teachings had become a key political issue , championed by Henry IV and his Lancastrian followers , who used the powers of both the church and state to combat the heresy .
= = = Pilgrimages and Crusades = = =
Pilgrimages were a popular religious practice throughout the Middle Ages in England , with the tradition dating back to the Roman period . Typically pilgrims would travel short distances to a shrine or a particular church , either to do penance for a perceived sin , or to seek relief from an illness or other condition . Some pilgrims travelled further , either to more distant sites within Britain or , in a few cases , onto the continent .
During the Anglo @-@ Saxon period , many shrines were built on former pagan sites which became popular pilgrimage destinations , while other pilgrims visited prominent monasteries and sites of learning . Senior nobles or kings would travel to Rome , which was a popular destination from the 7th century onwards ; sometimes these trips were a form of convenient political exile . Under the Normans , religious institutions with important shrines , such as Glastonbury , Canterbury and Winchester , promoted themselves as pilgrimage destinations , maximising the value of the historic miracles associated with the sites . Accumulating relics became an important task for ambitious institutions , as these were believed to hold curative powers and lent status to the site . Indeed , by the 12th century reports of posthumous miracles by local saints were becoming increasing common in England , adding to the attractiveness of pilgrimages to prominent relics .
Participation in the Crusades was also seen as a form of pilgrimage , and indeed the same Latin word , peregrinatio , was sometimes applied to both activities . While English participation in the First Crusade between 1095 and 1099 was limited , England played a prominent part in the Second , Third and Fifth Crusades over the next two centuries , with many crusaders leaving for the Levant during the intervening years . The idea of undertaking a pilgrimage to Jerusalem was not new in England , however , as the idea of religiously justified warfare went back to Anglo @-@ Saxon times . Many of those who took up the Cross to go on a Crusade never actually left , often because the individual lacked sufficient funds to undertake the journey . Raising funds to travel typically involved crusaders selling or mortgaging their lands and possessions , which had an impact on their families and , at times , a considerable impact on the economy as a whole .
= = Economy and technology = =
= = = Geography = = =
England had a diverse geography in the medieval period , from the Fenlands of East Anglia or the heavily wooded Weald , through to the upland moors of Yorkshire . Despite this , medieval England broadly formed two zones , roughly divided by the rivers Exe and Tes : the south and east of England had lighter , richer soils , able to support both arable and pastoral agriculture , while the poorer soils and colder climate of the north and west produced a predominantly pastoral economy . Slightly more land was covered by trees than in the 20th century , and bears , beavers and wolves lived wild in England , bears being hunted to extinction by the 11th century and beavers by the 12th . Of the 10 @,@ 000 miles of roads that had been built by the Romans , many remained in use and four were of particular strategic importance — the Icknield Way , the Fosse Way , Ermine Street and Watling Street — which criss @-@ crossed the entire country . The road system was adequate for the needs of the period , although it was significantly cheaper to transport goods by water . The major river networks formed key transport routes , while many English towns formed navigable inland ports .
For much of the Middle Ages , England 's climate differed from that in the 21st century . Between the 9th and 13th centuries England went through the Medieval Warm Period , a prolonged period of warmer temperatures ; in the early 13th century , for example , summers were around 1 ° C warmer than today and the climate was slightly drier . These warmer temperatures allowed poorer land to be brought into cultivation and for grapevines to be cultivated relatively far north . The Warm Period was followed by several centuries of much cooler temperatures , termed the Little Ice Age ; by the 14th century spring temperatures had dropped considerably , reaching their coldest in the 1340s and 1350s . This cold end to the Middle Ages impacted significantly on English agriculture and living conditions .
Even at the start of the Middle Ages the English landscape had been shaped by human occupation over many centuries . Much woodland was new , the result of fields being reclaimed by brush after the collapse of the Roman Empire . Human intervention had established wood pastures , an ancient system for managing woods and animals , and coppicing , a more intensive approach to managing woodlands . Other agricultural lands included arable fields and pastorage , while in some parts of the country , such as the South @-@ West , waste moorland remained testament to earlier over @-@ farming in the Bronze Age . England 's environment continued to be shaped throughout the period , through the building of dykes to drain marshes , tree clearance and the large @-@ scale extraction of peat . Managed parks for hunting game , including deer and boars , were built as status symbols by the nobility from the 12th century onwards , but earlier versions of parks , such as hays , may have originated as early as the 7th century .
= = = Economy and demographics = = =
The English economy was fundamentally agricultural , depending on growing crops such as wheat , barley and oats on an open field system , and husbanding sheep , cattle and pigs . In the late Anglo @-@ Saxon period many peasants moved away from living in isolated hamlets and instead came together to form larger villages engaged in arable cultivation . Agricultural land became typically organised around manors , and was divided between some fields that the landowner would manage directly , called demesne land , and the majority of the fields that would be cultivated by local peasants . These peasants would pay rent to the landowner either through agricultural labour on the lord 's demesne fields or through rent in the form of cash and produce . By the 11th century , a market economy was flourishing across much of England , while the eastern and southern towns were heavily involved in international trade . Around 6 @,@ 000 watermills were built to grind flour , freeing up labour for other more productive agricultural tasks .
Although the Norman invasion caused some damage as soldiers looted the countryside and land was confiscated for castle building , the English economy was not greatly affected . Taxes were increased , however , and the Normans established extensive forests that were exploited for their natural resources and protected by royal laws . The next two centuries saw huge growth in the English economy , driven in part by the increase in the population from around 1 @.@ 5 million in 1086 to between 4 and 5 million in 1300 . More land , much of it at the expense of the royal forests , was brought into production to feed the growing population and to produce wool for export to Europe . Many hundreds of new towns , some of them planned communities , were built across England , supporting the creation of guilds , charter fairs and other medieval institutions which governed the growing trade . Jewish financiers played a significant role in funding the growing economy , along with the new Cistercian and Augustinian religious orders that emerged as major players in the wool trade of the north . Mining increased in England , with a silver boom in the 12th century helping to fuel the expansion of the money supply .
Economic growth began to falter at the end of the 13th century , owing to a combination of overpopulation , land shortages and depleted soils . The Great Famine shook the English economy severely and population growth ceased ; the first outbreak of the Black Death in 1348 then killed around half the English population . The agricultural sector shrank rapidly , with higher wages , lower prices and diminishing profits leading to the final demise of the old demesne system and the advent of the modern farming system centring on the charging of cash rents for lands . As returns on land fell , many estates , and in some cases entire settlements , were simply abandoned , and nearly 1 @,@ 500 villages were deserted during this period . A new class of gentry emerged who rented farms from the major nobility . Unsuccessful government attempts were made to regulate wages and consumption , but these largely collapsed in the decades following the Peasants ' Revolt of 1381 .
The English cloth industry grew considerably at the start of the 15th century , and a new class of international English merchant emerged , typically based in London or the South @-@ West , prospering at the expense of the older , shrinking economies of the eastern towns . These new trading systems brought about the end of many of the international fairs and the rise of the chartered company . Fishing in the North Sea expanded into deeper waters , backed by commercial investment from major merchants . Between 1440 and 1480 , however , Europe entered a recession and England suffered the Great Slump : trade collapsed , driving down agricultural prices , rents and ultimately the acceptable levels of royal taxation . The resulting tensions and discontent played an important part in Jack Cade 's popular uprising in 1450 and the subsequent Wars of the Roses . By the end of Middle Ages the economy had begun to recover and considerable improvements were being made in metalworking and shipbuilding that would shape the Early Modern economy .
= = = Technology and science = = =
Technology and science in England advanced considerably during the Middle Ages , driven in part by the Greek and Islamic thinking that reached England from the 12th century onwards . Many advances were made in scientific ideas , including the introduction of Arabic numerals and a sequence of improvements in the units used for measuring time . Clocks were first built in England in the late 13th century , and the first mechanical clocks were certainly being installed in cathedrals and abbeys by the 1320s . Astrology , magic and palm reading were also considered important forms of knowledge in medieval England , although some doubted their reliability .
The period produced some influential English scholars . Roger Bacon , a philosopher and Franciscan friar , produced works on natural philosophy , astronomy and alchemy ; his work set out the theoretical basis for future experimentation in the natural sciences . William of Ockham helped to fuse Latin , Greek and Islamic writing into a general theory of logic ; " Ockham 's Razor " was one of his oft @-@ cited conclusions . English scholars since the time of Bede had believed the world was probably round , but Johannes de Sacrobosco estimated the circumference of the earth in the 13th century . Despite the limitations of medieval medicine , Gilbertus Anglicus published the Compendium Medicinae , one of the longest medical works ever written in Latin . Prominent historical and science texts began to be translated into English for the first time in the second half of the 14th century , including the Polychronicon and The Travels of Sir John Mandeville . The universities of Oxford and Cambridge were established during the 11th and 12th centuries , drawing on the model of the University of Paris .
Technological advances proceeded in a range of areas . Watermills to grind grain had existed during most of the Anglo @-@ Saxon period , using horizontal mill designs ; from the 12th century on many more were built , eliminating the use of hand mills , with the older horizontal mills gradually supplanted by a new vertical mill design . Windmills began to be built in the late 12th century and slowly became more common . Water @-@ powered fulling mills and powered hammers first appeared in the 12th century ; water power was harnessed to assist in smelting by the 14th century , with the first blast furnace opening in 1496 . New mining methods were developed and horse @-@ powered pumps were installed in English mines by the end of the Middle Ages . The introduction of hopped beer transformed the brewing industry in the 14th century , and new techniques were invented to better preserve fish . Glazed pottery became widespread in the 12th and 13th centuries , with stoneware pots largely replacing wooden plates and bowls by the 15th century . William Caxton and Wynkyn de Worde began using the printing press during the late 15th century . Transport links were also improved ; many road bridges were either erected or rebuilt in stone during the long economic boom of the 12th and 13th centuries . England 's maritime trade benefited from the introduction of cog ships , and many docks were improved and fitted with cranes for the first time .
= = Warfare = =
= = = Armies = = =
Warfare was endemic in early Anglo @-@ Saxon England , and major conflicts still occurred approximately every generation in the later period . Groups of well @-@ armed noblemen and their households formed the heart of these armies , supported by larger numbers of temporary troops levied from across the kingdom , called the fyrd . By the 9th century , armies of 20 @,@ 000 men could be called up for campaigns , with another 28 @,@ 000 men available to guard urban defences . The most common weapon was the spear , with swords used by the wealthier nobles ; cavalry was probably less common than in wider Europe , but some Anglo @-@ Saxons did fight from horseback . The Viking attacks on England in the 9th century led to developments in tactics , including the use of shield walls in battle , and the Scandinavian seizure of power in the 11th century introduced housecarls , a form of elite household soldier who protected the king .
Anglo @-@ Norman warfare was characterised by attritional military campaigns , in which commanders tried to raid enemy lands and seize castles in order to allow them to take control of their adversaries ' territory , ultimately winning slow but strategic victories . Pitched battles were occasionally fought between armies but these were considered risky engagements and usually avoided by prudent commanders . The armies of the period comprised bodies of mounted , armoured knights , supported by infantry . Crossbowmen become more numerous in the 12th century , alongside the older shortbow . At the heart of these armies was the familia regis , the permanent military household of the king , which was supported in war by feudal levies , drawn up by local nobles for a limited period of service during a campaign . Mercenaries were increasingly employed , driving up the cost of warfare considerably , and adequate supplies of ready cash became essential for the success of campaigns .
In the late 13th century Edward I expanded the familia regis to become a small standing army , forming the core of much larger armies up to 28 @,@ 700 strong , largely comprising foot soldiers , for campaigns in Scotland and France . By the time of Edward III , armies were smaller in size , but the troops were typically better equipped and uniformed , and the archers carried the longbow , a potentially devastating weapon . Cannons were first used by English forces at battles such as Crécy in 1346 . Soldiers began to be contracted for specific campaigns , a practice which may have hastened the development of the armies of retainers that grew up under bastard feudalism . By the late 15th century , however , English armies were somewhat backward by wider European standards ; the Wars of the Roses were fought by inexperienced soldiers , often with outdated weapons , allowing the European forces which intervened in the conflict to have a decisive effect on the outcomes of battles .
= = = Navies = = =
The first references to an English navy occur in 851 , when chroniclers described Wessex ships defeating a Viking fleet . These early fleets were limited in size but grew in size in the 10th century , allowing the power of Wessex to be projected across the Irish Sea and the English Channel ; Cnut 's fleet had as many as 40 vessels , while Edward the Confessor could muster 80 ships . Some ships were manned by sailors called lithesmen and bustsecarls , probably drawn from the coastal towns , while other vessels were mobilised as part of a national levy and manned by their regular crews . Naval forces played an important role during the rest of the Middle Ages , enabling the transportation of troops and supplies , raids into hostile territory and attacks on enemy fleets . English naval power became particularly important after the loss of Normandy in 1204 , which turned the English Channel from a friendly transit route into a contested and critical border region . English fleets in the 13th and 14th centuries typically comprised specialist vessels , such as galleys and large transport ships , and pressed merchant vessels conscripted into action ; the latter increasingly included cogs , a new form of sailing ship . Battles might be fought when one fleet found another at anchor , such as the English victory at Sluys in 1340 , or in more open waters , as off the coast of Winchelsea in 1350 ; raiding campaigns , such as the French attacks on the south of England between 1338 and 1339 , could cause devastation from which some towns never fully recovered .
= = = Fortifications = = =
Many of the fortifications built by the Romans in England survived into the Middle Ages , including the walls surrounding their military forts and cities . These defences were often reused during the unstable post @-@ Roman period . The Anglo @-@ Saxon kings undertook significant planned urban expansion in the 8th and 9th centuries , creating burhs , often protected with earth and wood ramparts . Burh walls sometimes utilised older Roman fortifications , both for practical reasons and to bolster their owners ' reputations through the symbolism of former Roman power .
Although a small number of castles had been built in England during the 1050s , after the conquest the Normans began to build timber motte and bailey and ringwork castles in large numbers to control their newly occupied territories . During the 12th century the Normans began to build more castles in stone , with characteristic square keeps that supported both military and political functions . Royal castles were used to control key towns and forests , whilst baronial castles were used by the Norman lords to control their widespread estates ; a feudal system called the castle @-@ guard was sometimes used to provide garrisons . Castles and sieges continued to grow in military sophistication during the 12th century , and in the 13th century new defensive town walls were constructed across England .
By the 14th century , castles were combining defences with luxurious , sophisticated living arrangements and landscaped gardens and parks . Early gunpowder weapons were used to defend castles by the end of the 14th century and gunports became an essential feature for a fashionable castle . The economics of maintaining castles meant that many were left to decline or abandoned ; in contrast , a small number of castles were developed by the very wealthy into palaces that hosted lavish feasts and celebrations amid elaborate architecture . Smaller defensible structures called tower houses emerged in the north of England to protect against the Scottish threat . By the late medieval period , town walls were increasingly less military in character and more often expressions of civic pride or part of urban governance : many grand gatehouses were built in the 14th and 15th centuries for these purposes .
= = Arts = =
= = = Art = = =
Medieval England produced art in the form of paintings , carvings , books , fabrics and many functional but beautiful objects . A wide range of materials were used , including gold , glass and ivory , the art usually drawing overt attention to the materials utilised in the designs . Anglo @-@ Saxon artists created carved ivories , illuminated manuscripts , embroidered cloths , crosses and stone sculpture , although relatively few of these have survived to the modern period . They produced a wide range of metalwork , frequently using gold and garnets , with brooches , buckles , sword hilts and drinking horns particularly favoured designs . Early designs , such as those found at the Sutton Hoo burial , used a zoomorphic style , heavily influenced by German fashions , in which animal shapes were distorted into flowing shapes and positioned alongside geometric patterns . From the 7th century onwards more naturalistic designs became popular , showing a plasticity of form and incorporating both animals and people into the designs . In the 10th century , Carolingian styles , inspired by Classical imagery , began to enter from the continent , becoming widely used in the reformed Benedictine monasteries across the south and east of England .
The Norman conquest introduced northern French artistic styles , particular in illuminated manuscripts and murals , and reduced the demand for carvings . In other artistic areas , including embroidery , the Anglo @-@ Saxon influence remained evident into the 12th century , and the famous Bayeux Tapestry is an example of older styles being reemployed under the new regime . Stained glass became a distinctive form of English art during this later medieval period , although the coloured glass for these works was almost entirely imported from Europe . Little early stained glass in England has survived , but it typically had both an ornamental and educational function , while later works also commemorated the sponsors of the windows into the designs . English tapestry making and embroidery in the early 14th century were of an especially high quality ; works produced by nuns and London professionals were exported across Europe , becoming known as the opus anglicanum . English illuminated books , such as the Queen Mary Psalter , were also famous in this period , featuring rich decoration , a combination of grotesque and natural figures and rich colours . The quality of illuminated art in England declined significantly in the face of competition from Flanders in the 14th century , and later English illuminated medieval pieces generally imitated Flemish styles .
= = = Literature , drama and music = = =
The Anglo @-@ Saxons produced extensive poetry in Old English , some of which was written down as early as the 9th century , although most surviving poems were compiled in the 10th and early 11th century . Beowulf , probably written between 650 and 750 , is typical of these poems , portraying a vivid , heroic tale , ending with the protagonist 's death at the hands of a dragon , but still showing signs of the new Christian influences in England . Old English was also used for academic and courtly writing from the 9th century onwards , including translations of popular foreign works , including The Pastoral Care .
Poetry and stories written in French were popular after the Norman conquest , and by the 12th century some works on English history began to be produced in French verse . Romantic poems about tournaments and courtly love became popular in Paris and this fashion spread into England in the form of lays ; stories about the court of King Arthur were also fashionable , due in part to the interest of Henry II . English continued to be used on a modest scale to write local religious works and some poems in the north of England , but most major works were produced in Latin or French . In the reign of Richard II there was an upsurge in the use of Middle English in poetry , sometimes termed " Ricardian poetry " , although the works still emulated French fashions . The work of Geoffrey Chaucer from the 1370s onwards , however , culminating in the influential Canterbury Tales , was uniquely English in style . Major pieces of courtly poetry continued to be produced into the 15th century by Chaucher 's disciples , and Thomas Malory compiled the older Arthurian tales to produce Le Morte d 'Arthur .
Music and singing were important in England during the medieval period , being used in religious ceremonies , court occasions and to accompany theatrical works . Singing techniques called gymel were introduced in England in the 13th century , accompanied by instruments such as the guitar , harp , pipes and organ . Henry IV sponsored an extensive range of music in England , while his son Henry V brought back many influences from occupied France . Carols became an important form of music in the 15th century ; originally these had been a song sung during a dance with a prominent refrain — the 15th century form lost the dancing and introduced strong religious overtones . Ballads were also popular from the late 14th century onwards , including the Ballad of Chevy Chase and others describing the activities of Robin Hood . Miracle plays were performed to communicate the Bible in various locations . By the late 14th century , these had been extended into vernacular mystery plays which performed annually over several days , broken up into various cycles of plays ; a handful have survived into the 21st century . Guilds competed to produce the best plays in each town and performances were often an expression of civic identity .
= = = Architecture = = =
In the century after the collapse of the Romano @-@ British economy , very few substantial buildings were constructed and many villas and towns were abandoned . New long- and round @-@ houses were constructed in some settlements , while in others timber buildings were built imitating the older Roman styles . The Germanic immigrants constructed small rectangular buildings from wood , and occasionally grander halls . However , the conversion to Christianity in the 6th and 7th centuries reintroduced Italian and French masons , and these craftsmen built stone churches , low in height , following a narrow , rectangular plan , plastered inside and fitted with glass and colourful vestments . This Romanesque style developed throughout the period , featuring characteristic circular arches . By the 10th and 11th centuries , much larger churches and monastery buildings were being built , featuring square and circular towers after the contemporary European fashion . The palaces constructed for the nobility centred on great timber halls , while manor houses began to appear in rural areas .
The Normans brought with them architectural styles from their own duchy , where austere stone churches were preferred . Under the early Norman kings this style was adapted to produce large , plain cathedrals with ribbed vaulting . During the 12th century the Anglo @-@ Norman style became richer and more ornate , with pointed arches derived from French architecture replacing the curved Romanesque designs ; this style is termed Early English Gothic and continued , with variation , throughout the rest of the Middle Ages . In the early 14th century the Perpendicular Gothic style was created in England , with an emphasis on verticality , immense windows and soaring arcades . Fine timber roofs in a variety of styles , but in particular the hammerbeam , were built in many English buildings . In the 15th century the architectural focus turned away from cathedrals and monasteries in favour of parish churches , often decorated with richly carved woodwork ; in turn , these churches influenced the design of new chantry chapels for existing cathedrals .
Meanwhile , domestic architecture had continued to develop , with the Normans , having first occupied the older Anglo @-@ Saxon dwellings , rapidly beginning to build larger buildings in stone and timber . The elite preferred houses with large , ground @-@ floor halls but the less wealthy constructed simpler houses with the halls on the first floor ; master and servants frequently lived in the same spaces . Wealthier town @-@ houses were also built using stone , and incorporated business and domestic arrangements into a single functional design . By the 14th century grander houses and castles were sophisticated affairs : expensively tiled , often featuring murals and glass windows , these buildings were often designed as a set of apartments to allow greater privacy . Fashionable brick began to be used in some parts of the country , copying French tastes . Architecture that emulated the older defensive designs remained popular . Less is known about the houses of peasants during this period , although many peasants appear to have lived in relatively substantial , timber @-@ framed long @-@ houses ; the quality of these houses improved in the prosperous years following the Black Death , often being built by professional craftsmen .
= = Legacy = =
= = = Historiography = = =
The first history of medieval England was written by Bede in the 8th century ; many more accounts of contemporary and ancient history followed , usually termed chronicles . In the 16th century , the first academic histories began to be written , typically drawing primarily on the chroniclers and interpreting them in the light of current political concerns . Edward Gibbon 's 18th @-@ century writings were influential , presenting the medieval period as a dark age between the glories of Rome and the rebirth of civilisation in the Early Modern period . Late Victorian historians continued to use the chroniclers as sources , but also deployed documents such as Domesday Book and Magna Carta , alongside newly discovered financial , legal and commercial records . They produced a progressive account of political and economic development in England . The growth of the British Empire spurred interest in the various periods of English hegemony during the Middle Ages , including the Angevin Empire and the Hundred Years ' War .
By the 1930s , older historical analyses were challenged by a range of neo @-@ positivist , Marxist and econometric approaches , supported by a widening body of documentary , archaeological and scientific evidence . Marxist and Neo @-@ Marxist analyses continued to be popular in the post @-@ war years , producing seminal works on economic issues and social protests . Post @-@ modern analysis became influential in the 1970s and 1980s , focusing on identity , gender , interpretation and culture . Many studies focused on particular regions or groups , drawing on new records and new scientific approaches , including landscape and environmental archaeology . Fresh archaeological finds , such as the Staffordshire Hoard , continue to challenge previous interpretations , and historical studies of England in the Middle Ages have never been so diverse as in the early 21st century .
= = = Popular representations = = =
The period has also been used in a wide range of popular culture . William Shakespeare 's plays on the lives of the medieval kings have proved to have had long lasting appeal , heavily influencing both popular interpretations and histories of figures such as King John and Henry V. Other playwrights have since taken key medieval events , such as the death of Thomas Becket , and used them to draw out contemporary themes and issues . The medieval mystery plays continue to be enacted in key English towns and cities . Film @-@ makers have drawn extensively on the medieval period , often taking themes from Shakespeare or the Robin Hood ballads for inspiration . Historical fiction set in England during the Middle Ages remains persistently popular , with the 1980s and 1990s seeing a particular growth of historical detective fiction . The period has also inspired fantasy writers , including J. R. R. Tolkien 's stories of Middle @-@ earth . English medieval music was revived from the 1950s , with choral and musical groups attempting to authentically reproduce the original sounds . Medieval living history events were first held during the 19th and early 20th centuries , and the period has inspired a considerable community of historical re @-@ enactors , part of England 's growing heritage industry .
= = = Surveys = = =
= = = Kings = = =
= = = Architecture , castles , churches , landscape = = =
= = = Specialized studies = = =
= = = Historiography = = =
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= Romeo & Juliet : Sealed with a Kiss =
Romeo & Juliet : Sealed with a Kiss is a 2006 American animated romantic fantasy film loosely following the play Romeo and Juliet by William Shakespeare . The film is about two star @-@ crossed seals , Romeo and Juliet ( voiced by Daniel and Patricia Trippet respectively ) , who fall in love against the wishes of their warring families . It was released in Europe in mid @-@ 2006 and on October 27 in the United States .
The film was written , animated , and directed entirely by one man , former Disney animator Phil Nibbelink . The film , created on an estimated budget of $ 2 million , took 4 ½ years to complete and required 112 @,@ 000 frames , all drawn by Nibbelink on a Wacom tablet directly into Flash 4 in combination with Moho software . Despite the film 's negative reviews , it won an award in Best in Show at the Southwest Film Festival .
= = Plot = =
Warring Capulets ( Michael Toland ) and Montagues ( Stephen Goldberg ) , portrayed as Steller and California sea lions respectively , have their feud watched sadly by Capulet 's only daughter , Juliet ( Patricia Trippett ) . A fight on the shore is ended when the Prince ( Phil Nibbelink ) , a large and monstrous elephant seal , appears and warns the two groups that , should there be any more disturbance , the seal who caused it shall be exiled to Shark Island , a fin shaped rock where a shark lives . Romeo ( Daniel Tripett ) , Montague 's only son , is depressed , wishing to fall in love with someone . His humorous friend , Mercutio ( Chip Albers ) , urges him and another of his friends , Benvolio ( Sam Gold ) , to go to a Capulet party later that evening . They attend the party , covered in white sand to look like Capulets , and Romeo falls in love with Juliet at first sight . Juliet , however , was promised by her father to marry the Prince , who attends the party . Romeo and his friends manage to wreak havoc , and are revealed to be Montagues . Later that evening , the play 's balcony scene is recreated on a cliff on the beach where a tree grows . Romeo promises Juliet that they shall marry the next morning , and she will not have to marry the Prince .
Romeo begs Friar Lawrence , a sea otter , to wed them . After some thought , the friar believes their marriage will end the feud between their families , and agrees . Romeo and Juliet are wed that morning and traverse the sea in their happiness . However , even the other sea and land animals strongly oppose their being together . A fish finds them a lovely couple , but warns them that they will be in big trouble if the Prince finds out . Back on the beach , Mercutio is telling many jokes , which leads to him making insulting jokes against the Capulets , and the Prince is headed in that direction . When he arrives , Mercutio mocks him as well . Romeo rushes to aid his friend , but after a struggle Mercutio falls off the cliff where Juliet met Romeo the previous evening , and everyone thinks that he is dead . The Prince , jealous of Juliet 's affection for Romeo , exiles Romeo to Shark Island . In despair , Juliet seeks the Friar 's help , and he gives her a potion to put her in a deathlike state . Mercutio is revealed to be alive and sees the whole thing , remarking , " What a tangled web we weave . "
Lawrence shows the Capulet seals that Juliet is " dead " , right as they were celebrating the marriage . But Benvolio sees her as well , and swims to Shark Island to tell Romeo . The Friar chases him to stop him , but is attacked by a shark . After receiving the terrible news from Benvolio , Romeo heads to the shore to see if Juliet is truly dead . Friar Lawrence arrives too late and tries to follow Romeo , only to have his tail maimed by the shark . After an undersea chase and some help from the fish Romeo and Juliet met earlier , Lawrence escapes and heads to the beach . A heartbroken Romeo walks past the mourning Capulets and tries to kiss Juliet , only to have some of the potion slip into his own mouth , putting him in a deathlike state as well . Both groups of seals begin to weep for their loss , and Lawrence , who has just arrived , teaches them a lesson about where hatred leads them . Suddenly , Romeo and Juliet awaken , and all is well . Mercutio returns , and the Prince finds a new mate , a large elephant seal like himself . The movie ends with the two families at peace , and Romeo and Juliet remaining together .
= = Cast and characters = =
Daniel Trippett as Romeo , a brave , kind , and handsome Montague and Juliet 's love interest and main protagonist of the movie . He knows he should not go near the Capulets , but he loves Juliet . It is revealed that he would not let anyone kidnap Juliet ; this is first revealed in a shipwreck scene , when an octopus hypnotizes and tangles Juliet and challenges Romeo to a duel . In the English version he is voiced by Alan Ritchson
Patricia Trippett as Juliet , a sweet , pretty , and Capulet and Romeo 's love interest .
Chip Albers as Mercutio , Romeo 's trouble @-@ making best friend .
Michael Toland as Capulet , Juliet 's father . / Friar Lawrence : A sea otter and a good friend of Romeo , he knows that Romeo and Juliet shouldn 't be married , but realizes that the wedding will stop the rivalry of the two families .
Stephen Goldberg as Montague , Romeo 's father .
Phil Nibbelink as the Prince , a huge northern elephant seal who has a big nose , rancid breath , and a quick temper and the main antagonist of the movie .
Chanelle Nibbelink as Kissy the Kissing Fish , a sweet and cute little fish who acts as a comic relief . She does not like the water much , but adores Romeo , and enjoys kissing him .
Sam Gold as Benvolio , a good friend of Romeo who is not a trouble @-@ maker like Mercutio .
= = Production = =
= = = Background = = =
Nibbelink , a former Disney animator , founded an independent company with his wife , Margit Friesacher , called Phillip Nibbelink Productions , in 1998 . He stated that he grew tired of the " big industry merry @-@ go @-@ round " and wanted to make films himself . He had independently created two feature @-@ length animated films before Romeo & Juliet : Sealed with a Kiss — Puss in Boots & Leif Ericson : The Boy Who Discovered America . Nibbelink decided to make Romeo and Juliet in 2000 , when he was finishing Leif Ericson , and began work on it in early 2003 . Nibbelink wanted the film to be a family @-@ friendly version of Shakespeare 's original tale , because of the few appropriate family films available at the time .
= = = Animation = = =
The film took 4 ½ years of animating and required 112 @,@ 000 frames , each of which were completed in under 2 minutes and drawn on a Wacom tablet directly into Flash 4 , in combination with Moho software . All the frames together were done in a month , by Nibbelink 's estimation . The Moho software was used for the " over @-@ the @-@ shoulder " or the " listening " characters , or crowd scene characters . The film was a half @-@ year in post @-@ production . Nibbelink used Flash 4 because when he tried to migrate to Flash 5 , it created forward @-@ compatibility problems . Even cut @-@ and @-@ paste work using Flash 4 and Flash 5 launched at the same time created RAM issues and crashed .
= = = Audio = = =
Most actors of the film were Nibbelink 's friends and children , whose voices he recorded in a studio in his basement . The film 's Spanish dub was originally done in Madrid . Nibbelink said his daughter 's voice @-@ over was completely unscripted . " I would take these silly improvs that my little daughter would do . I mean , lines like , she would say , ‘ Babies – p @-@ ew ! I hate stinky babies ! ’ I said , ‘ That ’ s hilarious ! ’ So I would use it . "
The film had no official composer . Nibbelink bought melodies from royalty @-@ free music compositions , and wrote the lyrics for the music . These royalty free music companies were Intents Creative Music , British Audio Publishing , Crank City Music , Jack Waldenmaier Music Productions in association with The Music Bakery , River City Sound Productions , Bejoodle Music , Fresh Music , and Music 2 Hues . Three songs are included in the film : a version of " Twinkle Twinkle Little Star " , performed by Chanelle Nibbelink and arranged by Elva Nibbelink , " Bite My Tail " , performed by Michael Toland and arranged by Nibbelink , and " Singing Starfish " , performed by Jennifer , Russell , and Gigi Nibbelink .
= = Release = =
= = = Theatrical release = = =
Nibbelink sold the film to 800 people , and it was picked up by distributors MarVista Entertainment for release in foreign territories and Indican Pictures for a domestic release . A preview of the film was screened at Sony Pictures Entertainment in Los Angeles , California on November 17 , 2004 , and the movie was later showcased at the 2005 Asia Television Forum in Singapore . It was released as Fofita , una foquita la mar de salada to 32 theaters in Madrid and Seville on June 23 , 2006 .
Sealed with a Kiss was rated " G " by the Motion Picture Association of America . The film had a domestic total of $ 463 @,@ 002 in its 34 @-@ week ( 238 @-@ day ) box office run . On opening weekend in 2006 , the film , which debuted in Los Angeles , California , grossed $ 80 @,@ 938 , with an average of $ 4 @,@ 220 . That same week , it grossed a total $ 109 @,@ 720 . The film closed its box office run on July 19 , 2007 , having grossed just $ 895 that same week . Despite being a minor box office bomb , as of June 2013 , the film is the third most profitable film released by Indican Pictures .
= = = Home media = = =
The film was released to DVD on June 12 , 2007 . Animatedviews.com 's Ben Simon , in his review of the DVD , gave it an overall 7 out of 10 , praising the large bonus content for a low @-@ budget film , but criticizing the glitchy sound and audio of the feature . A giveaway was previously held in 2005 by Abbey Home Media and Courier Kids , and the prize was a DVD copy of the film and a toy seal . Ten copies were given .
= = Critical reception = =
The film was negatively received by critics . Review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes reports that only 20 % of critics gave the film a positive review , with an average rating of 3 / 10 , based on 5 reviews . Movies.com 's Dave White compared what he considered the film 's poor animation to the animation of The Wild , and criticized some dialogue of the film judged " vaguely Shakespearean " , satirizing the fact that " children like English pronouns 15th century . " Sam Adams of the Los Angeles Times called the film a " genuine tragedy , although not in the Shakespearean sense " and wrote that a " comprehensive list of what 's wrong with Romeo & Juliet : Sealed With a Kiss would stretch farther than the unabridged works of William S. " LA Weekly 's Luke Y. Thompson said that the film " should find its primary audience among college potheads who like to watch ' 70s Hanna @-@ Barbera creations on the Cartoon Network late at night . " Common Sense Media writer Renee Schonfeld said in his 2012 review that it was " an amateurish effort with a grating villain , tired jokes , and sub @-@ par music " . He gave it 2 out of 5 stars .
In contrast , Reel.com 's Pam Grady gave the film a 2 @.@ 5 out of 4 , saying that , " surprisingly , it 's not terrible " . Animatedviews.com 's Ben Simon defended the film , saying it was " a charming little movie " that " remains faithful to Shakespeare 's text . " The film won two awards at the Southwest Film Festival , in the animation and Best in Show category .
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= Lion =
The lion ( Panthera leo ) is one of the big cats in the genus Panthera and a member of the family Felidae . The commonly used term African lion collectively denotes the several subspecies in Africa . With some males exceeding 250 kg ( 550 lb ) in weight , it is the second @-@ largest living cat after the tiger . Wild lions currently exist in sub @-@ Saharan Africa and in India ( where an endangered remnant population resides in Gir Forest National Park ) . In ancient historic times , their range was in most of Africa , including North Africa , and across Eurasia from Greece and southeastern Europe to India . In the late Pleistocene , about 10 @,@ 000 years ago , the lion was the most widespread large land mammal after humans : Panthera leo spelaea lived in northern and western Europe and Panthera leo atrox lived in the Americas from the Yukon to Peru . The lion is classified as a vulnerable species by the IUCN , having seen a major population decline in its African range of 30 – 50 % per two decades during the second half of the twentieth century . Lion populations are untenable outside designated reserves and national parks . Although the cause of the decline is not fully understood , habitat loss and conflicts with humans are the greatest causes of concern . Within Africa , the West African lion population is particularly endangered .
In the wild , males seldom live longer than 10 to 14 years , as injuries sustained from continual fighting with rival males greatly reduce their longevity . In captivity they can live more than 20 years . They typically inhabit savanna and grassland , although they may take to bush and forest . Lions are unusually social compared to other cats . A pride of lions consists of related females and offspring and a small number of adult males . Groups of female lions typically hunt together , preying mostly on large ungulates . Lions are apex and keystone predators , although they are also expert scavengers obtaining over 50 percent of their food by scavenging as opportunity allows . While lions do not typically hunt humans , some have . Sleeping mainly during the day , lions are active primarily at night ( nocturnal ) , although sometimes at twilight ( crepuscular ) .
Highly distinctive , the male lion is easily recognised by its mane , and its face is one of the most widely recognised animal symbols in human culture . Depictions have existed from the Upper Paleolithic period , with carvings and paintings from the Lascaux and Chauvet Caves in France dated to 17 @,@ 000 years ago , through virtually all ancient and medieval cultures where they once occurred . It has been extensively depicted in sculptures , in paintings , on national flags , and in contemporary films and literature . Lions have been kept in menageries since the time of the Roman Empire , and have been a key species sought for exhibition in zoos over the world since the late eighteenth century . Zoos are cooperating worldwide in breeding programs for the endangered Asiatic subspecies .
= = Etymology = =
The lion 's name , similar in many Romance languages , is derived from the Latin leo , and the Ancient Greek λέων ( leon ) . The Hebrew word לָבִיא ( lavi ) may also be related . It was one of the species originally described by Linnaeus , who gave it the name Felis leo , in his eighteenth @-@ century work , Systema Naturae .
= = Taxonomy and evolution = =
The lion 's closest relatives are the other species of the genus Panthera : the tiger , the snow leopard , the jaguar , and the leopard . Studies from 2006 and 2009 concluded that the jaguar is a sister species to the lion and the leopard is a sister taxon to the jaguar / lion clade while 2010 and 2011 studies have swapped the positions leopard and jaguar . P. leo evolved in Africa between 1 million and 800 @,@ 000 years ago , before spreading throughout the Holarctic region . It appeared in the fossil record in Europe for the first time 700 @,@ 000 years ago with the subspecies Panthera leo fossilis at Isernia in Italy . From this lion derived the later cave lion ( Panthera leo spelaea ) , which appeared about 300 @,@ 000 years ago . Lions died out in northern Eurasia at the end of the last glaciation , about 10 @,@ 000 years ago ; this may have been secondary to the extinction of Pleistocene megafauna .
= = = Subspecies = = =
Traditionally , 12 recent subspecies of lion were recognised , distinguished by mane appearance , size , and distribution . Because these characteristics are very insignificant and show a high individual variability , most of these forms were probably not true subspecies , especially as they were often based upon zoo material of unknown origin that may have had " striking , but abnormal " morphological characteristics . Today , only eight subspecies are usually accepted , although one of these , the Cape lion , formerly described as Panthera leo melanochaita , is probably invalid . Even the remaining seven subspecies might be too many . While the status of the Asiatic lion ( P. l. persica ) as a subspecies is generally accepted , the systematic relationships among African lions are still not completely resolved . Mitochondrial variation in living African lions seemed to be modest according to some newer studies ; therefore , all sub @-@ Saharan lions have sometimes been considered a single subspecies . However , a recent study revealed lions from western and central Africa differ genetically from lions of southern or eastern Africa . According to this study , Western African lions are more closely related to Asian lions than to South or East African lions . These findings might be explained by a late Pleistocene extinction event of lions in western and central Africa , and a subsequent recolonisation of these parts from Asia .
Previous studies , which were focused mainly on lions from eastern and southern parts of Africa , already showed these can be possibly divided in two main clades : one to the west of the Great Rift Valley and the other to the east . Lions from Tsavo in eastern Kenya are much closer genetically to lions in Transvaal ( South Africa ) , than to those in the Aberdare Range in western Kenya . Another study revealed there are three major types of lions , one North African – Asian , one southern African and one middle African . Conversely , Per Christiansen found that using skull morphology allowed him to identify the subspecies krugeri , nubica , persica , and senegalensis , while there was overlap between bleyenberghi with senegalensis and krugeri . The Asiatic lion persica was the most distinctive , and the Cape lion had characteristics allying it more with P. l. persica than the other sub @-@ Saharan lions . He had analysed 58 lion skulls in three European museums . Based on recent genetic studies , the Cat Classification Task Force of the IUCN SSC Cat Specialist Group has provisionally proposed to assign the lions occurring in Asia and West , Central and North Africa to the subspecies Panthera leo leo and the lions inhabiting South and East Africa to the subspecies Panthera leo melanochaita . The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service has followed this revised taxonomic classification , as being based on " the best available scientific and commercial information " , in listing these two subspecies as , respectively , endangered and threatened .
The majority of lions kept in zoos are hybrids of different subspecies . Approximately 77 % of the captive lions registered by the International Species Information System are of unknown origin . Nonetheless , they might carry genes that are extinct in the wild , and might be therefore important to maintain overall genetic variability of the lion . It is believed that those lions , imported to Europe before the middle of the nineteenth century , were mainly either Barbary lions from North Africa or lions from the Cape .
= = = = Recent = = = =
Eight recent ( Holocene ) subspecies are recognised today :
= = = = Pleistocene = = = =
Several additional subspecies of lion existed in prehistoric times :
P. l. fossilis , known as the Middle Pleistocene European cave lion , flourished about 500 @,@ 000 years ago ; fossils have been recovered from Germany and Italy . It was larger than today 's African lions , reaching sizes comparable to the American cave lion and slightly larger than the Upper Pleistocene European cave lion .
P. l. spelaea , known as the European cave lion , Eurasian cave lion , or Upper Pleistocene European cave lion , occurred in Eurasia 300 @,@ 000 to 10 @,@ 000 years ago . This species is known from Paleolithic cave paintings , ivory carvings , and clay busts , indicating it had protruding ears , tufted tails , perhaps faint tiger @-@ like stripes , and at least some had a ruff or primitive mane around their necks , possibly indicating males .
P. l. atrox , known as the American lion or American cave lion , was abundant in the Americas from Canada to Peru in the Pleistocene Epoch until about 10 @,@ 000 years ago . This form is the sister clade of P. l. spelaea , and likely arose when an early P. l. spelaea population became isolated south of the North American continental ice sheet about 0 @.@ 34 Mya . One of the largest purported lion subspecies to have existed , its body length is estimated to have been 1 @.@ 6 – 2 @.@ 5 m ( 5 @.@ 2 – 8 @.@ 2 ft ) .
= = = = Dubious = = = =
P. l. youngi or Panthera youngi , flourished 350 @,@ 000 years ago . Its relationship to the extant lion subspecies is obscure , and it probably represents a distinct species .
P. l. sinhaleyus , known as the Sri Lanka lion , appears to have become extinct around 39 @,@ 000 years ago . It is only known from two teeth found in deposits at Kuruwita . Based on these teeth , P. Deraniyagala erected this subspecies in 1939 .
P. l. vereshchagini , the Beringian cave lion of Yakutia ( Russia ) , Alaska ( United States ) , and the Yukon Territory ( Canada ) , has been considered a subspecies separate from P. l. spelaea on morphological grounds . However , mitochondrial DNA sequences obtained from cave lion fossils from Europe and Alaska were indistinguishable .
P. l. mesopotamica or Mesopotamian lion , flourished during the Neo @-@ Assyrian Period ( approximately 1000 – 600 BC ) . It inhabited the Mesopotamian Plain where it probably represents a distinct sub @-@ species . Nearly all ancient Mesopotamian representations of male lions demonstrate full underbelly hair in which until recently was only identified in the Barbary lion ( Panthera leo leo ) from Northern Africa and in most Asiatic lions ( P. l. persica ) from captivity in colder climates . Ancient evidence from adjacent landmasses reveal no substantiation for lions with underbelly hair in this manner so that the distinct phenotype of depicted lions in ancient Mesopotamia ( including Babylon , Elam and ancient Persia ) represent an extinct sub @-@ species . Many of the images of these lions are derived from lion hunting sculptures so that the extinction of this sub @-@ species likely resulted from overhunting in the ancient world .
P. l. europaea , known as the European lion , was probably identical with Panthera leo persica or Panthera leo spelea . It became extinct around 100 AD due to persecution and over @-@ exploitation . It inhabited the Balkans , the Italian Peninsula , southern France , and the Iberian Peninsula . It was a very popular object of hunting among ancient Romans and Greeks .
P. l. maculatus , known as the marozi or spotted lion , sometimes is believed to be a distinct subspecies , but may be an adult lion that has retained its juvenile spotted pattern . If it was a subspecies in its own right , rather than a small number of aberrantly coloured individuals , it has been extinct since 1931 . A less likely identity is a natural leopard @-@ lion hybrid commonly known as a leopon .
= = = Hybrids = = =
Lions have been known to breed with tigers ( most often the Siberian and Bengal subspecies ) to create hybrids called ligers and tiglons ( or tigons ) . They also have been crossed with leopards to produce leopons , and jaguars to produce jaglions . The marozi is reputedly a spotted lion or a naturally occurring leopon , while the Congolese spotted lion is a complex lion @-@ jaguar @-@ leopard hybrid called a lijagulep . Such hybrids were once commonly bred in zoos , but this is now discouraged due to the emphasis on conserving species and subspecies . Hybrids are still bred in private menageries and in zoos in China .
The liger is a cross between a male lion and a tigress . Because the growth @-@ inhibiting gene from the female tiger mother is absent , the growth @-@ promoting gene passed on by the male lion father is unimpeded by a regulating gene and the resulting ligers grow far larger than either parent . They share physical and behavioural qualities of both parent species ( spots and stripes on a sandy background ) . Male ligers are sterile , but female ligers often are fertile . Males have about a 50 % chance of having a mane , but if they grow them , their manes will be modest : around 50 % the size of a pure lion mane .
Ligers are much bigger than normal lions , typically 3 @.@ 65 m ( 12 @.@ 0 ft ) in length , and can weigh up to 500 kg ( 1 @,@ 100 lb ) .
The less common tiglon or tigon is a cross between a lioness and a male tiger . In contrast to ligers , tigons are often relatively small in comparison to their parents , because of reciprocal gene effects .
= = Characteristics = =
Of the living felids the lion is second only to the tiger in length and weight . Its skull is very similar to that of the tiger , although the frontal region is usually more depressed and flattened , with a slightly shorter postorbital region and broader nasal openings than that of a tiger . However , due to the amount of skull variation in the two species , usually only the structure of the lower jaw can be used as a reliable indicator of species . Lion colouration varies from light buff to yellowish , reddish , or dark ochraceous brown . The underparts are generally lighter and the tail tuft is black . Lion cubs are born with brown rosettes ( spots ) on their body , rather like those of a leopard . Although these fade as lions reach adulthood , faint spots often may still be seen on the legs and underparts , particularly on lionesses .
Lions are the only members of the cat family to display obvious sexual dimorphism – that is , males and females look distinctly different . They also have specialised roles that each gender plays in the pride . For instance , the lioness , the hunter , lacks the male 's thick mane . The colour of the male 's mane varies from blond to black , generally becoming darker as the lion grows older . The most distinctive characteristic shared by both females and males is that the tail ends in a hairy tuft . In some lions , the tuft conceals a hard " spine " or " spur " , approximately 5 mm long , formed of the final sections of tail bone fused together . The lion is the only felid to have a tufted tail – the function of the tuft and spine are unknown . Absent at birth , the tuft develops around 5 1 ⁄ 2 months of age and is readily identifiable at 7 months .
Weights for adult lions range between 150 to 250 kg ( 330 to 550 lb ) for males and 120 to 185 kg ( 265 to 408 lb ) for females . The size of adult lions varies across their range with those from the southern African populations in Zimbabwe , the Kalahari and Kruger Park averaging around 189 @.@ 6 kg ( 418 lb ) and 126 @.@ 9 kg ( 280 lb ) in males and females respectively compared to 174 @.@ 9 kg ( 386 lb ) and 119 @.@ 5 kg ( 263 lb ) of male and female lions from East Africa . Reported body measurements in males are head @-@ body lengths ranging from 170 to 250 cm ( 5 ft 7 in to 8 ft 2 in ) , tail lengths of 90 – 105 cm ( 2 ft 11 in – 3 ft 5 in ) . In females reported head @-@ body lengths range from 140 to 175 cm ( 4 ft 7 in to 5 ft 9 in ) , tail lengths of 70 – 100 cm ( 2 ft 4 in – 3 ft 3 in ) , however , the frequently cited maximum head and body length of 250 cm ( 8 ft 2 in ) fits rather to extinct Pleistocene forms , like the American lion , with even large modern lions measuring several centimetres less in length . Record measurements from hunting records are supposedly a total length of nearly 3 @.@ 6 m ( 12 ft ) for a male shot near Mucsso , southern Angola in October 1973 and a weight of 313 kg ( 690 lb ) for a male shot outside Hectorspruit in eastern Transvaal , South Africa in 1936 . Another notably outsized male lion , which was shot near Mount Kenya , weighed in at 272 kg ( 600 lb ) .
= = = Mane = = =
The mane of the adult male lion , unique among cats , is one of the most distinctive characteristics of the species . In rare cases a female lion can have a mane . The presence , absence , colour , and size of the mane is associated with genetic precondition , sexual maturity , climate , and testosterone production ; the rule of thumb is the darker and fuller the mane , the healthier the lion . Sexual selection of mates by lionesses favours males with the densest , darkest mane . Research in Tanzania also suggests mane length signals fighting success in male – male relationships . Darker @-@ maned individuals may have longer reproductive lives and higher offspring survival , although they suffer in the hottest months of the year .
Scientists once believed that the distinct status of some subspecies could be justified by morphology , including the size of the mane . Morphology was used to identify subspecies such as the Barbary lion and Cape lion . Research has suggested , however , that environmental factors such as average ambient temperature influence the colour and size of a lion 's mane . The cooler ambient temperature in European and North American zoos , for example , may result in a heavier mane . Thus the mane is not an appropriate marker for identifying subspecies . The males of the Asiatic subspecies , however , are characterised by sparser manes than average African lions .
In the Pendjari National Park area almost all males are maneless or have very weak manes . Maneless male lions have also been reported from Senegal , from Sudan ( Dinder National Park ) , and from Tsavo East National Park in Kenya , and the original male white lion from Timbavati also was maneless . The testosterone hormone has been linked to mane growth ; therefore , castrated lions often have minimal to no mane , as the removal of the gonads inhibits testosterone production . In addition , increased testosterone may be the cause of the maned lionesses of northern Botswana .
Cave paintings of extinct European cave lions almost exclusively show animals with no manes , suggesting that either they were maneless , or that the paintings depict lionesses as seen hunting in a group .
= = = White lions = = =
The white lion is not a distinct subspecies , but a special morph with a genetic condition , leucism , that causes paler colouration akin to that of the white tiger ; the condition is similar to melanism , which causes black panthers . They are not albinos , having normal pigmentation in the eyes and skin . White Transvaal lion ( Panthera leo krugeri ) individuals occasionally have been encountered in and around Kruger National Park and the adjacent Timbavati Private Game Reserve in eastern South Africa , but are more commonly found in captivity , where breeders deliberately select them . The unusual cream colour of their coats is due to a recessive allele . Reportedly , they have been bred in camps in South Africa for use as trophies to be killed during canned hunts .
= = Behaviour = =
Lions spend much of their time resting and are inactive for about 20 hours per day . Although lions can be active at any time , their activity generally peaks after dusk with a period of socialising , grooming , and defecating . Intermittent bursts of activity follow through the night hours until dawn , when hunting most often takes place . They spend an average of two hours a day walking and 50 minutes eating .
= = = Group organisation = = =
Lions are the most socially inclined of all wild felids , most of which remain quite solitary in nature . The lion is a predatory carnivore with two types of social organization . Some lions are residents , living in groups of related lionesses , their mates , and offspring . Such a group is called a pride . Females form the stable social unit in a pride and do not tolerate outside females . Membership only changes with the births and deaths of lionesses , although some females do leave and become nomadic . Although extremely large prides , consisting of up to 30 individuals , have been observed , the average pride consists of five or six females , their cubs of both sexes , and one or two males ( known as a coalition if more than one ) who mate with the adult females . The number of adult males in a coalition is usually two but may increase to as many as four before decreasing again over time . The sole exception to this pattern is the Tsavo lion pride which always has just one adult male . Male cubs are excluded from their maternal pride when they reach maturity at around 2 – 3 years of age . The second organizational behaviour is labeled nomads , who range widely and move about sporadically , either singularly or in pairs . Pairs are more frequent among related males who have been excluded from their birth pride . Note that a lion may switch lifestyles ; nomads may become residents and vice versa . Males , as a rule , live at least some portion of their lives as nomads , and some are never able to join another pride . A female who becomes a nomad has much greater difficulty joining a new pride , as the females in a pride are related , and they reject most attempts by an unrelated female to join their family group .
The area a pride occupies is called a pride area , whereas that by a nomad is a range . The males associated with a pride tend to stay on the fringes , patrolling their territory . Why sociality – the most pronounced in any cat species – has developed in lionesses is the subject of much debate . Increased hunting success appears an obvious reason , but this is less than sure upon examination : coordinated hunting does allow for more successful predation but also ensures that non @-@ hunting members reduce per capita calorific intake ; however , some take a role raising cubs , who may be left alone for extended periods of time . Members of the pride regularly tend to play the same role in hunts and hone their skills . The health of the hunters is the primary need for the survival of the pride , and they are the first to consume the prey at the site it is taken . Other benefits include possible kin selection ( better to share food with a related lion than with a stranger ) , protection of the young , maintenance of territory , and individual insurance against injury and hunger .
Lionesses do most of the hunting for their pride . They are more effective hunters , as they are smaller , swifter , and more agile than the males and unencumbered by the heavy and conspicuous mane , which causes overheating during exertion . They act as a coordinated group with members who perform the same role consistently in order to stalk and bring down the prey successfully . Smaller prey is eaten at the location of the hunt , thereby being shared among the hunters ; when the kill is larger it often is dragged to the pride area . There is more sharing of larger kills , although pride members often behave aggressively toward each other as each tries to consume as much food as possible . Near the conclusion of the hunt , males have a tendency to dominate the kill once the lionesses have succeeded . They are more likely to share this with the cubs than with the lionesses , but males rarely share food they have killed by themselves .
Both males and females can defend the pride against intruders , but the male lion is better @-@ suited for this purpose due to its stockier , more powerful build . Some individuals consistently lead the defence against intruders , while others lag behind . Lions tend to assume specific roles in the pride . Those lagging behind may provide other valuable services to the group . An alternative hypothesis is that there is some reward associated with being a leader who fends off intruders , and the rank of lionesses in the pride is reflected in these responses . The male or males associated with the pride must defend their relationship to the pride from outside males who attempt to take over their relationship with the pride .
= = = Hunting and diet = = =
Lions prefer to scavenge when the opportunity presents itself with carrion providing more than 50 % of their diet . They scavenge animals either dead from natural causes ( disease ) or killed by other predators , and keep a constant lookout for circling vultures , being keenly aware that they indicate an animal dead or in distress . In fact , most dead prey on which both hyenas and lions feed upon are killed by the hyenas instead of the lions .
The lionesses do most of the hunting for the pride . The male lion associated with the pride usually stays and watches over young cubs until the lionesses return from the hunt . Typically , several work together and encircle the herd from different points . Once they have closed in on the herd , they usually target the animal closest to them . The attack is short and powerful ; they attempt to catch the victim with a fast rush and final leap . The prey usually is killed by strangulation , which can cause cerebral ischemia or asphyxia ( which results in hypoxemic , or " general " , hypoxia ) . The prey also may be killed by the lion enclosing the animal 's mouth and nostrils in its jaws ( which would also result in asphyxia ) .
Lions usually hunt in coordinated groups and stalk their chosen prey . However , they are not particularly known for their stamina – for instance , a lioness ' heart makes up only 0 @.@ 57 % of her body weight ( a male 's is about 0 @.@ 45 % of his body weight ) , whereas a hyena 's heart is close to 1 % of its body weight . Thus , they only run fast in short bursts , and need to be close to their prey before starting the attack . They take advantage of factors that reduce visibility ; many kills take place near some form of cover or at night . They sneak up to the victim until they reach a distance of approximately 30 metres ( 98 feet ) or less .
The prey consists mainly of medium @-@ sized mammals , with a preference for wildebeest , zebras , buffalo , and warthogs in Africa and nilgai , wild boar , and several deer species in India . Many other species are hunted , based on availability , mainly ungulates weighing between 50 and 300 kg ( 110 and 660 lb ) such as kudu , hartebeest , gemsbok , and eland . Occasionally , they take relatively small species such as Thomson 's gazelle or springbok . Lions hunting in groups are capable of taking down most animals , even healthy adults , but in most parts of their range they rarely attack very large prey such as fully grown male giraffes due to the danger of injury . Giraffes and buffaloes are almost invulnerable to a solitary lion as well .
Extensive studies show that lionesses normally prey on mammals with an average weight of 126 kg ( 278 lb ) , while kills made by male lions average 399 kg ( 880 lb ) . In Africa , wildebeest rank at the top of preferred prey ( making nearly half of the lion prey in the Serengeti ) followed by zebra . Lions do not prey on fully grown adult elephants ; most adult hippopotamuses , rhinoceroses , and smaller gazelles , impala , and other agile antelopes are generally excluded . However , giraffes and buffaloes are often taken in certain regions . For instance , in Kruger National Park , giraffes are regularly hunted . In Manyara Park , Cape buffaloes constitute as much as 62 % of the lion 's diet , due to the high number density of buffaloes . Occasionally hippopotamus is also taken , but adult rhinoceroses are generally avoided . Warthogs are often taken depending on availability . The lions of Savuti , Botswana , have adapted to hunting young elephants during the dry season , and a pride of 30 lions has been recorded killing individuals between the ages of four and eleven years . In the Kalahari desert in South Africa , black @-@ maned lions may chase baboons up a tree , wait patiently , then attack them when they try to escape :
Lions also attack domestic livestock and in India cattle contribute significantly to their diet . Lions are capable of killing other predators such as leopards , cheetahs , hyenas , and wild dogs , though ( unlike most felids ) they seldom devour the competitors after killing them . A lion may gorge itself and eat up to 30 kg ( 66 lb ) in one sitting ; if it is unable to consume all the kill it will rest for a few hours before consuming more . On a hot day , the pride may retreat to shade leaving a male or two to stand guard . As revealed by fossil evidence at Olduvai , Tanzania , lions will occasionally drag their carcasses to a more sheltered spot to eat ( as tigers and leopards are known to do ) , allowing them to consume more of a carcass without interference from scavengers . An adult lioness requires an average of about 5 kg ( 11 lb ) of meat per day , a male about 7 kg ( 15 lb ) .
Because lionesses hunt in open spaces where they are easily seen by their prey , cooperative hunting increases the likelihood of a successful hunt ; this is especially true with larger species . Teamwork also enables them to defend their kills more easily against other large predators such as hyenas , which may be attracted by vultures from kilometres away in open savannas . Lionesses do most of the hunting ; males attached to prides do not usually participate in hunting , except in the case of larger quarry such as giraffe and buffalo . In typical hunts , each lioness has a favoured position in the group , either stalking prey on the " wing " then attacking , or moving a smaller distance in the centre of the group and capturing prey in flight from other lionesses . There is evidence that male lions are just as successful at hunting as females ; they are solo hunters who ambush prey in small bush . Young lions first display stalking behaviour around three months of age , although they do not participate in hunting until they are almost a year old . They begin to hunt effectively when nearing the age of two .
= = = = Predator competition = = = =
Lions and spotted hyenas occupy the same ecological niche , meaning they compete for prey and carrion in the areas where they coexist . A review of data across several studies indicates a dietary overlap of 58 @.@ 6 % . Lions typically ignore spotted hyenas unless the lions are on a kill or are being harassed by the hyenas , while the latter tend to visibly react to the presence of lions whether there is food or not . Lions seize the kills of spotted hyenas : in the Ngorongoro crater , it is common for lions to subsist largely on kills stolen from hyenas , causing the hyenas to increase their kill rate . On the other hand , in Northern Botswana 's Chobe National Park , the situation is reversed : hyenas frequently challenge lions and steal their kills : they obtain food from 63 % of all lion kills . When confronted on a kill by lions , spotted hyenas may either leave or wait patiently at a distance of 30 – 100 m ( 98 – 328 ft ) until the lions have finished , but they are also bold enough to feed alongside lions , and even force the lions off a kill . The two species may attack one another even when there is no food involved for no apparent reason . Lion predation can account for up to 71 % of hyena deaths in Etosha . Spotted hyenas have adapted by frequently mobbing lions that enter their territories . Experiments on captive spotted hyenas revealed that specimens with no prior experience with lions act indifferently to the sight of them , but will react fearfully to the scent . The size of male lions allows them occasionally to confront hyenas in otherwise evenly matched brawls and so to tip the balance in favour of the lions .
Lions tend to dominate smaller felines such as cheetahs and leopards where they co @-@ occur , stealing their kills and killing their cubs and even adults when given the chance . The cheetah has a 50 % chance of losing its kill to lions or other predators . Lions are major killers of cheetah cubs , up to 90 % of which are lost in their first weeks of life due to attacks by other predators . Cheetahs avoid competition by hunting at different times of the day and hide their cubs in thick brush . Leopards also use such tactics , but have the advantage of being able to subsist much better on small prey than either lions or cheetahs . Also , unlike cheetahs , leopards can climb trees and use them to keep their cubs and kills away from lions ; however , lionesses will occasionally be successful in climbing to retrieve leopard kills . Similarly , lions dominate African wild dogs , not only taking their kills but also preying on young and ( rarely ) adult dogs . Population densities of wild dogs are low in areas where lions are more abundant . However , there are a few reported cases of old and wounded lions falling prey to wild dogs .
The Nile crocodile is the only sympatric predator ( besides humans ) that can singly threaten the lion . Depending on the size of the crocodile and the lion , either can lose kills or carrion to the other . Lions have been known to kill crocodiles venturing onto land , while the reverse is true for lions entering waterways , as evidenced by the occasional lion claw found in crocodile stomachs .
= = = = Man @-@ eating = = = =
While lions do not usually hunt people , some ( usually males ) seem to seek out human prey ; one well @-@ publicised case includes the Tsavo maneaters , where 28 officially recorded railway workers building the Kenya @-@ Uganda Railway were taken by lions over nine months during the construction of a bridge over the Tsavo River in Kenya in 1898 . The hunter who killed the lions wrote a book detailing the animals ' predatory behaviour . The lions were larger than normal , lacked manes , and one seemed to suffer from tooth decay . The infirmity theory , including tooth decay , is not favoured by all researchers ; an analysis of teeth and jaws of man @-@ eating lions in museum collections suggests that while tooth decay may explain some incidents , prey depletion in human @-@ dominated areas is a more likely cause of lion predation on humans .
In their analysis of Tsavo and general man @-@ eating , Kerbis Peterhans and Gnoske acknowledge that sick or injured animals may be more prone to man @-@ eating , but that the behaviour is " not unusual , nor necessarily ' aberrant ' " where the opportunity exists ; if inducements such as access to livestock or human corpses are present , lions will regularly prey upon human beings . The authors note that the relationship is well @-@ attested among other pantherines and primates in the paleontological record .
The lion 's proclivity for man @-@ eating has been systematically examined . American and Tanzanian scientists report that man @-@ eating behaviour in rural areas of Tanzania increased greatly from 1990 to 2005 . At least 563 villagers were attacked and many eaten over this period – a number far exceeding the more famed " Tsavo " incidents of a century earlier . The incidents occurred near Selous National Park in Rufiji District and in Lindi Province near the Mozambican border . While the expansion of villagers into bush country is one concern , the authors argue that conservation policy must mitigate the danger because , in this case , conservation contributes directly to human deaths . Cases in Lindi have been documented where lions seize humans from the center of substantial villages . Another study of 1 @,@ 000 people attacked by lions in southern Tanzania between 1988 and 2009 found that the weeks following the full moon ( when there was less moonlight ) were a strong indicator of increased night attacks on people .
Author Robert R. Frump wrote in The Man @-@ eaters of Eden that Mozambican refugees regularly crossing Kruger National Park at night in South Africa are attacked and eaten by the lions ; park officials have conceded that man @-@ eating is a problem there . Frump believes thousands may have been killed in the decades after apartheid sealed the park and forced the refugees to cross the park at night . For nearly a century before the border was sealed , Mozambicans had regularly walked across the park in daytime with little harm .
Packer estimates more than 200 Tanzanians are killed each year by lions , crocodiles , elephants , hippos , and snakes , and that the numbers could be double that amount , with lions thought to kill at least 70 of those . Packer has documented that between 1990 and 2004 , lions attacked 815 people in Tanzania , killing 563 . Packer and Ikanda are among the few conservationists who believe western conservation efforts must take account of these matters not just because of ethical concerns about human life , but also for the long term success of conservation efforts and lion preservation .
A man @-@ eating lion was killed by game scouts in Southern Tanzania in April 2004 . It is believed to have killed and eaten at least 35 people in a series of incidents covering several villages in the Rufiji Delta coastal region . Dr Rolf D. Baldus , the GTZ wildlife programme coordinator , commented that it was likely that the lion preyed on humans because it had a large abscess underneath a molar that was cracked in several places . He further commented that " This lion probably experienced a lot of pain , particularly when it was chewing . " GTZ is the German development cooperation agency and has been working with the Tanzanian government on wildlife conservation for nearly two decades . As in other cases this lion was large , lacked a mane , and had a tooth problem .
The " All @-@ Africa " record of man @-@ eating generally is considered to be not Tsavo , but incidents in the early 1930s through the late 1940s in what was then Tanganyika ( now Tanzania ) . George Rushby , game warden and professional hunter , eventually dispatched the pride , which over three generations is thought to have killed and eaten 1 @,@ 500 to 2 @,@ 000 people in what is now Njombe district .
= = = Reproduction and life cycle = = =
Most lionesses will have reproduced by the time they are four years of age . Lions do not mate at any specific time of year , and the females are polyestrous . As with other cats ' penises , the male lion 's penis has spines that point backward . During withdrawal of the penis , the spines rake the walls of the female 's vagina , which may cause ovulation . A lioness may mate with more than one male when she is in heat .
The average gestation period is around 110 days , the female giving birth to a litter of one to four cubs in a secluded den ( which may be a thicket , a reed @-@ bed , a cave , or some other sheltered area ) usually away from the rest of the pride . She will often hunt by herself while the cubs are still helpless , staying relatively close to the thicket or den where the cubs are kept . The cubs themselves are born blind – their eyes do not open until roughly a week after birth . They weigh 1 @.@ 2 – 2 @.@ 1 kg ( 2 @.@ 6 – 4 @.@ 6 lb ) at birth and are almost helpless , beginning to crawl a day or two after birth and walking around three weeks of age . The lioness moves her cubs to a new den site several times a month , carrying them one by one by the nape of the neck , to prevent scent from building up at a single den site and thus avoiding the attention of predators that may harm the cubs .
Usually , the mother does not integrate herself and her cubs back into the pride until the cubs are six to eight weeks old . Sometimes this introduction to pride life occurs earlier , however , particularly if other lionesses have given birth at about the same time . For instance , lionesses in a pride often synchronise their reproductive cycles so that they cooperate in the raising and suckling of the young ( once the cubs are past the initial stage of isolation with their mother ) , who suckle indiscriminately from any or all of the nursing females in the pride . In addition to greater protection , the synchronization of births also has an advantage in that the cubs end up being roughly the same size , and thus have an equal chance of survival . If one lioness gives birth to a litter of cubs a couple of months after another lioness , for instance , then the younger cubs , being much smaller than their older brethren , usually are dominated by larger cubs at mealtimes – consequently , death by starvation is more common among the younger cubs .
In addition to starvation , cubs also face many other dangers , such as predation by jackals , hyenas , leopards , martial eagles , and snakes . Even buffaloes , should they catch the scent of lion cubs , often stampede toward the thicket or den where they are being kept , doing their best to trample the cubs to death while warding off the lioness . Furthermore , when one or more new males oust the previous male ( s ) associated with a pride , the conqueror ( s ) often kill any existing young cubs , perhaps because females do not become fertile and receptive until their cubs mature or die . All in all , as many as 80 % of the cubs will die before the age of two .
When first introduced to the rest of the pride , the cubs initially lack confidence when confronted with adult lions other than their mother . They soon begin to immerse themselves in the pride life , however , playing among themselves or attempting to initiate play with the adults . Lionesses with cubs of their own are more likely to be tolerant of another lioness 's cubs than lionesses without cubs . The tolerance of the male lions toward the cubs varies – sometimes , a male will patiently let the cubs play with his tail or his mane , whereas another may snarl and bat the cubs away .
Weaning occurs after six to seven months . Male lions reach maturity at about 3 years of age and , at 4 – 5 years of age , are capable of challenging and displacing the adult male ( s ) associated with another pride . They begin to age and weaken between 10 and 15 years of age at the latest , if they have not already been critically injured while defending the pride ( once ousted from a pride by rival males , male lions rarely manage a second take @-@ over ) . This leaves a short window for their own offspring to be born and mature . If they are able to procreate as soon as they take over a pride , potentially , they may have more offspring reaching maturity before they also are displaced . A lioness often will attempt to defend her cubs fiercely from a usurping male , but such actions are rarely successful . He usually kills all of the existing cubs who are less than two years old . A lioness is weaker and much lighter than a male ; success is more likely when a group of three or four mothers within a pride join forces against one male .
Contrary to popular belief , it is not only males that are ousted from their pride to become nomads , although most females certainly do remain with their birth pride . However , when the pride becomes too large , the next generation of female cubs may be forced to leave to eke out their own territory . Furthermore , when a new male lion takes over the pride , subadult lions , both male and female , may be evicted . Life is harsh for a female nomad . Nomadic lionesses rarely manage to raise their cubs to maturity , without the protection of other pride members .
Canadian researcher Bruce Bagemihl reports that both males and females may interact homosexually . Lions are shown to be involved in group homosexual and courtship activities . Male lions will also head rub and roll around with each other before simulating sex together .
= = = Health = = =
Although adult lions have no natural predators , evidence suggests that the majority die violently from humans or other lions . Lions often inflict serious injuries on each other , either members of different prides encountering each other in territorial disputes , or members of the same pride fighting at a kill . Crippled lions and lion cubs may fall victim to hyenas , leopards , or be trampled by buffalo or elephants , and careless lions may be maimed when hunting prey .
Various species of tick commonly infest the ears , neck and groin regions of most lions . Adult forms of several species of the tapeworm genus Taenia have been isolated from intestines , the lions having ingested larval forms from antelope meat . Lions in the Ngorongoro Crater were afflicted by an outbreak of stable fly ( Stomoxys calcitrans ) in 1962 ; this resulted in lions becoming covered in bloody bare patches and emaciated . Lions sought unsuccessfully to evade the biting flies by climbing trees or crawling into hyena burrows ; many perished or emigrated as the population dropped from 70 to 15 individuals . A more recent outbreak in 2001 killed six lions . Lions , especially in captivity , are vulnerable to the canine distemper virus ( CDV ) , feline immunodeficiency virus ( FIV ) , and feline infectious peritonitis ( FIP ) . CDV is spread through domestic dogs and other carnivores ; a 1994 outbreak in Serengeti National Park resulted in many lions developing neurological symptoms such as seizures . During the outbreak , several lions died from pneumonia and encephalitis . FIV , which is similar to HIV while not known to adversely affect lions , is worrisome enough in its effect in domestic cats that the Species Survival Plan recommends systematic testing in captive lions . It occurs with high to endemic frequency in several wild lion populations , but is mostly absent from Asiatic and Namibian lions .
= = = Communication = = =
When resting , lion socialisation occurs through a number of behaviours , and the animal 's expressive movements are highly developed . The most common peaceful tactile gestures are head rubbing and social licking , which have been compared with grooming in primates . Head rubbing – nuzzling one 's forehead , face and neck against another lion – appears to be a form of greeting , as it is seen often after an animal has been apart from others , or after a fight or confrontation . Males tend to rub other males , while cubs and females rub females . Social licking often occurs in tandem with head rubbing ; it is generally mutual and the recipient appears to express pleasure . The head and neck are the most common parts of the body licked , which may have arisen out of utility , as a lion cannot lick these areas individually .
Lions have an array of facial expressions and body postures that serve as visual gestures . Their repertoire of vocalizations is also large ; variations in intensity and pitch , rather than discrete signals , appear central to communication . Lion sounds include snarling , hissing , coughing , miaowing , woofing , and roaring . Lions tend to roar in a very characteristic manner , starting with a few deep , long roars that trail off into a series of shorter ones . They most often roar at night ; the sound , which can be heard from a distance of 8 kilometres ( 5 @.@ 0 mi ) , is used to advertise the animal 's presence . Lions have the loudest roar of any big cat .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
In Africa , lions can be found in savanna grasslands with scattered Acacia trees , which serve as shade ; their habitat in India is a mixture of dry savanna forest and very dry deciduous scrub forest . The habitat of lions originally spanned the southern parts of Eurasia , ranging from Greece to India , and most of Africa except the central rainforest @-@ zone and the Sahara desert . Herodotus reported that lions had been common in Greece in 480 BC ; they attacked the baggage camels of the Persian king Xerxes on his march through the country . Aristotle considered them rare by 300 BC . By 100 AD they were extirpated . A population of Asiatic lions survived until the tenth century in the Caucasus , their last European outpost .
The species was eradicated from Palestine by the Middle Ages and from most of the rest of Asia after the arrival of readily available firearms in the eighteenth century . Between the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries , they became extinct in North Africa and Southwest Asia . By the late nineteenth century , the lion had disappeared from Turkey and most of northern India , while the last sighting of a live Asiatic lion in Iran was in 1941 ( between Shiraz and Jahrom , Fars Province ) , although the corpse of a lioness was found on the banks of the Karun river , Khūzestān Province in 1944 . There are no subsequent reliable reports from Iran . The subspecies now survives only in and around the Gir Forest of northwestern India . Approximately 500 lions live in the area of the 1 @,@ 412 km2 ( 545 sq mi ) sanctuary in the state of Gujarat , which covers most of the forest . Their numbers have increased from 180 to 523 animals mainly because the natural prey species have recovered .
= = Population and conservation status = =
Most lions now live in eastern and southern Africa , and their numbers there are rapidly decreasing , with an estimated 30 – 50 % decline per 20 years in the late half of the twentieth century . Estimates of the African lion population range between 16 @,@ 500 and 47 @,@ 000 living in the wild in 2002 – 2004 , down from early 1990s estimates that ranged as high as 100 @,@ 000 and perhaps 400 @,@ 000 in 1950 . Primary causes of the decline include disease and human interference . Habitat loss and conflicts with humans are considered the most significant threats to the species . The remaining populations are often geographically isolated from one another , which can lead to inbreeding , and consequently , reduced genetic diversity . Therefore , the lion is considered a vulnerable species by the International Union for Conservation of Nature , while the Asiatic subspecies is endangered . The lion population in the region of West Africa is isolated from lion populations of Central Africa , with little or no exchange of breeding individuals . The number of mature individuals in West Africa is estimated by two separate recent surveys at 850 – 1 @,@ 160 ( 2002 / 2004 ) . There is disagreement over the size of the largest individual population in West Africa : the estimates range from 100 to 400 lions in Burkina Faso 's Arly @-@ Singou ecosystem . Another population in northwestern Africa is found in Waza National Park , where approximately 14 – 21 animals persist .
Conservation of both African and Asian lions has required the setup and maintenance of national parks and game reserves ; among the best known are Etosha National Park in Namibia , Serengeti National Park in Tanzania , and Kruger National Park in eastern South Africa . The Ewaso Lions Project protects lions in the Samburu National Reserve , Buffalo Springs National Reserve and Shaba National Reserve of the Ewaso Ng 'iro ecosystem in Northern Kenya . Outside these areas , the issues arising from lions ' interaction with livestock and people usually results in the elimination of the lions . In India , the last refuge of the Asiatic lion is the 1 @,@ 412 km2 ( 545 sq mi ) Gir Forest National Park in western India , which had approximately 180 lions in 1974 and about 400 in 2010 . As in Africa , numerous human habitations are close by with the resultant problems between lions , livestock , locals and wildlife officials . The Asiatic Lion Reintroduction Project plans to establish a second independent population of Asiatic lions at the Kuno Wildlife Sanctuary in the Indian state of Madhya Pradesh . It is important to start a second population to serve as a gene pool for the last surviving Asiatic lions and to help develop and maintain genetic diversity enabling the species to survive .
The former popularity of the Barbary lion as a zoo animal has meant that scattered lions in captivity are likely to be descended from Barbary lion stock . This includes lions at Port Lympne Wild Animal Park in Kent , England that are descended from animals owned by the King of Morocco . Another eleven animals believed to be Barbary lions were found in Addis Ababa zoo , descendants of animals owned by Emperor Haile Selassie . WildLink International , in collaboration with Oxford University , launched their ambitious International Barbary Lion Project with the aim of identifying and breeding Barbary lions in captivity for eventual reintroduction into a national park in the Atlas Mountains of Morocco .
Following the discovery of the decline of lion population in Africa , several coordinated efforts involving lion conservation have been organised in an attempt to stem this decline . Lions are one species included in the Species Survival Plan , a coordinated attempt by the Association of Zoos and Aquariums to increase its chances of survival . The plan was originally started in 1982 for the Asiatic lion , but was suspended when it was found that most Asiatic lions in North American zoos were not genetically pure , having been hybridised with African lions . The African lion plan started in 1993 , focusing especially on the South African subspecies , although there are difficulties in assessing the genetic diversity of captive lions , since most individuals are of unknown origin , making maintenance of genetic diversity a problem .
In 2015 , a population of lions that was previously believed extirpated was filmed in the Alatash National Park , Ethiopia , close to the Sudanese border . This population may possibly number up to 200 animals .
= = = In captivity = = =
Lions are part of a group of exotic animals that are the core of zoo exhibits since the late eighteenth century ; members of this group are invariably large vertebrates and include elephants , rhinoceroses , hippopotamuses , large primates , and other big cats ; zoos sought to gather as many of these species as possible . Although many modern zoos are more selective about their exhibits , there are more than 1 @,@ 000 African and 100 Asiatic lions in zoos and wildlife parks around the world . They are considered an ambassador species and are kept for tourism , education and conservation purposes . Lions can reach an age of over 20 years in captivity ; Apollo , a resident lion of Honolulu Zoo in Honolulu , Hawaii , died at age 22 in August 2007 . His two sisters , born in 1986 , were still alive in August 2007 . Breeding programs need to note origins to avoid breeding different subspecies and thus reducing conservation value . However , several Asiatic @-@ African lion crosses have been bred .
At the ancient Egyptian cities of Taremu and Per @-@ Bast were temples to the lioness goddesses of Egypt , Sekhmet and Bast and at Taremu there was a temple to the son of the deity , Maahes the lion prince , where live lions were kept and allowed to roam within his temple . The Greeks called the city Leontopolis , the " City of Lions " and documented that practice . Lions were kept and bred by Assyrian kings as early as 850 BC , and Alexander the Great was said to have been presented with tame lions by the Malhi of northern India . Later in Roman times , lions were kept by emperors to take part in the gladiator arenas or for executions ( see bestiarii , damnatio ad bestias , and venatio ) . Roman notables , including Sulla , Pompey , and Julius Caesar , often ordered the mass slaughter of hundreds of lions at a time . In the East , lions were tamed by Indian princes , and Marco Polo reported that Kublai Khan kept lions inside . The first European " zoos " spread among noble and royal families in the thirteenth century , and until the seventeenth century were called seraglios ; at that time , they came to be called menageries , an extension of the cabinet of curiosities . They spread from France and Italy during the Renaissance to the rest of Europe . In England , although the seraglio tradition was less developed , lions were kept at the Tower of London in a seraglio established by King John in the thirteenth century , probably stocked with animals from an earlier menagerie started in 1125 by Henry I at his hunting lodge in Woodstock , near Oxford ; where lions had been stocked according to William of Malmesbury .
Seraglios served as expressions of the nobility 's power and wealth . Animals such as big cats and elephants , in particular , symbolised power , and would be pitted in fights against each other or domesticated animals . By extension , menageries and seraglios served as demonstrations of the dominance of humanity over nature . Consequently , the defeat of such natural " lords " by a cow in 1682 astonished the spectators , and the flight of an elephant before a rhinoceros drew jeers . Such fights would slowly fade out in the seventeenth century with the spread of the menagerie and their appropriation by the commoners . The tradition of keeping big cats as pets would last into the nineteenth century , at which time it was seen as highly eccentric .
The presence of lions at the Tower of London was intermittent , being restocked when a monarch or his consort , such as Margaret of Anjou the wife of Henry VI , either sought or were given animals . Records indicate they were kept in poor conditions there in the seventeenth century , in contrast to more open conditions in Florence at the time . The menagerie was open to the public by the eighteenth century ; admission was a sum of three half @-@ pence or the supply of a cat or dog for feeding to the lions . A rival menagerie at the Exeter Exchange also exhibited lions until the early nineteenth century . The Tower menagerie was closed down by William IV , and animals transferred to the London Zoo , which opened its gates to the public on 27 April 1828 .
The wild animals trade flourished alongside improved colonial trade of the nineteenth century . Lions were considered fairly common and inexpensive . Although they would barter higher than tigers , they were less costly than larger , or more difficult to transport animals such as the giraffe and hippopotamus , and much less than giant pandas . Like other animals , lions were seen as little more than a natural , boundless commodity that was mercilessly exploited with terrible losses in capture and transportation . The widely reproduced imagery of the heroic hunter chasing lions would dominate a large part of the century . Explorers and hunters exploited a popular Manichean division of animals into " good " and " evil " to add thrilling value to their adventures , casting themselves as heroic figures . This resulted in big cats , always suspected of being man @-@ eaters , representing " both the fear of nature and the satisfaction of having overcome it . "
Lions were kept in cramped and squalid conditions at London Zoo until a larger lion house with roomier cages was built in the 1870s . Further changes took place in the early twentieth century , when Carl Hagenbeck designed enclosures more closely resembling a natural habitat , with concrete ' rocks ' , more open space and a moat instead of bars . He designed lion enclosures for both Melbourne Zoo and Sydney 's Taronga Zoo , among others , in the early twentieth century . Though his designs were popular , the old bars and cage enclosures prevailed until the 1960s in many zoos . In the later decades of the twentieth century , larger , more natural enclosures and the use of wire mesh or laminated glass instead of lowered dens allowed visitors to come closer than ever to the animals , with some attractions even placing the den on ground higher than visitors , such as the Cat Forest / Lion Overlook of Oklahoma City Zoological Park . Lions are now housed in much larger naturalistic areas ; modern recommended guidelines more closely approximate conditions in the wild with closer attention to the lions ' needs , highlighting the need for dens in separate areas , elevated positions in both sun and shade where lions can sit and adequate ground cover and drainage as well as sufficient space to roam . There have also been instances where a lion was kept by a private individual , such as the lioness Elsa , who was raised by George Adamson and his wife Joy Adamson and came to develop a strong bond with them , particularly the latter . The lioness later achieved fame , her life being documented in a series of books and films .
= = = Baiting and taming = = =
Lion @-@ baiting is a blood sport involving the baiting of lions in combat with other animals , usually dogs . Records of it exist in ancient times through until the seventeenth century . It was finally banned in Vienna by 1800 and England in 1835 .
Lion taming refers to the practice of taming lions for entertainment , either as part of an established circus or as an individual act , such as Siegfried & Roy . The term is also often used for the taming and display of other big cats such as tigers , leopards , and cougars . The practice was pioneered in the first half of the nineteenth century by Frenchman Henri Martin and American Isaac Van Amburgh who both toured widely , and whose techniques were copied by a number of followers . Van Amburgh performed before Queen Victoria in 1838 when he toured Great Britain . Martin composed a pantomime titled Les Lions de Mysore ( " the lions of Mysore " ) , an idea that Amburgh quickly borrowed . These acts eclipsed equestrianism acts as the central display of circus shows , but truly entered public consciousness in the early twentieth century with cinema . In demonstrating the superiority of human over animal , lion taming served a purpose similar to animal fights of previous centuries . The ultimate proof of a tamer 's dominance and control over a lion is demonstrated by placing his head in the lion 's mouth . The now iconic lion tamer 's chair was possibly first used by American Clyde Beatty ( 1903 – 1965 ) .
= = Cultural significance = =
The lion has been an icon for humanity for thousands of years , appearing in cultures across Europe , Asia , and Africa . Despite incidents of attacks on humans , lions have enjoyed a positive depiction in culture as strong and noble . A common depiction is their representation as " king of the jungle " or " king of beasts " ; hence , the lion has been a popular symbol of royalty and stateliness , as well as a symbol of bravery ; it is featured in several fables of the sixth century BC Greek storyteller Aesop .
Representations of lions date back to the early Upper Paleolithic . The lioness @-@ headed ivory carving from Vogelherd cave in the Swabian Alb in southwestern Germany , dubbed Löwenmensch ( lion @-@ human ) in German . The sculpture has been determined to be at least 32 @,@ 000 years old from the Aurignacian culture , but it may date to as early as 40 @,@ 000 years ago . The sculpture has been interpreted as anthropomorphic , giving human characteristics to an animal , however , it also may represent a deity . Two lions were depicted mating in the Chamber of Felines in 15 @,@ 000 @-@ year @-@ old Paleolithic cave paintings in the Lascaux caves . Cave lions also are depicted in the Chauvet Cave , discovered in 1994 ; this has been dated at 32 @,@ 000 years of age , though it may be of similar or younger age to Lascaux .
In Africa , cultural views of the lion have varied by region . In some cultures , the lion symbolises power and royalty and some powerful rulers had the word " lion " in their nickname . For example , Marijata of the Mali Empire ( c . 1235 – c . 1600 ) was given the name " Lion of Mali " . Njaay , the legendary founder of the Waalo kingdom ( 1287 – 1855 ) , is said to have been raised by lions and returned to his people part @-@ lion to unite them using the knowledge he learned from the beasts . In much of West Africa , to be compared to a lion was considered to be one of the greatest compliments . The social hierarchies of their societies where connected to the animal kingdom and the lion represented the top class . In parts of West and East Africa , the lion is associated with healing and is seen as the link between the seers and the supernatural . In other East African traditions , the lion is the symbol of laziness . In many folktales , lions are portrayed as having low intelligence and are easily tricked by other animals .
Ancient Egypt venerated the lioness ( the fierce hunter ) as their war deities and among those in the Egyptian pantheon are , Bast , Mafdet , Menhit , Pakhet , Sekhmet , Tefnut , and the Sphinx ; The Nemean lion was symbolic in Ancient Greece and Rome , represented as the constellation and zodiac sign Leo , and described in mythology , where its skin was borne by the hero Heracles .
The lion was a prominent symbol in ancient Mesopotamia ( from Sumer up to Assyrian and Babylonian times ) , where it was strongly associated with kingship . The classic Babylonian lion motif , found as a statue , carved or painted on walls , is often referred to as the striding lion of Babylon . It is in Babylon that the biblical Daniel is said to have been delivered from the lion 's den .
In the Talmud , Chullin 59b , Rabbi Joshua ben Hananiah tells Emperor Hadrian about the giant lion of the forest of Bei Ilai called the Tigris , a lion so huge that the space between its ears measures 9 cubits . The emperor asks the rabbi to call forth this lion . He reluctantly agrees . At a distance of 400 parasangs from Rome it roars , and all pregnant women miscarry and all the walls of Rome fall down . Then it comes to 300 parasangs and roars , and all the front teeth and molars of Roman men fall out , and even the emperor himself falls from his throne . He begs the rabbi to send it back . The rabbi prays and it returns to its place .
In the Puranic texts of Hinduism , Narasimha ( " man @-@ lion " ) a half @-@ lion , half @-@ man incarnation or ( avatar ) of Vishnu , is worshipped by his devotees and saved the child devotee Prahlada from his father , the evil demon king Hiranyakashipu ; Vishnu takes the form of half @-@ man / half @-@ lion , in Narasimha , having a human torso and lower body , but with a lion @-@ like face and claws . Singh is an ancient Indian vedic name meaning " lion " ( Asiatic lion ) , dating back over 2000 years to ancient India . It was originally only used by Rajputs a Hindu Kshatriya or military caste in India . After the birth of the Khalsa brotherhood in 1699 , the Sikhs also adopted the name " Singh " due to the wishes of Guru Gobind Singh . Along with millions of Hindu Rajputs today , it is also used by over 20 million Sikhs worldwide . Found famously on numerous flags and coats of arms all across Asia and Europe , the Asiatic lions also stand firm on the National Emblem of India . Farther south on the Indian subcontinent , the Asiatic lion is symbolic for the Sinhalese , Sri Lanka 's ethnic majority ; the term derived from the Indo @-@ Aryan Sinhala , meaning the " lion people " or " people with lion blood " , while a sword @-@ wielding lion is the central figure on the national flag of Sri Lanka .
The Asiatic lion is a common motif in Chinese art . They were first used in art during the late Spring and Autumn Period ( fifth or sixth century BC ) , and became much more popular during the Han Dynasty ( 206 BC – AD 220 ) , when imperial guardian lions started to be placed in front of imperial palaces for protection . Because lions have never been native to China , early depictions were somewhat unrealistic ; after the introduction of Buddhist art to China in the Tang Dynasty ( after the sixth century AD ) , lions usually were wingless , with shorter , thicker bodies , and curly manes . The lion dance is a form of traditional dance in Chinese culture in which performers mimic a lion 's movements in a lion costume , often with musical accompaniment from cymbals , drums , and gongs . They are performed at Chinese New Year , the August Moon Festival and other celebratory occasions for good luck .
The island nation of Singapore derives its name from the Malay words singa ( lion ) and pora ( city / fortress ) , which in turn is from the Tamil @-@ Sanskrit சிங ் க singa सिंह siṃha and पुर புர pura , which is cognate to the Greek πόλις , pólis . According to the Malay Annals , this name was given by a fourteenth @-@ century Sumatran Malay prince Sang Nila Utama , who , on alighting the island after a thunderstorm , spotted an auspicious beast on shore that appeared to be a lion .
The name of the nomadic Hadendoa people , inhabiting parts of Sudan , Egypt , and Eritrea , is made up of haɖa ' lion ' and ( n ) ɖiwa ' clan ' . Other variants are Haɖai ɖiwa , Hanɖiwa , and Haɖaatʼar ( children of lioness ) .
" Lion " was the nickname of several medieval warrior rulers with a reputation for bravery , such as the English King Richard the Lionheart , Henry the Lion , ( German : Heinrich der Löwe ) , Duke of Saxony , William the Lion , King of Scotland , and Robert III of Flanders nicknamed " The Lion of Flanders " — a major Flemish national icon up to the present . Lions are frequently depicted on coats of arms , either as a device on shields themselves , or as supporters , but the lioness is much more infrequent . The formal language of heraldry , called blazon , employs French terms to describe the images precisely . Such descriptions specified whether lions or other creatures were " rampant " or " passant " , that is whether they were rearing or crouching . The lion is used as a symbol of sporting teams , from national association football teams such as England , Scotland and Singapore to famous clubs such as the Detroit Lions of the NFL , Chelsea and Aston Villa of the English Premier League , ( and the Premiership itself ) , Eintracht Braunschweig of the Bundesliga , and to a host of smaller clubs around the world .
Lions continue to be featured in modern literature , from the messianic Aslan in The Lion , the Witch and the Wardrobe and following books from The Chronicles of Narnia series written by C. S. Lewis , to the comedic Cowardly Lion in The Wonderful Wizard of Oz . The advent of moving pictures saw the continued presence of lion symbolism ; one of the most iconic and widely recognised lions is Leo the Lion , which has been the mascot for Metro @-@ Goldwyn @-@ Mayer ( MGM ) studios since the 1920s . The 1960s saw the appearance of what is possibly the most famous lioness , the Kenyan animal Elsa in the movie Born Free , based on the true @-@ life book of the same title . The lion 's role as king of the beasts has been used in cartoons , such as the 1994 Disney animated feature film The Lion King .
= = Heraldic depictions = =
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= Idlewild South =
Idlewild South is the second studio album by American Southern rock band the Allman Brothers Band . Produced by Tom Dowd , the album was released on September 23 , 1970 , in the United States by Atco Records and Capricorn Records .
Following the release of their 1969 debut , the Allman Brothers Band toured the United States extensively to promote the album , which had little commercial success . Their performances , however , did create positive word of mouth exposure that extended to more famous musicians , such as Eric Clapton , who invited group leader Duane Allman to contribute to his 1970 album Layla and Other Assorted Love Songs .
As a result of the band 's relentless touring schedule , Idlewild South was recorded gradually over a period of five months in various cities , including New York , Miami , and Macon , Georgia , the band 's home . Tom Dowd had previously been sought to record the group 's debut but had been unavailable . The material presented on Idlewild South was written during this period and tested out on the road at shows . The album 's title comes from the band 's nickname for a rustic cabin the band rented out and used for rehearsals , as well as parties . Idlewild South contains two of the band 's best @-@ known songs , " Midnight Rider " ( later a hit for various artists ) and " In Memory of Elizabeth Reed " , which became one of the band 's famous concert numbers .
The album was released in September 1970 but again failed to achieve significant success . Sales began to grow , however , due to over 300 shows the band put on in 1970 , setting the stage for their artistic and commercial breakthrough with 1971 's live follow @-@ up album , At Fillmore East .
= = Background = =
By August 1969 , the Allman Brothers had recorded their self @-@ titled debut , which was released that November . The record received a poor commercial response , selling less than 35 @,@ 000 copies upon initial release . Executives suggested to the band 's manager and Capricorn president , Phil Walden , that he relocate the band to New York or Los Angeles to increase their exposure . " They wanted us to act " like a rock band " and we just told them to " fuck themselves , " remembered Trucks . For their part , the members of the band remained optimistic , electing to stay in the South . " Everyone told us we 'd fall by the wayside down there , " said Gregg Allman , but the collaboration between the band and Capricorn Records " transformed Macon from this sleepy little town into a very hip , wild , and crazy place filled with bikers and rockers . " In March 1970 , Oakley 's wife rented a large Victorian home on 2321 Vineville Avenue in Macon , which they dubbed " the Big House " .
Idlewild South was the band 's first effort with Dowd , known for his work with Cream and John Coltrane . Dowd first heard the band rehearsing while visiting Capricorn Sound Studios in Macon , asking their name and remarking to Walden , " Get them the hell out of there and give them to me in the studio . They don 't need to rehearse ; they 're ready to record " . Dowd was initially scheduled to work with the band on their debut but was called away at the last minute . Initially , the band had asked friend and colleague Johnny Sandlin to produce the album , but as recording inched closer , it became obvious they wanted him to co @-@ produce with Dowd . In one of their first sessions , Sandlin was giving suggestions and acting as a co @-@ producer , though no one had informed Dowd ; Sandlin was embarrassed and did not return to the studio .
