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= Collybia cookei =
Collybia cookei is a species of fungus in the Tricholomataceae family , and one of three species in the genus Collybia . It is known from Europe , Asia , and North America . The fungus produces fruit bodies that usually grow on the decomposing remains of other mushrooms , like Meripilus giganteus , Inonotus hispidus , or species of Russula ; occasionally fruit bodies are found on rich humus or well @-@ decayed wood . The fungus produces small white mushrooms with caps up to 9 mm ( 0 @.@ 35 in ) in diameter , supported by thin stems that originate from a yellowish @-@ brown sclerotium . The mushroom is difficult to distinguish from the other two species of Collybia unless an effort is made to examine the sclerotia , which is usually buried in the substrate . The edibility of the mushroom has not been determined .
= = Taxonomy and phylogeny = =
The species was first described in the scientific literature in 1928 as Collybia cirrhata var. cookei by the Italian mycologist Giacomo Bresadola . In a 1935 publication , Jean D. Arnold reported a series of cultural studies with monokaryon isolates ( hypha having only a single haploid nucleus ) of several Collybia species to determine their mating type . All attempts to produce hybrids between C. cirrhata var. cookei and C. cirrata or mycelial fusions between the two species failed . This sexual incompatibility indicated that the two taxa were separate species , and she raised the taxon from varietal to specific status , calling it Collybia cookei . The species has also been called Microcollybia cookei in a 1979 publication by Joanne Lennox , but the genus Microcollybia has since been folded into Collybia . Marcel Bon and Régis Courtecuisse considered the species a variety of Collybia tuberosa in a 1988 publication . A 2001 molecular analysis based on the ribosomal DNA sequences confirmed that C. cookei is phylogenetically related to C. tuberosa and C. cirrhata , and that the three species form a monophyletic group that comprise the genus Collybia .
The specific epithet cookei honors the British mycologist Mordecai Cubitt Cooke .
= = Description = =
The caps of young mushrooms are roughly spherical , but soon become convex to flattened in maturity , and reach diameters of 2 – 9 mm ( 0 @.@ 08 – 0 @.@ 35 in ) . The cap margin is rolled or curled inward when young , but straightens out as it matures . The cap color is white to cream . The gills are broadly adnate to slightly decurrent , with a color similar to the cap ; their spacing is close to subdistant . The whitish stem is equal in width throughout , usually not straight but with curves , and 2 – 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 – 2 @.@ 0 in ) long by 0 @.@ 3 – 1 @.@ 0 mm ( 0 @.@ 01 – 0 @.@ 04 in ) thick . The upper region of the stem surface can be covered with what appears to be a white powder , and there are thin hairs near the base . The stems originate from a yellowish @-@ brown sclerotium that is up to 6 mm ( 0 @.@ 24 in ) long . The sclerotium ranges in shape from roughly spherical to almond @-@ shaped to irregular , and its surface is often wrinkled and pitted . The mushroom has no distinctive odor or taste , and its edibility is unknown .
In deposit , the spore color is white . The spores are smooth , ellipsoidal to tear @-@ shaped , hyaline ( translucent ) , not amyloid , and measure 3 @.@ 9 – 5 @.@ 2 by 2 @.@ 6 – 3 @.@ 3 μm . The basidia ( spore @-@ bearing cells in the hymenium ) are four @-@ spored and hyaline , with dimensions of 16 – 20 by 4 – 5 μm . They have clamps at their bases . There are no cystidia on either the edges ( cheilocystidia ) or faces ( pleurocystidia ) of the gills . The arrangement of the hyphae in the hymenophoral tissue varies from regular to interwoven . The cap cuticle is a cutis ( a type of tissue where the hyphae are arranged more or less parallel to the surface ) , formed by hyphae with septa , roughly 4 – 9 μm in diameter . Clamp connections are present in the hyphae . The sclerotium is made of hyphae that have yellow pigment in their walls that appear in cross @-@ section to be pseudoparenchymatous ( compactly interwoven short @-@ celled hyphae that resemble parenchyma of higher plants ) , and measure 5 – 10 μm in diameter .
= = = Similar species = = =
Collybia cookei is most likely to be confused with the two other members of Collybia , both of which are outwardly similar in appearance ; distinguishing between the three typically requires excavating the stem base away from the moss or debris in which the stem is embedded . In the field , C. tuberosa may be distinguished from C. cookei by its dark brown sclerotia that somewhat resembles an appleseed . Using a microscope provides a more definitive way of distinguishing the two : the hyphae in the sclerotia of C. cookei are rounded , while those of C. tuberosa are elongated ; this diagnostic character is apparent with both fresh and dried material of the two species . C. cirrhata does not produce sclerotia .
Another mushroom that grows on decomposing fruit bodies is Asterophora lycoperdoides , which is distinct from C. cookei because of the powdery brown asexual spores ( chlamydospores ) produced on the cap surface . Alexander H. Smith has noted a general similarity in appearance between C. cookei and the North American species Clitocybe sclerotoidea ( then known as Tricholoma sclerotoideum ) , which is parasitic to Helvella lacunosa . However , C. sclerotoidea is larger than C. cookei , with cap diameters up to 3 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) , and has more distantly spaced gills .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
Like all members of the genus Collybia , C. cookei grows on the well @-@ rotted , blackened remains of mushrooms , such as species of Russula , Meripilus giganteus , and Inonotus hispidus . Fruit bodies occasionally grow on well @-@ decayed wood or rich humus . The fruit bodies grow scattered , clustered , or in groups . A field study conducted near a Brass mill in Sweden revealed that heavy metal contamination had little effect on the appearance of the mushroom , possibly because its substrate of partially decomposed fruit bodies has a lower metal concentration that the underlying topsoil .
Collybia cookei is found in Europe , Asia ( Japan ) , and North America . The European distribution extends north to the Arctic Circle and the Lofoten Islands . The species is widely distributed in North America ; it was reported from Mexico for the first time in 1998 . The fungus is partial to mixed forest dominated by aspen and conifers in montane and subalpine environments . In The Netherlands , it