= = Recording and production = =
The band moved to Criteria Studios in Miami , where Dowd felt more comfortable producing albums ; he viewed the then @-@ new Capricorn studio as still a work @-@ in @-@ progress and unfit to record in . The band was constantly on the road while Idlewild South was developed , leading to a fractured recording process completed in fits and stops . They reconvened with Dowd during short breaks from shows . In addition , group leader Duane Allman still received invitations to play as a session musician elsewhere ; on the " rare instances when [ the band ] could return to Macon for a short break " , Allman would hit the road for New York , Miami , or Muscle Shoals to contribute to other artists ' sessions . On days that the band would be available , manager Walden phoned Dowd to inform him ; he would often catch their show and spend the rest of the night in the studio . After nearly half a year and over three different recording studios , production wrapped up by July 1970 .
Instead of using multitrack recording ( which was quickly gaining popularity ) , the Allman Brothers Band opted to cut most of Idlewild South live , with all of the musicians performing together . On rare occasions would they go back to overdub sections that weren 't up to standard . " The idea is that part of the thing of the Allman Brothers is the spontaneity — the elasticity . The parts and tempos vary in a way that only they are sensitive to " , said Dowd . Duane often left a song alone for more work and testing out on the road . " They would record maybe five songs . Then they might say , ' I don 't think that song was good enough , ' or , ' I don 't think that song was ready to record , " , remembered Dowd . Joel Dorn , predominantly a jazz producer for Atlantic , stepped in to produce one song on the album , " Please Call Home " . ( More songs were recorded , but only " Please Call Home " was released ) . The band were in New York at the time and Dowd was unavailable .
Following the recording process , Duane was invited to join Eric Clapton and his new group Derek & the Dominos on the recording of their debut album , Layla and Other Assorted Love Songs . Clapton later formally invited Allman to join the group , but he reluctantly declined , expressing loyalty to the members of the Allman Brothers and musical concept that had birthed it .
= = Composition = =
" Revival " initially took shape as an instrumental , with lyrics as an afterthought . " An instrumental has to be real catchy and when you succeed it 's very satisfying because you have transcended words and communicated with emotion , " said Betts . The song takes on a decidedly gospel flair midway through , accentuated by " old @-@ fashioned church @-@ like hand clapping . " The Gregg Allman @-@ penned " Don 't Keep Me Wonderin ' " follows , featuring Duane on slide guitar and Oakley 's friend Thom Doucette on harmonica . " Midnight Rider " developed quickly and featured lyrics contributed by roadie Robert Payne , who threw out a suggestion to Gregg Allman while together at their equipment warehouse . Unable to gain a key to the nearby Capricorn Sound Studios , the duo broke in and recorded a quick demo with Twiggs Lyndon on bass and Johanson on congas . Duane eventually laid down acoustic guitar tracks for both " Revival " and " Midnight Rider " , as he was quicker to record and more technically savvy due to his session work in Muscle Shoals .
" In Memory of Elizabeth Reed " was inspired by a woman Betts was involved with in Macon , the girlfriend of musician Boz Scaggs . " She was Hispanic and somewhat dark and mysterious — and she really used it to her advantage and played it to the hilt , " said Betts . To cloak her identity , the song is named after a headstone Betts saw at the Rose Hill Cemetery , where band members often ventured in their early days to relax and write songs . Considerable legend developed about the song 's genesis , much fueled by a put @-@ on interview Duane Allman gave Rolling Stone . The song is Betts ' first composition recorded by the band . " Hoochie Coochie Man " was the band 's rearrangement of a Muddy Waters tune culled from bassist Berry Oakley and Betts ' days performing the number in their earlier band the Second Coming . Featuring Oakley in his only studio vocal , it is nearly twice as fast as Waters ' original . " Please Call Home " was cut in New York with jazz producer Joel Dorn in two takes , with Johanson switching from brushes to a mallet on the second , final take . " Leave My Blues at Home " contains hints of funk and an extended fade out of the band 's signature twin lead guitars . "
= = Title = =
The album 's title came from the band 's nickname for a $ 165 @-@ a @-@ month cabin it rented on a lake outside of Macon early in its days there , the busy comings and goings at which reminded them of New York City 's Idlewild Airport . Idlewild South was the home of rehearsals and parties , and was " where the brotherhood came to pass , " according to roadie Kim Payne ; " There was a pact made out there around a campfire — all for one and one for all . ... Everybody believed [ in the band ] 100 percent . " Much of the material presented on the album originated at the cabin .
Scott Boyer spoke on the cabin 's history in the 2008 book Skydog : The Duane Allman Story :
It was like a hunting cabin . The back of the house had a porch that was built out over a manmade lake that was maybe five or six acres . It was a cabin made out of old pinewood , and it had been there for a long time . ... The Allman Brothers used it as a rehearsal facility — that and a place to go maybe to consume a little something that wasn 't quite legal . There were parties out there . "
= = Release and reception = =
Idlewild South was issued by Atco and Capricorn Records on September 23 , 1970 , less than a year after the band 's debut album . It sold only " marginally better , in spite of the band 's growing national reputation , and included songs that would become staples of its repertoire — and eventually of rock radio . " While the album did help boost the band 's popularity , the Allman Brothers ' name really grew in fame due to their live performances . Walden doubted the band 's future , worrying whether they would ever catch on , but word of mouth spread due to the band 's relentless touring schedule , and crowds got larger .
Rolling Stone 's Ed Leimbacher wrote that Idlewild South " augurs well for the Allmans ' future , " calling it " a big step forward from the Allmans ' first " but considered the second side of the LP a disappointment . Robert Christgau at The Village Voice gave the album a " B + " and considered it a companion piece to Duane Allman 's work on Layla , noting that " a lot of people think that Duane Allman is already a ranking titan of the electric guitar . " A retrospective five @-@ star review from Bruce Eder at Allmusic deemed it " the best studio album in the group 's history , electric blues with an acoustic texture , virtuoso lead , slide , and organ playing , and a killer selection of songs . "
= = = Accolades = = =
Rolling Stone listed it among the most " groundbreaking " albums in 2014 , covering its impact on Southern rock : " On their second album , the Allman Brothers transmogrified from mere blues @-@ rockers to an assemblage creating an entirely new kind of Southern music . "
= = Track listing = =
All songs written and composed by Gregg Allman , except where noted .
= = Personnel = =
All credits adapted from liner notes .
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = = Weekly charts = = =
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= Anglesey Central Railway =
The Anglesey Central Railway ( Welsh : Lein Amlwch , Amlwch Line ) was a 17 @.@ 5 miles ( 28 @.@ 2 km ) long standard @-@ gauge railway in Anglesey , Wales , connecting the port of Amlwch and the county town of Llangefni with the North Wales Coast Line at Gaerwen . Built as an independent railway , the railway opened in portions from 1864 to 1867 . Due to financial troubles the railway was sold to the London and North Western Railway in 1876 , who invested significantly in the infrastructure . Operation continued under various companies during the 20th century , but passenger services were withdrawn in 1964 as part of the Beeching Axe . Industrial freight services continued until 1993 .
The railway 's tracks have been left in situ , and local groups have demonstrated an interest in restoring services ( possibly as a heritage railway ) . The sustainable transport charity Sustrans has proposed to use the route as a cycle path . The Welsh Assembly Government , in partnership with Network Rail , commissioned a feasibility study into the reopening of the line , which started in early 2011 .
= = Route = =
The railway branches off westbound from the North Wales Coast Line at Gaerwen , and turns north @-@ east to descend into Malltraeth Marsh ( Welsh : Cors Ddyga ) , passing below Thomas Telford 's A5 and the A55 just before Holland Arms station at Pentre Berw . The Red Wharf Bay branch ( now removed ) left the line here , as the Amlwch line continues north @-@ west , crossing the River Cefni and approaching Llangefni .
North of Llangefni , the railway follows the course of the River Cefni in The Dingle ( Nant Y Pandy ) . Having followed the river through the narrow valley , over bridges and through cuttings , the railway crosses Llyn Cefni , the island 's second largest reservoir .
The railway continues north @-@ west over easier terrain towards Llangwyllog and Llanerchymedd , where it turns north , running to the west of Llyn Alaw toward Rhosgoch . It then turns north @-@ east around Parys Mountain before reaching Amlwch .
= = History = =
= = = Early days = = =
The railways arrived on Anglesey with the construction of the Chester and Holyhead Railway , of which the section from Llanfairpwll to Holyhead opened in 1848 , two years before the Britannia Bridge was finished . The Chester and Holyhead railway surveyed a branch to Llangefni in 1852 , but chose not to proceed . George Stephenson notably reported that the line was not worth building .
The idea of a local railway was still of interest to the people of Anglesey . A public meeting was held in Llangefni on 5 July 1858 , to popularise the idea of building a railway leaving the main line at Gaerwen , running north to Amlwch , west to Cemaes Bay , then south through Llanrhyddlad to rejoin the main line at Valley . This ambitious scheme did not gain enough support to proceed , although some landowners offered to exchange land for shares .
Proposals changed into a railway from Gaerwen to Amlwch , with another meeting in Llangefni , on 1 August 1861 . David Davies and his partner Ezra Roberts offered to build the line at a cost of £ 6 @,@ 000 per mile , complete except for rolling stock , or for £ 5 @,@ 000 per mile , with the company to purchase the land and meet " preliminary and parliamentary expenses " . This proposal won favour with the fledgling company , but it was not taken up . The London and North Western Railway ( LNWR ) ( who had taken over the Chester and Holyhead Railway ) were approached in 1862 . The LNWR were not interested , so the railway was financed independently .
= = = 1863 – 1876 : Independent operation = = =
The Anglesey Central Railway Act 1863 ( 26 & 27 Vict. c.cxxviii ) founded the company , with capital of £ 120 @,@ 000 . The chairman was William Bulkeley Hughes , MP for Caernarfon and local railway prospector . The ceremonial first sod was cut on 11 September 1863 , with construction starting the following year by the contractors Dickson and Russell . With the line approaching Llangefni later in October 1864 , LNWR engineers were authorised to build the main line junction at Gaerwen , at the Anglesey Central Railway 's expense .
The line opened for freight as far as Llangefni on 16 December 1864 . A special train carried the directors and friends from Bangor to a temporary station in Llangefni in 37 minutes . A banquet was held at the Bull Hotel for 100 guests , with celebrations continuing that evening in Bangor . The line was surveyed by Captain Rich on behalf of the Board of Trade in February , and they approved the line for passenger traffic on 8 March 1865 . Passenger services started four days later , with an engine and carriages loaned by the LNWR . In the six months to December 1865 , the railway carried 18 @,@ 839 passengers and 3 @,@ 866 tons of freight ( 3 @,@ 928 t ) , excluding livestock .
Further construction of the line was limited by a lack of funds . Russell asked the LNWR to adopt the line in August 1865 , to no avail . An Act of 1866 gave permission to raise a further £ 20 @,@ 000 , with loans of £ 6 @,@ 600 . After raising this capital , the line was opened to Llanerchymedd in 1866 , with the temporary station at Llangefni replaced by a permanent structure half a mile further on . Captain Rich , when surveying the line , noted that the curves and gradients were severe , and recommended that the line be worked at moderate speed . He also noted the lack of turntables , and the company 's intention to use Fairlie engines on the line .
The 1866 Act also gave the Anglesey Central Railway ( ACR ) the right to authorise Dickson to lease or work the line , or to lease or sell the line to the LNWR . Dickson did indeed undertake to operate services . He requested permission from the LNWR to run services through to Bangor , but they refused , and passengers had to continue to change at Gaerwen . The act authorised a branch from Rhosgoch to Cemaes , but this was not built . The Fairlie engine Mountaineer was in use on the line in April 1866 , but by October 1867 it was in use on the Neath and Brecon Railway , of which Dickson was also the contractor and whose traffic he was working . The Neath and Brecon 's 0 @-@ 6 @-@ 0 Miers also operated on the ACR , under the name Anglesea . Neither of those engines was considered successful .
= = = = The railway reaches Amlwch = = = =
The final section to Amlwch was surveyed by the now Major Rich in January 1867 . After remedial work , it opened to passengers throughout on 3 June 1867 , although the first freight train to Amlwch was on 10 September 1866 , according to Amlwch 's first stationmaster , Mr O. Dew .
The line had been built single track throughout , with the only run @-@ around loop provided at Amlwch , meaning that trains could not pass each other . To ensure safe working , the Staff and Ticket system was used in three sections : Gaerwen @-@ Llangefni , Llangefni @-@ Llanerchymedd , and Llanerchymedd @-@ Amlwch , using A and B configured staffs alternately . No turntable was built , as the intended Fairlie engines would not require one . When the LNWR provided engines , they used tank engines where possible , rather than an engine with a tender .
Mona Mine , operating the copper works at Parys Mountain , switched from exporting ore by sea to by railway in 1865 , two years before it reached Amlwch . Delivery prices per ton of ore were 25 shillings to London , 20 shillings to Birmingham , and 14 shillings and 2 pence to Liverpool , when carried from Gaerwen ( by the LNWR ) . Carriage from Llangefni ( then the terminus of the ACR ) cost 2 shillings and sixpence more .
The mines soon became uneconomic to operate and closed in 1871 . Livestock , artificial fertiliser , and farm produce made up the majority of the remaining freight traffic .
= = = = Financial troubles = = = =
Dickson , who was operating all services on the railway , failed financially in September 1867 . William Dew , secretary of the company , writing in April of that year stated that " the affairs of the railway are in such a critical and pressing state " . The ACR turned once again to the LNWR , asking them to work the line . These negotiations failed , but the LNWR did agree to lend an engine and carriages once again . T. L. Kettle suggested to the chairperson in 1870 that sale to the LNWR would be desirable , on account of the company 's debts . The financial situation restricted the company 's ambitions :
As regards the line to Port of Amlwch , nothing ought to be done till there is certainty by guarantee or otherwise of sufficient traffic to pay a proper interest on the capital to be expended in making it .
On 16 December 1875 , as a result of legal action by independent locomotive manufacturers , an injunction was issued restricting the LNWR " from manufacturing locomotive engines or other rolling stock for sale or hire on other than their own railway " . In January 1876 the LNWR informed the ACR that they could no longer lend the engine in use , as a result of the recent court case . Three choices were suggested by the LNWR : that the line be bought outright , that a proper working arrangement be made , or that the ACR " might buy the engine and carriages now on the line " . The ACR were not in a position to buy the stock , and made arrangements for the sale of the railway .
= = = 1876 – 1923 : London and North Western Railway = = =
After a decade of operating as an independent company , the line was transferred to the London and North Western Railway in 1876 , for £ 80 @,@ 000 . This was enacted by the Anglesey Central Railway ( Transfer ) Act of 1876 ( 39 & 40 Vict. cap clxxii ) , and the LNWR assumed control of the line on 1 July 1876 .
A survey conducted by the LNWR found that the bridges and culverts were in a fair condition , but the stations were dirty . Fences were decayed , rails needed replacing , some sleepers were rotten , and the ballast was soft and shaley . The LNWR addressed these problems over the coming years .
A short passing loop was built at Llangefni station in 1877 for engines to run round , but at only 40 yards ( 37 m ) long it was not of much use for allowing passenger trains to pass each other . A refuge siding was built for freight trains at Llanerchymedd in 1878 , along with an engine shed in Amlwch . In 1882 , new station buildings replaced the basic wooden sheds at Holland Arms , Llangwyllog and Rhosgoch , as well as development of the junction at Gaerwen into a full double junction , and a second signal cabin built there . An extended Amlwch station received a canopy by 1884 . The staff and ticket system was supplemented with block working in 1886 , and was replaced with the electric staff system in 1894 .
The timetable for January 1883 shows a variety of passenger , goods and mixed trains , giving five passenger services down to Amlwch , and six up . The first train of the morning , departing Bangor at 04 : 20 , and the 19 : 35 from Amlwch also carried mail to and from the island . The majority of trains still terminated at Gaerwen . As Llangefni held a livestock market on a Thursday , an extra service from Bangor to Llangefni on Thursdays was introduced by the 1896 timetable .
= = = = 1877 accident = = = =
In the early morning of 29 November 1877 , heavy rain caused the dam of the Rhodgeidio mill near Llanerchymedd to breach , and the surge of water washed away the wooden Caemawr bridge over the Afon Alaw . The first train of the day was driven by William Taylor , with fireman John Saunders and railway inspector John Davies also on the footplate . The train also included two coal trucks , a passenger coach , and a guard 's van , with Edward Hughes serving as the guard . The whole train went over the side of the bridge into the river . Edward Hughes dragged himself out , and was taken to the nearest farm . John Davies was scalded to death , and Taylor and Saunders were found injured , and could not be freed until mid @-@ day . John Saunders later died from his injuries .
Robert Williams , one of the Anglesey Central Railway 's first drivers , noted that he had been instructed to drive the morning train , but that he slept late , and William Taylor replaced him at short notice . The bridge was later rebuilt in stone , and is known to this day as Pont Damwain ( Accident Bridge ) .
= = = = Red Wharf Bay branch = = = =
The LNWR obtained powers to build a branch from Holland Arms to Red Wharf Bay in 1899 and 1900 . The line was opened to Pentraeth in 1908 , and reached Red Wharf Bay in 1909 . The Gaerwen @-@ Llangefni staff section was replaced with Gaerwen @-@ Holland Arms and Holland Arms @-@ Llangefni sections , but the single line to Red Wharf Bay was operated as one section .
The autotrain introduced to serve this branch also operated on the Amlwch line : when not running to Red Wharf Bay the motor train would operate between Llangefni and Gaerwen while the main branch train was on the round trip from Llangefni to Amlwch and back .
= = = = Passing loop at Llangwyllog = = = =
The lack of a passing loop suitable for passenger trains on the Amlwch line meant that trains could only operate every two hours . Coordinating this limited timetable with the main line services through Gaerwen was difficult , and passengers could face a long wait on occasions . To make the branch line workings more flexible , a passing loop was proposed for Llangwyllog in March 1914 . The work was completed for the summer timetables . This required introducing a new working section , and Llangwyllog became a staff station . As the new section was in the middle of a line , a third type of staff was required ( a C configuration ) ; one of only a few sections on the LNWR that did not use a type A or B staff .
In 1916 , the passing loop was used by one pair of passenger trains in the evening , with an extra down train ( toward Amlwch ) making seven down and six up trains per day . The railmotor train 's services had grown to 24 single trips between Gaerwen / Holland Arms and Llangefni / Red Wharf Bay . The continuing shortages of World War I meant that in January 1917 many passenger services were to be cut to give more resources to the war effort . The railways were slow to recover from the wartime hardships , and in 1921 there were six passenger trains to and from Amlwch , and only 18 single trips by the motor train .
= = = 1923 – 1946 : London , Midland and Scottish Railway = = =
In 1923 Britain 's numerous railway companies were grouped into the " Big Four " , and the LNWR 's assets became part of the London , Midland and Scottish Railway ( LMS ) .
Holland Arms ' functionality as a staff station was only useful for the Red Wharf Bay branch , but a signalman was still required for all Amlwch services . In about 1925 , LMS introduced a switching @-@ out system that could turn the Gaerwen @-@ Holland Arms and Holland Arms @-@ Llangefni sections into one long section . This was of particular advantage in early mornings and evenings , when the only services were on the Amlwch line .
The July 1924 timetable showed eight passenger trains each way between Amlwch and Gaerwen , with the Red Wharf Bay railmotor operating to Llangefni three times a day . The extra Thursday service to Llangefni for the market was still included . By the summer of 1929 , there were eight trains from Gaerwen to Amlwch , and seven in the other direction . One train to and from Amlwch no longer ran Thursdays , replaced with a second two return trip to Llangefni , operated by the railmotor . The loop at Llangwyllog now saw three pairs of passenger trains passing on weekdays , while the daily freight train would be shunted into sidings at Llangefni and Llanerchymedd to make way . Motor train services were back up to 24 single trips a day , including the Red Wharf Bay services .
The Great Depression brought a number of cutbacks to Anglesey 's railways . The withdrawal of passenger services on the Red Wharf Bay branch in September 1930 affected the Amlwch line , as the motor train that operated the extra Gaerwen – Llangefni services was withdrawn . Amlwch 's engine shed was closed on 14 September 1931 , with all trains being worked from Bangor . As the economy recovered , the number of Gaerwen – Amlwch services was increased . The summer of 1938 saw ten down and eight up trains for passengers , with eleven each way on Saturdays .
= = = 1946 – 1993 : British Railways / British Rail = = =
A dam was built across the Cefni river north of Llangefni in the late 1940s to increase the water supply available to the island . The new reservoir , Llyn Cefni , crossed the railway 's trackbed , and a bridge was built to support it . A second reservoir , Llyn Alaw , was formed adjacent to the railway north of Llanerchymedd in the 1960s , but did not interfere with the line 's alignment .
Passenger numbers at Holland Arms station had fallen since the end of passenger services on the Red Wharf Bay branch . The branch was closed to all traffic in 1950 , and Holland Arms closed on 4 August 1952 .
Under British Rail , many passenger services on the Amlwch branch operated through to Bangor , removing the need to change trains at Gaerwen . An early three @-@ coach British United Traction ( A.E.C. ) diesel multiple unit train was trialled on the line in May 1953 . The train was economical in fuel use , and did not require a fireman , but train passengers and crew complained at the very rough ride - rattling windows a particular complaint . As part of British Rail 's Modernisation Plan , Derby Lightweight DMUs were introduced three years later . A 1956 brochure advertised day return tickets from Bangor to Amlwch for 4s.4d , or Llangefni for 11d . Steam engines continued to be used for freight trains , and for extra workings such as Saturday trains . Steam returned for all passenger trains in the summers of 1963 and 1964 due to a shortage of DMUs .
A bromine extraction plant was opened in Amlwch in 1953 by Associated Ethyl ( soon renamed Associated Octel , and later part of the Great Lakes Chemical Corporation ) . Chlorine produced at a plant in Ellesmere Port was brought by rail to Amlwch , which was used to extract bromine from sea water . The resulting ethylene dibromide was taken from Amlwch by rail as well . The company built a light railway through the town to Amlwch station , and a marshalling yard for exchanging freight wagons .
= = = = Run down and closure = = = =
The line stopped carrying passengers on 5 December 1964 , as part of the rationalisation known as the Beeching Axe . All stations were closed , and all goods yards , passing loops and sidings removed , except the marshalling yard for the Octel freight . Octel 's freight traffic totaled 70 @,@ 000 tons annually , and the railway was kept in order to serve this traffic . Local freight services ceased , and the electric ticket system was withdrawn . Only one train was permitted to be on the branch at a time , but this was sufficient for Octel 's requirements . The double junction at Gaerwen was also remodelled . Once the freight trains were being worked by diesel locomotives , arrangements were made for the British Rail engines to operate all the way to the plant .
Amlwch station was demolished when the adjacent road was rebuilt . A nearby warehouse now houses a visitor centre with a model railway and exhibitions . Llanerchymedd station became property of the local council , and is currently in a dilapidated condition . Other stations passed into private ownership .
A spur was built near Rhosgoch to facilitate the building of an oil tank farm in the 1970s . This was built to receive oil from tankers moored offshore in the deep waters off Amlwch , before it was pumped to the Stanlow Refinery in Cheshire . The site was decommissioned after a short life , but the short spur remains .
A Class 31 locomotive , number 31296 , was named ' Amlwch Freighter ' / ' Trên Nwyddau Amlwch ' in September 1986 at the Associated Octel plant . At this point , 33 years after the opening of the Octel plant at Amlwch , 2 million tonnes of traffic had been conveyed from their freight terminal . A scale model was produced by Lima with this nameplate affixed . The name was removed in March 1990 and transferred to the Class 47 locomotive 47330 , which was renumbered 47390 for a period , retaining the name . This locomotive was later rebuilt as a Class 57 , and renamed ' The Hood ' by its new operator , Virgin Trains .
A few special passenger services were subsequently operated , notably in 1969 , 1983 and 1992 / 93 . In 1993 , Octel 's daily freight traffic was transferred to road haulage , for safety reasons , and traffic thus ceased on the line . The Octel plant closed in 2003 , and has since been demolished .
= = Rolling stock = =
The ACR hired rolling stock from the LNWR for their inaugural services . When Dickson was operating the line from 1866 to 1868 , he used the following engines :
From 1868 , the LNWR provided rolling stock again , until their acquisition of the line in 1876 . The following types of engine have been noted as being used on the line since :
Diesel engines were used for the Octel freight after British Rail 's withdrawal of steam engines . A railfan website notes Class 24 , Class 40 , and Class 47 as having been used for the freight services , as well as the 1983 special passenger services . The 1992 specials used Class 101 DMU units , and the 1993 special used Class 20 and Class 37 engines .
= = Preservation and redevelopment attempts = =
The continuation of Octel Freight Traffic until 1993 ensured that not only was the trackbed kept whole , but the majority of the rail infrastructure was still in situ . As such , the Amlwch line was well suited to preservation as a heritage railway , or see a return of mainline services . The continued role of Llangefni as an administrative and commercial centre led British Rail and Gwynedd County Council to consider restoring passenger services between Llangefni and Bangor in the late 1980s , but the idea was turned down .
= = = Isle of Anglesey Railways Ltd = = =
After a public meeting in Amlwch to gauge local support , Isle of Anglesey Railways Ltd ( IoAR ) was established in 1991 with the aim of restoring passenger services to the line . Special trains ran from Bangor to a temporary station at Amlwch on the Spring and August bank holidays of 1992 , and the 125th anniversary of the line 's opening ( a total of eight return trips ) . Pathfinder Tours subsequently ran an excursion from York to Llandudno and Amlwch in October 1993 . The project 's viability was discussed with the Welsh Development Agency and Anglesey District Council , followed by negotiations in July 1993 with Railfreight Distribution to purchase the line . Octel offered a portion of its private railway for the building of a new station at Amlwch . IoAR initially hoped to start passenger services between Amlwch and Llangefni as early as 1994 .
The privatisation of British Rail in the mid @-@ 1990s disrupted this process . The post @-@ privatisation owner Railtrack 's asking price of £ 300 @,@ 000 in 1996 required seeking grants from the European Commission . With no traffic or maintenance , the line started to become overgrown . In the meantime , Sustrans proposed the railway should be converted into a cycle route , similar to the Lôn Eifion cycle route which follows the path of the former Carnarvonshire Railway from Caernarfon to Afon Wen . In 1998 – 99 surveys of the railway bridges showed their condition to be " better than expected " . A petition of 7 @,@ 000 signatures was presented to Anglesey County Council in January 1999 , calling for better cycling facilities on the island , and particularly a cycle path from Amlwch to Gaerwen . Support for the railway option was demonstrated by a charter train named the Lein Amlwch Venturer , hauled by 6024 King Edward I , which ran from Crewe to Gaerwen junction on Saturday 23 January .
Anglesey County Council was planning to buy the track in support of the railway in 2000 , but was later reported as having withdrawn its support for IoAR in May 2001 . Five months later Railtrack was placed in administration , and ownership of Britain 's railways ( including the Amlwch line ) was transferred to Network Rail in October 2002 .
= = = Cycle route = = =
Tourism Partnership North Wales 's 2003 report was supportive of the possibility of implementing both a heritage railway and cycle route side by side . Anglesey County Council was considering both options again according to a 2005 report . The Managing Director of Anglesey County Council wrote a letter of support in principle to Anglesey Central Railway ( 2006 ) Ltd in January 2006 , however councillors voted in favour of a " cycle , walking and bridle path route " in March 2007 , contributing £ 5 @,@ 000 toward a feasibility study days before ACR ( 2006 ) Ltd were told that the lease of the railway from Network Rail had been approved . The Council voted in favour of a cycle route motion in October 2007 , and Network Rail informed ACR ( 2006 ) Ltd that the lease was on hold due to the council 's reversal of policy . The motion 's proposer stated that " high @-@ level negotiations " were taking place between Network Rail and cycle route advocates . A potential compromise was identified as using the Amlwch @-@ Llanerchymedd portion as a cycle route , and the Llanerchymedd @-@ Gaerwen portion as a railway . The General Secretary of ACR ( 2006 ) Ltd noted in early 2008 that until a lease is agreed , ACR ( 2006 ) Ltd cannot conduct any work on the line . Network Rail 's business plans from 2005 to 2007 made reference to proposals for the sale or lease of the line , but the 2008 business plan made no such reference , simply showing the line as non @-@ operational .
= = = Change of direction = = =
Local council elections were held in May 2008 , resulting in a change of leadership at Anglesey County Council . The County Council 's Economic Development Representative expressed his desire to see the railway line reopened at a meeting of Llangefni Town Council in November 2008 , an opinion echoed by a number of the town councillors . 80 % of correspondence to the Holyhead and Anglesey Mail on the topic during 2008 was in support of the railway proposal .
= = = 2009 status = = =
The line remains property of Network Rail , with Anglesey County Council a statutory consultee on the future use of the route . The track is in a poor state of repair , with gorse bushes and small saplings growing between the tracks in some locations . Network Rail officially designated the branch " out of use " for operational purposes in January 2009 , after consultation with English Welsh & Scottish , who favoured its restoration to a working railway with the opportunity for freight traffic .
Sustrans announced renewed plans for a cycle route along 16 miles ( 26 km ) of the line ( the majority of its length ) on 5 March 2009 , along with a belief that the route can be used for both a cycle path and heritage railway . Planning applications are to be developed in cooperation with ACR Ltd , Anglesey County Council and Network Rail .
= = Reopening = =
In 2009 the Welsh Assembly Government asked Network Rail to conduct feasibility studies on two former track stretches in Wales , one of those being the line from Bangor to Llangefni . Councillor Clive McGregor was optimistic this could provide an economic stimulus for Anglesey , along with further proposals to extend passenger traffic between Llangefni and Amlwch . In 2011 Network Rail began work on gathering evidence for its study , beginning with cutting away vegetation on track sections to examine the condition of rails and track bedding . Its report was expected to be published in 2012 , before any business cases to reopen the lines could be developed .
The study , which started in January 2011 , began by assessing the condition of the line between Gaerwen and Llangefni . The track , bridges , associated earthworks , and the station at Llangefni were examined by engineers in order to decide whether they are still fit for purpose , or will need to be updated . With the alignment having succumbed to heavy encroachment from vegetation , an environmental report will have to be drawn up to decrease the potential damage that could be caused to wildlife . Mike Gallop , coordinating the project on behalf of Network Rail , warned that bringing back trains to the line would be " tough " .
The remainder of the line , between Llangefni and Amlwch , looks set to be preserved as a heritage railway , with Network Rail giving licence to Anglesey Central Railway Limited to begin clearing the overgrown line north of Llangefni . ACR started to clear vegetation from the line in Llangefni before Christmas 2012 . ACR Limited 's support group Lein Amlwch have also opened a small shop , cafe and heritage centre in Llanerchymedd 's station building which will be open during the summer months .
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= George Bellew =
Sir George Rothe Bellew , KCB , KCVO , KStJ , FSA ( 13 December 1899 – 6 February 1993 ) , styled The Honourable after 1935 , was a long @-@ serving herald at the College of Arms in London . Educated at the University of Oxford , he was appointed Portcullis Pursuivant in 1922 . Having been Somerset Herald for 24 years , he was promoted to the office of Garter Principal King of Arms in 1950 , the highest heraldic office in England and Wales . He served in that capacity until his resignation in 1961 . As Garter , Bellew oversaw the funeral of George VI , proclaimed the late King 's daughter , Elizabeth II , as Queen and took a leading role in the organisation of her Coronation in 1953 . After his retirement , Bellew was Secretary of the Order of the Garter ( until 1974 ) and Knight Principal of the Imperial Society of Knights Bachelor ( until 1962 ) . He lived for many years at Dower House in Old Windsor , Berkshire , but later moved to Farnham and died in 1993 , aged 93 .
= = Life = =
= = = Early life and heraldic career before 1950 = = =
Born in Dublin , Ireland , on 13 December 1899 , Bellew was the son of the Hon. Richard Eustace Bellew by his second wife Gwendoline Marie Josephine , elder daughter of William Reginald Joseph Fitzherbert Herbert Huddleston of Clytha . His father was the younger son of the second Baron Bellew . Bellew 's elder brother , Edward Henry , inherited the barony ; because their father had died before inheriting the title , Bellew and his other siblings took the style of the son of a baron by a Royal Warrant of Precedence in 1935 . The same year , he married Ursula Kennard Cull ( died 1994 ) , eldest daughter of Anders Eric Knös Cull ( died 1968 ) , a merchant banker and founder of Cull & Co . , of Warfield House , Berkshire , and had one son , Richard George Bellew ( born 1936 ) .
Following schooling at Wellington College , Bellew went up to Christ Church , Oxford . He arrived at the College of Arms in 1922 , when he was appointed Portcullis Pursuivant . After four years in that capacity , he was promoted to the office of Somerset Herald and went on to serve as the College ’ s registrar from 1935 to 1946 . His heraldic career was interrupted by World War II , when Bellew rose to the rank of Squadron Leader in the Royal Air Force Volunteer Reserve and was mentioned in despatches . Having spent 24 years as Somerset Herald , he succeeded Sir Algar Howard as Garter Principal King of Arms in 1950 , the highest position in the College of Arms and the leading herald in England and Wales .
= = = Gartership = = =
As Garter , Bellew was tasked with overseeing the State Funeral of George VI in 1952 , but many of the details had been prepared in advance . Along with officially proclaiming the King ’ s successor , Elizabeth II , he was also effectively the senior assistant to the Earl Marshal in organising the new Queen ’ s Coronation , a complex and demanding operation . He advocated ( in opposition to most of the Coronation Executive Committee ) the broadcast of the service on television and designed the heraldic statues which guarded Westminster Abbey ’ s doors during the ceremony — a " notable success " , according to The Independent . A Knight Bachelor since 1950 , he was appointed a Knight Commander of the Royal Victorian Order in 1953 in recognition for his service during the Coronation .
Bellew 's Gartership also witnessed changes to the fabric of the College of Arms . Although it had survived the Blitz , structural problems with the roof and brickwork forced the heralds to decide between leaving the College 's buildings on Queen Victoria Street or attempting expensive repairs . In 1954 , they approached the Ministry of Works to ask for financial assistance in the building work ; the Ministry agreed to cover half the cost . A successful public appeal for the remaining funds followed and the restoration work carried out . The College of Arms Trust was established in 1956 to oversee funds for the building 's maintenance .
Garter is ex officio the officer of arms of the Order of the Garter , England 's senior Order of Chivalry . The post of Secretary of the Order had been created in the early 20th century and had been held by courtiers since then , not always in friendly relations with other officers . In 1952 , Bellew and most of the chapter came to an agreement that a herald be appointed to the post ; after appealing to Sir Alan Lascelles , the Sovereign 's Private Secretary , the Queen agreed and Anthony Wagner was given the position .
= = = Retirement = = =
Having served as Garter for 11 years , Bellew retired in 1961 and was succeeded by Anthony Wagner , then Richmond Herald . He then served as Secretary of the Order of the Garter until 1974 , which included responsibility for the Orders ' finances , and received a third knighthood when he was appointed a Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath . He was a Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries and Knight of the Order of St John . Having been Knight Principal of the Imperial Society of Knights Bachelor from 1957 to 1962 , he was its Deputy Knight Principal from then until 1971 . In the aftermath of World War II , he and his wife purchased Woodside Dower House in Old Windsor , Berkshire ; then a ruin , he took a keen interest in renovating it and hosting parties there . While Secretary of the Order of the Garter , he entertained friends and colleagues at the house after the order 's annual service in June . In later years , he lived at The Grange in Farnham and died on 6 February 1993 .
= = Legacy and appraisal = =
Bellew 's successor as Garter , Sir Anthony Wagner , referred to him in his 1988 memoirs ; he wrote that Bellew seemed " in early years a temperamental , combative Irishman not easy to live with though always possessed of great feeling for ceremonial and heraldic design and a skillful pen and pencil . In later years I have found him ever more charming " . According to The Independent , Bellew enjoyed creating colourful grants of arms , drew inspiration from medieval heraldry and allowed multi @-@ coloured wreaths to be used and adorned with badges for the first time in English heraldry . As Garter , he managed the financial affairs of the College well , maintaining " a firm hand on the tiller " , and , when faced with the task of organising the Coronation , his knowledge of tradition was complemented by his eye for design : " At heart he was a designer , an artist and a perfectionist in all things " , remarks his obituary in The Times .
= = Publications = =
Bellew , Sir George Rothe ( n.d. ) . St. George 's Chapel , Windsor and the History of the Most Noble Order of the Garter . London : Pitkin Pictorials . OCLC 200062583
— ( 1960 ) . The Story of Salisbury Hall . W. J. Goldsmith . OCLC 30242508
— ( 1971 ) . Britain 's Kings and Queens . London : Pitkin Pictorials . ISBN 9780853720553 . OCLC 1031506
= = Likenesses = =
Sir George Rothe Bellew by Cecil Beaton , bromide print on white card mount , 1953 73 / 8 in . × 71 / 2 in . ( 186 mm × 191 mm ) . Held in the Photographs Collection at the National Portrait Gallery ( given by Cecil Beaton , 1968 ) .
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= St. Michael 's Golden @-@ Domed Monastery =
St. Michael 's Golden @-@ Domed Monastery ( Ukrainian : Михайлівський золотоверхий монастир , Mykhaylivs ’ kyi zolotoverkhyi monastyr ) is a functioning monastery in Kiev , the capital of Ukraine . The monastery is located on the right bank of the Dnieper River on the edge of a bluff northeast of the Saint Sophia Cathedral . The site is located in the historic administrative Uppertown and overlooks the city 's historical commercial and merchant quarter , the Podil neighbourhood .
Originally built in the Middle Ages by Sviatopolk II Iziaslavych , the monastery comprises the Cathedral itself , the Refectory of St. John the Divine , built in 1713 , the Economic Gates , constructed in 1760 and the monastery 's bell tower , which was added c . 1716 – 1719 . The exterior of the structure was rebuilt in the Ukrainian Baroque style in the 18th century while the interior remained in its original Byzantine style . The original cathedral was demolished by the Soviet authorities in the 1930s , but was reconstructed and opened in 1999 following Ukrainian independence in 1991 .
= = History = =
= = = 11th to 19th centuries = = =
Some scholars do not believe that Prince Iziaslav Yaroslavych , whose Christian name was Demetrius , first built the Saint Demetrius 's Monastery and Church in the Uppertown of Kiev near Saint Sophia Cathedral in the 1050s . Half a century later , his son , Sviatopolk II Iziaslavych , is recorded as commissioning a monastery church ( 1108 – 1113 ) dedicated to his own patron saint , Michael the Archangel . One reason for building the church may have been Svyatopolk 's recent victory over the nomadic Polovtsians , as Michael the Archangel was considered a patron of warriors and victories . In 1906 , a medieval hoard of silver and gold jewellery was discovered in a metal casket on Trekhsvyatytelska Street ( Street of the Three Saints ) , opposite the gates of St. Michael 's Golden @-@ Domed Monastery . Gold jewellery from the hoard is now in the Metropolitan Museum of Art , New York while the silver jewellery and two ingots are in the British Museum , London . The hoard is dated to the 11th @-@ 12th centuries and was probably hidden at the time of the Tartar invasions and the Sack of Kiev in 1240 .
The monastery was regarded as a family cloister of Svyatopolk 's family ; it was there that members of Svyatopolk 's family were buried . ( This is in contrast to the Vydubychi Monastery patronized by his rival , Vladimir Monomakh ) . The cathedral domes were probably the first in Kievan Rus to be gilded , a practice that became regular with the passage of time and acquired for the monastery the nickname of " golden @-@ domed " or " golden @-@ roofed " , depending on the translation .
During the Mongol invasion in 1240 , the monastery is believed to have been damaged seriously . The Mongols damaged the cathedral and removed its gold @-@ plated domes . The cloister subsequently fell into disrepair and there is no documentation of it for the following two and a half centuries . By 1496 , the monastery had been revived and its name was changed from St. Demetrius ' Monastery to St. Michael 's after the cathedral church built by Sviatopolk II . After numerous restorations and enlargements during the sixteenth century , it gradually became one of the most popular and wealthiest monasteries in Ukraine . In 1620 , Iov Boretsky made it the residence of the renewed Orthodox metropolitan of Kiev , and in 1633 , Isaya Kopynsky was named a supervisor of the monastery .
The monastery enjoyed the patronage of hetmans and other benefactors throughout the years . The chief magnet for pilgrims were the relics of Saint Barbara , alleged to have been brought to Kiev from Constantinople in 1108 by Sviatopolk II Iziaslavych 's wife and kept in a silver reliquary donated by Hetman Ivan Mazepa . Although most of the monastery grounds were secularized in the late eighteenth century , as many as 240 monks resided there in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries . The monastery served as the residence of the bishop of Chernigov after 1800 . A precentor 's school was located on the monastery grounds ; many prominent composers , such as Kyrylo Stetsenko and Yakiv Yatsynevych , either studied or taught at the school .
In 1870 , about 100 @,@ 000 pilgrims paid tribute to St. Barbara at St. Michael 's Monastery . Before the Russian Revolution in 1917 , rings manufactured and blessed at St. Michael 's Monastery , known as St. Barbara 's rings , were very popular among the citizens of Kiev . They usually served as good luck charms and , according to popular beliefs , occasionally protected against witchcraft but were also effective against serious illnesses and sudden death . These beliefs reference the facts that the Monastery was not affected by the plague epidemics in 1710 and 1770 and cholera epidemics of the nineteenth century .
= = = Demolition of the cathedral and belltower = = =
During the first half of the 1930s , various Soviet publications questioned the known historical facts regarding the age of the Cathedral . The publications stressed that the medieval building had undergone major reconstructions and that little of the original Byzantine @-@ style cathedral was preserved . This wave of questioning led to the demolition of the monastery and its replacement with a new administrative centre for the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic ( previously located in the city of Kharkiv ) . Before its demolition ( June 8 – July 9 , 1934 ) , the structure was carefully studied by T.M. Movchanivskyi and K. Honcharev from the recently purged and re @-@ organized Institute of Material Culture of the Ukrainian Academy of Sciences . On the basis of their survey , the cathedral was declared to belong primarily to the Ukrainian Baroque style , rather than to the twelfth century as was previously thought , and thus did not merit preservation due to its lack of historical and artistic value . This conclusion backed up the Soviet authorities ' plans to demolish the entire monastery . Local historians , archaeologists , and architects agreed to the monastery 's demolition , although reluctantly . Only one professor , Mykola Makarenko , refused to sign the demolition act ; he later died in a Soviet prison .
On June 26 , 1934 , work began on the removal of the twelfth century Byzantine mosaics . It was conducted by the Mosaic Section of the Leningrad Academy of Fine Arts . Specialists were forced to work in haste on account of the impending demolition and were thus unable to complete the entire project . Despite the care and attention shown during the removal of the mosaics from the cathedral 's walls , the relocated mosaics cannot be relied upon as being absolutely authentic .
The remaining mosaics , covering an area of 45 square metres ( 485 sq ft ) , were partitioned between the State Hermitage Museum , the Tretyakov Gallery , and the State Russian Museum . The other remaining mosaics were installed on the second floor of the Saint Sophia Cathedral , where they were not on display for tourists . Those items that remained in Kiev were seized by the Nazis during World War II and taken to Germany . After the war ended , they fell into American hands and were later returned to Moscow .
During the spring of 1935 , the golden domes of the monastery were pulled down . The cathedral 's silver royal gates , Mazepa 's reliquary ( weighing two poods of silver ) and other valuables were sold abroad or simply destroyed . Master Hryhoryi 's five @-@ tier iconostasis was removed ( and later destroyed ) from the cathedral as well . St. Barbara 's relics were transferred to the Church of the Tithes and upon that church 's demolition , to the St Volodymyr 's Cathedral in 1961 .
During the spring @-@ summer period of 1936 , the shell of the cathedral and belltower were blown up with dynamite . The monastery 's Economic Gate ( Ekonomichna Brama ) and the monastic walls were also destroyed . After the demolition , a thorough search for valuables was carried out by the NKVD on the site . The resulting empty plot was joined with Sofiyivska Square , renamed Uryadova Square ( Governmental Square ) and was designated as the new city center and parade grounds . Soviet authorities then commissioned a competition how to best fill the empty plot ; most architects , including Yakiv Shteinberg , suggested a huge Lenin statue . The square itself was planned as a rectangle with huge governmental buildings on the perimeter . Four pillars were planned with statues of workers , peasants and revolutionaries with flags standing on them . Some architects suggested to demolish the statue of Bohdan Khmelnytsky in front of the Saint Sophia Cathedral and the Cathedral itself .
The only building completed on the former monastery grounds before World War II currently houses the Ministry of Foreign Affairs . The construction of the second building ( " the capital center " ) , planned to be built on the site where the Cathedral had once stood , was delayed in the spring of 1938 as the authorities were not satisfied with the submitted design . This building failed to materialize . Some time after demolition , the site where the former cathedral used to be located was transformed into a sport complex , including tennis and volleyball courts . The Refectory ( Trapezna ) of St. John the Divine was used for changing rooms .
= = = Preservation and reconstruction = = =
In August 1963 , the preserved refectory of the demolished monastery without its Baroque cupola was designated a monument of architecture of the Ukrainian SSR . In 1973 , the Kiev City Council established several " archaeological preservation zones " within the city ; these included the territory surrounding the monastery . However , the vacant site of the demolished cathedral was excluded from the proposed Historic @-@ Archaeological Park @-@ Museum , The Ancient Kiev , developed by architect A. M. Miletskyi and consultants M. V. Kholostenko and P. P. Tolochko .
During the 1970s , Ukrainian architects I. Melnyk , A. Zayika , V. Korol , and engineer A. Kolyakov worked out a plan of reconstruction of the St. Michael 's Monastery . However , these plans were only considered after the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991 .
After Ukraine regained independence in 1991 , the demolition of the monastery was deemed a crime and voices started to be heard calling for the monastery 's full @-@ scale reconstruction as an important part of the cultural heritage of the Ukrainian people . These plans were approved and carried out in 1997 – 1998 , whereupon the cathedral and belltower were transferred to the Ukrainian Orthodox Church - Kiev Patriarchate . Yuriy Ivakin , the chief archaeologist for the site , said that more than 260 valuable ancient artifacts were recovered during excavations of the site before reconstruction . In addition , a portion of the ancient cathedral , still intact , was uncovered ; this today makes up a part of the current cathedral 's crypt .
With support of the Kiev city authorities , architect @-@ restorer Y. Lositskiy and others restored the western part of the stone walls . The belltower was restored next and became an observation platform . Instead of the original chiming clock , a new electronic one with hands and a set of chimes ( a total of 40 ) was installed from which today the melodies of famous Ukrainian composers can be heard . The Cathedral was reconstructed last and decorated with a set of wooden baroque icons , copies of former mosaics and frescoes , and new works of art by Ukrainian artists .
The newly rebuilt St. Michael 's Golden @-@ Domed Cathedral was officially opened on May 30 , 1999 . However , interior decorations , mosaics , and frescoes were not completed until May 28 , 2000 . The side chapels were consecrated to SS . Barbara and Catherine in 2001 . During the following four years , 18 out of 29 mosaics and other objets d 'art from the original cathedral were returned from Moscow after years of tedious discussion between Ukrainian and Russian authorities . However , by the end of 2006 , the remaining frescoes of the monastery are going to be transferred from the Hermitage Museum in Saint Petersburg to Kiev . They are placed in a special preserve that is owned by the municipality rather than the church body .
= = = Historic pictures = = =
= = Featured landmarks = =
= = = St. Michael Golden @-@ Domed Cathedral = = =
The religious architecture of St. Michael 's Golden @-@ Domed Monastery incorporates elements that have evolved from styles prevalent during Byzantine and Baroque periods . The St. Michael 's Golden @-@ Domed Cathedral ( Ukrainian : Михайлівський Золотоверхий Cобор ) is the monastery 's main church , built in 1108 – 1113 at the behest of Sviatopolk II Iziaslavych . The cathedral was the largest of three churches of St. Demetrius Monastery .
The ancient cathedral was modeled on the Assumption Cathedral of the Kiev Monastery of the Caves . It used the Greek cross plan prevalent during the time of the Kievan Rus , six pillars , and three apses . A miniature church , likely a baptistery , adjoined the cathedral from the south . There was also a tower with a staircase leading to the choir loft ; it was incorporated into the northern part of the narthex rather than protruding from the main block as was common at the time . It is likely that the cathedral had a single dome , although two smaller domes might have topped the tower and baptistery . The interior decoration was lavish as its high @-@ quality shimmering mosaics , probably the finest in Kievan Rus , still testify .
When the medieval churches of Kiev were rebuilt in the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries in the Ukrainian Baroque style , the cathedral was enlarged and renovated dramatically . By 1746 , it had acquired a new baroque exterior , while maintaining its original Byzantine interior . Six domes were added to the original single dome , but the added pressure on the walls was counteracted by the construction of buttresses . The remaining medieval walls , characterised by alternative layers of limestone and flat brick , were covered with stucco . Ivan Hryhorovych @-@ Barskyi was responsible for window surrounds and stucco ornamentation .
Inside the church , an intricate five @-@ tier icon screen funded by Hetman Pavlo Skoropadsky and executed by Hryhoryi Petriv from Chernigov was installed in 1718 . During the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries , almost all of the original Byzantine mosaics and frescoes on the interior walls were painted over . Some restoration work on the mosaics and frescoes that remained unpainted was carried out towards the end of the nineteenth century . However , there were no major and serious investigations of the walls done , so it is possible that medieval frescoes or mosaics were preserved under the newer coats of plaster .
= = = Refectory of St. John the Divine = = =
The refectory of the monastery is a rectangular brick building which contains a dining hall for the brethren as well as several kitchens and pantries . The Church of John the Theologian adjoins it from the east . The outside is segmented by pilasters and displays window surrounds reminiscent of traditional Eastern Orthodox church architecture . The refectory was erected in 1713 , taking the place of the original wooden refectory . Its interior was overhauled in 1827 and 1837 and the restoration work was undertaken from 1976 to 1981 .
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= Mana Ashida =
Mana Ashida ( 芦田 愛菜 , Ashida Mana , born 23 June 2004 ) is a Japanese child actress , tarento and singer . Ashida 's first appearance was in Asahi Broadcasting Corporation 's ABC Short Movie 2 , though she rose to prominence after acting in the television drama Mother . She became the youngest lead star in Japanese drama history when she starred in Sayonara Bokutachi no Youchien . She was the youngest lead actress in a television serial drama by appearing in the serial drama Marumo no Okite in the spring of 2011 . She also appeared in Japanese films such as Confessions and Usagi Drop .
Ashida and her co @-@ actor Fuku Suzuki sang the 2011 hit song " Maru Maru Mori Mori " , the theme song for the television drama Marumo no Okite .
= = Career = =
= = = Early career = = =
Ashida made her debut appearance in Asahi Broadcasting Corporation 's ABC Short Movie 2 . Bokenmama in 2009 . Her first film was the live @-@ action film adaptation of the manga Hanbun no Tsuki ga Noboru Sora in 2010 . In the same year , she starred in the film Confessions , as Manami Moriguchi . She also appeared in the film Ghost : In Your Arms Again , a Japanese remake of the 1990 film Ghost . For her role in this film , she became one of the winners of the " Rookie of the Year " Award at the 34th Japan Academy Awards .
In addition to acting , Ashida did voice @-@ over roles for foreign films released in Japan . She voiced Agnes in the Japanese version of the film Despicable Me , and she was the voice of the young Fang Deng in the Japanese release of Aftershock .
= = = Late 2010 – early 2011 : Rise to popularity = = =
Ashida rose to prominence after appearing in the award @-@ winning television drama Mother , as Reina Michiki , a young child abused by her mother . She won awards such as the Best Supporting Actress at the 14th Nikkan Sports Drama Grand Prix and the Special Award at the 4th Tokyo Drama Awards for her role . At the age of 6 , Ashida became the youngest lead actress in a Japanese television drama in the special television drama @-@ cum @-@ movie Sayonara Bokutachi no Youchien in 2011 . In the spring drama season , she became the youngest actress in a drama series when she starred in the television drama Marumo no Okite . She co @-@ starred in this series with the then @-@ 6 years old actor Fuku Suzuki . The series received a viewership rating of 23 @.@ 9 % for its last episode , and an average rating of 15 @.@ 48 % for its entire run .
She made her singing debut with Suzuki . They sang Marumo no Okite 's theme song , " Maru – Maru – Mori @-@ Mori ! ( マル ・ マル ・ モリ ・ モリ ! ) " , under the temporary group name of Kaoru to Tomoki , Tamani Mook ( 薫と友樹 、 たまにムック , Kaoru to Tomoki , tama ni mukku ) . This song , recorded into a single , was released on 25 May 2011 by Universal Music and debuted third on the Oricon charts , which made the duo the youngest group in history to achieve a top @-@ 10 position on the Oricon charts . The previous record was set by the group Kigurumi ( キグルミ ) in 2006 . They also participated in the summer edition of the FNS Music Festival , which was broadcast on 6 August 2011 on the Fuji Television network . On 14 August 2011 , Ashida appeared in the NHK music television program Music Japan with Suzuki , actress Nozomi Ohashi and actor Seishiro Kato . It was the first time all three appeared in the same show , in its segment entitled " MJ Summer Holidays : Children 's Special " .
In early 2011 , Ashida appeared in several Japanese films , including Inu to Anata no Monogatari , and Hankyū Densha .
= = = Late 2011 : Solo music and variety host debut = = =
Ashida co @-@ starred with actor Kenichi Matsuyama in the manga adaptation Usagi Drop . She played the main character Rin , and was widely praised for her performance . The film 's director , Sabu , praised her , saying that her laughter " was always echoing throughout the set , creating a peaceful atmosphere inside the set " . The Japan Times reviewer Mark Schilling said that she " seamlessly accomplishes her evolution from forlorn waif to perky if unusually perceptive kid , while effortlessly charming everyone . " . Mana Ashida won the " Best Newcomer " award at the 54th Blue Ribbon Awards . She was the youngest person to receive this award , beating the 1983 record set by actress Tomoyo Harada .
In October 2011 , Ashida began co @-@ hosting the NTV variety and talk show Meringue no Kimochi with the show 's long @-@ time hosts , Masami Hisamoto and Asako Ito . This made her the youngest regular host of a talk or variety show .
On 15 September 2011 , it was announced that Ashida would make her solo music debut with Universal Music . She released her first single with them in October 2011 , and her debut album in late 2011 . The album contained songs that " Mama ( Mana 's mother ) wants Mana @-@ chan to sing " . Her official profile on Universal Music 's website was unveiled during the announcement . The single , a lively dance piece with a cheerful rhythm and similar to Maru – Maru – Mori @-@ Mori ! , was entitled " Sutekina Nichiyōbi : Gyu Gyu Good Day ! " ( ステキな日曜日 ～ Gyu Gyu グッデイ ！ ～ ) . The single was released in Japan on 26 October 2011 , and was used in a commercial for Seven & I Holdings Co . It debuted at the 4th position on the Oricon weekly charts . This made Mana Ashida the youngest solo artist to rank in the Oricon weekly TOP10 charts at 7 years and 4 months old , breaking the previous record of 13 years old set by Kumiko Goto in 1987 .
Ashida 's debut album , entitled Happy Smile ! , was released in Japan on 23 November 2011 . It debuted at the 8th position on the Oricon weekly charts , making Mana Ashida the youngest artist , at 7 years 5 months old , to have an album in the top 10 position . She beat the previous record of 13 years and 8 months set in 1974 by Canadian singer Rene Simard .
Ashida and Suzuki became the youngest participants on the annual Kōhaku Uta Gassen singing competition by participating in its 62nd edition .
= = = 2012 – present = = =
Ashida voiced the female lead character of Annie in the Japanese anime film adaptation of the Magic Tree House series in the first role in a 2012 film . She performed the theme song of the anime series Jewelpet Kira ☆ Deco ! . The song , entitled " Zutto Zutto Tomodachi " , was also used in the 2012 anime film Jewelpet the Movie : Sweets Dance Princess . Ashida also appeared in the film , as Princess Mana . The song was released as a single on 16 May 2012 , and reached number 17 on the Oricon Weekly Singles Charts .
Ashida starred as Miu Kinoshita , the daughter of a single father who suffered from juvenile Alzheimer 's disease , in Fuji Television 's summer drama series Beautiful Rain . She also sang its theme song , entitled " Ame ni Negai o " . Written by singer Yumi Matsutoya , Ame ni Negai o was the first drama theme song Mana performed solo . The single was released in Japan on 1 August 2012 .
On 27 December 2012 , she held her first solo concert at the Curian Shinagawa General Citizen Hall in Tokyo . Ashida made her Hollywood debut playing the role of young Mako Mori in the 2013 film Pacific Rim . She auditioned for the role in October 2011 , when she reportedly impressed the judges with her rich expressiveness .
In 2014 , Ashida starred in the television series Ashita , Mama ga Inai as Post , a child abandoned at birth at a baby hatch . Her performance in this television series was highly regarded , with 50 @.@ 8 ％ of viewers expressing high satisfaction with her performance in a survey carried out by Oricon . In 2015 , she starred in Rugged ! as a 10 @-@ year @-@ old company president in her first lead role in a NHK television drama .
= = Personal life = =
Ashida was born on 23 June 2004 in Nishinomiya , Hyogo Prefecture . She is commonly nicknamed Mana @-@ chan , which is a combination of her given name and the Japanese honorific used when addressing children ( -chan ) . Ashida revealed that she is a fan of K @-@ pop group Kara . She has said that she was " hooked on cycling a unicycle " , and she reads over 60 books per month .
= = Filmography = =
= = = Films = = =
Hanbun no Tsuki ga Noboru Sora ( 2010 ) as Mirai Natsume
Confessions ( 2010 ) as Manami Moriguchi
Ghost : In Your Arms Again ( 2010 ) as the child ghost
Despicable Me ( 2010 ) as the voice of Agnes in the Japanese version of the film
Inu to Anata no Monogatari ( 2011 ) as Mana
Hankyū Densha ( 2011 ) as Ami Hagiwara
Aftershock ( 2010 ) as the Japanese voice of young Fang Deng in the film 's Japan release .
Usagi Drop ( 2011 ) as Rin Kaga
Magic Tree House ( 2012 ) as the voice of Annie .
Liar Game : Saisei ( 2012 ) as cool Alice
Jewelpet the Movie : Sweets Dance Princess ( 2012 ) as Princess Mana
Nobo no Shiro ( 2012 ) as Chidori
Pacific Rim ( 2013 ) as Mako Mori in her childhood
Despicable Me 2 ( 2013 ) as the voice of Agnes in the Japanese version of the film
Kujikenaide ( 2013 ) as Toyo Shibata in her childhood
Entaku ( 2014 ) as Kotoko Uzuhara
The Peanuts Movie ( 2015 ) as the voice of the Little Red @-@ Haired Girl in the Japanese version of the film .
= = = Television dramas = = =
ABC Short Movie 2 : Daibokenmama ( 2009 , ABC )
Ketto ! Rojinto ( 2009 , WOWOW )
Tokujo Kabachi ! ! ( 2010 , TBS , episode 3 )
Mother ( 14 April – 23 June 2010 , NTV ) – Reina Michiki ( Tsugumi )
Toilet no Kamisama ( 5 January 2011 , MBS , based on Kana Uemura 's song " Toilet no Kamisama " ) – Kana Uemura ( childhood )
Gō ( 2011 , NHK ) – Chacha ( Childhood ) , Sen
Sayonara Bokutachi no Youchien ( 30 March 2011 , NTV ) – Kanna Yamazaki
Marumo no Okite ( 24 April – 3 July 2011 , CX ) – Kaoru Sasakura
Hanazakari no Kimitachi e ( 10 July 2011 , CX , episode 1 ) – Kaoru Sasakura ( guest )
Kono Sekai no Katasumi ni ( 5 August 2011 , NTV ) – Chizuru Hojo
Honto ni Atta Kowai Hanashi ( 2011 Summer Season Special ) ( 3 September 2011 , CX )
Marumo no Okite Special ( 9 October 2011 , CX ) – Kaoru Sasakura
Nankyoku Tairiku ( 16 October – 18 December 2011 , TBS ) – Haruka Furudate .
Alice in Liar Game ( 5 – 8 March 2012 , CX , Spinoff of Liar Game : Saisei film ) – Alice .
Beautiful Rain ( 1 July 2012 , CX ) – Miu Kinoshita
Ashita , Mama ga Inai ( 15 January 2014 - 12 March 2014 , NTV ) – Post
Gin Nikan ( 10 April 2014 - 5 June 2014 , NHK ) - Otetsu Maho ( childhood )
Hana @-@ chan no Miso Soup ( 30 August 2014 , NTV ) - Hana Yasutake
Rugged ! ( 21 February 2015 - 28 February 2015 , NHK ) - Noa Fukami
Our House ( 17 April 2016- , CX ) - Sakurako Ban
= = = Variety = = =
Meringue ( 1 October 2011 – 31 March 2012 , NTV ) – co @-@ host with Hisamoto Masami and Ito Asako
Music Japan ( 14 August 2011 , NHK )
62nd Kōhaku Uta Gassen ( 31 December 2011 , NHK )
= = = Video games = = =
Ni no Kuni : Shiroki Seihai no Joō ( 2011 ) as voice of the Mysterious Girl ( Kokoru ) .
= = Discography = =
= = = Singles = = =
= = = Albums = = =
Happy Smile ! ( Universal Music , 23 November 2011 )
= = Awards = =
= = = 2010 = = =
34th Japan Academy Awards : Rookie Of The Year for Ghost : In Your Arms Again
4th Tokyo Drama Awards : Special Award for Mother
65th The Television Drama Academy Awards : Best Newcomer for Mother
14th Nikkan Sports Drama Grand Prix : Best Supporting Actress for Mother
= = = 2011 = = =
2011 Tokyo Drama Awards : Best Performance by an Actress for Marumo no Okite and Sayonara Bokutachi no Youchien
53rd Japan Record Award : Special Award for Maru Maru Mori Mori !
54th Blue Ribbon Awards : Best Newcomer for Hankyū Densha and Usagi Drop
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= John McFall ( athlete ) =
John McFall ( born 25 April 1981 ) is a Cardiff @-@ based British Paralympic sprinter . In 2000 , when he was 19 years old , his right leg was amputated above the knee following a serious motorcycle accident . He took up running again after being fitted with a prosthesis , and participated in his first race in 2004 . The following year , he was selected to represent Great Britain at the International Paralympic Committee ( IPC ) European Championships , and took the bronze medal in the 200 metres ( sport class T42 ) .
In the 100 @-@ metre sprint , McFall subsequently won silver medals at the International Paralympic Committee ( IPC ) World Championships in 2006 and the Visa Paralympic World Cup in 2007 . On 6 July 2007 , he was placed third at the Meeting Gaz de France in Paris , part of the ÅF Golden League ; and achieved his personal best time ( as at 30 May 2008 ) in the 100 metres of 12 @.@ 70 seconds by winning silver at the Bayer International Track and Field Competition in Leverkusen on 10 August of that year . In his other main event , the 200 metres , he achieved a bronze in the 2006 IPC World Championships , and a gold at the 2007 Visa Paralympic World Cup with a competition record time of 26 @.@ 84 seconds . In September 2007 , McFall was champion in both the 100 metres and 200 metres at the International Wheelchair and Amputee Sports Federation ( IWAS ) World Wheelchair and Amputee Games . He was ranked first in the world in 2007 for the 200 metres , and second for the 100 metres .
McFall , who has been called one of the fastest men in the world over 100 metres and 200 metres in the class of above @-@ the @-@ knee amputees , competed for Great Britain in the 100 metres ( T42 ) at the 2008 Summer Paralympics in Beijing , winning the bronze in a time of 13 @.@ 08 seconds .
= = Early years and education = =
John McFall was born on 25 April 1981 in Frimley , Surrey , in England . Between 1994 and 1997 he attended school at Millfield in Street , Somerset , where as a teenager he was a runner and hockey player . In August 2000 while on a gap @-@ year trip to Ko Samui , Thailand , after his A @-@ levels , he was involved in a serious motorcycle accident . While riding a moped , he went round a corner too quickly and skidded . He put out his leg to stop the motorcycle from falling over , and smashed his knee . The motorcycle then fell on him , resulting in the chain severing major blood vessels in his leg . He was flown to a hospital in Bangkok , but as he had damaged his lower right leg too severely , it had to be amputated above the knee after three days . Upon returning to the UK , he spent about seven weeks undergoing rehabilitation at Queen Mary 's Hospital in Roehampton , London .
McFall spent the next year at home , during which he took up mountain biking and climbing and worked as a fitness instructor at his local leisure centre . He also started running in the summer of 2003 as soon as he had his prosthesis fitted : " I love that sound of air rushing past your ears and the freedom of it . I missed that and I wanted to get that back . " After taking up his place at Swansea University to pursue a Bachelor of Science ( B.Sc. ) in sport and exercise science , he practised on the university 's running track and also trained with a local running club , the Swansea Harriers Athletic Club . However , he found running difficult and uncomfortable as his prosthesis was not designed for the purpose , and frequently got damaged . Upon making inquiries at the Federation of Disability Sport Wales ( FDSW ) , he was introduced to carbon @-@ fibre running " blades " . He graduated from university with an upper second @-@ class honours degree in summer 2004 , taking part in his first race at the Disability Sports Events ( DSE ) Championships in the UK the same year .
In September 2004 McFall embarked on postgraduate studies in sport and exercise science at the University of Wales Institute , Cardiff ( UWIC ) , subsequently graduating with a Master of Science ( M.Sc. ) . He took pre @-@ medical examinations in 2008 , and plans to retire from athletics after his 2009 season to train as a doctor .
= = Athletics career = =
With his sprinting prosthesis , McFall began training with an ex @-@ Paralympian . In early 2005 former Welsh international athlete Darrell Maynard took over as his coach and he began training with an able @-@ bodied squad . He was selected to represent Great Britain at the International Paralympic Committee ( IPC ) European Championships which took place in August 2005 in Espoo , Finland , a decision that greatly surprised him as he had not achieved the qualifying standard in races that summer . In the Championships , his first international competition , he took the bronze medal in the 200 metres and came fourth in the 100 @-@ metre race , having competed in sport class T42 ( single amputation above the knee ) . McFall was subsequently placed on a funding programme , enabling him to become a full @-@ time athlete .
At the end of January 2006 , two weeks before the Sparkassen Cup in Stuttgart , Germany , McFall 's car was stolen from the car park of the Welsh Institute of Sport where he worked part @-@ time and trained . His customized running prosthesis worth £ 3 @,@ 000 was in the boot . Following his appeal for the return of the prosthesis , he received a telephone call from two youths who said they " might be able to recover the lost leg " but asked " What is it worth ? " Infuriated , McFall refused to pay anything and asked the youths whether they had considered what being an amputee was like . After McFall agreed to take no further action against them , the youths anonymously returned the prosthesis to the Institute a week later . McFall went on to achieve a personal best of 8 @.@ 55 seconds in the 60 metres race , and 28 @.@ 21 seconds in the 200 metres on 4 February .
His next major races were in September 2006 at the International Paralympic Committee ( IPC ) World Championships , where he was awarded a silver medal in the 100 metres and a bronze in the 200 metres . The following year , on 13 May 2007 , McFall struck gold and achieved a competition record time of 26 @.@ 84 seconds in the 200 metres in his début at the Visa Paralympic World Cup in Manchester , England ; he also garnered a silver in the 100 metres . Subsequently , on 6 July 2007 , he was placed third at the Meeting Gaz de France in Paris , part of the ÅF Golden League .
McFall achieved his personal best time ( as at 30 May 2008 ) in the 100 metres of 12 @.@ 70 seconds by winning silver at the Bayer International Track and Field Competition in Leverkusen , Germany , on 10 August 2007 . Later that year he was champion in both the 100 metres and 200 metres at the International Wheelchair and Amputee Sports Federation ( IWAS ) World Wheelchair and Amputee Games in Chinese Taipei held from 9 to 19 September 2007 . In 2007 , he was ranked first in the world for the 200 metres , and second for the 100 metres .
McFall , who has been called " one of the fastest men in the world over 100m and 200m in the class of above @-@ the @-@ knee amputees " , made his Paralympic début for Great Britain in the 100 metres ( T42 ) at the 2008 Summer Paralympics in Beijing . After a false start , he took the bronze medal in 13 @.@ 08 seconds behind Canada 's Earle Connor ( 12 @.@ 32 seconds ) and Germany 's Heinrich Popow ( 12 @.@ 98 seconds ) . Despite McFall 's plans to retire from athletics after his 2009 season to study medicine , he has not ruled out competing at the 2012 Summer Paralympics in London . He has said , " It would be nice to do 2012 . I 'm interested in cycling and rowing , and I won 't qualify as a doctor till 2013 , so it wouldn 't be impossible . We 'll see . It 's that constant striving for excellence , the hunger to do more . "
Although McFall was born in England , he lives in Cardiff and competes professionally for Wales . He has said , " Wales has been very good to me and I want to put something back . So I 'm very proud to run for Wales . " According to him , his motorcycle accident " has been , in some ways , the best thing that ever happened to me . It 's given me a focus , a drive , every day is a new challenge . ... I always had a list of goals and aspirations which didn 't change after my accident – they just changed direction . Losing my leg has changed my life , but it hasn 't changed who I am . "
= = Medals = =
= = Personal life = =
Following the 2008 Paralympic Games , McFall returned to the UK from Beijing overland via the Trans @-@ Siberian Railway . He travelled from China to Mongolia and Russia , across Russia to the Ukraine , then to Hungary , Croatia and the Dalmatian coast . From there he took a ferry to Italy to meet his girlfriend in Rome . They then travelled by train across Italy and Austria , eventually returning to the UK around the middle of November 2008 . McFall hopes one day to take up his childhood plans of studying medicine , running across the Sahara Desert , crossing the Atlantic Ocean by rowboat , and obtaining a free @-@ fall parachute licence .
In his free time , McFall enjoys playing the guitar .
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= HMS Prince of Wales ( 1902 ) =
HMS Prince of Wales was a Formidable @-@ class pre @-@ dreadnought battleship built for the Royal Navy in the first decade of the 20th century . She was one of two ships of the London- or Queen sub @-@ class . Shortly after completion the ship was assigned to the Mediterranean Fleet and then to the Atlantic in 1909 and Home Fleets three year later . Prince of Wales often served as a flagship during her career .
The ship was assigned to the Channel Fleet after the beginning of the First World War in August 1914 and ferried Royal Marines to Belgium that same month . In early 1915 , she was ordered to the Mediterranean to support Allied forces in the Dardanelles Campaign , but Prince of Wales only remained there briefly before she ordered to the Adriatic reinforce Italian forces there in case of an attack by the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy . The ship was ordered home in early 1917 and reduced to reserve upon her arrival . Prince of Wales served as an accommodation ship until she was listed for sale in late 1919 . The ship was sold for scrap in mid @-@ 1920 and broken up thereafter .
= = Design and description = =
The Director of Naval Construction , Sir William White , proposed a further pair of Formidables to round out a tactical squadron of eight ships for the 1900 Naval Programme . After some hesitation , the Admiralty agreed , despite the on @-@ going construction of the smaller and faster Duncan class . A controversy engendered by Rear @-@ Admiral Lord Charles Beresford , second @-@ in @-@ command of the Mediterranean Fleet , about the retention of obsolete ironclads in the fleet in mid @-@ 1900 was largely responsible for the decision . The two ships were virtually identical to the preceding London sub @-@ class of the Formidables and are generally considered part of the Formidable or London class , but the difference in the distribution of their 12 @-@ pounder ( 3 inches ( 76 mm ) ) guns , their lower displacement , and their later construction than the Duncans lead some authors to view them as constituting a Queen class separate from the Formidable and London classes .
Prince of Wales had an overall length of 431 feet 9 inches ( 131 @.@ 6 m ) , a beam of 75 feet ( 22 @.@ 9 m ) , and a mean draught of 27 feet 3 inches ( 8 @.@ 3 m ) at deep load . She displaced 14 @,@ 140 long tons ( 14 @,@ 370 t ) at normal load and 15 @,@ 380 long tons ( 15 @,@ 630 t ) at deep load , some 550 long tons ( 559 t ) lighter than the last of the Londons , HMS Venerable . At deep load the ship had a metacentric height of 4 @.@ 27 feet ( 1 @.@ 30 m ) . Prince of Wales had a complement of 747 officers and ratings when she was completed in 1904 .
The ship was powered by two 3 @-@ cylinder vertical triple @-@ expansion steam engines , each driving one propeller , which produced a total of 15 @,@ 000 indicated horsepower ( 11 @,@ 000 kW ) , using steam provided by 20 Belleville boilers with economizers . The boilers had a working pressure of 300 psi ( 2 @,@ 068 kPa ; 21 kgf / cm2 ) . She was the last British battleship built with Belleville boilers as they had proven problematic and uneconomical in earlier ships . The Formidables were designed to reach a speed of 18 knots ( 33 km / h ; 21 mph ) and Prince of Wales slightly exceeded this on her sea trials on 8 February 1908 , reaching 18 @.@ 57 knots ( 34 @.@ 39 km / h ; 21 @.@ 37 mph ) . She carried a maximum of 1 @,@ 950 long tons ( 1 @,@ 981 t ) of coal , enough to steam 5 @,@ 400 nautical miles ( 10 @,@ 000 km ; 6 @,@ 200 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .
= = = Armament and armour = = =
The Formidable @-@ class ships ' main armament consisted of four breech @-@ loading ( BL ) BL 12 @-@ inch ( 305 mm ) Mk IX guns mounted in two twin @-@ gun turrets , one each fore and aft of the superstructure . Each gun was provided with 80 rounds . The guns had a maximum range of 15 @,@ 150 yards ( 13 @,@ 850 m ) with their 850 @-@ pound ( 390 kg ) shells . Their secondary armament consisted of a dozen BL 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) Mk VII guns on single mounts positioned in casemates amidships , six on each broadside . Eight of these were mounted on the main deck and the remainder on the upper deck ; the main @-@ deck guns were difficult to work in heavy weather . 200 rounds per gun were carried by the ship . They had a maximum range of approximately 12 @,@ 200 yards ( 11 @,@ 200 m ) with their 100 @-@ pound ( 45 kg ) shells . Fourteen quick @-@ firing ( QF ) 12 @-@ pounder ( 3 @-@ inch ( 76 mm ) ) 12 @-@ cwt guns were fitted for defence against torpedo boats . Four of these were on the main deck , one pair at each end of the ship and the remaining ten on the upper deck . Prince of Wales also carried four 3 @-@ pounder ( 1 @.@ 9 in ( 47 mm ) ) Hotchkiss guns , two in each fighting top and one on each turret roof . The ship was fitted with four submerged 18 @-@ inch ( 450 mm ) torpedo tubes , two on each broadside abreast the barbettes .
The Formidables ' armour scheme was similar to that of the Canopuses , although , unlike in the earlier ships , the waterline armour belt of Krupp cemented armour extended the length of the ship . The 9 @-@ inch ( 229 mm ) thick portion was 238 feet ( 72 @.@ 5 m ) long and ran from just aft of the forward barbette to a point abreast the aft barbette , and had a total height of 15 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) of which 10 feet 6 inches ( 3 @.@ 2 m ) was above water and the remainder below water at normal load . The thickness of the forward belt armour reduced in 7 – 5 – 3 @-@ inch ( 178 – 127 – 76 mm ) steps to the 2 @-@ inch ( 51 mm ) stem and there was a 1 @-@ inch ( 25 mm ) belt running from the aft barbette to the stern . A 9 – 10 @-@ inch ( 229 – 254 mm ) bulkhead extended obliquely from the aft end of the main belt to the rear face of the aft barbette .
The gun turrets were protected by Krupp armour , 8 inches ( 203 mm ) on their faces and 10 inches on their backs , with roofs 2 to 3 inches thick . The Krupp armour of the barbettes was 12 inches thick above the main deck , but 10 inches on the face and sides and 6 inches on the rear below it . The casemates were protected by 6 inches of Krupp armour . The thicknesses of the mild steel decks ranged from 1 to 2 @.@ 5 inches ( 25 to 64 mm ) . The walls of the forward conning tower were 10 inches of Harvey armour with a 4 @-@ inch ( 102 mm ) roof and the aft conning tower had three inches of nickel steel .
= = Construction and career = =
Prince of Wales , named after the title conferred upon the eldest son of the monarch , was the fifth ship of her name to serve in the Royal Navy . The ship was laid down at Chatham Dockyard on 20 March 1901 , the first keel plate laid by Lady Wharton , wife of Rear @-@ Admiral Sir William Wharton , Hydrographer to the Admiralty . She was launched by the Princess of Wales ( later Queen Mary ) on 25 March 1902 , in the presence of the Prince of Wales ( later King George V ) , for whom the ship was named . Upon completion in March 1904 , HMS Prince of Wales immediately went into reserve at Chatham Dockyard . The ship commissioned there on 18 May for service with the Mediterranean Fleet . While in the Mediterranean , she collided with the merchant steamer SS Enidwen off Oran , French North Africa , on 29 July 1905 , Enidwen 's anchor being pushed through her main deck plating . On 16 April 1906 , Prince of Wales had an engine @-@ room explosion during which three men were killed and four injured . On 28 May , she ended her first Mediterranean tour by paying off for a refit at Portsmouth Dockyard that lasted from June to November . On 8 September , the ship again commissioned for Mediterranean Fleet service . She became the flagship of the second @-@ in @-@ command of the fleet in August 1907 , and underwent another refit at Malta in 1908 .
Prince of Wales transferred to the Atlantic Fleet as flagship of the fleet 's commander in February 1909 and was damaged by an explosion in one of her stokeholds on 2 July . In December 1910 , Rear @-@ Admiral John Jellicoe , later commander of the Grand Fleet and First Sea Lord , hoisted his flag in Prince of Wales . The ship underwent a refit at Gibraltar in February – May 1911 before she was transferred to the Home Fleets on 13 May 1912 . Initially Prince of Wales became flagship of the 3rd Battle Squadron of the First Fleet , but then reverted to a private ship in the squadron on 13 May . The ship later became the flagship of the second @-@ in @-@ command of the Second Fleet , at Portsmouth. and part of the 5th Battle Squadron . By 18 February 1913 , she was serving as the flagship for the second @-@ in @-@ command of the 5th Battle Squadron . On 2 June 1913 , she was accidentally rammed by the submarine HMS C32 while participating in exercises , but suffered no damage . By 18 May 1914 , Prince of Wales had relieved her sister ship , Queen , as flagship of the 5th Battle Squadron .
= = = World War I = = =
When World War I broke out in August 1914 , the squadron was assigned to the newly reconstituted Channel Fleet on 7 November and based at Portland , from which it patrolled the English Channel . Prince of Wales was now the flagship of Rear @-@ Admiral Bernard Currey and the first task of the squadron was to protect the transfer of the British Expeditionary Force over the English Channel to France . They patrolled the eastern end of the Channel while the 7th and 8th Battle Squadrons covered the cruiser squadron at the western entrance . The Germans made no significant effort to interfere with the traffic in the Channel and the 5th BS was allowed to return to Portland after the bulk of the BEF was across on 23 August . Several days later , the squadron ferried the Portsmouth Marine Battalion to Ostend , Belgium . On 14 November , the squadron transferred to Sheerness to guard against a possible German invasion of the United Kingdom , but it transferred back to Portland on 30 December 1914 .
On 19 March 1915 , Prince of Wales was ordered to the Dardanelles to participate in the Dardanelles Campaign . She departed Portland on 20 March 1915 and was assigned to the British 5th Squadron of the Allied Fleet off the Dardanelles , where she arrived on 29 March . Prince of Wales supported the landings of the 3rd Brigade , Australian Army , at Gaba Tepe and Anzac Cove on 25 April . Her time at the Dardanelles was destined to be short as the Anglo @-@ French @-@ Italian Naval Convention of 10 May required that the British furnish a squadron of four battleships to reinforce the Italian Navy against the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy after Italy declared war on Austria @-@ Hungary . Admiral Paolo Thaon di Revel , the Italian naval chief of staff , believed that the threat from Austro @-@ Hungarian submarines and naval mines in the narrow waters of the Adriatic was too serious for him to use the fleet in an active way . He therefore kept his most modern battleships , plus the British ones , at Taranto to blockade the Austro @-@ Hungarians in the Adriatic Sea .
On 22 May , Prince of Wales , along with the battleships Implacable , London , and Queen , was transferred to the Adriatic to form the 2nd Detached Squadron and Prince of Wales arrived at her new base on 27 May . The ship became the flagship of the squadron in March 1916 . She ended her flagship duties in June 1916 , when she went to Gibraltar for a refit and then returned to the Adriatic .
In February 1917 , Prince of Wales was ordered to return to the United Kingdom . On her voyage home , she called at Gibraltar from 28 February 1917 to 10 March 1917 and arrived at Devonport Dockyard later in March . She was placed in reserve on arrival and used as an accommodation ship . Prince of Wales was placed on the disposal list on 10 November 1919 , and was sold for scrap to T. W. Ward and Company on 12 April 1920 . The ship arrived at Milford Haven , Wales , to be broken up in June 1920 .
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= The Day We Died =
" The Day We Died " is the third season finale of the Fox science fiction drama television series Fringe . It is the season 's 22nd episode and the series ' 65th episode overall . The finale follows the aftermath of Peter Bishop entering and activating the doomsday device , events which took place in the previous episode . He finds himself 15 years in the future ; though the device has destroyed the parallel universe , his universe is nevertheless gradually disintegrating . Peter comes to realize the background of the doomsday device and wakes up in 2011 . After getting the two universes to agree to work together , he inexplicably disappears .
The episode 's teleplay was co @-@ written by Jeff Pinkner and J.H. Wyman , while Pinkner and Wyman co @-@ wrote the story with consulting producer Akiva Goldsman . Executive producer Joe Chappelle served as director . The writers wrote the script without knowing if the series was going to be renewed for a fourth season ; Fox 's renewal announcement came in late March , but no changes were made to the storyline . They designed the episode as a set @-@ up for the following season , equating it to a book chapter that " propels " the reader forward . Unlike previous season finales , " The Day We Died " was one hour long and was linked to the previous two episodes in one continuous story arc . " The Day We Died " featured one @-@ time guest actors Brad Dourif and Emily Meade .
" The Day We Died " aired on May 6 , 2011 in the United States to an estimated 3 @.@ 0 million viewers , though this number almost doubled once time @-@ shifted views were taken into account . While its 1 @.@ 4 ratings share among adults 18 to 49 was an eight percent decrease from the previous episode , it helped Fox tie for first place that night . Reviews of the episode have been generally positive , with many critics writing that Peter 's disappearance was a good direction for the series . Multiple reviewers ranked it as one of the best episodes of the television season , including The Futon Critic and TV.com. The cast were also receptive to the episode , and actor John Noble submitted his performance for consideration at the 63rd Primetime Emmy Awards .
= = Plot = =
From the previous episode , Peter ( Joshua Jackson ) has stepped into the doomsday device to attempt to stop it after Walternate ( John Noble ) had activated the version in the parallel universe . He regains consciousness in the future , after a singularity appears near the One World Trade Center .
In 2026 , the prime universe is suffering from the same singularities that have already destroyed the parallel universe , as a result of the two universes being inextricably linked together . Though the Fringe Division that developed in this universe has been able to use amber to contain these vortices , a group called the " End of Dayers " , led by a man named Moreau ( Brad Dourif ) , attempts to breach the fabric of reality at soft spots and create more vortices . After one such incident at a theater , Peter and Olivia ( Anna Torv ) , now married , along with Astrid ( Jasika Nicole ) and Ella ( Emily Meade ) , Olivia 's niece and now a rookie Fringe agent , find an unactivated container that they believe the End of Dayers used to trigger the breach . Fringe is unable to determine how the container works , and Peter convinces Broyles ( Lance Reddick ) , now a senator , to allow him to release his father Walter ( Noble ) , currently in maximum security prison as punishment for activating the doomsday device , to help identify its workings .
After tearfully reuniting with his son and new daughter @-@ in @-@ law , Walter discovers the device uses a unique radioactive signature that they can track . The strongest source points to a used campground , where Peter discovers a key . He recognizes the key as from Walter 's old home near Reiden Lake and travels there alone , and finds his biological father , Walternate , present . Walternate admits to being behind the End of Dayers group , as his revenge for Peter activating the doomsday device and destroying the parallel world that was his home . Walternate promises that Peter will face the same pain and suffering he has faced since crossing to the prime universe on a mission of mercy , one piece at a time . Peter realizes that Walternate is implying a threat to Olivia , and finds that Walternate was speaking to him remotely through a holographic simulation . In Central Park , where Moreau has set off another breach to expose an existing wormhole , Olivia is helping to cordon off the breach when Walternate approaches and shoots her . Peter and the rest of Fringe division struggle with her death at her funeral .
Walter continues to study the Central Park wormhole and discovers that it links to the past , approximately 250 million years ago . He comes to realize a temporal paradox ( a Bootstrap paradox ) : he will have sent the doomsday device piece by piece into the past , effectively becoming the " First People " mythos , and convinces Peter that they can influence Peter in the past by having him experience the end of days himself and make a different decision when he enters the machine .
Peter suddenly wakes up to find himself in the machine in 2011 , only one minute since he entered it , and Olivia waiting by his side ; concurrently , in the parallel universe , Walternate attempts to convince Fauxlivia to help stop the machine . Peter recalls the memories from the future , and uses the machine to merge the machine rooms from both universes into one thus creating a bridge . While Olivia and Walter and their doppelgangers stare each other down , Peter convinces the two sides to work together to try to repair the damage to save both universes , then suddenly disappears . The Olivias and Walters cautiously agree that they need to put aside their differences to save both worlds , apparently unaware of Peter 's disappearance . Outside on Liberty Island in the prime universe , the Observers watch as September ( Michael Cerveris ) notes to December ( Eugene Lipinski ) that Peter has already been forgotten by his friends , his purpose having been served , and explains that Peter now never existed .
= = Production = =
= = = Casting = = =
Despite the show not yet being officially renewed for a fourth season , Fringe began casting in mid @-@ March for a " green FBI agent ... to come aboard for the finale and possibly recur next year " , as reported by E ! Online . TVLine 's Michael Ausiello announced later in the month that actress Emily Meade has been cast for the role , describing her character as " a wide @-@ eyed and eager rookie who ’ s ready to face all of the challenges in front of her " , and that she would make her first appearance in the finale . In the months leading up to the finale , Wyman responded to reports the character would be recurring by calling her casting more of a " safety net " ; much like Seth Gabel 's casting , he did not want to commit himself to her character yet , saying , " We always protect ourselves by saying that because you never know " . The actress was later revealed to be playing a grown up version of Olivia 's niece , Ella .
Another casting call for the finale was released , as the show began looking for a " well @-@ known male Japanese actor in his late 40s to late 50s who speaks English " to appear as a new character called " Moreau " . Despite the casting call 's description , they later cast American actor Brad Dourif for the part . On whether Dourif would be returning , executive producer J.H. Wyman commented in a May 2011 interview , " Brad is such a fantastic actor . We are keeping our options open " .
= = = Writing = = =
Co @-@ showrunners Jeff Pinkner and J.H. Wyman co @-@ wrote the episode 's teleplay , while Pinkner , Wyman , and consulting producer Akiva Goldsman co @-@ wrote the story . Executive producer Joe Chappelle served as director . A full season renewal of Fringe was announced on March 24 , 2011 . They had written the finale without knowing if there would be another season , but decided not to make any changes to the script even after hearing of its renewal . Pinkner explained that " we wrote the episode , perhaps foolishly , assuming that we would be on for Season 4 . We never for one second entertained that it would be the end of the series . So therefore , we didn 't have to change a word ! " In an interview with the New York Post , Pinkner warned that events in the finale will " unfurl in a very unexpected way for the characters and the audience " . He also commented that the finale " hopefully will make you sort of revisit and look at everything that 's happened all year through a fresh pair of glasses " .
Pinkner stated in another interview that it " will be as much as anything about setting up next season , " and Wyman agreed , writing " It ’ s like when you read a great novel and you finish a chapter , you ’ re like , ' Oh my gosh , something happened that ’ s going to propel me forward ! ' That ’ s something we desire to emulate . " In March 2011 , Pinkner confirmed with TVLine that unlike previous Fringe season finales , the third season 's finale would not be two hours long . He did however note that " the last three episodes will be linked in one continuous story arc . "
The cast was receptive to the finale storyline . In an interview with Entertainment Weekly , actor John Noble noted he liked how the story ultimately ended with having the two Walters " perhaps negotiate a truce and put their minds together " through a " very inventive intervention by Peter , who basically took control of destiny and forced his two fathers to look each other in the eye , as if telling them : Sort it out , gentlemen . ' " He later noted , " We finish [ the finale ] in a very dramatic place . " Joshua Jackson praised the role @-@ reversal of his character with Walter 's , " You had Peter wracked with guilt over the circumstances tied to the decision he made [ to activate The First People 's so @-@ called " doomsday " machine ] and clinging to hope that there might be some way out . I can ’ t have made a cosmically bad decision ! There must be some way to put this right ! Which is fascinating , because that ’ s basically been Walter for as long as we ’ ve known him . So I loved how Peter ceases to be so stubborn when it comes to Walter , comes to understand him and even begins to see things the way he does . "
The finale contained a new , grey credit sequence that was meant to reflect the new timeline . It contained new scientific words such as " Thought Extraction " and " Dual Maternity " , as well as " Water " and " Hope " . Wyman explained their reasoning for the change , " [ The credits ] weren ’ t so much pertinent to the finale but for the introduction of the future of the show . In the past , we used words in the credit sequence as signposts for the episode . But this is a new paradigm . "
After the finale aired , Pinkner stated in an interview that " one of the things we love to play with is the notion of choice versus fate / synchronicity . Clearly , what Peter did at the end of that episode is that he fundamentally changed the future . Our team is [ now ] on a separate path . It is unlikely that we ’ ll get to that specific outcome in 2026 . But are events like what happened in Detroit inevitable in any version of the future ? TBD . "
= = = Marketing = = =
Leading up to the episode 's broadcast , Fox released a promotional trailer that recapped relevant scenes and previewed events in the finale . Fox had previously produced similar trailers for " Entrada " , " Marionette " , and " Bloodline " , three episodes from earlier in the season . As with other Fringe episodes , Fox released a science lesson plan in collaboration with Science Olympiad for grade school children , focusing on the science seen in " The Day We Died " , with the intention of having " students learn about reverse engineering and disassembling devices . "
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
The finale first aired on the Fox network in the United States on May 6 , 2011 . It was watched by an estimated 3 @.@ 0 million viewers . It scored a 1 @.@ 2 / 4 ratings share among viewers 18 – 49 , an 8 percent decrease from the previous week 's episode . The finale and its lead @-@ in , Kitchen Nightmares , did however help Fox tie for first place in that demographic with ABC and CBS . The rating for this episode almost doubled when DVR time shifted viewing was taken into account . Because of its comparatively low live ratings , SFScope columnist Sarah Stegall speculated that only " the core of the core audience " watched the episode , as " no outsiders could have possibly fathomed what went on in that 45 minutes . "
= = = Reviews = = =
" The Day We Died " has generally received positive reviews from television critics . Sam McPherson from TV Overmind graded the finale with an A , writing " From a show known for its mindbending episodes came the most mindbending episode of all . ' The Day We Died ' ... not only reinvigorated the show 's fantastic ( but inevitably aging ) premise , but gave the show a breath of life that has me waiting -- no , begging -- for the show 's fourth season . " Though he wouldn 't call the finale the best Fringe episode yet , McPherson referred to the season as the best of the three and " probably the best season of television that 's aired in recent years " . Entertainment Weekly 's Ken Tucker lauded the finale , commenting in his review 's conclusion " Consider about the whole arc of this season and tell me this wasn ’ t one of the most moving , thrilling , funny , inspiring chunks of television you ’ ve watched . The performances by Noble , Torv , and Jackson were extraordinarily adroit , never showy or merely clever . I was so glad that , by season ’ s end , Jackson / Peter had once again taken center @-@ stage — a central importance — to a season that , by the nature of its design , needed to concentrate a lot on Walter ( s ) and Olivia ( s ) . "
IGN 's regular Fringe reviewer Ramsey Isler rated the episode 8 / 10 . He compared the plot to Lost , remarking " Apparently one thoroughly confusing and unnecessarily convoluted TV series wasn 't enough ... But hey , I understand why J.J. and his Fringe collaborators ... might have done this . They had kind of written themselves into a corner where one of the universes had to go , and they couldn 't stretch that storyline out forever . A restart like this is a good way to allow themselves room to write something new , even if it may require some clever thinking to explain themselves out of this situation adequately . " Isler had trouble rating the finale , noting that he had to see how the events are explained in the fourth season before he can make a complete judgment .
Noel Murray from The A.V. Club graded the finale with a B + ; he praised the writers " for once again introducing a new world that feels fully formed , with its own rich backstory that they could choose to explore if they have the time and the inclination . " Murray concluded his review , " It may be that Fringe has bitten off more than it can chew here , and the storytelling is about to get hopelessly convoluted , as it often does once time @-@ travel enters the picture . But for now , I ’ m going to enjoy living with and thinking over what I ’ ve seen so far . And I ’ m going to trust that no matter how crazy Fringe 's fourth season gets , the writers are going to keep bringing everything back to less mind @-@ bending questions " . Some reviewers questioned the logic of Peter having never existed , though others expressed their trust in the writers ' ability to make it work .
The Futon Critic and TV.com staff highlighted " The Day We Died " as one of the best television episodes of the 2010 – 11 United States network television schedule . Likewise , Give Me My Remote contributor Marisa Rothman ranked " The Day We Died " one of the best episodes of the year , explaining " Between Walter 's eventual reunion with his loved ones and Olivia 's tragic demise , few episodes were as heartbreaking as ' The Day We Died ' ... not to mention , no episode shocked me as much with a plot twist . ( I literally bolted up in my seat when Peter vanished into thin air after creating a bridge between the universes . ) " Entertainment Weekly included the episode 's ending in their list of television 's best cliffhangers of 2011 , and later named it the sixteenth best episode of the series . Time gave " The Day We Died " an honorable mention on their list of the best episodes of the season .
= = = Awards and nominations = = =
At the 63rd Primetime Emmy Awards , John Noble submitted " The Day We Died " , along with " Entrada " and " The Firefly " , for consideration in the Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series category , but did not receive a nomination . At the 2012 Golden Reel Awards , " The Day We Died " received nominations in the categories " Best Sound Editing : Short Form Sound Effects and Foley in Television " and " Best Sound Editing : Short Form Sound Effects and Foley in Television " from the Motion Picture Sound Editors . It lost in both categories , the former to the Raising Hope episode " Prodigy " , the latter to the pilot episode of the HBO television series Game of Thrones .
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= Did You Hear What Happened to Charlotte King ? =
" Did You Hear What Happened to Charlotte King ? " is the seventh episode of the fourth season of the American television medical drama , Private Practice , and the show 's 61st episode overall . Written by Shonda Rhimes and directed by Allison Liddi @-@ Brown , the episode was originally broadcast on ABC in the United States on November 4 , 2010 . Private Practice centers on a group of young doctors working in a private medical practice , and this episode deals with the immediate aftermath of Charlotte King 's ( KaDee Strickland ) rape .
The episode , written in collaboration with the Rape , Abuse & Incest National Network ( RAINN ) , revolved around Strickland 's character to accurately represent recovery from rape . Nicholas Brendon guest @-@ starred as Lee McHenry , and Blue Deckert also appeared as detective Joe Price . " Did You Hear What Happened to Charlotte King ? " earned the series , Rhimes and Strickland several awards and nominations and was well received by critics , with Strickland 's character and performance praised . The initial broadcast was viewed by 10 @.@ 18 million people , received a 3 @.@ 9 / 11 Nielsen rating / share in the 18 – 49 demographic , and had the fifth @-@ highest number of viewers that night .
= = Plot = =
The episode opens with St. Ambrose Hospital chief of staff Charlotte King ( KaDee Strickland ) hiding in a supply closet after being raped in her office . Alternative @-@ medicine specialist Dr. Pete Wilder ( Tim Daly ) finds and examines her , diagnosing a broken wrist , eye socket and nose and a deep arm laceration and admitting her to the hospital . King lies to Wilder , telling him that she was injured in a mugging . Wilder calls the police ; King attempts to contact her boyfriend , Dr. Cooper Freedman ( Paul Adelstein ) , but cannot reach him because he is out drinking with Dr. Amelia Shepherd ( Caterina Scorsone ) and Dr. Sam Bennett ( Taye Diggs ) . At the police station psychiatrist Sheldon Wallace ( Brian Benben ) interrogates Lee McHenry ( Nicholas Brendon ) , who was found with blood on his clothes . After nurses photograph King 's injuries , Dr. Addison Montgomery ( Kate Walsh ) realizes that King was raped and offers her a rape kit . During her pelvic examination , King refuses the rape kit and tells Montgomery not to tell anyone else about the rape . Freedman arrives with Shepherd and Bennett , and is surprised at the extent of King 's injuries . During the CT scan , King and Shepherd bond over their shared drug addiction when King refuses pain medication . Shepherd admits drinking alcohol again , and King offers to take her to Alcoholics Anonymous meetings . Shepherd sutures King 's wounds , which causes King great pain ; Freedman feels powerless , unable to protect her .
Interviewed by Wallace , McHenry admits being angry after discovering his girlfriend 's infidelity but denies that the blood on his clothing is hers . Montgomery tries to convince King to report her rape ; King refuses , telling Montgomery that she does not understand what it is like to be raped . Wilder uses alternative medicine to help King deal with her pain . Psychiatrist Violet Turner ( Amy Brenneman ) refuses to talk to King about the rape because of similarities to the fetal abduction she experienced a year earlier , and wonders if everyone in the practice is cursed . Bennett wants to go home and rest , which angers Montgomery . King attempts to compose a memorandum saying that she was attacked on the hospital grounds , but Freedman suggests that another member of the staff do it for her ; she shouts at Freedman when he calls her a victim . After the argument , Freedman goes to King 's office and weeps when he sees the aftermath of her assault . McHenry admits raping a woman , assaulting Wallace before he is pulled away by the police . In the ambulance bay , Bennett expresses his confusion about Montgomery 's mood swings and suspects that she is hiding something from him ; Montgomery asks him to promise never to leave her alone . After Freedman helps her dress , King says that she loves him and wants to go home . McHenry is held by the police for assaulting a police officer during his arrest and Wallace during his interrogation , but detective Joe Price says that McHenry cannot be charged with rape until charges are filed against him . The episode ends with King walking out of the hospital with Freedman 's help ; flashbacks of the rape reveal that McHenry was the rapist .
= = Production = =
The 43 @-@ minute episode was written by Shonda Rhimes and directed by Allison Liddi @-@ Brown . Christal A. Khatib edited the music , and Gregory Van Horn was its production designer . Johann Sebastian Bach 's Prelude and Fugue in C was played during the opening sequence . Rhimes wrote the episode in collaboration with the Rape , Abuse & Incest National Network ( RAINN ) to ensure that King 's recovery was presented as accurately as possible . She later called it one of her favorites from the series and said , " I feel like I changed as a writer writing that episode . "
Approached by Rhimes about the episode , Strickland agreed to the storyline on the conditions that " it not go away quickly " and would significantly impact the character . She liked the script , describing it as " humanizing the victims and just really creating a legitimate experience for the audience in a way that you may not see on network television " . In addition to communicating with RAINN representatives , the actress visited the Rape Treatment Center at UCLA Medical Center in Santa Monica and saw a young girl being admitted , which shaped her performance . Strickland also researched reactions to sexual assault by survivors , their friends and families . The decision to portray King 's resistance to reporting her rape was reached after consultation with the hospital . Strickland defended the choice , calling it a " very important part of Charlotte King 's story " and a " very realistic response " . Most of the episode focused on King 's psychological response to the rape . According to Strickland ,
" The nature of that kind of attack is so shocking to a person 's system a lot of times that how they respond in those first moments afterwards , it could go six ways to Sunday . For Charlotte , because of the type of person she is , very in control , very direct , very together , I think it really turns her world upside down , and I think she doesn ’ t really know how to even comprehend what has happened to her or how to process it . "
The actress described the filming of the rape as easier than the scenes depicting its aftermath , which she called " psychologically ... [ and ] ... physically hard " . Strickland and Brendon agreed on a safeword when they filmed the rape , due to its brutality . The scene affected Strickland to the extent that she " fe [ lt ] trigger [ ed ] " when she went to the set on which the rape was shot . The actress called the filming process " intense " and " truthful " , but " by no means is any of that even comparable to anything that women and men have had experience with " . Brendon was cast against type as McHenry , King 's rapist , since he is primarily known as the comedic Xander Harris in Buffy the Vampire Slayer . Strickland said that Brendon 's character was not " crazy " or " deranged " , because perpetrators of rape are " people who are around us all the time " ; she called Brendon 's acceptance of the role " brave " .
According to Strickland , every character in the episode was affected by King 's rape . She praised Adelstein 's performance , saying that he provided a " nuanced portrayal of the sexual assault victim 's partner " . Adelstein called his character " a conscious 21st @-@ century male " in his interactions with King . According to Strickland , Montgomery 's decision to use the rape kit on King without her knowledge would be a major storyline in the future and Turner would become " very adamant about getting help " for King after learning about the rape since the characters had had similar traumatic experiences . A behind @-@ the @-@ scenes feature about the episode and others involving King 's rape , " An Inside Look : The Violation of Charlotte King " , was included on the fourth @-@ season DVD and Blu @-@ ray releases .
= = Reception = =
= = = Broadcast = = =
" Did You Hear What Happened to Charlotte King ? " was originally broadcast on November 4 , 2010 in the United States on the ABC network . The episode was viewed by a total of 10 @.@ 18 million people , 44 percent more than the previous episode . Although it was the fifth @-@ highest @-@ rated show that night ( behind CBS 's The Big Bang Theory , $ h * ! My Dad Says , CSI and The Mentalist ) , its 3 @.@ 9 / 11 Nielsen rating topped the 10 : 00 Eastern time slot for the rating and share percentages of the 18 – 49 demographic . The episode was aired with a message encouraging viewer discretion , due to its violence .
= = = Critical response = = =
Critical response was largely positive , with a TV Guide writer ranking " Did You Hear What Happened to Charlotte King ? " one of 2010 's top 25 television episodes . According to the reviewer , when Freedman first saw King 's injuries " it was like we weren 't even watching TV anymore " . The review praised Strickland 's performance , predicting an Emmy nomination . A TVLine post listed Strickland as one of the Emmy Awards ' 21 biggest snubs , and called her performance a " tour de force " . TV Fanatic 's Steve Marsi liked the episode , saying that its pacing and Strickland 's performance immersed the audience despite the subject matter 's being " extremely difficult to digest " . E ! News ' Kristin dos Santos also praised Strickland 's portrayal of King , writing that she " definitely needs to be in the running " for an Emmy nomination , and Winston Mize of SpoilerTV wrote that Strickland was " robbed. of. all. the. awards " .
JeromeWetzelTV of Blogcritics called the episode " disturbing , intense , tragic , and moving " , with the rape handled delicately and responsibly . E ! ' s Jennifer Arrow described the rape scene as " the most realistic depiction of rape in media history " and " harrowing to watch " and noted Brendon 's casting as the " evil crazy guy " in contrast with his previous performance as Xander Harris , " the funny guy from Buffy the Vampire Slayer who mastered the Snoopy dance " . Alec Stern of The Michigan Daily cited the episode as an example of the show 's improved quality , and The Futon Critic 's Brian Ford Sullivan included it in his list of 50 best episodes of 2010 . SpoilerTV 's Winston Mize called the episode one of Rhimes ' best shows , praising it for avoiding a preachy or excessively @-@ dramatic take on rape .
Its depiction of King 's rape and its aftermath was compared to similar storylines on other shows . E 's Jennifer Arrow called it part of the " rape @-@ on @-@ TV trend " , linking King 's rape with those of Gemma Teller Morrow of FX 's crime drama Sons of Anarchy and Naomi Clark of the CW teen drama 90210 . According to Arrow , all three characters were " strong , no @-@ nonsense ladies who generally dominate their environments " and did not report their rape . She asked if each show 's decision for the victim not to report the rape was part of a larger cultural belief that " trusts in women who keep their silence " . TV Fanatic 's Steve Marsi called the episode reminiscent of Law & Order : Special Victims Unit in its presentation of events in real time and emphasis on character reactions . The Michigan Daily 's Alec Stern called sexual assault " a crutch Shonda Rhimes has turned to in all three of her series " , writing that the development of King 's character was superior to the storyline of Mellie Grant 's rape on the ABC drama Scandal .
= = = Awards and impact = = =
The episode was cited at the 2011 Television Academy Honors for exemplifying " Television with a Conscience " . The Academy of Television Arts & Sciences called it a " poignant " episode , which " master [ ed ] the gut @-@ wrenching crime of sexual assault " . Private Practice received the award in 2010 for its approach to physician @-@ assisted suicide in the second @-@ season episode , " Nothing to Fear " , and a drama @-@ series Women 's Image Network Award at the 13th annual WIN awards . " Did You Hear What Happened to Charlotte King ? " was a finalist for the Sentinel for Health Award for Primetime Drama ( Major Storyline ) for its representation of rape , losing to the Parenthood episode " Qualities and Difficulties " ( which focused on Asperger syndrome ) . The show was nominated for the PRISM Award for Drama Series Multi @-@ Episode Storyline ( Mental Health ) for " Did You Hear What Happened to Charlotte King ? " and the following episodes , " What Happens Next " and " Can 't Find My Way Back Home " , losing to the first two seasons of Parenthood .
Rhimes and Strickland received a RAINN Hope Award in recognition of " their efforts in educating the public about sexual assault prevention " . Strickland said that she considered submitting the episode or later episodes , " Can 't Find My Way Home " or " Blind Love , " for consideration at the 63rd Primetime Emmy Awards , but she did not receive a nomination . The actress received the Female Performance in a Drama Series Multi @-@ Episode Storyline award at the 2011 PRISM Awards . Rhimes received the NAACP Image Award for Outstanding Writing in a Dramatic Series at the 2011 NAACP Awards for her work on the episode .
After its broadcast , RAINN had a " 500 @-@ percent increase in service requests " ( which temporarily crashed its website ) . Strickland participated in a public service announcement to increase awareness of rape and sexual abuse , and said that she had received many emails from survivors of sexual assault . After her work on the episode , RAINN called the actress a " vocal advocate for using DNA evidence in solving rape cases " .
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= James Clerk Maxwell =
James Clerk Maxwell FRS FRSE ( 13 June 1831 – 5 November 1879 ) was a Scottish scientist in the field of mathematical physics . His most notable achievement was to formulate the classical theory of electromagnetic radiation , bringing together for the first time electricity , magnetism , and light as manifestations of the same phenomenon . Maxwell 's equations for electromagnetism have been called the " second great unification in physics " after the first one realised by Isaac Newton .
With the publication of A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field in 1865 , Maxwell demonstrated that electric and magnetic fields travel through space as waves moving at the speed of light . Maxwell proposed that light is an undulation in the same medium that is the cause of electric and magnetic phenomena . The unification of light and electrical phenomena led to the prediction of the existence of radio waves .
Maxwell helped develop the Maxwell – Boltzmann distribution , a statistical means of describing aspects of the kinetic theory of gases . He is also known for presenting the first durable colour photograph in 1861 and for his foundational work on analysing the rigidity of rod @-@ and @-@ joint frameworks ( trusses ) like those in many bridges .
His discoveries helped usher in the era of modern physics , laying the foundation for such fields as special relativity and quantum mechanics . Many physicists regard Maxwell as the 19th @-@ century scientist having the greatest influence on 20th @-@ century physics . His contributions to the science are considered by many to be of the same magnitude as those of Isaac Newton and Albert Einstein . In the millennium poll — a survey of the 100 most prominent physicists — Maxwell was voted the third greatest physicist of all time , behind only Newton and Einstein . On the centenary of Maxwell 's birthday , Einstein described Maxwell 's work as the " most profound and the most fruitful that physics has experienced since the time of Newton " .
= = Life = =
= = = Early life , 1831 – 39 = = =
James Clerk Maxwell was born on 13 June 1831 at 14 India Street , Edinburgh , to John Clerk Maxwell of Middlebie , an advocate , and Frances Cay daughter of Robert Hodshon Cay and sister of John Cay . His father was a man of comfortable means of the Clerk family of Penicuik , holders of the baronetcy of Clerk of Penicuik . His father 's brother was the 6th Baronet . He had been born " John Clerk " , adding the surname Maxwell to his own after he inherited ( as an infant in 1793 ) the Middlebie country estate near Corsock , Kirkcudbrightshire , from connections to the Maxwell family , themselves members of the peerage . James was the first cousin of the artist Jemima Blackburn and cousin ( the son of his mother 's brother ) of the civil engineer William Dyce Cay . They were close friends and Cay acted as his best man when Maxwell married .
Maxwell 's parents met and married when they were well into their thirties ; his mother was nearly 40 when he was born . They had had one earlier child , a daughter named Elizabeth , who died in infancy .
When Maxwell was young his family moved to Glenlair House , which his parents had built on the 1 @,@ 500 acres ( 610 ha ) Middlebie estate . All indications suggest that Maxwell had maintained an unquenchable curiosity from an early age . By the age of three , everything that moved , shone , or made a noise drew the question : " what 's the go o ' that ? " In a passage added to a letter from his father to his sister @-@ in @-@ law Jane Cay in 1834 , his mother described this innate sense of inquisitiveness :
He is a very happy man , and has improved much since the weather got moderate ; he has great work with doors , locks , keys , etc . , and " show me how it doos " is never out of his mouth . He also investigates the hidden course of streams and bell @-@ wires , the way the water gets from the pond through the wall ....
= = = Education , 1839 – 47 = = =
Recognising the potential of the young boy , Maxwell 's mother Frances took responsibility for James 's early education , which in the Victorian era was largely the job of the woman of the house . At eight he could recite long passages of Milton and the whole of the 119th psalm ( 176 verses ) . Indeed , his knowledge of scripture was already very detailed ; he could give chapter and verse for almost any quotation from the psalms . His mother was taken ill with abdominal cancer and , after an unsuccessful operation , died in December 1839 when he was eight years old . James 's education was then overseen by his father and his father 's sister @-@ in @-@ law Jane , both of whom played pivotal roles in his life . His formal schooling began unsuccessfully under the guidance of a sixteen @-@ year @-@ old hired tutor . Little is known about the young man John hired to instruct his son , except that he treated the younger boy harshly , chiding him for being slow and wayward . John dismissed the tutor in November 1841 and , after considerable thought , sent James to the prestigious Edinburgh Academy . He lodged during term times at the house of his aunt Isabella . During this time his passion for drawing was encouraged by his older cousin Jemima .
The ten @-@ year @-@ old Maxwell , having been raised in isolation on his father 's countryside estate , did not fit in well at school . The first year had been full , obliging him to join the second year with classmates a year his senior . His mannerisms and Galloway accent struck the other boys as rustic . Having arrived on his first day of school wearing a pair of homemade shoes and a tunic , he earned the unkind nickname of " Daftie " . He never seemed to resent the epithet , bearing it without complaint for many years . Social isolation at the Academy ended when he met Lewis Campbell and Peter Guthrie Tait , two boys of a similar age who were to become notable scholars later in life . They remained lifelong friends .
Maxwell was fascinated by geometry at an early age , rediscovering the regular polyhedra before he received any formal instruction . Despite winning the school 's scripture biography prize in his second year , his academic work remained unnoticed until , at the age of 13 , he won the school 's mathematical medal and first prize for both English and poetry .
Maxwell 's interests ranged far beyond the school syllabus and he did not pay particular attention to examination performance . He wrote his first scientific paper at the age of 14 . In it he described a mechanical means of drawing mathematical curves with a piece of twine , and the properties of ellipses , Cartesian ovals , and related curves with more than two foci . His work Oval Curves was presented to the Royal Society of Edinburgh by James Forbes , a professor of natural philosophy at Edinburgh University , but Maxwell was deemed too young to present the work himself . The work was not entirely original , since René Descartes had also examined the properties of such multifocal ellipses in the seventeenth century , but he had simplified their construction .
= = = University of Edinburgh , 1847 – 50 = = =
Maxwell left the Academy in 1847 at age 16 and began attending classes at the University of Edinburgh . He had the opportunity to attend the University of Cambridge , but decided , after his first term , to complete the full course of his undergraduate studies at Edinburgh . The academic staff of Edinburgh University included some highly regarded names ; his first year tutors included Sir William Hamilton , who lectured him on logic and metaphysics , Philip Kelland on mathematics , and James Forbes on natural philosophy . He did not find his classes at Edinburgh University very demanding , and was therefore able to immerse himself in private study during free time at the university and particularly when back home at Glenlair . There he would experiment with improvised chemical , electric , and magnetic apparatus , but his chief concerns regarded the properties of polarised light . He constructed shaped blocks of gelatine , subjected them to various stresses , and with a pair of polarising prisms given to him by William Nicol , viewed the coloured fringes that had developed within the jelly . Through this practice he discovered photoelasticity , which is a means of determining the stress distribution within physical structures .
At age 18 , Maxwell contributed two papers for the Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh . One of these , On the Equilibrium of Elastic Solids , laid the foundation for an important discovery later in his life , which was the temporary double refraction produced in viscous liquids by shear stress . His other paper was Rolling Curves and , just as with the paper Oval Curves that he had written at the Edinburgh Academy , he was again considered too young to stand at the rostrum to present it himself . The paper was delivered to the Royal Society by his tutor Kelland instead .
= = = University of Cambridge , 1850 – 56 = = =
In October 1850 , already an accomplished mathematician , Maxwell left Scotland for the University of Cambridge . He initially attended Peterhouse , but before the end of his first term transferred to Trinity , where he believed it would be easier to obtain a fellowship . At Trinity he was elected to the elite secret society known as the Cambridge Apostles . Maxwell 's intellectual understanding of his Christian faith and of science grew rapidly during his Cambridge years . He joined the " Apostles " , an exclusive debating society of the intellectual elite , where through his essays he sought to work out this understanding .
Now my great plan , which was conceived of old , ... is to let nothing be wilfully left unexamined . Nothing is to be holy ground consecrated to Stationary Faith , whether positive or negative . All fallow land is to be ploughed up and a regular system of rotation followed . ... Never hide anything , be it weed or no , nor seem to wish it hidden . ... Again I assert the Right of Trespass on any plot of Holy Ground which any man has set apart . ... Now I am convinced that no one but a Christian can actually purge his land of these holy spots . ... I do not say that no Christians have enclosed places of this sort . Many have a great deal , and every one has some . But there are extensive and important tracts in the territory of the Scoffer , the Pantheist , the Quietist , Formalist , Dogmatist , Sensualist , and the rest , which are openly and solemnly Tabooed . ... "
Christianity — that is , the religion of the Bible — is the only scheme or form of belief which disavows any possessions on such a tenure . Here alone all is free . You may fly to the ends of the world and find no God but the Author of Salvation . You may search the Scriptures and not find a text to stop you in your explorations . ...
The Old Testament and the Mosaic Law and Judaism are commonly supposed to be " Tabooed " by the orthodox . Sceptics pretend to have read them , and have found certain witty objections ... which too many of the orthodox unread admit , and shut up the subject as haunted . But a Candle is coming to drive out all Ghosts and Bugbears . Let us follow the light . ' '
The extent to which Maxwell " ploughed up " his Christian beliefs and put them to the intellectual test , can be judged only incompletely from his writings . But there is plenty of evidence , especially from his undergraduate days , that he did deeply examine his faith . Certainly , his knowledge of the Bible was remarkable , so his confidence in the Scriptures was not based on ignorance .
In the summer of his third year , Maxwell spent some time at the Suffolk home of the Rev C.B. Tayler , the uncle of a class @-@ mate , G.W.H. Tayler . The love of God shown by the family impressed Maxwell , particularly after he was nursed back from ill health by the minister and his wife .
On his return to Cambridge , Maxwell writes to his recent host a chatty and affectionate letter including the following testimony ,
... I have the capacity of being more wicked than any example that man could set me , and ... if I escape , it is only by God 's grace helping me to get rid of myself , partially in science , more completely in society , — but not perfectly except by committing myself to God ...
In November 1851 , Maxwell studied under William Hopkins , whose success in nurturing mathematical genius had earned him the nickname of " senior wrangler @-@ maker " .
In 1854 , Maxwell graduated from Trinity with a degree in mathematics . He scored second highest in the final examination , coming behind Edward Routh and earning himself the title of Second Wrangler . He was later declared equal with Routh in the more exacting ordeal of the Smith 's Prize examination . Immediately after earning his degree , Maxwell read his paper On the Transformation of Surfaces by Bending to the Cambridge Philosophical Society . This is one of the few purely mathematical papers he had written , demonstrating Maxwell 's growing stature as a mathematician . Maxwell decided to remain at Trinity after graduating and applied for a fellowship , which was a process that he could expect to take a couple of years . Buoyed by his success as a research student , he would be free , apart from some tutoring and examining duties , to pursue scientific interests at his own leisure .
The nature and perception of colour was one such interest which he had begun at Edinburgh University while he was a student of Forbes . With the coloured spinning tops invented by Forbes , Maxwell was able to demonstrate that white light would result from a mixture of red , green , and blue light . His paper Experiments on Colour laid out the principles of colour combination and was presented to the Royal Society of Edinburgh in March 1855 . Maxwell was this time able to deliver it himself .
Maxwell was made a fellow of Trinity on 10 October 1855 , sooner than was the norm , and was asked to prepare lectures on hydrostatics and optics and to set examination papers . The following February he was urged by Forbes to apply for the newly vacant Chair of Natural Philosophy at Marischal College , Aberdeen . His father assisted him in the task of preparing the necessary references , but died on 2 April at Glenlair before either knew the result of Maxwell 's candidacy . Maxwell accepted the professorship at Aberdeen , leaving Cambridge in November 1856 .
= = = Marischal College , Aberdeen , 1856 – 60 = = =
The 25 @-@ year @-@ old Maxwell was a good fifteen years younger than any other professor at Marischal . He engaged himself with his new responsibilities as head of a department , devising the syllabus and preparing lectures . He committed himself to lecturing 15 hours a week , including a weekly pro bono lecture to the local working men 's college . He lived in Aberdeen during the six months of the academic year and spent the summers at Glenlair , which he had inherited from his father .
He focused his attention on a problem that had eluded scientists for two hundred years : the nature of Saturn 's rings . It was unknown how they could remain stable without breaking up , drifting away or crashing into Saturn . The problem took on a particular resonance at that time because St John 's College , Cambridge had chosen it as the topic for the 1857 Adams Prize . Maxwell devoted two years to studying the problem , proving that a regular solid ring could not be stable , while a fluid ring would be forced by wave action to break up into blobs . Since neither was observed , Maxwell concluded that the rings must be composed of numerous small particles he called " brick @-@ bats " , each independently orbiting Saturn . Maxwell was awarded the £ 130 Adams Prize in 1859 for his essay On the stability of the motion of Saturn 's rings ; he was the only entrant to have made enough headway to submit an entry . His work was so detailed and convincing that when George Biddell Airy read it he commented " It is one of the most remarkable applications of mathematics to physics that I have ever seen . " It was considered the final word on the issue until direct observations by the Voyager flybys of the 1980s confirmed Maxwell 's prediction .
In 1857 Maxwell befriended the Reverend Daniel Dewar , who was then the Principal of Marischal . Through him Maxwell met Dewar 's daughter , Katherine Mary Dewar . They were engaged in February 1858 and married in Aberdeen on 2 June 1858 . On the marriage record , Maxwell is listed as Professor of Natural Philosophy in Marischal College , Aberdeen . Seven years Maxwell 's senior , comparatively little is known of Katherine , although it is known that she helped in his lab and worked on experiments in viscosity . Maxwell 's biographer and friend , Lewis Campbell , adopted an uncharacteristic reticence on the subject of Katherine , though describing their married life as " one of unexampled devotion " .
In 1860 Marischal College merged with the neighbouring King 's College to form the University of Aberdeen . There was no room for two professors of Natural Philosophy , so Maxwell , despite his scientific reputation , found himself laid off . He was unsuccessful in applying for Forbes 's recently vacated chair at Edinburgh , the post instead going to Tait . Maxwell was granted the Chair of Natural Philosophy at King 's College , London , instead . After recovering from a near @-@ fatal bout of smallpox in 1860 , Maxwell moved to London with his wife .
= = = King 's College , London , 1860 – 65 = = =
Maxwell 's time at King 's was probably the most productive of his career . He was awarded the Royal Society 's Rumford Medal in 1860 for his work on colour and was later elected to the Society in 1861 . This period of his life would see him display the world 's first light @-@ fast colour photograph , further develop his ideas on the viscosity of gases , and propose a system of defining physical quantities — now known as dimensional analysis . Maxwell would often attend lectures at the Royal Institution , where he came into regular contact with Michael Faraday . The relationship between the two men could not be described as being close , because Faraday was 40 years Maxwell 's senior and showed signs of senility . They nevertheless maintained a strong respect for each other 's talents .
This time is especially noteworthy for the advances Maxwell made in the fields of electricity and magnetism . He examined the nature of both electric and magnetic fields in his two @-@ part paper On physical lines of force , which was published in 1861 . In it he provided a conceptual model for electromagnetic induction , consisting of tiny spinning cells of magnetic flux . Two more parts were later added to and published in that same paper in early 1862 . In the first additional part he discussed the nature of electrostatics and displacement current . In the second additional part , he dealt with the rotation of the plane of the polarisation of light in a magnetic field , a phenomenon that had been discovered by Faraday and is now known as the Faraday effect .
= = = Later years , 1865 – 1879 = = =
In 1865 Maxwell resigned the chair at King 's College , London , and returned to Glenlair with Katherine . In his paper On reciprocal figures , frames and diagrams of forces ( 1870 ) he discussed the rigidity of various designs of lattice . He wrote the textbook Theory of Heat ( 1871 ) and the treatise Matter and Motion ( 1876 ) . Maxwell was also the first to make explicit use of dimensional analysis , in 1871 .
In 1871 he became the first Cavendish Professor of Physics at Cambridge . Maxwell was put in charge of the development of the Cavendish Laboratory , supervising every step in the progress of the building and of the purchase of the collection of apparatus . One of Maxwell 's last great contributions to science was the editing ( with copious original notes ) of the research of Henry Cavendish , from which it appeared that Cavendish researched , amongst other things , such questions as the density of the Earth and the composition of water .
Maxwell died in Cambridge of abdominal cancer on 5 November 1879 at the age of 48 . His mother had died at the same age of the same type of cancer . The minister who regularly visited him in his last weeks was astonished at his lucidity and the immense power and scope of his memory , but comments more particularly ,
... his illness drew out the whole heart and soul and spirit of the man : his firm and undoubting faith in the Incarnation and all its results ; in the full sufficiency of the Atonement ; in the work of the Holy Spirit . He had gauged and fathomed all the schemes and systems of philosophy , and had found them utterly empty and unsatisfying — " unworkable " was his own word about them — and he turned with simple faith to the Gospel of the Saviour .
As death approached Maxwell told a Cambridge colleague
I have been thinking how very gently I have always been dealt with . I have never had a violent shove all my life . The only desire which I can have is like David to serve my own generation by the will of God , and then fall asleep .
Maxwell is buried at Parton Kirk , near Castle Douglas in Galloway close to where he grew up . The extended biography The Life of James Clerk Maxwell , by his former schoolfellow and lifelong friend Professor Lewis Campbell , was published in 1882 . His collected works were issued in two volumes by the Cambridge University Press in 1890 .
= = = Personality = = =
As a great lover of Scottish poetry , Maxwell memorised poems and wrote his own . The best known is Rigid Body Sings , closely based on " Comin ' Through the Rye " by Robert Burns , which he apparently used to sing while accompanying himself on a guitar . It has the opening lines
Gin a body meet a body
Flyin ' through the air .
Gin a body hit a body ,
Will it fly ? And where ?
A collection of his poems was published by his friend Lewis Campbell in 1882 . Descriptions of Maxwell remark upon his remarkable intellectual qualities being matched by social awkwardness .
Maxwell was an evangelical Presbyterian and in his later years became an Elder of the Church of Scotland . Maxwell 's religious beliefs and related activities have been the focus of a number of papers . Attending both Church of Scotland ( his father 's denomination ) and Episcopalian ( his mother 's denomination ) services as a child , Maxwell later underwent an evangelical conversion in April 1853 . One facet of this conversion may have aligned him with an antipositivist position .
= = Scientific legacy = =
= = = Electromagnetism = = =
Maxwell had studied and commented on electricity and magnetism as early as 1855 when his paper On Faraday 's lines of force was read to the Cambridge Philosophical Society . The paper presented a simplified model of Faraday 's work and how the two phenomena were related . He reduced all of the current knowledge into a linked set of differential equations with 20 equations in 20 variables . This work was later published as On Physical Lines of Force in March 1861 .
Around 1862 , while lecturing at King 's College , Maxwell calculated that the speed of propagation of an electromagnetic field is approximately that of the speed of light . He considered this to be more than just a coincidence , commenting , " We can scarcely avoid the conclusion that light consists in the transverse undulations of the same medium which is the cause of electric and magnetic phenomena . "
Working on the problem further , Maxwell showed that the equations predict the existence of waves of oscillating electric and magnetic fields that travel through empty space at a speed that could be predicted from simple electrical experiments ; using the data available at the time , Maxwell obtained a velocity of 310 @,@ 740 @,@ 000 metres per second ( 1 @.@ 0195 × 109 ft / s ) . In his 1864 paper A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field , Maxwell wrote , " The agreement of the results seems to show that light and magnetism are affections of the same substance , and that light is an electromagnetic disturbance propagated through the field according to electromagnetic laws " .
His famous equations , in their modern form of four partial differential equations , first appeared in fully developed form in his textbook A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism in 1873 . Most of this work was done by Maxwell at Glenlair during the period between holding his London post and his taking up the Cavendish chair . Maxwell expressed electromagnetism in the algebra of quaternions and made the electromagnetic potential the centrepiece of his theory . In 1881 Oliver Heaviside replaced Maxwell 's electromagnetic potential field by ' force fields ' as the centrepiece of electromagnetic theory . Heaviside reduced the complexity of Maxwell 's theory down to four differential equations , known now collectively as Maxwell 's Laws or Maxwell 's equations . According to Heaviside , the electromagnetic potential field was arbitrary and needed to be " murdered " . The use of scalar and vector potentials is now standard in the solution of Maxwell 's equations .
A few years later there was a debate between Heaviside and Peter Guthrie Tait about the relative merits of vector analysis and quaternions . The result was the realisation that there was no need for the greater physical insights provided by quaternions if the theory was purely local , and vector analysis became commonplace . Maxwell was proven correct , and his quantitative connection between light and electromagnetism is considered one of the great accomplishments of 19th century mathematical physics .
Maxwell also introduced the concept of the electromagnetic field in comparison to force lines that Faraday described . By understanding the propagation of electromagnetism as a field emitted by active particles , Maxwell could advance his work on light . At that time , Maxwell believed that the propagation of light required a medium for the waves , dubbed the luminiferous aether . Over time , the existence of such a medium , permeating all space and yet apparently undetectable by mechanical means , proved impossible to reconcile with experiments such as the Michelson – Morley experiment . Moreover , it seemed to require an absolute frame of reference in which the equations were valid , with the distasteful result that the equations changed form for a moving observer . These difficulties inspired Albert Einstein to formulate the theory of special relativity ; in the process Einstein dispensed with the requirement of a stationary luminiferous aether .
= = = Colour vision = = =
As most physicists of the time , Maxwell had a strong interest in psychology . He was particularly interested , following the steps of Isaac Newton and Thomas Young , in the study of colour vision . From 1855 to 1872 , he published at intervals a series of investigations concerning the perception of colour , colour @-@ blindness , and colour theory , and was awarded the Rumford Medal for On the Theory of Colour Vision .
Isaac Newton had demonstrated , using prisms , that white lights , such as sunlight , are composed of a number of monochromatic components which could then be recombined into white light . Newton also showed that an orange paint made of yellow and red could look exactly like a monochromatic orange light , although being composed of two monochromatic yellow and red lights . Hence the paradox that puzzled physicists of the time : two complex lights ( composed of more than one monochromatic light ) could look alike but be physically different , called metameres . Thomas Young later proposed that this paradox could be explained by colours being perceived through a limited number of channels in the eyes , which he proposed to be threefold , the trichromatic color theory . Maxwell used the recently developed Linear algebra to prove Young 's theory . Any monochromatic light stimulating three receptors should be able to be equally stimulated by a set of three different monochromatic lights ( in fact , by any set of three different lights ) . He demonstrated that to be the case , inventing color matching experiments and Colorimetry .
Maxwell was also interested in applying his theory of color perception , namely in colour photography . Stemming directly from his psychological work on colour perception : if a sum of any three lights could reproduce any perceivable colour , then colour photographs could be produced with a set of three colored filters . In the course of his 1855 paper , Maxwell proposed that , if three black @-@ and @-@ white photographs of a scene were taken through red , green and blue filters and transparent prints of the images were projected onto a screen using three projectors equipped with similar filters , when superimposed on the screen the result would be perceived by the human eye as a complete reproduction of all the colours in the scene .
During an 1861 Royal Institution lecture on colour theory , Maxwell presented the world 's first demonstration of colour photography by this principle of three @-@ colour analysis and synthesis . Thomas Sutton , inventor of the single @-@ lens reflex camera , took the picture . He photographed a tartan ribbon three times , through red , green , and blue filters , also making a fourth photograph through a yellow filter , which , according to Maxwell 's account , was not used in the demonstration . Because Sutton 's photographic plates were insensitive to red and barely sensitive to green , the results of this pioneering experiment were far from perfect . It was remarked in the published account of the lecture that " if the red and green images had been as fully photographed as the blue , " it " would have been a truly @-@ coloured image of the riband . By finding photographic materials more sensitive to the less refrangible rays , the representation of the colours of objects might be greatly improved . " Researchers in 1961 concluded that the seemingly impossible partial success of the red @-@ filtered exposure was due to ultraviolet light , which is strongly reflected by some red dyes , not entirely blocked by the red filter used , and within the range of sensitivity of the wet collodion process Sutton employed .
= = = Kinetic theory and thermodynamics = = =
Maxwell also investigated the kinetic theory of gases . Originating with Daniel Bernoulli , this theory was advanced by the successive labours of John Herapath , John James Waterston , James Joule , and particularly Rudolf Clausius , to such an extent as to put its general accuracy beyond a doubt ; but it received enormous development from Maxwell , who in this field appeared as an experimenter ( on the laws of gaseous friction ) as well as a mathematician .
Between 1859 and 1866 , he developed the theory of the distributions of velocities in particles of a gas , work later generalised by Ludwig Boltzmann . The formula , called the Maxwell – Boltzmann distribution , gives the fraction of gas molecules moving at a specified velocity at any given temperature . In the kinetic theory , temperatures and heat involve only molecular movement . This approach generalised the previously established laws of thermodynamics and explained existing observations and experiments in a better way than had been achieved previously . Maxwell 's work on thermodynamics led him to devise the thought experiment that came to be known as Maxwell 's demon , where the second law of thermodynamics is violated by an imaginary being capable of sorting particles by energy .
In 1871 he established Maxwell 's thermodynamic relations , which are statements of equality among the second derivatives of the thermodynamic potentials with respect to different thermodynamic variables . In 1874 , he constructed a plaster thermodynamic visualisation as a way of exploring phase transitions , based on the American scientist Josiah Willard Gibbs 's graphical thermodynamics papers .
= = = Control theory = = =
Maxwell published a paper On governors in the Proceedings of Royal Society , vol . 16 ( 1867 – 1868 ) . This paper is considered a central paper of the early days of control theory . Here " governors " refers to the governor or the centrifugal governor used to regulate steam engines .
= = Legacy = =
His name is honoured in several ways :
The maxwell ( Mx ) , a compound derived CGS unit measuring magnetic flux
IEEE Maxwell Award
Maxwell Montes , a mountain range on Venus
The Maxwell Gap in the Rings of Saturn
The James Clerk Maxwell Telescope , the largest submillimetre @-@ wavelength astronomical telescope in the world , with a diameter of 15 metres ( 49 ft )
The James Clerk Maxwell Building of the University of Edinburgh , housing the schools of mathematics , physics and meteorology
The James Clerk Maxwell building at the Waterloo campus of King 's College London , a chair in Physics , and a society for undergraduate physicists are named after him at the university .
The James Clerk Maxwell Centre of the Edinburgh Academy
The Maxwell Centre at the University of Cambridge , dedicated to academia @-@ industry interactions in Physical Sciences and Technology .
A statue on Edinburgh 's George Street
GPU manufacturer Nvidia has named the architecture of its GeForce 900 series after Maxwell
A proposed sculpture called the Star of Caledonia is to pay tribute to James Clerk Maxwell
ANSYS software for electromagnetic analysis , named Maxwell
= = Publications = =
Maxwell , James Clerk ( 1873 ) , A treatise on electricity and magnetism Vol I , Oxford : Clarendon Press
Maxwell , James Clerk ( 1873 ) , A treatise on electricity and magnetism Vol II , Oxford : Clarendon Press
Maxwell , James Clerk ( 1881 ) , An Elementary treatise on electricity , Oxford : Clarendon Press
Maxwell , James Clerk ( 1890 ) , The scientific papers of James Clerk Maxwell Vol I , Dover Publication
Maxwell , James Clerk ( 1890 ) , The scientific papers of James Clerk Maxwell Vol II , Cambridge , University Press
Maxwell , James Clerk ( 1908 ) , Theory of heat , Longmans Green Co .
Three of Maxwell 's contributions to Encyclopædia Britannica appeared in the Ninth Edition ( 1878 ) : Atom , [ 1 ] Attraction , [ 2 ] , and Ether [ 3 ] ; and three in the Eleventh Edition ( 1911 ) : Capillary Action , [ 4 ] Diagram , [ 5 ] and Faraday , Michael [ 6 ] .
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= Ontario Highway 127 =
King 's Highway 127 , commonly referred to as Highway 127 , is a provincially maintained highway in the Canadian province of Ontario . The route begins in Maynooth , connecting Highway 62 north of Bancroft with Highway 60 in the township of South Algonquin , east of Whitney and Algonquin Provincial Park . The entire route is patrolled by the Ontario Provincial Police ( OPP ) .
Highway 127 was designated in late 1955 , generally following the same route as today , with the exception of the northern terminus . During the early 1960s , a new road was constructed east of Whitney , bypassing the old highway for several kilometres . By 1963 , the bypass was complete and Highway 127 was rerouted onto it .
= = Route description = =
Highway 127 is a remote connector highway that lies east of Algonquin Park , the oldest provincial park in Ontario and one of the most frequented camping grounds in the world . It connects the northern end of Highway 62 in Maynooth with Highway 60 east of Whitney . The only community Highway 127 passes through is Lake St. Peter . It passes through large swaths of undeveloped forest on its 39 km ( 24 mi ) journey , and is rather remote ; aside from the towns at the northern and southern terminii , the only named community on Highway 127 is Lake St. Peter .
Like most routes which pass through the Canadian Shield , Highway 127 travels through rock cuts and muskeg @-@ ridden terrain in the midst of dense coniferous forests . There is little agricultural activity along the route . Within Maynooth , Highway 127 serves nearly three times as many vehicles as the rest of the route ; while a daily average of 1800 vehicles use Highway 127 in Maynooth , only 650 travel the length of the route . As with other provincial highways in Ontario , Highway 127 is patrolled by the OPP .
= = History = =
Highway 127 was first designated in 1955 along an existing road between Maynooth and Whitney . The section within the Hastings County was designated on October 19 and the section within Nipissing District on November 16 . The highway was 44 @.@ 3 km ( 27 @.@ 5 mi ) long when it was designated . It was paved as far north as Lake St. Peter , after which it was a gravel road . Over the next several years , the highway was paved north towards Whitney . In the early 1960s , it was decided to bypass to the east of the northernmost section of the highway . Construction began in 1961 and was completed by 1963 , cutting 5 km ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) off the length of the route . Aside from minor realignments , the route of Highway 127 has not changed since then .
= = Major intersections = =
The following table lists the major junctions along Highway 127 , as noted by the Ministry of Transportation of Ontario .
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= Stanley Bruce =
Stanley Melbourne Bruce , 1st Viscount Bruce of Melbourne , CH , MC , PC , FRS ( 15 April 1883 – 25 August 1967 ) was the eighth Prime Minister of Australia ( 1923 – 29 ) . Bruce made wide @-@ ranging reforms and mounted a comprehensive nation @-@ building program in government , but his controversial handling of industrial relations led to his dramatic defeat at the polls in 1929 . He later pursued a long and influential diplomatic career as High Commissioner to the United Kingdom , at the League of Nations and as Chairman of the Food and Agriculture Organization Council .
Born into a wealthy Melbourne family , Bruce studied at the University of Cambridge and spent his early life tending to the importing and exporting business of his late father . He served on the front lines of the Gallipoli Campaign in World War I and returned to Australia wounded in 1917 , becoming a spokesperson for government recruitment efforts . He gained the attention of the Nationalist Party and Prime Minister Billy Hughes , who encouraged a political career . He was elected to parliament in 1918 , becoming treasurer in 1921 and then prime minister in 1923 .
In office Bruce pursued an energetic and diverse agenda . He comprehensively overhauled federal government administration and oversaw its transfer to the new capital city of Canberra . He implemented many reforms to the Australian federal system that strengthened the role of the Commonwealth . He established the Commonwealth Peace Officers and Council for Scientific and Industrial Research , the forerunners of the Australian Federal Police and the CSIRO . His " men , money and markets " scheme was an ambitious attempt to rapidly expand Australia 's population and economic potential through massive government investment and closer ties with Great Britain and the rest of the British Empire . However , his endeavours to overhaul Australia 's industrial relations system brought his government into frequent conflict with the labour movement , and his radical proposal to abolish Commonwealth arbitration in 1929 prompted members of his own party to cross the floor to defeat the government . In the resounding loss at the subsequent election the Prime Minister lost his seat , an event unprecedented in Australia and one that would not occur again until 2007 .
Although he returned to parliament in 1931 , Bruce 's service in the Lyons Government was brief . Instead he pursued an international career , accepting appointment as High Commissioner to the United Kingdom in 1933 . Bruce became an influential figure in British government circles and at the League of Nations , emerging as a tireless advocate for international cooperation on economic and social problems , especially those facing the developing world . Particularly passionate on improving global nutrition , Bruce was one of the key figures in the establishment of the Food and Agriculture Organization , serving as the first chairman of its governing council from 1946 to 1951 . He was elevated to the peerage in 1947 and became the first Australian to sit in the House of Lords , as well as the first Chancellor of the Australian National University . Although his diplomatic career went largely unnoticed in Australia , he continued throughout his life in London to vociferously advocate for Australian interests ( particularly during World War II ) and asked that his remains be returned to Canberra when he died in 1967 .
= = Early life = =
Stanley Melbourne Bruce was born on 15 April 1883 in St Kilda , Victoria , a suburb of Melbourne , and was the youngest of five children . His father , John Munro Bruce , was of Ulster Scottish descent and had emigrated from Ireland to Australia in 1858 at the age of 18 . His mother , Mary Ann Henderson , was Irish and had married her cousin John after emigrating to Australia in 1872 at the age of 24 . John Bruce was a talented businessman with " a flair for buying and selling " , which would secure him a partnership in an established Melbourne importing firm that became known as Paterson , Laing and Bruce in 1868 . As his wealth grew , John became increasingly influential in colonial Victoria 's social and political life . An avid golfer , he was one of the founders of the Royal Melbourne Golf Club . He was prominent in the liberal protectionist political movement within the state , and an early supporter of future prime minister Alfred Deakin . John 's success ensured that Bruce , his sister Mary and brothers Ernest , William and Robert were born into affluence . Shortly after Bruce 's birth the family relocated to the stately Wombalano manor in Toorak . However , John was an aloof and remote figure in the lives of his children , as Bruce later recounted . Despite their family 's Presbyterian faith , Bruce was sent to Melbourne Church of England Grammar School ( now Melbourne Grammar School ) and subsequently Bruce would come to identify principally as Anglican . Bruce was an average student but extremely active in the sporting life of the school and captain of its football team , and then of the school itself in 1901 .
The economic depression of the 1880s and 1890s hit the Bruce family fortunes hard . John Bruce lost much of his fortune in the Victorian bank collapse of 1894 and incurred large debts to buy out his partners in the importing business in 1897 . The family suffered a great deal more tragedy over the coming decades . Stanley 's brother William committed suicide in 1899 , shortly after seeking treatment for mental illness . Just two years later John Bruce took his own life during a business trip to Paris ; he had suffered from depression as a result of the great pressures on his business and finances . His sister Mary endured a long illness before succumbing in 1908 , and his mother died too in 1912 . Finally , Bruce 's beloved brother Ernest shot himself in 1919 , suffering from physical and mental injuries sustained during his military service in World War I.
In the aftermath of his father 's death in 1901 , the family fortunes were at a low ebb and Bruce went into the family business after leaving high school . The young Bruce was ambitious and determined to get an education . With loaned money , he moved to the United Kingdom with his mother and sister and enrolled in Trinity Hall , Cambridge in 1902 . He was a popular if average student , heavily involved in the athletic life of the college , including as a member of the Cambridge rowing crew that won the Boat Race in 1904 . Rowing remained one of his great passions , and he continued to coach crews ( including several for the Henley Royal Regatta ) and write on the subject for much of his life . Ernest Bruce had remained in Australia to take charge of the family 's business interests . In 1906 , he lobbied the directors of the company to have his brother Stanley take over the chairmanship of Paterson , Laing and Bruce , and was ultimately successful . Despite being just 23 , he proved an able chairman , and with Stanley in London managing the exporting and financial interests , and Ernest managing the importation and sales operations in Melbourne , the financial fortunes of the business and the family rapidly recovered . During these years , Bruce also trained and worked as a solicitor and then as a barrister in the London with the firm of Ashurst , Morris , Crisp & Co . His work for the firm took him to Mexico in 1908 and Colombia in 1912 , which fostered an interest in international affairs .
By 1912 Bruce was a wealthy businessman and successful barrister , and it was in this year Ethel Dunlop Anderson traveled to England and was reacquainted with Bruce , whom she had known as a child . Aged 32 , Ethel was of similar Scottish @-@ Irish ancestry and hailed from a prominent squatter family of Victoria . She shared many of Bruce 's interests , especially golf , and his political outlook . They married in July 1913 in a quiet ceremony . Theirs was a close @-@ knit relationship – they would have many acquaintances but a small circle of close friends , and their relationship was one of mutual devotion . But the death of all but one member of his immediate family in just over a decade , and the fact that the Bruces would bear no children of their own , deeply affected Bruce and he " was left with a sense of insecurity and melancholy " for much of his life .
= = Military service , 1914 – 18 = =
Bruce returned briefly to Australia in 1914 , swapping positions within the company with his brother Ernest . World War I broke out in August of that year . Bruce and his brothers sought to enlist in defence of the Empire , but all three of them would choose to serve in the British Army rather than the Australian Imperial Force . It was easier to obtain officer commissions in the British Army and the family had a close association with ( and for many of them , long periods of residency in ) Great Britain . Bruce enlisted and received a commission as lieutenant on 7 February 1915 and was attached to the 2nd Battalion , Royal Fusiliers in Egypt , which was then assigned to the British 29th Division . The 29th subsequently joined operations in Turkey along with Australian and New Zealand Army Corps ( ANZAC ) troops that year under Sir Ian Hamilton , commander of the Mediterranean Expeditionary Force ( MEF ) . First Lord of the Admiralty Winston Churchill had devised a strategy of capturing the Dardanelles from Turkey to allow naval access to Allied Russia . However allied naval forces were unable to secure passage through the narrow straits , and the MEF under Hamilton devised a plan to wrest control through amphibious landings . This was the beginning of the now infamous Gallipoli Campaign .
Bruce 's regiment landed at Cape Helles in mid @-@ 1915 , where he fully distinguished himself in the construction of trenches and as an able commander . His battalion suffered heavy casualties over the coming months , and Bruce himself was wounded on 3 June by a shot to the arm , though it was this injury that spared him from a major assault by his battalion on 4 June in which many of his peers perished . He later reflected that he must have been kept on earth for some purpose . He returned to the front lines and his division moved to the new front at Suvla Bay , where it was involved in particularly heavy fighting and sustained trench warfare throughout August and September . Bruce received the Military Cross and the Croix de Guerre for his service during these months , and rose to the rank of captain on 5 August . He was wounded again on 26 September , this time by a shot to the knee , which left him crippled for several years and forced him to return to England to recuperate , while the rest of his regiment were transferred to France after the abandonment of the Gallipoli campaign .
Although it had been the agreement before the war that Ernest would stay and manage Paterson , Laing and Bruce while his brothers were serving , Ernest Bruce decided to enlist in the British Army in 1915 . Hence , in September 1916 Bruce sought to resign his commission and return to Australia to resume management of the family business . The War Office refused his request but granted him leave to return to Australia while recuperating from his injuries . As a decorated soldier on crutches with a gift for public speaking , he was enlisted to become a spokesperson for government recruitment in Australia . His success and popularity in this role brought the attention of the Nationalist League and then Prime Minister Billy Hughes , who lobbied the British government on his behalf and succeeded in convincing the War Office to allow Bruce to relinquish his commission in June 1917 .
Having served with many of his countrymen he returned to Australia with a renewed sense of pride and mission in the country of his birth . But having borne witness to the catastrophic loss of life in the Gallipoli Campaign and the death of most of his army comrades , as well as having suffered through the loss of most of his family , at age 34 Bruce was imbued with " a driving ambition to make something of a life which providence had spared " .
= = Member for Flinders , 1918 – 23 = =
Bruce 's popularity as a speaker for government recruitment efforts also earned him the attention of the National Union of Victoria , an influential group of the Melbourne elite who provided much of the financing for the Nationalist Party of Australia . As Sir William Irvine had recently resigned from parliament to become Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of Victoria , there was to be a by @-@ election for his seat of Flinders in 1918 , which the National Union asked Bruce to stand for . The Nationalist preselection for the seat attracted many candidates , and Sir Edward Mitchell , one of Australia 's leading constitutional lawyers , was presumed to be the front runner . Mitchell proved to be a disappointing speaker , and Bruce won pre @-@ selection with the help of the National Union . A deal arranged by acting Prime Minister William Watt prevented the newly formed Country Party from challenging Bruce in this partly rural seat , which stretched from Dandenong out into the rural areas south and east of Melbourne . In the by @-@ election of 11 May , Bruce easily defeated his Labor opponent Gordon Holmes .
Speaking to the delegates in Dandenong , Bruce summed up his political philosophy :
A plain soldier and business man . I am no politician , nor have I any desire to be one . In the course of my commercial career it has been my fate to have had much experience of politicians and their ways . What I have seen in the course of that experience has given me little respect either for the professional politician or his methods . I am desirous of seeing this country governed in the ways of clear common sense and good sound business principles , and I think that desire of mine is heartily share by the vast majority of the population .
Bruce 's early years in parliament were unremarkable and his energies were primarily focused on the affairs of Paterson , Laing and Bruce . However , he began to attract the attention of his parliamentary colleagues over the matter of the Commonwealth Shipping Line ( CSL ) in 1921 . Nationalist Prime Minister Billy Hughes , now a peace @-@ time leader , had declined in popularity within the party due to his left @-@ wing domestic policies . The CSL had been created by the Hughes government as a state @-@ owned concern to ship Australian goods during World War I when British and domestic commercial shipping were unavailable . However its post @-@ war existence was extensively criticised by Bruce as inappropriate and inefficient , and many of his economically conservative colleagues agreed . Bruce also distinguished himself as one of Australia 's two representatives to the League of Nations in 1921 in Geneva , at which he passionately advocated for disarmament and greater international cooperation , despite his general scepticism with regards to the League 's mission and potential for success . Returning from Europe in October 1921 , he was invited by Prime Minister Billy Hughes to join his government as Minister for Trade and Customs . Bruce was not interested – he was the head of one of Australia 's largest importing houses and thus had a serious conflict of interest with the portfolio , as well as being very busy running the affairs of that business . But he countered by stating that he might feel obliged to accept if the position of Treasurer was offered , knowing that it had already been promised to Walter Massy @-@ Greene . To Bruce 's surprise , Hughes agreed , although Massy Greene was to remain the number two in the government and Minister of Defence . Although he had only been in parliament for three years , his business background was highly desirable to Hughes , who was facing growing criticism from the pro @-@ business wing of the party , who had become increasingly suspicious of Hughes and his interventionist approach to the economy . Influential party figures such as Senator George Pearce and the National Union has also identified Bruce as their preferred choice for the treasury .
Bruce and Hughes clashed in both style and ideology . Bruce found Hughes ' management of the government capricious and chaotic , and felt little was accomplished in Cabinet or in party meetings so long as Hughes headed them . But he served as a strong counterweight to the domineering Hughes , resisting several of his more expensive proposals or acting as the voice of reason to talk Hughes down from several of his more outlandish ideas . His tenure would ultimately be short , presiding over just one budget in 1922 , which was conservative and tax @-@ cutting . The Opposition criticised the budget for its failure to limit rising government spending and indebtedness . The budget included many concessions to rural interests and the recently formed Country Party , which appeared as a major threat to Nationalist Party dominance going into the 1922 elections in December . Yet Bruce endeared himself to many of his colleagues with his amiable personal style , his forceful voice in Cabinet against Hughes , and his conservative views , which were more in line with the majority of the party .
= = Prime Minister , 1923 – 29 = =
The Nationalists lost eleven seats and their majority in the House of Representatives in the election of 1922 . Only three of these seats were picked up by the Labor Party though , and Labor still lacked the numbers to form government in their own right . Rather , a breakaway anti @-@ Hughes Liberal Party took five government seats , while the Country Party increased their number to 14 and now held the balance of power . The only politically realistic option for the Nationalists to stay in office was to come to an agreement with the Country Party . However , Country Party leader Earle Page refused to support a Nationalist government with Hughes as prime minister , and negotiations throughout January and February failed to break the impasse . Rather than risk being defeated in the legislature , which might have resulted in the Governor @-@ General asking Labor to form government , Hughes surprised his colleagues by announcing his intention to resign on 2 February . With deputy leader Walter Massy @-@ Greene having lost his seat at the 1922 election , Hughes now sent for Bruce to take over as leader of the party . After some reluctance , Bruce finally agreed , although Hughes later regretted the decision and became one of the new prime minister 's most outspoken detractors .
Bruce moved quickly to secure a working majority for his government . He convinced Hughes ' long time political ally George Pearce to join his ministry and shored up the support of the other former National Labor members of the Nationalist Party whom had walked out of the Labor Party with Hughes in 1916 . He appointed William Watt as Speaker of the House , effectively removing one of his key opponents from the benches , a tactical manoeuvre that became common in Australian politics thereafter . But his most lasting political achievement was the negotiation of what became known as the Coalition – an arrangement of electoral and political cooperation between the Nationalists ( and their successors ) and the Country Party . Although differing greatly in character and background , the orderly and diplomatic Bruce forged a strong working relationship with the intelligent but irascible Country Party leader Page . Bruce had to pay a very high price for this relationship , however . As part of the Coalition agreement , the Country Party received five seats in a Cabinet of 11 . Page also became Treasurer and ranked second in the Cabinet . The Nationalists also made major concessions on rural development and taxation policy – compromises that stirred some resentment among some members of Bruce 's party . Page , who would serve as Treasurer and de facto Deputy Prime Minister throughout Bruce 's tenure , would become a great admirer of Bruce , stating , " He was a leader who impressed his colleagues with his sincerity and his capacity , and earned their loyalty as the reward for his wisdom and integrity . "
Bruce 's appointment as prime minister marked an important turning point in Australian political history . He was the first prime minister who had not been involved in the movement for Federation , who had not been a member of a colonial or state parliament , and who had not been a member of the original 1901 federal parliament . He was , in addition , the first prime minister to head a cabinet consisting entirely of Australian @-@ born ministers . Yet Bruce himself was frequently caricatured in public as " an Englishman who happened to have been born in Australia " . He drove a Rolls @-@ Royce , wore white spats , and was often seen as distant and lacking the common touch : characteristics that did little to personally endear him to the Australian public .
= = = " Men , money and markets " = = =
In 1923 Australia was prosperous by comparison with other developed nations of the period , having quickly rebounded economically after World War I. Unemployment and inflation were relatively low by international standards , and Commonwealth revenues had grown significantly since Australia became a federation . Australia was a vast and richly resourced country with fewer than six million inhabitants , and Bruce made it his government 's priority to develop Australia 's economy . In his first speech to the House of Representatives as prime minister , he outlined a comprehensive vision for Australia that centred on economic development , reform of the federal system , increased Commonwealth powers over industrial relations , a greater voice for Australia within the British Empire and the establishment of a national capital . He summarised this vision as a program of " men , money and markets " .
According to Bruce , men were needed to allow Australia 's extensive resources to be developed . In 1923 , much of Australia 's land was virtually unoccupied , and Bruce believed Australia had the potential to be one of the most fertile and productive nations in the world , which could sustain populations upward of 100 million over time – more than 16 times the population of his time . Despite dissenting voices from scientists , who noted that poor climate , soils and water availability were significant barriers to large populations , the Bruce @-@ Page government enacted policies to encourage large numbers of British to migrate to Australia . Under the auspices of the new Development and Migration Commission , £ 34 million in loans took place over the decade starting in 1924 to facilitate immigrant settlement through improvements to rural infrastructure , land access , and subsidising immigrant journeys ( " passages " ) . Estimates as high as half a million British immigrants over ten years were predicted at the start of the policy , whereas just over 200 @,@ 000 travelled to Australia during that time period . Bruce 's settlement plan rested on rural growth . Migrants were often selected on the basis of their willingness to work on the land ; state and Commonwealth governments concentrated their investment on rural development and encouraged returned servicemen to take up farms on the periphery of settled areas . Despite this , a majority of these migrants settled in urban areas , as Australia 's rural areas were far more remote and difficult to work ( than for example England 's ) and many of those taking advantage of the assistance scheme were urban workers or family and friends of those already settled . Immigration from outside Great Britain and her dominions was considered unpalatable – the Bruce government upheld the White Australia policy by placing strong restrictions on immigration from other areas , notwithstanding its population growth targets .
Money was borrowed from Britain to fund the state 's programs and at an unprecedented rate . Over £ 230 million was extended in loans from the City of London to state and Commonwealth treasuries during the 1920s . A further £ 140 million arrived through private investment . Bruce 's plan for Australian economic development needed a much stronger role for the Commonwealth government than had been traditionally accepted . Both he and Page were " conspicuously national rather than federal in their outlook " and sought major changes to federal @-@ state relations in order implement their development policy .
Increasingly our problems are becoming national in character ... Our financial resources are curtailed and there is an immediate repercussion throughout the Commonwealth . All our problems are common problems . None can be prosperous unless all are prospering . I am more convinced that we have to look at all our problems with the eyes of a nation and not as individuals . Where a great problem confronts a State it may be solved by the cooperation of the Commonwealth for the benefit of the States , and the benefit and advancement of the whole of Australia .
The Bruce – Page plan of May 1923 put in motion efforts to coordinate state @-@ federal operations in several areas , particularly infrastructure and rural development schemes . The Main Roads Development Act of 1923 was one of the first and most important legislative accomplishments in this vein . The act leveraged Section 96 of the Constitution to grant financial assistance to the states by employing it to fund road construction and maintenance according to the plans of the federal transportation portfolio – in effect allowing the Commonwealth to operate directly in what was constitutionality the exclusive domain of the state governments . The Act would provide a precedent for many types of " special purpose payments " that became a common feature of Australian federal fiscal relations . Despite some major successes , Bruce was more frequently frustrated by a lack of progress in many key areas of intergovernmental cooperation . The states could not be induced to standardise electrical power schemes , nor unify on track gauges , nor national health insurance despite years of work and solid arguments in favour .
Although men and money had been secured , the markets component of the Bruce plan was never fully realised . At the 1923 Imperial Economic Conference , Bruce lobbied consistently for the Conservative government of Stanley Baldwin to make changes to Great Britain 's trading arrangements to give preference to dominion products over imports from other nations . He argued for Empire @-@ wide economic trading arrangements that filled domestic demands by production from member states before seeking supplemental imports from other countries and empires . Baldwin and the Conservatives attempted to introduce such a scheme in Britain ; however , the British public feared higher prices for basic products ( particularly food ) , and this fear was a factor in the Conservative government 's defeat in the election of December 1923 . Baldwin 's successor Ramsay MacDonald repudiated the plan , much to Bruce 's chagrin , and attempts to revive negotiations foundered as economic conditions worsened throughout the decade . World agricultural prices stalled in the mid @-@ 1920s as European and American agricultural production recovered to pre @-@ war levels , and Australian exports were crowded out of markets as the decade progressed .
In 1927 , Earle Page handed down the first budget in deficit for the coalition government , and Bruce recognised that Australia 's economic position was deteriorating . Federal and state debt that year totalled just over £ 1 billion , of which £ 305 million were war debts and the rest had been spent on development that had failed had deliver high returns . Nearly half of the total debt was owed to overseas lenders , principally those in London . Economic growth was slow , and far lower than the levels hoped . Exports and revenues were falling behind government needs , and investors had begun to express alarm at Australia 's level of debt . Bruce persisted with his plans and believed that growing Australian exports were the key to rectifying the problems , thus justifying further investment and encouragement of population growth . The government did act to try to manage the debt problem . By the mid @-@ 1920s , states were borrowing at unsustainable rates to fund their own programs to compensate for dwindling revenues . In response , Bruce proposed that the responsibility for all government debts , Commonwealth and state , and the authority to acquire new debt , should be handed over to a National Loan Council in which all states would have one vote and the Commonwealth would have two votes and the casting vote . He also moved to abolish per capita payments to the states , to be replaced by a funding formula tied more to financial need . These two changes formed the Financial Agreement of 1927 , the provisions of which were approved by referendum in 1928 . These changes would prove to be amongst the most significant in Australian constitutional history , as the states had now lost much of their financial independence . Faced with severe financial pressures and an increasing reliance upon Commonwealth transfer payments , after some resistance the states consented , although vertical fiscal imbalance between the states and the Commonwealth continued to be an enduring feature of Australian federal relations .
= = = Modernising government = = =
Bruce set about applying his business principles to his cabinet , putting his experience as both a corporate manager and rowing coach to use in a cabinet system that was orderly and practical . He implemented a formal system whereby a proper agenda for cabinet meetings would be formulated , and the minister responsible for each item would circulate papers to bring other members up to speed on the issue . His decision @-@ making procedures ensured that his colleagues were informed and actively participated in decisions – or if they disagreed , gave leave for cabinet members to absent themselves from meetings to preserve cabinet solidarity . In this respect Bruce earned the quick respect and approval of his colleagues , and in many respects came to dominate cabinet through his industriousness and knowledgability . Cabinet minister George Pearce would later conclude that Bruce was the best of the prime ministers that he served or opposed in his 38 @-@ year parliamentary career .
Bruce also greatly strengthened the research and information @-@ gathering capacity of the executive , and sought to make decisions and policy on the basis of the best available evidence and information . A record 22 Royal Commissions reported to the Bruce government , as well as scores of other inquiries and research projects undertaken by the Commonwealth in a wide range of areas , particularly on economic , industrial and agricultural matters . Recognising that investment in science was essential to expanding the opportunities for agricultural and economic development in Australia , Bruce established the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research ( CSIR ) , now known as the CSIRO . He established the Bureau of Economic Research in 1929 and for the first time economists were regularly employed to advise the government on what had been until then exclusively political issues . By the time he left office , he had put in place extensive structures to provide information to the prime minister and the executive branch on most major areas of policy , a major development in the professional capacity of the Australian prime minister .
Under Bruce the Australian government also moved to its new permanent home in the planned federal city of Canberra . Plans for a new federal capital had been circulated since the time of Federation , and a site on the Molonglo River was selected in 1913 . Design and construction had proceeded slowly due to World War I as well as funding and management problems . Bruce was a committed advocate of the new capital , however , stating : " For the purposes of Federation it was essential that there should be some central point of nationhood , suitable to Australia as a nation ... and sooner or later there would have to be a national capital , overriding State boundaries and State prejudices . " This came to pass on 9 May 1927 when the Federal Parliament moved to its new premises in Canberra ; Bruce had moved himself and his wife to The Lodge a few days earlier . At the Federal Parliament 's opening ceremony , Bruce decided that voices of the clerks of the House of Representatives and the Senate were too heavily accented , and determined that he would personally welcome the Duke of York and co @-@ open the new building – a move that was criticised by several parliamentarians . The business of transferring government and cabinet operations to the new capital proceeded slowly over 1927 and 1928 . This was an administrative task that occupied a significant proportion of the government 's time in those years , with many departments only very gradually transferring from Melbourne , much to Bruce 's consternation .
= = = Imperial overtures = = =
Loyal to the concept of the British Empire , Bruce envisaged strengthening it through mutual economic development , greater political cooperation , and common policies on defence , trade and foreign affairs . His first trip abroad as prime minister was for the 1923 Imperial Conference in London . Bruce put forward a wide range of proposals for stronger cooperation between Great Britain and her dominions in a wide range of areas , particularly in the areas of trade , defence and the formulation of a common foreign policy . He particularly desired a greater role for the dominions in imperial affairs , including a collective decision @-@ making body for common questions of defence and foreign affairs . He took exception to a lack of involvement in foreign policy decisions made by Britain that would have significant ramifications for Australia . In 1922 , in what became known as the Chanak Crisis , British brinkmanship over Turkey 's aggressive manoeuvres to redefine its border with Greece had escalated to the point where the British cabinet had threatened war against Turkey . This threat included military participation of dominions in an intervention , though no dominion government had been informed of the developments in Turkey . Although a diplomatic end to the crisis was eventually found , dominion leaders were angered at having almost been committed to a military conflict without any consultation .
Bruce pushed for greater consultation and voice for the dominions , and succeeded in having Richard Casey appointed as a permanent political liaison in London who would have access to British government decisions and act as a conduit between Westminster and Melbourne . He also successfully lobbied for the creation of a Dominion Office separated out from the Colonial Office to acknowledge the different state of affairs that now existed in the Empire . However , while fellow dominions generally agreed that the imperial system should be modified , not all shared his vision for closer collaboration and strong ties . Canada and the Union of South Africa were instead seeking greater independence from London , and there was little enthusiasm for many of Bruce 's more ambitious plans for inter @-@ empire trade and policy cooperation .
Despite Australia 's greater representation in London after 1923 , Bruce 's hope for collective imperial decision @-@ making was dashed once more with the British decision to recognise the Soviet Union in 1924 . This act dismayed the fervently anti @-@ communist Bruce , who disagreed with the decision ideologically and on the grounds that once again the dominions had not been consulted . Ultimately , though , the differences between Britain 's and her dominions ' opinions on the matter were too great to be reconciled . Instead , Britain signed the General Treaty with the Soviet Union only on her own behalf , marking the first major split between Britain and Australia on a matter of foreign policy . Despite its applicability solely to European security arrangements , Bruce had criticised Britain 's signing of the Locarno Treaties in 1925 without dominion consultation ; though the eventual treaty was not binding on the dominions .
The 1926 Imperial Conference confirmed that Britain and her dominions were rapidly diverging in interests and that greater independence – not greater cooperation – was the most practical solution . Bruce recognised the empire had reached a turning point , but despite his optimism for a reinvigorated imperial system , there was little interest from other governments . His plan for greater economic and defensive cooperation was discussed , as well as a revival of imperial preference in trading arrangements , but such ideas were now politically unpalatable in Britain and failed to develop . His attitudes were almost the opposite of those held by the leaders of Canada , South Africa and the Irish Free State . As Prime Minister Baldwin remarked at the conference , " If you , Mr Bruce , would use the word ' Empire ' a bit less and you Mr McGilligan would use it a bit more , then we would make better progress . " Ultimately proposals for greater independence won out , and 1926 Imperial Conference recognised through the Balfour Declaration that dominions were essentially independent entities that freely associated as the British Commonwealth of Nations , though after much negotiation it stopped short of using the terms nation or state . Governors @-@ General were redefined as representatives only of the British monarch , not the British government , and were obliged now to act only on the advice of their respective dominion governments . These changes were both symbolically and practically significant in the transformation of the dominions from colonies to independent nations . Bruce had mixed feelings about these developments ; on the one hand he believed that the Empire was still a strong and vital international organization playing a positive role in international affairs , but on the other hand he was disappointed that other member nations did not share his vision or commitment to maintaining its integrity and unity . Bruce did have some successes at the conference , however , expanding the work of the Imperial Economic Committee and increasing inter @-@ empire cooperation in technical and scientific areas .
= = = Industrial relations = = =
Strikes and industrial unrest were frequent in the aftermath of World War I , arising from discontent over poor conditions and the rise of militant labour organizations like the Communist Party of Australia and the Industrial Workers of the World . The problems were made worse in Australia due to the overlapping system of industrial courts that had evolved since Federation . Although federal arbitration was intended for industrial disputes that impacted upon multiple states or federal employees , courts had through several judgments greatly expanded the potential jurisdiction of federal arbitration , and the system had developed into a duality with both state and federal tribunals weighing into a wide range of industrial disputes . This was exploited by both unions and employers , who pursued matters in the courts they felt most likely to be favourable and switched between different jurisdictions to arrive at the best combination of state and federal conditions . Protracted disputes arose as employers and employees pursued disputes in different courts or refused to recognise the rulings of one in favour of the other . Billy Hughes and several of his predecessors had sought resolution to the problem through greater Commonwealth powers , but all referendums to expand Commonwealth industrial powers had failed at the ballot box .
Bruce 's attitudes towards industrial relations were varied , and he was initially unsympathetic to either employer or employee complaints , believing the best resolutions to be those brokered between businesses and their employees . He frequently called upon both sides to embrace a spirit of cooperation . The situation became acute when waterfront workers led by the Seamen 's Union went on strike in 1925 . This had severe and immediate effect on the Australian economy , reliant as it was on sea transportation for its imports and exports , a situation the Prime Minister recognised as untenable . With the union disregarding Commonwealth rulings on the dispute , Bruce rushed through the Navigation Act and the Immigration Act . The first allowed British and foreign shipping not working under Australian industrial awards to operate in Australian waters ( although British vessels working in Australia would soon initiate a strike of their own ) . The second allowed the Commonwealth to deport any foreign @-@ born person whom a special tribunal found guilty of " disrupting the industrial life of the community " . Key foreign @-@ born strike leaders were immediately targeted for deportation , but New South Wales Premier Jack Lang refused to allow state police to serve summonses on two leading union leaders . Bruce responded with the Peace Officers Act , which re @-@ established a Commonwealth police force .
These heavy @-@ handed tactics drew outrage from the Labor Party , which challenged the Prime Minister to seek approval from the people . This Bruce did , and the elections of 1925 were Australia 's first " red scare " election . He campaigned for industrial peace and an increased Commonwealth role in securing it , but also denounced " foreign agitators " and " class war " in appealing for law and order on the waterfront . He openly challenged pre @-@ existing federal arrangements , stating on the campaign trail that Australia " should now consider whether that great historic instrument , the Constitution , meets the needs of to @-@ day in the light of the developments which have taken place " . The campaign was a success and the Bruce government was easily re @-@ elected , increasing by 11 seats its majority over a disheartened ALP , whose leader Matthew Charlton was in poor health .
" My government was returned to power on a clear issue and with a definite mission ... to introduce measures for the preservation of industrial peace " , Bruce declared during his second term , and called a referendum to amend the Australian Constitution and bring industrial relations under the exclusive jurisdiction of the Commonwealth . Attempts to amend the constitution for this purpose had been rejected narrowly in 1911 , 1913 and 1919 , but against a background of ongoing industrial strife , Bruce made clear the problems of mixed jurisdiction , confusing dual @-@ awards , and insufficient regulatory and enforcement powers at the Commonwealth level . Controversially , he also formulated an " essential services " question to be put at the same time , giving the government the power to protect the public from any " actual or probable disruption to essential services " . These proposals drew hostile reception from many quarters – even from future conservative prime minister Robert Menzies – and both the Australian Labor Party and conservative groups were divided in opinion on the amendments , with the ALP eventually taking no fixed position on the questions . But by September the issue had drawn so much controversy and ill @-@ feeling that it was no surprise for many commentators that the proposals failed to attract sufficient popular support to overcome the high bar for constitutional change .
The problems of industrial unrest continued to flare up , and the waterfront remained a flashpoint . In a review of the Commonwealth Conciliation and Arbitration Act in 1928 , Bruce required industrial courts to consider the economic effects of its awards in addition to the welfare of worker . Immediate problems followed when a new award for waterside workers in 1928 worsened conditions for workers on economic grounds . New industrial action led by the Waterfront Workers Federation broke out . In Melbourne these turned to riots , claiming casualties and at least one fatality . Reviving the " red scare " pitch for the 1928 election campaign , Bruce pushed the Transport Workers Act through parliament in response , which gave the executive unprecedented regulatory power in industrial relations . All waterfront workers now required federal licenses , or " dog collars " as they were derisively known , to work . The act allowed the Commonwealth government to effectively control who worked on the docks and nearly destroyed the Waterfront Workers Federation , earning the government deep unpopularity among organised labour .
At the 1928 election Bruce 's government was returned to power , but it now had a majority of just nine – a fragile result , given the growing propensity for Nationalist member defections . Most of the Nationalists ' parliamentary gains from 1925 had been wiped out . James Scullin had assumed the leadership of the ALP earlier in the year , upon the retirement of Charlton , and the party was invigorated as a consequence . Bruce was undeterred , though , and became convinced that unless costs of production for industry in Australia could be lowered and industrial peace secured , Australia was heading towards a major economic crisis . This doctrine was the basis of his appeals to the public for the next year and a half .
= = = Maritime industries crisis = = =
As early as 1927 economic indicators were signalling the onset of a recession in Australia . By 1929 , the evidence was unavoidable that recession was becoming depression as a resulting of rapidly deteriorating international conditions . In that year , prices for Australian exports fell by nearly a third and GDP had fallen by 10 % , with no attendant fall in the cost of living . Australia 's debt now stood at £ 631 million – the interest payments on which were equivalent to nearly half of Australia 's export receipts , a situation difficult to sustain even in a positive economic climate . Investors and banks recognised the risk and Australia 's credit access was rapidly drying up . Bruce 's grand economic development plans had increased the national debt significantly yet had delivered only marginal economic expansion in the short term .
To make matters worse for the government , industrial unrest was a persisting problem , particularly in the economically key states of New South Wales and Victoria . The opposition had become more potent as well : Scullin was widely recognised as one of the parliament 's most gifted and articulate members ; even his opponents respected his personal probity . Scullin forecast that the Australian economy was highly vulnerable given its indebtedness , and was on a course for severe depression if government finances were not turned around dramatically .
Furthermore , the Prime Minister 's own party was breaking down underneath him . There had been no official party platform yet agreed to , and individual members had a wide degree of latitude to determine the issues they ran on , leading to frequent government defections on legislation . The government 's existing nine @-@ seat majority shrank during 1928 and 1929 over various issues , as a result of by @-@ elections , and several leading figures who had previously worked with Bruce became increasingly sharp critics of him . Hughes and Edward Mann were two of the government 's most ardent opponents in 1929 .
Worsening economic conditions had put further pressure on industrial relations , with unemployment rising and employers seeking to cut costs . Strikes of sugar mill workers in 1927 , waterside workers in 1928 , and then transport and timber industry workers in 1929 continued to disrupt economic operations . The worst came with ongoing disputes between miners and mine owners on the coalfields of New South Wales had culminated in riots and lockouts in 1929 , and intervention by the Bruce government failed to produce a settlement . Notably , in March 1929 Newcastle @-@ based mine owner John Brown locked out workers from his mines at Pelaw Main and Richmond Main to try to force acceptance of lower wages . Attorney @-@ General John Latham pursued legal action against Brown for illegally using coercive industrial tactics , but Bruce intervened to stop the prosecution , believing the case to be doubtful and that dropping it would give the government a chance to negotiate an end to the dispute . The mine @-@ owners refused to accede to government @-@ brokered negotiations anyway , and the government was seen to have been siding with rich businesses and applying double standards , undermining Bruce 's own credibility as an impartial leader and law @-@ and @-@ order prime minister .
Bruce and the conservatives in parliament became increasingly convinced that " economic deterioration [ was ] the product , rather than the possible cause , of worsening industrial relations . " Exasperated , the Prime Minister made a dramatic move and presented an ultimatum to the Australian state governments : either they should voluntarily hand their powers of industrial regulation to the federal government , or the federal government would divest itself of its industrial powers and dismantle federal arbitration . The announcement came as a major shock to all sides of politics , not least the members of Bruce 's own cabinet , most of whom had not been informed of the dramatic change in policy until the day it was announced to the states . Bruce calculated that the states would not give up their powers , and thus the move was one designed to sanction the end of Commonwealth arbitration . For Bruce , the only inconceivable outcome now was that the status quo of dual jurisdiction remained unchanged . The opposition to the proposal , which the Prime Minister introduced to the parliament as the Maritime Industries Bill , was swift and fierce . In 1929 over 150 unions and 700 @,@ 000 workers were covered by Commonwealth awards over a wide range of industries – although there was dissatisfaction in the coal and timber sectors , most were happy with their arrangements and feared worse pay and conditions if moved back to state awards . He defended his actions as being necessary to create certainty and end the duplication that had caused so many problems in recent years .
Other government decisions in 1929 had attracted controversy as well . Page handed down his last budget on 22 August , which hinted at the burgeoning debt crisis and introduced a new tax on entertainment and theatres to help cover the deficit . The tax was very unpopular with the public , and the entertainment industry mounted a vocal campaign to stop it . Bruce , supported by the Brigden Report of 1929 , also raised concern that protective tariffs were too high and were in need of reform – a position controversial with the powerful protected industries .
The second reading of the Maritime Industries Bill passed by only four votes , with Hughes , Edward Mann and George Maxwell voting against the government . Hughes moved an amendment to the bill that stipulated it should only take effect after being approved by the people at a referendum or general election . Bruce ruled out any referendum , stating that the amendment would constitute a vote of confidence in his government and urged his party to vote it down . Nationalist MP Walter Marks and Independent MP William McWilliams joined the opposition , giving the opposition a one @-@ vote majority . Bruce and his supporters now lobbied the Speaker , Sir Littleton Groom to make a deliberative vote in committee to tie the numbers , leaving the Committee chairman James Bayley with the casting ( and presumably pro @-@ government ) vote . Groom refused , citing long @-@ standing Westminster ( though not Australian ) parliamentary tradition of the speaker 's impartiality . Groom 's bitterness at having been dismissed by Bruce from the job of Attorney @-@ General in 1925 had a significant bearing on his later decision .
A snap election was called , with Bruce taking his case to the people that dramatic action on industrial relations was needed . Opposition Leader Scullin forcefully attacked the government , blaming the Prime Minister for an industrial environment that was adversarial and punitive , stressing that Commonwealth arbitration had safeguarded many rights of workers and was completely workable with conciliation and proper consultation . Scullin also criticised the government for the growing debt problem and economic malaise , which for some years he had predicted would lead to a major economic crisis .
In the event , the government was soundly defeated on 12 October , losing more than half its seats in parliament . To add to his humiliation , Bruce was defeated in his own seat of Flinders by Labor challenger Jack Holloway . On paper , there was no indication that Bruce was in any danger of losing his seat ; he held Flinders with a reasonably safe majority of 10 @.@ 7 percent in 1928 . However , on the second count Holloway picked up enough preferences from an independent Liberal candidate to give him the victory . Bruce was the first sitting prime minister to lose his own seat , a feat which would not be repeated until 2007 . He was measured in defeat however , stating , " The people have said they do not want my services , and I am going into the banishment to which they have sent me . "
= = Return to government , 1929 – 33 = =
Bruce returned to England after his defeat to holiday and attend to his business . Sir John Latham , took over as leader of the Nationalists . With the stock market crash in 1929 and the onset of the Great Depression in Australia , Bruce commented to his colleagues that their defeat was probably fortunate . But he ardently defended his government 's record , maintaining that the economic crisis was inevitable and that his own policies were justified attempts to try to strengthen the Australian economy . It was this defence that he mounted in April 1931 when he announced he would return to politics and seek to regain his seat of Flinders at the next election . By now the Nationalists had regrouped as the United Australia Party ( UAP ) under Joseph Lyons , who had defected with several others from the embattled Scullin government .
In November 1931 the Scullin government was defeated in parliament over its controversial Premiers ' Plan , catching Bruce by surprise as he was in England attending to Paterson , Laing and Bruce affairs when a new election was called . The Scullin government was subsequently defeated in a landslide , losing a then @-@ record 32 seats ; the two Labor factions were cut down to only 18 seats between them . With Holloway having abandoned Flinders to run in the much friendlier Melbourne Ports , Bruce was returned in absentia to his old seat , regaining it with a swing of 18 @.@ 5 percent . He was appointed assistant treasurer in the new Lyons Government , Lyons having taken the treasury portfolio personally . Lyons leaned heavily on Bruce and Latham in his first six months of government , though Bruce had by now set his sights on international affairs rather than the domestic crisis .
Bruce led the Australian delegation to the 1932 Imperial Economic Conference in Ottawa . He redoubled his efforts to improve Australian economic prospects with the empire , and the conference agreed to a limited form of his long @-@ sought imperial preference scheme that would give Australia greater access and competitiveness in imperial markets over five years , an achievement for which Bruce received much praise from the Lyons government . The closer trading arrangements of the Ottawa Agreements would set the pattern for Australian @-@ British trade relations until Britain 's entry in the European Common Market in 1973 .
After the success of the Imperial Economic Conference , Lyons appointed Bruce to London as Resident Minister in the United Kingdom – it was to remain his and Ethel 's home for the rest of their lives . His first task in London was to renegotiate the terms of Australia 's burgeoning government debts , the repayment of which was crippling Depression @-@ era Australia . Over two years , he negotiated with the Westminster Bank and the British Government for loan conversions worth £ 84 million , which saved Australia millions of pounds in interest over several years and along with the Ottawa Agreements were significant in helping alleviate the Australian government 's budgetary difficulties . Bruce was asked at several points during the 1930s to return to Australia by UAP backers and other political figures , who hoped that he could replace Lyons as prime minister . He himself had questioned Lyons ' health and capacity to execute the role effectively , but he showed little interest in returning . In 1938 and 1939 Bruce was approached by senior UAP figures and Lyons himself to return to Australia and assume the leadership of the government , which was struggling under the ailing Lyons , but he either flatly declined or set conditions for his return ( such as an all @-@ party government behind him ) that were impossible to meet .
= = High Commissioner to the United Kingdom , 1933 – 45 = =
In September 1933 , Bruce was appointed by Lyons to replace the ailing Sir Granville Ryrie as High Commissioner to the United Kingdom , giving him ambassadorial rank . He formally resigned from parliament on 7 October 1933 . Bruce would excel in the new post , becoming a trusted confidant among Conservative politicians and a familiar face in British government circles , which led to him at one point considering entering British politics formally . Bruce was particularly close to Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin , with whom he frequently consulted , and was notably influential in pressing for Edward VIII 's abdication in 1936 . His importance and power in London was due in part to the free rein that Lyons gave him – a rarity in the history of the position . Combined with the turmoil and frequent ministerial changes within the Commonwealth Department of External Affairs , Bruce was generally credited as Australia 's most influential and credible international representative during his posting , often determining matters of foreign policy in his own right .
= = = League of Nations = = =
Bruce represented Australia at the League of Nations and successfully lobbied for Australia to participate as a member of the League Council from 1933 to 1936 . He opposed action against Japan following the invasion of Manchuria in 1933 , concerned as to Australia 's trading relationship with Japan and the potential future threat it posed to peace in the Pacific . He also attempted to steer the League away from sanctioning member nations , believing it yet lacked the military or economic sway to do so effectively and feared the breakdown of the League – a prospect that loomed after Germany and Japan departed the body in 1933 . During the Abyssinia Crisis , Bruce again counselled against partial sanctions , believing them the worst option as they would not stop the Ethiopian invasion and yet would alienate Italy – then a potential ally against a rearming Nazi Germany . He further argued for much greater rearmament efforts in the United Kingdom and France to provide greater military capacity to enforce future decisions by the League . Bruce assumed the presidency of the League of Nations Council in 1936 at the height of the crisis and after the failure of the Hoare – Laval Pact between France , Italy and Britain , but further attempts to forestall the invasion failed . He presided as League Council President during the Rhineland Crisis , although once again attempts to respond to fascist aggression failed . Although this did not shake his conviction in the potential of the League , he saw it doomed to failure without fundamental reforms to its structure and system of sanctions . He was nominated by Turkey to chair the 1936 Montreux Conference , which was far more successful in negotiating international agreement on passage through the Turkish Straits – an issue of particular relevance to Bruce as a veteran of the Gallipoli campaign . Despite the turmoil of his presidency , the League historian F.B. Walters would later describe Bruce as " the best , perhaps , of the many first @-@ rate chairmen who presided over the Council , Conferences , or Committees of the League " .
By 1937 Bruce 's attention had shifted to social and economic cooperation , which he believed had far greater potential for success and was of greater importance to humanity at large . He had taken a leading role in promoting agriculture , nutrition and economic cooperation through the League of Nations , working intensively with Frank McDougall and John Boyd Orr throughout the decade . In 1937 he presented a plan of " economic appeasement " , which built on this work and aimed to ease international tensions by reviving international trade and improving living standards in Europe through better working conditions , lower food prices , rural credits and housing assistance . Barriers to trade would gradually be reduced while European nations still recovering from the depression would be reintegrated into the international economy . In doing so he made a firm link between international trade and international peace , believing it key to unlocking world economic potential . Foreshadowing the logic of the Marshall Plan , Bruce argued that unrelieved economic and social hardship threatened to push other nations towards fascism or communism .
I feel very strongly that it will be impossible to find a solution to the political problems of Europe and remove the present nightmare conditions unless something is done to improve the economic position ... it is vital for the prestige and future wellbeing of the League that it should afford active leadership towards bringing about economic appeasement .
The plan was supported by Secretary @-@ General Joseph Louis Anne Avenol , who like Bruce recognised that the League was rapidly becoming moribund and that a major change of direction was needed , although neither was successful in convincing key states in contributing to the plan . Critically , new British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain could not be convinced by Bruce to invest further into the development of the League , and the body began to lose its political impetus as war loomed . He would continue to press for League reform in the lead up to the war . The Bruce committee to advise on League reform was formed in 1939 in the aftermath of the partition of Czechoslovakia by Nazi Germany and the apparent failure of Chamberlain 's appeasement policy . This committee , which met in July and August 1939 , proposed a significant expansion of Bruce 's earlier ideas to the League , bringing a wide range of economic and social programs under its purview as a means of fostering international cooperation . Their work , however , would be rendered moot by the outbreak of World War II .
= = = World War II = = =
In the events leading up to World War II , Bruce and Lyons had been supporters of the British under Chamberlain and the policy of appeasement exercised with regards to the reoccupation of the Rhineland , the Anschluss and the Munich Crisis . Even during the " phoney war " , Bruce continued to advocate the implementation of a more durable international system to enforce peace through mutual disarmament , the expansion of transnational trade , and global organizations capable of addressing the pressing social and economic questions that he felt were the recurrent causes of international conflict . He had become a close confidant of senior Conservative Party figures Anthony Eden and Neville Chamberlain in this period , and was strident in advancing the opinion of Australia ( and the dominions more broadly ) that negotiation and compromise with Nazi Germany was preferable to war . Bruce actively participated in the negotiations for the Munich Agreement . When Lyons died in April 1939 , Earle Page and Richard Casey personally appealed for Bruce to return to Australia and take over once more as prime minister at the head of the UAP . Bruce demurred , however , and made it the condition of his return that he be allowed to sit in parliament as an independent and lead an all @-@ party unity government . Such conditions were politically impossible to meet , and Robert Menzies was elected as the new leader of the UAP .
Britain 's declaration of war against Germany on 3 September 1939 was followed within hours by Australia 's Prime Minister Menzies stating that because of Britain 's declaration Australia too was now at war with Germany . Winston Churchill 's accession as British Prime Minister in May 1940 brought Bruce into frequent conflict with the British government . Churchill saw the dominions as still semi @-@ dependent colonies who were at London 's command whereas Bruce saw the Empire as a kind of international partnership and the dominions as rightful parties to the decision @-@ making process . Britain 's preoccupation with the European theatre alarmed Australian politicians , given the tenuous position of Far Eastern possessions and the looming possibility of Japanese invasion . After a string of defeats in the Far East , particularly the Fall of Singapore , the Australian government was finally successful in having Bruce accredited to the British War Cabinet and Pacific War Council as an Australian ( and dominion ) representative . However , Bruce soon became embroiled in the disputes over Churchill 's autocratic leadership style and his lack of consultation with the cabinet over war decisions . He was regularly left out of cabinet communique or not invited to meetings , much to his displeasure . With the fear of Japanese invasion mounting in Australia throughout 1942 , Bruce directly confronted Churchill on a number of occasions over Far East policy and the continuing lack of consultation with Australia and his own cabinet . Churchill usually responded by rebuffing him or pointedly excluding him further from government business . Although outwardly relenting in the face of pressure exerted by the dominions for representation in war decisions , Churchill routinely marginalised or ignored that representation . Bruce persisted in this difficult arrangement until May 1944 when he became completely disillusioned and resigned , choosing other forums in which to represent Australia in London . In spite of his tempestuous relationship with Churchill , Bruce was held in high regard by many cabinet members , particularly future prime ministers Clement Attlee and Anthony Eden , and his dogged determination to advance dominion interests during the war years earned him high praise from John Curtin and the other dominion prime ministers .
= = Food and Agriculture Organization , 1946 – 51 = =
By the war 's end in 1945 , Bruce had become tired of the High Commission posting and hinted to Curtin 's successor Ben Chifley that he would not object to being replaced in the position . In the last years of the war he had envisaged a post @-@ war order based on a continuing alliance of the four powers – the United States , the British Empire , the Soviet Union and China – that could evolve into a new international body with a similar function as the League of Nations , but with a stronger role and authority in international matters . Bruce had rejoined Frank McDougall and John Boyd Orr in these years in reviving their proposals for international cooperation on nutrition and agriculture . He wrote and made representations at all levels on the subject , and became a leading voice once more advocating the creation of an international body to examine social and economic questions , much as he had done during his years with the League of Nations . The efforts of McDougall , Bruce and Orr finally paid off when their work came to the attention of Eleanor Roosevelt , and subsequently the American government , and their proposals would find expression at the Food and Agriculture Conference that Franklin Roosevelt convened in Hot Springs , Virginia , in May 1943 . This conference agreed to the establishment of the Food and Agriculture Organization ( FAO ) , which became an associated institution with the United Nations when it was established formally in October 1945 .
As the war in Europe drew to a close and the United Nations Charter was promulgated in June 1945 , Bruce 's name was among those being considered to become the first Secretary @-@ General of the United Nations , with American Secretary of State Dean Acheson and British Foreign Minister Anthony Eden actively supporting his candidacy . Bruce , however , was now 62 and indicated that he felt himself too old for the position , instead preferring a less demanding role considering economic and social questions . In 1946 he assumed the chairmanship of the FAO Preparatory Commission on World Food Proposals , which had the mission of establishing a " world food board " to coordinate international policy on nutrition and develop a system to eliminate global agricultural shortages . He proposed many international schemes as part of this work , particularly a world food reserve and special pricing mechanisms to reallocate and release food to where it was most needed in times of need . Bruce 's Commission also placed a high emphasis on agricultural modernization , international development aid , commodity agreements and price stability to help starving developing nations in its findings presented in 1947 . The proposals were never adopted , as the costs and challenges to national sovereignty proved too difficult to overcome politically .
Undeterred , Bruce was elected Chairman of the newly formed FAO Council in November 1947 , working once more with John Boyd Orr , now Secretary @-@ General of the FAO . Acute shortages of cereals and livestock were rampant following severe droughts in Europe , and the international food supply system was under serious strain after the devastation of the war . Bruce and the council worked in these years to distribute fertiliser and agricultural machinery , as well as improve nutrition , especially in less developed nations . More than two @-@ thirds of the world was undernourished in 1949 and Bruce felt it imperative for the Council to bring these stark facts to the developed nations . A landmark agreement on technical aid between the FAO and the United Nations was reached in November 1949 , and the FAO received the funding and logistical capacity to act on the food shortage crisis and the problems of poor nutrition in the developing world . Bruce and the FAO were successful in these years in supporting the recovery of world agricultural output . By 1951 this had exceeded pre @-@ war levels , and general levels of nutrition were rising internationally , but by the time Bruce stepped down in that year neither had improved fast enough to keep pace with the post @-@ war population boom . The Council faced major obstacles in supporting the improvement of conditions in the developing world as governments there began diverting resources to arms programs as independence , post @-@ colonial and Cold War conflicts multiplied . Frustrated by continuing world conflict and the lack of commitment from the developed world to support the lofty but very difficult aims of the FAO , both Bruce and Orr resigned from the FAO disappointed by its modest gains and insufficient powers to alleviate world food problems .
= = Later life = =
Bruce occupied a range of positions in his later years , sharing his time between the United Kingdom and Australia . He had been Chairman of the Finance Corporation of Industry since 1946 and continued in the role until 1957 , providing finance to projects of benefit to the British national economy . Bruce helped establish the program in Australia in 1954 and on a Commonwealth basis in 1956 . He became the first Chancellor of the newly established Australian National University in 1952 , and took an active interest in its development , especially as a research centre for the study of Asia and the Pacific . Bruce concluded that Australia 's position in the world had changed as a result of World War II , commenting :
[ Australia ] has become a bridgehead between East and West . It is now vital that Australia should understand the problems of the East , that she should do whatever is in her power to alleviate those problems , and that she should interpret the nature of those problems to the rest of the world .
The residential college Bruce Hall was named in his honour , and he remained active in the life of the university until his retirement from the position in 1961 . Bruce sat as director on many corporate boards in retirement , notably the National Bank of Australia , P & O and the National Mutual Life Association . In 1947 he became the first Australian to sit in the House of Lords ( Sir John Forrest had been granted a peerage but died before it could be invested ) .
Having been elevated to the peerage as Viscount Bruce of Melbourne by long @-@ time colleague Clement Attlee , he would be an active participant in the chamber , attending regularly right up until his death . Bruce used it as a platform to continue to campaign on international and national social and economic questions , and to promote recognition and representation for Australia within the Commonwealth , though by this time Australian and British interests were becoming increasingly far apart , and the British Empire was rapidly disintegrating . He also continued to lobby the British government in these years to increase its commitment to third world development and the FAO . An avid golfer his whole life , Bruce became the first Australian captain of the Royal and Ancient Golf Club of St Andrews in 1954 . He also continued to coach rowing at Cambridge University sporadically , and frequently appeared at public events both in Australia and in England .
He was a freemason .
= = Death and legacy = =
Bruce remained active and in good health right through his retirement despite the gradual onset of deafness , but the death of his wife Ethel in March 1967 took a deep toll on him . He died on 25 August 1967 at the age of 84 . He was the last surviving member of Billy Hughes ' Cabinet . His memorial service was held at St Martin @-@ in @-@ the @-@ Fields and was widely attended , including by representatives of the Royal Family . His ashes were scattered over Lake Burley Griffin in Canberra . The Canberra suburb of Bruce , and the electoral Division of Bruce based in south @-@ east Melbourne , were both named for him after his death .
Despite his many accomplishments both at home and abroad , Bruce 's post @-@ prime ministerial career was not well known in Australia , and most still harboured memories of his harsh anti @-@ union legislation and his government 's landslide defeat in 1929 . His public persona was one of an aloof man , too English for Australia in style and bearing . Upon his death in 1967 , The Age of his hometown Melbourne remarked that " for most Australians , he is little more than a shadow . " Bruce spent much of his life and career in the United Kingdom , the country that conversely held him in high regard , but never forgot his Australian roots and for much of his career was a tireless advocate for its interests . In contrast to his image as a member of the British aristocratic elite , he spent much of his later career working for solutions to the problems facing the world 's poorest .
Bruce was high @-@ minded and ambitious in setting an agenda – as prime minister he pursued complex and aspiring schemes of economic , social and administrative development , including grandiose solutions to the problem of industrial relations and an egalitarian reworking of the British Empire . In his diplomatic career he pursued better treatment for the Commonwealth and programs through the League of Nations and United Nations that would address world questions of pressing social and economic concern , culminating in his most ambitious work to eliminate world hunger through the Food and Agriculture Organization . The Australian government even nominated Bruce for the Nobel Peace Prize in recognition for these efforts . Yet his schemes frequently bordered on the idealistic , and he was frequently disappointed at the limited degree to which he could practically implement his ideas . As Bruce himself would concede in later life , he was overly ambitious by nature and " forever buying into things that aren 't really my concern " . But despite his lack of public recognition in Australia , peers and historians have long recognised the abiding impact Bruce had both as prime minister and internationalist , leading his successor as Chancellor of the Australian National University Sir John Cockcroft to conclude in 1962 that Bruce was " probably the outstanding Australian of our time " . The Melbourne Sun agreed with the assessment , stating upon his death that Bruce was " probably the least remembered but the most extraordinary of our Prime Ministers " .
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= Blast Corps =
Blast Corps is a 1997 action video game for the Nintendo 64 in which the player uses vehicles to destroy buildings in the path of a runaway nuclear missile carrier . In the game 's 57 levels , the player solves puzzles by transferring between vehicles to move objects and bridge gaps . It was developed by Rare , published by Nintendo , and released in March 1997 in Japan and North America . A wider release followed at the end of that year .
The game was among Rare 's first for the Nintendo 64 . Its development team ranged between four and seven members , many of whom were recent graduates . The team sought to find gameplay to fit Rare co @-@ founder Chris Stamper 's idea for a building destruction game . The puzzle game mechanics were inspired by those of Donkey Kong ( 1994 ) .
Blast Corps was released to universal acclaim and received Metacritic 's second highest Nintendo 64 ratings of 1997 . The game sold one million copies — lower than the team 's expectations — and received several editor 's choice awards . Reviewers highly praised its originality , variety , and graphics , but some critiqued its controls and repetition . Reviewers of Rare 's 2015 Rare Replay retrospective compilation noted Blast Corps as a standout title .
= = Gameplay = =
Blast Corps is a single @-@ player action video game . The player controls vehicles to destroy buildings , farms , and other structures in the path of a runaway nuclear missile carrier . The player fails if the carrier collides with an object . The eight demolition vehicles vary in the way they clear structures : the bulldozer rams , the dump truck drifts , the lightweight buggy crashes from higher ground , the tricycle shoots missiles , another truck presses outwards from its sides , and robot mechs tumble and stomp from the land and the air . The player must transfer between vehicles and other machinery to solve puzzles . Objectives include transporting timed explosive crates and bridging gaps . The game 's puzzles increase in difficulty as the player progresses through its 57 levels .
The world is portrayed from a three @-@ quarters overhead view . The player can adjust the game 's viewable perspective with zoom and horizontal panning functions . Pop @-@ up hints will guide the player in the early stages of the game , and other characters audibly encourage the player as each level wears on . The cheery soundtrack increases in tempo as the level 's timer runs low . After completing a level , the player can return to explore without a time limit . By finding secrets and activating lights throughout the level , the player raises their score and final medal ranking . There are also secret levels hidden throughout the game , where the player completes objectives against the clock . The player can compete against a ghost copy of their previous path through a level . There are no settings to change the game 's difficulty , and the game saves to both the game cartridge itself and external storage .
= = Development = =
Blast Corps was among Rare 's first games for the Nintendo 64 and led a run of seven critically acclaimed Rare titles for the console . The game 's production began in early 1996 . The development team consisted of four recent graduates , though it expanded at times to seven concurrent staff . Martin Wakeley became the game 's lead designer . He credited the team 's small size for their easy progression from planning to market . Rare founder Chris Stamper was the impetus for the project . He had wanted to make a game about destroying buildings for years prior to Blast Corps 's development . The team worked to fit his idea to a gameplay concept and devised a " Constantly Moving Object " conceit that would give the levels a time limit . This idea became the nuclear missile carrier .
Retro Gamer credited Wakeley for Blast Corps 's idiosyncratic ideas and humor in light of the game 's serious premise . For instance , the Mario Kart 64 " power slide " drift mechanics inspired that of Blast Corps 's dump truck . Wakeley championed the drift controls against the rest of the team , who found them aggravating . The game 's lead artist , Ricky Berwick , had developed the vehicle concepts without consideration for their in @-@ game function , and the vehicles were only later retrofitted to the gameplay . One of the robot vehicles was designed without an arm because the developers had run out of computer memory to store the data and liked the look anyway . Wakeley determined the game 's high score " goal medal " objectives , in which players would attempt to better a set completion time on each level . Blast Corps 's Japanese and American quality assurance teams later competed to push the levels to their limits , which resulted in the game 's platinum level objectives . Wakeley described these platinum challenges as " just insane " and said he could only finish four himself .
Wakeley saw Blast Corps as a puzzle game at its core . He was influenced by the 1994 Donkey Kong , in which the player begins each level with all the tools they need to finish but must learn how to use them . Wakeley said this was Blast Corp 's core game mechanic . He was also inspired by the Super Mario 64 demo at the 1995 Space World , which introduced him to the 3D analog stick and spurred him achieve something similar . The team 's technical accomplishments included character and environment models composed completely of polygons and the absence of distance fog to obscure the draw distance .
Nintendo published Blast Corps for their Nintendo 64 . It was originally titled Blast Dozer in its 1995 Shōshinkai preview , a name it retained for its Japanese release . ( The team had considered other titles , including " Heavy Duty Heroes " , " Blast Radius " , and " Power Dozer " . ) Blast Corps was first released in Japan on March 21 , 1997 , and in North America three days later . Its European and Australian release followed on December 22 . The game had been in production for just over a year .
= = Reception = =
The game received " universal acclaim " , according to video game review aggregator Metacritic , and " unanimous critical success " , according to Retro Gamer . Reviewers highly praised the novelty and variety of Blast Corps 's gameplay . Peer Schneider ( IGN ) , in particular , lauded the game 's originality in an industry hesitant to take risks .
Reviewers struggled to master the game 's controls . Schneider ( IGN ) overcame his initial concerns to appreciate the complexity of the controls and the differences between the vehicles . He considered the locked camera view restrictive when compared to the unrestricted 3D camera in the game 's contemporaries . Schneider thought the game should have been longer , with fewer bonus levels and more main missions , though he did appreciate the pacing , design , and difficulty of the included levels . EGM similarly found the bonus stages mediocre . One of their reviewers went further and thought the whole game was repetitive , as did Computer and Video Games . The latter , though , praised Blast Corps 's level design and difficulty progression . Crispin of Electronic Gaming Monthly ( EGM ) wrote that the game 's best feature was its " palpable sense of suspense " as the carrier advanced on resistant buildings .
Critics praised the game 's graphics and sound . Schneider ( IGN ) found the game unpretentious in comparison to video game trends of photorealistic rendering and cartoonish art . He likened the slick vehicle animations and metallic elements to Micro Machines and Rare 's R.C. Pro @-@ Am . He felt that Blast Corps 's explosions were not as robust as those in Turok : Dinosaur Hunter . Schneider praised the game 's texture maps , which made the night scenes and houses look realistic , and the canyons breathtaking . He also liked the detail in the vehicles ' skid marks and gradual building disintegration . He wrote that the game 's 3D programming was errorless , and was particularly pleased about the game 's lack of fog , usually used to cover developer limitations . EGM echoed Schneider 's praise of the deep landscapes , which the magazine called " incredible " . Scott McCall ( AllGame ) praised the game 's realistic polygonal models and technical prowess , and Steve Polak ( The Weekend Australian ) wrote that Blast Corps showcased the console 's graphics capabilities . Schneider ( IGN ) described the soundtrack as between " 70s pop , disaster movie score , and Country Bear Jamboree " . He praised the range of engine , tire screeching , and crashing sound effects . Reviewers disliked the country music tracks with jaw harp , though IGN thought it was a matter of taste .
IGN wrote that Blast Corps exemplified qualities of enjoyable Nintendo Entertainment System and arcade games , while EGM considered the game unlike all others . Retro Gamer wrote that the game 's combination of puzzles and continuous destruction made the game so unique as to defy genre classification . The magazine described the gameplay concept of returning to explore without a time limit as " a stroke of genius " . Retro Gamer thought of Blast Corps as a 3D successor to " nail @-@ biting reaction games " such as Loco @-@ Motion . Computer and Video Games agreed with a reader that Blast Corps was part of a " Destroy " subgenre including games like Desert Strike , Return Fire , and Body Harvest , and Matt Fox of The Video Games Guide put the game in a lineage with Highway Encounter and Lunar Jetman . Schneider ( IGN ) said Blast Corps was on par with the quality of Shigeru Miyamoto games and an excellent display of Rare 's potential .
Blast Corps sold one million copies , which was fewer than Rare had expected . The game was most successful in Japan . Metacritic ranked the title among the top ten games released in 1997 . It remained Metacritic 's highest ranked 1997 Nintendo 64 game after GoldenEye 007 . Blast Corps was selected as Electronic Gaming Monthly 's May 1997 Game of the Month and an IGN Editors ' Choice . Four of six Nintendo Power reviewers recommended the game . Nintendo Power 's 1997 staff survey listed Blast Corps in the bottom half of the magazine 's top 100 games of all time .
= = Legacy = =
Wakeley , the game 's designer , considered making a sequel as an action combat game , but thought the concepts behind Blast Corps had been fully exhausted . After praising the game in a 2010 Rare retrospective feature , Retro Gamer 's writers craved a sequel . The magazine said the title was proof of the company 's inventiveness . Steve Ellis , who was a programmer at Rare , thought Blast Corps to be among the company 's most underrated games , and though its physics were now dated , he continued to find the game fun enough to revisit regularly . Blast Corps is included in Rare Replay , a compilation of 30 Rare titles , released on the Xbox One on August 4 , 2015 . The release 's bonus features included behind @-@ the @-@ scenes interviews with Blast Corps 's developers . Blast Corps was a standout favorite among Rare Replay reviewers .
Rare 's Blast Corps began a run of seven highly lauded and respected Nintendo 64 games , including GoldenEye 007 , Banjo @-@ Kazooie , Perfect Dark , and Jet Force Gemini . Retro Gamer wrote that Rare had doubled the number of classic Nintendo 64 games and was an important alliance for Nintendo . Microsoft acquired Rare in 2002 for a record price of $ 377 million . The industry had changed , Blast Corps designer Martin Wakeley reflected a decade after the game 's 1997 release . In 2009 , Wakeley said , a studio would rarely entrust the scope of a project like Blast Corps to a team of four recent graduates .
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= King Island emu =
The King Island emu ( Dromaius novaehollandiae minor ) is an extinct subspecies of emu that was endemic to King Island , which is situated in the Bass Strait between mainland Australia and Tasmania . Its closest relative may be the extinct Tasmanian emu ( D. n. diemenensis ) , as they belonged to a single population until less than 14 @,@ 000 years ago , when Tasmania and King Island were still connected . The small size of the King Island emu may be an example of insular dwarfism .
The King Island emu was the smallest of all emus , and had darker plumage than the mainland emu . It was black and brown , and had naked blue skin on the neck , and its chicks were striped like those on the mainland . The subspecies was distinct from the likewise diminutive Kangaroo Island emu ( D. baudinianus ) in a number of osteological details , including size . The behaviour of the King Island emu probably did not differ much from that of the mainland emu . The birds gathered in flocks to forage and during breeding time . They fed on berries , grass and seaweed . They ran swiftly , and could defend themselves by kicking . The nest was shallow , and consisted of dead leaves and moss . Seven to nine eggs were laid , which were incubated by both parents .
Europeans discovered the King Island emu in 1802 during early expeditions to the island , and most of what is known about the bird in life comes from an interview French naturalist François Péron conducted with a sealer there , as well as depictions by artist Charles Alexandre Lesueur . They had arrived on King Island in 1802 with Nicolas Baudin 's expedition , and in 1804 several live and stuffed King and Kangaroo Island emus were sent to France . The two live King Island specimens were kept in the Jardin des Plantes , and the remains of these and the other birds are scattered throughout various museums in Europe today . The logbooks of the expedition did not specify from which island each captured bird originated , or even that they were taxonomically distinct , so their status remained unclear until more than a century later . Hunting pressure and fires started by early settlers on King Island likely drove the wild population to extinction by 1805 . The two captive specimens in Paris both died in 1822 and are believed to have been the last of their kind .
= = Taxonomy = =
There was long confusion regarding the taxonomic status and geographic origin of the small island emu taxa from King Island and Kangaroo Island , since specimens of both populations were transported to France as part of the same French expedition to Australia in the early 1800s . The logbooks of the expedition failed to clearly state where and when the small emu individuals were collected , and this has resulted in a plethora of scientific names subsequently being coined for either bird , many on questionable grounds , and the idea that all specimens had originated from Kangaroo Island . Furthermore , in 1914 , L. Brasil argued the expedition did not encounter emus on King Island , because the weather had been too bad for them to leave their camp . The French also referred to both emus and cassowaries as " casoars " at the time , which has led to further confusion .
Louis Jean Pierre Vieillot coined the binomial Dromaius ater in 1817 . In 1906 , Walter Baldwin Spencer coined the name Dromaius minor based on some Pleistocene subfossil bones and eggshells found on King Island the same year , believing they were the first physical evidence of an emu from there . William Vincent Legge also coined a name for these remains , Dromaius bassi , but at a later date . In his 1907 book Extinct Birds , Walter Rothschild stated that Vieillot 's description actually referred to the mainland emu , and that the name D. ater was therefore invalid . Believing the skin in Muséum national d 'Histoire naturelle of Paris was from Kangaroo Island , he made it the type specimen of his new species Dromaius peroni , named after the French naturalist François Péron , who is the main source of information about the bird in life .
The Australian amateur ornithologist Gregory Mathews coined further names in the early 1910s , including a new genus name , Peronista , as he believed the King and Kangaroo Island birds were generically distinct from the mainland emu . Later writers claimed that the subfossil remains found on King and Kangaroo Islands were not discernibly different , and that they therefore belonged to the same taxon . In 1959 , the French ornithologist Christian Jouanin proposed that none of the skins were actually from Kangaroo Island , after inspecting expedition and museum documents . In 1990 , Jouanin and Jean @-@ Christophe Balouet used environmental forensics to demonstrate that the mounted skin in Paris came from King Island , and that at least one live bird had been brought from each island . All scientific names given to the Kangaroo Island emu were therefore based on specimens from King Island or were otherwise invalid , leaving it nameless . More recent finds of subfossil material and subsequent studies on King and Kangaroo Island emu , notably by Shane A. Parker in 1984 , confirmed their separate geographic origin and distinct morphology . Parker named the Kangaroo Island bird Dromaius baudinianus , after Nicolas Baudin , the leader of the French expedition . The name Dromaius ater was kept for the King Island emu .
There are few morphological differences that distinguish the extinct insular emus from the mainland emu besides their size , but all three taxa were most often considered distinct species . A 2011 genetic study of nuclear and mitochondrial DNA , which was extracted from five subfossil King Island emu bones , showed that its genetic variation fell within that of the extant mainland emus . It was therefore interpreted as conspecific with the emus of the Australian mainland , and was reclassified as a subspecies of Dromaius novaehollandiae , D. n. ater . Other animals present on King Island are also considered as subspecies of their mainland or Tasmanian counterparts rather than distinct species . The authors suggested that further studies using different methods might be able to find features that distinguish the taxa . In its 2013 edition , The Howard and Moore Complete Checklist of the Birds of the World emended the trinomial name of the King Island emu to D. n. minor , based on Spencer 's D. minor , on the ground that Vieillot 's D. ater was originally meant for the mainland emu . This rationale was accepted by the IOC World Bird List , which used D. n. minor thereafter .
= = = Evolution = = =
During the Late Quaternary period ( 0 @.@ 7 million years ago ) , small emus lived on a number of offshore islands of mainland Australia . In addition to the King Island emu , these included taxa found on Kangaroo Island ( D. baudinianus ) and Tasmania ( D. n. diemenensis ) , all of which are now extinct . The smallest taxon , the King Island emu , was confined to a small island situated in the Bass Strait between Tasmania and Victoria , approximately 100 km ( 62 mi ) from both coasts . King Island was once part of the land bridge which connected Tasmania and mainland Australia , but rising sea levels following the last glacial maximum eventually isolated the island . As a result of phenotypic plasticity the King Island emu population possibly underwent a process of insular dwarfism .
According to the authors of the 2011 genetic study , the close relation between the King Island and mainland emus indicates that the former population was isolated from the latter relatively recently , due to sea level changes in the Bass Strait , as opposed to a founding emu lineage that diverged from the mainland emu far earlier and had subsequently gone extinct on the mainland . Models of sea level change indicate that Tasmania , including King Island , was isolated from the Australian mainland around 14 @,@ 000 years ago . Up to several thousand years later King Island was then separated from Tasmania . This scenario would suggest that a population ancestral to both the King Island and Tasmanian emu was initially isolated from the mainland taxon , after which the King Island and Tasmanian populations were separated . This in turn indicates that the likewise extinct Tasmanian emu is probably as closely related to the mainland emu as is the King Island emu , with both the King Island and Tasmanian emu being more closely related to each other . Fossil emu taxa show an average size between that of the King Island emu and mainland emu . Hence , mainland emus can be regarded as a large or gigantic form .
= = Description = =
The King Island emu was the smallest emu taxon , and was about half the size of the mainland birds . It was about 87 cm ( 34 in ) tall . According to François Péron 's interview with a local sealer , the largest specimens were up to 137 cm ( 4 @.@ 5 ft ) in length , and the heaviest weighed 20 to 23 kg ( 45 to 50 lb ) . It had a darker plumage , with extensive black feathers on the neck and head , and blackish feathers on the body , where it was also mixed with brown . The bill and feet were blackish , and the naked skin on the side of the neck was blue . The 2011 genetic study did not find genes commonly associated with melanism in birds , but proposed the dark colouration could be due to alternative genetic or non @-@ genetic factors . Péron stated there was little difference between the sexes , but that the male was perhaps brighter in colouration and slightly larger . The juveniles were grey , while the chicks were striped like other emus . There were no seasonal variations in plumage . Since the female mainland emus are on average larger than the males , and can turn brighter during the mating season , contrary to the norm in other bird species , some of these observations may have been based on erroneous conventional wisdom .
Subfossil remains of the King Island emu show that the tibia was about 330 mm ( 13 in ) long , and the femur was 180 mm ( 7 in ) long . The pelvis was 280 mm ( 11 in ) long , 64 mm ( 2 @.@ 5 in ) wide at the front , and 86 mm ( 3 in ) wide at the back . The tarsometatarsus averaged 232 mm ( 9 in ) in length . In males , the tibiotarsus averaged 261 mm ( 10 in ) , whereas it averaged 301 mm ( 12 in ) in females . In contrast , the same bones measured 269 mm ( 10 @.@ 5 in ) and 305 mm ( 12 in ) in the Kangaroo Island emu . Apart from being smaller , the King Island emu differed osteologically from the Kangaroo Island emu in the intertrochlear foramen of the tarsometatarsus usually being fully or partially abridged . The outer trochlea was more incurved towards the middle trochlea in the Kangaroo Island bird , whereas they were parallel in the King Island emu .
The King Island emu and the mainland emu show few morphological differences other than their significant difference in size . Mathews stated that the legs and bill were shorter than those of the mainland emu , yet the toes were nearly of equal length , and therefore proportionally longer . The tarsus of the King Island emu was also three times longer than the culmen , whereas it was four times longer in the mainland emu . Additional traits that supposedly distinguish this bird from the mainland emu have previously been suggested to be the distal foramen of the tarsometatarsus , and the contour of the cranium . However , the distal foramen is known to be variable in the mainland emu showing particular diversity between juvenile and adult forms and is therefore taxonomically insignificant . The same is true of the contour of the cranium , which is more dome @-@ shaped in the King Island emu , a feature that is also seen in juvenile mainland emus .
= = Behaviour and ecology = =
Péron 's interview describes some aspects of the behaviour of the King Island emu . He writes that the bird was generally solitary but gathered in flocks of ten to twenty at breeding time , then wandered off in pairs . They ate berries , grass and seaweed , and foraged mainly during morning and evening . They were swift runners , but were apparently slower than the mainland birds , due to being fat . They swam well , but only did so when necessary . They reportedly liked the shade of lagoons and the shoreline , rather than open areas . They used a claw on each wing for scratching themselves . If unable to flee from the hunting dogs of the sealers , they would defend themselves by kicking , which could inflict a great deal of harm .
Captain Matthew Flinders did not encounter emus when he visited King Island in 1802 , but his naturalist , Robert Brown , examined their dung and noted they had chiefly fed on the berries of Leptecophylla juniperina . An account by English ornithologist John Latham about the " Van Diemen 's cassowary " may also refer to the King Island emu , based on the small size described . In addition to a physical description , he stated that they gathered in groups of 70 to 80 individuals in a given location while foraging , behaviour that was exploited by hunters .
Péron stated that the nest was usually situated near water and on the ground under the shade of a bush . It was constructed of sticks and lined with dead leaves and moss ; it was oval in shape and not very deep . He claimed that seven to nine eggs were laid always on 25 and 26 July , but the selective advantage of this breeding synchronisation is unknown . The female incubated the eggs , but the male apparently developed a brood patch , which indicates it contributed as well . The non @-@ incubating parent also stayed by the nest , and the chicks left the nest two to three days after hatching . The eggs were preyed upon by snakes , rats , and quolls . Péron gave the incubation period as five or six weeks , but since the mainland emu incubates for 50 to 56 days , this may be too short . He stated a mother emu would defend its young from crows with its beak , but this is now known to be strictly male behaviour .
= = Relationship with humans = =
The emus of King Island were first recorded by Europeans when a party from the ship Lady Nelson , led by John Murray , visited the island in January 1802 . The bird was sporadically mentioned by travellers henceforward , but not in detail . Captain Nicolas Baudin visited King Island later in 1802 , during an 1800 – 04 French expedition to map the coast of Australia . Two ships , Le Naturaliste and Le Géographe , were part of the expedition , which also brought along naturalists who described the local wildlife . François Péron , a naturalist who was part of Baudin 's expedition , visited King Island and was the last person to record descriptions of the King Island emu from the wild . At one point , Péron and some of his companions became stranded due to storms and took refuge with some seal hunters . They were served emu meat , which Péron described in favourable terms as tasting halfway " between that of the turkey @-@ cock and that of the young pig " .
Péron did not report seeing any emus on the island himself , which might explain why he described them as being the size of mainland birds . Instead , most of what is known about the King Island emu today stems from a 33 @-@ point questionnaire that he used to interview a local English sealer , Daniel Cooper , about the bird . In accordance with a request by the authorities for the expedition to bring back useful plants and animals , Péron asked if the emus could be bred and fattened in captivity , and received a variety of cooking recipes . Péron 's questionnaire remained unpublished until 1899 , and very little was therefore known about the bird in life until then .
= = = Transported specimens = = =
Several emu specimens belonging to the different subspecies were sent to France , both live and dead , as part of the expedition . Some of these exist in European museums today . Le Naturaliste brought one live specimen and one skin of the mainland emu to France in June 1803 . Le Géographe collected emus from both King and Kangaroo Island , and at least two live King Island individuals , assumed to be a male and female by some sources , were taken to France in March 1804 . This ship also brought skins of five juveniles collected from different islands . Two of these skins , of which the provenance is unknown , are presently kept in Paris and Turin ; the rest are lost . In addition to rats , cockroaches , and other inconveniences aboard the ships , the emus were incommoded by the rough weather which caused the ships to shake violently ; some died as a result , while others had to be force fed so they did not starve to death . In all , Le Géographe brought 73 live animals of various species back to France .
The two individuals brought to France were first kept in captivity in the menagerie of Empress Josephine , and were moved to the Jardin des Plantes after a year . The " female " died in April 1822 , and its skin is now mounted in the Muséum national d 'Histoire naturelle of Paris . The " male " died in May 1822 , and is preserved as a skeleton in the same museum . A feather of the Paris skin was given to the Tasmanian Museum and Art Gallery , the only confirmed feather belonging to this subspecies currently in Australia . The Paris skin contains several bones , but not the pelvis , which is an indicator of sex , so the supposed female identity is unconfirmed . Péron noted that the small emus brought to France were distinct from those of the mainland , but not that they were distinct from each other , or which island each had come from , so their provenance was unknown for more than a century later .
There is also a skeleton in Museo di Storia Naturale di Firenze , which it obtained from France in 1833 , but was mislabelled as a cassowary until correctly identified by Italian zoologist Enrico Hillyer Giglioli in 1900 . Several elements of this skeleton are missing , and some have been replaced with wooden copies . Its right metatarsus was damaged during life and had healed incorrectly . It was thought to be a male , but is now known to be a composite of two individuals . A fourth specimen was thought to be kept in the Liverpool Museum , but it may simply be a juvenile mainland emu . Apart from the King Island emu specimens brought to France , a few are also known to have been brought to mainland Australia in 1803 , but their fate is unknown .
= = = Contemporary depictions = = =
Péron 's 1807 , three @-@ volume account of the expedition , Voyage de découverte aux terres Australes , contains an illustration ( plate 36 ) of " casoars " by Charles @-@ Alexandre Lesueur , who was the resident artist during Baudin 's voyage . The caption states the birds shown are from " Ile Decrès " , the French name for Kangaroo Island , but there is confusion over what is actually depicted . The two adult birds are labelled as a male and female of the same species , surrounded by juveniles . The family @-@ group shown is improbable , since breeding pairs of the mainland Emu split up once the male begins incubating the eggs . Lesueur 's preparatory sketches also indicate these may have been drawn after the captive birds in Jardin des Plantes , and not wild ones , which would have been harder to observe for extended periods .
The Australian museum curator , Stephanie Pfennigwerth , has instead proposed that the larger , light @-@ ruffed " male " was actually drawn after a captive Kangaroo Island emu , that the smaller , dark " female " is a captive King Island emu , that the scenario is fictitious , and the sexes of the birds indeterminable . They may instead only have been assumed to be male and female of the same species due to their difference in size . A crooked claw on the " male " has also been interpreted as evidence that it had lived in captivity , and it may also indicate that the depicted specimen is identical to the Kangaroo Island emu skeleton in Paris , which has a deformed toe . The juvenile on the right may have been based on the Paris skin of an approximately five @-@ month @-@ old King Island emu specimen , which may in turn be the individual that died on board le Geographe during rough weather , and was presumably stuffed there by Lesueur himself . The chicks may instead simply have been based on those of mainland emus , as none are known to have been collected .
= = = Extinction = = =
The exact cause for the extinction of the King Island emu is unknown . Soon after the bird was discovered , sealers settled on the island because of the abundance of elephant seals . Péron 's interview with Daniel Cooper suggested that they likely contributed to the demise of the bird by hunting it , and perhaps by starting fires . Péron described how dogs were purpose @-@ trained to hunt down the emus ; Cooper even claimed to have killed no fewer than 300 emus himself . Cooper had been on the island for six months , which suggests he killed 50 birds a month . His group of sealers consisted of eleven men as well as his wife , and they alone may have killed 3 @,@ 600 emus by the time Péron visited them .
Péron explained that the sealers consumed an enormous quantity of meat , and that their dogs killed several animals each day . He also observed such hunting dogs being released on Kangaroo Island , and mused that they might wipe out the entire population of kangaroos there in some years , but he did not express the same sentiment about the emus of King Island . Natural fires may also have played a role . It is probable that the two captive birds in France , which died in 1822 , outlived their wild fellows on King Island , and were therefore the last of their kind . Though Péron stated King Island " swarmed " with emus in 1802 , they may have become extinct in the wild as early as 1805 .
In 1967 , when the King Island emu was still thought to be only known from prehistoric remains , James Greenway questioned whether they could have been exterminated by a few natives , and speculated that fires started by prehistoric men or lightning may have been responsible . At this time , the mainland emu was also threatened by overhunting , and Greenway cautioned that it could end up sharing the fate of its island relatives if no measures were taken in time .
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= Chris Dodd presidential campaign , 2008 =
The Chris Dodd presidential campaign of 2008 was launched on January 11 , 2007 and ended on January 3 , 2008 after a sixth @-@ place finish in the Iowa caucuses . Dodd , the Senior Senator from Connecticut , sought the nomination of the Democratic Party for President of the United States . Centering his campaign in the strategically important states of Iowa and New Hampshire , he tried to bring forth a platform of change . Dodd 's performance in the opinion polls varied , but in the financial sphere , he had secured some notable and influential endorsements who had sufficiently funded his campaign .
Dodd tried to follow in the pattern of New Englanders who have entered the race for the Democratic nomination and won , including John Kerry , Michael Dukakis , and John F. Kennedy . If elected , Dodd would have become the second Roman Catholic president ( after Kennedy ) and the second Connecticut @-@ born president ( after George W. Bush ) . He would have been the first Senator to win the presidency while in office since Kennedy was elected in 1960 ( that honor ultimately went to Barack Obama ) . After his withdrawal from the race , Dodd went on to endorse the eventual winner Barack Obama , and retired from the Senate in 2011 .
= = Background = =
During his years in the House and Senate , Chris Dodd built a long record of political positions on important issues to the nation . He was in favor of ending the Iraq War and redeploying American from the nation . He repeatedly voted against further funding of the war . To combat global warming , he proposed a carbon tax to reduce carbon emissions , and declared that the United States " must take a ' strategic pause ' " before signing any new free trade agreement .
Domestically , Dodd proposed mandatory community service for all high school students , and fought to improve child care and health care , and worked to stop predatory lending by credit card companies . He also introduced legislation to enact a Federal Shield law and worked to defeat legislation permitting warrantless surveillance .
Chris Dodd had told the Associated Press in April 2006 that he was considering running , and by May 22 he had met with key backers , including congresswoman Rosa DeLauro , and had assembled a team to prepare a potential 2008 campaign . In June 2006 , he held his first major fundraiser , stunning Beltway commentators by raising over $ 1 million in one night . Dodd attended a Florida Democratic convention in July 2006 to garner further support . He hired former John Kerry campaign manager Jim Jordan in December of that year . Two months later , Dodd told the head of the New Hampshire Democratic Party at the Rainbow Cafe that he was not " going to do the exploratory thing " but instead " plunge right in " to the race .
= = On the campaign trail = =
= = = January 2007 = = =
Chris Dodd entered the race on January 11 , 2007 after making his announcement on the Imus in the Morning show . He cited his qualifications of experience and background as the strengths needed to lead the nation as President . A critic of the Iraq War , Dodd stated that his candidacy " ... isn 't just [ about ] Iraq -- there are problems here at home that are huge . " He decided not to file with the FEC under an exploratory committee but instead filed as a full @-@ fledged candidate . He began campaigning in the state of South Carolina on January 15 , 2007 and hit the trails to New Hampshire on January 20 .
= = = February 2007 = = =
In February , Dodd turned his attention fully to the early primary states of Iowa and New Hampshire . When asked by the Associated Press on the campaign trail if his campaigning really made a difference in changing public perceptions , he replied , " There is enough time yet to change this [ public perceptions ] , because there are places like Iowa and New Hampshire that give candidates like myself a chance to be heard . " Dodd 's strategy was to speak to voters in restaurants , homes , and small @-@ town diners , although political analysts wondered whether such methods were out @-@ of @-@ date . But he maintained that " chatting in a living room face to face is still a very important feature of campaigning here . I don 't think you can come in here and do sort of a wholesale political operation from 35 @,@ 000 feet ( 11 @,@ 000 m ) with a pit stop here and there and a media campaign behind you . " At the end of February , Dodd differentiated himself from his Democratic counterparts by stating his support for the Bush administration 's willingness to hold joint talks with Iran and Syria and by stating that as president he would avoid talking with Iran as long as Mahmoud Ahmadinejad remained as president . On the trail , he referred to Ahmadinejad as a " thug " .
= = = March 2007 = = =
Before Dodd hit the campaign trail for March after a round of campaigning in February , he made a visit to The Daily Show with Jon Stewart , a well @-@ worn path laid by candidates trying to reach a younger audience . The campaign set up a web page before the March 13 interview . Liberal bloggers praised the behind the scenes look at the campaign as innovative and creative . A posting on the Comedy Central show 's blog read : " This was a fascinating look behind the scenes of the show even for us , and a surprisingly cool thing for a Presidential candidate to do . Senator Dodd , we salute both your commitment to fiscal responsibility and your web @-@ savvy . " After the visit Dodd campaigned in New Hampshire and Nevada finishing the month at a forums in Las Vegas and Washington , D.C. At the Las Vegas Forum , he discussed health care with the other Democratic candidates and voiced his support for a system of Universal Health Care . As March came to a close the campaign revealed their fundraising total for the First Quarter . Dodd raised $ 4 @,@ 043 @,@ 757 in this quarter , spend $ 1 @,@ 313 @,@ 239 and had $ 7 @,@ 482 @,@ 467 cash on hand .
= = = April 2007 = = =
In April , Dodd campaigned in New Hampshire , Iowa , and returned to South Carolina . While on the trail Dodd participated in a virtual town hall sponsored by the website MoveOn.org. When he was asked the question " ... what is the best and fastest way to get out of Iraq ? " he answered , " We ought to start redeploying this evening ... We ought to begin immediately . I would not wait any longer . " Continuing on the trail , Dodd sponsored what was called by the Washington Post , the " most radical plan " to combat global warming . It included a corporate carbon tax to be levied on corporations to reduce carbon emissions . The plan is part of a larger energy platform of the campaign .
On April 26 , Dodd participated in the first of many Democratic presidential debates . His campaign has been critical of how little time their candidate has been allotted to speak at the debates , and its website introduced a " Talk Clock " demonstrating this disparity .
At the end of the month , Dodd set his sights on the state with the most convention votes , California by attending events in Sacramento and San Diego .
= = = May 2007 = = =
Early in May , Dodd continued to campaign in California for a few days but later shifted back to the strategically important states of Iowa and New Hampshire for the rest of the month . On May 15 the campaign released its first ad , which detailed his plan for ending the war in Iraq . In the ad , Dodd also criticized his fellow Democratic candidates by stating , " We can 't simply wait for a new president . We should have the conviction to stand up to this one , " In Washington , Dodd was exposed to debate on the Iraq War Spending Bill and new videos from al @-@ Qaeda 's second in command Ayman al @-@ Zawahiri . Back on the campaign trail he talked about how he would deal with foreign issues particularly in regards to the situation in Iraq , " I 'm not going to let my foreign policy be decided by Mr. al @-@ Zawahiri . Obviously , he 's playing his game here . He 'd probably like to see us stay down there , bogged down , at the costs we 're increasing here , the loss of lives , not to mention the isolation of the United States . " When Presidential candidate John Edwards released an ad criticizing Congress ' failure to end the Iraq War , Dodd took it personal and shot back at Edwards stating , " " With all due respect , we could have used John 's vote here in the Senate on these issues here . " He concluded the May campaign by attending House parties in three cities in New Hampshire . .
= = = June 2007 = = =
June started off as all the previous months had , with Dodd campaigning in New Hampshire and Iowa , but at the June 3 debate in Manchester he made a notable statement that led to a huge applause from the crowd . During the debate he pointed out a woman in the audience whose husband was fighting in the War on Terrorism , he thanked her for the sacrifice and stated the importance of standing up for America 's security while on the campaign trail , " No one is going to be elected president who is not going to have as their primary responsibility to keep us safe and secure . " After the debate Dodd went back to the trails , but while campaigning he found a new tool to help spread his message . The campaign encouraged voters to confront politicians with video cameras and ask them to talk about Iraq and to support the " Dodd Amendment " which would have required American troops to start redeployment in 30 days . The final step was for the voters to post the interactions on YouTube . The Dodd campaign has used the internet more frequently than other campaigns , often airing staff meetings via the web . The campaign released a new advertisement on June 16 entitled " Amazing Grace " which focused on Dodd 's time in the Peace Corps . As June came to a close Dodd made his final appearance of the month at a forum in Lake Buena Vista , Florida , the first time he visited the state which moved up its primary dates , causing a controversy with the DNC . On June 30 the campaign revealed the fundraising totals for the second quarter , Dodd raised $ 3 @,@ 250 @,@ 730 , spent $ 4 @,@ 384 @,@ 580 and had a total of $ 6 @,@ 378 @,@ 271 cash on hand .
= = = July 2007 = = =
Early in July , the Dodd campaign 's strategy to use social networking sites was documented by the press . The campaign uses the network MyLifeBrand which allows Dodd supporters to be linked to other users from other social networking websites . The goal was to bring supporters together and attract new supporters . On July 6 singer Paul Simon joined Dodd on the campaign trail in Iowa as Dodd embarked on a five @-@ day " River to River " tour in a big blue bus with the name " Dodd " etched on the side . Dodd simultaneously continued his campaign on the web airing live staff meetings and a live chatroom on July 23 . The campaign launched a show called D @-@ TV which the Washington Post labeled as the " political Truman Show " . On July 23 , he participated in the YouTube debate broadcast on CNN . Dodd was fielded many questions during the debate including the very first . He received questions ranging from discussion about his hair to Iraq . When asked about his position on gay marriage , he stated :
When asked to comment about the genocide in Darfur and the moral leadership of the United States , Dodd answered that the situation in " Iraq is related to Darfur , Anderson , here . It 's because we 're bogged down there at $ 10 billion a month , we 've lost our moral leadership in the world . No one listens to us when it comes to foreign policy . That has to change in this country . That 's the difference here . " July campaigning wrapped up in Iowa with visits to seven cities in two days from July 27 – 28 .
= = = August 2007 = = =
August was by far the busiest month for the Dodd campaign . It started off with the candidate criticizing the merger of Murdoch @-@ WSJ starting a debate over Media ethics . Dodd stated on August 1 , " I am deeply troubled by the incredible amount of consolidation occurring across the American media landscape . " On August 7 during a debate before the AFL @-@ CIO in Chicago Dodd touted his experience in fighting for the rights of Labor Unions by stating , " I ’ m proud to say for 26 years on every major issue that labor ’ s been involved in I ’ ve stood with you . I ’ ve stood with labor in banning outsourcing of jobs , of offset contracts , of situs picketing , on plant closing legislation . " He also got into an argument with fellow Senator Barack Obama ( D @-@ IL ) on Obama 's recent comments about escalating the Afghanistan Conflict into Pakistan :
DODD : I think it ’ s highly responsible -- or irresponsible for people who are running for the presidency and seek that office to suggest we may be willing unilaterally to invade a nation here who we ’ re trying to get to be more cooperative with us in Afghanistan and elsewhere .
OBAMA : Well , look , I find it amusing that those who helped to authorize and engineer the biggest foreign policy disaster in our generation are now criticizing me for making sure that we are on the right battlefield and not the wrong battlefield in the war against terrorism . ( Cheers , applause . )
Dodd continued campaigning in Iowa and New Hampshire visiting up to four different cities in one day . Political commentator Bill O 'Reilly slammed Dodd after he appeared on The O 'Reilly Factor in August , characterizing him as a kool @-@ aid drinker and blind follower of the far left . O 'Reilly chastised Dodd and branded him a traitor for his perceived betrayal of fellow Connecticut Senator Joe Lieberman during the 2006 Senatorial election . On August 20 he attended a debate that aired on ABC and was moderated by George Stephanopoulos . He commented on the need for a president that can bring people from both parties together , " ... it 's about getting this job done . We don 't elect a king or a queen or a dictator in November , we elect a president . The margins are thin . No one political party is going to write all of this . It takes leadership that knows how to bring people together . " As the month wound down for the campaign and as Dodd continued on the trail , the month of September loomed in the horizon as did an upcoming debate in Washington on the primary focus of the campaign , the Iraq War . Accompanying Dodd on the trail was the International Association of Fire Fighters , which handed him their endorsement on August 29 .
= = = September 2007 = = =
As Dodd began the September campaign in Nevada and New Hampshire the stage was being set in Florida for a debate on Hispanic issues . However this would later be overshadowed by events that would occur in Washington on September 11 . During the testimony of General David Petraeus , he lashed out against the surge policy stating :
At the same time the website MoveOn.org released an ad that slammed General Petraeus , calling him a traitor . Dodd voted against a Congressional act to denounce the ad on September 21 .
Returning to the campaign trail , Dodd made stops in Iowa where he started what would be a later October trend by attacking the frontrunner Hillary Clinton . He attacked her record on health care stating , " It should be far more than just a parable of personal growth and maturation . This was about an issue that was critically important to the country . It was a major effort that failed . There were a lot of reasons that it failed , not the least of which it was mismanaged terribly at the time . " In addition to the campaigning in Iowa , attended fundraisers in his home state of Connecticut , visited New Hampshire and returned to Iowa all in the timespan of 10 days . At the end of September as the third quarter came to a close , the campaign revealed that it had raised only $ 1 @,@ 467 @,@ 093 , spent $ 4 @,@ 025 @,@ 458 , leaving $ 3 @,@ 874 @,@ 874 cash on hand .
= = = October 2007 = = =
In October the Dodd campaign focused its attention on Iowa , abandoning most of the campaigning in New Hampshire . On the trail , the campaign received little media attention despite a surge in appearances . As the month neared its final days an unexpected apex emerged for the campaign . During an October 30 MSNBC debate , he went after the frontrunner Hillary Clinton , slamming her for her support of Governor of New York Eliot Spitzer 's plan to give driver 's licenses to illegal immigrants :
SEN . CLINTON : I just want to add , I did not say that it should be done , but I certainly recognize why Governor Spitzer is trying to do it . And we have failed --
SEN . DODD : Wait a minute . No , no , no . You said yes , you thought it made sense to do it .
SEN . CLINTON : No , I didn 't , Chris . But the point is , what are we going to do with all these illegal immigrants who are ( driving ? ) -- ( inaudible ) ?
SEN . DODD : Well , that 's a legitimate issue . But driver 's license goes too far , in my view .
SEN . CLINTON : Well , you may say that , but what is the identification if somebody runs into you today who is an undocumented worker --
SEN . DODD : There 's ways of dealing with that .
SEN . CLINTON : Well , but --
SEN . DODD : This is a privilege , not a right .
SEN . CLINTON : Well , what Governor Spitzer has agreed to do is to have three different licenses ; one that provides identification for actually going onto airplanes and other kinds of security issues , another which is an ordinary driver 's license , and then a special card that identifies the people who would be on the road .
SEN . DODD : That 's a bureaucratic nightmare .
Later in the debate Dodd articulated his support for the decriminalization of marijuana citing the high populations of American prisons . Many of the participants expressed their disagreement with him on this issue . The debate was the last campaign stop for Dodd in October who went into November with energy and momentum from the multiple exchanges .
= = = November 2007 = = =
In November he started off with two @-@ day events in New Hampshire and then devoted the rest of the month to Iowa . He talked about the need for the United States to redeploy troops out of Iraq , pay attention to global warming and health care , strengthen American ties with their allies including Pakistan and to not start a war with Iran further criticizing Clinton 's yes vote on a resolution designating the Iranian Revolutionary Guard Corps as a terrorist organization . During a November 15 debate in Las Vegas he spoke out in favor of free trade and attacked his fellow candidates :
While on the trail in Iowa on November 20 Dodd criticized fellow candidates who threatened to cut off funding to Pakistan in light of President Pervez Musharraf 's suspension of the constitution . He stated " I think it 's a very dangerous thing to suggest at this point . We could find ourselves cut off . ... We could not get into Afghanistan except through Pakistan . So in addition to the issue of nuclear weapons , and who controls them , and a state hostile to our interest , you have to be careful how much you threaten . "
= = = December 2007 = = =
Dodd spent most of December in Iowa engaged in Town Halls . He briefly made a trip to Mountain View , California to make a speech before returning to the trails in Iowa . He participated in the last Democratic Debate before the primary season on December 13 in Johnson , Iowa . In this debate sponsored by the Des Moines Register , Dodd commented that Education was the most important issue to him in the campaign . He also made a statement on why he felt he was the best choice for president and why he should receive the endorsement of the Des Moines Register , which ultimately went to Hillary Clinton .
Following the assassination of former Pakistani Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto , Dodd released a statement while campaigning that elaborated on his experiences with the slain leader . He commented that the event was an important time in both Pakistan and the United States that will impact the future of both nation 's security . He described the significance of America 's responsibility to keep democracy in the nation and the region as a whole . Following the statement Dodd completed the year 's campaigning by attending New Year 's Eve parties in cities in the first caucus state of Iowa .
= = = January 2008 = = =
Dodd participated in the Iowa Caucus on January 3 , 2008 . After receiving a disappointing total of 0 % of the vote he ended his campaign . In his final words on the trail , He reflected on the joy he had in running for president .
= = Fundraising = =
The Dodd campaign had raised $ 13 @,@ 598 @,@ 152 overall , spent $ 9 @,@ 723 @,@ 278 leaving $ 3 @,@ 874 @,@ 874 cash on hand . Alec Baldwin donated $ 2 @,@ 100 during a New York fundraiser . John Lithgow and Barbra Streisand each added $ 1 @,@ 000 and Steve Martin and Howard Stringer each gave $ 2 @,@ 300 . Jeffrey Bewkes , Lorne Michaels , Paul Simon and his wife each donated the most at $ 4 @,@ 600 followed closely behind by Ronald Meyer who donated $ 4 @,@ 400 . Elisabeth Shue donated $ 1 @,@ 500 and Christy Carlson Romano added $ 300 . On October 26 , the New London 's The Day reported that through September Dodd 's campaign received $ 21 @,@ 600 from employees of Connecticut 's Foxwoods Casino and an additional $ 2 @,@ 300 from the Mashantucket Pequot 's political action committee . According to the financial records , 60 % of Dodd 's donations came from individual contributors . 4 % of donations came from PACs , which overwhelming were related to groups with business agendas . The following chart shows the amount raised in the top three states by Dodd and in the states he had been campaigning in the most , Iowa and New Hampshire :
= = Polling = =
In polling , Dodd has seemed unable to break through to the top tier . In Nationwide polls he usually only polls at or around 1 % . A November 7 , 2007 Gallup poll placed him in last place , behind both Joe Biden and Dennis Kucinich at 1 % . At the state level , Dodd has also not done so well . In a November 18 , 2007 Iowa poll conducted by ABC news , he registered with 1 % the same number from a similar poll done by ABC news on July 31 , 2007 . In New Hampshire , a poll conducted by CNN placed Dodd at 1 % constant from a September poll but up from polls in June and July . However , on the straw poll level , Dodd was able to gain a victory during an event in South Carolina on March 5 , 2007 . He won the York County straw poll by receiving 28 % of the 100 votes cast . Barack Obama came in second with 24 % . Hillary Clinton got 18 % and John Edwards received 11 % . The victory came two days after Dodd visited the county which probably secured him the win .
A November 2007 poll of Connecticut voters conducted by the Quinnipiac University Polling Institute determined that Dodd was losing in the state to Hillary Rodham Clinton . Of the 1 @,@ 029 voters surveyed , 70 % wanted Dodd to drop out of the presidential race , and 55 % said he was spending too much time on the campaign trail . In response , Dodd 's national press secretary , Colleen Flanagan , said " Connecticut voters are being asked to look at Senator Dodd in a different light than in past years " adding that once voters become more focused on the presidential race , they will look to Dodd as " a candidate who has a track record of proven results . "
= = = Head to head = = =
= = Endorsements = =
= = = Kennedy family = = =
Dodd had received endorsements from members of the Kennedy family including Rhode Island Representative Patrick J. Kennedy and his brother Edward M. Kennedy , Jr . Eunice Kennedy Shriver had also campaigned for him . On November 1 , the campaign announced he had been endorsed by Bobby Shriver , co @-@ founder of Debt AIDS Trade in Africa . Dodd had asked Senator Ted Kennedy repeatedly for an endorsement . On November 20 , 2007 , Timothy Shriver , the Chairman of Special Olympics announced his endorsement for Dodd .
= = = Firefighters = = =
On August 28 , Chris Dodd received the endorsement of the International Association of Fire Fighters . On October 24 , in a speech before an International Association of Fire Fighters conference , he criticized the Bush Administration 's failure to fully fund first responders battling the massive wildfires in Southern California .
= = = Campaign advisors = = =
Dodd 's campaign advisors included :
Sheryl Cohen , campaign manager and Dodd 's Chief of Staff in the Senate
Jim Jordan , senior adviser who served as the campaign manager for John Kerry in his 2004 presidential run
Matt Butler , deputy campaign manager who served the same post during John Kerry 's 2004 run
Vince Frillici , finance director . Veteran fundraiser who served as the national finance director for the senator 's re @-@ election in 2004 .
Scott Arceneaux , political director and former director of the Louisiana State Democratic Party
Amos Hochstein , policy director
Stan Greenberg , pollster
Doug Sosnik , adviser and former NBA executive
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= Eternal Pyre =
Eternal Pyre is an EP by the thrash metal band Slayer . Released June 6 , 2006 ( 06 / 06 / 06 ) through American Recordings , the EP was limited to a pressing of 1 @,@ 000 ( but later 5 @,@ 000 ) copies . The album is a pre @-@ release to the later album Christ Illusion , which , like the EP , features the song " Cult " . The album was released exclusively through Hot Topic chain stores in the United States and copies were also available in Germany , Finland and Sweden on June 23 , 2006 . There are three tracks featured on the album , one of which is an audio track and the others are videos . The album was not well received by critics , with few critics actually reviewing the album . The album charted on four different charts , peaking number two in Finland and three in Denmark .
= = Background = =
The album Christ Illusion was originally set for release on June 6 , 2006 . Slayer guitarist Kerry King stated this tentative release date was scrapped as a number of other bands had the same idea and thought it was " fucking lame " , although USA Today reported the release date was thwarted because the band had failed to secure sufficient studio recording time . Eternal Pyre was released instead , a preview of their album to be released in the coming months . The EP featured the track " Cult " , a live performance of " War Ensemble " in Germany and four minutes footage of the band in the recording studio . Originally , it was thought that the extended play would feature a live version of " Dead Skin Mask " instead of the live version of " War Ensemble " . Many news reporters were told that the album would feature the " Live Intrusion " video , described as a clip of one of the band 's fans who carved Slayer 's name into his forearm . " 5 @,@ 000 copies were released exclusively through Hot Topic chain stores in the United States and copies were also available in Germany , Finland and Sweden on June 23 . Nuclear Blast Records released a further 7 " vinyl picture disc version limited to one thousand copies on June 30 .
= = Composition = =
Eternal Pyre features three tracks in total . " Cult " was characterized by Thom Jurek as " scathing rejection of religion as the cause for world conflict . " The song revolves around guitarist Kerry King 's perception of flaws in American religion and was a comment on America , which he describes as " the biggest cult in the world " . Their performance was positively commented on , with Pitch.com saying that " King and Jeff Hanneman riff like they 're summoning a storm of thunder , lightning and human blood , " and was also noted to be a down @-@ tuned , two @-@ string vamp " that slithers into the foreground creates a tension as Lombardo 's cymbals call the band into the riff that opens the tune . It 's slow , meaty , unrelenting in its tautness . When Araya 's voice comes in , the whole track is off the rails and stays there . " " War Ensemble " was filmed live from Germany , and contains four minutes of studio footage . Lyrics were said to " please fans still harboring a grudge from Catholic school . "
= = Reception and release = =
Critics did not receive Eternal Pyre very well , with few professionals actually reviewing the album . The Pitch criticized the price of the extended play at US $ 5 @.@ 99 , stating in comparison it makes iTunes a bargain . The Pitch 's reviewer also said that " Slayer 's worst is never far from its best , and this cut 's in the middle . " The extended play was , however , generally well received by fans , despite having a limited number of copies available . Eternal Pyre debuted at number forty @-@ eight on the Swedish charts , and number two on the Finnish charts . With a limited pressing of 1 @,@ 000 copies , the EP was exclusively made available in Hot Topic stores starting on June 6 , and was later made available in Europe on June 23 .
= = Track listing = =
= = Chart positions = =
= = Personnel = =
The album 's credits can be verified by Eternal Pyre 's back cover .
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= Leucopaxillus giganteus =
Leucopaxillus giganteus , commonly known as the giant leucopax ( formerly as the giant clitocybe ) or the giant funnel , is a saprobic species of fungus in the Tricholomataceae family . As its common names imply , the fruit body , or mushroom , can become quite large — the cap reaches diameters of up to 40 cm ( 16 in ) . It has a white or pale cream cap , and is funnel @-@ shaped when mature , with the gills running down the length of the stem . Considered by some to be a choice edible when young , this species has a cosmopolitan distribution , and is typically found growing in groups or rings in grassy pastures , roadside hedges , or woodland clearings . Leucopaxillus giganteus contains a number of bioactive compounds , one of which has displayed antibiotic and anti @-@ tumor properties in laboratory tests .
= = Taxonomy = =
The species was first described as Agaricus giganteus by English naturalist James Sowerby in 1809 , who illustrated it in his book Coloured Figures of English Fungi . Other historical synonyms include Clitocybe gigantea ( Quélet , 1872 ) , Paxillus giganteus ( Fries , 1874 ) , and Omphalia geotropa var. gigantea ( Quélet , 1886 ) . In 1934 , Robert Kühner and Réné Maire created the genus Astropaxillus to contain species of Leucopaxillus with smooth spores , and they set L. giganteus as its type species . American mycologist Rolf Singer transferred it to its current genus in 1938 , but recognized the value of maintaining a distinction of the smooth @-@ spored species , and so made L. giganteus the type species of section Aspropaxilli .
Leucopaxillus giganteus is commonly known as the “ giant leucopax ” ( formerly as the “ giant clitocybe ” ) or the “ giant funnel ” .
= = Description = =
The cap of L. giganteus can become rather large , up to 40 cm ( 16 in ) in diameter with a thickness of 1 to 1 @.@ 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 to 0 @.@ 5 in ) at half the radius . Younger specimens have caps that are convex , with a margin that is rolled downwards , but as the mushrooms matures the cap flattens out and eventually becomes shallowly funnel @-@ shaped . The cap is smooth and creamy white in color , but may develop brown stains and circular cracks with age .
The cream @-@ colored gills are narrow , crowded close together , and have a decurrent attachment — running down the length of the stem ; in age the gills will darken to a buff color . The stem is off @-@ white with reddish @-@ brown fibers and has dimensions , when mature , of up to 4 @.@ 5 to 6 cm ( 1 @.@ 8 to 2 @.@ 4 in ) tall by 1 @.@ 5 to 3 cm ( 0 @.@ 6 to 1 @.@ 2 in ) thick . There is no ring on the stem . At the base of the stem there is typically a dense , white mycelium that may form a mat . The flesh is firm , and also is white . Mature specimens are fragile , and difficult to remove from the ground without breaking .
= = = Microscopic characteristics = = =
When viewed in deposit , such as with a spore print , the spores appear white . When viewed with a light microscope , the spores are ovoid to ellipsoid , translucent ( hyaline ) , have a smooth surface , and possess a broadly rounded apex and base ; the spore dimensions are 6 – 8 by 3 @.@ 5 – 5 µm . Like all Leucopaxillus species , the spores of L. giganteus are amyloid — meaning that they will absorb iodine when stained with Melzer 's reagent — however , the extent of the stain may be variable . The spore @-@ bearing cells , the basidia , are 25 – 40 by 4 @.@ 5 – 8 µm , narrowly club @-@ shaped , and are attached to either 2 or 4 spores . The hyphae of this species invariably have clamp connections .
= = = Similar species = = =
Leucopaxillus giganteus somewhat resembles Leucopaxillus candidus , but this latter species has a darker coloring and is found more commonly in montane regions . Leucopaxillus septentrionalis is also large and resembles L. giganteus at some points during its development , but may be distinguished by its nauseous odor , the tan color of the cap , and the adnate ( gill squarely attached to the stem ) to slightly adnexed ( narrowly attached ) gills . Leucopaxillus candidus tends to be smaller , with a cap diameter ranging from 6 to 20 cm ( 2 @.@ 4 to 7 @.@ 9 in ) broad . Both Leucopaxillus gentianeus and Lactarius vellereus have been suggested as additional lookalike species . Young specimens of Leucopaxillus giganteus may be confused with Clitocybe irina , C. praemagna or C. robusta . White Lactarius and Russula species may also appear superficially similar , but they have brittle flesh that breaks cleanly , unlike the fibrous flesh of Leucopaxillus giganteus .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
Leucopaxillus giganteus can form fairy rings in grassy areas like pastures , and is also found along roadsides ; it produces fruiting bodies in summer and autumn . It is a saprobic species , and so derives nutrients by decomposing organic matter .
The fungus has a cosmopolitan distribution , and occurs throughout the temperate zone of the northern hemisphere . It is found in North America , Britain , and Europe . David Arora reports that in North America , it is most common in the Pacific Northwest and the Rocky Mountains .
= = Uses = =
= = = Edibility = = =
Although one source claims that the species is a " choice edible when young " , another source warns of the possibility of stomach cramps and diarrhea . Burrows suggests preparing specimens by cutting them up and boiling the pieces , and disposing the water ; then they may be used in dishes such as stews and casseroles . Because of its large size , one specimen can be enough to be consumed by several individuals . The odor has been said to be farinaceous or similar to fish meal ; the taste and smell of the mushroom have also been alternately characterized as " mild and pleasant " or " truly disgusting " . The species is also a favorite food for species of the fruit fly genus Drosophila .
= = = Bioactive compounds = = =
Leucopaxillus giganteus contains a bioactive compound named clitocine that has antibiotic activity against a number of bacteria that are pathogenic to humans , such as Bacillus cereus and Bacillus subtilis ; an earlier ( 1945 ) study showed antibiotic activity against Mycobacterium tuberculosis , Salmonella typhi , and Brucea abortus . Clitocine has also been shown to promote apoptosis ( cell death ) in human cervical cancer cells in vitro ( HeLa ) . The mycelia of L. giganteus , when grown in liquid culture , has been shown to produce phenols and flavonoids that have antioxidant activity .
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= Washington State Route 251 =
State Route 251 ( SR 251 , now Northport – Boundary Road ) is a former 10 @.@ 86 @-@ mile ( 17 @.@ 48 km ) long state highway in Stevens County , Washington . The highway began at SR 25 in Northport and continued northeast parallel to the Columbia River to Boundary , an unincorporated community , where it crossed the Canada – United States border into British Columbia as British Columbia Highway 22A . SR 251 was originally a county road until 1913 , when it was added to the state highway system , but was later removed . The roadway was re @-@ added as an extension to an already existing state highway . In 1937 , it was reclassified as a secondary highway named Secondary State Highway 22A ( SSH 22A ) until 1964 , when it became SR 251 . In 1984 , control of the road was relinquished by the state to Stevens County and it was renamed Northport – Boundary Road .
= = Route description = =
State Route 251 ( SR 251 ) , now known as the Northport – Boundary Road or Boundary Highway , began in Northport at an at @-@ grade intersection at Center Street , known as SR 25 . The highway turned north from SR 25 and followed the Columbia River upstream as well a railroad owned by the Kettle Falls International Railway . The highway traveled northeast , then east through a series of hairpin turns before turning north to Boundary , an unincorporated community in Stevens County , where SR 251 entered Canadian customs and continued into British Columbia as British Columbia Highway 22A ( BC 22A ) .
= = History = =
SR 251 was once a county road connecting Northport with British Columbia that has existed since at least 1912 . In 1913 , it became part of the Inland Empire Highway , but was removed in 1915 . The road was transferred to county maintenance after removal from the state highway system . In 1931 , it was officially added to the state highway system as part of an extension of State Road 22 from Kettle Falls to British Columbia . In 1937 , it became Secondary State Highway 22A ( SSH 22A ) , a branch of Primary State Highway 22 ( PSH 22 ) . When Washington renumbered its highways in 1964 and switched to a new system , SSH 22A became SR 251 and PSH 22 became SR 25 . In 1983 , SR 251 was removed from the state highway system and control was relinquished to Stevens County . After it was turned over , Stevens County continues to maintain the roadway and no realignments or significant events have occurred .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire highway was in Stevens County .
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= MOA @-@ 2009 @-@ BLG @-@ 387L =
MOA @-@ 2009 @-@ BLG @-@ 387L is a red dwarf in the Sagittarius constellation that is host to the planet MOA @-@ 2009 @-@ BLG @-@ 387Lb . The star is estimated to be nearly 20 @,@ 000 light years away and approximately one fifth the mass of the Sun , although large confidence intervals exist , reflecting the uncertainties in both the mass and distance . The star drew the attention of astronomers when it became the lens of gravitational microlensing event MOA @-@ 2009 @-@ BLG @-@ 387L , in which it eclipsed a background star and created distorted caustics , an envelope of reflected or refracted light rays . Analysis of the caustic events and of follow @-@ up observational data led to the planet 's discovery , which was reported in February 2011 .
= = Observational history = =
On July 24 , 2009 , the Microlensing Observations in Astrophysics collaboration ( MOA ) detected the star MOA @-@ 2009 @-@ BLG @-@ 387L eclipsing a background star in a microlensing event that was named MOA @-@ 2009 @-@ BLG @-@ 387 . In a process called gravitational microlensing , the star MOA @-@ 2009 @-@ BLG @-@ 387L became a lens that created two distorted caustic images . In the case of the microlensing event MOA @-@ 2009 @-@ BLG @-@ 387 , these caustics produced a series of small " resonating " diffractions ; such resonant @-@ caustic events are valued because they tend to yield more information about an orbiting planet .
The first caustic event was detected by the South African Astronomical Observatory ( SAAO ) on July 24 , 2009 . An alert was issued , which attracted many to cover the caustic event ; as such , the end of the first caustic event was well @-@ documented . The microlensing event 's second caustic event was seven days later , an unusually long middle period for planetary microlensing events . An alert brought three different telescopes at SAAO and telescopes at ten different observatories to focus on the event .
Follow @-@ up observations on the star MOA @-@ 2009 @-@ BLG @-@ 387L using the NACO imager at the Very Large Telescope array successfully distinguished the star 's mass . The collected data from VLT and from observations during the microlensing event was run through a series of models and analyzed . An orbiting planetary body larger than Jupiter ( or of a similar size , given uncertainties ) was discovered . The discovery of the planet was reported on February 21 , 2011 in the journal Astronomy and Astrophysics .
= = Characteristics = =
MOA @-@ 2009 @-@ BLG @-@ 387L is an M @-@ type red dwarf in the Sagittarius constellation . It is estimated to be 5700 parsecs ( 18 @,@ 591 light years ) away , although uncertainty has led the discovering team to place the confidence intervals at ± 2200 parsecs ( 7 @,@ 176 light years ) ; in other words , although the distance of MOA @-@ 2009 @-@ BLG @-@ 387L from Earth is best placed at 5700 parsecs , astronomers can only be 90 % certain that it is somewhere between 3 @,@ 500 and 7 @,@ 900 parsecs away . Likewise , although MOA @-@ 2009 @-@ BLG @-@ 387L 's mass has been estimated at 0 @.@ 19 times that of the Sun , the confidence intervals remain large ( + 0 @.@ 3
− 0 @.@ 12 ) , as uncertainty in the mass of the planet places its true mass between 0 @.@ 07 and 0 @.@ 49 times the mass of the Sun . This covers the entirety of the range of masses known in red dwarfs .
The ratio between planet MOA @-@ 2009 @-@ BLG @-@ 387Lb 's mass to that of its host star has been found with accuracy . However , because the host star 's characteristics are not as well @-@ constrained , the planet 's characteristics are not well @-@ constrained either . The inability to constrain many of MOA @-@ 2009 @-@ BLG @-@ 387L 's characteristics is a consequence of the fact that the star acted as the lens in the microlensing event , which compromised the ability to collect most of the star 's stellar parameters .
= = Planetary system = =
MOA @-@ 2009 @-@ BLG @-@ 387Lb is the only known exoplanet in the orbit of host star MOA @-@ 2009 @-@ BLG @-@ 387L . The planet is estimated to be 2 @.@ 6 times the mass of Jupiter . However , because knowledge of the exact parameters of the planet are tied to the host star 's parameters , and the host star 's parameters are not well @-@ constrained , uncertainty places MOA @-@ 2009 @-@ BLG @-@ 387Lb 's mass between 1 @.@ 0 and 6 @.@ 7 times that of Jupiter . The planet is estimated to orbit its host star every 1970 days at a distance of 1 @.@ 8 AU , some 1 @.@ 8 times the mean distance between Earth and the Sun . Uncertainty broadens the mean distance to between 1 @.@ 1 and 2 @.@ 7 AU .
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= Blue discharge =
A blue discharge ( also known as a " blue ticket " ) was a form of administrative military discharge formerly issued by the United States beginning in 1916 . It was neither honorable nor dishonorable . The blue ticket became the discharge of choice for commanders seeking to remove homosexual service members from the ranks . They were also issued disproportionately to African Americans .
Service members holding a blue discharge were subjected to discrimination in civilian life . They were denied the benefits of the G.I. Bill by the Veterans Administration and had difficulty finding work because employers were aware of the negative connotations of a blue discharge . Following intense criticism in the press — especially the black press , because of the high percentage of African Americans who received blue discharges — and in Congress , the blue discharge was discontinued in 1947 , replaced by two new classifications : general and undesirable .
= = History = =
The blue discharge was created in 1916 to replace two previous discharge classifications , the administrative discharge without honor and the " unclassified " discharge . The discharges were printed on blue paper , hence the name . They were also sometimes called " blue tickets " . One early use of the blue discharge was for service members who had enlisted to fight in World War I while underage , but this practice was abolished by law and all such discharges were upgraded to honorable .
= = Association with homosexuality = =
The United States military had a long @-@ standing policy that service members found to be homosexual or to have engaged in homosexual conduct were to be court @-@ martialed for sodomy , imprisoned and dishonorably discharged . However , with the mobilization of troops following the United States ' entry into World War II , it became impractical to convene court @-@ martial boards of commissioned officers and some commanders began issuing administrative discharges instead . Several waves of reform addressing the handling of homosexuals in the military resulted in a 1944 policy directive that called for homosexuals to be committed to military hospitals , examined by psychiatrists , and discharged under Regulation 615 @-@ 360 , section 8 as " unfit for service " . It is unknown exactly how many gay and lesbian service members were given blue discharges under this regulation , but in 1946 the Army estimated that it had issued between 49 @,@ 000 and 68 @,@ 000 blue discharges , with approximately 5 @,@ 000 of them issued to homosexuals , while the Navy 's estimates of blue @-@ discharge homosexuals was around 4 @,@ 000 . The period of time covered by these estimates is unclear .
The psychiatrists responsible for creating and implementing screening procedures to exclude homosexuals from military service initially supported giving gay service members blue discharges . However , when they learned of the difficulties that blue @-@ ticket holders faced in civilian life , they urged the military to discontinue the practice . William C. Menninger , who served as the Director of the Psychiatry Consultants Division for the Surgeon General of the United States Army from 1944 to 1946 , tried to persuade the military to issue honorable discharges to gay service members who had not committed any crimes during their military service .
One press account said the purpose of administrative blue discharges , " discharges which are not dishonorable but are based on habits or traits of the individual that make his continuation in service undesirable " , was the need to return soldiers to civilian life as quickly as possible : " to get the non @-@ disabled soldier back into the nation 's economic life with as little delay and red tape as possible , and to help him solve his own personal problems such as unemployment , educational opportunities or finances . "
= = Discrimination = =
The Veterans Administration ( VA ) , charged with implementing the provisions of the G.I. Bill , denied benefits to blue @-@ discharge veterans , despite the Bill 's explicit language that made only a dishonorable discharge grounds for denying benefits to a veteran . In 1945 , the VA issued a directive that all blue @-@ discharges for homosexuality would be denied benefits . On December 22 , 1955 , the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit denied an appeal from Raymond W. Longernecker , who had been denied his G.I. Bill benefits by the VA because of his blue discharge . The Court found that the VA had discretion in awarding benefits and that Congress had specifically foreclosed the courts from overruling it . Nevertheless , the Court noted that the denial of benefits should only have occurred if Longernecker had been dishonorably discharged and that the VA Administrator was acting without authority in treating a blue discharge as if it were dishonorable .
Most employers required that job applicants who had served in the military present their discharge papers as part of the application process . Blue @-@ discharge veterans experienced difficulty in securing employment because many employers were aware that the blue discharge meant that the holder was considered undesirable . Those employers who did not know had access to a list of the Separation Program Numbers or " spin " numbers that the military used to classify discharges . At least four such spin numbers indicated a gay @-@ related discharge .
Congress had expressed concern about possible misuse of the blue discharge when it began work on the G.I. Bill in 1944 . In discussions about the legislation 's details , the American Legion insisted on a specific provision to provide benefits to veterans discharged under any circumstance other than dishonorable . The Legion believed a large number of veterans had been given blue and other less @-@ than @-@ honorable discharges for reasons that it considered unreasonable or trivial . In testimony before the United States Senate , Rear Admiral Randall Jacobs strongly opposed this provision on the grounds that it would undermine morale and remove any incentive to maintain a good service record . Senator Bennett Champ Clark , a sponsor of the bill , dismissed his concerns , calling them " some of the most stupid , short @-@ sighted objections which could be raised " . Clark went on to say :
" The Army is giving blue discharges , namely discharges without honor , to those who have had no fault other than they have not shown sufficient aptitude for military service . I say that when the government drafts a man from civil life and puts him in the military service ... and , thereafter , because the man does not show sufficient aptitude gives him a blue discharge , or a discharge without honor , that fact should not be permitted to prevent the man from receiving the benefits to which soldiers are generally entitled . "
The G.I. Bill also provided for discharge review boards to review an appeal of any discharge other than dishonorable . From 1945 until early 1947 , these boards routinely upgraded to honorable the blue discharges of homosexual service members who had not committed any known sex acts during their military service . About one @-@ third of all blue discharges reviewed were upgraded to honorable .
= = Black press crusade = =
Another minority group disproportionately issued blue discharges were African Americans . Of the 48 @,@ 603 blue discharges issued by the Army between December 1 , 1941 , and June 30 , 1945 , 10 @,@ 806 were issued to African Americans , 22 @.@ 23 % of all blue discharges at a time when African Americans constituted 6 @.@ 5 % of the Army . In October 1945 , Black @-@ interest newspaper The Pittsburgh Courier launched a crusade against the discharge and its abuses ; calling the discharge " a vicious instrument that should not be perpetrated against the American Soldier " , the Courier rebuked the Army for " allowing prejudiced officers to use it as a means of punishing Negro soldiers who do not like specifically unbearable conditions " . The Courier specifically noted the discrimination faced by homosexual blue @-@ tickets , calling them " ' unfortunates ' of the Nation ... being preyed upon by the blue discharge " and demanded to know " why the Army chooses to penalize these ' unfortunates ' who seem most in need of Army benefits and the opportunity to become better citizens under the educational benefits of the GI Bill of Rights " . The Courier printed instructions on how to appeal a blue discharge and warned readers against accepting a blue ticket out of the service because of the negative effect it would likely have on their lives .
In addition to the Courier , other groups and institutions that decried the punitive use of the blue discharge included the American Legion , the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People , the Congress of Industrial Organizations , and the Veterans Benevolent Association . In the U.S. Senate , the chairman of the Senate Veterans Committee , Sen. Edwin C. Johnson ( D @-@ Colorado ) , read the Courier 's editorial into the record . On October 29 , 1945 , noting that a blue discharge meant the veteran had not been convicted and yet had been separated from the military without being able to defend himself , he said : " There ought not to be a twilight zone between innocence and guilt . Blue discharges are certain to be a headache for Congress from now on . "
= = House Report on blue discharges = =
In response to reports about the disparate treatment of blue @-@ ticket veterans , the House Committee on Military Affairs appointed a special committee to review the Veterans Administration 's procedures . The committee , headed by Rep. Carl T. Durham ( D @-@ NC ) , issued its report officially called " Investigations of the National War Effort " , commonly known as " Blue Discharges " , on January 30 , 1946 . The committee expressed its amazement that anyone with a blue discharge would risk further stigmatization by speaking out against the discrimination :
It should be borne in mind that even a moderate amount of complaint in a matter of this sort is significant . For a person to make such a complaint in his own case implies that he feels a sense of injustice so great that he is willing to risk publicizing the stigma of having been discharged from the Army under circumstances which savor of disgrace . For each complainant there are many more who feel the same sense of injustice but prefer to bury their hurt in as much oblivion as possible .
In examining case histories of blue @-@ discharge veterans , the committee found that " the procedure lends itself to dismissals based on prejudice and antagonism " . Further , the committee found that the effects of a blue discharge " differ little from those of a dishonorable discharge ... the discharged man finds it difficult to get or keep a job . The suspicion of society is aroused against him , all the worse in some ways for carrying an atmosphere of mystery . " The report said that " nothing could more clearly prove the anomalous and illogical and disingenuous nature of the blue discharge than this policy of the Veterans Administration " . The committee called the system for dealing with blue @-@ ticket veterans " a squeeze play between the war department and the veterans ' administration " and took the agency to task for assuming " the right to separate the sheep from the goats " and " passing moral verdicts on the history of any soldier " .
To reform the discharge system the committee recommended :
Automatic review for all blue discharges
That the Army be required to demonstrate that it made multiple attempts to rehabilitate the service member before issuing a blue discharge
The right to counsel for service members being given a blue discharge , either provided by the military or private counsel
Copies of procedural regulations regarding the blue discharge process be provided upon request
That any discharge that did not specify the quality of service state plainly that it is not dishonorable
The committee also recommended changing the discharge system to four classifications : honorable and dishonorable , with no change in their definitions ; " under honorable conditions " to replace the blue discharge ; and general , to cover separation for misconduct .
= = Aftermath = =
Despite the Committee 's report , the VA continued to discriminate against homosexual blue @-@ tickets , renewing its 1945 directive in 1946 and again in 1949 . Blue discharges were discontinued as of July 1 , 1947 , and two new headings , general and undesirable , took their place . A general discharge was considered to be under honorable conditions — distinct from an " honorable discharge " — and an undesirable discharge was under conditions other than honorable — distinct from a " dishonorable discharge " . At the same time , the Army changed its regulations to ensure that gay and lesbian service members would not qualify for general discharges . Those found guilty of engaging in homosexual conduct still received dishonorable discharges , while those identified as homosexuals but not to have committed any homosexual acts now received undesirable discharges . By the 1970s , a service member who had not committed any homosexual acts would tend to receive a general discharge , while those found to have engaged in homosexual sex tended to receive undesirable discharges . Gay service members continued to receive a disproportionate percentage of the undesirable discharges issued . This was the status quo until replaced in 1993 by the policy commonly known as " don 't ask , don 't tell " .
It has been suggested that the large gay populations in port cities like San Francisco , Chicago and New York City are in part the result of the blue discharge . The theory asserts that many gay blue @-@ ticket veterans from smaller urban or rural areas who felt they were unable to return to their home communities because of the shame associated with their discharges relocated to larger areas with established gay subcultures or simply stayed in the city through which they were returned to the United States .
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= Russian battleship Chesma ( 1886 ) =
Chesma ( Russian : Чесма , sometimes transliterated as Tchesma ) was the second ship of the Ekaterina II @-@ class battleships built for the Imperial Russian Navy in the 1880s . When the ship was completed she proved to be very overweight which meant that much of her waterline armor belt was submerged . Russian companies could not produce the most advanced armour and machinery desired by the Naval General Staff , so they were imported from the United Kingdom and Belgium . Chesma spent her career as part of the Black Sea Fleet .
When the crew of the battleship Potemkin mutinied in June 1905 , the ship 's crew was considered unreliable and she did not participate in the pursuit of the Potemkin . Chesma did , however , escort Potemkin as Sinop towed her back to Sevastopol from Constanța , Romania , where Potemkin had sought asylum . Chesma was turned over to the Sevastopol port authorities before being stricken on 14 August 1907 . Before she was fully dismantled the Naval Ministry decided to use her hull for full @-@ scale armour trials . She was re @-@ designated as Stricken Vessel Nr. 4 on 22 April 1912 before being used as a gunnery target . Afterwards the ship served as a torpedo target for the destroyers of the Black Sea Fleet . During these attacks Chesma settled to the bottom of the Bay of Tendra and was eventually scrapped during the mid @-@ 1920s .
= = Design and description = =
Chesma was 331 feet 8 @.@ 5 inches ( 101 @.@ 1 m ) long at the waterline and 339 feet 3 inches ( 103 @.@ 4 m ) long overall . She had a beam of 68 feet 11 inches ( 21 @.@ 0 m ) and a draft of 28 feet 10 inches ( 8 @.@ 8 m ) more than 28 inches ( 710 mm ) than designed . She displaced 11 @,@ 396 long tons ( 11 @,@ 579 t ) at load , over 1 @,@ 200 long tons ( 1 @,@ 200 t ) more than her designed displacement of 10 @,@ 181 long tons ( 10 @,@ 344 t ) .
Chesma had two 3 @-@ cylinder vertical compound steam engines imported from the Belgian Cockerill company . Fourteen cylindrical boilers , also imported from Cockerill , provided steam to the engines . The engines had a total designed output of 9 @,@ 000 indicated horsepower ( 6 @,@ 700 kW ) , but they produced 9 @,@ 059 ihp ( 6 @,@ 755 kW ) on trials and gave a top speed of almost 16 knots ( 30 km / h ; 18 mph ) . At full load she carried 900 long tons ( 910 t ) of coal that provided her a range of 2 @,@ 800 nautical miles ( 5 @,@ 200 km ; 3 @,@ 200 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) and 1 @,@ 367 nautical miles ( 2 @,@ 532 km ; 1 @,@ 573 mi ) at 14 @.@ 5 knots ( 26 @.@ 9 km / h ; 16 @.@ 7 mph ) .
She differed from her sister ships mainly in her main armament . She had six 12 in ( 305 mm ) Model 1886 35 @-@ caliber guns mounted in twin barbette mounts , two forward , side by side , and one aft . Each of the forward mounts could traverse 30 ° across the bow and 35 ° abaft the beam , or a total of 155 ° . The rear mount could traverse 202 ° . They had a range of elevation from − 2 ° to + 15 ° . Chesma 's guns were mounted on unbalanced turntables and they caused her to list when the guns were trained to one side . Traversing all the guns as far as they could go to one side produced a list of 7 @.@ 6 ° and made it very difficult for the turntable machinery to rotate the guns back to the fore @-@ and @-@ aft position . This problem had been anticipated and water tanks had been added to counteract the list , but they proved to be virtually useless because they took up to two hours to fill . The problem was partially cured in 1892 when the equipment was rearranged on the turntable to improve their balance , but more thorough solutions to the problem were either deemed too expensive or inadequate . Their rate of fire was reportedly one round every fifteen to seventeen minutes , including training time . Sixty rounds per gun were carried . The main guns were mounted very low , ( only 4 feet 6 inches ( 1 @.@ 37 m ) ) above the main deck , and caused extensive damage to the deck when fired over the bow or stern . They fired a ' light ' shell that weighed 731 @.@ 3 lb ( 331 @.@ 7 kg ) or a ' heavy ' shell that weighed 1 @,@ 003 lb ( 455 kg ) . The ' light ' shell had a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 090 ft / s ( 640 m / s ) while the ' heavy ' shell could only be propelled at a velocity of 2 @,@ 000 ft / s ( 610 m / s ) . The ' light ' shell had a maximum range of 11 @,@ 600 yards ( 10 @,@ 600 m ) when fired at an elevation of 15 ° .
The seven 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) Obukhov Model 1877 35 @-@ caliber guns were mounted on broadside pivot mounts in hull embrasures , except for one gun mounted in the stern in the hull . The eight 47 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) five @-@ barreled revolving Hotchkiss guns were mounted in small embrasures in the hull to defend the ship against torpedo boats . Four 37 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) five @-@ barreled revolving Hotchkiss guns were mounted in the fighting top . She carried seven above @-@ water 14 @-@ inch ( 356 mm ) torpedo tubes , one tube forward on each side , able to bear on forward targets , two other tubes were mounted on each broadside forward and aft of the central citadel ; the seventh tube was in the stern .
= = History = =
Chesma was named after the Russian victory at the Battle of Chesma in 1770 . She was built by the Russian Steam Navigation Company ( RoPIT ) at Sevastopol . She was laid down in late June 1883 , launched on 18 May 1886 , and completed on 29 May 1889 . She served with the Black Sea Fleet until 1907 . She was inactive in 1895 , probably for mechanical problems . Chesma conducted trials in 1902 with towing spherical observation balloons and she was re @-@ boilered the following year . Plans were made for a radical reconstruction to be done while her boilers were being replaced . The rebuilding involved cutting her down by one deck and replacing her armament with two twin @-@ gun turrets equipped with 12 @-@ inch 40 @-@ caliber guns and ten 6 @-@ inch 45 @-@ caliber guns between the turrets in an armoured citadel that used Krupp armor . This proved to be too expensive and it was cancelled , but not before the armor and turrets had been ordered . Her turrets were used to equip the pre @-@ dreadnought Ioann Zlatoust , then under construction .
When the crew of the battleship Potemkin mutinied in June 1905 , Chesma 's crew was considered unreliable , and she did not participate in the pursuit of Potemkin . She escorted Potemkin as Sinop towed her back to Sevastopol from Constanța , Romania , where Potemkin had sought asylum .
The ship was turned over to the Sevastopol port authorities before being stricken on 14 August 1907 . Before she was fully dismantled the Naval Ministry decided to use her hull for full @-@ scale armour trials . She was re @-@ designated as Stricken Vessel Nr. 4 on 22 April 1912 . Chesma was fitted with a replica of the armour system used in the Gangut @-@ class battleships to test its effectiveness . She was towed into position and given a 7 ° list to simulate the descent angle of shells fired at long range . Ironically her own guns were used against her as Ioann Zlatoust anchored 750 meters ( 2 @,@ 460 ft ) away and fired 12 @-@ inch , 8 @-@ inch ( 203 mm ) and 6 @-@ inch shells with reduced charges to simulate shells fired from approximately 16 @,@ 000 – 18 @,@ 000 yards ( 15 @,@ 000 – 16 @,@ 000 m ) away . These revealed significant weaknesses in the support structure for the armour plates and in the deck protection , but the Gangut @-@ class ships were too far along in construction to incorporate fixes . Afterwards she served as a torpedo target for the destroyers of the Black Sea Fleet . During these attacks she settled to the bottom of the Bay of Tendra and was eventually scrapped during the mid @-@ 1920s .
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= Lester Brain =
Lester Joseph Brain , AO , AFC ( 27 February 1903 – 30 June 1980 ) was a pioneer Australian aviator and airline executive . Born in New South Wales , he trained with the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) before joining Queensland and Northern Territory Aerial Services ( Qantas ) as a pilot in 1924 . He was awarded the Air Force Cross in 1929 , after locating the lost aircraft Kookaburra in northern Australia . Having risen to Chief Pilot at Qantas by 1930 , he was appointed Flying Operations Manager in 1938 . As a member of the RAAF reserve , Brain coordinated his airline 's support for the Australian military during World War II . He earned a King 's Commendation for his rescue efforts during an air raid on Broome , Western Australia , in 1942 , and was promoted to wing commander in 1944 .
Seeing little prospect for advancement at Qantas once the war had ended , Brain left to join the fledgling government @-@ owned domestic carrier Trans Australia Airlines ( TAA ) in June 1946 . Appointed its first General Manager , he swiftly built up the organisation to the stage where it could commence scheduled operations later in the year . By the time he resigned in March 1955 , TAA was firmly established as one half of the Commonwealth government 's two @-@ airline system . After his departure from TAA , Brain became Managing Director of de Havilland Aircraft in Sydney , before joining the board of East @-@ West Airlines as a consultant in January 1961 . Appointed an Officer of the Order of Australia in January 1979 , Lester Brain died in June the following year , at the age of seventy @-@ seven .
= = Pre @-@ war career = =
= = = Early life = = =
Born in Forbes , New South Wales , on 27 February 1903 , Lester Brain was the second son of an English mining engineer and manager , Austin Brain , and his Australian wife , Katie . Originally from Gloucestershire , Austin had emigrated with his parents and siblings in 1885 , prospecting for gold in the United States before settling in Australia . By the age of thirteen , Lester owned his own motorcycle bought secondhand for £ 11 ; its poor condition and constant need for repair helped him become mechanically adept at an early age . He completed his education at Sydney Grammar School , where he excelled in maths , before being employed by the Commercial Banking Company of Sydney ( CBC ) in 1919 .
Brain 's penchant for motorbikes and things mechanical inspired a lift driver at CBC to suggest he apply for pilot training in the recently formed Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) . He was among five civilian students nominated by the Civil Aviation Branch ( CAB ) of the Defence Department for entry into the inaugural RAAF flying training course , which commenced at Point Cook , Victoria in January 1923 . The benefit of these nominations from a military perspective was that although the destiny of the CAB @-@ sponsored students was to be civil aviators , they would also be members of the RAAF reserve , known as the Citizen Air Force ( CAF ) , and could therefore be called up for active service as and when necessary . Brain 's fellow attendees included Royal Australian Navy lieutenants Joe Hewitt and Ellis Wackett , and Australian Army lieutenant Frank Bladin , all of whom were seconded — and later permanently transferred — to the RAAF .
= = = Qantas = = =
Brain graduated at the top of his class after the year @-@ long training course at Point Cook , and was duly commissioned in the CAF . Moving to Queensland in April 1924 , he took up employment as a pilot with Queensland and Northern Territory Aerial Services ( Qantas ) , its first aviator without a war record . On 7 February 1925 , he flew the first scheduled passenger service from Cloncurry to Camooweal , extending the airline 's founding 580 @-@ mile ( 930 km ) route — from Charleville to Cloncurry — by 284 miles ( 457 km ) . The following year , he completed a refresher course at Central Flying School , Point Cook . On a rain @-@ soaked McKinlay airfield near Cloncurry on 27 February 1927 , he flipped Qantas ' first de Havilland DH.50 on to its back while attempting take @-@ off , though he managed to escape without injury . Qantas founder Hudson Fysh berated him for a " serious error of judgement " , but noted his excellent three @-@ year record as a pilot ; the aircraft was soon repaired and operational again . The next month , Brain became Chief Instructor at the Qantas Flying School in Brisbane , doubling as manager of the airline 's local office . By mid @-@ 1928 , he had overworked himself to the extent that he was ordered to take respite by Fysh ; this " respite " nevertheless involved a 13 @-@ week trip to England to study aviation developments .
In April 1929 , Brain was selected to take part in a search for lost aviators in northern Australia , having gained experience of the area while flying over the Tanami Desert to assist a gold prospecting expedition some years earlier . On 20 April , he took Qantas DH.50 Atalanta from Brisbane to link up with RAAF Airco DH.9s under the command of Flight Lieutenant Charles Eaton at Tennant Creek , to look for Keith Anderson and Robert Hitchcock in their Westland Widgeon the Kookaburra . The pair had disappeared while searching for Charles Kingsford Smith and Charles Ulm , who had been reported missing on a record attempt from Sydney to England in the Southern Cross . Brain located the Kookaburra the next day in the Tanami Desert , approximately 130 kilometres ( 81 mi ) east @-@ south @-@ east of Wave Hill . He saw one body underneath the wing , but the terrain was too dangerous to attempt a landing . After Brain reported the Kookaburra 's position to Eaton , the latter led an overland expedition to the site and buried the bodies of Anderson and Hitchcock , who had evidently survived crash @-@ landing their plane before succumbing to heat and thirst . His discovery of the Kookaburra and , shortly thereafter , of two lost British aviators in Arnhem Land , earned Brain the Air Force Cross ; the award was gazetted on 31 May :
The KING has been graciously pleased to approve of the award of the Air Force Cross to Mr. Leslie Joseph Brain , in recognition of the distinguished services rendered to aviation by his recent flights in the northern territory of Australia in search of missing aviators .
The Gazette later corrected " Leslie " to " Lester " . With the Kookaburra saga making news across the country , Brain had become a national hero , and Fysh declared that the publicity for both pilot and airline " could probably not have been bought for any money " .
By 1930 , Brain had been appointed Qantas ' Chief Pilot . In June that year , he was given responsibility for sales and special flights such as demonstrations and agency tours at the airline 's new Brisbane headquarters , and also acted as a reserve pilot . He married Constance ( Consie ) Brownhill at Holy Innocents Catholic Church in Croydon , New South Wales , on 8 July ; the couple had two sons and two daughters . Brain played a leading role in Qantas ' operations as it expanded its mail and passenger routes throughout Australia and , as Qantas Empire Airways ( QEA ) from January 1934 , other parts of the world . In October that year , he went to Britain to take delivery of QEA 's first de Havilland DH.86 , the fastest four @-@ engined airliner in the world at the time . He was now Flight Superintendent and , having accumulated 6 @,@ 694 hours in the air , began to evince a keener interest in the " administration and executive side of aviation " . Promoted to flying officer in the CAF on 1 March 1935 , over the next year he discussed with the Controller @-@ General of Civil Aviation , Edgar Johnston , taking a cut in salary to work in Johnston 's department , or possibly becoming Deputy Controller @-@ General . No more came of this at the time , and by 1938 Brain had been appointed Flying Operations Manager at QEA . In 1939 , he was considered for the position of Director @-@ General of Civil Aviation ( which had recently succeeded the post of Controller @-@ General ) but the role went to A. B. Corbett .
= = World War II = =
Following the outbreak of World War II , Brain was given the task of coordinating Qantas ' support for the Australian military , which became known as the Qantas Merchant Air Service . On 23 February 1940 , Fysh noted that since its formation in 1934 , QEA had logged six million miles in flying boats and landplanes without suffering any injuries to passengers or crew . He called it " a record which has never been equalled in any part of the world ... It reflects the highest credit on Captain Brain , who has been in charge of flying operations during this time . " In 1941 , Brain took charge of ferrying eighteen PBY Catalinas from the United States to Australia on behalf of the RAAF , which had purchased the aircraft . US neutrality made it prudent for a civilian organisation — that was also experienced in long @-@ range flying boat operations — to undertake the task . Brain and his crew departed San Diego , California , on 25 January to make the first flight , having surveyed their intended route on the journey out from Australia . Travelling via Honolulu , Canton Island and Nouméa , they arrived at their destination after one week , including sixty hours flying time ; it was only the third such direct flight to Australia across the Pacific Ocean .
By February 1942 , Brain was running the Qantas base at Broome in north Western Australia , which had assumed major importance as a way station for evacuees from the Dutch East Indies , possessing a harbour suitable for flying boats , as well as an airfield that could take heavy bombers . The increasing Royal Netherlands Air Force , RAAF and Qantas traffic through the base led Brain to anticipate an attack by Japanese forces , and this occurred on 3 March , when nine A6M Zero fighters strafed the harbour with cannon . Twenty @-@ four aircraft were destroyed , and an estimated seventy people were killed . Brain , though suffering from fever , rowed into the harbour with another airline representative and rescued ten people from the water . After the all @-@ clear sounded , he ordered an undamaged Qantas flying boat to Port Hedland , in case of further attacks ; he also took part in the search for survivors of a Consolidated B @-@ 24 Liberator that had been shot down by the raiders . His rescue efforts were recognised with a King 's Commendation for " brave conduct at Civil Aerodromes " , promulgated in the Commonwealth of Australia Gazette on 17 June 1943 . The following year , he was promoted to temporary wing commander in the CAF .
= = Post @-@ war career = =
= = = Trans Australia Airlines = = =
After the war , Brain was appointed Qantas ' Assistant General Manager . Fysh was still in his early fifties and appeared unlikely to retire any time soon . Seeing little chance of further advancement where he was , Brain took the opportunity to apply for the position of Operations Manager at Trans Australia Airlines ( TAA ) , a new domestic carrier established by the Federal Labor government and run by the Australian National Airlines Commission ( ACAC ) , which was chaired by Arthur Coles . Qantas could not match the £ 2 @,@ 250 salary associated with the TAA role , and Brain advised Fysh of his resignation on 10 April 1946 . In the event , ACAC appointed him TAA 's General Manager on 3 June , with a £ 3 @,@ 000 salary and an undertaking to increase this to as much as £ 5 @,@ 000 in the future .
Brain moved quickly to secure executive , flying , training and maintenance staff from Qantas , Ansett and the RAAF , as well as surplus Douglas DC @-@ 3 twin @-@ engined transports from the RAAF and TAA 's chief private competitor , Australian National Airways ( ANA ) . He planned to have the first scheduled flights operating by October , around the same time as delivery of four DC @-@ 4 Skymaster four @-@ engined liners that would augment the DC @-@ 3 fleet , giving the airline a significant edge over ANA . In the event , TAA 's first flight , from Melbourne to Sydney , took place on 9 September under pressure from the government , keen to ensure favourable publicity for its new enterprise before the Federal election at the end of the month . Brain nevertheless instructed his pilots that " schedules are important , but safety is most important " ; it became one of TAA 's early advertising slogans . In October , he wrote to the Department of Civil Aviation to express his disquiet at the rapidly increasing list of government members who were to be given preferential treatment when required at the expense of members of the public , in effect arguing with his owner — the government — on behalf of everyday travellers .
On 1 July 1947 , Brain was discharged from the CAF with the rank of wing commander . By August 1949 , TAA had carried its millionth passenger . Though praised for contributing to increased civil traffic in Australia , the airline was losing money , generating criticism in media and political circles that it was an inefficient organisation propped up by ordinary taxpayers . Brain maintained that its negative financial performance in its early years was a necessary by @-@ product of rapid expansion to establish itself as a significant force in the market . In June 1950 , he was able to report its first profit . This , plus popular opinion in TAA 's favour , helped ensure the airline 's survival as a public enterprise in the wake of the Labor government 's loss to Robert Menzies ' conservative Liberal Party in the Federal election the previous year , though Coles was replaced as Chairman of ACAC by Norman Watt . By 1951 , the new government had enacted as policy a two @-@ airline system that enshrined competition between the Commonwealth @-@ sponsored domestic operator and one major privately owned carrier .
= = = Later life and legacy = = =
Brain tendered his resignation from TAA on 3 February 1955 — effective 17 March — to become Managing Director of de Havilland Aircraft in Sydney ( later Hawker de Havilland , part of Boeing Australia ) . While his departure came as a surprise to ACAC , Brain had for some time felt shackled by having to run TAA on a commercial basis under the control of a government bureaucracy , and on a public servant 's remuneration . His anticipated salary increases had been less than he expected under the terms of his employment ; Watt 's attempts to make good on them had been resisted by Federal Cabinet . The government yet feared that , once he had resigned , Brain might attempt to sue for back pay , though he assured Watt that this was not his intention . Nevertheless , in November he received a Cabinet @-@ approved ex gratia payment totalling £ 6 @,@ 250 , in recognition of his " long and distinguished service to civil aviation in Australia " .
During Brain 's tenure at de Havilland , the company manufactured sixty @-@ nine Vampire T35 jet trainers at its Bankstown factory for delivery to the RAAF , as well as Sea Venoms for the RAN . Leaving de Havilland upon its merger with Hawker Siddeley in 1960 , he gave up full @-@ time work and joined the board of East @-@ West Airlines as a consultant in January 1961 . In August 1964 , he began negotiations with the Federal government on behalf of International Parcels Express Company ( now Toll IPEC ) , which was attempting to enter the air freight business in Australia with the purchase of five DC @-@ 4 Skymasters ; the government rejected the proposal later that year . Along with Arthur Coles , Brain was a guest at the opening of TAA 's new headquarters at Franklin Street , Melbourne in November 1965 . In 1978 , he met with adventurer Dick Smith , who was about to launch an expedition to recover the Kookaburra from the Tanami Desert . Smith was keen to get directions from the man who had found the missing plane in 1929 , in spite of receiving advice against taking the word of someone from the " cap and goggles " era . He rediscovered the Kookaburra in August that year " exactly where Lester Brain had said ... Lester was completely chuffed when I got back and told him I 'd found the Kookaburra thanks to his directions and how thankful I was that , despite everyone else 's suggestions , I 'd taken Lester 's advice . "
Brain had declined the offer of a knighthood in the late 1960s , but accepted appointment as an Officer of the Order of Australia on 26 January 1979 . When asked towards the end of his life why he had achieved so much but was not as well known as other aviation pioneers , he replied " Because I was always very careful and didn 't kill myself " . Having suffered from cancer for several years , Brain died in Sydney on 30 June 1980 . He was survived by his wife and children , and cremated . In November 2008 , Qantas announced that one of its new Airbus A380s would be named Lester Brain .
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= Mississippi Highway 604 =
Mississippi Highway 604 ( MS 604 ) is a 5 @.@ 071 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 8 @.@ 161 km ) state highway on the Mississippi Gulf Coast . Its southern terminus is at U.S. Route 90 ( US 90 ) . MS 604 travels northward through Pearlington to its northern terminus at MS 607 . The route was designated in 1950 , after US 90 was realigned off of it in 1939 onto a new road built in 1936 .
= = Route description = =
All of the undivided , two @-@ laned route is located in western Hancock County . MS 604 starts at US 90 south of Pearlington and travels north . The road goes through a small forest , before turning northwest and entering Pearlington . MS 604 goes through the center of Pearlington , and turns north at Levee Street . The route soon travels northeast as it leaves Pearlington . MS 604 enters into larger forests for around three miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) . About 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 80 km ) south of MS 607 , MS 604 travels northward . The road soon ends at MS 607 at a T @-@ intersection .
In 2013 , Mississippi Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) calculated as many as 1 @,@ 000 vehicles traveling north of Birch Drive , and as few as 840 vehicles traveling south of MS 607 . MS 604 is not included as a part of the National Highway System ( NHS ) , a network of highways identified as being most important for the economy , mobility and defense of the nation . MS 604 is legally defined in Mississippi Code § 65 @-@ 3 @-@ 3 . MS 604 is maintained by the Mississippi Department of Transportation . The route is part of the Westonia Senic Byway to Space , which starts at MS 607 , travels on MS 604 , and ends at Stennis Space Center 's buffer zone near Pearlington .
= = History = =
Since 1928 , US 90 was routed through Santa Rosa , and concurrent with US 11 before crossing into Louisiana . In 1936 , a new , paved road was built from US 90 to south of Slidell , bypassing the town . Three years later , US 90 was realigned south on this new road . This caused the southern terminus to be US 90 , and the northern terminus at an unsigned highway , which would become MS 11 @-@ 90 a year later . In 1948 , the route was renumbered to MS 43 , and by 1950 , the former alignment of US 90 bypassed in 1936 became signed as MS 604 . In 1967 , MS 43 was rerouted to its east , and the old alignment became MS 607 .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Hancock County .
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= Tim McKee =
Alexander Timothy McKee ( born March 14 , 1953 ) is an American former competition swimmer and three @-@ time Olympic silver medalist . He was a successful medley and backstroke swimmer , and is often remembered for being a part of the closest Olympic swimming finish in history and the resulting rule changes regarding the timing of international swimming events . McKee is a Pennsylvania native who was raised in a family of swimmers , and had notable successes as a collegiate swimmer at the University of Florida .
= = Early years = =
McKee was born in Ardmore , Pennsylvania . He was the fourth of nine children in his family ; his father Alexander " Big Al " McKee was a former All @-@ American for Ohio State University 's Buckeye swimming and diving team in the late 1930s . While McKee was a child , his parents moved the family to Newtown Square , Pennsylvania , so that he and his siblings could walk through a path in their backyard to the Suburban Swim Club to practice , where his father served as coach from 1962 to 1968 . Three of his brothers and two of sisters achieved some measure of national or international recognition as competition swimmers . McKee graduated from Malvern Preparatory School in Malvern , Pennsylvania in 1971 .
= = College swimming career = =
After high school , McKee accepted an athletic scholarship to attend the University of Florida in Gainesville , Florida , where he swam for coach Bill Harlan 's Florida Gators swimming and diving team in National Collegiate Athletics Association ( NCAA ) and Southeastern Conference ( SEC ) competition from 1972 to 1974 . He followed his older brother Mark to Gainesville , where Mark McKee was an All @-@ American swimmer for the Florida Gators from 1969 to 1971 . As a freshman in 1972 , he finish fourth in the 200 @-@ yard backstroke , and fifth in the 400 @-@ yard individual medley , as the Florida Gators finished seventh overall at the NCAA men 's swimming championships . In his three years as a Gator swimmer , McKee was recognized as the SEC Swimmer of the Year in 1972 , won six SEC individual titles , and received four All @-@ American honors .
= = International swimming career = =
After graduating from high school , McKee was chosen as a member of the U.S. national swim team for the 1971 Pan American Games in Cali , Colombia . He finished second in the men 's 200 @-@ meter backstroke with a time of 2 : 07 @.@ 9 , earning his first silver medal in international competition .
Following his freshman college season , McKee qualified for the 1972 U.S. Olympic team despite recovering from a bout of mononucleosis . At the 1972 Summer Olympics in Munich , Germany , he represented the United States in three different events . Most memorably , McKee won a silver medal in the men 's 400 @-@ meter individual medley in the closest swimming decision in Olympic history , losing by a margin of two one @-@ thousandths ( 0 @.@ 002 ) of a second to Sweden 's Gunnar Larsson . Initially , the scoreboard showed that Larsson and McKee had tied with an official time of 4 : 31 @.@ 98 , but in a controversial decision , the event judges named Larsson the eventual gold medal @-@ winner ten minutes after the race was over — Larsson 's electronic clock time was 4 : 31 @.@ 981 , McKee 's 4 : 31 @.@ 983 . The time difference was variously calculated as one @-@ tenth of the time of a typical blink of a human eye , and the distance as the thickness of a coat of paint , a sheet of paper , or the minor imperfections in the individual lanes of the Olympic pool . As a result of the controversy , the international swimming federation , FINA , subsequently clarified the timing rules for competition swimming ; international races are now required to be timed to the hundredth of a second , and timing to the thousandth of a second is prohibited for tie @-@ breakers . It was the first and only Olympic swimming event ever decided on the basis of thousandths of a second . Afterward , McKee attributed his second @-@ place finish to a tactical mistake : he looked over his shoulder to see where Larsson was in the final leg of the race .
At the 1972 Olympics , McKee garnered a second silver medal in the men 's 200 @-@ meter individual medley ( 2 : 08 @.@ 37 ) , again finishing behind gold medalist Larsson , who set a new world record in the event ( 2 : 07 @.@ 17 ) . He also placed fifth in the final of the men 's 200 @-@ meter backstroke ( 2 : 07 @.@ 29 ) .
After his junior year at the University of Florida , McKee left the Gators swim team to train full @-@ time for the 1976 Olympics . The 23 @-@ year @-@ old McKee again qualified for the U.S. team in the 400 @-@ meter individual medley at the 1976 U.S. Olympic Trials . At the 1976 Summer Olympics in Montreal , he repeated his second @-@ place performance in the men 's 400 @-@ meter individual medley event , finishing behind gold medalist and fellow American Rod Strachan . The times of both Strachan ( 4 : 23 @.@ 68 ) and McKee ( 4 : 24 @.@ 62 ) broke the prior world record in the event final , with Strachan setting the new mark .
During the course of his career , McKee set six American records ( short course 200- and 400 @-@ yard individual medley , 400 @-@ yard medley relay ; long course 100- and 220 @-@ yard backstroke , 200 @-@ yard individual medley ) .
= = Life after competition swimming = =
McKee was inducted into the University of Florida Athletic Hall of Fame as a " Gator Great " in 1987 , and the International Swimming Hall of Fame as an " Honor Swimmer " in 1998 . He is a veteran celebrity swimmer for Swim Across America ( SAA ) , a charitable organization that raises funds for cancer research , and has participated in sixteen SAA events . He has worked in Miami Beach , Florida as a life guard and public safety officer for over 20 years , has also worked in real estate , and has helped train other Olympic swimmers including Nancy Hogshead . McKee married his wife Courtney , a former competition swimmer , in 1998 .
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= The Trouble with Trillions =
" The Trouble with Trillions " is the twentieth episode in the ninth season of the American animated television series The Simpsons . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on April 5 , 1998 . It was written by Ian Maxtone @-@ Graham and directed by Swinton O. Scott III . The episode sees Homer being sent by the Federal Bureau of Investigation to try to obtain a trillion dollar bill that Mr. Burns failed to deliver to Europe during the post @-@ war era .
= = Plot = =
All of Springfield is rushing to send out their tax returns just before midnight on April 15 . Homer realizes he did not file his tax return . He rushes and provides false information before driving to the post office . The IRS discovers Homer 's fraud and he is arrested . Held by the government , Homer says he will do anything to stay out of prison . Agent Johnson of the FBI decides that Homer can be useful . With a hidden microphone under his shirt , Homer uncovers that his coworker Charlie leads a group planning to assault all government officials , but is arrested by the FBI for conspiracy .
With his superiors impressed , Johnson sends Homer on a secret mission . They reveal that in 1945 , President Harry S. Truman printed a one trillion @-@ dollar bill to help reconstruct post @-@ war Europe . He handed the bill over to Montgomery Burns to transport to the Europeans . However , the money never arrived and the FBI suspects Burns still has the money with him . Homer is sent in to investigate . Arriving at the Burns estate , Homer searches for the money before Burns , who believes Homer is a reporter from Collier 's magazine , reveals that he kept the money on his person . Johnson and Agent Miller burst in and arrest Burns . Burns shouts how the government oppresses the average American . Moved by Burns 's speech , Homer knocks out the FBI agents and frees Burns .
The two men hurry to obtain Smithers for help , who suggests they leave the country . Burns takes Smithers and Homer in his old plane , setting off to find an island and start a new country . Over the Caribbean , Burns finds a fine island , although it already has a name and is in fact the country , Cuba . Going before Fidel Castro , Burns fails to buy the island when Fidel asks to see the trillion @-@ dollar bill , and is handed the bill . He refuses to give it back . The episode immediately cuts to a scene where Burns , Smithers , and Homer are on a makeshift raft . Burns announces he will merely bribe the jury when he , Smithers and Homer are put on trial .
= = Production = =
The episode was written by Ian Maxtone @-@ Graham , though the original draft of the plot was much different . Originally , Homer was to learn that he was a Native American , and would try to exploit it to not have to pay taxes . The idea had been going well for a few days , but the staff did not actually know whether Native Americans had to pay taxes . When the writers found out that they did , the whole plot had to be scrapped . Executive producer Mike Scully 's brother Brian pitched the idea of the trillion @-@ dollar bill , which they accepted , as they were out of ideas .
= = Cultural references = =
The scene where the FBI agent sits near Homer is a reference to the film JFK . While Homer , Mr. Burns , and Smithers are in Cuba , a billboard can be seen with a picture of Che Guevara being used to advertise Duff Beer .
= = Reception = =
In its original broadcast , " The Trouble with Trillions " finished 51st in ratings for the week of March 30 – April 5 , 1998 , with a Nielsen rating of 7 @.@ 5 , equivalent to approximately 7 @.@ 4 million viewing households . It was the third highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week , following World 's Wildest Police Videos and Melrose Place .
Since airing , the episode has received mixed reviews from television critics . The authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , did not enjoy the episode , calling it , " Rather dull and unfunny " , adding , " A mediocre episode at best that makes Burns out to be altruistic ( which he 's not ) and very stupid in letting Castro have his money ( which he so wouldn 't ) . " The Daily Telegraph characterized the episode as one of " The 10 Best Simpsons TV Episodes " . The article noted the episode contained " one of the few gags in comedy history about relying too heavily on surveillance photography in spying " .
Ian Jones and Steve Williams for Off the Telly criticized all of season 9 for lacking an episode that centered on Burns , as they consider Burns to be the crux of many good episodes , though they noted that " The Trouble with Trillions " came the closest , with Burns having a supporting role . In a review of The Simpsons ' ninth season , Isaac Mitchell @-@ Frey of the Herald Sun described the episode as " brilliant " , and highlighted it along with episodes " Bart Carny " and " The Joy of Sect " .
In the United Kingdom , the episode was screened on BBC Two in January 1999 , before any other episode from season six or later were seen by viewers , as part of a night of Cuba @-@ themed programming .
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= Lympne Airport =
Lympne Airport / ˈlɪm / , was a military and later civil airfield ( IATA : LYM , ICAO : EGMK ) , at Lympne , Kent , United Kingdom , which operated from 1916 to 1984 . During the First World War RFC Lympne was originally an acceptance point for aircraft being delivered to , and returning from , France but was later designated as a First Class Landing Ground , RAF Lympne . It became a civil airfield in 1919 and saw the operation of early air mail services after the 1918 armistice . It was one of the first four airfields in the United Kingdom with customs facilities .
Lympne was also involved in the evolution of air traffic control , with facilities developing and improving during the 1920s and 1930s . A number of record @-@ breaking flights originated or ended at Lympne . During the 1920s Lympne was the venue for the Lympne light aircraft trials from which a number of aircraft types entered production . Air racing was also held at Lympne .
Just before the Second World War , Lympne was requisitioned by the Fleet Air Arm . It was named HMS Buzzard and n renamed HMS Daedalus II three months later , before being transferred to the Royal Air Force in May 1940 . During the war Lympne was a front @-@ line fighter base , RAF Lympne . It was heavily bombed during the Battle of Britain in 1940 and put out of action for a number of weeks . It was too close to the coast to be used as a squadron base , but squadrons were detached there on a day @-@ to @-@ day basis . Lympne was also to have been the landing place for a German aircraft used in a plot to kidnap Adolf Hitler , with preparations made by the Royal Air Force for his arrival .
Lympne returned to civilian use on 1 January 1946 . In 1948 , the first air ferry service was inaugurated at Lympne by Silver City Airways . Problems with waterlogging of the grass runway and the refusal of the Ministry of Transport and Civil Aviation to upgrade the airfield led to Silver City transferring operations to Lydd ( Ferryfield ) in 1954 . By 1956 , the airport 's ownership had passed to Eric Rylands Ltd , the Skyways holding company . Skyways operated a coach @-@ air service between London and Paris , flying passengers from Lympne to Beauvais . This service operated until 1974 ( 1955 – 1958 : the original Skyways ; 1958 – 1971 : Skyways Coach @-@ Air ; 1971 – 1972 : Skyways International ; 1972 – 1974 : Dan @-@ Air Skyways ) . Following the cessation of commercial operations in October 1974 , Lympne continued to be used as a General Aviation airfield until about 1984 . The site is now an industrial estate .
= = History = =
= = = Establishment = = =
Work began on creating a landing ground at Folks Wood , Lympne , in the autumn of 1915 . This site soon proved unsuitable and another site was sought . Lympne was established in March 1916 as an Emergency Landing Ground for the Royal Flying Corps ( RFC ) home defence fighters defending London against Zeppelins and Gothas . No. 1 Advanced School of Air Gunnery operated from Lympne during January and February 1917 . In January 1917 it was designated as No. 8 Aircraft Acceptance Park for delivery of aircraft to , and reception from , France . On 25 May 1917 Lympne was bombed by Gotha G.IV bombers of Kagohl 3 who dropped 19 bombs on the airfield .
In 1918 , Lympne was designated a First Class Landing Ground and the Day and Night Bombing Observation School was formed here in May . The RFC and the Royal Naval Air Service ( RNAS ) were merged to form the Royal Air Force ( RAF ) in April 1918 . From 17 July 1919 , No. 120 Squadron RAF flew air mail services between Lympne and Cologne , Germany , using de Havilland DH.9 aircraft fitted with Beardmore Halford Pullinger engines . This service ended on 1 September 1919 when 120 squadron moved to RAF Hawkinge . Hawkinge and Lympne lay within a few miles of each other and as the Air Ministry could not justify keeping the two bases open following the end of the war , they decided to retain Hawkinge . In August 1919 the RAF moved out of Lympne and it was turned over to civilian use , although 120 Squadron did not depart until 21 October .
= = = Civil operations = = =
= = = = 1919 – 29 = = = =
In May 1919 , Lympne was one of the first four customs and excise " Appointed Aerodromes " in the United Kingdom ; along with Hadleigh in Suffolk , Hounslow Heath in Middlesex and New Holland in Lincolnshire . Although Lympne had a customs clearance point there was no permanent customs officer there ; a telephone call to Folkestone Harbour was needed to clear customs . On 1 May the ban on civilian flying was lifted and a Sopwith Gnu was flown from Hounslow Heath to Lympne carrying a cargo of newspapers during that first day . In September , Sir Philip Sassoon purchased an Avro aircraft in which he commuted between London and his Lympne residence . In October the Air Ministry announced that searchlights would temporarily be displayed to assist aircraft to find certain airfields . Lympne was to be identified by three searchlights arranged in a triangle , their beams shining vertically . In November a Notice to Airmen was issued advising that radio telephony was in use at Hounslow Heath and Lympne , using the 900 @-@ metre wavelength . The practice of using the aircraft registration as a callsign was instigated . In December 1919 two Westland Limousine aircraft bound for the Paris Aero Show were delayed at Lympne by fog . Conditions later improved so that both aircraft were able to fly to Le Bourget , where G @-@ EAJL was dismantled and transported to the Grand Palais where it was exhibited to the public . The other aircraft remained at Le Bourget where it gave pleasure and demonstration flights .
The North Sea Aerial and General Transport Co. used a Blackburn Kangaroo on its short @-@ lived Leeds @-@ Lympne @-@ Amsterdam service from 6 March 1920 . The customs facilities at New Holland had been withdrawn on 28 January , necessitating the roundabout route . It was estimated that the extra costs involved in taking this route amounted to one @-@ third of the total costs . Flight called for customs facilities to be established to enable direct flights to be made from the north of England to the continent . Starting from 2 August , hourly weather forecasts were broadcast from Lympne and other airfields . A system of ground signals advising pilots of the weather conditions at Biggin Hill and Croydon was also introduced about this time . During August , Aircraft Transport and Travel took over air mail flights , using DH.9A aircraft . In November a Notice to Airmen was released announcing that searchlights would be in use at Lympne for two hours after sunset to assist pilots in landing their aircraft . Arrangements could be made in advance for this facility to be made available after the notified hours . In December , it was announced that an " aerial lighthouse " was to be installed at Lympne as the one installed at Croydon had proved to be of benefit to pilots arriving after dark .
In May 1921 , it was reported that a waiting room for the use of passengers at Lympne was being planned . In June a Notice to Airmen was released saying that , for cost reasons , lights would no longer be exhibited after sunset without prior arrangement . The system of ground signals was amended with effect from 14 July , and in September an " aerial lighthouse " was reported to be under construction . The system of aerial lighthouses on the " London – Paris Airway " was completed in December 1921 .
In January 1922 , a 78 @-@ foot ( 24 m ) high mast for an anemometer was being erected at the south west corner of Lympne Aerodrome . On 13 February , the system of ground signals at Lympne was further extended to include information about the Saint @-@ Inglevert Airfield , just across the English Channel in France . In July , a Notice to Airmen said that all aircraft were to make at least one left @-@ hand circuit before landing at Lympne . By November , the Instone Air Line were operating a service from Croydon to Cologne using de Havilland DH.18 aircraft , stopping at Lympne to refuel to full capacity . These aircraft then had the necessary range to fly direct from Lympne to Cologne . This arrangement did not last long , with the refuelling stop moved to Tirlemont , Belgium , by the end of the month . On 30 December a Dornier aircraft landed at Lympne . It was the first German aircraft to land on British soil since the end of the First World War . A German airline , Aero @-@ Lloyd was in negotiation with Daimler Airway to start a service between London and Berlin .
A Junkers F.13 called at Lympne on 10 January 1923 to clear customs and then flew to Croydon where it was inspected by Secretary of State for Air Sir Samuel Hoare . In February , it was reported that Lympne had taken part in a test of the newly introduced Mayday radio signal used by aircraft to indicate that they were in distress . Georges Barbot won a prize of F.25,000 from Le Matin when he made a flight from St Inglevert to Lympne and back again on the same day , 6 May . He flew the route in a Dewoitine aircraft fitted with a Clerget engine . On landing a bracing wire in the undercarriage of the aircraft broke , but repairs were effected within half an hour . Problems starting the engine then delayed his departure slightly . On 28 October the Light Aircraft Trials were held ( see below ) . In 1923 , Air Union started a service flying newspapers to Lympne using a Farman F.60 Goliath .
From 1 to 31 May 1924 , the Royal Air Force conducted a number of night flying experiments . Pilots were asked to keep an extra lookout whilst the experiments were taking place . On 27 and 28 September , the elimination trials for the Light Aircraft Trials were held . Only eight aircraft passed through to the trials proper . Also in October , it was notified that changes were being made expanding weather information given at Lympne . Amongst the changes were that measurements used were to be changed from imperial to metric . The addition of weather information at Haren , Brussels and Ostend , both in Belgium was notified . In 1924 , Armstrong Whitworth Argosy aircraft were operating cross @-@ channel services for Imperial Airways . Lympne was used by aircraft of Imperial Airways as a refuelling point . The first stop in France was St Inglevert . When an aircraft departed Lympne for St Inglevert , the destination airfield was advised , and if arrival was not notified within two hours , the Coastguard was informed . Communication was by Carmichael Microway UHF transmitters at each airfield . Short Brothers used Lympne for flight testing new aircraft during 1924 .
In January 1925 , notification that red edge lights had been installed along the runways and taxiways at Lympne was made . In July 1925 , a new arrangement was introduced whereby aircraft not fitted with radio , flying across the Channel , could have their departure and arrival reported by radio to the authorities . A circuit of Lympne and St Inglevert had to be flown at a height not exceeding 1 @,@ 000 ft ( 300 m ) on departure for , and arrival from , the continent . Between 1 – 3 August , the Royal Aeronautical Society held a meeting at Lympne . The Grosvenor Challenge Cup , Private Owners ' Cup , Light Aeroplane Holiday Handicap and International Handicap were all competed for . Separate Speed Races were held for single and two @-@ seater aircraft . In August 1925 , the scheme for non @-@ radio aircraft was extended to cover Ostend . One hour was allowed for the crossing to St Inglevert and two hours for the crossing to Ostend , after which the aircraft would be reported as missing . On 25 September , Lympne was one of a number of airfields which began operating a radio direction finding service . As before the 900 @-@ metre wavelength was used .
During the General Strike of 1926 , which ran from 3 – 13 May , the Daily Mail was printed in Paris and flown from there to Lympne on Handley Page W.10 Imperial Airways aircraft . Further aircraft chartered by the Daily Mail then flew the newspapers to Birmingham for onward distribution . A fleet of de Havilland DH.60 Moth , de Havilland DH.9 with some Avro and Westland aircraft were used . The distribution of the newspapers by air was co @-@ ordinated by the Royal Aero Club and a total of 33 @,@ 174 mi ( 53 @,@ 388 km ) was flown by aircraft operating under the Royal Aero Club 's co @-@ ordination . The Royal Auxiliary Air Force ( AuxAF ) had been formed in 1925 . In late August and early September 1926 601 ( County of London ) Squadron AuxAF held its inaugural camp at Lympne . The squadron was equipped with Avro 504 and de Havilland DH.9A aircraft . The Light Aircraft Trials were held between 10 and 14 September .
On 1 January 1927 , new regulations came into effect which meant that aircraft carrying 10 or more passengers would have to carry a radio operator in addition to the pilot . In February it was reported that a Notice to Airmen had been issued stating that aircraft coming from the Continent in conditions of poor visibility in which the radio was not functioning correctly should land at Lympne , where repair facilities were available . In April it was reported that a new wireless station was being built at Lympne and in May it was notified that the night light was again in operation at Lympne . In July , a new system was introduced for civil aircraft flying in bad visibility between Lympne and Croydon . They were not to follow the normal Lympne – Edenbridge – Caterham – Croydon route , but instead follow one of three notified alternate routes . Aircraft were to be notified by radio whenever such conditions were declared to be put into effect , or whenever the weather had improved . This was aimed at preventing mid @-@ air collisions between civil aircraft and those operated by the Royal Air Force . From 7 to 21 August , 600 ( City of London ) Squadron AuxAF and 601 ( County of London ) Squadron AuxAF were both at Lympne on their annual camp . The squadrons were flying Avro 504N and de Havilland DH.9A aircraft . In October , a Notice to Airmen announced that the ground signals at Lympne would be displayed in a different arrangement than previously , standardisation of ground signals worldwide required the change which came into effect on 1 October . In December , a Notice to Airmen informed that in foggy weather the position of Lympne would be indicated by flares fired from the ground , to be seen by aircraft flying in the vicinity . Colour was to be at the discretion of the Civil Air Traffic Officer . The Notice to Airmen was quickly amended to state that the firing of red flares would be reserved to indicate that an aircraft was being instructed not to land at the airfield in question . In 1927 a Fokker F.VII of SABENA flew newspapers to Lympne .
A meeting was held over the Easter weekend in 1928 by the Cinque Ports Flying Club . Pleasure flights were given for a cost of 5 / - . An unverified report stated that one person was dissatisfied with two circuits of the airfield . The pilot is said to have offered to take him up again , which was accepted . On this second flight various aerobatics were flown and the hapless passenger was said to have been left incapable of expressing himself coherently . Among the pilots attending were Geoffrey de Havilland and his son . Other activities included some air racing and a guess the altitude competition . In May a Notice to Airmen said that the scheme for aircraft reporting that they were crossing the Channel was being extended . Lympne was to remain the reporting place on the English side but , in Belgium and France , the Ostend and St Inglevert airfields were joined by semaphore stations at Village de Baracques , Calais and Cap d ’ Alprech , Boulogne . On 17 May , Lady Heath landed at Lympne after crossing the Channel during her 10 @,@ 000 mi ( 16 @,@ 000 km ) flight to Croydon from Cape Town , South Africa . She was flying an Avro Avian III which had been taken out to South Africa by ship . In August , the AuxAF held their annual Air Defence Exercises . Both 600 ( City of London ) and 601 ( County of London ) Squadrons AuxAF were based a Lympne for the duration of the exercise . They were operating Avro 504N and de Havilland DH.9A aircraft . Towards the end of the camp Chancellor of the Exchequer Winston Churchill and Under Secretary of State for Air Sir Philip Sassoon inspected both squadrons and were entertained at a dinner . On 18 September , Juan de la Cierva departed from Lympne in an Autogyro , making the first flight between London and Paris in this type of aircraft and the first flight across the Channel by autogyro in the process . In November , a Handley Page W.10 of Imperial Airways diverted to Lympne in a gale with three passengers suffering from airsickness . Once landed the aircraft was briefly lifted from the ground in a gust whilst ground handling staff were taking it to a hangar . Winds of 82 mph ( 132 km / h ) were recorded .
In January 1929 , a Notice to Airmen said that when visibility was bad any aircraft not fitted with radios were warned against using the Croydon – Edenbridge – Ashford – Lympne route or any of the alternative routes notified in 1927 . Later that month it was notified that the aerial lighthouse had been replaced by a 6 @,@ 000 candlepower neon light which would be visible at a range of 45 mi ( 72 km ) . In July 1929 a plan was proposed where an amphibious aircraft would be based at Lympne for use in search and rescue when aircraft were reported missing over the Channel . On 14 August , the 601 ( County of London ) Squadron AuxAF arrived for their annual camp . In September 1929 arrangements were notified for the abandonment of a Channel crossing by aircraft flying from England to France . In such cases , the aircraft was to perform a second circuit over Lympne which would be acknowledged . It was also notified that a flying boat operated by Compagnie Aérienne Française was to be based at Calais for use in search and rescue work .
= = = = 1930 – 39 = = = =
In February 1930 , a Towle TA @-@ 2 amphibian was a visitor to Lympne . In July 1930 , it was notified that aircraft fitted with radio may report their position by radio when crossing the Channel . For non @-@ radio aircraft the earlier arrangements remained in effect , although some changes were made to the methods of acknowledgement of arrival . Search and rescue arrangements now included motorboats permanently available at Boulogne , Calais , Dover and Dunquerque . Lifeboats were also on standby at the French ports and air patrols were in operation during working hours , operated by Air Union . In August 1930 , the arrangements for non @-@ radio aircraft flying between Croydon and Lympne in bad weather were amended . Pilots had to notify which route they intended to take and the destination airfield was to be notified of this by telephone once the aircraft had departed . That month 601 ( County of London ) Squadron held its annual camp a Lympne .
On 1 August 1931 , the 601 ( County of London ) Squadron AuxAF began its annual camp at Lympne . Croydon Airport took over the responsibility for weather forecasting on air routes from the Air Ministry in October . As part of the changes Biggin Hill , Croydon and Lympne now provided weather information on a 24 @-@ hour basis .
In March 1932 , the arrangements for flying between Lympne and Croydon in poor visibility were altered . If the cloudbase was less than 1 @,@ 000 ft ( 300 m ) above sea level , or the visibility was less than 1 @,@ 000 yd ( 910 m ) , aircraft were prohibited from using the Croydon – Caterham – Penshurst – Lympne route , but were to use either the Croydon – Merstham – Edenbridge or Croydon – Chelsfield – Shoreham – Otford – Wrotham route . Alternatively a rhumb line course could be flown on the Croydon – Chelsfield – Lympne route . Aircraft not fitted with radios had to notify the officer in charge at their departure airport as to which route they intended to take before departure . Royal Air Force aircraft would avoid these routes as far as practicable in conditions of poor visibility . On 25 August the Folkestone Trophy Race was held at Lympne and was won by a Comper Swift . In November , it was reported that new radio equipment was to be installed at Lympne and St Inglevert operating on the 15 @-@ cm waveband at 2 @,@ 000 Megahertz . The new radios were to be used for the announcement of the departure of non @-@ radio aircraft across the Channel . Messages sent by radio were also printed out by a teleprinter , providing a record of the communication . The new equipment was scheduled to come into operation in Spring 1933 .
In 1933 , Imperial Airway 's Armstrong Whitworth Argosy aircraft were replaced by Handley Page H.P.42s. On 7 March 1933 , the system for non @-@ radio aircraft proved effective when a de Havilland DH.60 Moth of British Air Transport failed to arrive at Lympne . The aircraft had ditched in the channel and both occupants were rescued by a steamship bound for Amsterdam , Netherlands . In August , the No. 601 ( County of London ) Squadron again held its annual camp at Lympne . They were visited by the Marquess of Londonderry who was the Secretary of State for Air . The squadron was equipped with Hawker Harts . Later that month the Folkestone Aero Trophy Race was held and was won by Ken Waller in a de Havilland DH.60 Moth . In September , a new system was introduced for broadcasting weather forecasts in various areas and on various air routes , including that between Croydon and Lympne . Navigational warnings would also be broadcast . In October , it was notified that the floodlight at Lympne had been put back into operation and the use of flares was therefore discontinued . In November , a squadron of the Egyptian Army Air Force was based at Lympne for a few weeks whilst they trained on their new Avro 626 aircraft . They departed on 18 November for Egypt . By 1933 , Lympne was well prepared for handling diversions . Passengers who cleared customs were taken by car to Folkestone Central railway station where they boarded trains to London using 1st class tickets . On 2 December , a Fokker F.XX , PH @-@ AIZ Zilvermeeuw of KLM , diverted to Lympne following an engine failure . This was the only diversion KLM had during the whole of 1933 .
In January 1934 , a new radio , telegraph and telephone link was installed at Lympne and St Inglevert which came into operation on 26 January . Sir Philip Sassoon officially declared the installation open . The equipment at Lympne was manufactured by Standard Telephones and Cables and operated on the 17 @-@ cm wave band . From 13 to 27 July , 606 ( City of Glasgow ) Squadron AuxAF held its annual camp at Lympne , followed by 601 ( County of London ) Squadron AuxAF from 29 July to 12 August . On the weekend of 1 – 2 September competitions for the Folkestone Aero Trophy and the Wakefield Cup were held . Both competitions were won by pilots flying the de Havilland DH.60 Moth G @-@ AAMU . Later that month a second batch of ten Avro 626s of the Egyptian Army Air Force departed from Lympne for Egypt .
In April 1935 , Air Traffic Control in the United Kingdom was improved by the introduction of a new control zone system . Heston was added as a control zone , relieving Croydon of some traffic . As a result of these changes the wavelength used by Lympne for radiotelegraphy changed from 862 metres to 825 metres . Six new direction finding stations were installed as part of these improvements , including one at Lympne . The improvement meant that Croydon would now be able to communicate by radio with two aircraft at the same time . In August Henri Mignet flew his Mignet HM.14 " Flying Flea " across the Channel to Lympne , where the aircraft was demonstrated in front of large crowds . Also that month 601 ( County of London ) Squadron AuxAF held its annual camp at Lympne after having converted from a bomber squadron to a fighter squadron earlier in the year .
From 2 to 16 August 1936 , No. 601 Squadron held their annual camp at Lympne . One aircraft exhibited at the 1936 International Air Rally was a 1912 Caudron G.2. In November , it was reported that 21 Squadron and 34 Squadron of the RAF were temporarily relocated to Lympne as hangars at RAF Abbotsinch had been damaged in gales . In October 1936 , Lympne was again taken over by the RAF , becoming a base within No. 1 ( Bomber ) Group . Although some improvements were carried out Lympne was initially seen as a temporary station . On 3 November 21 Squadron and 34 Squadron moved in , equipped with Hawker Hind aircraft .
On 4 June 1937 , a British Klemm Swallow made a pilot @-@ less take @-@ off from Lympne and flew for some 35 minutes before crashing into a tree . Its resting place was 200 yd ( 180 m ) from RAF Hawkinge . On 31 July the Folkestone Trophy was competition was held and was won by Alex Henshaw in a Percival Mew Gull .
On 12 March 1938 , Captain Davis , managing director of the Cinque Ports Flying Club , was killed in an accident shortly after take @-@ off from Lympne . On 30 July , the Folkestone Trophy race was held and was won by H Buckingham flying a de Havilland Hornet Moth . 34 Squadron departed Lympne on 12 July , and 21 Squadron departed on 15 August . Lympne was placed under " Care and Maintenance " in October , becoming a Training Command Administration School .
In May 1939 , Lympne was transferred to Fighter Command . It was used by the Fleet Air Arm as an outstation for the Air Mechanics School based at HMS Daedalus . On 1 July 1939 , Lympne was taken over by the Fleet Air Arm , becoming HMS Buzzard . Aircraft at Buzzard included Blackburn Sharks and Gloster Gladiators . On 5 August , the Folkestone Trophy Race was held and was won by Andrew Dalrymple flying a Chilton D.W.1A.
= = = The Second World War = = =
In September 1939 , the base was renamed HMS Daedalus II , but was transferred back to the RAF in May 1940 . Early in the war Lympne was home to Army Co @-@ operation and bomber squadrons . During Operation Dynamo in May 1940 a French Air Force squadron was based at Lympne . It was equipped with Marcel Bloch and Potez fighters . On 15 August 1940 , during the Battle of Britain , Lympne was bombed by Stuka dive @-@ bombers of II Gruppe , StG1 . All the hangars were hit and those aircraft belonging to Cinque Ports Flying Club that had not been evacuated to Sywell were destroyed in the fire . Lympne was evacuated and only available as an Emergency Landing Ground until mid @-@ September .
In 1941 , Lympne was to be the destination for the landing of an aircraft carrying Adolf Hitler in a daring kidnap plot . A man by the name of Kiroff had given information to the British Military Attaché in Sofia , Bulgaria , that he was the brother @-@ in @-@ law of Hans Baur , the personal pilot of Hitler . He stated that Baur was planning to defect using Hitler 's Focke @-@ Wulf Fw 200 with him on board . The RAF made plans to receive the aircraft at Lympne and 25 March was the date that the defection was expected to occur . Baur did not defect and spent the war as Hitler 's personal pilot . A few weeks later Rudolph Hess defected to Scotland .
Also in March 1941 , 91 Squadron moved in , equipped with Spitfires . Additional dispersals and fighter pens as well as three new blister hangars were built during 1941 . Typhoons were based at Lympne from March 1942 to February 1944 to counter the threat posed by the Luftwaffe 's newly introduced Focke @-@ Wulf Fw 190s and a runway was extended across Otterpool Lane to accommodate the Typhoons . In November 1944 , Lympne was downgraded to Emergency Landing Ground status . Consideration was given to building four runways at Lympne , with the longest being 6 @,@ 000 ft ( 1 @,@ 800 m ) , but it was noted that serious demolition work would be required and a number of roads would need to be closed .
= = = Return to civil use = = =
= = = = 1946 – 50 = = = =
On 1 January 1946 , RAF Lympne was handed over to the Ministry of Civil Aviation and became a civil airport once more . The Cinque Ports Flying Club re @-@ established itself in facilities left by the RAF and re @-@ opened on 12 July . The club possessed two Tiger Moths and an Auster . The first post @-@ war air races were the Folkestone Trophy and the Lympne High Speed Handicap held over the weekend of 31 August and 1 September . The Folkestone Trophy was won by John Grierson flying a Supermarine Walrus ( G @-@ AHFN ) . The Lympne High Speed Handicap was won by W Humble flying a Hawker Fury I. Charter airline Air Kruise ( Kent ) Ltd was established at Lympne by Wing Commander Hugh Kennard and in September it was reported that the company had received the first civilian Miles Messenger aircraft . Air Kruise also operated Dragon Rapides .
On 1 December 1946 , Group Captain A. Bandit departed Lympne in a Miles Gemini bound for Wondai , Australia . This was the first solo flight to Australia since the end of the war . Bandit reached Truscott Airfield , Western Australia , on 6 January 1947 to complete the first post @-@ war England – Australia flight . Air races were held at Lympne on 30 and 31 August and four national records were set ( see below ) .
In July 1948 , Silver City Airways started an aerial car ferry service from Lympne to Le Touquet using Bristol Freighter aircraft . At the Lympne Aero Races Lettice Curtis set a new women 's world speed record whilst competing in the High Speed Handicap race flying a Spitfire XI . The Cinque Ports Flying Club folded on 1 October , its successor being the Kent Coast Flying Club which was set up by Hugh Kennard and had a Miles Magister ( G @-@ AKJX ) . Kent Gliding Club took up residence , and Skyfotos also made Lympne its base for aerial photography . Aircraft operated by Skyfotos included an Auster Autocrat ( G @-@ AIZZ ) and a Piper PA @-@ 22 Caribbean ( G @-@ AREN ) .
In May 1949 , it was reported that Lympne had made a loss of £ 17 @,@ 000 and that the Air Ministry was looking to dispose of it , although it was thought that should a sale not materialise it would continue in operation . In August 1950 , Air Kruise started a scheduled service between Lympne and Le Touquet using Dragon Rapides . This service was operated under an associate airline agreement with British European Airways .
= = = = 1951 – 60 = = = =
In December 1951 , Lympne was closed to all aircraft exceeding 8 @,@ 000 lb ( 3 @,@ 600 kg ) due to the runway being waterlogged and Silver City Airways transferred their service to Southend Airport until Lympne reopened in February 1952 . Blackbushe Airport was also used whilst Lympne was closed . On 1 May 1952 , a passenger tax was introduced in the United Kingdom . The rate was 5s for passengers arriving from Europe and 7s 6d for those arriving from outside Europe . At the same time landing fees at Government @-@ owned airports were halved where the aircraft was operating an international flight of less than 115 mi ( 185 km ) . Silver City Airways would benefit from this concession . Also in May it was reported that Air Kruise were extending the Lympne – Le Touquet service to Ramsgate , as Ramsgate Airport was to be re @-@ opened . In July , the members of Folkestone Town Council visited the Ministry of Civil Aviation in London to discuss the purchase of Lympne Airport .
In February 1953 , Lympne was again waterlogged and Silver City Airways operated out of Southend and Blackbushe . The company stated that they were willing to purchase Lympne , but the decision of Folkestone Town Council was still awaited for . By May , Folkestone Town Council had decided not to purchase Lympne and Silver City Airways again expressed an interest in purchasing the airport at a reasonable price . In November , it was announced that Air Kruise had been given permission to operate a scheduled service from Lympne and / or Ramsgate to Birmingham . The service was to be seasonal between April and September , with permission to run the service lasting until 1960 . Air Kruise moved its operations to Ramsgate Airport in 1953 .
In March 1954 , Air Kruise applied for permission to operate Dakotas on routes between Lympne and Le Touquet , Calais and Ostend . On 29 April , the Ministry of Transport and Civil Aviation offered Lympne for sale by auction in London . Bidding reached £ 88 @,@ 000 but the reserve was £ 100 @,@ 000 and the airport was not sold . On 28 August , Silver City Airways trialled a Westland @-@ Sikorsky WS @-@ 51 helicopter on cross @-@ Channel flights . Permission had been granted for the use of these aircraft for freight operations and it was intended to introduce them on 1 April 1955 . On 3 October , Silver City Airways operated their last flight out of Lympne as operations were being transferred to the new Lydd ( Ferryfield ) Airport which had opened on 6 July 1954 . A total of 33 @,@ 487 car ferry flights had been made from Lympne since the service had started in 1948 . As of 1 November , Lympne closed as a public airport , although private flying was allowed as long as no passengers were carried for hire or reward .
In 1955 , Air Kruise moved to Lydd ( Ferryfield ) and Lympne was re @-@ licensed in 1955 . On 30 September 1955 , Eric Rylands , a former co @-@ owner and managing director of the Lancashire Aircraft Corporation ( LAC ) who had bought Skyways from the previous owners in March 1952 ( together with LAC 's other owner , David Brown ) , started a coach @-@ air service between London and Paris . Passengers were taken by coach from Victoria Coach Station to Lympne , flown to Beauvais and then taken by coach to Paris . Check @-@ in and coach departures in Paris were at the Hôtel Moderne Palace on Place de la Republique in Paris 12 . Aircraft and coaches each held 36 passengers . Passengers returning to the UK could order duty @-@ free goods at Paris and the orders were telephoned to Beauvais for distribution on the flight . The off @-@ peak fare was £ 7 14s 0d and 47 @,@ 000 passengers were carried in the first year . Three Dakotas were used initially and later increasing to four . A trial run took place on 21 September and Skyways holding company , Eric Rylands Ltd , bought Lympne from the Ministry of Transport and Civil Aviation in 1956 .
In January 1957 , Skyways ordered a new Decca type 424 radar for installation at Lympne . In summer 1957 , a service was started between Lympne and Vichy , the first service between the UK and Vichy since Hillman 's Airways before the war . This was part of Skyways London – Lympne – Lyons – Nice route . Valence was also served by air .
In May 1958 , a route to Nice via Lyon was introduced . A temporary service to Brussels via Antwerp operated that year to serve the Brussels International Exhibition . In December , it was announced that an experimental scheme to allow British and Irish subjects to make day @-@ trips abroad without needing a passport was to be introduced on a limited number of routes , including Lympne – Beauvais . An identity card would be issued in lieu of a passport and the experiment was to run from Easter to the end of September 1959 .
On 15 March 1959 , RAF Detling closed and the land was sold back to its pre @-@ war tenants , who did not wish for any flying to take place . As a consequence the Kent Gliding Club relocated temporarily to Lympne . In June , Skyways signed a letter of intent to purchase a number of Avro 748 aircraft . Flight magazine stated that the number involved was " about four " . Skyways were the first airline to make a public announcement of support for the then yet @-@ to @-@ fly airliner . In autumn 1960 , Lympne was closed for a few days due to waterlogging of the runway .
= = = = 1961 – 70 = = = =
On 3 May 1961 , Skyways signed a contract for the purchase of three Avro 748s at a cost of £ 750 @,@ 000 . On 6 November , the process of final certification of the Avro 748 began . A programme of 160 hours of flying , simulating airline service , took place over the following 19 days and included a break for maintenance on 16 November . The programme also allowed Skyways pilots to gain further experience towards the 50 hours in command they needed before they could fly the aircraft in service . The aircraft was returned to Avro at the end of the trials as it was not scheduled to be delivered to Skyways until 1 March 1962 .
On 15 March 1962 , a bomb disposal officer was killed at Lympne when the pipe mine he was attempting to make safe exploded . The Army temporarily suspended their bomb disposal operations as a result . Skyways supplemented their Dakotas with an Avro 748 ( G @-@ ARMV ) which operated its first revenue @-@ earning flight on 17 April 1962 . In July , it was reported that Skyways had extended the passenger terminal at Lympne . In November , Skyways was taken over by Euravia , excluding Skyways Coach @-@ Air which remained a separate company .
In 1963 , three Avro 748s were in service and two of Skyways Coach @-@ Air 's Dakotas were converted to freighters . During the winter of 1962 – 63 , the 748s continued to operate a normal service out of Lympne . In October 1964 , Skyways Coach @-@ Air moved out of its London offices and all operations were now at Lympne , although a sales office was retained in London . The Cinque Ports Flying Club was restarted in 1964 by Barry Damon and had 120 members by 1968 . The club aircraft were a Beechcraft Bonanza , Beechcraft Musketeers and a Bölkow Monsun .
In March 1965 , a NOTAM was issued of changes had been made into the arrangements for light aircraft crossing the Channel . These changes were partly to avoid conflict with traffic flying into Lydd ( Ferryfield ) . Non @-@ radio aircraft could use the route between Hythe and Ambleteuse . Non @-@ radio aircraft were advised to call at Lympne before crossing . On 11 July , one of Skyways Coach Air 's Avro 748s crashed on landing at Lympne .
Following the 1965 accident , which had been caused by the nose @-@ wheel of the aircraft digging into soft ground , a 4 @,@ 500 ft ( 1 @,@ 372 m ) concrete runway was constructed . It was reported in January 1968 that planning permission had been granted and the new runway came into use on 11 April 1968 . Skyways Coach @-@ Air leased an Avro 748 from Leeward Islands Air Transport in 1968 for a two @-@ year period to replace the aircraft lost in the 1965 accident .
A new terminal building opened in June 1969 . Sheila Scott performed the ceremony , arriving in her record @-@ breaking Piper Comanche G @-@ ATOY Myth Too . On 10 June , the airport was renamed Ashford Airport , identifying the airport with the nearby town of Ashford which was scheduled for rapid growth . To mark the occasion a plaque was unveiled by Leader of the Opposition Edward Heath .
= = = = 1971 – 84 = = = =
A financial crisis at Skyways Coach @-@ Air in 1970 resulted in a management buy @-@ out in 1971 . Under the name Skyways International , services were operated from Lympne to Beauvais , Clermont @-@ Ferrand and Montpellier . In 1971 , to celebrate the management buyout of Skyways Coach @-@ Air and subsequent renaming as Skyways International , an air rally was held at Lympne . Ray Hanna attended in a Spitfire . Skyways International was bought by Dan @-@ Air in February 1972 , with operations continuing under the [ interim ] Dan @-@ Air Skyways name .
In October 1974 , commercial activities ceased at Lympne and Business Air Travel , Dan @-@ Air and Skyfotos left . In 1982 , the airfield was in use by the Ashford Parachute Centre with a Super Cub in residence in July 1983 . The Eagle Parachute School also used Lympne before leaving for Headcorn . In 1983 , Luscombe Aircraft was based at Lympne producing their Luscombe Rattler , a military version of the Luscombe Vitality . The Cinque Ports Flying Club moved to Lydd in 1984 .
= = Light Aircraft Trials = =
Light Aviation Trials were held at Lympne in 1923 , 1924 and 1926 sponsored by the Daily Mail . The 1923 competition was for aircraft with maximum engine capacity of 750 cc ( 46 cu in ) . This increased to 1 @,@ 100 cc ( 67 cu in ) in 1924 and was replaced by an engine weight limit of 170 lb ( 77 kg ) in 1926 . The rules for 1924 and 1926 required two @-@ seat , dual @-@ control aircraft . Aircraft that entered production after competing at the Light Aviation Trials include the Avro Avian , Blackburn Bluebird and Westland Widgeon , although these had larger engines . The 1924 competition was won by the Beardmore WB XXIV Wee Bee powered by a Bristol Cherub engine . The 1926 competition was won by a Hawker Cygnet .
= = Air racing = =
= = = Pre @-@ war air races = = =
Air racing at Lympne began in 1923 . On 25 June 1923 the Grosvenor Cup was held at Lympne . There were ten entrants , of which nine competed . The cup was competed for over a course that started and finished at Lympne , the route being Lympne – Croydon – Birmingham – Bristol – Croydon – Lympne , a total distance of 404 miles ( 650 km ) . The race was won by Walter Longton , with Fred Raynham second and Bert Hinkler third . Major Foot was killed when his aircraft crashed at Chertsey , Surrey , on the Bristol – Croydon leg caused by the structural failure of the port wing . Lympne was a checkpoint during the 1928 King 's Cup Race and two local newspapers , the Folkestone Herald and Kent Evening Echo offered a cup to the fastest private pilot on the leg from Southampton to Lympne . It was won by Sqn Ldr H. Probyn in a Westland Widgeon , who beat Norman Jones in a de Havilland DH.60 Moth by four seconds .
Competitors
The Light Aircraft Trials included a speed section over a triangular course of Lympne @-@ Postling @-@ Brabourne @-@ Lympne . The Folkestone Aero Trophy was held at Lympne in 1932 and the Wakefield Cup races in 1933 . The final air race before the Second World War was the Folkestone Aero Trophy on 5 August 1939 . This was won by Andrew Dalrymple in Chilton D.W.1 ( G @-@ AFSV ) .
Races at Lympne : -
1923 Grosvenor Cup , Light Aircraft Trials
1924 Light Aircraft Trials , Air League Challenge Cup
1925 Royal Aero Club Race Meeting , Light Aeroplane International Holiday Handicap , Private Owners ' Race
1926 Light Aircraft Trials
1928 King 's Cup Race ( checkpoint ) , Folkestone Herald and Kent Evening Echo Cup
1929 King 's Cup Race ( checkpoint )
1930 King 's Cup Race
1932 Folkestone Aero Trophy Race
1933 Cinque Ports Wakefield Cup Race
1937 Wakefield Cup Race
1938 Folkestone Aero Trophy Race
1939 Wakefield Cup Race , Folkestone Aero Trophy Race
= = = Post @-@ war air races = = =
With the resumption of civil flying in 1946 , a number of air races were held . The 1946 Folkestone Aero Trophy was won by John Grierson in Supermarine Walrus G @-@ AHFN . The 1946 Siddeley Trophy was won by R Pomphret in Tiger Moth G @-@ AHNX . The four aircraft in the 1946 High Speed Handicap were a Vampire ( flown by Geoffrey de Havilland ) , Hornet ( Geoffrey Pike ) , Fury ( William Humble ) and Seafang ( Guy Morgan ) . The race was won by the Fury flown by Humble . John Cunningham competed in the 1947 High Speed Handicap in Vampire F1 VZ332 , coming sixth . Peter Twiss flying a Firefly IV won the high @-@ speed race at 305 @.@ 93 mph ( 492 @.@ 35 km / h ) . The winner received the Hythe Aero Trophy and £ 100 . The 1948 High Speed Handicap Race was won by Flt Lt J Colquhoun in a two @-@ seat Spitfire . The course was Capel airship hangar , Folkestone pier and Hythe gas holder . In 1950 , competitors in the Daily Express South Coast Air Race used Lympne before the race started . This race was won by Nick Charlton in Proctor G @-@ AHUZ .
Races held at Lympne : -
1946 Folkestone Aero Trophy , High Speed Handicap Race , Siddeley Trophy Race
1947 High Speed Handicap Race ( Hythe Aero Trophy ) , Siddeley Trophy Race
1948 High Speed Handicap Race , Siddeley Trophy Race , Tiger Moth Scratch Race
1950 Daily Express South Coast Air Race
= = Record breakers = =
Lympne was the start and finish for several record attempts . Wing Commander E. R. Manning left for India in a Westland Widgeon in 1923 , but only got as far as Baghdad . In 1930 the Fokker F VIIA ( G @-@ EBTS ) The Spider flown by Charles Douglas Barnard and R F Little , with Mary Russell , Duchess of Bedford as passenger , left Lympne for Maitland Airport , Cape Town , which was reached in a record 100 hours . In 1931 C.W.A. Scott set a UK @-@ Australia record in a DH.60 ( G @-@ ABHY ) . On the return he landed at Lympne in the aircraft which had been re @-@ registered VH @-@ UQA . Also in 1931 Glen Kitson and Owen Cathcart @-@ Jones left Lympne bound for Cape Town in a Lockheed DL @-@ 1 Vega Special . Cape Town was reached in 6 days , 10 hours . On 31 October C. Arthur Butler flew from Lympne to Darwin in a Comper Swift ( G @-@ ABRE ) , beating C.W.A. Scott 's record by 102 minutes .
In October 1932 , a Spartan A.24 Mailplane ( G @-@ ABLI ) left Lympne en route for Karachi from Blackpool . Karachi was reached in less than six days . On 14 November 1932 , Amy Johnson left Lympne for Cape Town in DH.80a Puss Moth ( G @-@ ACAB ) . She beat her husband Jim Mollison 's time by 10 hours and 28 minutes , setting a new UK @-@ South Africa record . On the return she also set a new South Africa @-@ UK record . On 11 April 1933 , William Newton Lancaster departed Lympne in an Avro Avian V ( G @-@ ABLK ) Southern Cross Minor to beat Amy Johnson 's UK @-@ South Africa record . The aircraft crashed in the Sahara next day and although Lancaster survived he died eight days later when his water ran out . On 2 November 1934 , Owen Cathcart Jones and Ken Waller landed at Lympne in a de Havilland Comet ( G @-@ ACSR ) after a record breaking flight from Australia to the United Kingdom . Harry Frank Broadbent landed at Lympne in a DH.85 Leopard Moth ( VH @-@ AHB ) on arrival from Australia on 27 April 1937 , filmed by Gaumont News , and an Australia @-@ UK record was set . On 24 October 1937 Jean Batten flew to Lympne in a Percival Gull Six ( G @-@ ADPR ) , having set a solo Australia @-@ UK record and female Australia @-@ UK record .
In 1947 , four national records were set at the Lympne Air Races .
On 8 May 1960 , a world record was set for the distance flown by a model aircraft at 45 @.@ 75 mi ( 73 @.@ 63 km ) . The 8 feet 6 inches ( 2 @.@ 59 m ) wingspan aircraft had taken off from Lympne and was flown by radio control from cars to Sidcup .
= = Cinque Ports Flying Club = =
Club flying started in November 1927 with the East Kent Flying Club and although membership reached 220 by 1931 the club was struggling financially . On 1 January 1932 it became part of Brooklands Aviation and was renamed as the Cinque Ports Flying Club . Lympne was visited by many aviation personalities . Ken Waller learnt to fly at Lympne and became a long @-@ distance and race pilot . W. E. Davis was the secretary / manager of Cinque Ports Flying Club from 1932 until his death in 1938 . His wife Ann took over the position in the 18 months leading up to the Second World War . On 22 May 1937 the Duke and Duchess of Kent visited Lympne in an Airspeed Envoy ( G @-@ AEXX ) of the King 's Flight while visiting Shorncliffe Barracks . From 1938 the club participated in the Civil Air Guard training programme , giving subsidised flying lessons . The Currie Wot was designed and built at Lympne . The Cinque Ports Flying Club restarted after the war but folded on 1 October 1948 .
= = Silver City Airways = =
Silver City Airways moved to Lympne in 1948 , operating Bristol Freighter Mk.21 aircraft and an aerial car ferry to Le Touquet started on 13 July 1948 . The air ferry was the idea of Griffith J Powell , who wanted to holiday in France but did not like the ferry . Bristol lent an aircraft for an experiment on 7 July 1948 . The first car was Powell 's Armstrong Siddeley 16 which was carried by G @-@ AGVC.The Bristol Freighter Mk.21 could carry two cars . Although only 170 cars were carried in 1948 , experience was gained .
The service was initially operated on a charter basis . Having closed down over the winter , the service was resumed as a scheduled service on 13 April 1949 . During 1949 , two aircraft carried 2 @,@ 700 cars . By 1950 the figures had risen to 3 @,@ 850 cars and 1 @,@ 000 motorcycles and other vehicles with passengers totalling 15 @,@ 000 . In that year , a London driver offered a London @-@ Paris taxi service . Silver City Airways had estimated that they would carry nearly 7 @,@ 000 cars in 1953 , but this figure was reached in 1951 . The three aircraft had to be doubled to six to cope . Over 13 @,@ 000 vehicles were carried , with 42 return flights daily at peak times . The time between Lympne and Le Touquet was 18 minutes .
In February 1953 , Lympne was waterlogged and services were temporarily transferred to Southend . In September waterlogging again stopped the air ferry , which was transferred to RAF West Malling . Six Bristol Freighter Mk.32s were introduced in March 1953 , at a cost of £ 540 @,@ 000 , which could each carry three cars and a service to Ostend was started with the aircraft . Skyways remained at Lympne until October 1954 when it moved to Lydd ( Ferryfield ) . On 3 October 1954 , the last Silver City flight to Le Touquet was operated by Bristol Freighter G @-@ AIFV . Silver City moved to Lydd because the runway at Lympne was not suitable . Although it had campaigned for improvements to the runway and was Lympne 's biggest customer the airfields owners , the Ministry of Civil Aviation , refused . Silver City said it would build an airport suitable for its needs at Lydd .
= = Accidents and incidents = =
On 29 March 1920 , Nieuport Delage 30T F @-@ CGTI of Compagnie générale transaérienne crashed at Lympne .
On 26 April 1921 , Salmson 2.A2 F @-@ CMAE of Compagnie des Messageries Aériennes crashed at Lympne . The aircraft was later repaired and returned to service .
On 15 November 1921 , a Handley Page O / 400 suffered engine failure shortly after passing Lympne on a flight from Paris to Croydon , resulting in the loss of a propeller . The aircraft made a forced landing at Lympne , damaging the undercarriage in the process .
On 24 April 1923 , Fokker F.III H @-@ NABS of KLM departed Lympne for Rotterdam and Amsterdam . The aircraft was not heard of again . It was presumed to have crashed into the sea , killing the pilot and both passengers .
On 7 May 1923 , Farman F.63bis Goliath F @-@ AEGP Flandre was involved in an accident at Lympne .
On 8 February 1925 , Farman Goliath F @-@ GEAB of Air Union crashed whilst attempting to land at Lympne . The aircraft was on a cargo flight from Paris to Croydon when an engine failed over the Channel .
On 18 August 1926 , Blériot 155 F @-@ AIEB Wilbur Wright of Air Union crashed 2 mi ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) south of Lympne , killing both crew and two passengers .
On 17 January 1931 , Breguet 280T F @-@ AIVU of Air Union crashed whilst attempting to land at Lympne . The aircraft caught the boundary fence and crashed onto the airfield , damaging the forward fuselage and undercarriage . Of the eight people on board , one of the crew was injured .
On 9 December 1937 , Handley Page H.P.45 G @-@ AAXD Horatius of Imperial Airways was struck by lightning whilst flying across the Channel from Paris to Croydon . A precautionary landing was made at Lympne where it was found that minor damage had been done to a wing .
On 12 March 1938 , ST25 Monospar G @-@ AEJV crashed near Lympne when both engines cut out . Pilot Bill Davis , managing director of the Cinque Ports Flying Club , was among the four people killed .
On 1 June 1938 , Fokker F.VIIb / 3m OO @-@ AIL of SABENA crashed into the grounds of Sellindge Methodist Church whilst attempting to land at Lympne during a thunderstorm .
In September 1938 , Handley Page H.P.45 G @-@ AAXD Horatius of Imperial Airways suffered damage to its port undercarriage and lower port wing in a forced landing at Lympne . The aircraft was repaired and returned to service .
On 7 July 1939 , de Havilland Hornet Moth G @-@ AFAT crashed a Lympne , killing racing driver Clifton Penn @-@ Hughes and his passengers .
On 11 January 1947 , Douglas DC @-@ 3 G @-@ AGJX of British Overseas Airways Corporation crashed at Stowting . Six people were killed and ten injured . The aircraft was attempting to reach Lympne when it ran out of fuel , having aborted an attempt to land at Bordeaux Airport and other French airfields being closed due to fog . The aircraft was operating an international scheduled passenger flight with a final destination in West Africa
On 3 May 1949 , Miles Aerovan G @-@ AJKM of East Anglian Flying Services Ltd was blown over whilst being refuelled and damaged beyond economic repair .
On 30 June 1950 , DH.89 Dragon Rapide G @-@ AKME caught fire whilst being refuelled and was burnt out .
On 1 May 1961 , DH.89 Dragon Rapide G @-@ AGOJ was damaged beyond economic repair in a landing accident at Lympne .
On 11 July 1965 . Avro 748 G @-@ ARMV of Skyways Coach @-@ Air arriving from Beauvais was written off at Lympne when its nose @-@ wheels dug into soft ground on the grass runway . The aircraft flipped over , losing its port wing in the process .
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= Armillaria gallica =
Armillaria gallica ( synonymous with A. bulbosa and A. lutea ) is a species of honey mushroom in the Physalacriaceae family of the Agaricales order . The species is a common and ecologically important wood @-@ decay fungus that can live as a saprobe , or as an opportunistic parasite in weakened tree hosts to cause root or butt rot . It is found in temperate regions of Asia , North America , and Europe . The species forms fruit bodies singly or in groups in soil or rotting wood . The fungus has been inadvertently introduced to South Africa . Armillaria gallica has had a confusing taxonomy , due in part to historical difficulties encountered in distinguishing between similar Armillaria species . The fungus received international attention in the early 1990s when an individual colony living in a Michigan forest was reported to cover an area of 15 hectares ( 37 acres ) , weigh at least 9 @,@ 500 kilograms ( 21 @,@ 000 lb ) , and be 1 @,@ 500 years old . This individual is popularly known as the " humungous fungus " , and is a tourist attraction and inspiration for an annual mushroom @-@ themed festival in Crystal Falls .
Armillaria gallica is a largely subterranean fungus , and it produces fruit bodies that are up to about 10 cm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) in diameter , yellow @-@ brown , and covered with small scales . On the underside of the caps are gills that are white to creamy or pale orange . The stem may be up to 10 cm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) long , with a white cobwebby ring that divides the color of the stem into pale orange to brown above , and lighter @-@ colored below . The fungus can develop an extensive system of underground root @-@ like structures , called rhizomorphs , that help it to efficiently decompose dead wood in temperate broadleaf and mixed forests . It has been the subject of considerable scientific research due to its importance as a plant pathogen , its ability to bioluminesce , its unusual life cycle , and its ability to form large and long @-@ lived colonies .
= = Phylogeny , taxonomy and naming = =
Confusion has surrounded the nomenclature and taxonomy of the species now known as Armillaria gallica , paralleling that surrounding the genus Armillaria . The type species , Armillaria mellea , was until the 1970s believed to be a pleiomorphic species with a wide distribution , variable pathogenicity , and one of the broadest host ranges known for the fungi . In 1973 , Veikko Hintikka reported a technique to distinguish between Armillaria species by growing them together as single spore isolates on petri dishes and observing changes in the morphology of the cultures . Using a similar technique , Kari Korhonen showed in 1978 that the European Armillaria mellea species complex could be separated into five reproductively isolated species , which he named " European Biological Species " ( EBS ) A through E. About the same time , the North American A. mellea was shown to be ten different species ( North American Biological Species , or NABS I through X ) ; NABS VII was demonstrated shortly after to be the same species as EBS E. Because several research groups had worked with this widely distributed species , it was assigned several different names .
The species that Korhonen called EBS B was named A. bulbosa by Helga Marxmüller in 1982 , as it was thought to be equivalent to Armillaria mellea var. bulbosa , first described by Joseph Barla in 1887 , and later raised to species status by Josef Velenovský in 1927 . In 1973 , the French mycologist Henri Romagnesi , unaware of Velenovský 's publication , published a description of the species he called Armillariella bulbosa , based on specimens he had found near Compiègne and Saint @-@ Sauveur @-@ le @-@ Vicomte in France . These specimens were later demonstrated to be the same species as the EBS E of Korhonen ; EBS B was later determined to be A. cepistipes . Therefore , the name A. bulbosa was a misapplied name for EBS E. In 1987 Romagnesi and Marxmüller renamed EBS E to Armillaria gallica . Another synonym , A. lutea , had originally been described by Claude Casimir Gillet in 1874 , and proposed as a name for EBS E. Although the name had priority due to its early publication date , it was rejected as a nomen ambiguum because of a lack of supporting evidence to identify the fungus , including a specimen , type locality , and incomplete collection notes . A. inflata ( Velenovský , 1920 ) may represent another synonym , but the type specimens were not preserved , so it is considered a dubious name ( nomen dubium ) . As of 2010 , both the Index Fungorum and MycoBank consider Armillaria gallica Marxm . & Romagn. to be the current name , with A. bulbosa and A. lutea as synonyms .
Phylogenetic analysis of North American Armillaria species based on analysis of amplified fragment length polymorphism data suggests that A. gallica is most closely related to A. sinapina , A. cepistipes , and A. calvescens . These results are similar to those reported in 1992 that compared sequences of nuclear ribosomal DNA .
The specific epithet gallica is botanical Latin for " French " ( from Gallia , " Gaul " ) , and refers to the type locality . The prior name bulbosa is Latin for " bulb @-@ bearing , bulbous " ( from bulbus and the suffix -osa ) . Armillaria is derived from the Latin armilla , or " bracelet " .
= = Description = =
The fruit bodies of Armillaria gallica have caps that are 2 @.@ 5 – 9 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 0 – 3 @.@ 7 in ) broad , and depending on their age , may range in shape from conical to convex to flattened . The caps are brownish @-@ yellow to brown when moist , often with a darker @-@ colored center ; the color tends to fade upon drying . The cap surface is covered with slender fibers ( same color as the cap ) that are erect , or sloping upwards .
When the fruit bodies are young , the underside of the caps have a cottony layer of tissue stretching from the edge of the cap to the stem — a partial veil — which serves to protect the developing gills . As the cap grows in size the membrane is eventually pulled away from the cap to expose the gills . The gills have an adnate ( squarely attached ) to somewhat decurrent ( extending down the length of the stem ) attachment to the stem . They are initially white , but age to a creamy or pale orange covered with rust @-@ colored spots . The stem is 4 – 10 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 – 3 @.@ 9 in ) long and 0 @.@ 6 – 1 @.@ 8 cm ( 0 @.@ 24 – 0 @.@ 71 in ) thick , and almost club @-@ shaped with the base up to 1 @.@ 3 – 2 @.@ 7 cm ( 0 @.@ 5 – 1 @.@ 1 in ) thick . Above the level of the ring , the stem is pale orange to brown , while below it is whitish or pale pink , becoming grayish @-@ brown at the base . The ring is positioned about 0 @.@ 4 – 0 @.@ 9 cm ( 0 @.@ 16 – 0 @.@ 35 in ) below the level of the cap , and may be covered with yellowish to pale @-@ brownish woolly cottony mycelia . The base of the stem is attached to rhizomorphs , black root @-@ like structures 1 – 3 mm in diameter . While the primary function of the below @-@ ground mycelia is to absorb nutrients from the soil , the rhizomorphs serve a more exploratory function , to locate new food bases .
= = = Microscopic features = = =
When the spores are seen in deposit , such as with a spore print , they appear whitish . They have an ellipsoid or oblong shape , usually contain an oil droplet , and have dimensions of 7 – 8 @.@ 5 by 5 – 6 µm . The spore @-@ bearing cells , the basidia , are club @-@ shaped , four @-@ spored ( rarely two @-@ spored ) , and measure 32 – 43 by 7 – 8 @.@ 7 µm . Other cells present in the fertile hymenium include the cheilocystidia ( cystidia present on the edge of a gill ) , which are club @-@ shaped , roughly cylindrical and 15 – 25 by 5 @.@ 0 – 12 µm . Cystidia are also present on the stem ( called caulocystidia ) , and are broadly club @-@ shaped , measuring 20 – 55 by 11 – 23 µm . The cap cuticle is made of hyphae that are irregularly interwoven and project upward to form the scales seen on the surface . The hyphae that make up the surface scales typically measure 26 – 88 µm long by 11 – 27 µm thick and can be covered with a crust of pigment . Clamp connections are present in the hyphae of most tissues .
= = = Edibility = = =
Like all Armillaria species , A. gallica is considered edible . Thorough cooking is usually recommended , as the raw mushroom tastes acrid when fresh or undercooked . One author advises to consume only a small portion initially , as some people may experience an upset stomach . The taste is described as " mild to bitter " , and the odor " sweet " , or reminiscent of camembert cheese .
= = = Similar species = = =
Armillaria calvescens is rather similar in appearance , and can only be reliably distinguished from A. gallica by observing microscopic characteristics . A. calvescens has a more northern distribution , and in North America , is rarely found south of the Great Lakes . A. mellea has a thinner stem than A. gallica , but can be more definitively distinguished by the absence of clamps at the base of the basidia . Similarly , A. cepistipes and A. gallica are virtually identical in appearance ( especially older fruit bodies ) , and are identified by differences in geographical distribution , host range , and microscopic characteristics . Molecular methods have been developed to discriminate between the two species by comparing DNA sequences in the gene coding translation elongation factor 1 @-@ alpha .
= = = Metabolites = = =
Armillaria gallica can produce cyclobutane @-@ containing metabolites such as arnamiol , a natural product that is classified as a sesquiterpenoid aryl ester . Although the specific function of arnamiol is not definitively known , similar chemicals present in other Armillaria species are thought to play a role in inhibiting the growth of antagonistic bacteria or fungi , or in killing cells of the host plant prior to infection .
= = = Bioluminescence = = =
The mycelia ( but not the fruit bodies ) of Armillaria gallica are known to be bioluminescent . Experiments have shown that the intensity of the luminescence is enhanced when the mycelia are disturbed during growth or when they are exposed to fluorescent light . Bioluminescence is caused by the action of luciferases , enzymes that produce light by the oxidation of a luciferin ( a pigment ) . The biological purpose of bioluminescence in fungi is not definitively known , although several hypotheses have been suggested : it may help attract insects to help with spore dispersal , it may be a by @-@ product of other biochemical functions , or it may help deter heterotrophs that might consume the fungus .
= = Humongous fungus = =
Researchers reported finding Armillaria gallica in the Upper Peninsula of Michigan in the early 1990s , during an unrelated research project to study the possible biological effects of extremely low frequency radio stations , which were being investigated as a means to communicate with submerged submarines . In one particular forest stand , Armillaria @-@ infected oak trees had been harvested , and their stumps were left to rot in the field . Later , when red pines were planted in the same location , the seedlings were killed by the fungus , identified as A. gallica ( then known as A. bulbosa ) . Using molecular genetics , they determined that the underground mycelia of one individual fungal colony covered 15 ha ( 37 acres ) , weighing over 9 @,@ 500 kilograms ( 21 @,@ 000 lb ) , with an estimated age of 1 @,@ 500 years . The analysis used restriction fragment length polymorphism ( RFLP ) and random amplification of polymorphic DNA ( RAPD ) to examine isolates collected from fruit bodies and rhizomorphs ( underground aggregations of fungal cells that resemble plant roots ) along 1 @-@ kilometer ( 0 @.@ 6 mi ) transects in the forest . The 15 @-@ hectare area yielded isolates that had identical mating type alleles and mitochondrial DNA restriction fragment patterns ; this degree of genetic similarity indicated that the samples were all derived from a single genetic individual , or clone , that had reached its size through vegetative growth . In their conclusion the authors noted : " This is the first report estimating the minimum size , mass , and age of an unambiguously defined fungal individual . Although the number of observations for plants and animals is much greater , members of the fungal kingdom should now be recognized as among the oldest and largest organisms on earth . " After the Nature paper was published , major media outlets from around the world visited the site where the specimens were found ; as a result of this publicity , the individual acquired the common name " humongous fungus " . There was afterward some scholarly debate as to whether the fungus qualified to be considered in the same category as other large organisms such as the blue whale or the giant redwood .
The fungus has since become a popular tourist attraction in Michigan , and has inspired a " Humongous Fungus Fest " held annually in August in Crystal Falls . The organism was the subject of a Late Show Top Ten List on Late Night with David Letterman , and an advertising campaign by the rental company U @-@ Haul .
= = Life cycle and growth = =
The life cycle of A. gallica includes two diploidization – haploidization events . The first of these is the usual process of cell fusion ( forming a diploid ) followed by meiosis during the formation of haploid basidiospores . The second event is more cryptic , and occurs before fruit body formation . In most basidiomycetous fungi , the hyphae of compatible mating types will fuse to form a two @-@ nucleate , or dikaryotic stage ; this stage is not observed in Armillaria species , which have cells that are mostly monokaryotic and diploid . Genetic analyses suggest that the dikaryotic mycelia undergo an extra haploidization event prior to fruit body formation to create a genetic mosaic . These regular and repeating haploidization events result in increased genetic diversity , which helps the fungus to adapt to unfavorable changes in environmental conditions , like drought .
The growth rate of A. gallica rhizomorphs is between 0 @.@ 3 and 0 @.@ 6 m ( 1 @.@ 0 and 2 @.@ 0 ft ) per year . Population genetic studies of the fungus conducted in the 1990s demonstrated that genetic individuals grow mitotically from a single point of origin to eventually occupy territories that may include many adjacent root systems over large areas ( several hectares ) of forest floor . Based on the low mutation rates observed in large , long @-@ lived individuals , A. gallica appears to have an especially stable genome . It has also been hypothesized that genetic stability may result from self @-@ renewing mycelial repositories of nuclei with stem cell @-@ like properties .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
Armillaria gallica can normally be found on the ground , but sometimes on stumps and logs . Mushrooms that appear to be terrestrial are attached to plant roots underneath the surface . It is widely distributed and has been collected in North America , Europe , and Asia ( China , Iran , and Japan ) . The species has also been found in the Western Cape Province of South Africa , where it is thought to have been introduced from potted plants imported from Europe during the early colonization of Cape Town . In Scandinavia , it is absent in areas with very cold climates , like Finland or Norway , but it is found in southern Sweden . It is thought to be the most prevalent low altitude species of Armillaria in Great Britain and France . The upper limits of its altitude vary by region . In the French Massif Central , it is found up to 1 @,@ 100 m ( 3 @,@ 600 ft ) , while in Bavaria , which has a more continental climate , the upper limit of distribution reaches 600 m ( 2 @,@ 000 ft ) . In Serbian forests , it is the most common Armillaria between elevations of 70 to 1 @,@ 450 m ( 230 to 4 @,@ 760 ft ) . Field studies suggest that A. gallica prefers sites that are low in organic matter and have high soil pHs .
In North America , it is common east of the Rocky Mountains , but rare in the Pacific Northwest . In California , where it is widely distributed , the fungus is found in a variety of plant communities , including aspen , coastal oak woodland , Douglas Fir , Klamath mixed conifer , montane hardwood , montane hardwood @-@ conifer , montane riparian , Redwood , Sierran mixed conifer , valley oak woodland , valley @-@ foothill riparian , and White Fir . It was found to be the most common Armillaria species in hardwood and mixed oak forests in western Massachusetts .
A Chinese study published in 2001 used the molecular biological technique restriction fragment length polymorphism to analyze the differences in DNA sequence between 23 A. gallica specimens collected from the Northern Hemisphere . The results suggest that based on the restriction fragment length polymorphism patterns observed , there are four global A. gallica subpopulations : the Chinese , European , North American – Chinese , and North American – European geographical lineages . A 2007 study on the northeastern and southwestern Chinese distribution of Armillaria , using fruit body and pure culture morphology , concluded that there are several unnamed species ( Chinese biological species C , F , H , J and L ) that are similar to the common A. gallica .
= = Ecology = =
Armillaria gallica is a weaker pathogen than the related A. Mellea or A. Solidipes , and is considered a secondary parasite — typically initiating infection only after the host 's defenses have been weakened by insect defoliation , drought , or infection by another fungus . Fungal infection can lead to root rot or butt rot . As the diseased trees die , the wood dries , increasing the chance of catching fire after being struck by lightning . The resulting forest fire may in turn kill the species that killed the trees . Plants that are under water stress caused by dry soils or waterlogging are more susceptible to infection by A. gallica . It has been shown to be one of several Armillaria species responsible for widespread mortality of oak trees in the Arkansas Ozarks . The fungus has also been shown to infect Daylily in South Carolina , Northern highbush blueberry ( Vaccinium corymbosum ) in Italy and vineyards ( Vitis species ) of Rías Baixas in northwestern Spain . The latter infestation " may be related to the fact that the vineyards from which they were isolated were located on cleared forestry sites " . When A. solidipes and A. gallica co @-@ occur in the same forest , infection of root systems by A. gallica may reduce damage or prevent infection from A. solidipes .
Armillaria gallica can develop an extensive subterranean system of rhizomorphs , which helps it to compete with other fungi for resources or to attack trees weakened by other fungi . A field study in an ancient broadleaved woodland in England showed that of five Armillaria species present in the woods , A. gallica was consistently the first to colonize tree stumps that had been coppiced the previous year . Fractal geometry has been used to model the branching patterns of the hyphae of various Armillaria species . Compared to a strongly pathogenic species like A. solidipes , A. gallica has a relatively sparse branching pattern that is thought to be " consistent with a foraging strategy in which acceptable food bases may be encountered at any distance , and which favours broad and divisive distribution of potential inoculum . " Because the rhizomorphs form regular networks , mathematical concepts of graph theory have been employed to describe fungal growth and interpret ecological strategies , suggesting that the specific patterns of network attachments allow the fungus " to respond opportunistically to spatially and temporally changing environments " .
Armillaria gallica may itself be parasitized by other soil flora . Several species of the fungus Trichoderma , including Trichoderma polysporum , T. harzianum and T. viride , are able to attack and penetrate and the outer tissue of A. gallica rhizomorphs and parasitize the internal hyphae . The infected rhizomorphs become devoid of living hyphae about one week after the initial infection . Entoloma abortivum is another fungus that can live parasitically upon A. gallica . The whitish @-@ gray malformed fruit bodies that may result are due to the E. abortivum hyphae penetrating the mushroom and disrupting its normal development .
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= Rififi =
Rififi ( French : Du rififi chez les hommesa ) is a 1955 French crime film adaptation of Auguste Le Breton 's novel of the same name . Directed by American blacklisted filmmaker Jules Dassin , the film stars Jean Servais as the aging gangster Tony " le Stéphanois " , Carl Möhner as Jo " le Suédois " , Robert Manuel as Mario Farrati , and Jules Dassin as César " le Milanais " . The foursome band together to commit an almost impossible theft , the burglary of an exclusive jewelry shop on the Rue de Rivoli . The centerpiece of the film is an intricate half @-@ hour heist scene depicting the crime in detail , shot in near silence , without dialogue or music . The fictional burglary has been mimicked by criminals in actual crimes around the world .
After he was blacklisted from Hollywood , Dassin found work in France where he was asked to direct Rififi . Despite his distaste for parts of the original novel , Dassin agreed to direct the film . He shot Rififi while working with a low budget , without a star cast , and with the production staff working for low wages .
Upon the initial release of the film , it received positive reactions from audiences and critics in France , the United States , and the United Kingdom . The film earned Dassin the award for Best Director at the 1955 Cannes Film Festival . Rififi was nominated by the National Board of Review for Best Foreign Film . Rififi was re @-@ released theatrically in both 2000 and 2015 and is still highly acclaimed by modern film critics as one of the greatest works in French film noir .
= = Plot = =
Tony " le Stéphanois " has served a five @-@ year prison term for a jewel heist and is out on the street and down on his luck . His friend Jo approaches him about a smash @-@ and @-@ grab proposed by mutual friend Mario in which the threesome would cut the glass on a Parisian jeweler 's front window in broad daylight and snatch some gems . Tony declines . He then learns that his old girlfriend , Mado , took up in his absence with gangster Parisian nightclub owner Pierre Grutter . Finding Mado working at Grutter 's , Tony invites her back to his rundown flat . She is obviously well @-@ kept , and Tony savagely beats her for being so deeply involved with Grutter . Tony changes his mind about the heist ; he now accepts on the condition that they rob the jeweler 's safe instead of the window . Mario suggests they employ the services of Italian compatriot César , a safecracker . The four devise and rehearse an ingenious plan to break into the store and disarm its sophisticated alarm system .
The caper begins with the group chiseling through a cement ceiling from an upstairs flat on a Sunday night . The suspenseful break @-@ in completed , the criminals appear to escape without leaving any trace of their identities . However , without the others ' knowledge , César pocketed a diamond ring as a bauble for his lover Viviane , a chanteuse at Grutter 's club . The four men arrange to fence the loot with a London contact . Meanwhile , Grutter has seen Mado and her injuries , who breaks off their relationship . Infuriated at Tony 's interference in his life , he gives heroin to his drug @-@ addicted brother Remi and tells him to murder Tony . Grutter sees the diamond César gave to Viviane and realizes that César , Mario , and Tony were responsible for the jewel theft . Grutter forces César to confess . Forsaking a 10 million franc police reward , Grutter decides to steal the jewels from Tony 's gang , his brother Remi brutally murdering Mario and his wife Ida when they refuse to reveal where the loot is hidden . Tony retrieves it from the couple 's apartment and anonymously pays for a splendid funeral for them . He then goes looking for Grutter and stumbles onto the captive César , who confesses having squealed . Citing " the rules , " Tony ruefully kills him .
Meanwhile , seeking to force their adversaries ' hand , Grutter 's thugs kidnap Jo 's five @-@ year @-@ old son Tonio and hold him ransom . The London fence arrives with the payoff , after which Tony leaves to single @-@ handedly rescue the child by force , advising Jo it is the only way they will see him alive . With Mado 's help he tracks Tonio down at Grutter 's country house and kills Grutter 's brothers Rémi and Louis while rescuing him . On the way back to Paris , Tony learns Jo has cracked under the pressure and agreed to meet Grutter at his house with the money . When he arrives Grutter tells him Tony has already snatched the child and kills Jo . Seconds too late to save his friend , Tony is mortally wounded by Grutter before killing him as he tries to flee with the loot . Bleeding profusely , Tony drives maniacally back to Paris and delivers Tonio home safely before dying at the wheel as police and bystanders close in on him and a suitcase filled with 120 million francs in cash .
= = Cast = =
Jean Servais as Tony " le Stéphanois " : A gangster who recently returned from serving five years in prison for jewel theft . The eldest member in on the heist , Tony is godfather of namesake Tonio , son of Jo " le Suédois " .
Carl Möhner as Jo " le Suédois " : A young Swedish gangster Tony took the five year rap for . Jo invites Tony in on the heist .
Robert Manuel as Mario Ferrati : A happy @-@ go @-@ lucky Italian gangster who came up with the original idea for a jewel heist .
Jules Dassin as César " le Milanais " : An expert safecracker hired by Tony with a weakness for women . Dassin played the role under the pseudonym of Perlo Vita .
Magali Noel as Viviane : a night @-@ club singer who gets involved with César " le Milanais " ; she sings the film 's title song .
Claude Sylvain as Ida : Mario Ferrati 's wife
Marcel Lupovici as Pierre Grutter : Leader of the Grutter gang and owner of the night @-@ club L 'Âge d 'Or . He is the first to figure out Tony 's responsibility for the diamond heist .
Robert Hossein as Remi Grutter : A member of the Grutter gang addicted to heroin .
Pierre Grasset as Louis Grutter : A member of the Grutter gang .
Marie Sabouret as Mado : The former lover of Tony " le Stéphanois " .
Dominique Maurin as Tonio , the young son of Jo " le Suédois " . Towards the end of the film , Tonio is kidnapped by the Grutter gang and is rescued by Tony " le Stéphanois " .
Janine Darcey as Louise , Jo 's wife and the mother of Tonio .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
The film Rififi was originally to be directed by Jean @-@ Pierre Melville , a later luminary of the heist film genre . Melville gave his blessing to American director Jules Dassin when the latter asked for his permission to take the helm . It was Dassin 's first film in five years ; he had been blacklisted by the House Committee on Un @-@ American Activities after fellow director Edward Dmytryk named him a communist in April 1951 . Subsequently , Dassin attempted to rebuild his career in Europe . Several such film projects were stopped through long @-@ distance efforts by the US government . Dassin attempted a film L 'Ennemi public numero un , which was halted after stars Fernandel and Zsa Zsa Gabor withdrew under American pressure . An attempt to film an adaptation of Giovanni Verga 's Mastro don Gesualdo in Rome was halted by the US Embassy . Dassin received an offer from an agent in Paris , France where he met producer Henri Bérard who had acquired the rights to Auguste Le Breton 's popular crime novel Du Rififi chez les hommes . Bérard chose Dassin due to the major success in France of Dassin 's previous film The Naked City .
Using his native English , Dassin wrote the screenplay to Rififi in six days with the help of screenwriter René Wheeler , who subsequently took the material and translated it to French . Dassin hated the novel ; he was repelled by the story 's racist theme in which the rival gangsters were dark Arabs and North Africans pitted against light @-@ skinned Europeans . As well , the book portrayed disquieting events such as necrophilia — scenes that Dassin did not know how to bring to the big screen . For the rival gang , the producer suggested making them Americans , assuming Dassin would approve . Dassin was against this idea as he didn 't want to be accused of taking oblique revenge on screen . Dassin downplayed the rival gangsters ' ethnicity in his screenplay , simply electing the Germanic " Grutter " as surname . The greatest change from the book was the heist scene , which spanned but ten pages of the 250 @-@ page novel . Dassin focused his screenplay on it to get past other events he did not know what to do with . As produced , the scene takes a quarter of the film 's running time and is shot with only natural sound , sans spoken words or music .
= = = Filming = = =
Working with a budget of $ 200 @,@ 000 , Dassin could not afford top stars for the film . To carry the lead role , Dassin selected Jean Servais , an actor whose career had slumped due to alcoholism . For Italian gangster Mario Ferrati , Dassin cast Robert Manuel after seeing him perform a comic role as a member of Comédie @-@ Française . After a suggestion made by the wife of the film 's producer , Dassin cast Carl Möhner as Jo the Swede . Dassin would use Möhner again in his next film He Who Must Die . Dassin himself played the role of the Italian safecracker César the Milanese . Dassin explained in an interview that he " had cast a very good actor in Italy , whose name escapes me , but he never got the contract ! ... So I had to put on the mustache and do the part myself " .
Rififi was filmed during the wintertime in Paris and used real locations rather than studio sets . Due to the low budget , the locations were scouted by Dassin himself . Dassin 's fee for writing , directing , and acting was US $ 8 @,@ 000 . Dassin 's production designer , to whom he referred as " one of the greatest men in the history of cinema " was Alexandre Trauner . Out of friendship for Dassin , Trauner did the film for very little money . Dassin argued with his producer Henri Bérard on two points : Dassin refused to shoot the film when there was sunlight claiming that he " just wanted grey " ; and that there were to be no fist fights in the film . Such fight scenes had been important to the popular success in France of the Lemmy Caution film series .
Rififi 's heist scene was based on an actual burglary that took place in 1899 along Marseille 's cours St @-@ Louis . A gang broke into the first floor offices of a travel agency , cutting a hole in the floor and using an umbrella to catch the debris in order to make off with the contents of the jeweler 's shop below . The scene where Tony regretfully chooses to kill César for his betrayal of the thieves ' code of silence was filmed as an allusion to how Dassin and others felt after finding their contemporaries willing to name names in front of the House Un @-@ American Activities Committee . This act was not in the original novel .
= = = Music and title = = =
Georges Auric was hired as the composer for the film . Dassin and Auric originally could not agree about scoring the half @-@ hour caper scene . After Dassin told Auric he did not want music , Auric claimed he would " protect [ him ] . I 'm going to write the music for the scene anyways , because you need to be protected " . After filming was finished , Dassin showed the film to Auric once with music and once without . Afterward , Auric agreed the scene should be unscored .
In 2001 , Dassin admitted that he somewhat regretted the Rififi theme song , utilized only to explain the film 's title which is never mentioned by any other film characters . The title ( Word War I French military slang ) is almost un @-@ translatable into English ; the closest attempts have been " rough and tumble " and " pitched battle . " Dassin mistakenly thought the author had created the word himself to refer to Moroccan Berbers because of the Rif War . The song was written in two days by lyricist Jacques Larue and composer Philippe @-@ Gérard after Dassin turned down a proposal by Louiguy . Magali Noël was cast as Viviane , who sings the film 's theme song . Noël would later act for Italian director Federico Fellini , appearing in three of his films .
= = Release = =
Rififi debuted in France on 13 April 1955 . The film was banned in some countries due to its heist scene , referred to by the Los Angeles Times reviewer as a " master class in breaking and entering as well as filmmaking " . The Mexican interior ministry banned the film because of a series of burglaries mimicking its heist scene . Rififi was banned in Finland in the late 1950s . In answer to critics who saw the film as an educational process that taught people how to commit burglary , Dassin claimed the film showed how difficult it was to actually carry out a crime .
Rififi was a popular success in France which led to several other Rififi films based on le Breton 's stories . These films include Du rififi chez les femmes ( 1959 ) , Du rififi à Tokyo ( 1961 ) , and Du rififi à Paname ( 1965 ) . On its United Kingdom release , Rififi was paired with the British science fiction film The Quatermass Xperiment as a double bill ; this went on to be the most successful double @-@ bill release in UK cinemas in all of 1955 . The film was offered distribution in the United States on the condition that Dassin renounce his past , declaring that he was duped into subversive associations . Otherwise , his name would be removed from the film as the writer and director . Dassin refused and the film was released by United Artists who set up a dummy corporation as the distributing company . The film was distributed successfully in America with Dassin listed in the credits ; in this way he was the first to break the Hollywood blacklist . Rififi was released in the United States first with subtitles and then later with an English dub under the title Rififi ... Means Trouble ! . The film caused controversy on its release from The Roman Catholic Legion of Decency . The film endured three brief cuts in it and opened with a title card quoting the Book of Proverbs stating " When the wicked are multiplied , crime shall be multiplied : but the just shall see their downfall " . After this change , the film passed with a B rating . In 2005 , Variety announced that Stone Village Pictures had acquired the remake rights to Rififi , the producers intending to place the film in a modern setting with Al Pacino taking the lead role .
= = = Home media = = =
In North America , Rififi has been released on both VHS and DVD . The VHS print has been reviewed negatively by critics . Roger Ebert referred to it as " shabby " while Bill Hunt and Todd Doogan , the authors of The Digital Bits Insider 's Guide to DVD , referred to the VHS version as " horrible " and with " crappy subtitles " . The Criterion Collection released a DVD version of the film on 24 April 2001 . In the United Kingdom , Rififi was released on DVD by Arrow Films on 21 April 2003 , and on Region B Blu @-@ ray by the same publisher on 9 May 2011 . The film was released to Blu @-@ Ray in Region 1 by Criterion on 14 January 2014 .
= = Critical reception = =
Upon its original release , film critic and future director François Truffaut praised the film , stating that " Out of the worst crime novels I ever read , Jules Dassin has made the best crime film I 've ever seen " and " Everything in Le Rififi is intelligent : screenplay , dialogue , sets , music , choice of actors . Jean Servais , Robert Manuel , and Jules Dassin are perfect . " French critic André Bazin said that Rififi brought the genre a " sincerity and humanity that break with the conventions of a crime film , and manage to touch our hearts " . In the February 1956 issue of the French film magazine Cahiers du cinéma , the film was listed as number thirteen in the top twenty films of 1955 . The film was well received by British critics who noted the film 's violence on its initial release . The Daily Mirror referred to the film as " brilliant and brutal " while the Daily Herald made note that Rififi would " make American attempts at screen brutality look like a tea party in cathedral city " . The American release of the film also received acclaim . Bosley Crowther of The New York Times referred to the film as " perhaps the keenest crime film that ever came from France , including " Pepe le Moko " and some of the best of Louis Jouvet and Jean Gabin . " The National Board of Review nominated the film as the Best Foreign Film in 1956 .
Rififi was re @-@ released for a limited run within America on 21 July 2000 in a new 35 mm print containing new , more explicit subtitles that were enhanced in collaboration with Dassin . The film was received very well by American critics on its re @-@ release . The film ranking website Rotten Tomatoes reported that 93 % of critics had given the film positive reviews , based upon a sample of 41 . At Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , the film has received an average score of 97 , based on 13 reviews . Kenneth Turan of the Los Angeles Times wrote the film was the " benchmark all succeeding heist films have been measured against ... It 's a film whose influence is hard to overstate , one that proves for not the last time that it 's easier to break into a safe than fathom the mysteries of the human heart . " Lucia Bozzola of the online database Allmovie gave the film the highest possible rating of five stars , calling it " The pinnacle of heist movies " and " not only one of the best French noirs , but one of the top movies in the genre . " In 2002 , critic Roger Ebert added the film to his list of " Great Movies " stating " echoes of [ Rififi ] can be found from Kubrick 's " The Killing " to Tarantino 's " Reservoir Dogs . " They both owe something to John Huston 's " The Asphalt Jungle " ( 1950 ) , which has the general idea but not the attention to detail . " Among negative reviews of the film , Dave Kehr of the Chicago Reader felt that " the film turns moralistic and sour in the last half , when the thieves fall out . " Rififi placed at number 90 on Empire 's list of The 100 Best Films Of World Cinema . Critic and director Jean @-@ Luc Godard regarded the film negatively in comparison to other French crime films of the era , noting in 1986 that " today it can 't hold a candle to Touchez pas au grisbi which paved the way for it , let alone Bob le flambeur which it paved the way for . "
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= Hepatitis B =
Hepatitis B is an infectious disease caused by the hepatitis B virus ( HBV ) which affects the liver . It can cause both acute and chronic infections . Many people have no symptoms during the initial infection . Some develop a rapid onset of sickness with vomiting , yellowish skin , tiredness , dark urine and abdominal pain . Often these symptoms last a few weeks and rarely does the initial infection result in death . It may take 30 to 180 days for symptoms to begin . In those who get infected around the time of birth 90 % develop chronic hepatitis B while less than 10 % of those infected after the age of five do . Most of those with chronic disease have no symptoms ; however , cirrhosis and liver cancer may eventually develop . These complications result in the death of 15 to 25 % of those with chronic disease .
The virus is transmitted by exposure to infectious blood or body fluids . Infection around the time of birth or from contact with other people 's blood during childhood is the most frequent method by which hepatitis B is acquired in areas where the disease is common . In areas where the disease is rare , intravenous drug use and sexual intercourse are the most frequent routes of infection . Other risk factors include working in healthcare , blood transfusions , dialysis , living with an infected person , travel in countries where the infection rate is high , and living in an institution . Tattooing and acupuncture led to a significant number of cases in the 1980s ; however , this has become less common with improved sterility . The hepatitis B viruses cannot be spread by holding hands , sharing eating utensils , kissing , hugging , coughing , sneezing , or breastfeeding . The infection can be diagnosed 30 to 60 days after exposure . Diagnosis is typically by testing the blood for parts of the virus and for antibodies against the virus . It is one of five known hepatitis viruses : A , B , C , D , and E.
The infection has been preventable by vaccination since 1982 . Vaccination is recommended by the World Health Organization in the first day of life if possible . Two or three more doses are required at a later time for full effect . This vaccine works about 95 % of the time . About 180 countries gave the vaccine as part of national programs as of 2006 . It is also recommended that all blood be tested for hepatitis B before transfusion and condoms be used to prevent infection . During an initial infection , care is based on the symptoms that a person has . In those who develop chronic disease antiviral medication such as tenofovir or interferon may be useful ; however , these drugs are expensive . Liver transplantation is sometimes used for cirrhosis .
About a third of the world population has been infected at one point in their lives , including 240 million to 350 million who have chronic infections . Another 129 million new infections occurred in 2013 . Over 750 @,@ 000 people die of hepatitis B each year . About 300 @,@ 000 of these are due to liver cancer . The disease is now only common in East Asia and sub @-@ Saharan Africa where between 5 and 10 % of adults are chronically infected . Rates in Europe and North America are less than 1 % . It was originally known as serum hepatitis . Research is looking to create foods that contain HBV vaccine . The disease may affect other great apes as well .
= = Signs and symptoms = =
Acute infection with hepatitis B virus is associated with acute viral hepatitis – an illness that begins with general ill @-@ health , loss of appetite , nausea , vomiting , body aches , mild fever , and dark urine , and then progresses to development of jaundice . It has been noted that itchy skin has been an indication as a possible symptom of all hepatitis virus types . The illness lasts for a few weeks and then gradually improves in most affected people . A few people may have more severe liver disease ( fulminant hepatic failure ) , and may die as a result . The infection may be entirely asymptomatic and may go unrecognized .
Chronic infection with hepatitis B virus either may be asymptomatic or may be associated with a chronic inflammation of the liver ( chronic hepatitis ) , leading to cirrhosis over a period of several years . This type of infection dramatically increases the incidence of hepatocellular carcinoma ( liver cancer ) . Across Europe hepatitis B and C cause approximately 50 % of hepatocellular carcinomas . Chronic carriers are encouraged to avoid consuming alcohol as it increases their risk for cirrhosis and liver cancer . Hepatitis B virus has been linked to the development of membranous glomerulonephritis ( MGN ) .
Symptoms outside of the liver are present in 1 – 10 % of HBV @-@ infected people and include serum @-@ sickness – like syndrome , acute necrotizing vasculitis ( polyarteritis nodosa ) , membranous glomerulonephritis , and papular acrodermatitis of childhood ( Gianotti – Crosti syndrome ) . The serum @-@ sickness – like syndrome occurs in the setting of acute hepatitis B , often preceding the onset of jaundice . The clinical features are fever , skin rash , and polyarteritis . The symptoms often subside shortly after the onset of jaundice , but can persist throughout the duration of acute hepatitis B. About 30 – 50 % of people with acute necrotizing vasculitis ( polyarteritis nodosa ) are HBV carriers . HBV @-@ associated nephropathy has been described in adults but is more common in children . Membranous glomerulonephritis is the most common form . Other immune @-@ mediated hematological disorders , such as essential mixed cryoglobulinemia and aplastic anemia .
= = Cause = =
= = = Transmission = = =
Transmission of hepatitis B virus results from exposure to infectious blood or body fluids containing blood . It is 50 to 100 times more infectious than HIV . Possible forms of transmission include sexual contact , blood transfusions and transfusion with other human blood products , re @-@ use of contaminated needles and syringes , and vertical transmission from mother to child ( MTCT ) during childbirth . Without intervention , a mother who is positive for HBsAg has a 20 % risk of passing the infection to her offspring at the time of birth . This risk is as high as 90 % if the mother is also positive for HBeAg . HBV can be transmitted between family members within households , possibly by contact of nonintact skin or mucous membrane with secretions or saliva containing HBV . However , at least 30 % of reported hepatitis B among adults cannot be associated with an identifiable risk factor . Breastfeeding after proper immunoprophylaxis does not appear to contribute to mother @-@ to @-@ child @-@ transmission ( MTCT ) of HBV . The virus may be detected within 30 to 60 days after infection and can persist and develop into chronic hepatitis B.The incubation period of the hepatitis B virus is 75 days on average , but can vary from 30 to 180 days .
= = = Virology = = =
= = = = Structure = = = =
Hepatitis B virus ( HBV ) is a member of the hepadnavirus family . The virus particle ( virion ) consists of an outer lipid envelope and an icosahedral nucleocapsid core composed of protein . These virions are 30 @-@ 42 nm in diameter . The nucleocapsid encloses the viral DNA and a DNA polymerase that has reverse transcriptase activity . The outer envelope contains embedded proteins that are involved in viral binding of , and entry into , susceptible cells . The virus is one of the smallest enveloped animal viruses , and the 42 nm virions , which are capable of infecting liver cells known as hepatocytes , are referred to as " Dane particles " . In addition to the Dane particles , filamentous and spherical bodies lacking a core can be found in the serum of infected individuals . These particles are not infectious and are composed of the lipid and protein that forms part of the surface of the virion , which is called the surface antigens ( HBsAg ) , and is produced in excess during the life cycle of the virus .
= = = = Genome = = = =
The genome of HBV is made of circular DNA , but it is unusual because the DNA is not fully double @-@ stranded . One end of the full length strand is linked to the viral DNA polymerase . The genome is 3020 – 3320 nucleotides long ( for the full @-@ length strand ) and 1700 – 2800 nucleotides long ( for the short length @-@ strand ) . The negative @-@ sense ( non @-@ coding ) is complementary to the viral mRNA . The viral DNA is found in the nucleus soon after infection of the cell . The partially double @-@ stranded DNA is rendered fully double @-@ stranded by completion of the ( + ) sense strand and removal of a protein molecule from the ( − ) sense strand and a short sequence of RNA from the ( + ) sense strand . Non @-@ coding bases are removed from the ends of the ( − ) sense strand and the ends are rejoined . There are four known genes encoded by the genome , called C , X , P , and S. The core protein is coded for by gene C ( HBcAg ) , and its start codon is preceded by an upstream in @-@ frame AUG start codon from which the pre @-@ core protein is produced . HBeAg is produced by proteolytic processing of the pre @-@ core protein . In some rare strains of the virus known as Hepatitis B virus precore mutants , no HBeAg is present . The DNA polymerase is encoded by gene P. Gene S is the gene that codes for the surface antigen ( HBsAg ) . The HBsAg gene is one long open reading frame but contains three in frame " start " ( ATG ) codons that divide the gene into three sections , pre @-@ S1 , pre @-@ S2 , and S. Because of the multiple start codons , polypeptides of three different sizes called large ( the order from surface to the inside : pre @-@ S1 , pre @-@ S2 , and S ) , middle ( pre @-@ S2 , S ) , and small ( S ) are produced . The function of the protein coded for by gene X is not fully understood but it is associated with the development of liver cancer . It stimulates genes that promote cell growth and inactivates growth regulating molecules .
= = = = Pathogenesis = = = =
The life cycle of hepatitis B virus is complex . Hepatitis B is one of a few known pararetroviruses : non @-@ retroviruses that still use reverse transcription in their replication process . The virus gains entry into the cell by binding to NTCP on the surface and being endocytosed . Because the virus multiplies via RNA made by a host enzyme , the viral genomic DNA has to be transferred to the cell nucleus by host proteins called chaperones . The partially double stranded viral DNA is then made fully double stranded by viral polymerase and transformed into covalently closed circular DNA ( cccDNA ) . This cccDNA serves as a template for transcription of four viral mRNAs by host RNA polymerase . The largest mRNA , ( which is longer than the viral genome ) , is used to make the new copies of the genome and to make the capsid core protein and the viral DNA polymerase . These four viral transcripts undergo additional processing and go on to form progeny virions that are released from the cell or returned to the nucleus and re @-@ cycled to produce even more copies . The long mRNA is then transported back to the cytoplasm where the virion P protein ( the DNA polymerase ) synthesizes DNA via its reverse transcriptase activity .
= = = = Serotypes and genotypes = = = =
The virus is divided into four major serotypes ( adr , adw , ayr , ayw ) based on antigenic epitopes presented on its envelope proteins , and into eight genotypes ( A – H ) according to overall nucleotide sequence variation of the genome . The genotypes have a distinct geographical distribution and are used in tracing the evolution and transmission of the virus . Differences between genotypes affect the disease severity , course and likelihood of complications , and response to treatment and possibly vaccination .
Genotypes differ by at least 8 % of their sequence and were first reported in 1988 when six were initially described ( A – F ) . Two further types have since been described ( G and H ) . Most genotypes are now divided into subgenotypes with distinct properties .
= = Mechanisms = =
Hepatitis B virus primarily interferes with the functions of the liver by replicating in hepatocytes . A functional receptor is NTCP . There is evidence that the receptor in the closely related duck hepatitis B virus is carboxypeptidase D. The virions bind to the host cell via the preS domain of the viral surface antigen and are subsequently internalized by endocytosis . HBV @-@ preS @-@ specific receptors are expressed primarily on hepatocytes ; however , viral DNA and proteins have also been detected in extrahepatic sites , suggesting that cellular receptors for HBV may also exist on extrahepatic cells .
During HBV infection , the host immune response causes both hepatocellular damage and viral clearance . Although the innate immune response does not play a significant role in these processes , the adaptive immune response , in particular virus @-@ specific cytotoxic T lymphocytes ( CTLs ) , contributes to most of the liver injury associated with HBV infection . CTLs eliminate HBV infection by killing infected cells and producing antiviral cytokines , which are then used to purge HBV from viable hepatocytes . Although liver damage is initiated and mediated by the CTLs , antigen @-@ nonspecific inflammatory cells can worsen CTL @-@ induced immunopathology , and platelets activated at the site of infection may facilitate the accumulation of CTLs in the liver .
= = Diagnosis = =
The tests , called assays , for detection of hepatitis B virus infection involve serum or blood tests that detect either viral antigens ( proteins produced by the virus ) or antibodies produced by the host . Interpretation of these assays is complex .
The hepatitis B surface antigen ( HBsAg ) is most frequently used to screen for the presence of this infection . It is the first detectable viral antigen to appear during infection . However , early in an infection , this antigen may not be present and it may be undetectable later in the infection as it is being cleared by the host . The infectious virion contains an inner " core particle " enclosing viral genome . The icosahedral core particle is made of 180 or 240 copies of core protein , alternatively known as hepatitis B core antigen , or HBcAg . During this ' window ' in which the host remains infected but is successfully clearing the virus , IgM antibodies specific to the hepatitis B core antigen ( anti @-@ HBc IgM ) may be the only serological evidence of disease . Therefore , most hepatitis B diagnostic panels contain HBsAg and total anti @-@ HBc ( both IgM and IgG ) .
Shortly after the appearance of the HBsAg , another antigen called hepatitis B e antigen ( HBeAg ) will appear . Traditionally , the presence of HBeAg in a host 's serum is associated with much higher rates of viral replication and enhanced infectivity ; however , variants of the hepatitis B virus do not produce the ' e ' antigen , so this rule does not always hold true . During the natural course of an infection , the HBeAg may be cleared , and antibodies to the ' e ' antigen ( anti @-@ HBe ) will arise immediately afterwards . This conversion is usually associated with a dramatic decline in viral replication .
If the host is able to clear the infection , eventually the HBsAg will become undetectable and will be followed by IgG antibodies to the hepatitis B surface antigen and core antigen ( anti @-@ HBs and anti HBc IgG ) . The time between the removal of the HBsAg and the appearance of anti @-@ HBs is called the window period . A person negative for HBsAg but positive for anti @-@ HBs either has cleared an infection or has been vaccinated previously .
Individuals who remain HBsAg positive for at least six months are considered to be hepatitis B carriers . Carriers of the virus may have chronic hepatitis B , which would be reflected by elevated serum alanine aminotransferase ( ALT ) levels and inflammation of the liver , if they are in the immune clearance phase of chronic infection . Carriers who have seroconverted to HBeAg negative status , in particular those who acquired the infection as adults , have very little viral multiplication and hence may be at little risk of long @-@ term complications or of transmitting infection to others .
PCR tests have been developed to detect and measure the amount of HBV DNA , called the viral load , in clinical specimens . These tests are used to assess a person 's infection status and to monitor treatment . Individuals with high viral loads , characteristically have ground glass hepatocytes on biopsy .
= = Prevention = =
Vaccines for the prevention of hepatitis B have been routinely recommended for infants since 1991 in the United States . Most vaccines are given in three doses over a course of months . A protective response to the vaccine is defined as an anti @-@ HBs antibody concentration of at least 10 mIU / ml in the recipient 's serum . The vaccine is more effective in children and 95 percent of those vaccinated have protective levels of antibody . This drops to around 90 % at 40 years of age and to around 75 percent in those over 60 years . The protection afforded by vaccination is long lasting even after antibody levels fall below 10 mIU / ml . Vaccination at birth is recommended for all infants of HBV infected mothers . A combination of hepatitis B immune globulin and an accelerated course of HBV vaccine prevents HBV transmission around the time of birth in 86 % to 99 % of cases .
All those with a risk of exposure to body fluids such as blood should be vaccinated , if not already . Testing to verify effective immunization is recommended and further doses of vaccine are given to those who are not sufficiently immunized .
In assisted reproductive technology , sperm washing is not necessary for males with hepatitis B to prevent transmission , unless the female partner has not been effectively vaccinated . In females with hepatitis B , the risk of transmission from mother to child with IVF is no different from the risk in spontaneous conception .
Those at high risk of infection should be tested as there is effective treatment for those who have the disease . Groups that screening is recommended for include those who have not been vaccinated and one of the following : people from areas of the world where hepatitis B occurs in more than 2 % , those with HIV , intravenous drug users , men who have sex with men , and those who live with someone with hepatitis B.
= = = Duration of vaccination = = =
In 10- to 22 @-@ year follow @-@ up studies there were no cases of hepatitis B among those with a normal immune system who were vaccinated . Only rare chronic infections have been documented .
= = Treatment = =
Acute hepatitis B infection does not usually require treatment and most adults clear the infection spontaneously . Early antiviral treatment may be required in fewer than 1 % of people , whose infection takes a very aggressive course ( fulminant hepatitis ) or who are immunocompromised . On the other hand , treatment of chronic infection may be necessary to reduce the risk of cirrhosis and liver cancer . Chronically infected individuals with persistently elevated serum alanine aminotransferase , a marker of liver damage , and HBV DNA levels are candidates for therapy . Treatment lasts from six months to a year , depending on medication and genotype .
Although none of the available drugs can clear the infection , they can stop the virus from replicating , thus minimizing liver damage . As of 2008 , there are seven medications licensed for treatment of hepatitis B infection in the United States . These include antiviral drugs lamivudine ( Epivir ) , adefovir ( Hepsera ) , tenofovir ( Viread ) , telbivudine ( Tyzeka ) and entecavir ( Baraclude ) , and the two immune system modulators interferon alpha @-@ 2a and PEGylated interferon alpha @-@ 2a ( Pegasys ) . The World Health Organization recommended a combination of tenofovir and entecavir as first line agents . Those with current cirrhosis are in most need of treatment .
The use of interferon , which requires injections daily or thrice weekly , has been supplanted by long @-@ acting PEGylated interferon , which is injected only once weekly . However , some individuals are much more likely to respond than others , and this might be because of the genotype of the infecting virus or the person 's heredity . The treatment reduces viral replication in the liver , thereby reducing the viral load ( the amount of virus particles as measured in the blood ) . Response to treatment differs between the genotypes . Interferon treatment may produce an e antigen seroconversion rate of 37 % in genotype A but only a 6 % seroconversion in type D. Genotype B has similar seroconversion rates to type A while type C seroconverts only in 15 % of cases . Sustained e antigen loss after treatment is ~ 45 % in types A and B but only 25 – 30 % in types C and D.
= = Prognosis = =
Hepatitis B virus infection may be either acute ( self @-@ limiting ) or chronic ( long @-@ standing ) . Persons with self @-@ limiting infection clear the infection spontaneously within weeks to months .
Children are less likely than adults to clear the infection . More than 95 % of people who become infected as adults or older children will stage a full recovery and develop protective immunity to the virus . However , this drops to 30 % for younger children , and only 5 % of newborns that acquire the infection from their mother at birth will clear the infection . This population has a 40 % lifetime risk of death from cirrhosis or hepatocellular carcinoma . Of those infected between the age of one to six , 70 % will clear the infection .
Hepatitis D ( HDV ) can occur only with a concomitant hepatitis B infection , because HDV uses the HBV surface antigen to form a capsid . Co @-@ infection with hepatitis D increases the risk of liver cirrhosis and liver cancer . Polyarteritis nodosa is more common in people with hepatitis B infection .
= = = Cirrhosis = = =
A number of different tests are available to determine the degree of cirrhosis present . Transient elastography ( FibroScan ) is the test of choice , but it is expensive . Aspartate aminotransferase to platelet ratio index may be used when cost is an issue .
= = = Reactivation = = =
Hepatitis B virus DNA persists in the body after infection , and in some people the disease recurs . Although rare , reactivation is seen most often following alcohol or drug use , or in people with impaired immunity . HBV goes through cycles of replication and non @-@ replication . Approximately 50 % of overt carriers experience acute reactivation . Males with baseline ALT of 200 UL / L are three times more likely to develop a reactivation than people with lower levels . Although reactivation can occur spontaneously , people who undergo chemotherapy have a higher risk . Immunosuppressive drugs favor increased HBV replication while inhibiting cytotoxic T cell function in the liver . The risk of reactivation varies depending on the serological profile ; those with detectable HBsAg in their blood are at the greatest risk , but those with only antibodies to the core antigen are also at risk . The presence of antibodies to the surface antigen , which are considered to be a marker of immunity , does not preclude reactivation . Treatment with prophylactic antiviral drugs can prevent the serious morbidity associated with HBV disease reactivation .
= = Epidemiology = =
In 2004 , an estimated 350 million individuals were infected worldwide . National and regional prevalence ranges from over 10 % in Asia to under 0 @.@ 5 % in the United States and northern Europe .
Routes of infection include vertical transmission ( such as through childbirth ) , early life horizontal transmission ( bites , lesions , and sanitary habits ) , and adult horizontal transmission ( sexual contact , intravenous drug use ) .
The primary method of transmission reflects the prevalence of chronic HBV infection in a given area . In low prevalence areas such as the continental United States and Western Europe , injection drug abuse and unprotected sex are the primary methods , although other factors may also be important . In moderate prevalence areas , which include Eastern Europe , Russia , and Japan , where 2 – 7 % of the population is chronically infected , the disease is predominantly spread among children . In high @-@ prevalence areas such as China and South East Asia , transmission during childbirth is most common , although in other areas of high endemicity such as Africa , transmission during childhood is a significant factor . The prevalence of chronic HBV infection in areas of high endemicity is at least 8 % with 10 – 15 % prevalence in Africa / Far East . As of 2010 , China has 120 million infected people , followed by India and Indonesia with 40 million and 12 million , respectively . According to World Health Organization ( WHO ) , an estimated 600 @,@ 000 people die every year related to the infection .
In the United States about 19 @,@ 000 new cases occurred in 2011 down nearly 90 % from 1990 .
= = History = =
The earliest record of an epidemic caused by hepatitis B virus was made by Lurman in 1885 . An outbreak of smallpox occurred in Bremen in 1883 and 1 @,@ 289 shipyard employees were vaccinated with lymph from other people . After several weeks , and up to eight months later , 191 of the vaccinated workers became ill with jaundice and were diagnosed as suffering from serum hepatitis . Other employees who had been inoculated with different batches of lymph remained healthy . Lurman 's paper , now regarded as a classical example of an epidemiological study , proved that contaminated lymph was the source of the outbreak . Later , numerous similar outbreaks were reported following the introduction , in 1909 , of hypodermic needles that were used , and , more importantly , reused , for administering Salvarsan for the treatment of syphilis . The virus was not discovered until 1966 when Baruch Blumberg , then working at the National Institutes of Health ( NIH ) , discovered the Australia antigen ( later known to be hepatitis B surface antigen , or HBsAg ) in the blood of Australian aboriginal people . Although a virus had been suspected since the research published by MacCallum in 1947 , D.S. Dane and others discovered the virus particle in 1970 by electron microscopy . By the early 1980s the genome of the virus had been sequenced , and the first vaccines were being tested .
= = Society and culture = =
World Hepatitis Day , observed July 28 , aims to raise global awareness of hepatitis B and hepatitis C and encourage prevention , diagnosis and treatment . It has been led by the World Hepatitis Alliance since 2007 and in May 2010 , it got global endorsement from the World Health Organization .
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= Battle of Chaeronea ( 338 BC ) =
The Battle of Chaeronea was fought in 338 BC , near the city of Chaeronea in Boeotia , between the Macedonians led by Philip II of Macedon and an alliance of some of the Greek city @-@ states including Athens and Thebes . The battle was the culmination of Philip 's campaign in Greece ( 339 – 338 BC ) and resulted in a decisive victory for the Macedonians .
Philip had brought peace to a war @-@ torn Greece in 346 BC , by ending the Third Sacred War , and concluding his ten @-@ year conflict with Athens for supremacy in the north Aegean , by making a separate peace . Philip 's much expanded kingdom , powerful army and plentiful resources now made him the de facto leader of Greece . To many of the fiercely independent Greek city @-@ states , Philip 's power after 346 BC was perceived as a threat to their liberty , especially in Athens , where the politician Demosthenes led efforts to break away from Philip 's influence . In 340 BC Demosthenes convinced the Athenian assembly to sanction action against Philip 's territories and to ally with Byzantium , which Philip was besieging . These actions were against the terms of their treaty oaths and amounted to a declaration of war . In summer 339 BC , Philip therefore led his army into Greece , prompting the formation of an alliance of Greek states opposed to him , led by Athens and Thebes .
After several months of stalemate , Philip finally advanced into Boeotia in an attempt to march on Thebes and Athens . Opposing him , and blocking the road near Chaeronea , was the allied Greek army , similar in size and occupying a strong position . Details of the ensuing battle are scarce , but after a long fight the Macedonians crushed both flanks of the allied line , which then dissolved into a rout .
The battle has been described as one of the most decisive of the ancient world . The forces of Athens and Thebes were destroyed , and continued resistance was impossible ; the war therefore came to an abrupt end . Philip was able to impose a settlement upon Greece , which all states accepted , with the exception of Sparta . The League of Corinth , formed as a result , made all participants allies of Macedon and each other , with Philip as the guarantor of the peace . In turn , Philip was voted as strategos ( general ) for a pan @-@ Hellenic war against the Persian Empire , which he had long planned . However , before he was able to take charge of the campaign , Philip was assassinated , and the kingdom of Macedon and responsibility for the war with Persia passed instead to his son Alexander .
= = Background = =
In the decade following his accession in 359 BC , the Macedonian king , Philip II , had rapidly strengthened and expanded his kingdom into Thrace and Chalkidiki on the northern coast of the Aegean Sea . He was aided in this process by the distraction of Athens and Thebes , the two most powerful city @-@ states in Greece at that point , by events elsewhere . In particular , these events included the Social War between Athens and her erstwhile allies ( 357 – 355 BC ) , and the Third Sacred War which erupted in central Greece in 356 BC between the Phocians and the other members of the Delphic Amphictyonic League . Much of Philip 's expansion during this period was at the nominal expense of the Athenians , who considered the north Aegean coast as their sphere of influence , and Philip was at war with Athens from 356 – 346 BC .
Philip was not originally a belligerent in the Sacred War , but became involved at the request of the Thessalians . Seeing an opportunity to expand his influence into Greece proper , Philip obliged , and in 353 or 352 BC won a decisive victory over the Phocians at the Battle of Crocus Field in Thessaly . In the aftermath , Philip was made archon of Thessaly , which gave him control of the levies and revenues of the Thessalian Confederation , thereby greatly increasing his power . However , Philip did not intervene further in the Sacred War until 346 BC . Early in that year , the Thebans , who had borne the brunt of the Sacred War , together with the Thessalians , asked Philip to assume the " leadership of Greece " and join them in fighting the Phocians . Philip 's power was by now so great that ultimately the Phocians did not even attempt to resist , and instead surrendered to him ; Philip was thus able to end a particularly bloody war without any further fighting . Philip allowed the Amphictyonic council the formal responsibility of punishing the Phocians , but ensured that the terms were not overly harsh ; nevertheless , the Phocians were expelled from the Amphictyonic League , all their cities were destroyed , and they were resettled in villages of no more than fifty houses .
By 346 BC , the Athenians were war @-@ weary , unable to match Philip 's strength , and had begun to contemplate the necessity of making peace . Nevertheless , when it became apparent that Philip would march south that year , the Athenians originally planned to help the Phocians ( whom they were allied to ) keep Philip out of central Greece , by occupying the pass of Thermopylae , where Philip 's superior numbers would be of little benefit . The Athenians had successfully used this tactic to prevent Philip attacking Phocis itself after his victory at Crocus Field . The occupation of Thermopylae was not only for the benefit of Phocis ; excluding Philip from central Greece also prevented him from marching on Athens itself . However , by the end of February , the general Phalaikos was restored to power in Phocis , and he refused to allow the Athenians access to Thermopylae . Suddenly unable to guarantee their own security , the Athenians were forced instead into making peace with Philip ; the treaty that was agreed ( the Peace of Philocrates ) also made Athens reluctant allies of Macedon .
For the Athenians , the treaty had been expedient , but it was never popular . Philip 's actions in 346 BC had expanded his influence over all Greece , and although he had brought peace , he had come to be seen as the enemy of the traditional liberty of the city @-@ states . The orator and politician Demosthenes had been a principal architect of the Peace of Philocrates , but almost as soon as it was agreed , he wished to be rid of it . Over the next few years , Demosthenes became leader of the " war @-@ party " in Athens , and at every opportunity he sought to undermine the peace . From 343 BC onwards , in order to try to disrupt the peace , Demosthenes and his followers used every expedition and action of Philip to argue that he was breaking the peace . Conversely , there was at first a substantial body of feeling in Athens , led by Aeschines , that the peace , unpopular though it was , should be maintained and developed . Towards the end of the decade however , the " war party " gained the ascendancy , and began to openly goad Philip ; in 341 BC for instance , the Athenian general Diopithes ravaged the territory of Philip 's ally Cardia , even though Philip demanded that they desist . Philip 's patience finally ran out when the Athenians formed an alliance with Byzantium , which Philip was at that time besieging , and he wrote the Athenians declaring war . Shortly afterward Philip broke off the siege of Byzantium ; Cawkwell suggests that Philip had decided to deal with Athens once and for all . Philip went on campaign against the Scythians , and then began to prepare for war in Greece .
= = Prelude = =
Philip 's forthcoming campaign in Greece became linked with a new , fourth , Sacred War . The citizens of Amphissa in Ozolian Locris had begun cultivating land sacred to Apollo on the Crisaean Plain south of Delphi ; after some internal bickering the Amphictyonic council decided to declare a sacred war against Amphissa . A Thessalian delegate proposed that Philip should be made leader of the Amphictyonic effort , which therefore gave Philip a pretext to campaign in Greece ; it is , however , probable that Philip would have gone ahead with his campaign anyway .
At the start of 339 BC , the Thebans had seized the town of Nicaea near Thermopylae , which Philip had garrisoned in 346 BC . Philip does not appear to have treated this as a declaration of war , but it nevertheless presented him with a significant problem , blocking the main route into Greece . However , a second route into central Greece was available , leading over the shoulder of Mount Callidromos and descending into Phocis . However , the Athenians and Thebans had either forgotten the existence of this road , or believed that Philip would not use it ; the subsequent failure to guard this road allowed Philip to slip into central Greece unhindered . Philip 's relatively lenient treatment of the Phocians at the end of the Third Sacred War in 346 BC now bore fruit . Reaching Elatea , he ordered the city to be re @-@ populated , and during the next few months the whole Phocian Confederation was restored to its former state . This provided Philip with a base in Greece , and new , grateful allies in the Phocians . Philip probably arrived in Phocis in November 339 BC , but the Battle of Chaeronea did not occur until August 338 BC . During this period Philip discharged his responsibility to the Amphicytonic council by settling the situation in Amphissa . He tricked a force of 10 @,@ 000 mercenaries who were guarding the road from Phocis to Amphissa into abandoning their posts , then took Amphissa and expelled its citizens , turning it over to Delphi . He probably also engaged in diplomatic attempts to avoid further conflict in Greece , although if so , he was unsuccessful .
When news first arrived that Philip was in Elatea , just three days march away , there was panic in Athens . In what Cawkwell describes as his proudest moment , Demosthenes alone counseled against despair , and proposed that the Athenians should seek an alliance with the Thebans ; his decree was passed , and he was sent as ambassador . Philip had also sent an embassy to Thebes , requesting that the Thebans join him , or at least allow him to pass through Boeotia unhindered . Since the Thebans were still not formally at war with Philip , they could have avoided the conflict altogether . However , in spite of Philip 's proximity , and their traditional enmity with Athens , they chose to ally with the Athenians , in the cause of liberty for Greece . The Athenian army had already pre @-@ emptively been sent in the direction of Boeotia , and was therefore able to join the Thebans within days of the alliance being agreed .
The details of the campaign leading up to Chaeronea are almost completely unknown . Philip was presumably prevented from entering Boeotia by way of Mount Helicon , as the Spartans had done in the run @-@ up to the Battle of Leuctra ; or by any of the other mountain passes that led into Boeotia from Phocis . There were certainly some preliminary skirmishes ; Demosthenes alludes to a " winter battle " and " battle on the river " in his speeches , but no other details are preserved . Finally , in August 338 BC , Philip 's army marched straight down the main road from Phocis to Boeotia , to assault the main allied army defending the road at Chaeronea .
= = Opposing forces = =
According to Diodorus , the Macedonian army numbered roughly 30 @,@ 000 infantry and 2 @,@ 000 cavalry , a figure generally accepted by modern historians . Philip took command of the right wing of the Macedonian army and placed his 18 @-@ year @-@ old son Alexander ( the future conqueror of the Persian Empire ) in command of the left wing , accompanied by a group of Philip 's experienced generals .
The allied Greek army included contingents from Achaea , Corinth , Chalcis , Epidaurus , Megara and Troezen , with the majority of troops being supplied by Athens and Thebes . The Athenian contingent was led by the generals Chares and Lysicles , and the Thebans by Theagenes . No source provides exact numbers for the Greek army , although Justin suggests that the Greeks were " far superior in number of soldiers " ; the modern view is that the numbers of the city states that fought were approximately equal to those of the Macedonians . The Athenians took up positions on the left wing , the Thebans on the right , and the other allies in the centre .
= = Strategic and tactical considerations = =
The Greek army had taken up a position near Chaeronea , astride the main road . On the left flank , the Greek line lay across the foothills of Mount Thurion , blocking the side @-@ road that led to Lebedea , while on the right , the line rested against the Kephisos River , near a projecting spur of Mount Aktion . The Greek line , which was about 2 @.@ 5 miles in length , was thus secure on both flanks . Moreover , the Greek line seems to have slanted north @-@ eastwards across the plain in between , so that it did not face the direction of Macedonian advance full @-@ square . This prevented Philip from attempting to concentrate his force on the Greek right wing , since the advanced position of the Greek left wing would then threaten Philip 's right . Although Philip could attempt to concentrate his force against the Greek left , the troops there occupied high ground , and any attack would be difficult . Since the Greeks could remain on the defensive , having only to prevent Philip 's advance , their position was therefore strategically and tactically very strong .
= = Battle = =
Details of the battle itself are scarce , with Diodorus providing the only formal account . He says that " once joined , the battle was hotly contested for a long time and many fell on both sides , so that for a while the struggle permitted hopes of victory to both . " He then recounts that the young Alexander , " his heart set on showing his father his prowess " succeeded in rupturing the Greek line aided by his companions , and eventually put the Greek right wing to flight ; meanwhile , Philip advanced in person against the Greek left and also put it to flight .
This brief account can be filled out , if Polyaenus 's account of the battle is to be believed . Polyaenus collected many snippets of information on warfare in his Strategems ; some are known from other sources to be reliable , while others are demonstrably false . In the absence of other evidence , it is unclear whether his passage regarding Chaeronea is to be accepted or rejected . Polyaenus suggests that Philip engaged the Greek left , but then withdrew his troops ; the Athenians on the Greek left followed and , when Philip held the high ground , he stopped retreating and attacked the Athenians , eventually routing them . In another ' stratagem ' , Polyaenus suggests that Philip deliberately prolonged the battle , to take advantage of the rawness of the Athenian troops ( his own veterans being more used to fatigue ) and delayed his main attack until the Athenians were exhausted . This latter anecdote also appears in the earlier Stratagems of Frontinus .
Polyaenus 's accounts have led some modern historians to tentatively propose the following synthesis of the battle . After the general engagement had been in progress for some time , Philip had his army perform a wheeling manoeuver , with the right wing withdrawing , and the whole line pivoting around its centre . At the same time , wheeling forward , the Macedonian left wing attacked the Thebans on the Greek right and punched a hole in the Greek line . On the Greek left , the Athenians followed Philip , their line becoming stretched and disordered ; the Macedonians then turned , attacked and routed the tired and inexperienced Athenians . The Greek right wing , under the assault of the Macedonian troops under Alexander 's command , then also routed , ending the battle .
Many historians , including Hammond and Cawkwell , place Alexander in charge of the Companion Cavalry during the battle , perhaps because of Diodorus 's use of the word " companions " . However , there is no mention of cavalry in any ancient account of the battle , nor does there seem to have been space for it to operate against the flank of the Greek army . Plutarch says that Alexander was the " first to break the ranks of the Sacred Band of the Thebans " , the elite of the Theban infantry , who were stationed on the extreme right of the Greek battle line . However , he also says that the Sacred Band had " met the spears of [ the Macedonian ] phalanx face to face " . This , together with the improbability that a head @-@ on cavalry charge against the spear @-@ armed Thebans could have succeeded ( because horses will generally shy from such a barrier ) , has led Gaebel and others to suggest that Alexander must have been commanding a portion of the Macedonian phalanx at Chaeronea .
Diodorus says that more than 1 @,@ 000 Athenians died in the battle , with another 2 @,@ 000 taken prisoner , and that the Thebans fared similarly . Plutarch suggests that all 300 of the Sacred Band were killed at the battle , having previously been seen as invincible . In the Roman period , the ' Lion of Chaeronea ' , an enigmatic monument on the site of the battle , was believed to mark the resting place of the Sacred Band . Modern excavations found the remains of 254 soldiers underneath the monument ; it is therefore generally accepted that this was indeed the grave of the Sacred Band , since it is unlikely that every member was killed .
= = Aftermath = =
Cawkwell suggests that this was one of the most decisive battles in ancient history . Since there was now no army which could prevent Philip 's advance , the war effectively ended . In Athens and Corinth , records show desperate attempts to re @-@ build the city walls , as they prepared for siege . However , Philip had no intention of besieging any city , nor indeed of conquering Greece . He wanted the Greeks as his allies for his planned campaign against the Persians , and he wanted to leave a stable Greece in his rear when he went on campaign ; further fighting was therefore contrary to his aims . Philip marched first to Thebes , which surrendered to him ; he expelled the Theban leaders who had opposed him , recalled those pro @-@ Macedonian Thebans who had previously been exiled , and installed a Macedonian garrison . He also ordered that the Boeotian cities of Plataea and Thespiae , which Thebes had destroyed in previous conflicts , be re @-@ founded . Generally , Philip treated the Thebans severely , making them pay for the return of their prisoners , and even to bury their dead ; he did not , however , dissolve the Boeotian Confederacy .
By contrast , Philip treated Athens very leniently ; although the Second Athenian Confederacy was dissolved , the Athenians were allowed to keep their colony on Samos , and their prisoners were freed without ransom . Philip 's motives are not entirely clear , but one likely explanation is that he hoped to use the Athenian navy in his campaign against Persia , since Macedon did not possess a substantial fleet ; he therefore needed to remain on good terms with the Athenians . Philip also made peace with the other combatants ; Corinth and Chalcis , which controlled important strategic locations both received Macedonian garrisons . He then turned to deal with Sparta , which had not taken part in the conflict , but was likely to take advantage of the weakened state of the other Greek cities to try to attack its neighbours in the Peloponnese . The Spartans refused Philip 's invitation to engage in discussions , so Philip ravaged Lacedaemonia , but did not attack Sparta itself .
Philip seems to have moved around Greece in the months after the battle , making peace with the states that opposed him , dealing with the Spartans , and installing garrisons ; his movements also probably served as a demonstration of force to the other cities , that they should not try to oppose him . In mid 337 BC , he seems to have camped near Corinth , and began the work to establish a league of the Greek city @-@ states , which would guarantee peace in Greece , and provide Philip with military assistance against Persia . The result , the League of Corinth , was formed in the latter half of 337 BC at a congress organised by Philip . All states signed up to the league , with the exception of Sparta . The principal terms of the concord were that all members became allied to each other , and to Macedon , and that all members were guaranteed freedom from attack , freedom of navigation , and freedom from interference in internal affairs . Philip , and the Macedonian garrisons installed in Greece , would act as the ' keepers of the peace ' . At Philip 's behest , the synod of the league then declared war on Persia , and voted Philip as Strategos for the forthcoming campaign .
An advance Macedonian force was sent to Persia in early 336 BC , with Philip due to follow later in the year . However , before he could depart , Philip was assassinated by one of his bodyguards . Alexander therefore became King of Macedon , and in a series of campaigns lasting from 334 to 323 BC , he conquered the whole Persian Empire .
= = Thematic appraisal = =
Philip 's feint withdrawal was the main tactic which stemmed all the subsequent planned manoeuvres .
It lured on the Athenian left wing to the front and left , which thereby extended and weakened the whole line .
This meant that a gap created somewhere along the line , probably between the center and the Theban Sacred Band on the right .
It was through this gap Alexander and the cavalry charged . He thus made the first break in the line .
Alexander had surrounded the Sacred Band , who refused to move and were thus annihilated .
Philip on the other hand counter @-@ attacked the Athenian left wing and routed it .
The rest of the Athenian line was next rolled up from both ends .
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= Volubilis =
Volubilis ( Berber : Walili , Arabic : وليلي ) is a partly excavated Berber and Roman city in Morocco situated near Meknes , between Fes and Rabat , and commonly considered as the ancient capital of the kingdom of Mauretania . Built in a fertile agricultural area , it developed from the 3rd century BC onward as an Amazigh , then proto @-@ Carthaginian , settlement before being the capital of the kingdom of Mauretania . It grew rapidly under Roman rule from the 1st century AD onward and expanded to cover about 42 hectares ( 100 acres ) with a 2 @.@ 6 km ( 1 @.@ 6 mi ) circuit of walls . The city gained a number of major public buildings in the 2nd century , including a basilica , temple and triumphal arch . Its prosperity , which was derived principally from olive growing , prompted the construction of many fine town @-@ houses with large mosaic floors .
The city fell to local tribes around 285 and was never retaken by Rome because of its remoteness and indefensibility on the south @-@ western border of the Roman Empire . It continued to be inhabited for at least another 700 years , first as a Latinised Christian community , then as an early Islamic settlement . In the late 8th century it became the seat of Idris ibn Abdallah , the founder of the Idrisid dynasty and the state of Morocco . By the 11th century Volubilis had been abandoned after the seat of power was relocated to Fes . Much of the local population was transferred to the new town of Moulay Idriss Zerhoun , about 5 km ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) from Volubilis .
The ruins remained substantially intact until they were devastated by an earthquake in the mid @-@ 18th century and subsequently looted by Moroccan rulers seeking stone for building Meknes . It was not until the latter part of the 19th century that the site was definitively identified as that of the ancient city of Volubilis . During and after the period of French rule over Morocco , about half of the site was excavated , revealing many fine mosaics , and some of the more prominent public buildings and high @-@ status houses were restored or reconstructed . Today it is a UNESCO World Heritage Site , listed for being " an exceptionally well preserved example of a large Roman colonial town on the fringes of the Empire " .
= = Foundation and Roman occupation = =
Built on a shallow slope below the Zerhoun mountain , Volubilis stands on a ridge above the Wadi Khoumane . It overlooks a rolling fertile plain north of the modern city of Meknes . The area around Volubilis has been inhabited at least since the Late Atlantic Neolithic , some 5 @,@ 000 years ago ; archaeological excavations at the site have found Neolithic pottery of design comparable to pieces found in Iberia . By the third century BC , the Phoenicians had a presence there , as evidenced by the remains of a temple to the Punic god Baal and finds of pottery and stones inscribed in the Phoenician language . The origins of its name are unknown but may be a Latinisation of the Berber word oualilt , meaning oleander , which grows along the sides of the wadi .
The city lay within the kingdom of Mauretania , which became a Roman client state following the fall of Carthage in 146 BC . The Punic influence lasted for a considerable time afterwards , as the city 's magistrates retained the Carthaginian title of suffete long after the end of Punic rule . Juba II of Numidia was placed on the Mauretanian throne by Augustus in 25 BC and turned his attention to building a royal capital at Volubilis . Educated in Rome and married to Cleopatra Selene II , the daughter of Mark Antony and Cleopatra , Juba and his son Ptolemy were thoroughly Romanised kings , although of Berber ancestry ; their preference for Roman art and architecture was clearly reflected in the city 's design .
After Claudius annexed Mauretania in 44 AD , the city grew substantially due to its wealth and prosperity , derived from the fertile lands of the province which produced valuable export commodities such as grain , olive oil and wild animals for gladiatorial spectacles . At its peak in the late 2nd century , Volubilis had around 20 @,@ 000 inhabitants – a very substantial population for a Roman provincial town – and the surrounding region was also well inhabited , to judge from over 50 villas discovered in the area . It was mentioned by the 1st century AD geographer Pomponius Mela , who described it in his work De situ orbis libri III as one of " the wealthiest cities , albeit the wealthiest among small ones " in Mauretania . It is also mentioned by Pliny the Elder , and the 2nd century Antonine Itinerary refers to its location and names it as Volubilis Colonia . Its population was dominated by Romanised Berbers .
The city became the administrative centre of the Roman province of Mauretania Tingitana . It remained loyal to Rome despite a revolt in 40 – 44 AD led by one of Ptolemy 's freedmen , Aedemon , and its inhabitants were rewarded with grants of citizenship and a ten @-@ year exemption from taxes . The city was raised to the status of a municipium and its system of governance was overhauled , with the Punic @-@ style suffetes replaced by annually elected duumvirs , or pairs of magistrates . However , the city 's position was always tenuous ; it was located on the south @-@ eastern edge of the province , facing hostile and increasingly powerful Berber tribes . A ring of five forts located at the modern hamlets of Aïn Schkor , Bled el Gaada , Sidi Moussa , Sidi Said and Bled Takourart ( ancient Tocolosida ) were constructed to bolster the city 's defence . Sidi Said was the base for the Cohors IV Gallorum equitata , an auxiliary cavalry unit from Gaul , while Aïn Schkor housed Spanish and Belgic cohorts . Sidi Moussa was the location of a cohort of Parthians , and Gallic and Syrian cavalry were based at Toscolosida . Rising tensions in the region near the end of the 2nd century led the emperor Marcus Aurelius to order the construction of a 2 @.@ 5 km ( 1 @.@ 6 mi ) circuit of walls with eight gates and 40 towers . Volubilis was connected by road to Lixus and Tingis ( modern Tangier ) but had no eastwards connections with the neighbouring province of Mauretania Caesariensis , as the territory of the Berber Baquates tribe lay in between .
Rome 's control over the city ended following the chaos of the Crisis of the Third Century , when the empire nearly disintegrated as a series of generals seized and lost power through civil wars , palace coups and assassinations . Around 280 , Roman rule collapsed in much of Mauretania and was never re @-@ established.In 285 , the emperor Diocletian reorganised what was left of the province to retain only the coastal strip between Lixus , Tingis and Septa ( modern Ceuta ) . Although a Roman army was based in Tingis , it was decided that it would simply be too expensive to mount a reconquest of a vulnerable border region . Occupation of the city continued , however , as fine mosaics such as that of a chariot race conducted by animals in the House of Venus can not have been created earlier than the fourth century . The end of the Roman city probably came in the form of an earthquake towards the end of the century , which buried numerous bronze statues in the wreckage of the houses .
= = After the Romans = =
Volubilis continued to be inhabited for centuries after the end of Roman control . It was certainly reoccupied in the sixth and seventh century , when three Christian inscriptions are dated by the provincial year . By the time the Arabs had arrived in 708 , the city – its name was changed to Oualila or Walīlī – and it was inhabited by the Awraba , a Berber tribe that originated in Libya . Much of the city centre had been abandoned and was turned into a cemetery , while the centre of habitation had moved to the southwest of the city , where a new wall was built to contain the abridged Roman town .
Volubilis remained the capital of the region well into the Islamic period . Islamic coins dating to the 8th century have been found on the site , attesting to the arrival of Islam in this part of Morocco . . They are concentrated outside the city walls , which suggests that Arab settlement remained distinct from the Berber settlement inside them . It was here that Moulay Idriss established the Idrisid dynasty of Morocco in 787 @-@ 8 . A direct descendant of the Islamic prophet , Muhammad , he escaped to Morocco from Syria following the Battle of Fakhkh in 787 . He was proclaimed " imam " in Volubilis , occupied by the Awraba , under Ishaq ibn Mohammad . He married Kanza , from the Awraba , and fathered a son , Idris II , who was proclaimed imam in Volubilis . He , too , lived outside the walls of the city , along the banks of the Wadi Khoumane , where a complex has recently been excavated that may be identified with his headquarters . Idriss I conquered most of Northern Morocco during the three years of his reign , founding the city of Fes . He was assassinated in Volubilis in 791 on the orders of the caliph of Baghdad , Harun al @-@ Rashid . On his majority Idriss II removed to Fes which served as his new capital , depriving Volubilis of its last vestiges of political significance .
A Muslim group known as the Rabedis , who had revolted in Córdoba in Al @-@ Andalus ( Andalusia in modern Spain ) , resettled at Volubilis in 818 . Although people continued to live in Volubilis for several more centuries , it was probably almost deserted by the 14th century . Leo Africanus describes its walls and gates , as well as the tomb of Idris , guarded only by two or three castles . His body was subsequently removed to Moulay Idriss Zerhoun , 3 km ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) , where a great mausoleum was built for it . The name of the city was forgotten and it was termed Ksar Faraoun , or the " Pharaoh 's Castle " , by the local people , alluding to a legend that the ancient Egyptians had built it . Nonetheless some of its buildings remained standing , albeit ruined , until as late as the 17th century when Moulay Ismail ransacked the site to provide building material for his new imperial capital at Meknes . The 1755 Lisbon earthquake caused further severe destruction . However , fortunately for posterity , English antiquarian John Windus sketched the site in 1722 . In his 1725 book A Journey to Mequinez , Windus described the scene :
One building seems to be part of a triumphal arch , there being several broken stones that bear inscriptions , lying in the rubbish underneath , which were fixed higher than any part now standing . It is 56 feet long and 15 thick , both sides exactly alike , built with very hard stones , about a yard in length and half a yard thick . The arch is 20 feet wide and about 26 high . The inscriptions are upon large flat stones , which , when entire , were about five feet long , and three broad , and the letters on them above 6 inches long . A bust lay a little way off , very much defaced , and was the only thing to be found that represented life , except the shape of a foot seen under the lower part of a garment , in the niche on the other side of the arch . About 100 yards from the arch stands a good part of the front of a large square building , which is 140 feet long and about 60 high ; part of the four corners are yet standing , but very little remains , except these of the front . Round the hill may be seen the foundation of a wall about two miles in circumference , which inclosed these buildings ; on the inside of which lie scattered , all over , a great many stones of the same size the arch is built with , but hardly one stone left upon another . The arch , which stood about half a mile from the other buildings , seemed to have been a gateway , and was just high enough to admit a man to pass through on horseback .
Visiting 95 years later in 1820 , after the Lisbon earthquake had flattened the few buildings left standing , James Gray Jackson wrote :
Half an hour 's journey after leaving the sanctuary of Muley Dris Zerone , and at the foot of Atlas , I perceived to the left of the road , magnificent and massive ruins . The country , for miles round , is covered with broken columns of white marble . There were still standing two porticoes about 30 feet high and 12 wide , the top composed of one entire stone . I attempted to take a view of these immense ruins , which have furnished marble for the imperial palaces at Mequinas and Tafilelt ; but I was obliged to desist , seeing some persons of the sanctuary following the cavalcade . Pots and kettles of gold and silver coins are continually dug up from these ruins . The country , however , abounds with serpents , and we saw many scorpions under the stones that my conductor turned up . These ruins are said by the Africans to have been built by one of the Pharaohs : they are called Kasser Farawan .
Walter Burton Harris , a writer for The Times , visited Volubilis during his travels in Morocco between 1887 – 89 , after the site had been identified by French archaeologists but before any serious excavations or restorations had begun . He wrote :
There is not very much remains standing of the ruins ; two archways , each of great size , and in moderately good preservation , alone tell of the grandeur of the old city , while acres and acres of land are strewn with monuments and broken sculpture . A few isolated pillars also remain , and an immense drain or aqueduct , not unlike the Cloaca Maxima at Rome , opens on to the little river below .
= = Excavation , restoration and UNESCO listing = =
Much of Volubilis was excavated by the French during their rule over French Morocco between 1912 and 1956 , but the excavations at the site began decades earlier . From 1830 , when the French conquest of Algeria began the process of extending French rule over much of northern , western and central Africa , archaeology was closely associated with French colonialism . The French army undertook scientific explorations as early as the 1830s and by the 1850s it was fashionable for French army officers to investigate Roman remains during their leave and spare time . By the late 19th century French archaeologists were undertaking an intensive effort to uncover north @-@ west Africa 's pre @-@ Islamic past through excavations and restorations of archaeological sites . The French had a very different conception of historic preservation to that of the Moroccan Muslims . As the historian Gwendolyn Wright puts it , " the Islamic sense of history and architecture found the concept of setting off monuments entirely foreign " , which " gave the French proof of the conviction that only they could fully appreciate the Moroccan past and its beauty . " Emile Pauty of the Institut des Hautes Etudes Marocaines criticised the Muslims for taking the view that " the passage of time is nothing " and charged them with " let [ ting ] their monuments fall into ruin with as much indifference as they once showed ardour in building them . "
The French programme of excavation at Volubilis and other sites in French @-@ controlled North Africa ( in Algeria and Tunisia ) had a strong ideological component . Archaeology at Roman sites was used as an instrument of colonialist policy , to make a connection between the ancient Roman past and the new " Latin " societies that the French were building in North Africa . The programme involved clearing modern structures built on ancient sites , excavating Roman towns and villas and reconstructing major civic structures such as triumphal arches . Ruined cities , such as Timgad in Algeria , were excavated and cleared on a massive scale . The remains were intended to serve , as one writer has put it , as " the witness to an impulse towards Romanization " .
This theme resonated with other visitors to the site . The American writer Edith Wharton visited in 1920 and highlighted what she saw as the contrast between " two dominations look [ ing ] at each other across the valley " , the ruins of Volubilis and " the conical white town of Moulay Idriss , the Sacred City of Morocco " . She saw the dead city as representing " a system , an order , a social conception that still runs through all our modern ways . " In contrast , she saw the still very much alive town of Moulay Idriss as " more dead and sucked back into an unintelligible past than any broken architrave of Greece or Rome . " As Sarah Bird Wright of the University of Richmond puts it , Wharton saw Volubilis as a symbol of civilisation and Moulay Idriss as one of barbarism ; the subtext is that " in ransacking the Roman outpost , Islam destroyed its only chance to build a civilised society " . Fortunately for Morocco , " the political stability which France is helping them to acquire will at last give their higher qualities time for fruition " — very much the theme that the French colonial authorities wanted to get across . Hilaire Belloc , too , spoke of his impression being " rather one of history and of contrast . Here you see how completely the new religion of Islam flooded and drowned the classical and Christian tradition . "
The first excavations at Volubilis were carried out by the French archaeologist Henri de la Martinière between 1887 and 1892 . In 1915 Hubert Lyautey , the military governor of French Morocco , commissioned the French archaeologists Marcel and Jane Dieulafoy to carry out excavations in Volubilis . Although Jane 's ill @-@ health meant that they were unable to carry out the programme of work that they drew up for Lyautey , the work went ahead anyway under Louis Chatelain . The French archaeologists were assisted by thousands of German prisoners of war who had been captured during the First World War and loaned to the excavators by Lyautey . The excavations continued on and off until 1941 , when the Second World War forced a halt .
Following the war , excavations resumed under the French and Moroccan authorities ( following Morocco 's independence in 1956 ) and a programme of restoration and reconstruction began . The Arch of Caracalla had already been restored in 1930 – 34 . It was followed by the Capitoline Temple in 1962 , the basilica in 1965 – 67 and the Tingis Gate in 1967 . A number of mosaics and houses underwent conservation and restoration in 1952 – 55 . In recent years , one of the oil production workshops in the southern end of the city has been restored and furnished with a replica Roman oil press . These restorations have not been without controversy ; a review carried out for UNESCO in 1997 reported that " some of the reconstructions , such as those on the triumphal arch , the capitolium , and the oil @-@ pressing workshop , are radical and at the limit of currently accepted practice . "
From 2000 excavations carried out by University College London and the Moroccan Institut National des Sciences de l 'Archéologie et du Patrimoine under the direction of Elizabeth Fentress , Gaetano Palumbo and Hassan Limane revealed what should probably be interpreted as the headquarters of Idris I just below the walls of the Roman town to the west of the ancient city centre . Excavations within the walls also revealed a section of the early medieval town . Today , many artefacts found at Volubilis can be seen on display in the Rabat Archaeological Museum .
UNESCO listed Volubilis as a World Heritage Site in 1997 . In the 1980s , the International Council on Monuments and Sites ( ICOMOS ) organised three conferences to assess possible nominations to the World Heritage List for sites in North Africa . It was unanimously agreed that Volubilis was a good candidate for the list and in 1997 ICOMOS recommended that it be inscribed as " an exceptionally well preserved example of a large Roman colonial town on the fringes of the Empire " , which UNESCO accepted .
= = City layout and infrastructure = =
Prior to the Roman occupation , Volubilis covered an area of about 12 hectares ( 30 acres ) , built on a V @-@ shaped ridge between the Fertassa and Khoumane wadis on a roughly north @-@ south axis . It was developed on a fairly regular pattern typical of Phoenician / Carthaginian settlements and was enclosed by a set of walls . Under the Romans , the city was expanded considerably on a northeast @-@ southwest axis , increasing in size to about 42 hectares ( 100 acres ) . Most of the city 's public buildings were constructed in the older part of the city . The grand houses for which Volubilis is famous are in the newer part , behind the Decumanus Maximus ( main street ) , which bisected the Roman @-@ era part of the city . The decumanus was paved , with footways on either side , and was lined with arcaded porticoes on either sides , behind which were dozens of shops . The Arch of Caracalla marks the point at which the old and new cities merge . After the aqueduct fell into disrepair with the end of the Roman occupation , a new residential area was constructed to the west near the Wadi Khoumane .
The city was supplied with water by an aqueduct that ran from a spring in the hills behind the city . The aqueduct may have been constructed around 60 – 80 AD and was subsequently reconstructed on several occasions . An elaborate network of channels fed houses and the public baths from the municipal supply and a series of drains carried sewage and waste away to the river to be flushed . The aqueduct ran under the Decumanus Secundus , a street that ran parallel with the Decumanus Maximus , and terminated at a large fountain in the city centre near the Arch of Caracalla .
Most of the original pre @-@ Roman city wall was built over or destroyed , but a 77 @-@ metre ( 250 ft ) stretch of the original wall , which was made of mud bricks on a stone foundation , can still be seen near the tumulus . The Roman city walls stretch for 2 @.@ 6 km ( 1 @.@ 6 mi ) and average 1 @.@ 6 m ( 5 @.@ 2 ft ) thick . Built of rubble masonry and ashlar , they are mostly still extant . The full circuit of walls had 34 towers , spaced at intervals of about one every 50 metres ( 160 ft ) , and six main gates that were flanked by towers . A part of the eastern wall has been reconstructed to a height of 1 @.@ 5 metres ( 4 @.@ 9 ft ) . The Tingis Gate , also reconstructed , marks the northern @-@ eastern entrance to Volubilis . It was constructed in 168 / 169 AD – the date is known due to the discovery of a coin of that year that was deliberately embedded in the gate 's stonework by its builders .
An early medieval wall stands to the west of the Arch of Caracalla ; it was built after the end of the Roman occupation , apparently some time in the 5th or 6th centuries , to protect the eastern side of the city 's new residential area . It was oriented in a north @-@ south direction and was constructed using stone looted from ruined buildings elsewhere in the abandoned areas of the city .
= = = Commerce = = =
During Roman times , Volubilis was a major producer of olive oil . The remains of buildings dedicated to olive pressing are still readily visible , as are the remains of the original presses and olive mills . One such building has been reconstructed with a full @-@ size replica of a Roman olive press . Olive oil was central to the life of the city , as it was not just a foodstuff but was also used for lamps , bathing and medicines , while the pressed olives were fed to animals or dried out and used as fuel for the bathhouses . For this reason , even some of the grandest mansions had their own olive presses . Fifty @-@ eight oil @-@ pressing complexes have so far been discovered in Volubilis . They housed a standard set of elements : a mill , used to crush the olives , a decantation basin to catch the oil from pressed olives , and a press that comprised a counterweight , a prelum or cross @-@ bar and the wooden supports within which the prelum was fixed . The olives were first crushed into a paste , then put into woven baskets that were subjected to pressing . The olive oil ran out into the decantation basin , to which water was periodically added to make the lighter oil float to the surface . This was then scooped out of the basin and poured into amphorae . There is also substantial evidence of the city being a lively commercial centre . No fewer than 121 shops have been identified so far , many of them bakeries , and judging from the number of bronzes found at the site it may also have been a centre for the production or distribution of bronze artworks .
= = Notable buildings = =
Although only about half of Volubilis has been excavated , a number of prominent public buildings are still visible and some , notably a basilica and a triumphal arch , have been reconstructed . Many private buildings , including the mansions of the city 's elite , have also been uncovered . They are especially notable for the fine mosaics that have been discovered in a number of buildings and which are still in situ in the houses where they were laid . The buildings were mostly made from locally quarried grey @-@ blue limestone . Very little remains of the original Punic settlement , as it lies under the later Roman buildings .
A large tumulus of uncertain origin and purpose stands approximately in the middle of the excavated area , between the old and new parts of the city . Various theories have been advanced to explain it , such as that it was a burial site , a religious structure of some kind , a funerary monument or a monument to a Roman victory . However , these remain unproven hypotheses .
= = = Public buildings = = =
Two major public buildings are readily visible at the centre of the city – the basilica and the Capitoline Temple . The basilica was used for the administration of justice and the governance of the city . Completed during the reign of Macrinus in the early 3rd century , it is one of the finest Roman basilicas in Africa and is probably modelled on the one at Leptis Magna in Libya . The building is 42 @.@ 2 m ( 138 ft ) long by 22 @.@ 3 m ( 73 ft ) wide and originally had two storeys . Its interior is dominated by two rows of columns framing the apses at each end of the building where the magistrates sat . The outer wall of the basilica , which is faced with columns , overlooks the forum where markets were held . Small temples and public offices also lined the 1 @,@ 300 m2 ( 14 @,@ 000 sq ft ) forum , which would have been full of statues of emperors and local dignitaries , of which only the pedestals now remain . Not much is known about the public buildings which existed in Volubilis prior to the start of the 3rd century , as the buildings currently visible were built on the foundations of earlier structures .
The Capitoline Temple stands behind the basilica within what would originally have been an arcaded courtyard . An altar stands in the courtyard in front of 13 steps leading up to the Corinthian @-@ columned temple , which had a single cella . The building was of great importance to civic life as it was dedicated to the three chief divinities of the Roman state , Jupiter , Juno and Minerva . Civic assemblies were held in front of the temple to beseech the aid of the gods or to thank them for successes in major civic undertakings such as fighting wars . The layout of the temple , facing the back wall of the basilica , is somewhat unusual and it has been suggested that it may have been built on top of an existing shrine . An inscription found in 1924 records that it was reconstructed in 218 . It was partly restored in 1955 and given a more substantial restoration in 1962 , reconstructing 10 of the 13 steps , the walls of the cella and the columns . There were four more small shrines within the temple precinct , one of which was dedicated to Venus .
There were five other temples in the city , of which the most notable is the so @-@ called " Temple of Saturn " that stood on the eastern side of Volubilis . It appears to have been built on top of , or converted from , an earlier Punic temple , which may have been dedicated to Baal . It is a sanctuary with a surrounding wall and a three @-@ sided portico . In its interior was a small temple with a cella built on a shallow podium . The temple 's traditional identification with Saturn is purely hypothetical and has not generally been accepted .
Volubilis also possessed at least three sets of public baths . Some mosaics can still be seen in the Baths of Gallienus , redecorated by that emperor in the 260s to become the city 's most lavish baths . The nearby north baths were the largest in the city , covering an area of about 1 @,@ 500 m2 ( 16 @,@ 000 sq ft ) . They were possibly built in the time of Hadrian .
= = = Triumphal arch = = =
The Arch of Caracalla is one of Volubilis ' most distinctive sights , situated at the end of the city 's main street , the Decumanus Maximus . Although it is not architecturally outstanding , the triumphal arch forms a striking visual contrast with the smaller Tingis Gate at the far end of the decumanus . It was built in 217 by the city 's governor , Marcus Aurelius Sebastenus , to honour the emperor Caracalla and his mother Julia Domna . Caracalla was himself a North African and had recently extended Roman citizenship to the inhabitants of Rome 's provinces . However , by the time the arch was finished both Caracalla and Julia had been murdered by a usurper .
The arch is constructed from local stone and was originally topped by a bronze chariot pulled by six horses . Statues of nymphs poured water into carved marble basins at the foot of the arch . Caracalla and Julia Domna were represented on medallion busts , though these have been defaced . The monument was reconstructed by the French between 1930 – 34 . However , the restoration is incomplete and of disputed accuracy . The inscription on the top of the arch was reconstructed from the fragments noticed by Windus in 1722 , which had been scattered on the ground in front of the arch .
The inscription reads ( after the abbreviations have been expanded ) :
IMPERATORI CAESARI MARCO AVRELLIO ANTONINO PIO FELICI AVGVSTO PARTHICO MAXIMO BRITTANICO MAXIMO GERMANICO MAXIMO
PONTIFICI MAXIMO TRIBVNITIA POTESTATE XX IMPERATORI IIII CONSVLI IIII PATRI PATRIAE PROCONSVLI ET IVLIAE AVGVSTAE PIAE FELICI MATRIAVGVSTI ET CASTRORVM ET SENATVS ET PATRIAE RESPVBLICA VOLVBILITANORVM OB SINGVLAREM EIVSERGA VNIVERSOS ET NOVAM SVPRA OMNES RETRO PRINCIPES INDVLGENTIAM ARCVMCVM SEIVGIBVS ET ORNAMENTIS OMNIBVS INCOHANTE ET DEDICANTE MARCO AVRELLIO
SEBASTENO PROCVRATORE AVGVSTI DEVOTISSIMO NVMINI EIVS A SOLO FACIENDVM CVRAVIT
or , in translation :
For the emperor Caesar , Marcus Aurelius Antoninus [ Caracalla ] , the pious , fortunate Augustus , greatest victor in Parthia , greatest victor in Britain , greatest victor in Germany , Pontifex Maximus , holding tribunician power for the twentieth time , Emperor for the fourth time , Consul for the fourth time , Father of the Country , Proconsul , and for Julia Augusta [ Julia Domna ] , the pious , fortunate mother of the camp and the Senate and the country , because of his exceptional and new kindness towards all , which is greater than that of the principes that came before , the Republic of the Volubilitans took care to have this arch made from the ground up , including a chariot drawn by six horses and all the ornaments , with Marcus Aurelius Sebastenus , procurator , who is most deeply devoted to the divinity of Augustus , initiating and dedicating it .
= = = Houses and palaces = = =
The houses found at Volubilis range from richly decorated mansions to simple two @-@ room mud @-@ brick structures used by the city 's poorer inhabitants . The city 's considerable wealth is attested by the elaborate design of the houses of the wealthy , some of which have large mosaics still in situ . They have been named by archaeologists after their principal mosaics ( or other finds ) :
The House of Orpheus in the southern part of the city thus takes its name from the large mosaic depicting Orpheus playing his harp to an audience of trees , animals and birds . As Paul MacKendrick puts it , the mosaic is rather artlessly executed , as the animals are all of different sizes and face in different directions with no relationship to Orpheus . It appears that the mosaicist simply copied patterns from a book without attempting to integrate the different elements . The mosaic is situated in the triclinium , the dining room , where the diners would have reclined on couches set against the walls and admired the central mosaic . Other mosaics can be seen in the atrium , which has a depiction of Amphitrite in a chariot pulled by a seahorse and accompanied by other sea creatures , and in the bathing rooms . One room off the main courtyard has a mosaic of a dolphin , considered by the Romans to be a lucky animal .
The House of the Athlete or Desultor , located near the forum , contains a humorous mosaic of an athlete or acrobat riding a donkey back to front while holding a cup in his outstretched hand . It may possibly represent Silenus . The most prestigious houses in the city were situated adjoining the Decumanus Maximus , behind rows of shops that lined the street under an arcade . They were entered from side streets between the shops .
The House of the Ephebe was named after a bronze statue found there . It has a prominent interior courtyard leading to a number of public rooms decorated with mosaics , including a depiction of Bacchus in a chariot being drawn by leopards .
The House of the Knight next door also has a mosaic of Bacchus , this time showing coming across the sleeping Ariadne , who later bore him six children . The house takes its name from a bronze statue of a rider found here in 1918 that is now on display in the archaeological museum in Rabat . It was a large building , with an area of about 1 @,@ 700 m2 ( 18 @,@ 000 sq ft ) , and incorporated a substantial area dedicated to commercial activities including eight or nine shops opening onto the road and a large olive @-@ pressing complex .
The House of the Labours of Hercules is named for the mosaic depicting the twelve tasks that the demigod had to perform as penance for killing his wife and children . It is thought to have been created during the reign of the emperor Commodus , who identified himself with Hercules . Jupiter , his lover Ganymede and the four seasons are depicted in another mosaic in the house . The house was of palatial size , with 41 rooms covering an area of 2 @,@ 000 m2 ( 22 @,@ 000 sq ft ) .
A building dubbed the Gordian Palace is located further up the Decumanus Maximus . It was the largest building in the city and was probably the residence of the governor , rather than the emperor Gordian III ; it was rebuilt during Gordian 's reign in the mid @-@ 3rd century . It combined two separate houses to create a complex of 74 rooms with courtyards and private bathhouses serving both domestic and official functions . It also incorporated a colonnaded front with a dozen shops behind the colonnade , and an oil factory consisting of three oil presses and an oil store in the north @-@ east corner of the complex . The decoration of the Gordian Palace is today quite plain with only a few scanty mosaics remaining . Despite its presumed high status , the floors seem to have been mostly rendered with opus sectile rather than decorated with mosaics . Inscriptions found in the palace testify to the city 's decline and eventual fall . They record a series of treaties reached with the local Berber chieftains , increasing in number as the city became more vulnerable and the tribesmen pressed harder . By the time of the final treaty , just a few years before the fall of the city , the chieftains were being treated as virtual equals of Rome – an indication of how much Roman power in the area had declined . The last two inscribed altars , from 277 and 280 , refer to a foederata et diuturna pax ( a " federated and lasting peace " ) , though this proved to be a forlorn hope , as Volubilis fell soon afterwards .
The House of Venus , towards the eastern side of the city under a prominent cypress tree , was one of the most luxurious residences in the city . It had a set of private baths and a richly decorated interior , with fine mosaics dating from the 2nd century AD showing animal and mythological scenes . There were mosaics in seven corridors and eight rooms . The central courtyard has a fanciful mosaic depicting racing chariots in a hippodrome , drawn by teams of peacocks , geese and ducks . The mosaic of Venus for which the house is named has been removed to Tangier , but in the next @-@ door room is a still @-@ extant mosaic showing Diana and a companion nymph being surprised by Actaeon while bathing . Actaeon is depicted with horns beginning to sprout from his head as he is transformed by the angry goddess into a stag , before being chased down and killed by his own hunting dogs . The house appears to have been destroyed some time after the city 's fall around 280 ; a mosaic depicting Cupids feeding birds with grain has been charred by what appears to have been a fire burning directly on top of it , perhaps resulting from the building being taken over by squatters who used the mosaic as the site of a hearth .
The same building was also the site of the discovery in 1918 of a bronze bust of outstanding quality depicting Cato the Younger . One of the most notable artefacts discovered at Volubilis , it is now on display in the Archaeological Museum in Rabat . It was still on its original pedestal when it was found by archaeologists . The bust has been dated to the time of Nero or Vespasian and may be a copy of a bust created in Cato 's lifetime or shortly thereafter . Its inscription identifies its subject as the orator . Another outstanding bust , depicting a Hellenistic prince , was discovered in a bakery across the street . It seems to have been made at the same time as the Cato bust and may well have come from the House of Venus , where an empty pedestal in another room suggests that the Cato had a companion piece . The bust , which is also on display in Rabat , is usually identified as Juba II but other possibilities include Hiero II of Syracuse , Cleomenes III of Sparta , Juba I or Hannibal .
= = = Villa of Idris I = = =
Just outside the walls of the city , on the floodplain of the Oued Khoumane , was found a series of interlocking courtyard buildings , of which the largest contained a hammam , or bath . This is an L @-@ shaped structure , with a cold room paved with flagstones and benches running along the sides . At the end is found a plunge pool with three steps leading into it . From the cold room one moved to a vestibule at the corner of the building , decorated with a relief of a shield taken from the Arch of Caracalla . From there , one moved into the warm room , still covered by a vault , and finally into the hot room . The vault of this has now been restored , but it is possible to see the channels in the floor through which the hot air passed . Beyond this a furnace heated the room , as well as the hot water which would have flowed into basins in the corners . The courtyard of which this hammam formed the western limit was large , and contained numerous large silos for grain storage . To the south of this courtyard was one evidently designed for reception , with long narrow rooms to the east and west , one of which was painted red , with a low bench or divan at one end . Further south a third courtyard , only partially excavated , seems to have been devoted to domestic use . The plan , with its large courtyards and narrow rooms , is very different from the contemporary one or two @-@ roomed structures inside the walls , probably inhabited by the Berbers of the Awraba tribe . It is dated by coins and pottery to the reign of Idris I , and has been identified as his headquarters .
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= Lobatus gigas =
Lobatus gigas , commonly known as the queen conch , is a species of large edible sea snail , a marine gastropod mollusc in the family of true conches , the Strombidae . This species is one of the largest molluscs native to the tropical northwestern Atlantic , from Bermuda to Brazil , reaching up to 35 @.@ 2 centimetres ( 13 @.@ 9 in ) in shell length . L. gigas is closely related to the goliath conch , Lobatus goliath , a species endemic to Brazil , as well as the rooster conch , Lobatus gallus .
The queen conch is herbivorous and lives in seagrass beds , although its exact habitat varies by development stage . The adult animal has a very large , solid and heavy shell , with knob @-@ like spines on the shoulder , a flared thick , outer lip and a characteristic pink @-@ coloured aperture ( opening ) . The flared lip is absent in younger specimens . The external anatomy of the soft parts of L. gigas is similar to that of other snails in its family ; it has a long snout , two eyestalks with well @-@ developed eyes , additional sensory tentacles , a strong foot and a corneous , sickle @-@ shaped operculum .
The shell and soft parts of living L. gigas serve as a home to several different kinds of commensal animals , including slipper snails , porcelain crabs and cardinalfish . Its parasites include coccidians . The queen conch is hunted and eaten by several species of large predatory sea snails , and also by starfish , crustaceans and vertebrates ( fish , sea turtles and humans ) . Its shell is sold as a souvenir and used as a decorative object . Historically , Native Americans and indigenous Caribbean peoples used parts of the shell to create various tools .
International trade in queen conch is regulated under the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora ( CITES ) agreement , in which it is listed as Strombus gigas . This species is not endangered in the Caribbean as a whole , but is commercially threatened in numerous areas , largely due to extreme overfishing .
= = Taxonomy and etymology = =
= = = History = = =
The queen conch was originally described from a shell in 1758 by Swedish naturalist and taxonomist Carl Linnaeus , who originated the system of binomial nomenclature . Linnaeus named the species Strombus gigas , which remained the accepted name for over 200 years . Linnaeus did not mention a specific locality for this species , giving only " America " as the type locality . The specific name is the ancient Greek word gigas ( γίγας ) , which means " giant " , referring to the large size of this snail compared with almost all other gastropod molluscs . Strombus lucifer , which was considered to be a synonym much later , was also described by Linnaeus in Systema Naturae .
In the first half of the 20th century , the type material for the species was thought to have been lost ; in other words , the shell on which Linnaeus based his original description and which would very likely have been in his own collection , was apparently missing , which created a problem for taxonomists . To remedy this , in 1941 a neotype of this species was designated by the American malacologists William J. Clench and R. Tucker Abbott . In this case , the neotype was not an actual shell or whole specimen , but a figure from a 1684 book Recreatio mentis , et occuli , published 23 years before Linnaeus was born by the Italian scholar Filippo Buonanni . This was the first book that was solely about seashells . In 1953 the Swedish malacologist Nils Hjalmar Odhner searched the Linnaean Collection at Uppsala University and discovered the missing type shell , thereby invalidating Clench and Abbott 's neotype designation .
Strombidae 's taxonomy was extensively revised in the 2000s and a few subgenera , including Eustrombus , were elevated to genus level by some authors . Petuch and Petuch and Roberts recombined this species as Eustrombus gigas , and Landau and collaborators ( 2008 ) recombined it as Lobatus gigas .
= = = Phylogeny = = =
The phylogenetic relationships among the Strombidae were mainly formed by Simone ( 2005 ) and Latiolais ( 2006 ) , using two distinct methods . Simone proposed a cladogram ( a tree of descent ) based on an extensive morpho @-@ anatomical analysis of representatives of Aporrhaidae , Strombidae , Xenophoridae and Struthiolariidae , which included L. gigas ( there referred to as Eustrombus gigas ) .
With the exception of Lambis and Terebellum , the remaining taxa were previously allocated in the genus Strombus , including L. gigas . However , according to Simone , only Strombus gracilior , Strombus alatus and Strombus pugilis , the type species , remained within Strombus , as they constituted a distinct group based on at least five synapomorphies ( traits that are shared by two or more taxa and their most recent common ancestor ) . The remaining taxa were previously considered subgenera and were elevated to genus level by Simone . Genus Eustrombus ( now considered a synonym of Lobatus ) , in this case , included Eustrombus gigas ( now considered a synonym of Lobatus gigas ) and Eustrombus goliath ( = Lobatus goliath ) , which were thus considered closely related .
In a different approach , Latiolais and colleagues ( 2006 ) proposed another cladogram that attempts to show the phylogenetic relationships of 34 species within the family Strombidae . The authors analysed 31 Strombus species , including Lobatus gigas ( there referred to as Strombus gigas ) , and three species in the allied genus Lambis . The cladogram was based on DNA sequences of both nuclear histone H3 and mitochondrial cytochrome @-@ c oxidase I ( COI ) protein @-@ coding gene regions . In this proposed phylogeny , Strombus gigas and Strombus gallus ( = Lobatus gallus ) are closely related and appear to share a common ancestor .
= = = Common names = = =
Common names include " queen conch " and " pink conch " in English , caracol rosa and caracol rosado in Mexico , caracol de pala , cobo , botuto and guarura in Venezuela , caracol reina , lambí in the Dominican Republic , and carrucho in Puerto Rico .
= = Anatomy = =
= = = Shell = = =
The mature shell is typically 15 – 31 centimetres ( 5 @.@ 9 – 12 @.@ 2 in ) in length , while the maximum reported size is 35 @.@ 2 centimetres ( 13 @.@ 9 in ) . The shell is very solid and heavy , with 9 to 11 whorls and a widely flaring and thickened outer lip . Although this notch is not as well developed as elsewhere in the family , the shell feature is nonetheless visible in an adult dextral ( normal right @-@ handed ) specimen , as a secondary anterior indentation in the lip , to the right of the siphonal canal ( viewed ventrally ) . The animal 's left eyestalk protrudes through this notch .
The spire is a protruding part of the shell that includes all of the whorls except the largest and final whorl ( known as the body whorl ) . It is usually more elongated than in other strombid snails , such as the closely related and larger goliath conch , Lobatus goliath that is endemic to Brazil . In L. gigas , the glossy finish or glaze around the aperture of the adult shell is primarily in pale shades of pink . It may show a cream , peach or yellow colouration , but it can also sometimes be tinged with a deep magenta , shading almost to red . The periostracum , a layer of protein ( conchiolin ) that is the outermost part of the shell surface , is thin and a pale brown or tan colour .
The overall shell morphology of L. gigas is not solely determined by the animal 's genes ; environmental conditions such as location , diet , temperature and depth , and biological interactions such as predation , can greatly affect it . Juvenile conches develop heavier shells when exposed to predators . Conches also develop wider and thicker shells with fewer but longer spines in deeper water .
The shells of juvenile queen conches are strikingly different in appearance from those of the adults . Noticeable is the complete absence of a flared outer lip ; juvenile shells have a simple sharp lip , which gives the shell a conical or biconic outline . In Florida , juvenile queen conches are known as " rollers " , because wave action very easily rolls their shells , whereas it is nearly impossible to roll an adult specimen , due to its shell 's weight and asymmetric profile . Subadult shells have a thin flared lip that continues to increase in thickness until death .
= = = = Historic illustrations = = = =
Index Testarum Conchyliorum ( published in 1742 by the Italian physician and malacologist Niccolò Gualtieri ) contains three illustrations of adult shells from different perspectives . The knobbed spire and the flaring outer lip , with its somewhat wing @-@ like contour expanding out from the last whorl , is a striking feature of these images . The shells are shown as if balancing on the edge of the lip and / or the apex ; this was presumably done for artistic reasons as these shells cannot balance like this .
One of the most prized shell publications of the 19th century , a series of books titled Illustrations conchyliologiques ou description et figures de toutes les coquilles connues , vivantes et fossiles ( published by the French naturalist Jean @-@ Charles Chenu from 1842 to 1853 ) , contains illustrations of both adult and juvenile L. gigas shells and one uncoloured drawing depicting some of the animal 's soft parts . Almost forty years later , a colored illustration from the Manual of Conchology ( published in 1885 by the American malacologist George Washington Tryon ) shows a dorsal view of a small juvenile shell with its typical brown and white patterning .
= = = Soft parts = = =
Many details about the anatomy of Lobatus gigas were not well known until Colin Little 's 1965 general study . In 2005 , R. L. Simone gave a detailed anatomical description . L. gigas has a long extensible snout with two eyestalks ( also known as ommatophores ) that originate from its base . The tip of each eyestalk contains a large , well @-@ developed lensed eye , with a black pupil and a yellow iris and a small slightly posterior sensory tentacle . Amputated eyes completely regenerate . Inside the mouth of the animal is a radula ( a tough ribbon covered in rows of microscopic teeth ) of the taenioglossan type . Both the snout and the eyestalks show dark spotting in the exposed areas . The mantle is darkly coloured in the anterior region , fading to light gray at the posterior end , while the mantle collar is commonly orange . The siphon is also orange or yellow . When the soft parts of the animal are removed from the shell , several organs are distinguishable externally , including the kidney , the nephiridial gland , the pericardium , the genital glands , stomach , style sac and the digestive gland . In adult males , the penis is also visible .
= = = Foot / locomotion = = =
The species has a large and powerful foot with brown spots and markings towards the edge , but is white nearer to the visceral hump that stays inside the shell and accommodates internal organs . The base of the anterior end of the foot has a distinct groove , which contains the opening of the pedal gland . Attached to the posterior end of the foot for about one third of its length is the dark brown , corneous , sickle @-@ shaped operculum , which is reinforced by a distinct central rib . The base of the posterior two @-@ thirds of the animal 's foot is rounded ; only the anterior third touches the ground during locomotion . The columella , the central pillar within the shell , serves as the attachment point for the white columellar muscle . Contraction of this strong muscle allows the animal 's soft parts to shelter in the shell in response to undesirable stimuli .
Lobatus gigas has an unusual means of locomotion , first described in 1922 by George Howard Parker ( 1864 – 1955 ) . The animal first fixes the posterior end of the foot by thrusting the point of the sickle @-@ shaped operculum into the substrate , then it extends the foot in a forward direction , lifting and throwing the shell forward in a so @-@ called leaping motion . This way of moving is considered to resemble that of pole vaulting , making L. gigas a good climber even of vertical concrete surfaces . This leaping locomotion may help prevent predators from following the snail 's chemical traces , which would otherwise leave a continuous trail on the substrate .
= = Life cycle = =
Lobatus gigas is gonochoristic , which means each individual snail is either distinctly male or distinctly female . Females are usually larger than males in natural populations , with both sexes existing in similar proportion . After internal fertilization , the females lay eggs in gelatinous strings , which can be as long as 75 feet ( 23 m ) . These are layered on patches of bare sand or seagrass . The sticky surface of these long egg strings allows them to coil and agglutinate , mixing with the surrounding sand to form compact egg masses , the shape of which is defined by the anterior portion of the outer lip of the female 's shell while they are layered . Each one of the egg masses may have been fertilized by multiple males . The number of eggs per egg mass varies greatly depending on environmental conditions such as food availability and temperature . Commonly , females produce 8 – 9 egg masses per season , each containing 180 @,@ 000 – 460 @,@ 000 eggs , but numbers can be as high as 750 @,@ 000 eggs . L. gigas females may spawn multiple times during the reproductive season , which lasts from March to October , with activity peaks occurring from July to September .
Queen conch embryos hatch 3 – 5 days after spawning . At the moment of hatching , the protoconch ( embryonic shell ) is translucent and has a creamy , off @-@ white background color with small , pustulate markings . This coloration is different from other Caribbean Lobatus , such as Lobatus raninus and Lobatus costatus , which have unpigmented embryonic shells . Afterwards , the emerging two @-@ lobed veliger ( a larval form common to various marine and fresh @-@ water gastropod and bivalve mollusks ) spend several days developing in the plankton , feeding primarily on phytoplankton . Metamorphosis occurs some 16 – 40 days from the hatching , when the fully grown protoconch is about 1 @.@ 2 mm high . After the metamorphosis , L. gigas individuals spend the rest of their lives in the benthic zone ( on or in the sediment surface ) , usually remaining buried during their first year of life . The queen conch reaches sexual maturity at approximately 3 to 4 years of age , reaching a shell length of nearly 180 mm and weighing up to 5 pounds . Individuals may usually live up to 7 years , though in deeper waters their lifespan may reach 20 – 30 years and maximum lifetime estimates reach 40 years . It is believed that the mortality rate tends to be lower in matured conchs due to their thickened shell , but it could be substantially higher for juveniles . Estimates have demonstrated that its mortality rate decreases as its size increases and can also vary due to habitat , season and other factors .
= = Ecology = =
= = = Distribution = = =
Lobatus gigas is native to the tropical Western Atlantic coasts of North and Central America in the greater Caribbean tropical zone . Although the species undoubtedly occurs in other places , this species has been recorded within the scientific literature as occurring , in : Aruba , ( Netherlands Antilles ) ; Barbados ; the Bahamas ; Belize ; Bermuda ; North and northeastern regions of Brazil ( though this is contested ) ; Old Providence Island in Colombia ; Costa Rica ; the Dominican Republic ; Panama ; Swan Islands in Honduras ; Jamaica ; Martinique ; Alacran Reef , Campeche , Cayos Arcas and Quintana Roo , in Mexico ; Puerto Rico ; Saint Barthélemy ; Mustique and Grenada in the Grenadines ; Pinar del Río , North Havana Province , North Matanzas , Villa Clara , Cienfuegos , Holguín , Santiago de Cuba and Guantánamo , in the Turks and Caicos Islands and Cuba ; South Carolina , Florida , with the Florida Keys and Flower Garden Banks National Marine Sanctuary , in the United States ; Carabobo , Falcon , Gulf of Venezuela , Los Roques archipelago , Los Testigos Islands and Sucre in Venezuela ; St. Croix in the Virgin Islands .
= = = Habitat = = =
Lobatus gigas lives at depths from 0 @.@ 3 – 18 m to 25 – 35 m . Its depth range is limited by the distribution of seagrass and algae cover . In heavily exploited areas , the queen conch is more abundant in the deepest range . The queen conch lives in seagrass meadows and on sandy substrate , usually in association with turtle grass ( species of the genus Thalassia , specifically Thalassia testudinum and also Syringodium sp . ) and manatee grass ( Cymodocea sp . ) . Juveniles inhabit shallow , inshore seagrass meadows , while adults favor deeper algal plains and seagrass meadows . The critical nursery habitats for juvenile individuals are defined by a series of characteristics , including tidal circulation and macroalgal production , which together enable high rates of recruitment and survival . L. gigas is typically found in distinct aggregates that may contain several thousand individuals .
= = = Diet = = =
Strombid gastropods were widely accepted as carnivores by several authors in the 19th century , a concept that persisted until the first half of the 20th century . This erroneous idea originated in the writings of Jean @-@ Baptiste Lamarck , who classified strombids with other supposedly carnivorous snails . This idea was subsequently repeated by other authors , but were not supported by observation . Subsequent studies have refuted the concept , proving beyond doubt that strombid gastropods are herbivorous animals . In common with other Strombidae , Lobatus gigas is a specialized herbivore , that feeds on macroalgae ( including red algae , such as species of Gracilaria and Hypnea ) , seagrass and unicellular algae , intermittently also feeding on algal detritus . The green macroalgae Batophora oerstedii is one of its preferred foods .
= = = Interactions = = =
A few different animals establish commensal interactions with L. gigas , which means that both organisms maintain a relationship that benefits ( the commensal ) species but not the other ( in this case , the queen conch ) . Commensals of this species include certain mollusks , mainly slipper shells ( Crepidula spp . ) The porcelain crab Porcellana sayana is also known to be a commensal and a small cardinalfish , known as the conch fish ( Astrapogon stellatus ) , sometimes shelters in the conch 's mantle for protection . L. gigas is very often parasitized by protists of the phylum Apicomplexa , which are common mollusk parasites . Those coccidian parasites , which are spore @-@ forming , single @-@ celled microorganisms , initially establish themselves in large vacuolated cells of the host 's digestive gland , where they reproduce freely . The infestation may proceed to the secretory cells of the same organ . The entire life cycle of the parasite typically occurs within a single host and tissue .
L. gigas is a prey species for several carnivorous gastropod mollusks , including the apple murex Phyllonotus pomum , the horse conch Pleuroploca gigantea , the lamp shell Turbinella angulata , the moon snails Natica spp. and Polinices spp . , the muricid snail Murex margaritensis , the trumpet triton Charonia variegata and the tulip snail Fasciolaria tulipa . Crustaceans are also conch predators , such as the blue crab Callinectes sapidus , the box crab Calappa gallus , the giant hermit crab Petrochirus diogenes , the spiny lobster Panulirus argus and others . Sea stars , vertebrates , including fish ( such as the permit Trachinotus falcatus and the porcupine fish Diodon hystrix ) , loggerhead sea turtles ( Caretta caretta ) and humans also dine on the queen conch .
= = Human uses = =
Conch meat has been consumed for centuries and has traditionally been an important part of the diet in many islands in the West Indies and Southern Florida . It is consumed raw , marinated , minced or chopped in a wide variety of dishes , such as salads , chowder , fritters , soups , stew , pâtés and other local recipes . In Spanish @-@ speaking regions , for example in the Dominican Republic , Lobatus gigas meat is known as lambí . Although conch meat is used mainly for human consumption , it is also sometimes employed as fishing bait ( usually the foot ) . L. gigas is among the most important fishery resources in the Caribbean : its harvest value was US $ 30 million in 1992 , increasing to $ 60 million in 2003 . The total annual harvest of meat of L. gigas ranged from 6 @,@ 519 @,@ 711 kg to 7 @,@ 369 @,@ 314 kg between 1993 and 1998 , later production declined to 3 @,@ 131 @,@ 599 kg in 2001 . Data about US imports shows a total of 1 @,@ 832 @,@ 000 kg in 1998 , as compared to 387 @,@ 000 kg in 2009 , a nearly 80 % reduction twelve years later .
Queen conch shells were used by Native Americans and Caribbean Indians in a wide variety of ways . South Florida bands ( such as the Tequesta ) , the Carib , the Arawak and Taíno used conch shells to fabricate tools ( such as knives , axe heads and chisels ) , jewelry , cookware and used them as blowing horns . In Mesoamerican history , Aztecs used the shell as part of jewelry mosaics such as the double @-@ headed serpent . The Aztecs also believed that the sound of trumpets made from queen conch shells represented divine manifestations , and used them in religious ceremonies . In central Mexico , during rain ceremonies dedicated to Tlaloc , the Maya used conch shells as hand protectors ( in a manner similar to boxing gloves ) during combat . Ancient middens of L. gigas shells bearing round holes are considered an evidence that pre @-@ Columbian Lucayan Indians in the Bahamas used the queen conch as a food source .
Brought by explorers , queen conch shells quickly became a popular asset in early modern Europe . In the late 17th century they were widely used as decoration over fireplace mantels and English gardens , among other places . In contemporary times , queen conch shells are mainly utilized in handicraft . Shells are made into cameos , bracelets and lamps , and traditionally as doorstops or decorations by families of seafaring men . The shell continues to be popular as a decorative object , though its export is now regulated and restricted by the CITES agreement . In modern culture , queen conch shells are often represented in everyday objects such as coins and stamps .
Very rarely ( about 1 in 10 @,@ 000 conchs ) , a conch pearl may be found within the mantle . Though they occur in a range of colors corresponding to the colors of the interior of the shell , pink specimens are the most valuable . These pearls are considered semi @-@ precious , and a popular tourist curio . The best specimens have been used to create necklaces and earrings . A conch pearl is a non @-@ nacreous pearl ( formerly referred to by some sources as a ' calcareous concretion ' ) which differs from most pearls that are sold as gemstones .
= = Status = =
= = = Threats = = =
Within the conch fisheries , one of the threats to sustainability stems from the fact that there is almost as much meat in large juveniles as there is in adults , but only adult conchs can reproduce , and thus sustain a population . In many places where adult conchs have become rare due to overfishing , larger juveniles and subadults are taken before they ever mate . On a number of islands , subadults provide the majority of the harvest . Lobatus gigas abundance is declining throughout its range as a result of overfishing and poaching . Trade from many Caribbean countries such as Antigua and Barbuda , Honduras , Haiti and the Dominican Republic is known or thought to be unsustainable . As of 2001 , queen conch populations in at least 15 Caribbean countries and states were overfished and / or overexploited . Illegal harvest , including fishing in foreign waters and subsequent illegal international trade , is a common problem in the region . The Caribbean " International Queen Conch Initiative " is an international attempt at managing this species .
= = = Conservation = = =
The queen conch fishery is usually managed under the regulations of individual nations . In the United States all taking of queen conch is prohibited in Florida and in adjacent Federal waters . No international regional fishery management organization exists for the whole Caribbean area , but in places such as Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands , queen conch is regulated under the auspices of the Caribbean Fishery Management Council ( CFMC ) . In 2014 , the Parties to the Convention for the Protection and Development of the Marine Environment of the Wider Caribbean Region ( Cartagena Convention ) included queen conch in Annex III of its Protocol Concerning Specially Protected Areas and Wildlife ( SPAW Protocol ) . Species included in the Annex III require special measures to be taken to ensure their protection and recovery , and their use is authorised and regulated accordingly .
This species has been mentioned in the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora ( CITES ) since 1985 . In 1992 the United States proposed queen conch for listing in CITES Appendix II , making queen conch the first large @-@ scale fisheries product to be regulated by CITES ( as Strombus gigas ) . In 1995 CITES began reviewing the biological and trade status of the queen conch under its " Significant Trade Review " process . These reviews are undertaken to address concerns about trade levels in an Appendix II species . Based on the 2003 review , CITES recommended that all countries prohibit importation from Honduras , Haiti and the Dominican Republic , according to Standing Committee Recommendations . Queen conch meat continues to be available from other Caribbean countries , including Jamaica and Turks and Caicos , which operate well @-@ managed queen conch fisheries . For conservation reasons , the Government of Colombia currently bans the commercialisation and consumption of the conch between the months of June and October .
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= Nastia Liukin =
Anastasia Valeryevna " Nastia " Liukin ( Russian : Анастасия " Настя " Валерьевна Люкина ; born October 30 , 1989 ) is a Russian American retired artistic gymnast . She is the 2008 Olympic individual all @-@ around champion , the 2005 and 2007 world champion on the balance beam , and the 2005 world champion on the uneven bars . She is also a four @-@ time all @-@ around U.S. national champion , winning twice as a junior and twice as a senior . With nine World Championships medals , seven of them individual , Liukin is tied with Shannon Miller for the third @-@ highest tally of World Championship medals ( among U.S. gymnasts ) . Liukin also tied Miller 's record as the American gymnast having won the most medals in a single non @-@ boycotted Olympic Games .
Liukin was a key member of the U.S. senior team . She represented the United States at three World Championships and one Olympic Games . In October 2011 , Liukin announced that she was returning to gymnastics with the hopes of making a second Olympic team . Liukin did not make the 2012 Olympic team , after several falls at the Olympic Trials and other pre @-@ Olympic events , and retired from the sport in 2012 .
= = Personal life = =
Liukin was born on October 30 , 1989 , in Moscow , Russia SFSR , Soviet Union . She is the only child of two former Soviet champion gymnasts : 1988 Summer Olympics gold medalist Valeri Liukin and 1987 world clubs champion in rhythmic gymnastics Anna Kotchneva . Liukin and her family are members of the Russian Orthodox church . Her nickname Nastia is a Russian diminutive for Anastasia . The family immigrated to the United States when Nastia was two and a half years old , following the breakup of the Soviet Union , and settled first in New Orleans before moving to Texas . In 1994 , Valeri Liukin teamed up with another former Soviet champion athlete , Yevgeny Marchenko , to open the World Olympic Gymnastics Academy ( WOGA ) in Plano , Texas .
Liukin is fluent in English and Russian . She graduated from Spring Creek Academy , located in Plano , Texas , in the spring of 2007 . She enrolled as a freshman international business major at Southern Methodist University in January 2008 , and took a leave from classes to concentrate on preparations for the 2008 Olympic Games . She returned to campus in spring 2009 , but her travel schedule and professional commitments caused her to withdraw before the end of the semester . She stated that she hoped to continue her studies at New York University in the future . Nastia 's signature color is pink , hence her pink leotard worn during the 2008 Beijing Olympics all @-@ around competition .
Liukin updates a blog on her official website and regularly posts on Twitter as @ NastiaLiukin . She has a line of GK Elite leotards and grips and a line of pink gymnastics equipment from AAI .
People Magazine claimed that Liukin was in a relationship with American figure skater Evan Lysacek in a February 2010 article , but Lysacek denied the rumors in an interview with Entertainment Tonight , stating that the two were just " very close friends . " In January 2013 , Liukin began college at New York University , where she is studying sports management and psychology . In May 2016 , she graduated from NYU .
On June 1 , 2015 , Nastia Liukin became engaged to her boyfriend , Matt Lombardi , a former Boston College hockey player . She announced the engagement on Instagram , with a photo of her ring and her fiance in the background , with the caption " So this just happened ... "
= = Junior career = =
Liukin began gymnastics at the age of three because she was " always hanging around in the gym " with her parents , who could not afford a babysitter to look after her while they were working as coaches .. Liukin 's parents initially did not aspire for their daughter to become a gymnast , knowing the pressure of high @-@ level competition firsthand , but relented when they noticed her aptitude for the sport .
Liukin competed in her first National Championships as a junior in 2002 , at the age of 12 and a half . In contrast to her WOGA teammates Carly Patterson and Hollie Vise , who finished first and second , respectively , Liukin suffered a fall on the uneven bars that rendered her unable to finish the routine . She continued through the rest of the competition and , despite the incomplete bars set , finished 15th , which landed her one of the final spots on the U.S. National Team . She was chosen to compete with the U.S. team at the 2002 Junior Pan American Championships , where she contributed to the team gold medal and placed second on the uneven bars and balance beam and in the all @-@ around .
By 2003 , Liukin was one of the strongest junior gymnasts in the United States . She won the junior division of the U.S. National Championships , as well as gold medals on three of the four events : uneven bars , balance beam and floor exercise . She repeated these accomplishments in 2004 . Liukin was a member of the gold @-@ medal winning U.S. team at the 2003 Pan Am Games ; she took second place in the all @-@ around behind fellow American Chellsie Memmel . She also won the all @-@ around in the junior division of the 2004 Pacific Alliance Championships .
Born in 1989 , Liukin was ten months too young to compete as a senior in 2004 , and thus was not eligible for a place on the U.S. team for the 2004 Olympics in Athens . Her scores in the junior division at the 2004 U.S. National Championships were competitive with those being posted by the seniors , and Marta Karolyi , the U.S. national team coordinator , has said that if Liukin had been eligible , she would have been named to the Olympic team .
= = Senior career = =
= = = 2005 – 2006 = = =
In 2005 , Liukin won her first senior National Championships and , once again , earned gold medals on the bars and beam . At the 2005 World Championships in Melbourne , she finished second in the all @-@ around behind teammate Chellsie Memmel with a score of 37 @.@ 822 .
In event finals , she won the gold on the uneven bars and balance beam and the silver on the floor exercise .
In March 2006 , Liukin placed first in the all @-@ around at the American Cup . At the 2006 Pacific Alliance Championships , Liukin tied with teammate Memmel for first in the all @-@ around , won the uneven bars title and a silver medal on beam , and contributed to the U.S. team 's gold @-@ medal performance . She competed at the 2006 U.S. Classic as the defending all @-@ around champion , but falls on the uneven bars and floor resulted in a fourth @-@ place finish . However , she scored extremely well on the balance beam and was the only competitor in the meet , junior or senior , to earn a score over 16 @.@ 00 on this event . After that when she was interviewed on ABC television show Dancing with the stars , she said , " After that , I realized that it 's not all about winning . It 's about the journey . "
In late August , at the 2006 U.S. National Championships , Liukin successfully defended her all @-@ around , beam and bars titles , becoming a two @-@ time senior national champion . She was named to the U.S. team for the 2006 World Gymnastics Championships in Aarhus , Denmark , and was expected by many to be a strong contender for the all @-@ around title . However , because of an ankle injury sustained in training before the competition began , she was only able to compete on one event , the uneven bars . In spite of her injury , in the qualification round , Liukin 's bars set earned a 16 @.@ 2 , the highest score of any competitor on any apparatus in the meet . Her bars routine in team finals scored a 15 @.@ 7 and helped the U.S. team win the silver medal . Liukin also qualified for the event finals on bars , where she took a small step on her dismount and finished with a 16 @.@ 05 , earning a silver medal behind Britain 's Beth Tweddle .
= = = 2007 = = =
Liukin 's ankle injury required surgery , and the recovery period kept her out of both national and international competition for much of the year . In July 2007 , although she was still recovering from her injury , she returned to competition as a member of the American team for the Pan Am Games in Rio de Janeiro . She competed only on bars and beam , contributing to the team 's gold @-@ medal finish and winning individual silver medals in the uneven bars and balance beam finals .
Despite limited training time on floor and vault in the summer of 2007 , Liukin opted to compete all @-@ around at the 2007 U.S. National Championships . She posted the highest score of the entire meet on bars and the second highest score on beam on the second day of competition , winning the senior bars title for the third year in a row and placing second on beam . However , she also suffered several falls and errors on floor and vault , and finished in third place overall , more than five points behind Shawn Johnson , the all @-@ around gold medalist .
Following Nationals , Liukin was named to the American team for the World Championships in Stuttgart , Germany , where she competed all @-@ around in the team qualifying round and on bars and beam in the finals . Liukin 's score for her bars routine in team finals was a 16 @.@ 375 , the highest score of the day and , in the end , the entire World Championships . However , at the end of her beam routine , her foot slipped while she was setting up her dismount , prompting her to change her usual skill , a two and a half twisting salto , to a simple back tuck . While she lost credit for her dismount , she also avoided a deduction for a fall , and earned a 15 @.@ 175 . The team recovered from this and other mistakes to finish first overall with 184 @.@ 400 , nearly a point ahead of the silver @-@ medal Chinese .
Liukin 's struggles with the balance beam continued in the all @-@ around final , where she fell from the apparatus during her flight series . In spite of a 16 @.@ 100 on bars , the highest score of the day from any competitor on any event , she finished the competition in fifth place . In the event finals , however , Liukin rallied and regained her world champion title on the balance beam with a score of 16 @.@ 025 . She also earned a silver on the uneven bars behind Russia 's Ksenia Semenova , scoring a 16 @.@ 300 after taking a step on her dismount .
= = = 2008 = = =
Liukin 's first meet of the 2008 season was the American Cup in New York City , where she defeated 2007 winner Shawn Johnson to regain her title . She posted the highest score of the meet , a 16 @.@ 600 on the uneven bars . In March , Nastia competed at the Pacific Rim ( formerly Pacific Alliance ) Championships in San Jose , where she led the American team to a gold medal and won the all @-@ around and balance beam titles . In the team competition , Liukin posted an all @-@ time high score of 16 @.@ 650 on the uneven bars , but in event finals , she fell on her Gienger release move and took a step on her dismount , earning a 15 @.@ 225 and taking second place .
At the 2008 U.S. National Championships in Boston , Liukin fell on the floor on her double front tuck the first day of competition , but had a strong meet on her other events and placed second in the all @-@ around behind Shawn Johnson . She regained her national champion title on the beam and defended her national title on the uneven bars for the fourth consecutive year , scoring a 17 @.@ 050 in preliminaries and a 17 @.@ 100 in finals , the highest recorded score for any American gymnast at any event since the advent of the new Code of Points . In June , Liukin competed in the U.S. Olympic Trials in Philadelphia , finishing second behind Johnson and earning a berth on the American team for Beijing .
= = = = 2008 Olympics = = = =
Liukin performed all @-@ around in the qualifying round of competition . She fell on her dismount from the uneven bars , but nevertheless qualified to the all @-@ around final with a score of 62 @.@ 375 , which ranked her second among all competitors and 0 @.@ 35 points behind Shawn Johnson , her friend and Olympic roommate . Liukin also qualified to three event finals : beam , uneven bars ( in spite of the fall ) and floor exercise .
In the team finals , Liukin performed on three events : beam , bars and floor exercise . Her uneven bars score of 16 @.@ 900 was the highest mark awarded in the entire Olympic competition . Liukin performed second on balance beam , matching her qualifying score of 15 @.@ 975 . On floor exercise , she stepped out of bounds on her first tumbling pass , incurring a 0 @.@ 1 @-@ point penalty , with a final score of 15 @.@ 200 . The American team earned the silver medal , 2 @.@ 375 points behind China .
On August 15 , Liukin performed clean routines on all four events ( sticking her landings on three out of four events ) to win the all @-@ around gold medal with a final score of 63 @.@ 325 . Shawn Johnson took the silver medal with a score of 62 @.@ 725 . The win marked the third time that an American woman had won the Olympic all @-@ around title ; Mary Lou Retton and Carly Patterson were the two previous American gold medalists . It was also the fourth time in the history of the Games that two athletes from the same country had taken first and second place in the women 's all @-@ around . The last time this was accomplished was the 2000 Olympics , when Romanian gymnasts won gold and silver ; Soviet gymnasts also won gold and silver all @-@ around medals at the 1952 and 1960 Games .
In the event finals , Liukin displayed a beautiful routine to earn a surprising bronze medal on floor exercise with a score of 15 @.@ 425 , behind Shawn Johnson , with 15 @.@ 500 , and Romanian Sandra Izbasa , with 15 @.@ 650 . On uneven bars , Liukin and China 's He Kexin both posted final marks of 16 @.@ 725 and earned identical A- and B @-@ panel scores of 7 @.@ 70 and 9 @.@ 025 , respectively . However , He Kexin won the gold medal , and Liukin was awarded the silver , after a tie @-@ breaking calculation that took into account individual marks given by judges on the B @-@ panel . In the balance beam final , Liukin scored 16 @.@ 025 to claim silver behind Shawn Johnson 's 16 @.@ 225 . With her fifth Beijing medal , Liukin tied Mary Lou Retton and Shannon Miller for the most gymnastics medals won by an American in a single Olympic Games .
Following her success in Beijing , Liukin was named the USOC Female Athlete of the Month ( August ) and ultimately USOC Co @-@ Sportswoman of the Year alongside swimmer Natalie Coughlin ; the Women 's Sports Foundation Individual Sportswoman of the Year ; FIG Athlete of the Year and USAG Sportswoman of the Year . In addition , she was ranked third in the Associated Press ' 2008 Female Athlete of the Year voting .
In March 2009 , Liukin was announced as one of 12 semifinalists for the AAU Sullivan Award . The annual award honors the athlete who best represents " the qualities of leadership , character , sportsmanship , and the ideals of amateurism . " On April 15 , 2009 , Liukin 's Olympic teammate Shawn Johnson won the AAU Sullivan Award .
= = = 2009 = = =
Liukin decided that she was not done with gymnastics and made her first post @-@ Olympics competitive appearance at the CoverGirl Classic , where she competed only on balance beam . She placed second behind teammate Ivana Hong . Liukin thought about competing uneven bars and beam at the U.S. Championships , but decided to once again just perform on beam . She placed fourth and looked on track to possibly make a fourth World Championships team . Liukin was added to the national team and included in the World Championships selection camp . However , she pulled out of Worlds selection consideration because she felt that she was not quite up to World Championships standards .
= = = 2012 = = =
After several months of conditioning , training , revamping routines and showing readiness at summer training camp , Liukin petitioned for a spot at the Visa National Championships . In order for the petition to be granted , she had to show readiness by scoring at least a 14 @.@ 0 on one apparatus at a qualifying event ( the U.S. Secret Classic ) on May 26 . She did so , scoring a 14 @.@ 9 on balance beam , and her petition was thereby accepted by USA Gymnastics and the selection committee .
On beam at the Visa Championships , Liukin scored a 15 @.@ 1 on night one , followed by a 14 @.@ 1 on night two to place sixth on the event . On bars , she placed a disappointing 20th after scoring a 13 @.@ 150 on night one and 13 @.@ 650 on night two . Despite this , Liukin was chosen to compete at the Olympic Trials .
Liukin 's gymnastics career came to an end after the 2012 Olympic Trials . On the final night of competition , she fell off the bars on her Gienger release , but got back up to finish her routine and landed her first competitive dismount since her comeback . After falling , she was helped up by her coach ( father ) to continue her routine . Her bars routine received a 13 @.@ 950 . After she finished her beam routine , which scored a 14 @.@ 950 , she received a standing ovation from the 18 @,@ 000 fans in the HP Pavilion in San Jose . Despite the end of her gymnastics career , Liukin went to London as the athlete representative for the International Gymnastics Federation ( FIG ) .
= = Routines = =
Liukin was known for her long , expressive lines and flexibility . While considered weak on vault and lacking in power , she excelled at bars and beam . As of 2008 , Liukin performed the following skills on these apparatus :
= = = 2008 = = =
= = = 2012 = = =
In her 2012 comeback , Liukin performed the following skills on these apparatus :
= = = Eponymous skills = = =
= = Floor music = =
2006 – 2008 : " Variations on Dark Eyes "
2004 – 2005 : " Second Kill " and " Building the Bullet " by Luis Bacalov
2001 – 2003 : " Rondo Capriccioso " by Camille Saint @-@ Saëns
= = Nastia Liukin Cup = =
The Nastia Liukin Cup is an annual gymnastics competition held in the United States that is hosted by Liukin . The inaugural edition was contested in 2010 . The competition is open to Level 10 gymnasts , who can only qualify to the event at designated invitationals across the country .
There are both junior and senior fields for the competition , and the competition takes place the Friday prior to the AT & T American Cup , which occurs on the next day , Saturday . The incentive of the competition is to give pre @-@ elite athletes the experience and opportunity to compete on a raised podium surface as well as in a large arena , which is not the norm for average USAG Optional competitions .
Many former competitors at the Cup have gone on to elite competition and even international competition , with 2012 Olympic Champion Gabby Douglas having competed in the 2010 edition . Ashton Locklear , Mykayla Skinner and Kayla Williams have also participated in the event .
= = Media appearances = =
= = = Film and television = = =
Outside of competitive gymnastics , Liukin had cameo roles in the April 2006 Touchstone Pictures film Stick It , a 2008 episode of Gossip Girl and a quick cameo appearance on the Bravo TV show NYC Prep . She has expressed a desire to become an actress in the future . Following the Beijing Olympics , Liukin appeared on many talk shows in the United States , including The Tonight Show with Jay Leno , Late Night with Conan O 'Brien and The Oprah Winfrey Show .
She also appeared in the second season of Make It or Break It .
Liukin was on The Tour of Gymnastics Superstars , which was broadcast nationwide on MyNetworkTV . Tapings of the second show of the tour were included in Frosted Pink with a Twist , a television special about women 's cancers . The TV special aired on ABC on October 12 , 2008 , and featured singers Jesse McCartney , Kenny Loggins , Cyndi Lauper and Carole King .
Liukin also guest starred on The CW series Hellcats .
On the April 16 , 2012 episode of The Price Is Right , Liukin appeared as a guest model .
On February 24 , 2015 , Liukin was announced as one of the celebrities who would compete on the 20th season of Dancing with the Stars . She was partnered with professional dancer and five @-@ time champion Derek Hough . They made it to week 9 ( the semi @-@ finals ) , but were then eliminated on May 12 , 2015 , despite receiving the highest scores of that week and consistently earning high scores throughout the season .
On May 4 , 2015 , Liukin was announced as the grand marshal for the 99th Indianapolis 500 .
Liukin serves as an analyst for NBC Sports Group during their coverage of gymnastics events and was a contributor for NBCOlympics.com during the 2012 Summer Olympic Games in London . She was also a special correspondent for NBC during the 2014 Winter Olympic Games in Sochi . During the Sochi broadcast , she presented daily features for “ The Olympic Zone , ” a 30 @-@ minute daily show for NBC affiliates , covering all aspects of the Games .
Liukin is also a professional speaker on such subjects as Olympians and women in sports .
= = = Professional alliances = = =
Liukin has her own line of gymnastics equipment , which includes mats , bars and balance beams in her signature pink , produced by American Athletic , Inc .
Liukin 's corporate sponsors include Visa , AT & T , GK Elite Sportswear and Longines . She appeared in an Adidas commercial with Nadia Comăneci that ran during the 2004 Olympics and a 2008 commercial for Visa Inc . She signed an endorsement deal on March 15 , 2010 , and appears in commercials for Subway . After the Beijing Olympics , she was signed to be one of four American Olympians featured on Wheaties cereal boxes .
Liukin has expressed interest in the fashion world ; she has served as a Longines Sports Ambassador of Elegance since 2006 and , along with her teammates Shawn Johnson and Alicia Sacramone , was one of the first female athletes ever to be signed as CoverGirl spokesmodels . She also collaborated with Vanilla Star Jeans to create a junior girls ' clothing line and has modeled for Max Azria . In June 2010 , she launched a line of girls ' wear called Supergirl by Nastia for department store chain JC Penney .
Liukin is also a major aide for victims of natural disasters . In October 2008 , Liukin partnered with World Vision to help her home state of Texas recover from Hurricane Ike . In November 2012 , she helped raise money and donated food to victims of Hurricane Sandy .
= = = Literature = = =
Liukin released her autiobiography , Finding My Shine , on November 24 , 2015 .
= = Competitive history = =
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= 1991 Atlantic hurricane season =
The 1991 Atlantic hurricane season was the first season in over 24 years in which no hurricanes developed from tropical waves , which are the source for most North Atlantic tropical cyclones . The hurricane season officially began on June 1 , and ended on November 30 . It was the least active in four years due to higher than usual wind shear across the Atlantic Ocean . The first storm , Ana , developed on July 2 off the southeast United States and dissipated without causing significant effects . Two other tropical storms in the season – Danny and Erika – did not significantly affect land . Danny dissipated east of the Lesser Antilles , and Erika passed through the Azores before becoming extratropical . In addition , there were four non @-@ developing tropical depressions . The second depression of the season struck Mexico with significant accompanying rains .
The most significant storm of the season was Hurricane Bob , which at the time was among the ten costliest United States hurricanes . After brushing the Outer Banks of North Carolina and Long Island in New York , the hurricane made landfall on Rhode Island . It caused $ 1 @.@ 5 billion in damage ( 1991 USD ) , mostly in Massachusetts , and 17 fatalities . The strongest hurricane of the season was Claudette , which reached peak winds of 135 mph ( 215 km / h ) near Bermuda . It passed near the island but did not cause any damage . Tropical Storm Fabian was the only tropical storm to move over or near Cuba or Florida , producing heavy rainfall but no damage . Hurricane Grace , the final named storm of the season , provided the energy that led to the development of a powerful nor 'easter known as the Perfect Storm . Originating from an extratropical storm , the Perfect Storm intensified while moving westward toward New England , leaving $ 200 million in damage and causing coastal damage from Puerto Rico to Florida and northward through Canada . It later transitioned into a hurricane over the Gulf Stream , finally dissipating over Nova Scotia on November 2 .
= = Season summary = =
Before the start of the season , hurricane expert William M. Gray released his forecast for the year 's activity , a yearly practice that he began in 1984 . In early April , Gray anticipated a " mild " season with fewer than ten tropical storms , of which less than six would become hurricanes . Later that month , the Weather Research Center forecast ten named storms and six hurricanes , of which five would become major hurricanes while three would hit the United States . In early June , Gray released an updated report that predicted the formation of eight tropical storms , four hurricanes , and one major hurricane . The revised June total was very close to the actual season activity , with the exception of forecasting one fewer major hurricane . However , a later revision in August incorrectly anticipated less activity , when Gray predicted seven storms and three hurricanes .
Overall activity in 1991 was below normal . This was partially due to decreased tropical cyclogenesis from African tropical waves , which are troughs that move across the ocean with associated convection . In most seasons , the majority of storms develop from tropical waves . Of the season 's twelve tropical cyclones , only five originated from tropical waves ; in addition , only three of the eight tropical storms were from tropical waves , and none had the characteristics of a Cape Verde @-@ type hurricane . From late April to late November , there were 73 tropical waves that exited the west coast of Africa . The total was higher than average , although many of them were poorly defined and had little thunderstorm activity . The waves traversed the Atlantic Ocean further south than normal , typically not becoming convectively active until moving across northern South America . Cyclogenesis was also suppressed by higher than normal wind shear , as well as low rainfall amounts across the Sahel . There were also no tropical storms in the Gulf of Mexico for only the third time in the 20th century , after 1927 and 1962 . The season produced twelve tropical depressions , which was the lowest in five years . The eight tropical storms was the lowest amount in four years . Four of the storms developed into hurricanes , although for the first time in over 24 years , none of the hurricanes originated from tropical waves .
The season 's activity was reflected with a low cumulative accumulated cyclone energy ( ACE ) rating of 36 . ACE is , broadly speaking , a measure of the power of the hurricane multiplied by the length of time it existed , so storms that last a long time , as well as particularly strong hurricanes , have high ACEs . ACE is only calculated for full advisories on tropical systems at or exceeding 34 knots ( 39 mph , 63 km / h ) or tropical storm strength . Although officially , subtropical cyclones are excluded from the total , the figure above includes periods when storms were in a subtropical phase .
= = = Timeline of events = = =
= = Storms = =
= = = Tropical Storm Ana = = =
The first storm of the season was Ana , which originated from a cold @-@ core low that persisted east of Jacksonville , Florida by June 25 . With an anticyclone located over Florida , The system moved in a clockwise motion around an anticyclone located over Florida . The cold @-@ core low gradually developed to the surface , and on June 29 , a low pressure area formed within a surface trough over the Bahamas . It moved westward across southern Florida , dropping heavy rainfall along its path . Punta Gorda recorded a statewide peak of 7 @.@ 86 in ( 200 mm ) of precipitation . The low moved northwestward and later curved northeastward , exiting into the Atlantic Ocean near Saint Augustine by early on July 2 . Although it was initially disorganized as it moved offshore , the convection quickly developed in organization , and by 1800 UTC that day it had developed into Tropical Depression One about 85 mi ( 135 km ) south of Charleston , South Carolina .
As the depression moved northeastward parallel to the southeast United States coastline , it dropped light rainfall , although portions of Virginia recorded more than 5 inches ( 130 mm ) . Late on July 3 , a buoy reported sustained winds of 38 mph ( 61 km / h ) over a period of eight and a half minutes . As a result , the National Hurricane Center upgraded the depression to Tropical Storm Ana . The storm accelerated east @-@ northeastward toward a stalled frontal zone , entering an area of increased wind shear . Despite hostile conditions , Ana strengthened slightly , reaching peak winds of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) . Moving over cooler waters and interacting with the frontal zone , the circulation became broad as the thunderstorms diminished . On July 5 , Ana became extratropical ( non @-@ tropical ) in the northern Atlantic Ocean about 680 mi ( 1 @,@ 090 km ) to the south of Cape Race .
= = = Tropical Depression Two = = =
A tropical wave emerged off the coast of Africa on June 20 , and no significant development occurred until it became Tropical Depression Two in the western Gulf of Mexico on July 5 . On its first advisory , a tropical storm watch was issued for from Baffin Bay , Texas southward to Tampico , Tamaulipas . Nearing the coast of Mexico , the depression attained its peak intensity with winds of 35 mph ( 55 km / h ) and a minimum pressure of 1 @,@ 007 mbar ( 29 @.@ 7 inHg ) . Failing to intensify further , Tropical Depression Two made landfall near La Pesca , Tamaulipas , Mexico on July 6 . The National Hurricane Center issued the final advisory on July 7 , although the circulation persisted until July 9 southwest of Texas . The depression had only minor impacts in Mexico and Texas , other than rainfall . Precipitation was heaviest in San Luis Potosí , where the rainfall peaked at 17 @.@ 47 in ( 444 mm ) in Tamazunchale , Mexico .
= = = Hurricane Bob = = =
Hurricane Bob originated from a decaying cold front , developing into a tropical depression early on August 16 near the Bahamas . It produced an area of organized convection , and the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Bob roughly 18 hours after forming . It gradually organized over the Gulf Stream , and based on reports from the Hurricane Hunters , Bob attained hurricane status on August 17 . Shortly thereafter , the hurricane began to turn towards the north @-@ northeast in response to a subtropical ridge over the Atlantic and the trough over the southeastern United States . After further intensification off the Carolinas , Bob reached peak winds of 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) to the east of Virginia on August 19 , making it a major hurricane . Significantly cooler sea surface temperatures resulted in weakening . After brushing Long Island , the center of Bob moved over Block Island , Rhode Island . About 40 minutes later it struck Newport , Rhode Island with winds of 100 mph ( 155 km / h ) , making it a Category 2 hurricane . It rapidly weakened to tropical storm intensity while moving through the remainder of New England , hitting Rockport , Maine early on August 20 . After crossing New Brunswick , Bob became extratropical in the Gulf of St. Lawrence and lasted another nine days before dissipating west of Portugal .
The hurricane first affected the Carolinas , spawning four confirmed and nine unconfirmed tornadoes in North Carolina . One person each died in North and South Carolina , and about 10 % of houses in the Outer Banks sustained minor roof damage . As the storm moved up the coast , heavy rain fell on the western side of the center . High winds left 300 @,@ 000 people without power on Long Island . In neighboring Connecticut , strong winds downed trees across the region , with damage heaviest in the southeastern portion near the coast . Damage was heaviest as Bob made its final landfall , with wind gusts of 105 mph ( 168 km / h ) reported on Block Island , Rhode Island . The hurricane produced extensive beach erosion which destroyed coastal roads in the state . Monetary damage was greatest in Massachusetts , and along Bob 's path through southeastern New England more than 60 % of people were left without power . High tides and strong winds destroyed boats and houses along the Massachusetts coastline . The heaviest rainfall from the hurricane fell at the Portland International Jetport in Maine , where 8 @.@ 24 in ( 209 mm ) fell during its passage . Across the United States , damage totaled $ 1 @.@ 5 billion ( 1991 USD ) , including over $ 1 billion in Massachusetts . The high damage total made Bob among the ten costliest U.S. hurricanes at the time . In addition , there were 15 fatalities in the country . In Canada , high waves killed two people . In Fredericton , New Brunswick , tropical storm @-@ force winds downed trees and power lines .
= = = Tropical Depression Four = = =
One of the few vigorous tropical waves of the season emerged from the western coast of Africa with a large area of convection in late August . On August 24 it developed into a tropical depression near Cape Verde . Upon first forming , the depression had a circular area of convection near the center . It was initially well @-@ organized , but the depression was not expected to intensify due to marginal water temperatures ; tropical cyclones generally require warm waters to develop . By August 25 , the system lost much of its deep convection , and on August 26 the depression dissipated to the west @-@ southwest of the Cape Verde islands .
= = = Tropical Depression Five = = =
Around the same time as the previous system dissipated , another tropical wave moved off the coast of Africa on August 26 . On August 28 it formed into a tropical depression about 560 mi ( 900 km ) southwest of Cape Verde . Upon developing , the depression had a small area of convection with a spiral rainband , and the NHC anticipated slow strengthening to tropical storm status . With a ridge to the north , the depression maintained a general westward track . Ultimately , the depression failed to organize significantly . By August 29 , it had a broad and poorly organized circulation with only scattered convection . Due to cool water temperatures , the system was unable to maintain deep convection , and on August 31 the depression degenerated into a tropical wave about 400 miles ( 645 km ) east of the Lesser Antilles .
= = = Hurricane Claudette = = =
The origins of Claudette were non @-@ tropical , developing on September 4 about 650 mi ( 1 @,@ 000 km ) southeast of Bermuda from an upper @-@ level disturbance . Following its formation , it developed slowly while moving southwestward , and on September 5 it intensified into Tropical Storm Claudette . Conditions were favorable for development , with low wind shear and a large anticyclone providing outflow , or the outward wind flow from a storm . On September 6 at 0600 UTC , Claudette attained hurricane status . It underwent rapid intensification , and early on September 7 a reconnaissance flight reported that Claudette attained major hurricane status with winds of 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) . Based on satellite estimates , Hurricane Claudette attained its peak intensity with winds of 130 mph ( 215 km / h ) and a minimum pressure 946 mbar ( 27 @.@ 9 inHg ) .
After peaking , Claudette began steady weakening . Around that time , a hurricane watch was issued for the island of Bermuda , which was later upgraded to a warning . The hurricane turned to the northwest , passing 136 miles ( 219 km ) east of Bermuda as a Category 1 hurricane on September 8 . Winds on the island peaked at 23 mph ( 37 km / h ) , with gusts to 32 mph ( 51 km / h ) , and waves reached up to 8 ft ( 2 @.@ 43 m ) in height . By September 10 , Claudette weakened to tropical storm status as it accelerated eastward . The next day it deteriorated further to tropical depression status , and the next day Claudette became extratropical to the southwest of the Azores . It persisted two more days until dissipating over the Azores .
= = = Tropical Storm Danny = = =
One of the most vigorous tropical waves of the season ( which also led to the formation of Hurricane Jimena in the eastern Pacific ) was first observed in western Africa on September 2 . Three days later it emerged from the coast at Dakar , moving into the tropical Atlantic Ocean with rainbands around its convection . By early on September 7 , the system organized into Tropical Depression Seven about 300 mi ( 480 km ) south @-@ southwest of Cape Verde . Upon developing , the depression had a broad circulation , located in an environment generally favorable for intensification . With a strong ridge to the north , the depression tracked steadily westward . After remaining a tropical depression for about 36 hours , the system became better organized and developed well @-@ defined banding features . Based on satellite intensity estimates , the NHC upgraded it to Tropical Storm Danny on September 8 .
Upon becoming a tropical storm , only slow strengthening was forecast , due to the presence of an upper @-@ level trough to its west . The storm ultimately reached peak winds of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) , which it maintained for about 36 hours . On September 10 it attained its organizational maximum after developing a central dense overcast . Later that day , an upper @-@ level low increased wind shear over the storm , which exposed the circulation from the deep convection . As Danny approached the Lesser Antilles , it weakened to tropical depression status on September 11 . Later that day , a Hurricane Hunters flight was unable to locate a closed circulation , which indicated that Danny degenerated into a tropical wave about 150 mi ( 240 km ) east of the Lesser Antilles . The remnants tracked to the northwest and later to the north before being absorbed by a frontal system .
= = = Tropical Storm Erika = = =
The origins of Tropical Storm Erika were from a tropical wave that exited the coast of Africa on September 2 . It moved northwestward , passing through Cape Verde the following day . The system had most of the thunderstorms along the southern portion of the wave as it maintained a very large low @-@ level circulation . Thunderstorms began developing on September 7 , and the system organized into Tropical Depression Eight the following day about 920 mi ( 1480 km ) northeast of the Lesser Antilles ; at the same time , it was located about midway between Hurricane Claudette and Tropical Storm Danny . Initially the center was difficult to locate on satellite imagery , but despite the proximity with Claudette , conditions were generally favorable for intensification . By late on September 9 , the depression had become much better organized , and based on satellite estimates the NHC upgraded it to Tropical Storm Erika .
Upon becoming a tropical storm , Erika began a motion to the northeast . There was initial uncertainty whether Erika or nearby Claudette would become the dominant system through their interaction . On September 10 , the storm developed a central dense overcast as it attained its peak winds of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) . It accelerated east @-@ northeastward toward the Azores along the northern periphery of a ridge , briefly interacting with Claudette . By September 11 , the convection had diminished , leaving the center exposed as Erika underwent extratropical transition . Shortly thereafter it passed through the Azores , striking São Miguel Island . Nearby Santa Maria Island reported tropical storm force winds with gusts to 67 mph ( 107 km / h ) , prompting the closure of the airfield for several hours . On September 12 , Erika weakened to a tropical depression before completing the transition into an extratropical cyclone . It dissipated later that day .
= = = Tropical Storm Fabian = = =
Tropical Storm Fabian developed on October 15 in the western Caribbean from the interaction of a cold front and a tropical wave . Initially the storm was disorganized , with its strongest winds located primarily east of the center . An eastward @-@ moving upper @-@ level trough imparted a northeast motion as well as unfavorable wind shear . After reaching peak winds of 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) , Fabian crossed the Isle of Youth before crossing western Cuba . There , it dropped heavy rainfall , including 5 in ( 130 mm ) in a six @-@ hour period in one location . By early on October 16 , the center was becoming difficult to locate as Fabian moved through the Florida Straits . It passed just southeast of the Florida coastline , prompting the closure of two state parks and dropping 4 @.@ 19 in ( 106 mm ) of rainfall in Conch Key . Effects were minimal , with winds gusting to 32 mph ( 52 km / h ) in Key West . The storm later moved through the Bahamas and became extratropical as it interacted with an approaching front .
= = = Tropical Depression Ten = = =
A tropical wave moved off the coast of Africa on October 19 . Moving westward , it developed a weak circulation on October 23 . Despite the presence of strong shear , the system was upgraded to a tropical depression at 2200 UTC on October 24 about 1100 miles ( 1775 km ) east of the Lesser Antilles . This was based on a rating of 1 @.@ 5 on the Dvorak technique , which is a method of estimating the intensity of tropical cyclones via satellite . At the time of development , the depression had a small area of convection near and east of the center , and due to the wind shear it was never expected to intensify . By October 25 , the circulation had become dissociated from the convection . The depression dissipated soon after without affecting land .
= = = Hurricane Grace = = =
On October 23 a mid @-@ level low formed south of Bermuda . By two days later it had become a surface low , and on October 26 it developed into a subtropical storm . The system was labeled as such due to the initial lack of deep convection over the center , although following an increase in thunderstorms the NHC reclassified it as Tropical Storm Grace late on October 27 . By that time , the storm had executed a path generally to the northwest . Grace continued to intensify and organize , and based on Hurricane Hunter reports the storm was upgraded to a hurricane early on October 28 . Shortly thereafter , Grace turned sharply to the east due to the influence of a rapidly intensifying extratropical cyclone off the New England coast . An eye developed in the center of Grace , despite shallow convection .
As the hurricane accelerated eastward , it attained a peak intensity of 100 mph ( 155 km / h ) on October 29 . The rapid motion caused an asymmetry in the wind field , and the center passed approximately 50 mi ( 80 km ) south of Bermuda without significantly affecting the island . A rapidly approaching cold front absorbed Grace on October 29 , contributing moisture to the developing extratropical storm that was eventually known as the Perfect Storm . As a tropical cyclone , Grace produced squally conditions across Bermuda , but no damage was reported . The hurricane generated large swells along the East Coast of the United States , causing minor beach erosion .
= = = The Perfect Storm = = =
The origins of the Perfect Storm were from an area of low pressure that developed off Atlantic Canada on October 28 . It moved southward and westward as an extratropical cyclone due to a ridge to its north , and reached its peak intensity . The storm lashed the East Coast of the United States with high waves and coastal flooding , before turning to the southwest and weakening . Moving over warmer waters , the system transitioned into a subtropical cyclone before becoming a tropical storm . It executed a loop off the Mid @-@ Atlantic states and turned toward the northeast . On November 1 the system evolved into a full @-@ fledged hurricane with peak winds of 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) . The tropical system weakened , striking Nova Scotia as a tropical storm before dissipating .
Damage totaled over $ 200 million ( 1991 USD ) and the death toll was thirteen . Most of the damage occurred while the storm was extratropical , after waves up to 30 ft ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) struck the coastline from Canada to Florida and southeastward to Puerto Rico . In Massachusetts , where damage was heaviest , over 100 homes were destroyed or severely damaged . To the north , more than 100 homes were affected in Maine , including the vacation home of George H.W. Bush , the president at the time . More than 38 @,@ 000 people were left without power , and along the coast high waves inundated roads and buildings . In portions of New England , damage was worse than had occurred from Hurricane Bob two months prior . However , aside from tidal flooding along rivers , the storm 's effects were primarily along the coastline . A buoy off the coast of Nova Scotia reported a wave height of 100 @.@ 7 ft ( 30 @.@ 7 m ) , the highest ever recorded in the province 's offshore waters . In the middle of the storm , the Andrea Gail sunk , killing its crew of six and inspiring the book and later movie The Perfect Storm . Off the coast of New York , a Coast Guard helicopter lost fuel and crashed , and although four members of its crew were rescued , one was killed . Two people died after their boat sank off Staten Island . High waves swept a person to their death in both Rhode Island and Puerto Rico , and another person was blown off a bridge in New York . The tropical cyclone that formed late in the storm 's duration caused little impact , limited to power outages and slick roads ; one person was killed in Newfoundland from a traffic accident related to the storm .
= = Storm names = =
The list below shows the names that appeared on the tropical cyclone naming list in the Atlantic basin in 1991 . Although the Perfect Storm later evolved into a hurricane , in which could have been named " Henri " , the National Hurricane Center left it unnamed due to the heavy damage and media interest in the predecessor extratropical storm . It later received the name the Perfect Storm after a conversation between Boston National Weather Service forecaster Robert Case and author Sebastian Junger . The names not retired from this list in 1991 appeared again on the naming list for the 1997 season . This is the same list used for the 1985 season , with the exception of the names Erika and Grace , which replaced the names Elena and Gloria after the 1985 season , and were used for the first time in 1991 . Names that were not assigned are marked in gray .
= = = Retirement = = =
At their meeting in the spring of 1992 , the World Meteorological Organization retired the name Bob from the list above due to its high impact . The name that replaced it on the naming list for the 1997 season was Bill .
= = Season effects = =
This is a table of all of the storms that have formed in the 1991 Atlantic hurricane season . It includes their duration , names , landfall ( s ) – denoted by bold location names – damages , and death totals . Deaths in parentheses are additional and indirect ( an example of an indirect death would be a traffic accident ) , but were still related to that storm . Damage and deaths include totals while the storm was extratropical , a wave , or a low , and all of the damage figures are in 1991 USD .
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= Chimera ( The X @-@ Files ) =
" Chimera " is the sixteenth episode of the seventh season of the science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It premiered on the Fox network in the United States , on April 2 , 2000 , was written by David Amann , and directed by Cliff Bole . The episode is a " Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week " story , unconnected to the series ' wider mythology . " Chimera " earned a Nielsen household rating of 7 @.@ 5 , being watched by 12 @.@ 89 million people in its initial broadcast . The episode received mostly positive reviews from critics .
The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . Mulder is a believer in the paranormal , while the skeptical Scully has been assigned to debunk his work . In this episode , Mulder investigates what appears to be the case of a missing woman from a small town , but soon turns out to be a murder by a spirit summoned from the underworld . Scully , meanwhile , must endure an uncomfortable stakeout .
Similar to the season six episode , " Arcadia " , " Chimera " was written as " a suburban parable about perfection " that examined " the evil that lies beneath a prototypical white @-@ bread suburban existence . " The episode was produced at a time when both David Duchovny and Gillian Anderson were directing their own episodes , and in order to compensate , Anderson 's role was drastically reduced in the episode .
= = Plot = =
In Bethany , Vermont , a raven frightens a little girl , Michelle Crittendon , at a park while a neighbor , Jenny Uphouse , watches . The bird is later found at her home . Her mother , Martha Crittendon , is then attacked and killed by an unseen monster . Meanwhile , in Washington , D.C. , Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) are on a stakeout looking for a woman who is possibly killing prostitutes . Mulder believes she has the power to disappear because every time police attempt to arrest her she cannot be found . While on lookout , Mulder gets a call about the attack and leaves . Back at the office , Walter Skinner ( Mitch Pileggi ) tells Mulder that Crittendon disappeared and asks him what he knows about ravens . Mulder believes that the bird is usually associated with evil . Skinner tells Mulder that this case is a top priority because Crittendon is the wife of a powerful judge . At the Crittendon home , Martha 's husband , Howard , tells Mulder that his wife was cheating on him because he found birth control pills , which is suspicious because Howard has had a vasectomy . Another neighbor , Ellen Adderly , the wife of Sheriff Phil Adderly , is approached by Jenny and then sees a raven before the window of a nearby car shatters . At the Crittendon home , Michelle sees the raven outside her window again and Howard leaves to check it out , leading him to find a hand sticking out above the flower bushes . Later the police dig up Martha 's body , with claw marks all over her face .
Ellen tells Mulder that she saw a reflection in the mirror earlier , and that 's what killed Martha . Mulder believes the glass are doorways to a demonic dimension and that someone is summoning forth a demon to attack people . Ellen believes Jenny Uphouse summoned the spirits , but she denies it . Later , Ellen finds a skeleton key in her house and a raven by her baby 's crib . In a mirror , Ellen sees the reflection of a monster chasing after her , but it suddenly breaks . She hides in the closet until Phil comes home and finds her . However , he attributes the commotion to stress , believing that she is imagining things . Mulder finds the skeleton key and it matches one found in Martha Crittendon 's coat pocket . Mulder deduces that the sheriff is having an affair with Jenny . Mulder later tells him that Martha was pregnant and that he thinks he is the father . The sheriff reveals that the key opened the door to a motel , where he and Jenny met for clandestine affairs . Meanwhile , at the motel , Jenny sees ravens outside and is promptly attacked and killed by the creature .
Phil explains to Mulder that he wanted a divorce from Ellen two years ago , but she got pregnant and would not allow it . He also believes that he is the reason for this happening and that he somehow summoned the entity . It turns out that Ellen is the entity , which is given away by a cut in her back given by Jenny during the attack . Ellen transforms into the creature , attacks Mulder , and attempts to drown him in a bath tub , but stops when she sees her monstrous reflection in the water . She is placed in a psychiatric hospital , where the doctors diagnose her with multiple personality disorder . Meanwhile , Scully reveals to Mulder that the mysterious prostitute killer was not an X @-@ File at all , but rather a man disguised as a woman who talked to the prostitutes about religion and attempted to help them get out of the prostitution ring .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing = = =
The premise behind " Chimera " was " a compelling examination of the evil that lies beneath a prototypical white @-@ bread suburban existence . " These themes had previously been explored in the season six episode , " Arcadia " . However , the show wished to explore the same ideas in a more " straight @-@ ahead scare " style , rather than supplementing the horror of the episode with humor , as was done in " Arcadia " . Series creator , Chris Carter , saw the episode as " a chance to do something bold and new . " Carter wanted the story to revolve around a crow , an image that he described simply as " scary " . With the story , he wanted to " bust pretense and perception and expose the underbelly of a white @-@ bread community . " Originally , the episode was going to feature a subterranean monster and was aptly going to be titled " Subterranean Monster Blues " .
The episode was written in " a burst of twenty @-@ hour days " . Greg Walker , who assisted David Amann , described the finished script as " a suburban parable about perfection . " Matt Hurwitz and Chris Knowles noted in their book , The Complete X @-@ Files , that " David Amman 's script is an insightful commentary on suburban repression and self @-@ delusion , which made a major comeback in the conservative late ' 90s . " The episode soon went into pre @-@ production , but first , several issues had to be addressed . Most notably , while the episode was being produced , David Duchovny and Gillian Anderson were also busy directing their own episodes — " Hollywood A.D. " and " all things " , respectively . To cope with this hectic schedule , the writers planned " Chimera " so that Duchovny and Anderson only had to be together in a limited number of scenes . Anderson was only needed for one day of filming for her auxiliary sub @-@ plot involving the prostitute murderer .
= = = Casting and filming = = =
Rick Millikan , the show 's casting director , was tasked with finding " normal @-@ looking suburban people " for the cast . Millikan later noted that " the show necessitated casting perfect people . But it 's not that easy to find [ ... ] normal @-@ looking people . We 've used so many people over the years that it 's gotten harder and harder to find them . Several of the individuals cast had previously played parts in " obscure genre films " : Michelle Joyner first appeared in the 1990 anthology film Grim Prairie Tales , Gina Mastrogiacomo first was noted in her 1989 movie Alien Space Avenger , John Mese had a part in the 1995 movie Night of the Scarecrow , and finally , Wendy Schaal had appeared in the 1985 film Creature .
Most of the opening scenes were shot in a local Los Angeles backyard , however , finding suitable " tree @-@ lined elements " proved difficult . Ultimately , a museum in Hollywood allowed the crew to film in a tree @-@ filled section on its grounds . The episode ran into several snags during filming . Director Cliff Bole had trouble trying to get the crows to " act on cue " . Eventually , several ravens were brought in as doubles . Bole later noted , " we got two ravens . One was very good at cawing and one was good at hopping . " The ending sequence had to be re @-@ shot several times . Producer Paul Rabwin explained , " Originally , we wanted to show a mirror image of the woman being attacked by the monster , but it didn 't really sell . " Eventually , the crew decided to glue candy glass onto a piece of plywood . In this manner , the camera was able to see the action through the shattered panes of glass .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" Chimera " first aired in the United States on April 2 , 2000 . This episode earned a Nielsen rating of 7 @.@ 5 , with an 11 share , meaning that roughly 7 @.@ 5 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 11 percent of households watching television , were tuned in to the episode . It was viewed by 12 @.@ 89 million viewers . The episode aired in the United Kingdom and Ireland on Sky1 on May 7 , 2000 and received 0 @.@ 56 million viewers , making it the third most watched episode that week . Fox promoted the episode with the tagline " American Beauty ? Tonight , in a perfect small town , with perfect neighbors and perfect families ... lies an evil just waiting to show it 's [ sic ] ' perfect ' face . "
The episode received mostly positive reviews from critics , with a few detractors . Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book , Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated the episode four stars out of five , calling the script " very stylish " . The two noted that " [ David ] Duchovny is very good here [ … ] and , as a counterbalance , [ Gillian ] Anderson provides some great comic relief . " Shearman and Pearson concluded that the episode was " a little too ponderously paced to be a classic episode , but it 's clever and well crafted [ which makes it ] a rewarding stand @-@ out . " Rich Rosell from Digitally Obsessed awarded the episode 4 out of 5 stars and wrote that " Cawing birds , spirit portals and split personalities are the order of the day in a story that doesn 't offer that much in genuine thrills , but the best moments are Scully 's occasional complaints from the field . " Paula Vitaris from Cinefantastique gave the episode a moderately positive review and awarded it two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of four . Despite noting that the episode " gets off to an awkward start " , Vitaris concluded that " ' Chimera ' takes us into the heart of a quintessential X @-@ Files family " . Zack Handlen of The A.V. Club awarded the episode a " B + " , noting that , while the episode was good , it " falls short of classic status , trying to make a metaphor into flesh , and not quite succeeding . " Although Handlen enjoyed the way the episode explores and then connects the main characters , his main critique was that Ellen 's transformation is never explicitly explained . He explained that , " If we had a sense of where her need comes from , if there was some hint at what drove her to this point , it would work ; as is , the actress ’ s performance is excellent , but the character remains too generic . "
Not all reviews were positive . Kenneth Silber from Space.com wrote a neutral review , saying , " Beyond that , there is little to be said , pro or con , for ' Chimera . ' The episode is mildly interesting and avoids the puerility of recent episodes . " Tom Kessenich , in his book Examinations , gave the episode a relatively negative review . He derided the lack of Anderson 's character , summing up his feelings in the simple sentence , " No Dana Scully . "
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= The Boat Race 1994 =
The 140th Boat Race took place on 26 March 1994 . Held annually , the Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge along the River Thames . Cambridge won by six @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half lengths . The race saw the first competitors from Norway in the history of the race , in brothers Snorre and Sverke Lorgen . It was also the first time that both competing coxes had previously won the event .
In the reserve race , Cambridge 's Goldie defeated Oxford 's Isis , while Cambridge won the Women 's Boat Race .
= = Background = =
The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . First held in 1829 , the race takes place on the 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities and followed throughout the United Kingdom and broadcast worldwide . Cambridge went into the race as reigning champions , having won the 1993 race by three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half lengths , with Cambridge leading overall with 70 victories to Oxford 's 68 ( excluding the " dead heat " of 1877 ) . The race was sponsored by Beefeater Gin for the eighth consecutive year .
The first Women 's Boat Race took place in 1927 , but did not become an annual fixture until the 1960s . Up until 2014 , the contest was conducted as part of the Henley Boat Races , but as of the 2015 race , it is held on the River Thames , on the same day as the men 's main and reserve races . The reserve race , contested between Oxford 's Isis boat and Cambridge 's Goldie boat has been held since 1965 . It usually takes place on the Tideway , prior to the main Boat Race .
In preparing for the race , Cambridge had defeated crews from both Leander and Molesey . Meanwhile , Oxford lost out to London Rowing Club 's lightweight crew , but narrowly defeated the University of London Boat Club . They went on to secure victory in the Reading Head of the River race before head coach Richard Tinkler and his assistant Tim Bramfitt were removed from their positions . Fred Smallbone was installed as finishing coach for the Dark Blues whose build @-@ up concluded with a loss to Leander . Cambridge were coached throughout by Harry Mahon , John Wilson and Sean Bowden .
= = Crews = =
The crews weighed @-@ in at The Hurlingham Club five days prior to the race . Oxford weighed an average of 14 st 7 lb ( 91 @.@ 6 kg ) per rower , 2 pounds ( 0 @.@ 91 kg ) more than their opponents . Oxford 's crew featured two Norwegian brothers in Snorre and Sverke Lorgen , the first rowers from their country to participate in the Boat Race , both of whom had participated in both world championship and Olympic races . Oxford Boat Club president Kingsley Poole referred to them as " Herdy and Gerdy " . He noted : " They 've got some kind of kin thing where they can just switch on and go nuts " . Cambridge welcomed back five former Blues while Oxford saw three return in the form of Michels , Poole and Chick .
= = Race = =
Cambridge were considered to be pre @-@ race favourites . Oxford won the toss and elected to start from the Middlesex station . After a poor start , which Oxford 's cox Chick referred to as " a bit ropey " , Cambridge took an early lead and were five seconds ahead at the Mile Post . They extended their advantage to eight seconds by Hammersmith Bridge and sixteen by Chiswick Steps . Poor steering from Haycock combined with determination from Oxford to stay in touch kept the Cambridge from moving too much further ahead ; the Light Blues passed the finishing post in 18 minutes and 9 seconds , six @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half lengths and 20 seconds ahead of the Dark Blues . It was Cambridge 's first back @-@ to @-@ back victory since 1973 . The race was umpired by former Cambridge Blue John Garrett .
In the reserve race , Cambridge 's Goldie won by thirteen lengths over Isis , their seventh victory in eight years . Cambridge won the 49th Women 's Boat Race a week earlier , a 2 @,@ 000 metres ( 2 @,@ 200 yd ) race at Henley @-@ on @-@ Thames , by one length in a time of 6 minutes and 11 seconds , their fifth victory in six years .
= = Reaction = =
Cambridge 's boat club president Jon Bernstein said " it does not get any better than that . " The Cambridge number four , Richard Phelps , was more descriptive : " It was a bitch of a race . We never cruised . "
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= St Symphorien Military Cemetery =
The St Symphorien Military Cemetery is a First World War Commonwealth War Graves Commission burial ground in Saint @-@ Symphorien , Belgium . It contains the graves of 284 German and 229 Commonwealth soldiers , principally those killed during the Battle of Mons . The cemetery was established by the German Army on land donated by Jean Houzeau de Lehaie . It was initially designed as a woodland cemetery before being redesigned by William Harrison Cowlishaw after the Imperial War Graves Commission took over maintenance of the cemetery after the war .
Notable Commonwealth burials in the cemetery include John Parr and George Lawrence Price , traditionally believed to be the first and last Commonwealth soldiers killed in action during the First World War , and Maurice Dease , the first posthumous recipient of the Victoria Cross of World War I. Notable German burials include Oskar Niemeyer , the first Iron Cross recipient of World War I.
= = History = =
= = = Battle of Mons = = =
The Battle of Mons took place as part of the Battle of the Frontiers , in which the advancing German armies clashed with the advancing Allied armies along the Franco @-@ Belgian and Franco @-@ German borders . The British position on the French flank meant that it stood in the path of the German 1st Army . The British reached Mons on 22 August and at the time , the French Fifth Army , located on the right of the British , was heavily engaged with the German 2nd and 3rd armies at the Battle of Charleroi . The British agreed to hold the line of the Condé – Mons – Charleroi Canal for twenty @-@ four hours , to prevent the advancing German 1st Army from threatening the French left flank . The British thus spent the day digging in along the canal .
At dawn on 23 August a German artillery bombardment began on the British lines ; throughout the day the Germans concentrated on the British at the salient formed by the loop in the canal . At 9 : 00 a.m. , the first German infantry assault began , with the Germans attempting to force their way across four bridges that crossed the canal at the salient . The initial German attack was repulsed with heavy losses but after the Germans switched to an open formation their advance progress more quickly as the looser formation made it more difficult for the British to inflict casualties rapidly . By the afternoon the British position in the salient had become untenable and by 3 : 00 p.m. the British began retreating to a new defensive line .
= = = Establishment = = =
Most of the British and German dead from the Battle of Mons were initially buried in church and local cemeteries in Mons and surrounding villages rather than a purpose built military cemetery . Subsequently , the German Army decided to exhume and re @-@ inter the dead in a single location , as they determined the care and maintenance of a isolated graves was unsustainable over the long term .
In spring 1916 , a German officer by the name of Captain Roemer was searching for an appropriate piece of cemetery land south @-@ east of Mons . During this search he approached renowned biologist and local landowner Jean Houzeau de Lehaie , who offered some former quarry land on his family estate lands between the districts of St. Symphorien and Spienne , possibly to ensure that land associated with Neolithic flint mines of Spiennes was not employed instead . Roemer initially proposed that the land be requisitioned , with compensation being provided by the local authorities . Houzeau de Lehaie refused to accept payment for the land and agreed to part with it only under the condition that it be donated instead of requisitioned , and that in the cemetery the dead of both sides be treated with equal respect . During 1916 and 1917 Landsturm Infantry Battalions exhumed burials from isolated and less maintainable sites and re @-@ interred them in the new cemetery . Most of the bodies that were exhumed were from the north and north east of the Mons battlefield especially near Nimy and Obourg where the British stopped Imperial German units from crossing the Mons @-@ Conde canal . The German and British dead were reburied in graves with markers containing the message Enemies in Life but United in Death ( German : Im Leben ein Feind , im Tode vereint ) , a common German practice during the First World War . The cemetery was inaugurated on 6 September 1917 with a ceremony attended by prominent German figures , including Rupprecht , Crown Prince of Bavaria , Albrecht , Duke of Württemberg , and Frederick Francis IV , Grand Duke of Mecklenburg @-@ Schwerin .
The cemetery contained 245 German and 188 British graves at the end of the war . This number increased in the post @-@ war period , as both British and German remains from numerous isolated burial locations were concentrated to St. Symphorien until the cemetery reached its current number of 284 German soldiers and 229 Commonwealth soldiers . Most of the identified German dead in the cemetery died in 1914 and were from units of IX Corps , which originated from the north of Germany from towns like Kiel , Hamburg and Bremen , and in Schleswig @-@ Holstein .
= = = Post @-@ war = = =
At the end of the war in November 1918 , the maintenance of Commonwealth graves passed to Imperial War Graves Commission ( now the Commonwealth War Graves Commission ) . From June 1921 , the Belgian War Graves Commission appointed a supervisor to maintain the German graves as the Germans could not do so themselves on account of the terms of the Treaty of Versailles . In 1926 , Belgium and Germany reached an agreement for the gradual transfer of maintenance responsibility to the Official German Burial Service in Belgium ( German : Amtlicher Deutscher Gräberdienst in Belgien ) representative at the embassy to Germany in Brussels . The Germans officially referred to the cemetery as Ehrenfriedhof Saint @-@ Symphorien @-@ Spiennes . Number 191 . The name recognized that the cemetery was both located in close proximity to the town of Saint @-@ Symphorien and technically located in the administrative areas of Spiennes while concurrently incorporating the number assigned to the cemetery in a Belgian ordered list of German cemeteries .
On 13 October 1930 , representatives of the Official German Burial Service in Belgium , the Belgian War Graves Commission and the Imperial War Graves Commission met in Brussels to discuss the status of mixed British @-@ German cemeteries in Belgium . In particular , they met to discuss the status of cemeteries established by Germans during the war where the majority of those buried in the cemetery were German . This meeting was brought about because the Imperial War Graves Commission had begun altering the layout of cemeteries containing a high percentage concentration of German dead and began replacing the existing headstones on the Commonwealth graves with the standardized Imperial War Graves Commission headstones , all without first consulting with the German Burial Service in Belgium . The German delegation hoped to retain the established design character of the cemeteries but were ultimately unsuccessful . Control for the cemetery was immediately passed to the Imperial War Graves Commission and further German contribution was limited to providing headstones for a number of graves that were lacking markers . Now that the Imperial War Graves Commission was in full control of the cemetery they immediately set about redesigning it , assigning the task to Assistant Architect William Harrison Cowlishaw . In 1933 Fritz Schult , Chief of the Official German Burial Service in Belgium , wrote to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs in Berlin to request that the Imperial War Graves Commission be approached to take control over other split British @-@ German cemeteries such as those at Marcinelle New Communal Cemetery and Hautrage Military Cemetery . The Imperial War Graves Commission was maintaining the German graves at St. Symphorien at no cost to Germany and Schult believed it favorable to transfer management of other cemeteries if the Imperial War Graves Commission would assume all maintenance costs for those cemeteries as well .
= = = Modern = = =
On 4 August 2014 , a ceremony was held at the cemetery to mark the 100th anniversary of the British and Belgian declaration of war following the German invasion of Belgium . It was attended by many important dignitaries including : King Philippe and Queen Mathilde of The Belgians , Prince William , Catherine , Duchess of Cambridge and Prince Harry as representatives of Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom and Head of the Commonwealth , Joachim Gauck President of Germany , Michael D. Higgins President of the Republic of Ireland , Prime Minister of Belgium Elio Di Rupo and Prime Minister of the United Kingdom David Cameron .
= = Design = =
= = = Original design = = =
Captain Bäumer designed the cemetery , assisted by militia @-@ private Pieper . They developed a site plan based on the concept of Cemetery Reform ( German : Friedhofsreform ) , which was popular in Germany at the time . In the cemetery design , particular attention was paid to ensuring simplicity with uniformity in each plot , all within a calming , arboreal environment consistent with a woodland cemetery ( German : Waldfriedhof ) style . Thirteen plots were marked off and young trees – and later extra conifers – were planted between the plots to ensure their visual and physical separation . The cemetery land itself had many artificial created differences in elevation due to the site being used as a dumping location for surplus soil associated with phosphate mining in the area . The cemetery plants were donated by the city of Bielefeld .
The German graves were grouped according to military unit . Every grave in each grouping receiving a similar headstone , but not necessarily the same as that in other groupings . There were a number of organizations in Germany that were particularly opposed to mass @-@ produced identical headstones and by consequence the cemetery contains a number of differently styled headstones . The German headstones were carved from locally quarried stone , principally bluestone and Belgian petit granit . German officers were offered larger headstones to illustrate their higher military rank . The cemetery contains a number of German regimental memorials within the cemetery which were paid and provided by the city or town where the regiment was based .
The Germans treated the British dead in a similar manner to their own . All of the British were buried in individual plots and , like the Germans , grouped by unit as far as possible . The deceased British officers were buried in a plot separate from their troops and it is not known how these graves were marked before they were provided with the standardized Imperial War Grave Commission headstone . The Germans also erected simple regimental memorials that identified the unit or regiment within a number of the British groupings . This included one to the Middlesex Regiment which was mistakenly referred to as the " Royal Middlesex Regiment " although that was not its name at the time .
A classical 7 metres ( 23 ft ) high obelisk memorial made of bluestone was placed near the entrance at the highest point in the cemetery . The monumental inscription on the obelisk is written in German and is dedicated to the German and British soldiers that died during the Battle of Mons : " In memory of the German and English soldiers who fell in the actions near Mons on the 23rd and 24th August 1914 . " ( German : Zum Gedächtnis der am 23 @.@ und 24 . August 1914 in den Kämpfen bei Mons gefallenen deutschen und englischen Soldaten ) . Near the cemetery entrance , a tablet in Latin was set out to explain the land was gifted for the purpose of a cemetery by Jean Houzeau de Lehaie .
= = = Cowlishaw redesign = = =
Full controlled of the St Symphorien cemetery was transferred to the Imperial War Graves Commission in 1930 after which William Harrison Cowlishaw set about redesigning the cemetery . The main change was the conversion from a woodland cemetery to the more open English garden style cemetery present at most Imperial War Graves Commission cemeteries . Many of the trees were chopped down , particularity those in the predominantly British south @-@ eastern side , and grass sown in this area . The cemetery was made to feel more open but no changes were made to the location of the graves , effectively leaving each plot layout in situ choosing instead to remove vegetation that provided the visual compartmentalization to each plot . The predominantly German north @-@ eastern half was left more characteristically in a woodland cemetery style , although many trees were pruned to ensure that an open view was created between the various plots . The original German headstones were retained and several German headstones added due to transferred graves from other sites . The other principal change was earthwork to create a raised hill where the Cross of Sacrifice would be erected . The German general monument was in no way modified but Cowlishaw likely created the hill to ensure the Cross of Sacrifice was not dwarfed by the German monument . Special memorials were erected to five soldiers of the Royal Irish Regiment believed to be buried in unnamed graves . Other special memorials record the names of four British soldiers , buried by the Germans in Obourg Churchyard , whose graves could not be found . Approximately 100 Commonwealth soldiers buried at St Symphorien were unidentified . They are interned under a headstone with a quote by Rudyard Kipling : " A Soldier of the Great War , Known Unto God . "
= = Notable graves = =
Notable German burials include Musketier Oskar Niemeyer from the 84th Infantry Regiment was the first recipient of the Iron Cross during the war . Having come to a crossing of the Mons – Condé canal with a closed swing bridge he swam across the canal , returned across the canal with a requisitioned small boat , paddled back across the canal with a team and then opened the bridge allowing the Germans troops to cross in greater numbers . He was killed shortly after opening the bridge .
Notable Commonwealth burials in the cemetery include Private John Parr , of the 4th Battalion , Middlesex Regiment and George Lawrence Price of the Canadian 28th ( Northwest ) Battalion each believed to be the respective first and last Commonwealth soldiers killed in action during the First World War , as is George Ellison , the last British soldier killed in action . Also buried in the cemetery is Maurice Dease who was the first posthumous recipient of the Victoria Cross in the war . Dease was awarded the Victoria Cross for defending Nimy Bridge and maintained firing of a machine gun until he was hit for a fifth and final time .
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= Margaret Gowing =
Margaret Mary Gowing née Elliott , CBE , FBA ( 26 April 1921 – 7 November 1998 ) was an English historian . She was involved with the production of several volumes of the officially sponsored History of the Second World War , but was better known for her books , commissioned by the United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority , covering the early history of Britain 's nuclear weapons programmes : Britain and Atomic Energy 1939 – 1945 , published in 1964 , and the two @-@ volume Independence and Deterrence : Britain and Atomic Energy 1945 – 52 , published in 1974 .
Through her work in the Cabinet Office from 1945 to 1959 , she knew personally many of the people involved . As historian archivist at the UK Atomic Energy Authority from 1959 to 1966 she had access to the official papers and files of the British nuclear weapons programmes . She was the first occupant of a chair in the history of science at the University of Oxford , which she held from 1972 until her retirement in 1986 . As co @-@ founder with physicist Nicholas Kurti of the Contemporary Scientific Archives Centre in Oxford , she helped ensure the preservation of contemporary scientific manuscripts .
= = Early life = =
Margaret Elliott was born on 26 April 1921 in Kensington , London , the youngest of three children of Ronald Elliott , a motor engineer , and his wife , Mabel née Donaldson , a school teacher . She had an older sister , Audrey , and an older brother , Donald . The family was poor ; her father suffered , and ultimately died , from tuberculosis and was frequently unemployed , while her mother was barred from working as a school teacher after she was married . The family therefore often had to live on a weekly sickness benefit . For entertainment , they took advantage of free entry to art galleries , museums and libraries . Elliot 's direct experience of poverty led to her becoming an ardent socialist later in life . She attended Portobello Elementary School in North Kensington , and won a London County Council scholarship to Christ 's Hospital in 1932 . She excelled academically , was a prefect , and played hockey for her house .
Elliott completed her School Leaving Certificate in 1936 , earning distinctions in Latin , English and French and a pass in German . She won a Leverhulme Entry Scholarship to the London School of Economics ( LSE ) , which she entered in 1938 . Her first @-@ year studies advisor was the economist Vera Anstey , who considered that Elliott had " a decided bent for economic history " , Elliot later attributed her interest in the subject to lectures by her second @-@ year studies advisor , Eileen Power , who urged her to pursue an academic career . She won both the Gladstone Memorial Prize and the Lillian Knowles Scholarship for economic history in 1939 . Later that year , with the outbreak of the Second World War , the LSE was evacuated to Oxford , where Elliott graduated in 1941 with a BSc degree in economics with first class honours .
= = Civil Service = =
Academic jobs in history were not easy to find in 1941 , so Elliott joined the Civil Service , working in the Prices and Statistics Section of the Iron and Steel Control directorate in the Ministry of Supply . She subsequently moved to the Board of Trade , and the Directorate of Housing Fitments , where she rose to the rank of Assistant Principal , before moving to the Cabinet Office in 1945 . There she became involved with the Official History of the Second World War , as assistant to Keith Hancock who was overall editor of the United Kingdom Civil Series of books within the Official History . As an official historian of the History of the Second World War : United Kingdom Civil Series , Gowing had access to unpublished official papers and files . She came to know personally many of the politicians and senior civil servants involved .
On 7 June 1944 , Elliot married Donald James Graham Gowing at the Wimbledon Registry Office . He was a vocalist who had also attended Christ 's Hospital before winning a choral scholarship to Kings College , Cambridge , in 1939 . He had joined the Royal Naval Volunteer Reserve in 1941 , and was serving at Combined Operations Headquarters . They married shortly before he was shipped overseas . He was taught Japanese in the United States and went on serve in the Pacific as a translator . The marriage bar was suspended for the duration and Gowing was allowed to remain in the Civil Service . They had two children , both sons : Nicholas Keith ( Nik ) , a journalist who was born in 1951 and named after Hancock , and James , born in 1954 . Her husband , frustrated by his lack of professional success compared to hers , became an alcoholic , and died from a massive stroke in 1969 .
In 1950 , Sir Norman Brook attempted to have Gowing retained in the Cabinet Office as the permanent historian , but was stymied by the Treasury and the Civil Service Commission . In 1951 , she was told that she had no chance of being appointed to the grade of Principal , which would have carried retirement benefits with it . She later said that her years at the Cabinet Office were the happiest of her life , but she began looking for another position . In 1955 , she applied for a chair in economic history at Oxford , and for a readership at LSE , but was unsuccessful . Sir Norman exploited various administrative loopholes to allow her to be retained at the Cabinet Office , and was prepared to make her the Cabinet Office Archivist , but he could not offer her a pension .
The Public Records Act 1958 required all government departments to set up archives and records management systems . The United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority ( UKAEA ) was nominally exempt from the act , being a government corporation rather than a department , but voluntarily asked to be included under the Act . This created a position at the UKAEA for an historian and archivist . Gowing applied for and secured the job in 1959 . This involved organising systems and criteria for the selection for preservation of scientific , engineering and administrative records , and writing the history of the British atomic project since it began in 1939 , the UKAEA having inherited the files of predecessor organisations including the Tube Alloys Directorate .
By this time , the UKAEA employed some 40 @,@ 000 people in offices , laboratories and factories scattered around Britain . Gowing knew little about atomic energy ; she once remarked that when she was appointed , she " didn 't know an atom from a molecule " . This was rectified , and she won the respect of Sir Christopher Hinton and Sir James Chadwick , and became friends with Nicholas Kurti , Sir Rudolf Peierls and Niels Bohr . At one point she asked Chadwick what he intended to do with all the documents in wooden filing cabinets in his attic , and he just said " burn them " . Such heart @-@ stopping moments led her to help establish the Centre for Scientific Archives in 1972 .
Gowing 's first volume , Britain and Atomic Energy 1939 – 1945 , was published in 1964 , and achieved widespread acclaim . Stephen Toulmin declared that " No better example of contemporary narrative history of science has yet appeared " . It prompted Mark Oliphant to seek the appointment of a historian to the Australian Academy of Science in Canberra , and the Cabinet Office to commission a new series of peacetime official histories in 1966 .
= = Academia = =
In 1966 , Gowing became Reader in Contemporary History at the new University of Kent , Canterbury , covering scientific , technical , economic and social history . The UKAEA retained her as a consultant , paying her ₤ 1 @,@ 000 per annum for three years . Her main task was to write a two @-@ volume sequel to Britain and Atomic Energy 1939 – 1945 covering the period from 1945 to 1952 . To help out , the UKAEA brought in Lorna Arnold from its Health and Safety Division in 1967 to become the Departmental Records Officer ( DRO ) and Gowing 's Assistant Historian . Despite their being accredited as official historians , the Atomic Weapons Establishment would not let them take their notes away , so they had to do their writing on site , under the watchful eye of Aldermaston 's DRO . To get there Gowing had to catch the train each day from Canterbury to London Waterloo station , and then the Tube to Paddington and the railway to Reading , where Arnold picked Gowing up in her car and drove to Harwell .
Gowing attempted to negotiate better conditions at the University of Kent that would allow more time to work on the books , but this was denied . She applied for a vacant chair in the History and Philosophy of Science at University College London in 1970 , without success . Then , in February 1972 , Sir Rudolf Peierls and Nicholas Kurti informed her that the University of Oxford had created a new chair in the history of science , the first of its kind in the university 's long history . She did not expect to get the chair , but Peierls , Sir Frederick Dainton and Hugh Trevor @-@ Roper were on the selection panel , and in the end offered the chair in the history of science to Gowing , a woman who did not have a degree in history or science .
Gowing was based at Linacre College . Her appointment , Roy MacLeod wrote , " struck a conspicuous blow for modern , as against medieval and early modern , science , and for a reading of history that favoured social , economic and political perspectives , as against the examination of scientific practice . " She delivered her inaugural lecture , What 's Science to History or History to Science ? , on 27 May 1975 . In this lecture , she examined the reasons why the history of science had grown apart from other forms of history , and endeavoured to reconcile them and bring them together again . In her subsequent Wilkins Lecture in 1976 she examined the history of British prejudice against science dating back to Victorian times .
The two @-@ volume opus , Independence and Deterrence : Britain and Atomic Energy 1945 – 52 , finally appeared in 1974 . The publication of her books brought accolades . Gowing was elected a Fellow of the British Academy in 1975 , and was made a Commander of the Order of the British Empire ( CBE ) in 1981 . She received honorary doctorates in literature from the University of Leeds in 1976 , the University of Leicester in 1982 , and Manchester in 1985 , and in science from the University of Bath in 1987 . When she was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1988 under the provisions of Statute 12 of its Charter , which allowed for the election of non @-@ scientists who had made distinguished contributions to science , she became only the third person to become a Fellow of both the British Academy and the Royal Society , after Sir Karl Popper and Joseph Needham . Gowing never got around to writing a planned sequel to Independence and Deterrence that would take the story up 1958 , when the nuclear special relationship between Britain and the United States resumed . Arnold would later write three books to fill in this gap .
In the 1980s , Gowing served as a trustee of the Science Museum , London , and the Imperial War Museum but , remembering her own childhood , she resigned from the latter in protest at the introduction of entry fees . She was also a trustee of the National Portrait Gallery from 1978 to 1992 . She began suffering from what was most likely Alzheimer 's disease , and retired from Oxford in 1986 , two years before the official retirement age . Although she had worked in the Civil Service and Academia for 45 years , only 27 of them counted , so she was not eligible for a full pension ; her son Nik supported her . She died at Kingston Hospital in Kingston upon Thames on 7 November 1998 . An archive of her papers is held by the Museum of the History of Science in Oxford , presented by her in 1991 , with additions on her death .
= = Published works = =
= = = History of the Second World War : United Kingdom Civil Series = = =
British War Economy ( with W.K. Hancock ; 1952 ) . London : Her Majesty 's Stationery Office / Longman 's , Green and Co .
Civil Industry and Trade ( with Eric L. Hargreaves ; 1952 ) . London : Her Majesty 's Stationery Office / Longman 's , Green & Co .
= = = British nuclear weapons programmes = = =
Britain and Atomic Energy , 1935 – 1945 ( 1964 ) London : Macmillan Publishing .
Independence and Deterrence : Britain and Atomic Energy , 1945 – 52 . Volume 1 : Policy Making ( assisted by Lorna Arnold ) . ( 1974 ) . London : Macmillan Publishing , ISBN 0 @-@ 333 @-@ 15781 @-@ 8 .
Independence and Deterrence : Britain and Atomic Energy , 1945 – 52 . Volume 2 : Policy Execution ( assisted by Lorna Arnold ) . ( 1974 ) . London : Macmillan Publishing , ISBN 0 @-@ 333 @-@ 16695 @-@ 7 .
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= Trapalcotherium =
Trapalcotherium is a fossil mammal from the Cretaceous of Argentina in the family Ferugliotheriidae . The single species , T. matuastensis , is known from one tooth , a first lower molar . It is from the Allen Formation , which is probably Maastrichtian in age , and was first described in 2009 . The tooth bears two rows of cusps , one at the inner ( lingual ) side and the other at the outer ( labial ) side , which are connected by transverse ridges separated by deep valleys . This pattern is reminiscent of Ferugliotherium , a gondwanathere mammal from similarly aged deposits in Argentina , and Trapalcotherium is therefore recognized as a member of the same family Ferugliotheriidae . Ferugliotheriidae is one of two families of gondwanatheres , an enigmatic group without close relationships to any living mammals .
= = Discovery and context = =
The only known fossil of Trapalcotherium was found at Cerro Tortuga in Río Negro Province , southern Argentina . This locality is in the Allen Formation , one of three formations ( rock units ) that have yielded Late Cretaceous gondwanathere fossils from Argentina ( the others are the Los Alamitos and La Colonia Formations ) . All three are probably about equally old , from the Maastrichtian ( latest Cretaceous , about 71 – 66 million years ago , mya ) and perhaps partly the Campanian ( 84 – 71 mya ) . The mammals from the Allen Formation are known from seven teeth , six of which represent four species of dryolestoids — a group of primitive mammals that dominates the Late Cretaceous mammalian faunas of Argentina . The fauna was described in a 2009 paper by Guillermo Rougier and colleagues , who named Trapalcotherium as well as several new dryolestoids . The generic name , Trapalcotherium , combines the name of the basin where Cerro Tortuga is located , Bajo Trapalca , with the Greek therion " beast " , commonly used to mean " mammal " in scientific names . The specific name , matuastensis , derives from Puesto El Matuesto , a shed used by the paleontologists who collected the fossils from the Allen Formation .
= = Description = =
The single tooth of Trapalcotherium is identified as a lower molar because it has two longitudinal rows of cusps ; as a first molar because it is longer than wide ; and as a left tooth because the left side ( interpreted as labial , in the direction of the lips ) bears more cusps than the right side ( lingual , the direction of the tongue ) . The tooth is 2 @.@ 48 mm long and 2 @.@ 07 mm wide . Part of the back labial corner is missing .
The lingual row contains three cusps and the labial probably five ( the broken corner renders the number uncertain ) . Transverse ridges , separated by deep valleys , connect the lingual and labial cusps ; therefore , the cusps are not strongly separate , but rather fused . The lingual cusps are larger and separated by larger valleys than the labial ones . At the front of the tooth is a triangular structure consisting of the first lingual and the first two labial cusps . A low crest connects the first lingual to the first labial cusp and a stronger crest , separated from the first by a relatively shallow valley , connects the second lingual to the first labial cusp . Behind this structure , a second triangle is formed by two crests passing from the second lingual cusp to two cusps at the labial side ( the back of the two is broken away , but its existence is presumed from the crown pattern ) . The front of these two crests is interrupted by a groove . The third lingual cusp is also connected to two crests , which encircle a small depression and presumably connected to one or more labial cusps , which are missing from the fossil .
= = Relationships = =
Trapalcotherium is identified as a member of Gondwanatheria — a small and enigmatic group of mammals from Cretaceous and Paleogene of the southern continents ( Gondwana ) — on the basis of the transverse ridges and triangle on its crown . It resembles Ferugliotherium from the Los Alamitos Formation , the only previously known uncontroversial member of the family Ferugliotheriidae , but differs in some characters : the triangle at the front is narrower in Trapalcotherium ; the valley behind the front triangle is less curved ; the ridges attached to the second lingual cusp form another triangle ; the tooth is relatively shorter ; Trapalcotherium does not have the Y @-@ shaped valleys between cusps seen in Ferugliotherium ; and the tips of the lingual cusps are more labially placed . The evolutionary affinities of gondwanatheres , which include the Ferugliotheriidae and the higher @-@ crowned Sudamericidae , are controversial , though a relationship with multituberculates ( a large group mainly known from the northern continents of Laurasia ) has repeatedly been proposed ; the identification of Trapalcotherium does not provide additional information that has a bearing on the relationships of the gondwanatheres .
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= Greater adjutant =
The greater adjutant ( Leptoptilos dubius ) is a member of the stork family , Ciconiidae . Its genus includes the lesser adjutant of Asia and the marabou stork of Africa . Once found widely across southern Asia , mainly in India but extending east to Borneo , the greater adjutant is now restricted to a much smaller range with only two small breeding populations ; one in India with the largest colony in Assam and the other in Cambodia . Populations disperse after the breeding season . This large stork has a massive wedge @-@ shaped bill , a bare head and a distinctive neck pouch . During the day , they soar in thermals along with vultures with whom they share the habit of scavenging . They feed mainly on carrion and offal ; however , they are opportunistic and will sometimes prey on vertebrates . The English name is derived from their stiff " military " gait when walking on the ground . Large numbers once lived in Asia , but have declined greatly , possibly due to improved sanitation , to the point of being endangered . The total population in 2008 was estimated at around a thousand individuals . In the 19th century , they were especially common in the city of Calcutta , where they were referred to as the " Calcutta adjutant " . Known locally as hargila ( derived from the Sanskrit word for " bone @-@ swallower " ) and considered to be unclean birds , they were largely left undisturbed but sometimes hunted for the use of their meat in folk medicine . Valued as scavengers , they were once used in the logo of the Calcutta Municipal Corporation .
= = Description = =
The greater adjutant is a huge bird , standing tall at 145 – 150 cm ( 57 – 59 in ) . The average length is 136 cm ( 54 in ) and average wingspan is 250 cm ( 98 @.@ 5 in ) . While no weights have been published for wild birds , the greater adjutant is among the largest of living storks , with published measurements overlapping with those of the jabiru ( Jabiru mycteria ) , saddle @-@ billed stork ( Ephippiorhynchus senegalensis ) and marabou stork ( Leptoptilos crumeniferus ) . Juvenile greater adjutant storks in captivity weighed from 8 to 11 kg ( 18 to 24 lb ) . For comparison , the heaviest known wild stork was a marabou stork scaling 8 @.@ 9 kg ( 20 lb ) . The huge bill , which averages 32 @.@ 2 cm ( 12 @.@ 7 in ) long , is wedge @-@ like and is pale grey with a darker base . The wing chord averages 80 @.@ 5 cm ( 31 @.@ 7 in ) , the tail 31 @.@ 8 cm ( 12 @.@ 5 in ) and the tarsus 32 @.@ 4 cm ( 12 @.@ 8 in ) in length . With the exception of the tarsus length , the standard measurements of the greater adjutant are on average greater than that of other stork species . A white collar ruff at the base of its bare yellow to red @-@ skinned neck gives it a vulture @-@ like appearance . In the breeding season , the pouch and neck become bright orange and the upper thighs of the grey legs turn reddish . Adults have a dark wing that contrasts with light grey secondary coverts . The underside of the body is whitish and the sexes are indistinguishable in the field . Juveniles are a duller version of the adult . The pendant inflatable pouch connects to the air passages and is not connected to the digestive tract . The exact function is unknown , but it is not involved in food storage as was sometimes believed . This was established in 1825 by Dr John Adam , a student of Professor Robert Jameson , who dissected a specimen and found the two layered pouch filled mainly with air . The only possible confusable species in the region is the smaller lesser adjutant ( Leptoptilos javanicus ) , which lacks a pouch , prefers wetland habitats , has a lighter grey skull cap , a straighter edge to the upper mandible and lacks the contrast between the grey secondary coverts and the dark wings .
Like others storks , it lacks vocal muscles and produces sound mainly by bill @-@ clattering , although low grunting , mooing or roaring sounds are made especially when nesting . The bill @-@ clattering display is made with the bill raised high and differs from that of the closely related African marabou which holds the bill pointed downwards .
= = Taxonomy and systematics = =
John Latham wrote about the bird found in Calcutta based on descriptions in Ives 's Voyage to India published in 1773 and included an illustration in the first supplement to his General Synopsis of Birds . The illustration was based on a drawing in Lady Impey 's collection and Latham called it the gigantic crane and included observations by an African traveller named Smeathman who described a similar bird from western Africa . Johann Friedrich Gmelin used Latham 's description and described the Indian bird as Ardea dubia in 1789 while Latham later used the name Ardea argala for the Indian bird . Temminck used the name Ciconia marabou in 1824 based on the local name used in Senegal for the African bird and this was also applied to the Indian species . This led to considerable confusion between the African and Indian species . The marabou stork of Africa looks somewhat similar but their disjunct distribution ranges , differences in bill structure , plumage , and display behaviour support their treatment as separate species .
Most storks fly with their neck outstretched , but the three Leptoptilos species retract their neck in flight as herons do , possibly due to the heavy bill . When walking on the ground , it has a stiff marching gait from which the name " adjutant " is derived .
= = Distribution = =
This species was once a widespread winter visitor in the riverine plains of northern India , however their breeding areas were largely unknown for a long time until a very large nesting colony was finally discovered in 1877 at Shwaygheen on the Sittaung River , Pegu , Burma and it was believed that the Indian birds bred there . This breeding colony , which also included spot @-@ billed pelicans ( Pelecanus philippensis ) , declined in size and entirely vanished by the 1930s . Subsequently , a nest site in Kaziranga was the only known breeding area until new sites were discovered in Assam , the Tonle Sap lake and in the Kulen Promtep Wildlife Sanctuary . In 1989 , the breeding population in Assam was estimated at about 115 birds and between 1994 and 1996 the population in the Brahmaputra valley was considered to be about 600 . A small colony with about 35 nests was discovered near Bhagalpur in 2006 .
During the non @-@ breeding season , storks in the Indian region disperse widely , mainly in the Gangetic Plains and sightings from the Deccan region are rare . Records of flocks from further south near Mahabalipuram have been questioned . In the 1800s , adjutant storks were extremely common within the city of Calcutta during the summer and rainy season . These aggregations along the Ghats of Calcutta however declined and vanished altogether by the early 1900s . Improved sanitation has been suggested as a cause of their decline . Birds were recorded in Bangladesh in the 1850s , breeding somewhere in the Sundarbans , but have not been recorded subsequently .
= = Behaviour and ecology = =
The greater adjutant is usually seen singly or in small groups as it stalks about in shallow lakes or drying lake beds and garbage dumps . It is often found in the company of kites and vultures and will sometimes sit hunched still for long durations . They may also hold their wings outstretched , presumably to control their temperature . They soar on thermals using their large outstretched wings .
= = = Breeding = = =
The greater adjutant breeds during winter in colonies that may include other large waterbirds such as the spot @-@ billed pelican . The nest is a large platform of twigs placed at the end of a near @-@ horizontal branch of a tall tree . Nests are rarely placed in forks and an unobstructed top canopy allows the birds to fly easily from and to the nests . In the Nagaon nesting colony in Assam , tall Alstonia scholaris and Anthocephalus cadamba were favourite nest trees . The beginning of the breeding season is marked by several birds congregating and trying to occupy a tree . While crowding at these sites , male birds mark out their nesting territories , chasing away others and frequently pointing their bill upwards while clattering them . They may also arch their body and hold their wings half open and drooped . When a female perches nearby , the male plucks fresh twigs and places it before her . The male may also grasp the tarsus of the female with the bill or hold his bill close to her in a preening gesture . A female that has paired holds the bill and head to the breast of the male and the male locks her by holding his bill over her neck . Other displays include simultaneous bill raising and lowering by a pair . The clutch , usually of three or four white eggs , is laid at intervals of one or two days and incubation begins after the first egg is laid . Both parents incubate and the eggs hatch at intervals of one or two days , each taking about 35 days from the date of laying . Adults at the nest have their legs covered with their droppings and this behaviour termed as urohidrosis is believed to aid in cooling during hot weather . Adults may also spread out their wings and shade the chicks . The chicks are fed at the nest for about five months . The chicks double in size in a week and can stand and walk on the nest platform when they are a month old . At five weeks , the juveniles leap frequently and can defend themselves . The parent birds leave the young along for longer periods at nest at this stage . The young birds leave the nest and fly around the colony when about four months but continue to be fed occasionally by the parents .
= = = Feeding = = =
The greater adjutant is omnivorous and although mainly a scavenger , it preys on frogs and large insects and will also take birds , reptiles and rodents . It has been known to attack wild ducks coming within reach and swallowing them whole . Their main diet however is carrion and like the vultures their bare head and neck is an adaptation . They are often found on garbage dumps and will feed on animal and human excreta . In 19th @-@ century Calcutta , they fed on partly burnt human corpses disposed along the Ganges river . In Rajasthan , where it is extremely rare , it has been reported to feed on swarms of desert locusts ( Schistocerca gregaria ) but this has been questioned .
= = = Parasites , diseases and mortality = = =
At least two species of bird lice , Colpocephalum cooki and Ciconiphilus temporalis have been found as ectoparasites . Healthy adult birds have no natural predators , and the only recorded causes of premature mortality are due to the direct or indirect actions of humans ; such as , poisoning , shooting , or electrocution when the birds accidentally fly into overhead electricity wires . Captive birds have been found to be susceptible to avian influenza ( H5N1 ) and high mortality was noted at a facility in Cambodia , with two @-@ thirds of infected birds dying . The longest recorded life span in captivity was 43 years .
= = Status and conservation = =
Loss of nesting and feeding habitat through the draining of wetlands , pollution and disturbance , together with hunting and egg collection in the past has caused a massive decline in the population of this species . The world population was estimated at less than 1 @,@ 000 individuals in 2008 . The greater adjutant is evaluated as Endangered on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species .
Conservation measures have included attempts to breed them in captivity and to reduce fatalities to young at their natural nesting sites . Nearly 15 % of the chicks are killed when they fall off the nests and die of starvation , so some conservationists have used nets positioned below the nests to prevent injuries to falling young and then raising these fallen birds in enclosures for about five months before releasing them to join their wild siblings .
= = In culture = =
Aelian described the bird in 250 AD in his De Natura Animalium as the kila , a large bird from India with a crop that looks like a leather bag . In Victorian times the greater adjutant was known as the gigantic crane and later as the Asiatic marabou . It was very common in Calcutta during the rainy season and large numbers could be seen at garbage sites and also standing on the top of buildings . Its local name hargila is derived from the Sanskrit hadda @-@ gilla , which means " bone @-@ swallower " , and John Latham used it to give the species the binomial name , Ardea argala . At that time it was a belief that it was protected by the souls of dead Brahmins . Young British soldiers were known to harass these birds for fun , even blowing up birds by feeding them meat containing bones packed with a cartridge and fuse . The birds in Calcutta were considered to be efficient scavengers and an act was passed to protect them . Anyone who killed the bird had to pay a fine of fifty rupees . The old emblem of the Calcutta Municipal Corporation included two adjutant storks facing each other . Captured birds , probably from Calcutta reached menageries in Europe during this period .
The undertail covert feathers taken from adjutant were exported to London during the height of the plume trade under the name of Commercolly ( from the place Kumarkhali , now in Bangladesh ) or " marabout " .
An Indian myth recorded by the Moghul emperor Babur was that a magic " snake @-@ stone " existed inside the skull of the bird , being an antidote for all snake venoms and poisons . This " stone " was supposed to be extremely rare as it could only be obtained by a hunter with great skill , for the bird had to be killed without letting its bill touch the ground in which case the " stone " would evaporate instantly . Folk @-@ medicine practitioners believed that a piece of stork flesh chewed daily with betel could cure leprosy .
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= I Thought I Lost You =
" I Thought I Lost You " is a pop song , a country song , as well as a rock song performed by both American singer @-@ songwriter and actress Miley Cyrus and actor and singer John Travolta . The song was co @-@ written by Cyrus with producer Jeffrey Steele . It was released to Radio Disney as promotion for the 2008 Disney animated film Bolt , in which Cyrus and Travolta provide the voices of Penny and Bolt . " I Thought I Lost You " was made after filmmakers requested Cyrus to write a song for the film . The song is a teen pop number whose lyrics speak of getting lost and getting found .
" I Thought I Lost You " was nominated for Broadcast Film Critics Association Award for Best Song and Golden Globe Award for Best Original Song , but lost both to Bruce Springsteen 's " The Wrestler " from The Wrestler ( 2008 ) . The song 's accompanying music video has Cyrus and Travolta performing the song in a recording studio and features clips from Bolt . " I Thought I Lost You " was promoted by few live performances by Cyrus .
= = Background = =
Cyrus became involved with Bolt once she was cast as Penny , Bolt 's owner . Filmmakers asked Cyrus to write a song for herself and John Travolta , who stars as Bolt . She co @-@ wrote the song with the aid of Jeffrey Steele , who also produced the track , in a short period of time as they had a due date . The film 's settings vary in cities throughout the United States , which Cyrus thought she could capture in the song . " Not just make it something that sounds from Hollywood and really produced , but we could add a little country twang to it , " she said . Cyrus said the writing process was easy . Before the song 's completion , Travolta agreed to sing it , believing " Well , it will be a cute song , whatever it is . " After listening to the song , he was surprised at Cyrus ' songwriting abilities . " She 's really gifted at writing , and she really wanted to write something good for me as the character Bolt , so she went out of her way with her writing partner to come up with something good , and I really think they pulled it off " , Travolta told MTV News .
John Lasseter , executive producer of Bolt , decided to make " I Thought I Lost You " the theme for Bolt , since it lyrically summarized the film 's plot . He said , " [ The song ] so sums up the theme of this film . You know , a dog and its owner and they both were separated , but they love each other so much — there 's such an emotional payoff when these characters get reunited , and I think that 's what this song 's about . " Lasseter thought that solely the song worked , but it worked better for the film . " I Thought I Lost You " is one of two songs on the Bolt soundtrack and was released to Radio Disney to promote Bolt and its accompanying soundtrack .
= = Composition = =
" I Thought I Lost You " is a pop song that incorporates rock elements and lasts three minutes and thirty @-@ six seconds . Its instrumentation includes electric guitar and piano . The song is set in common time at a moderate rock tempo of 103 beats per minute . The song is sung in the key of E ♭ major and Cyrus ' vocals span two octaves , from G3 to A ♭ 5 . " I Thought I Lost You " follows the chord progression of E ♭ — A ♭ sus2 . The song 's lyrics speak of " getting lost and getting found , with an overarching theme of loyalty . "
= = Critical reception = =
The song received mixed reception from contemporary critics . William Ruhlmann of Allmusic wrote , " The album begins with a pop / rock song , ' I Thought I Lost You , ' which oddly sounds like a love duet between John Travolta , a man in his mid @-@ fifties , and the teenage TV and pop star Miley Cyrus , until it is remembered that Travolta voices the movie 's title character , a dog . " " I Thought I Lost You " was nominated for the Broadcast Film Critics Association Award for Best Song at the 14th Broadcast Film Critics Association Award , but lost to Bruce Springsteen 's " The Wrestler " from The Wrestler ( 2008 ) . The song was nominated for the Golden Globe Award for Best Original Song at the 66th Golden Globe Awards , but also lost to " The Wrestler " . An uncredited reviewer from The Los Angeles Times thought the song could have been nominated for and won the Academy Award for Best Original Song at 81st Academy Awards . However , the reviewer stated that the probability of the event was shattered by " a serious obstacle [ solely being used in Bolt 's ending credits ] and lots of Disney competition . "
= = Music video and live performances = =
The music video for " I Thought I Lost You " premiered on November 3 , 2008 on Disney Channel . The video commences with a clip from Bolt in which one of the film 's characters , Rhino , shouts " Let it begin ! " Then several clips from the film play rapidly until Cyrus and Travolta are shown performing in a recording studio . Throughout the rest of the video , scenes alternate between Cyrus and Travolta performing to clips from Bolt . It ends with Rhino performing a brief dance move .
Cyrus first performed " I Thought I Lost You " live on November 12 , 2008 at an outdoor concert televised by Good Morning America . She also performed the track at the 2008 Macy 's Thanksgiving Day Parade .
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= Yuna ( Final Fantasy ) =
Yuna ( ユウナ , Yūna ) is a fictional character from Square Enix 's Final Fantasy series . She was first introduced as the female protagonist and one of the main playable characters of the 2001 role @-@ playing video game Final Fantasy X , appearing as a summoner embarking on a journey to defeat the world @-@ threatening monster Sin alongside her companions , including the male protagonist Tidus . Yuna reappears in Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 , where she becomes the protagonist , searching for a way to find Tidus two years following his disappearance . Yuna has also been featured in other Square Enix games , notably Dissidia 012 Final Fantasy .
Tetsuya Nomura based Yuna 's overall design on hakama , but also wanted to give her outfit something that would flow and so gave her a furisode . Nomura said that her name carried the night in the Okinawan language in contrast to Tidus , which translates to sun . For Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 , the game 's staff wanted Tetsu Tsukamoto to redesign her costume to reflect her personality and the game 's atmosphere . Yuna 's character was well received by many media critics and fans and in particular praised for her relationship to Tidus , as well as her characterization and sex appeal . Despite this positive reception , there was a mixed reception for her role in Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 due to her redesign .
= = Appearances = =
In Final Fantasy X , Yuna is introduced as a summoner who can use healing magic and is able to summon powerful magical entities called aeons with help from spirits known as Fayths . Already known throughout Spira as the daughter of High Summoner Braska , who previously brought a brief respite from Sin 's destruction ten years earlier , Yuna decides to embark on the summoner 's pilgrimage to become a High Summoner herself . Yuna must journey to temples across the world , acquire the aeon from each and summon the Final Aeon in a battle that will kill them both . She gradually becomes more open and falls in love with Tidus . Upon arriving at the place where Yuna can summon the final aeon , Tidus persuades the group to look for another way to defeat Sin without using any sacrifices . After entering Sin 's body , Yuna and her guardians defeat the disembodied spirit of Yu Yevon , who is responsible for reviving Sin after each defeat , allowing an eternal Calm start in Spira . However , Tidus disappears as he is the product of the Fayth , who could not depart until Sin 's defeat .
In Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 , set two years after Final Fantasy X , Yuna is a member of the sphere hunting group Gullwings , along with Rikku and Paine . In the game 's international version , the Gullwings go their separate ways before the game 's opening , with Yuna returning to Besaid Island . The trio then reunite to explore a tower . In X @-@ 2 , Yuna journeys to Spira in search of the truth behind a sphere containing a video featuring a man resembling Tidus in prison . During her journey , Yuna discovers the man from the sphere was actually Shuyin , a spirit who wishes to destroy Spira in revenge for the death of his lover , Lenne . The Gullwings defeat Shuyin who departs to the afterlife with Lenne 's spirit . Depending on the player 's progress throughout the game , the Fayth may revive Tidus so that she can reunite with him . The HD Remastered version of the game adds a new audio drama where Yuna becomes a part of the group called Yevoners whose main temple is located on Besaid . In the story she breaks up with Tidus after telling her she loves somebody else before declaring she will fight Sin once again .
She also appears in Dissidia 012 Final Fantasy , an action game that features several Final Fantasy characters , as one of the characters to be summoned by the goddess Cosmos to participate in a war against her rival Chaos . For this game , Yuna appears in her Final Fantasy X form but sightly arranged to fit with the game 's cast . Additionally , she has an alternative design based on Yoshitaka Amano 's illustration , and a wedding dress from Final Fantasy X. Her Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 regular form was made available as downloadable content .
Outside the Final Fantasy series , Yuna appears in Kingdom Hearts II as a pixie along with Paine and Rikku . Bribed by Maleficent into spying on Leon 's group , the pixies eventually switch sides after being abandoned by the witch and told of Sora 's cause . Yuna is also featured in the board game style video game Itadaki Street Special , appearing alongside Auron and Tidus , and represents Final Fantasy X in the rhythm game Theatrhythm Final Fantasy .
Multiple figures and figurines of Yuna were produced by various manufacturers , including a 2001 figure by Square . A 2003 audio CD Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 Vocal Collections features performances by Mayuko Aoki , Marika Matsumoto and Megumi Toyoguchi , the voice actresses for Yuna , Rikku and Paine , respectively .
= = Creation and development = =
According to Tetsuya Nomura , he based Yuna 's overall design on hakama , a type of traditional Japanese clothing . Nomura said that when he learned the character was to perform a dance called the " sending , " he wanted to give her outfit something that would flow . For this reason , the specific type of kimono he chose for her was a furisode , a long @-@ sleeved kimono . Nomura also said that he adorned Yuna 's dress and necklace with images of the hibiscus flower also called " yuna , " and that her name carries the meaning of " night " ( 夕な ) in Okinawan , establishing a contrast between her and the lead male protagonist of Final Fantasy X , Tidus , whose Japanese name ( ティーダ ) translates to " sun " ( 太陽 ) in Okinawan . This contrast is also represented in @-@ game by items named for the sun and moon that empower Tidus ' and Yuna 's most powerful weapons . Nomura explains that while all these subtle details may be unneeded , he wanted his designs to have meaning behind them .
The positive fan reaction to Final Fantasy X convinced the developers to continue the story of Yuna and other characters with Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 . Costume designer Tetsu Tsukamoto said that the radical design changes for Yuna from one game to the other reflected a huge cultural change . Producer Yoshinori Kitase added that they did not want to make Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 feel like an extension of its predecessor , so they changed the clothing of Yuna , Rikku and others ' to make them seem more active . This was accomplished before the story and setting were created . Because Yuna , Rikku and Paine live in a more care @-@ free world , the designers wanted them to be able to dress up , a feature which became key to the gameplay . Scenario writer Kazushige Nojima described her new outfit as a " natural reaction to the heavy stuff she wore in FFX . " Yuna 's singing performance was used to demonstrate the pop feel that the game incorporates . Final Fantasy X director Motomu Toriyama said her personality was the result of not having her bear the responsibility of being a summoner anymore . He added that while " she could be seen as a completely different person , ... deep in her heart , she is the same old Yuna . "
In the Japanese versions of the games Yuna has been voiced by Mayuko Aoki . Hedy Burress provides the character 's voice in the English adaptations of the game . In voicing Yuna , Burress remembers trying to translate Yuna 's duty , respect and honor , but also wanting to retain the gentleness and femininity of her character . When commenting on how the audiences would react to Final Fantasy X , Burress said that she wanted them to participate in the game itself and to " transport them into a completely different world " through the voices .
= = Reception = =
Yuna received positive critical reception for her appearance in Final Fantasy X. Chris Reiter of Gaming Target ranked her as the third best " PlayStation 2 babe " , describing her as " the star heroine whose soft features , kindness , and her unique story makes her one of the better beauties to love . " In 2008 , Chip ranked her as the 13th top " girl of gaming " . In 2012 , Larry Hester of Complex ranked the original version of Yuna as the 20th " hottest " video game character yet . That same year , Heath Hooker of GameZone ranked Yuna the ninth top Final Fantasy character , calling her " one of the strongest female characters in the entire Final Fantasy franchise " and stating " the depth of character Yuna presents to the player is unfathomable and is one reason why she lands on this list . " In 2013 , Complex editors Michael Rougeau and Gus Turner listed Yuna at number 21 on the list of the greatest heroines in video game history. ranked Yuna as the sixth greatest Final Fantasy character of all time . However , PSU.com retrospectively called Yuna an underrated character and stated that she was overlooked due to Auron and Rikku .
GamesRadar listed Yuna as one of the 25 best new characters of the 2000s , describing the romance between her and Tidus as " legendary " and Yuna herself as compassionate , generous and dutiful . Yuna and Tidus were included on the list of " great loves " by Matthew Rorie of GameSpot in 2006 , while AJ Glasser of GamesRadar in 2008 listed them as the second best Square Enix couple . Their kiss scene was declared as number two best in video games by Lisa Foiles of The Escapist , and Yuna 's abortive wedding with Seymour was also ranked as the third memorable matriminy in the history of PlayStation by Official PlayStation Magazine in 2014 .
Yuna 's design change in Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 received a mixed reception . Rob Wright of Tom 's Hardware included her among the 50 greatest female characters in video game history . Jeremy Dunham of IGN praised the clothing designs , combining " proven and recognizable Final Fantasy styles " with a " revealing neo @-@ modern fashion sense " , referencing her warrior costume as a stand @-@ out , and also said that English voice actress Hedy Burress ' portrayal seemed more comfortable as opposed to the previous game . Brad Shoemaker of GameSpot praised Burress ' voice acting , saying that it brought her fully to life in accordance with the other changes in the character . The book Packaging Girlhood : Rescuing Our Daughters from Marketers ' Schemes described Yuna 's appearance as being a " sexy MTV video star " , adding that it is a " lesson to girls that being brave , strong , and ready to fight can only last so long - the next adventure is fashion , boyfriends , and sex . " GameSpy 's Raymond " Psylancer " Padilla called her " the video @-@ game vixen of my dreams . " Christian Nutt , also of GameSpy , described Burress ' portrayal of Yuna in X @-@ 2 as superb . Various publications compared Yuna to other fictional characters , including the Charlie 's Angels 's Natalie Cook as portrayed by Cameron Diaz ; and Tomb Raider star Lara Croft , due to her attire and gun @-@ wielding skills . In 2008 , GameDaily listed the Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 incarnation of Yuna as one of the top 50 hottest video game women , praising her revealing outfit as well as her alternate costumes . That same year , she was ranked as the tenth on top Final Fantasy character by IGN , commenting that while her original appearance made her " fine eye @-@ candy " and her sending scene was one of the best works by the CG studio Square Visual Works , it was the sequel that gave her more confidence and attitude , as well as " a gratuitously exploitative costume that ranks among the series ' finest bits of fanboy @-@ baiting . "
The character also gained a significant and enduring popularity among the gamer public , especially in Japan . Readers of Game Informer voted Yuna 's relationship with Tidus as the best of 2001 . Yuna was voted the 10th most popular video game character in Japan in a 2008 Oricon poll , as well as 16th in a similar poll by Famitsu 2010 . In a 2010 ASCII Media Works poll in which Japanese fans would vote whose video game or manga character would like to name their children after , Yuna came second in the female category . In official Square Enix polls , Yuna was voted the third most commonly favorite female Final Fantasy character in 2013 and the most popular Final Fantasy heroine in 2014 .
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= The Sound of White =
The Sound of White is the debut studio album by Australian pop singer @-@ songwriter Missy Higgins , released 6 September 2004 by Eleven . It won the 2005 ARIA Music Award for Best Female Artist . Higgins had secured recording contracts with Eleven and Warner Bros. while still in high school , after winning a competition for unsigned artists run by radio station Triple J. Her winning song , " All For Believing " , is included on this album . After a backpacking trip in 2002 , Higgins toured and wrote songs during 2003 . She wrote most tracks alone and collaborated on three songs , with Kevin Griffin , Jay Clifford and Clif Magness respectively . The Sound of White was recorded in 2004 with producer John Porter .
Higgins ' first single from the album was " Scar " , released in August ahead of the album . Three more singles were released , " Ten Days " in November , " The Special Two " in April 2005 and " The Sound of White " in August . Critics gave the album mixed reviews and it achieved commercial success , reaching number one on the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) Albums Chart and , selling over 630 @,@ 000 copies , was accredited platinum nine times . The album was nominated for five ARIA Awards in 2004 and won ' Best Pop Release ' . The following year it was nominated for eight ARIA awards and won five . In 2005 , Higgins won the Australasian Performing Right Association ( APRA ) ' Song of the Year ' award for " Scar " .
= = Background and recording = =
In 2001 , while still at high school , Higgins wrote the song " All for Believing " as part of a music assignment . The song won Unearthed , a competition for unsigned artists run by radio station Triple J and was added to their playlist . She was offered recording contracts by Sony and Eleven . She signed with Eleven before setting off in 2002 on a backpacking trip to Europe . She planned to write music during her trip but , leaving her guitar on a train in Spain , only completed one song . While holidaying , " All for Believing " was picked up by Los Angeles ( LA ) radio station KCRW and at the end of her trip , she flew to LA to sign an international recording contract with Warner Bros.
In 2003 , Higgins spent several months touring as a support act for other artists , and writing music for her debut album . She wrote most of the songs alone , and most of them on the piano . She collaborated with Better Than Ezra musician Kevin Griffin on two songs ; " Scar " and " Don 't Ever " . " Ten Days " , inspired by Higgins ' break @-@ up with her boyfriend before she travelled to Europe , was co @-@ written with Jay Clifford from Jump , Little Children . " The River " was co @-@ written with Clif Magness .
In November , Higgins released a self @-@ titled extended play ( EP ) which contained four songs including " All for Believing " and " Greed for Your Love " , the song she had written in Europe . In 2004 she travelled to the US to work with British musician and record producer John Porter and engineer and mixer Jay Newland . Porter assembled a group of session musicians for the album , including drummer Michael Barker , bassist John Patitucci and cellist Martin Tillman .
= = Release = =
Higgins released her first single from the album , " Scar " , as an EP on 2 August 2004 ; it entered the ARIA Singles Chart at No. 1 . The Sound of White was released in Australia on 6 September . It entered the ARIA Albums Chart at No. 1 and stayed in the top 50 for 85 weeks . It was certified nine times platinum by ARIA . It entered the New Zealand album chart at No. 40 , peaked at No. 19 and remained on the chart for 11 weeks . Three more singles were released from the album . " Ten Days " was released 15 November , entering at No. 14 , later rising to No. 12 . " The Special Two " was released as an EP on 4 April 2005 . It entered the ARIA Singles Chart at No. 2 and stayed on the chart for 19 weeks . " The Sound of White " was released 15 August . It entered the chart at No. 22 and left it after five weeks . The album was released in the United Kingdom on 6 June and the US on 7 June on Reprise ( a label owned by Warner Bros. )
Higgins promoted the album in Australia in October 2004 with her first national tour as a headline act .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical = = =
In his 2009 book Playlisted : Everything You Need to Know About Australian Music Right Now , Craig Mathieson said that The Sound of White was lyrically " descriptively giving , often heartbroken and occasionally delusional " .
The album received mixed reviews from American music critics . Christian Hoard and Jonathan Ringen of Rolling Stone were unimpressed by the album . Although they praised the production , they called it " utterly conventional " and said that Higgins was " too bland " to succeed in the US . Allmusic 's Jonathan Widran was more impressed , also praising the album 's production as well as more lightly produced tracks " Don 't Ever " , " Night Minds " and " The Sound of White " . He said " there 's no doubt she 'll be the one up @-@ and @-@ coming singers want to compare themselves to " . Writing for Entertainment Weekly , Holly George @-@ Warren said that the album was " reminiscent of early Suzanne Vega and Sarah McLachlan " and that it sounded " just right " . Billboard gave the album a positive review , praising Higgins ' use of different genres and noting her " refreshing Melbourne accent " and concluding that it was " tailor @-@ made for lazy summer days " .
= = = Awards = = =
Higgins received six ARIA Awards for The Sound of White . In 2004 , at the 18th Annual ARIA Music Awards , Higgins was nominated for ' Single of the Year ' , ' Best Female Artist ' , ' Breakthrough Artist — Single ' and ' Best Pop Release ' , all for " Scar " . She won the award for ' Best Pop Release ' . Squareyed Films received a nomination for ' Best Video ' for " Scar " . The following year , at the 19th Annual ARIA Music Awards , Higgins received five more awards ; ' Best Female Artist ' ( for " Scar " ) , ' Breakthrough Artist — Album ' , ' Highest Selling Album ' , ' Best Pop Release ' ( for " The Sound of White " ) and ' Album of the Year ' . She was also nominated for ' Single of the Year ' and ' Highest Selling Single ' , both for " The Special Two " . Cathie Glassby received a nomination for ' Best Cover Art ' for The Sound of White .
In 2005 at the Australasian Performing Right Association ( APRA ) Awards , which recognise song writing , sales and airplay performance , Higgins was nominated for two awards ; ' Song of the Year ' ( for " Scar " and " Ten Days " ) and ' Breakthrough Award ' ( for an emerging songwriter ) . She won the ' Song of the Year ' award ( with " Scar " ' s co @-@ writer Kevin Griffin ) and the ' Breakthrough Award ' . Aged 21 at the time , she was the youngest recipient of the ' Song of the Year ' APRA award to date .
In October 2010 , The Sound of White was listed in the book , 100 Best Australian Albums .
= = Track listing = =
The album was slightly varied for its international release , replacing the track " Casualty " with " Unbroken " and including the song " They Weren 't There " as a secret track and a remixed version of " Scar " , known as the Jay Newland Mix .
= = = Australian release = = =
All tracks written by Missy Higgins , except where noted .
" All for Believing " – 3 : 27
" Don 't Ever " ( Missy Higgins , Kevin Griffin ) – 2 : 52
" Scar " ( Higgins , Griffin ) – 3 : 36
" Ten Days " ( Higgins , James Major Clifford ) – 3 : 45
" Nightminds " – 3 : 19
" Casualty " ( Higgins , Griffin ) – 4 : 14
" Any Day Now " – 3 : 51
" Katie " – 3 : 35
" The River " ( Higgins , Clif Magness ) – 4 : 28
" The Special Two " – 4 : 27
" This Is How It Goes " – 3 : 32
" The Sound of White " – 4 : 49
" They Weren 't There " – 4 : 07
= = = International release = = =
" All for Believing " – 3 : 27
" Ten Days " – 3 : 45
" Scar " ( Jay Newland Mix ) – 3 : 32
" Don 't Ever " – 2 : 52
" Nightminds " – 3 : 13
" Unbroken " ( Higgins , Griffin ) – 3 : 41
" Any Day Now " – 3 : 51
" Katie " – 3 : 35
" The River " – 4 : 23
" The Special Two " – 4 : 27
" This Is How It Goes " – 3 : 28
" The Sound of White " – 9 : 06 ( includes time for following track )
" They Weren 't There " ( hidden track )
= = Personnel = =
= = Chart positions = =
= = = Album = = =
= = = Singles = = =
" — " denotes releases that did not chart .
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= U.S. Route 127 in Michigan =
US Highway 127 ( US 127 ) is a part of the United States Numbered Highway System that runs from Chattanooga , Tennessee , to the Lower Peninsula of Michigan . In Michigan , it is a state trunkline highway that runs for 214 @.@ 12 miles ( 344 @.@ 59 km ) , entering from Ohio south of Hudson and ending at a partial interchange with Interstate 75 ( I @-@ 75 ) south of Grayling . Prior to 2002 , US 127 ended at I @-@ 69 north of Lansing – East Lansing , a total of approximately 83 miles ( 134 km ) . US 127 is the primary route connecting Lansing and Central Michigan to Northern Michigan and the Mackinac Bridge . From the south side of Jackson northerly , it is mostly a four @-@ lane freeway . A notable exception is a 16 @-@ mile ( 26 km ) stretch from north of St. Johns to just south of Ithaca , where the highway is built as an expressway and speed limits are lower . South of Jackson to the state line , the trunkline is a two @-@ lane , undivided highway with access from adjacent properties .
The highway was first designated on November 11 , 1926 , along a series of existing state highways from Lansing southward toward Toledo . In 1930 , the southern end was rerouted south of Somerset in rural northwestern Lenawee County to a course that ran directly south to the Ohio state line ; the remainder was renumbered US 223 . Starting in the 1950s , the highway was reconfigured to bypass Mason and other communities , converting US 127 into a freeway from Jackson to the Lansing area by the mid @-@ 1970s . When the Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) successfully petitioned the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials ( AASHTO ) in 1999 to remove US 27 from the state , US 127 was to be extended northward from Lansing to Grayling as the replacement designation . This change was made in 2002 , resulting in the current configuration of the highway in Michigan . The United States Congress has designated an additional Interstate Highway , to be part of I @-@ 73 that would replace most or all of US 127 through Central and Southern Michigan , but any plans by MDOT to complete this highway were cancelled in 2001 .
= = Route description = =
Running just about 212 @.@ 2 miles ( 341 @.@ 5 km ) in Michigan , US 127 runs north – south up the center of the Lower Peninsula . North of its junction with US 223 in Lenawee County , it is listed as a part of the National Highway System , a system of roads importance to the nation 's economy , defense and mobility . As a state trunkline highway , the roadway is maintained by the Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) , and it includes approximately 162 @.@ 6 miles ( 261 @.@ 7 km ) of freeway in two segments , the southernmost running between Jackson and Clinton counties , separated by an 16 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 16 mi ) gap from the northernmost segment between Gratiot and Crawford counties . According to the department , 1 @,@ 253 vehicles use US 127 on average near the state line , and 68 @,@ 853 vehicles do so between M @-@ 43 and Kalamazoo Street in Lansing , the lowest and highest traffic counts along the highway in 2013 , respectively .
= = = State line to Lansing = = =
US 127 enters Michigan as a two @-@ lane highway south of Hudson called Meridian Road , which follows the course ( with minor deviations ) of the Michigan Meridian used to survey Michigan in the early 19th century . From the state line north , US 127 follows the Hillsdale – Lenawee county line north through agricultural areas in Southern Michigan . The highway intersects M @-@ 34 at Hudson . Near Beecher Road north of the city , US 127 veers westward , off the county line and travels fully within Hillsdale County for about six miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) . Near intersections with Manitou and Adams roads south of Addison , it crosses fully into Lenawee County . The highway continues due north from Addison to an intersection with US 223 's northern terminus in the northwestern corner of the county , where US 127 turns northwesterly .
About a mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) farther north , US 127 intersects US 12 east of Somerset . US 127 continues northward , clipping through the corner of Hillsdale County and crossing into Jackson County . The highway follows Meridian Road through the southern area of the county until the interchange with M @-@ 50 southeast of Jackson . There US 127 transitions into a full freeway bypass to the east of Jackson while Business US 127 ( Bus . US 127 ) follows M @-@ 50 into the city . The freeway crosses the Grand River twice near the South Street interchange . It also crosses a rail line of the Norfolk Southern Railway near the Page Avenue interchange . Northeast of Jackson , US 127 meets I @-@ 94 and turns westward to run concurrently with it along the northern edge of Jackson . US 127 crosses the Grand River again on this 3 1 ⁄ 2 @-@ mile ( 5 @.@ 6 km ) section of I @-@ 94 before turning northward again .
The US 127 freeway continues northward , concurrent with M @-@ 50 for the first mile and a half ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) north of I @-@ 94 . The freeway runs through rural northern Jackson County , paralleled by State Road before curving northwesterly near the county line with Ingham County . US 127 passes through Leslie with Churchill and Hull roads running parallel on either side of the freeway . US 127 loses these companion roads at Mason where it curves northwest to the Lansing area .
On the southeastern side of the capital city , US 127 meets I @-@ 96 . From this interchange northward , the freeway is also designated as part of I @-@ 496 ( Ransom E. Olds Freeway ) . The I @-@ 496 / US 127 freeway runs northward through suburban Delhi Township and into the city of Lansing . Right near the Red Cedar River , just west of the Michigan State University campus , I @-@ 496 and US 127 separate as US 127 continues north and I @-@ 496 turns west . This side of the city is mostly residential neighborhoods as US 127 runs along the East Lansing border , but there is a commercial area surrounding the Lake Lansing Road interchange before the highway crosses into Clinton County . US 127 meets I @-@ 69 northeast of Lansing , at the 1998 – 2002 terminus of the highway . From here north , US 127 follows the former US 27 north to Grayling .
= = = Through Central Michigan = = =
The freeway continues northward through rural Central Michigan farmlands . It crosses the Looking Glass River near DeWitt . At Price Road , Bus . US 127 splits off to connect into St. Johns while the freeway bypasses the city to the east . US 127 intersects M @-@ 21 due east of downtown St. Johns before the freeway curves west and then north to intersect the northern end of the business loop . North of this interchange , for about 16 miles ( 26 km ) , US 127 follows an expressway segment . It is a four @-@ lane divided highway with some local driveway access and cross traffic through at @-@ grade intersections . The speed limit drops from 70 to 65 miles per hour ( 113 to 105 km / h ) ; until 2010 , this section was 55 miles per hour ( 89 km / h ) and was considered a speed trap .
The expressway segment passes through an area that is mostly farms with occasional business . Just north of the Gratiot County line , the highway cross the Maple River in a large wetlands area . North of the river , the expressway crosses a rail line at grade north of the one interchange along the expressway , connecting with M @-@ 57 . South of Ithaca , the highway crosses the Bad River and transitions back to a freeway for the remainder of its routing . There are two interchanges on either end of Ithaca for that city 's Bus . US 127 as the freeway runs east of that city 's downtown area . US 127 runs due northward until curving northwesterly to pass between Alma and St. Louis . At the adjacent partial interchanges for Lincoln and State roads , two separate business loops depart from the freeway to run through the two cities . The Bus . US 127 for Alma follows Lincoln Road westward , while the one for St. Louis runs north on State Road . The freeway crosses the Pine River while running between Alma and St. Louis before intersecting M @-@ 46 and the northern ends of the two business loops at another pair of adjacent partial interchanges .
North of Alma , US 127 turns due north again and crosses into Isabella County . It runs near the campus of Central Michigan University , crossing the Chippewa River in Mount Pleasant . Mount Pleasant is also home to the Saginaw Band of Chippewa Indians and their tribal reservation . The area between the directional interchanges for Bus . US 127 in Mount Pleasant is marked by residential neighborhoods ; the location of the M @-@ 20 interchange has some commercial properties , however . Otherwise , the landscape in Isabella County is mostly farms adjacent to the freeway .
The business loop for Clare splits from the main freeway south of the city , and it is also signed to provide access to eastbound US 10 via Bus . US 10 , which US 127 crosses just south of the Clare County line . North of this line , US 10 and US 127 meet at a directional interchange . Ttraffic from westbound US 10 defaults onto northbound US 127 , and traffic from the southbound freeway can exit onto eastbound US 10 ; no other direct connections are provided between the two freeways , requiring the use of the business loops through downtown to make the missing connections . The freeway rounds Lake Shamrock north of downtown and intersections the joint northern end of two business loops . There is a welcome center in the median of US 127 / US 10 before the two highways separate north of the city .
US 127 continues northward through rural woodlands in Clare County to the community of Harrison . There is another Bus . US 127 for the community , part of which is also M @-@ 61 . The freeway passes between Little Long and Sutherland lakes north of Harrison before intersecting the northern end of the business loop . US 127 serves the resort area at Houghton Lake in Roscommon County . It crosses the Muskegon River on the west side of Houghton Lake before running along the western side of Higgins Lake near the Crawford County line . US 127 ends about four miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) south of Grayling at a partial interchange with I @-@ 75 . Traffic along US 127 northbound has access to northbound I @-@ 75 and southbound traffic on I @-@ 75 can access US 127 southbound .
= = History = =
In 1919 , the Michigan State Highway Department ( MSHD ) signposted the highway system for the first time , At the time , the original M @-@ 14 designation was assigned from the Ohio state line northward through Jackson , Lansing , Mount Pleasant , Clare , and Grayling . The highway also continued from Grayling northward through Gaylord to Cheboygan . Seven years later , the United States Numbered Highway System was created on November 11 , 1926 , and in Michigan 's initial assignments , US 27 replaced M @-@ 14 between Lansing and Cheboygan , while US 127 ran from Lansing southward through Jackson to the Somerset area where it turned southeasterly , replacing the former M @-@ 80 and M @-@ 34 through Adrian to Toledo , Ohio . The remainder of M @-@ 14 south to the state line remained a shortened M @-@ 14 .
The southern end of US 127 was rerouted in 1930 from Somerset south to Hudson and on to Cincinnati , Ohio . The section of former US 127 between Somerset and Toledo became US 223 . The northern end was shifted slightly in 1950 in the city of Lansing when US 27 was rerouted from its car @-@ only route to its truck route and US 127 was realigned to connect to the new routing .
The city of Mason was bypassed in 1954 . The former route through town was designated Bus . US 127 at the time . The US 127 expressway was first started in 1957 with an extension south of Mason to Leslie . A further extension to Jackson was opened in 1958 . By 1960 , Jackson was bypassed to the east and the former route through downtown was redesignated Bus . US 127 . Over the next few years , the expressway was upgraded to a full freeway that was completed in by 1964 . The US 127 freeway was extended north to the Lansing area by 1968 . Near Lansing , it was routed along I @-@ 496 to the north side of Lansing and East Lansing to connect with US 27 . The last extension of US 127 for another 11 years was completed in 1973 when the freeway was completed north to the DeWitt area , connecting with US 27 there .
Two changes took place in the routing of US 127 in the 1980s as the I @-@ 69 freeway was completed . The northern Lansing bypass was completed in 1984 , and I @-@ 69 was built through Clinton County in 1987 . These changes routed I @-@ 69 along a portion of US 127 near DeWitt and removed a Temporary I @-@ 69 routing from US 127 on the east side of Lansing . The opening of the St. Johns Bypass on August 31 , 1998 , shortened US 127 by almost two miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) while US 27 was routed along the I @-@ 69 freeway between exits 87 and 89 to connect with the new freeway northward . US 127 ended at its junction with I @-@ 69 and US 27 and no longer ran concurrently with I @-@ 69 afterward .
MDOT petitioned the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials ( AASHTO ) for approval to remove US 27 from Michigan in 1999 . This proposed change would remove the 88 @-@ mile ( 142 km ) concurrency of I @-@ 69 and US 27 southwest of the Lansing area . MDOT proposed that US 127 be extended north over the former US 27 to Grayling . AASHTO approved this change on April 16 , 1999 , nearly tripling the highway from 83 miles ( 134 km ) to 214 miles ( 344 km ) . The highway markers were changed over in 2002 , converting US 27 and the Bus . US 27 designations to US 127 and Bus . US 127 , respectively .
In 2009 , MDOT constructed Michigan lefts at several intersections in northern Clinton County to remove cross @-@ street traffic . In April 2010 , the department raised speed limits for passenger cars on this non @-@ freeway stretch to 65 miles per hour ( 105 km / h ) from the previous 55 miles per hour ( 89 km / h ) .
= = Future = =
As originally defined in 1991 , the alignment of I @-@ 73 in Michigan would have simply run along I @-@ 75 to Detroit . However , the definition was amended in 1995 to have a branch along the US 223 corridor to south of Jackson and the US 127 corridor ( formerly US 27 north of Lansing until 2002 ) north to I @-@ 75 near Grayling . From Grayling northward , it would simply use I @-@ 75 to Sault Ste . Marie . Except south of Jackson , where it is a two @-@ lane road and a section of road north of Lansing where the freeway reverts to a divided highway , this is mostly a rural four @-@ lane freeway . While there are no immediate plans to convert the section between St. Johns and Ithaca to freeway , MDOT continues to purchase parcels for right @-@ of @-@ way to be used for future upgrades .
MDOT included using the US 127 and US 223 corridors as one of its three options to build I @-@ 73 in 2000 . The others included using the US 127 corridor all the way into Ohio with a connection to the Ohio Turnpike or using US 127 south and a new freeway connection to US 223 at Adrian . MDOT abandoned further study of I @-@ 73 after June 12 , 2001 , diverting remaining funding to safety improvement projects along the corridor . The department stated there was a " lack of need " for sections of the proposed freeway , and the project website was closed down in 2002 . According to press reports in 2011 , a group advocating on behalf of the freeway is working to revive the I @-@ 73 project in Michigan . According to an MDOT spokesman , " to my knowledge , we ’ re not taking that issue up again . " The Lenawee County Road Commission is not interested in the freeway , and according to the president of the Adrian Area Chamber of Commerce , " there seems to be little chance of having an I @-@ 73 link between Toledo and Jackson built in the foreseeable future . "
= = Exit list = =
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= Tvrđa =
Tvrđa ( Citadel ) is the Old Town of the city of Osijek in Croatia . It is the best @-@ preserved and largest ensemble of Baroque buildings in Croatia and consists of a Habsburg star fort built on the right bank of the River Drava . Tvrđa has been described by the World Monuments Fund as " a unique example of an eighteenth @-@ century baroque military , administrative , and commercial urban center " .
The star fort was constructed in the immediate vicinity of medieval Osijek after the defeat of the Ottoman forces in 1687 , due to Osijek 's strategic importance . Constructed starting in 1712 to plans by Mathias von Kaiserfeld and then Maximilian Gosseau de Henef , all five planned bastions and two gates were complete by 1715 . By 1735 , the inner town was finished and three northern bastions had been added . When complete , it was the largest and most advanced Habsburg fortress on the border with the Ottoman Empire , consisting of eight bastions and featuring armories , depots , a garrison headquarters , military court , construction office , a garrison physician , guardhouse , officers ' apartments , a military hospital and seven barracks . The completed fort was entirely surrounded with walls and palisades and had four main gates at each side ( north , south , east , west ) . Tvrđa had street lights by 1717 and was the site of the first public water supply in Croatia , opened in 1751 .
Tvrđa 's military importance decreased after the Berlin Congress of 1878 , with the increasing stability of the surrounding region . Most of the fort walls and fortifications were destroyed in the 1920s due to the obstacle they presented to the development of Osijek . While the fortifications have largely been removed , the fort 's interior core remains intact and is now home to churches , museums , schools and other public buildings , as well as numerous bars and restaurants . Of the fortification system , only the northern side of the walls now remain intact , as well as parts of the first and eighth bastions along with the northern gate known as the ' water gate ' ( ' vodena vrata ' ) . Tvrđa sustained significant damage during the Croatian War of Independence during the 1990s and was featured on the 1996 World Monuments Watch List of Most Endangered Sites . It now features on Croatia 's ' tentative list ' for consideration as a nominee for a World Heritage Site .
= = History = =
= = = Medieval and Ottoman eras = = =
The new name of Osijek first appeared in 1196 . The center of medieval Osijek was on the banks of the River Drava where Tvrđa now stands . The town was a trade and port settlement from the early 12th century due to its position on the way from Pécs and Buda southwards . The site was home to the Romanesque church of the Holy Trinity . Between 1526 and 1687 Osijek was ruled by the Ottomans , who did not change the layout of the settlement in any substantial way but introduced Islamic places of worship , giving the area an Oriental appearance . Traces of medieval and Ottoman towns remain to this day , including a remnant of the old Ottoman fortress wall , known today as the " Turkish Wall " ( Turski zid ) or " Filibey 's Fort " ( Filibejeva utvrda ) , lying next to the Tvrđa access road .
During the Ottoman period , Osijek was internationally known because of the Suleiman Bridge . The construction of the bridge was begun by İbrahim Pasha on 16 August 1526 following the orders of Suleiman the Magnificent . The bridge , which connected Osijek and Darda , took the form of a wooden road on piers and was approximately 7 kilometres ( 4 @.@ 3 mi ) long and 6 metres ( 20 ft ) wide . Seen as a great threat to Christian Europe the bridge was attacked several times , being destroyed in 1664 , when it was set on fire on the orders of Croatian feudal lord Nicholas VII of Zrin ( Croatian : Nikola VII . Zrinski , Hungarian : VII . Zrínyi Miklós ) . The bridge was rebuilt during the rule of Suleiman II . Finally , it was burned down by the Habsburg armies in 1686 .
= = = Design and construction = = =
= = = = First layout in late 17th century = = = =
Development of the military settlement at Tvrđa started in 1687 when the Habsburg armies drove the Ottomans out of the city during the Great Turkish War . The chief commander of the Imperial army , Louis William , Margrave of Baden @-@ Baden , saw Osijek as a location of exceptional strategic importance in the war against the Ottomans . He urged the repair of the city walls , and proposed construction of a new fort according to Vauban 's principles of military engineering .
The town magistrate was established in 1690 , while the plans for the new fort were still being drawn up , and one of its documents from August of the same year described the condition of the settlement as " ruinous " . Two months later , on 29 October , the Ottoman army suddenly attacked . The attack was repulsed only thanks to a well @-@ organised defense , and the Turks withdrew on 6 November , after a brief siege . The event was a clear lesson that the construction of the fort must not be delayed any further . The first phase of Tvrđa 's conversion into a Baroque fortress was based on the plan devised by the engineer Mathias von Kaiserfeld from 1691 .
= = = = Second layout in 18th century = = = =
The original plan for Tvrđa was drafted because of the need to reinforce the town walls , but did not include provisions to redesign the interior and envisaged largely uncontrolled development . New plans for a fort on the right bank of the River Drava were drawn up by Maximilian Gosseau de Henef . Gosseau took over planning of the fort when construction was already under way . Starting in August 1712 , Austrian engineers , supervised by the fort 's commander , General Johann Stephan von Beckers , built barracks , staff headquarters , churches and monasteries , surrounded by system of moats , bastions and gun positions , respecting Gosseau 's design . The design followed the model of lowland Dutch military fortifications of the period .
By 1715 , all five planned bastions and two gates were complete . An additional , western , gate leading to the Upper Town was added in 1716 . The construction of the outwork on the opposite bank of the River Drava , designed to offer protection from the north and to serve as a bridgehead , was completed by 1721 . The final , fourth gate , leading to the Lower Town , was not added until 1783 . Construction of the inner town was completed by 1733 , and in 1735 three additional northern bastions were completed , along with a post office , the fort 's construction office and a hospital . The completed fort had " eight bastions , two armories , two major depots , garrison headquarters , military court , construction office , garrison physician , guardhouse , officer apartments , military hospital and seven barracks " . Based on the ' ring model ' , the fortifications took up an area of 80 hectares ( 200 acres ) , making Tvrđa the largest fortress on the border with the Ottoman Empire .
Gosseau 's plan left space for churches to be built where mosques had once stood . Initially , converted mosques were used as churches , but Franciscans started to build a Baroque church in 1709 and it was consecrated in 1732 . A Franciscan monastery was built between 1699 and 1705 , with a new wing being added between 1731 and 1733 , which subsequently became a new monastery in 1761 . In 1725 , the Jesuits commenced construction of the parish church of St. Michael ( Croatian : Sveti Mihovil ) , following the construction of their own monastery . This church was in use after 1734 , despite being incomplete . A Holy Trinity column was erected in the fort 's main square in 1730 as a plague monument featuring volutes with pedestals on which four protectors against the plague are placed . Four additional pedestals were added to the monument in 1784 , each featuring a statue of a saint . Tvrđa had street lighting as early as 1717 . The first system to supply public water in Croatia was opened in Tvrđa in 1751 .
In the mid @-@ 18th century there were reportedly more than 35 inns in Tvrđa , estimated to an account for one in three of the fort 's buildings . Crown prince Joseph stayed in one of the inns when visiting Osijek . In 1786 , as Joseph II , he decreed the merger of the Upper Town , Lower Town and Tvrđa into one single town council .
= = = 19th and 20th century = = =
As early as the second half of the 18th century there was little or no new constructions taking place in Tvrđa , and even maintenance of the fort became a burden . In 1809 Osijek was granted free royal town status . Osijek 's council was accommodated in a building at the south @-@ eastern corner of Tvrđa 's main square .
Tvrđa 's military importance decreased after the Berlin Congress of 1878 as a result of increasing political and military stability in the region . Two north @-@ western bastions were demolished in the 1870s , making way for Ambrose 's Park ( Croatian : Ambrozijev perivoj ) . Construction of the Royal Grammar School started in 1881 , and the Royal General Secondary School was completed in 1890 . Episcopal seminary was also built in the south @-@ western corner of the main square in 1898 . These were the only buildings erected within Tvrđa walls in the last three decades of the 19th century .
As Osijek grew as a city , the fort 's presence hindered the potential for urban development . The demolition of most of the fort walls happened between 1923 and 1926 , with the construction of an electric tramway . The last gunpowder magazine , located behind the church of St. Michael , was demolished in 1958 . While most of the fortifications have been demolished ( only the first and eighth bastions and the northern wall with its so @-@ called ' water gate ' were kept ) , the center of Tvrđa remains intact . The Yugoslav People 's Army maintained a garrison and a military hospital in Tvrđa , but in the 1980s these buildings were gradually being abandoned , and adapted into ateliers for local painters and sculptors .
The fort sustained considerable damage during the Croatian War of Independence , which lasted from 1991 until 1995 . The war brought structural damage from collapsing roofs , walls and floors . These damages threaten plaster , sculpture and murals that lack proper protection and are subject to continuing decay .
= = Present day = =
After the fortress 's military importance decreased at the end of the 19th century , Tvrđa became a center of administrative , educational , cultural , and scholarly life in Osijek and the entire region . The first school in Osijek was organized at Tvrđa ; the first scholarly curriculum was introduced in 1707 , to be later expanded and renewed , and the first printing press started working in 1735 . The significance of educational institutions of Tvrđa are best underlined by the fact that Croatian Nobel Prize laureates , Lavoslav Ružička and Vladimir Prelog , along with Serbian scientist Milutin Milanković ( Milankovitch cycles ) , were all alumni ( graduates ) of the Tvrđa schools . The Faculty of Agriculture of the Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of Osijek has occupied the former general headquarters since 1995 after its previous site was destroyed in the Croatian War of Independence . The Faculty of Food Technology has been relocated to a building that served as the first military hospital in Osijek , from the mid @-@ 17th century until the beginning of the 1990s . Other present @-@ day educational institutions in Tvrđa include the II and the III Gymnasium , Franjo Kuhač Music School ( former Roman Catholic Seminary ) , Jesuit Classical Gymnasium ( former logistics barracks built in the mid @-@ 18th century ) , and the Secondary School of Economics ( former grammar school for girls ) .
According to the 2001 census , within the Tvrđa city district , there are 10 @,@ 277 inhabitants living in 3 @,@ 310 households . The fort interior is now a centre of Osijek 's nightlife . There are numerous bars and restaurants in Tvrđa . The fort hosts the Museum of Slavonia , the largest general @-@ type museum in Croatia , located in Tvrđa since 1946 . The former town museum and archives building today houses the State Directorate for Monument Protection , a department of the Croatian Ministry of Culture . The patron saint of the Tvrđa is Saint Michael , and his feast day of September 29 is celebrated as the day of the Tvrđa city district .
= = Heritage status = =
" I have seen many European towns , but have never found an identical development whereby an existing urban nucleus was turned into a fortification , or a similar town @-@ planning solution " .
The World Monuments Fund has described Tvrđa as " a unique example of an eighteenth @-@ century baroque military , administrative , and commercial urban center " . Tvrđa is on Croatia 's ' Tentative List ' for consideration as nominee for the World Heritage Site . During the 1991 – 95 conflict in Croatia , 90 per cent of the buildings in Tvrđa were damaged to some extent and the fort was featured on the 1996 World Monuments Watch List of Most Endangered Sites . It has not appeared on the list , published every two years , since .
The building of the general headquarters , dating from 1726 , and the ground plan of the fortress are depicted on the reverse of the Croatian 200 kuna banknote , issued in 1993 and 2002 .
The Agency for Restoration of Osijek Tvrđa ( Croatian : Agencija za obnovu osječke Tvrđe ) was established in 1999 . Its stated goals are protection , restoration and revitalization of Tvrđa . The restoration process aims to preserve architectural , historical and aesthetic qualities of Tvrđa in full accordance with the restoration principles set by the International Council on Monuments and Sites , while maintaining its multifunctional character . International cooperation is also envisioned , in particular with the Council of Europe . The Agency is jointly funded by the Government of Croatia , Osijek @-@ Baranja County and the City of Osijek .
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= Happy Now ? ( No Doubt song ) =
" Happy Now ? " is a song recorded by American rock band No Doubt . It was released as the fifth single from their third studio album Tragic Kingdom ( 1995 ) . The single was issued on January 20 , 1997 as a CD single . It was written by Gwen Stefani , Tom Dumont , and Tony Kanal , with its production handled by Matthew Wilder . Its lyrics allude to Stefani 's relationship status with Kanal , who broke up their seven @-@ year relationship when creating Tragic Kingdom .
Musically , " Happy Now ? " is an alternative rock and ska punk song , like the majority of its parent album . The song received generally positive reviews from music critics , with one of them calling it an improvement over No Doubt 's previous releases . Commercially , the single was unsuccessful and the only from Tragic Kingdom not to peak on any record chart .
= = Background and release = =
" Happy Now ? " was recorded during sessions for No Doubt 's third studio album Tragic Kingdom ( 1995 ) . Band members Eric Stefani , Gwen Stefani , Tony Kanal , Tom Dumont , Adrian Young , and producer Gary Angle collaborated for the effort . However , after their record label Interscope brought in outside producer Matthew Wilder to improve the album 's sessions , Eric became distraught and decided to leave the group . The single was recorded at eleven different studios in California in 1995 .
A CD single featuring the song was released in both Australia and Sweden ; however , the single was the only one released from Tragic Kingdom that did not peak on any significant record chart . The Australian CD included three tracks : the album version of " Happy Now ? " , plus bonus tracks " Let 's Get Back " and a cover of Sublime 's song " D.J. ' s " . The Swedish CD featured the single and a cover of the ska @-@ holiday song " Oi to the World " . The CD 's cover art would be later used for Tragic Kingdom 's seventh and final single , " Hey You ! " .
= = Composition and lyrics = =
" Happy Now ? " was written by Gwen Stefani , Tom Dumont , and Tony Kanal , while Matthew Wilder solely produced it . A critic from Sputnikmusic stated the track had a " great melody " , while calling the guitar @-@ driven lead " melancholic " . Similarly , Thomas Bleach from his music blog stated it " brought back the ska / rock sound that they created on their earlier releases " . A critic from Classic Rock Review called it " a more vocal and lyric driven track with strong guitar riffing and chords " , while Maggie Lange of GQ labeled it a " real classic breakup song " .
Lyrically , the song details Stefani 's former relationship with Kanal . The same critic from Classic Rock Review agreed that it " deal [ s ] with Gwen Stefani 's recent breakup with Kanal " . Kenneth Partridge 's Billboard review stated that the song 's lyrics involved Stefani 's feelings towards Kanal , adding that it was " written about the guy that got away – and who was standing a few feet away with a bass around his neck " . Similarly , David Browne of Entertainment Weekly approved of the " taunt [ ing ] " and " savor [ y ] " lyrics that describe a man who ended a relationship but " wants back in " , such as " All by yourself / You have no one else " .
= = Critical reception = =
" Happy Now ? " received generally favorable reviews upon its release . Mike Boehm of the Los Angeles Times favored the single and cited it as an " example of the band 's improved craft " . Kenneth Partridge , writing for the The A.V. Club , enjoyed the song , mentioning that although it " didn 't chart as high ... the damage was done " . A reviewer from Sputnikmusic listed it under his " recommended " tracks from Tragic Kingdom , while Thomas Bleach from his self @-@ titled blog similarly called it one of his favorites .
= = Track listings and formats = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits and personnel adapted from the Tragic Kingdom liner notes .
Personnel
= = Release history = =
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= Annamalaiyar Temple =
Annamalaiyar Temple is a Hindu temple dedicated to the deity Shiva , located at the base of Annamalai hills in the town of Thiruvannamalai in Tamil Nadu , India . It is significant to the Hindu sect of Saivism as one of the temples associated with the five elements , the Pancha Bhoota Stalas , and specifically the element of fire , or Agni . Shiva is worshiped as Annamalaiyar or Arunachaleswarar , and is represented by the lingam , with his idol referred to as Agni lingam . His consort Parvati is depicted as Unnamulai Amman . The presiding deity is revered in the 7th century Tamil Saiva canonical work , the Tevaram , written by Tamil saint poets known as the nayanars and classified as Paadal Petra Sthalam . The 9th century Saiva saint poet Manikkavasagar composed the Tiruvempaavai here .
The temple complex covers 10 hectares , and is one of the largest in India . It houses four gateway towers known as gopurams . The tallest is the eastern tower , with 11 stories and a height of 66 metres ( 217 ft ) , making it one of the tallest temple towers in India . The temple has numerous shrines , with those of Annamalaiyar and Unnamulai Amman being the most prominent . The temple complex houses many halls ; the most notable is the thousand @-@ pillared hall built during the Vijayanagar period .
The temple has six daily rituals at various times from 5 : 30 a.m. to 10 p.m. , and twelve yearly festivals on its calendar . The Karthigai Deepam festival is celebrated during the day of the full moon between November and December , and a huge beacon is lit atop the hill . It can be seen from miles around , and symbolizes the Shiva lingam of fire joining the sky . The event is witnessed by three million pilgrims . On the day preceding each full moon , pilgrims circumnavigate the temple base and the Annamalai hills in a worship called Girivalam , a practice carried out by one million pilgrims yearly .
The present masonry structure was built during the Chola dynasty in the 9th century , while later expansions are attributed to Vijayanagar rulers of the Sangama Dynasty ( 1336 – 1485 CE ) , the Saluva Dynasty and the Tuluva Dynasty ( 1491 – 1570 CE ) . The temple is maintained and administered by the Hindu Religious and Charitable Endowments Department of the Government of Tamil Nadu .
= = Legend = =
In Hindu mythology , Parvati , wife of Shiva , once closed the eyes of her husband playfully in a flower garden at their abode atop Mount Kailash . Although only a moment for the gods , all light was taken from the universe , and the earth , in turn , was submerged in darkness for years . Parvati performed penance along with other devotees of Shiva . Then her husband appeared as a column of fire at the top of Annamalai hills , returning light to the world . He then merged with Parvati to form Ardhanarishvara , the half @-@ female , half @-@ male form of Shiva . The Annamalai , or red mountain , lies behind the Annamalaiyar temple , and is associated with the temple of its namesake . The hill is sacred and considered a lingam , or iconic representation of Shiva , in itself .
Another legend is that once , while Vishnu and Brahma contested for superiority , Shiva appeared as a flame , and challenged them to find his source . Brahma took the form of a swan , and flew to the sky to see the top of the flame , while Vishnu became the boar Varaha , and sought its base . The scene is called lingothbava , and is represented in the western wall at the sanctum of most Shiva temples . Neither Brahma nor Vishnu could find the source , and while Vishnu conceded his defeat , Brahma lied and said he had found the pinnacle . In punishment , Shiva ordained that Brahma would never have temples on earth in his worship .
= = History = =
The present masonry and towers date back to the 9th century CE , as seen from an inscription in the structure made by Chola kings who ruled at that time . Further inscriptions indicate that before the 9th century , Tiruvannamalai was under the Pallava Kings , who ruled from Kanchipuram . The 7th century Nayanar saints Sambandar and Appar wrote of the temple in their poetic work , Tevaram . Sekkizhar , the author of the Periyapuranam wrote that both Appar and Sambandar worshiped Annamalaiyar in the temple . The Chola Kings ruled over the region for more than four centuries , from 850 CE to 1280 CE , and were temple patrons . The inscriptions from the Chola king record various gifts like land , sheep , cow and oil to the temple commemorating various victories of the dynasty . The Hoysala kings used Tiruvannamalai as their capital beginning in 1328 CE . There are 48 inscriptions from the Sangama Dynasty ( 1336 – 1485 CE ) , 2 inscriptions from Saluva Dynasty , and 55 inscriptions from Tuluva Dynasty ( 1491 – 1570 CE ) of the Vijayanagara Empire , reflecting gifts to the temple from their rulers . There are also inscriptions from the rule of Krishnadeva Raya ( 1509 – 1529 CE ) , the most powerful Vijayanagara king , indicating further patronage . Most of the Vijayanagara inscriptions were written in Tamil , with some in Kannada and Sanskrit . The inscriptions in temple from the Vijayanagara kings indicate emphasis on administrative matters and local concerns , which contrasts the inscriptions of the same rulers in other temples like Tirupathi . The majority of the gift related inscriptions are for land endownments , followed by goods , cash endowments , cows and oil for lighting lamps . The town of Tiruvannamalai was at a strategic crossroads during the Vijayanagara Empire , connecting sacred centers of pilgrimage and military routes . There are inscriptions that show the area as an urban center before the precolonial period , with the city developing around the temple , similar to the Nayak ruled cities like Madurai .
During the 17th century CE , the temple along with the Tiruvannamalai town came under the dominion of the Nawab of the Carnatic . As the Mughal empire came to an end , the Nawab lost control of the town , with confusion and chaos ensuing after 1753 . Subsequently , there were periods of both Hindu and Muslim stewardship of the temple , with Muraru Raya , Krishna Raya , Mrithis Ali Khan , and Burkat Ullakhan besieging the temple in succession . As European incursions progressed , Tiruvannamalai was attacked by French Soupries , Sambrinet , and the English Captain Stephen Smith . While some were repelled , others were victorious . The French occupied the town in 1757 , and the temple along with the town came under control of the British in 1760 . In 1790 CE , Tiruvannamalai town was captured by Tippu Sultan , who ruled from 1750 – 99 CE . During the first half of the 19th century , the town along with the temple came under British rule . From 1951 , under the provision of the Hindu Religious and Charitable Endowments Act , the temple has been maintained by the Hindu Religious and Endowment Board ( HR & CE ) of the Government of Tamil Nadu . In 2002 , the Archaeological Survey of India declared the temple a national heritage monument and took over its stewardship . Widespread protests and litigation with the Supreme Court of India , however , led the Archaeological Survey to cede the temple back to the Hindu Religious and Endowment Board .
= = Architecture = =
= = = Complex and towers = = =
The temple is situated at the bottom of the Annamalai hills , and faces east , lying over 25 acres . The walls on the east and west measure 700 ft ( 210 m ) , the south 1 @,@ 479 ft ( 451 m ) , and the north 1 @,@ 590 ft ( 480 m ) . It has four gateway towers , the gopuram , on its four sides . The eastern tower , the Rajagopuram , is the tallest in the temple . The base of the Rajagopuram is made of granite , measuring 135 ft ( 41 m ) by 98 ft ( 30 m ) . It was begun by king Krishnadevaraya ( 1509 – 29 CE ) of the Vijayanagara dynasty , and completed by Sevappa Nayaka ( 1532 – 80 CE ) . The inscriptions indicate that the tower was built at the behest of Sivanesa and his brother Lokanatha in 1572 CE . The south tower is called Thirumanjangopuram , and the west , Pei Gopuram . Ammani Ammal , a Sanyasini , built the north tower which carries her namesake . Raghunathabhyudayam and Sangitha Sudha , both Nayak scriptures , also describe the towers . The Tanjavuri Andhra Raja Charitamu mentions that Krishnadevaraya built the tower and the outer precincts of the temple . The temple has a total of five precincts , each of which holds a huge Nandi , the sacred bull of Shiva . Towers include the Vallala Maharaja Gopuram and Kili Gopuram , or Parrot Tower .
= = = Shrines = = =
The main shrine of Annamalaiyar faces east , housing images of Nandi and Surya , and is the oldest structure in the temple . Behind the walls of the sanctum , there is an image of Venugopalaswamy , an incarnation of Vishnu . Around the sanctum , there are images of Somaskandar , Durga , Chandekeswarar , Gajalakshmi , Arumugaswami , Dakshinamoorthy , Swarnabairavar , Nataraja , and Lingodbhavar — the last an image of Shiva emanating from lingam . The Palliyarai , the divine room for resting deities , is located at the first precinct around the sanctum . The shrine of his consort , Unnamulai Amman , lies in the second precinct , with Amman depicted in a standing posture . Sambantha Vinayagar , the elephant god shrine , is located to the north of the flagstaff and the Bali peeta , or platform for sacrifice . To the south of the thousand @-@ pillared hall , there is a small shrine for Subramaya and a large tank . Pathala Lingam , the underground lingam , is the place where Ramana Maharshi ( 1879 – 1950 CE ) is believed to have performed his penance . The shrine of Sivagangai Vinayagar is present in the northern bank of the Sivanganga tank .
= = = Halls = = =
There is a sixteen pillared Deepa Darshana Mandapam , or hall of light , in the third precinct . The temple tree , Magizha , is considered sacred and medicinal , and childless couples tie small cradles to its branches in obeisance . Vedas write that the mast of the temple separated the earth and the sky during creation of the universe . The Kalyana Mandapam , the marriage hall , is in the south @-@ west of the precinct , and is built in Vijayanagara style . A stone trident is present in the outer shrine of the temple in open air , and has protective railings like a sacred tree . The Vasantha Mandapam , meaning the Hall of spring , is the third precinct , and contains the temple office and Kalahateeswarar shrine . The fourth precinct has an image of Nandi , Brahma Theertham , the temple tank , the Yanai Thirai Konda Vinayaga shrine , and a hall with a six @-@ foot @-@ tall statue of Nandi , erected by Vallala Maharaja .
Inside the doorway of the first tower and the fifth precinct , there is a thousand @-@ pillared hall built during the late Vijayanagara period . Krishnadevaraya constructed the hall and dug the tank opposite to it . The pillars in the hall are carved with images of yali , a mythological beast with body of lion and head of an elephant , a symbol of Nayak power . The Arunagirinathar Mandapam is located to the right of the Kalayana Linga Sundara Eswara Mandapam , and the Gopurathilayanar shrine is to the left of a broad flight of stone stairs that lead up to the Vallala Gopuram .
= = Worship and festivals = =
The temple priests perform the pooja ( rituals ) during festivals and on a daily basis . Like other Shiva temples of Tamil Nadu , the priests belong to the Shaivaite community , a Brahmin sub @-@ caste . The temple rituals are performed six times a day ; Ushathkalam at 5 : 30 a.m. , Kalasanthi at 8 : 00 a.m. , Uchikalam at 10 : 00 a.m. , Sayarakshai at 6 : 00 p.m. , Irandamkalam at 8 : 00 p.m. and Ardha Jamam at 10 : 00 p.m. Each ritual comprises four steps : abhisheka ( sacred bath ) , alangaram ( decoration ) , neivethanam ( food offering ) and deepa aradanai ( waving of lamps ) for both Annamalaiyar and Unnamulai Amman . The worship is held amidst music with nagaswaram ( pipe instrument ) and tavil ( percussion instrument ) , religious instructions in the Vedas read by priests and prostration by worshippers in front of the temple mast . There are weekly rituals like somavaram and sukravaram , fortnightly rituals like pradosham and monthly festivals like amavasai ( new moon day ) , kiruthigai , pournami ( full moon day ) and sathurthi .
The temple celebrates dozens of festivals throughout the year . Four prime festivals , the Brahmotsavam , are celebrated yearly . The most important of these lasts ten days during the Tamil month of Karthikai , between November and December , concluding with the celebration of Karthikai Deepam . A huge lamp is lit in a cauldron , containing three tons of ghee , at the top of the Annamalai hills during the Deepam . To mark the occasion , the festival deity of Annamalaiyar circumambulates the mountain . Inscriptions indicate that the festival was celebrated as early as the Chola period ( from 850 CE to 1280 CE ) and was expanded to ten days in the twentieth century .
Every full moon , tens of thousands of pilgrims worship Annamalaiyar by circumambulating the Arunachala hill barefoot . The circumambulation covers a distance of 14 kilometres ( 8 @.@ 7 mi ) , and is referred as Girivalam . According to Hindu legend , the walk removes sins , fulfils desires and helps achieve freedom from the cycle of birth and rebirth . Offerings are made in a string of tanks , shrines , pillared meditation halls , springs and caves around the hill . The circumambulation continues during the rest of the month . On the day of yearly Chitra Pournami , the full moon of the Tamil calendar , hundreds of thousands of pilgrims come from across the world to worship Annamalaiyar . Five temple cars , called ther , with wooden carvings , are used for the procession .
Tiruvoodal is another festival celebrated during the first week of the Tamil month Thai at mid @-@ January of every year . On the morning of Maatu Pongal , between January 15 and 16 , Nandi is decorated with garlands made of fruits , vegetables and sweets . The festival deities of Annamalaiyar and Unnamamulai Amman are taken out of the temple to Tiruoodal street to enact the oodal ( or love tiff ) between the two in the evening .
= = Religious significance = =
The Annamalaiyar temple is one of the Pancha Bhoota Stalams , or five Shiva temples , with each a manifestation of a natural element : land , water , air , sky or fire . In Annamalaiyar temple , Shiva is said to have manifested himself as a massive column of fire , whose crown and feet could not be found by the Hindu gods , Brahma and Vishnu . The main lingam in the shrine is referred as Agni Lingam , and represents duty , virtue , self @-@ sacrifice and liberation through ascetic life at the end of the Agni kalpa .
Aathara Stala are Shiva temples which are considered to be personifications of the Tantric chakras of human anatomy . The Annamalaiyar temple is called the Manipooraga stalam , and is associated with the Manipooraga chakra . Manipooraga is the chakra of spiritual ignorance , thirst , jealousy , treachery , shame , fear , disgust , delusion , foolishness and sadness .
= = Saints and literary mention = =
Tirugnana Sambandar , a 7th @-@ century Tamil Saivite poet , venerated Annamalaiyar and Unnamulai Amman in ten verses in Tevaram , compiled as the First Tirumurai . Appar , a contemporary of Sambandar , also venerated Annamalaiyar in 10 verses in Tevaram , compiled as the Fifth Tirumurai . As the temple is revered in Tevaram , it is classified as Paadal Petra Sthalam , one of the 276 temples that find mention in the Saiva canon .
Manickavasagar , a 9th @-@ century Tamil saint and poet , revered Annamalaiyar in his writing , describing the deity as " AnnAmalai " . He composed the Thiruvempavai in the Tamil month of Margazhi at the temple . Arunagirinathar was a 15th @-@ century Tamil poet born in Tiruvannamalai . He spent his early years as a rioter and seducer of women . After ruining his health , he tried to commit suicide by throwing himself from the northern tower , but was saved by the grace of god Murugan . He became a staunch devotee and composed Tamil hymns glorifying Murugan , the most notable being Thirupugazh .
The western world learnt of Tiruvannamalai during the mid 20th century , through the work of Ramana Maharishi ( 1879 – 1950 CE ) . The cave where Ramana meditated is on the lower slopes of the Annamalai hills , with the ashram further down at the foothills . The basement of the raised hall inside the temple has the Patala Lingam , where Ramana attained supreme awareness while ants devoured his flesh . The place is also called a Mukthi Sthalam , meaning place of salvation , and saints like Seshadri Swamigal , Gugai Namachivayar and Yogi Ramsuratkumar have been associated with the temple .
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= St. Valentine 's Day ( 30 Rock ) =
" St. Valentine 's Day " is the eleventh episode of the third season , and forty @-@ seventh episode overall , of the American television comedy series 30 Rock . It was written by co @-@ executive producer Jack Burditt and series ' creator , executive producer and lead actress Tina Fey . The director of this episode was series producer Don Scardino . The episode originally aired on the National Broadcasting Company ( NBC ) in the United States on February 12 , 2009 . Guest stars in " St. Valentine 's Day " include Marylouise Burke , Jon Hamm , Salma Hayek , Zak Orth , Laila Robins , Maria Thayer , and Allie Trimm .
In the episode , Liz Lemon ( Fey ) insists that she and Dr. Drew Baird ( Hamm ) have their first official date on Valentine 's Day , while Jack Donaghy ( Alec Baldwin ) prepares himself for an unconventional Valentine 's Day spent at church with his girlfriend Elisa ( Hayek ) . Finally , Tracy Jordan ( Tracy Morgan ) tries to help Kenneth Parcell ( Jack McBrayer ) win the affections of a new staffer ( Thayer ) . This episode also continued a story arc involving Drew as a love interest for Liz , which began in the previous episode .
" St. Valentine 's Day " has received generally positive reviews from television critics . According to the Nielsen Media Research , the episode was watched by 7 @.@ 6 million households during its original broadcast , and received a 3 @.@ 8 rating among viewers in the 18 – 49 demographic .
= = Plot = =
Liz ( Tina Fey ) invites her neighbor , Dr. Drew Baird ( Jon Hamm ) , on their first date , accidentally scheduling it for Valentine 's Day . At the suggestion of her boss , Jack ( Alec Baldwin ) , Liz decides to have the date at her home . Many things go wrong during the date , including Liz exposing her breast and Drew seeing Liz on the toilet . The date gets worse when Drew 's ex @-@ wife drops off their daughter ( Allie Trimm ) at Liz 's apartment . Later , Drew gets news that his mother ( Marylouise Burke ) is critically ill . The two visit her at the hospital and after Drew steps out , Liz is left alone with her . She tells Liz she is in fact not Drew 's mother , but instead his grandmother , and that his sister ( Laila Robins ) is really his birth mother . Following the passing of his grandmother , Liz and Drew still decide to move forward in their relationship , and Liz telling Drew everything his grandmother told her .
Meanwhile , Jack 's Valentine 's dinner plans with his girlfriend Elisa ( Salma Hayek ) are postponed when they have to attend church . Jack calls his office assistant , Jonathan ( Maulik Pancholy ) , telling him to hold his dinner reservations . Before they can leave church , Elisa tells Jack that they need to go to confession . After horrifying the priest ( Zak Orth ) with his admissions , Elisa becomes furious with Jack and breaks up with him . Later , however , she laments her fight with Jack . After finding a McFlurry coupon in the collection plate , she believes it is a sign from God because both she and Jack love the McDonald 's dessert . The two reconcile their relationship as a result , and spend Valentine 's Day together at a McDonald 's .
Finally , Kenneth ( Jack McBrayer ) falls for a new staffer , a blind woman named Jennifer ( Maria Thayer ) . Kenneth cannot bring himself to ask Jennifer out , so Tracy ( Tracy Morgan ) decides to help him . On their date , at the 30 Rock studios , Kenneth and Jennifer are joined by Tracy — who does all the talking . Jennifer believes Kenneth is black , but Kenneth reveals he is white and expresses his feeling for her , and admits to her that Tracy was doing all the talking . Jennifer tells him she does not mind of what has happened . However , after feeling Kenneth 's face and comparing it to her own , she leaves , horrified at his appearance .
= = Production = =
" St. Valentine 's Day " was written by co @-@ executive producer Jack Burditt and series ' creator , executive producer and lead actress Tina Fey . The director of this episode was series producer Don Scardino . It originally aired on NBC in the United States on February 12 , 2009 .
In October 2008 , when actor Jon Hamm hosted the sketch comedy show Saturday Night Live ( SNL ) , negotiations took place with the show 's producers for him to guest star on 30 Rock . In December 2008 , it was confirmed Hamm would appear as a love interest for Fey 's character , Liz Lemon . It was also announced by NBC that Hamm would star in a three episode arc . He made his debut in the episode " Generalissimo " as Dr. Drew Baird , a neighbor and date of Liz Lemon . His last appearance was in " The Bubble " where Liz and Drew break @-@ up . Hamm later appeared in the season four episodes " Anna Howard Shaw Day " and " Emanuelle Goes to Dinosaur Land " .
In an interview with Entertainment Weekly , Fey said when the writing staff is developing a script , " We 'll have an actor in mind and we 'll keep referring to them . Like for this we said , ' Then Hamm comes in , blah blah blah . ' " She believed that there was no possibility of getting Hamm , but " we were lucky with the timing because Mad Men was on hiatus and he was hosting SNL . So I called over there and asked them [ whispering ] , ' Hey , is that guy funny ? Tell me the truth . ' And they were like , ' Yes , he 's really funny . ' By Saturday I knew they were right . "
This episode was actress Salma Hayek 's fourth appearance on 30 Rock . She first appeared in the episode " Señor Macho Solo " as a nurse for Jack Donaghy 's mother and love interest for Jack . She made appearances in the episodes " Flu Shot " and " Generalissimo " . Actress Maria Thayer starred in the 2008 comedy film Forgetting Sarah Marshall as the wife of a character played by Jack McBrayer , who plays Kenneth Parcell on 30 Rock .
In order to shoot a scene in a McDonald 's chain restaurant , the show approached executives from the restaurant , in advance , for permission . The executives looked over the " St. Valentine 's Day " script and gave them permission . The scene was filmed at a McDonald 's franchise in New York City .
Two filmed scenes from " St. Valentine 's Day " were cut out from the airing . Instead , the scenes were featured on 30 Rock ’ s season 3 DVD as part of the deleted scenes in the bonus feature . In the first scene , Kenneth tells Tracy that he cannot go through his date with Jennifer as he does not want to deceive Jennifer , as the plan is that Tracy will do all the talking for Kenneth during the date . Tracy , however , tells Kenneth that no deceiving will occur and that he will be honest during the date . Kenneth is still not convinced about the whole idea , but Tracy manages to change his mind . In the second scene , Jack and Elisa are in church . Jack intrigued with what has happened during church is ready to leave , though , Elisa tells him that the sermon is almost over , but that the service is about to begin .
= = Reception = =
According to the Nielsen Media Research , " St. Valentine 's Day " was watched by 7 @.@ 6 million households in its original American broadcast . It earned a 3 @.@ 8 rating / 9 share in the 18 – 49 demographic . This means that it was seen by 3 @.@ 8 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 9 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . " St. Valentine 's Day " finished in 37th place in the weekly ratings for the week of February 9 – 15 , 2009 .
Robert Canning of IGN reported that the Valentine 's Day theme in the episode " was exactly what you would expect from a series that thrives on uncomfortable romantic situations . " He added that there was a lot to enjoy from " St. Valentine 's Day , " opining that it was a " very funny episode " and that it had " plenty of get moments and memorable lines to make the weak endings a minor factor . " Canning rated the episode an 8 @.@ 4 out of 10 . Alan Sepinwall of The Star @-@ Ledger said that the episode was " structurally and tonally " , but disliked the way the show featured Jon Hamm , as he believed the show was not giving him enough to do besides being " handsome . " Nonetheless , Sepinwall enjoyed the story between Liz and Drew in " St. Valentine 's Day " writing that it was a " better effort " than shown in the previous episode , " Generalissimo " . As with Sepinwall , Maureen Ryan for the Chicago Tribune hoped the show would use Hamm " better " than demonstrated in his first two appearances . Entertainment Weekly contributor Annie Barrett wrote that she liked the way the episode handled the Valentine 's Day theme , however , was not complimentary towards the way Tina Fey and Hamm were featured in " St. Valentine 's Day " with her observing , " the future for TV 's most promisingly delicious couple ... might not be so sweet . " Before the airing of the episode , Barrett very much liked the pairing of the two characters . Kevin D. Thompson for The Palm Beach Post was complimentary about the episode 's theme , and praised 30 Rock for displaying " one of the best " episodes he has ever seen . Jeremy Median of Paste praised the episodes " Generalissimo " and " St. Valentine 's Day " , concluding , " There 's no possible way to mention every funny joke or one @-@ liner in the past two episodes . The show is just too lightning @-@ quick for that . "
TV Squad 's Bob Sassone hoped that the storyline involving Jack and Elisa would be over , " because we all know the relationship isn 't going anywhere . " He , however , noted that it was not a " bad subplot " with the pairing of Kenneth and Tracy , but that his " favorite part " of " St. Valentine 's Day " was Jenna Maroney 's ( Jane Krakowski ) impersonation of singer Michael McDonald . James Poniewozik for Time was not a fan of Salma Hayek 's character , as she was not " adding much to the show . " Poniewozik wrote that her character in this episode was the first time she seemed to be a " fully contributing part of the ensemble . " Jack 's scene in the church , along with him once claiming he was God in a deposition — a reference to Alec Baldwin 's role in the film Malice ( 1993 ) — was well received , with Canning concluding that these traits make for " an instant classic Jack Donaghy moment . "
Many did not enjoy the addition of the McFlurry dessert in " St. Valentine 's Day " as many believed it was product placement . Though , Advertising Age reported that McDonald 's did not pay to have their dessert in the episode , stating that it was all part of the script . Fey also denied the product placement allegations . She said that the show did not receive money and worried that the McDonald 's Corporation might sue them . A McDonald 's commercial that appeared within the half @-@ hour was " part of our traditional media buy " and that no advertising " was moved around specifically to be near " the " St. Valentine 's Day " airing , explained Jennifer Lane Landolt , director @-@ entertainment alliances for McDonald 's .
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= Jade Etherington =
Jade Etherington ( born 9 March 1991 ) is a British former alpine skier who , with her sighted guide Caroline Powell , won silver in the women 's downhill skiing , combined and slalom , and bronze medals in the Super @-@ G at the 2014 Winter Paralympic Games in Sochi . Their three silvers and a bronze at the Winter Paralympics made them the most successful female British Winter Paralympians of all time , and the first Britons to win four medals at one Paralympics . Because of her success at the 2014 Paralympics , Etherington was the British flagbearer at the 2014 Winter Paralympics closing ceremony .
Etherington has only five percent vision in both eyes , thus competes in the visually impaired category , thus needs a sighted guide , Caroline Powell . The pair have competed together since August 2013 . After asking for a new guide through Facebook and after two other applicants pulled out , Etherington and Powell combined in April 2013 .
= = Personal history = =
Etherington was born in Chelmsford on 9 March 1991 , to Amber , a Braintree District Council employee , and Andrew , a stockbroker . They lived in The Causeway , Maldon , but when Jade was seven they moved to Lincolnshire . She was born with glaucoma and Axenfeld syndrome , a visual impairment which can lead to blindness . She inherited it from her mother , Amber , who lost her sight at 14 . Her three younger sisters also have the condition . Despite undergoing multiple surgeries as a child , by the age of 17 she began to lose her sight . She describes her vision as " very blurry with little focus " , and she has a recorded five percent vision in both eyes , which puts her in the B2 classification .
Etherington was educated at The Deepings School in Lincolnshire before matriculating to Bishop Grosseteste University where she was awarded a degree in education and geography . Etherington studied to become a geography teacher with The Open University , undertaking a PGCE , but placed her career on hold to concentrate on the 2014 Winter Paralympic Games . In 2014 she was awarded doctorate of science honoris causa by Anglia Ruskin University .
= = Skiing career = =
Etherington began skiing while still sighted at the age of eight , being taught by her father Andrew and her sisters . She continued skiing recreationally for the next ten years . In 2009 she joined the British Disabled Ski Team ( BDST ) at development level , and began racing internationally in 2011 . The following year she carried the Olympic torch through Lincoln , and was inspired to compete at a higher level after watching the 2012 Summer Olympics and Paralympics in London .
Etherington 's at Europa cup and International Paralympic Committee ( IPC ) alpine skiing events was achieved with her sighted guide Fiona Gingell , but Etherington was forced to appeal for a new guide on her Facebook page after Gingell married and moved to America . After two applicants pulled out , she was left without a guide at the beginning of 2013 , but Heather Mills , who had not qualified for the World Championships , offered her coach , John Clark .
The pair qualified for the 2013 IPC Alpine Skiing World Championships in La Molina , representing Great Britain . At La Molina , Etherington came fourth in the women 's slalom and came third in the women 's super @-@ G , taking bronze . The runs ensured her place at the 2014 Winter Paralympics in Sochi . Etherington teamed up with Caroline Powell in April , allowing her to compete that season . Etherington and Powell began skiing together in August 2013 .
= = = Paralympics = = =
The 2014 Winter Paralympics was Etherington 's debut Paralympics , competing for ParalympicsGB . She competed in the downhill , winning a silver medal with Powell on 8 March 2014 . Slovakian Henrieta Farkasova came 2 @.@ 73 seconds ahead . This was the first time a British woman had won a Winter Paralympic medal on snow , and ParalympicsGB 's first medal of the 2014 Paralympics . Etherington then won a bronze medal in the women 's downhill skiing , and silver in the slalom and the super combined . After winning a silver medal in the super @-@ G visually impaired event on 14 March 2014 , she and Powell became Great Britain 's most successful female Winter Paralympians , and the first Britons to win four medals at one Paralympics . However , they pulled out of the giant slalom , which was on the day of the Sochi 2014 Closing Ceremony . The four medals she won at the 2014 Winter Paralympics were part of a total of six for ParalympicsGB , 66 % of the total British medals at the games .
Etherington was the flag bearer for Great Britain at the closing ceremony , despite rupturing an ovarian cyst , which left her in a wheelchair for much of the day of the ceremony ; she was able to walk and carry the flag having taken painkillers . After the end of the 2014 Winter Paralympics , she was unsure if she would continue competing at international level , saying " I don 't really know what I want right now " . In November 2014 , Etherington announced her retirement from the Paralympic Alpine Skiing programme , aged 23 .
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= Falcon 's Fury =
Falcon 's Fury is a free @-@ standing Sky Jump drop tower attraction at the Busch Gardens Tampa amusement park in Tampa , Florida , United States . Manufactured by Intaride ( a subsidiary of Intamin ) , the ride reaches a maximum height of 335 feet ( 102 m ) making it North America 's tallest free @-@ standing drop tower . Riders experience about five seconds of free fall , reaching a speed of 60 miles per hour ( 100 km / h ) . The ride 's name was chosen to invoke a falcon 's ability to dive steeply at high speed to capture prey .
The project was originally planned to begin in 2012 with the ride opening in 2013 , but it was delayed by one year . Construction began in 2013 with a scheduled opening date of May 1 , 2014 ; however , the opening was delayed due to mechanical and technical issues . Following a preview opening to park employees in early August and a soft opening on August 16 , 2014 , Falcon 's Fury officially opened to the public on September 2 , 2014 . Public response to the ride has been positive , praising the height of the tower and the drop experience .
= = History = =
Planning for Falcon 's Fury began around the time the park completed its Cheetah Hunt ride in 2011 . Ground tests in the Timbuktu area ( now known as Pantopia ) revealed " interesting soil conditions " , with steel beams and concrete required to reinforce the site .
Rumors that Busch Gardens Tampa might replace its Sandstorm ride with a 200 @-@ foot ( 61 m ) drop tower surfaced in the fall of 2011 when its sister park , Busch Gardens Williamsburg , opened Mäch Tower that August . Construction surveying was observed in January 2012 . Two months later plans were filed with the city to build a drop tower , possibly for the 2013 season . Speculation about the new attraction 's name began when SeaWorld Parks & Entertainment , owners of Busch Gardens Tampa , filed trademark applications for " Desert Dive " and " Falcon 's Fury " on May 2 and July 11 , 2012 , respectively , and bought the DesertDive.com domain name . When permits for the new ride differed from those for Mäch Tower in November 2012 , rumors began that the seats would tilt forward . Due to the height of the attraction , approval from the Federal Aviation Administration was required . According to the FAA and the city of Tampa , the tower was supposed to be built in December 2012 and open to the public in 2013 . For unknown reasons the project was delayed , with its construction pushed back to the second half of 2013 .
On May 31 , 2013 , it was announced that Sandstorm would close on June 2 to make room for a new attraction . About two weeks later , on June 11 , Busch Gardens Tampa announced plans for Falcon 's Fury and construction began that month . During the fourth quarter of 2013 , the park drove steel piles for the ride 's foundation nightly for about a month .
On September 20 , the tower for Falcon 's Fury was shipped from Spain in nine sections , arriving at the park near the end of October ; the ride 's smaller parts had been delivered earlier from several European countries . Installation of one of the nine tower pieces was planned for every other night , with the last piece in place by New Year 's Eve . Construction was done by the Adena Corporation , and on November 18 the first piece was installed . The ride 's second piece was installed on December 2 , and two more were installed by December 6 . The fifth section was placed by December 21 , and the sixth was erected by New Year 's Day . The seventh tower piece was installed by January 3 , 2014 , and the eighth by January 5 , reaching a height of about 300 feet ( 91 m ) , and Falcon 's Fury 's gondola was seen at the park on January 12 . The ride 's counterweight was installed on January 22 , and the tower was capped during the weekend of February 1 . Work on the ride 's electrical components then began . Assembly of the gondola was completed by the end of March . Testing was originally scheduled to begin in February , but due to construction delays the first drop tests were not made until April 15 . Tower painting began in June , with its sunset motif estimated to take 60 hours over a three @-@ week period .
At the end of February , Busch Gardens Tampa announced that Falcon 's Fury would open on May 1 , and on April 3 the park began a sweepstakes contest for its " Falcon 's Fury First @-@ to @-@ Ride Party " . A second , similar contest began on April 11 , with fifty winners from each contest being among the first riders . A week later , the park announced that the ride 's opening would be delayed , and several media events scheduled for April and May ( including the First @-@ to @-@ Ride party ) were cancelled . It was later disclosed that the delay was due to manufacturing and technical issues with the cables which pull the gondola up the tower . During the week of August 10 , Falcon 's Fury opened for park employees . On August 16 the ride soft @-@ opened to the public , and two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half weeks later Falcon 's Fury officially opened .
= = Ride experience = =
Falcon 's Fury has two shaded queue lines : a standby line which can hold guests for about 45 minutes , and a Quick Queue for guests with passes that allow them to bypass the standby line . Although the Quick Queue system will not initially be used for the ride , it may be added later . Riders must be between 54 inches ( 137 cm ) and 77 inches ( 196 cm ) .
When the riders are seated a catch car connects to the gondola and raises it to the top of the tower , which takes about one minute . Although the tower is 335 feet ( 102 m ) high , the gondola stops 25 feet ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) lower . When it reaches the maximum height the seats tilt forward , with a computer @-@ randomized wait time from one to five seconds . When the wait time ends , the gondola is released from the catch car into a five @-@ second free fall reaching a maximum speed of 60 miles per hour ( 97 km / h ) . As the gondola passes through the pre @-@ braking section , the seats rotate back into a vertical position . After the pre @-@ brake the gondola enters the main magnetic @-@ brake run , where riders experience approximately 3 @.@ 5 g ( 34 m / s2 ) of deceleration as the gondola slows . When it comes to a full stop at the base of the tower , the riders disembark . One cycle of the ride lasts about one and a half minutes . Busch Gardens Tampa placed an Easter egg in the form of a painted Falcon 's Fury logo on top of one of its buildings , which can be seen only from a certain side of the gondola .
= = Characteristics = =
The tower and gondola were manufactured by Intaride , a subsidiary of Intamin . The ride covers an area of about 3 @,@ 600 square feet ( 330 m2 ) .
= = = Tower = = =
The Falcon 's Fury tower is 335 feet ( 102 m ) tall , the tallest free @-@ standing drop tower in North America , and can bend 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 9 m ) in any direction from the top to withstand hurricane @-@ force winds . The tower is composed of nine sections , including the machine house . Each piece of the tower weighs up to 105 tonnes ( 103 long tons ; 116 short tons ) , and the entire structure weighs about 519 tonnes ( 511 long tons ; 572 short tons ) . The 77 tonnes ( 76 long tons ; 85 short tons ) machine house at the top contains four DC motors used to lift the gondola . Inside the tower is a 68 tonnes ( 67 long tons ; 75 short tons ) counterweight , composed of hundreds of lead weights , to help raise the gondola . The tower 's foundation is made up of 105 steel piles , varying in depth from 75 feet ( 23 m ) to 205 feet ( 62 m ) . A 138 @-@ foot ( 42 m ) eddy current brake system on the tower slows the gondola after its free fall . The structure is painted yellow , aqua and two shades of red .
= = = Gondola = = =
The ride 's single gondola has 32 seats , grouped octagonally around the tower . Each of the eight sides seats four riders , and each seat has an over @-@ the @-@ shoulder restraint and seat belt . Falcon 's Fury can theoretically accommodate 800 riders per hour . Carbon @-@ fiber wings buttress each end of a group of seats , protecting outside riders ' arms and legs during the drop . The gondola reaches a height of 310 feet ( 94 m ) , 25 feet ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) below the top of the tower . When it reaches its maximum height the seats tilt 90 degrees forward , with the riders facing the ground ( the first use of this feature on a drop tower ) .
= = Records = =
When Falcon 's Fury opened it became North America 's tallest free @-@ standing drop tower . Although taller drop towers exist on the continent — such as Lex Luthor : Drop of Doom at Six Flags Magic Mountain and Zumanjaro : Drop of Doom at Six Flags Great Adventure , which reach drop heights of 400 feet ( 120 m ) and 415 feet ( 126 m ) respectively — those attractions were added to existing structures . Despite its height , the ride 's maximum speed of 60 miles per hour ( 97 km / h ) does not set a speed record . Other drop towers — such as Drop Tower at Kings Dominion , which reaches 72 miles per hour ( 116 km / h ) — are faster . However , Falcon 's Fury is the world 's first drop tower whose seats tilt 90 degrees . Although tilting seats were first used by Intamin in 2001 on Acrophobia at Six Flags Over Georgia , their tilt angle is smaller .
= = Reception = =
The initial reception after the ride 's announcement was positive . According to Lance Hart , a theme park enthusiast from Screamscape , " Instead of selling your picture ... they should sell baby wipes and clean underwear at the exit " and the ride could be the most frightening drop tower in the world . Robb Alvey of Theme Park Review called the ride the world 's best drop tower , later ranking it one of the top 14 new attractions for 2014 ; Dave Parfitt and Arthur Levine of USA Today ranked Falcon 's Fury in their top ten . Brady MacDonald of the Los Angeles Times originally ranked Falcon 's Fury his seventh @-@ most @-@ anticipated ride for 2014 ; on an updated list , he ranked it 17th .
For safety reasons , construction on Falcon 's Fury was done primarily at night . Residents near the park complained about noise from the pile driver during the laying of the foundation , and complaints about the ride 's operating noise continued into August 2014 .
According to the park and Twitter posts selected by news media , public response during the soft opening was positive ; Total Orlando gave the ride five stars for teenagers and four stars for adults . On Coaster101.com " Ashley " said that although the restraints were tight , they were comfortable and not as tight as those on other rides , adding : " The drop on Falcon 's Fury is different from any ride I have ever ridden . The best way I can describe it is that instead of leaving your stomach at the top of the tower , you take it with you to the bottom . " According to Florida Trip Guides , the ride was a good addition to the park 's attraction lineup : " Falcon 's Fury is not for the faint of heart . I have ridden dozens of drop towers but this one is different . Something about facing straight down and falling really makes you nervous . " Robert Niles of Theme Park Insider said that Falcon 's Fury and other recent attractions were nearing the extreme of human tolerance ; as a result , " You 're getting to the point where instead of making an attraction more popular by having it achieve some type of record , you 're actually limiting the audience for that . " Randi Nissenbaum of Bay News 9 called the view from the top of the tower incredible , and although she was nervous at first she wanted to ride again . Sue Carlton of the Tampa Bay Times said , " it was terrifying and thrilling and I held on as hard as I could and yelled and closed my eyes and afterward stepped off rubber @-@ kneed and exhilarated . "
For the 2014 season , Busch Gardens Tampa expected attendance to increase by three to eight percent . However ( as predicted in June 2014 by IBISWorld Research ) , combined attendance for the second quarter of the year increased by about 0 @.@ 3 percent for SeaWorld Orlando , SeaWorld San Diego , SeaWorld San Antonio , Busch Gardens Williamsburg and Busch Gardens Tampa . Compared to the same period in 2013 , combined attendance for the first half of the year dropped by just over four percent . Busch Gardens Tampa blamed the lack of its anticipated attendance increase partially on the Falcon 's Fury delays .
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= Price elasticity of demand =
Price elasticity of demand ( PED or Ed ) is a measure used in economics to show the responsiveness , or elasticity , of the quantity demanded of a good or service to a change in its price , ceteris paribus . More precisely , it gives the percentage change in quantity demanded in response to a one percent change in price ( ceteris paribus )
Price elasticities are almost always negative , although analysts tend to ignore the sign even though this can lead to ambiguity . Only goods which do not conform to the law of demand , such as Veblen and Giffen goods , have a positive PED . In general , the demand for a good is said to be inelastic ( or relatively inelastic ) when the PED is less than one ( in absolute value ) : that is , changes in price have a relatively small effect on the quantity of the good demanded . The demand for a good is said to be elastic ( or relatively elastic ) when its PED is greater than one ( in absolute value ) : that is , changes in price have a relatively large effect on the quantity of a good demanded .
Revenue is maximized when price is set so that the PED is exactly one . The PED of a good can also be used to predict the incidence ( or " burden " ) of a tax on that good . Various research methods are used to determine price elasticity , including test markets , analysis of historical sales data and conjoint analysis .
= = Definition = =
It is a measure of responsiveness of the quantity of a raw good or service demanded to changes in its price . The formula for the coefficient of price elasticity of demand for a good is :
<formula>
The above formula usually yields a negative value , due to the inverse nature of the relationship between price and quantity demanded , as described by the " law of demand " . For example , if the price increases by 5 % and quantity demanded decreases by 5 % , then the elasticity at the initial price and quantity |
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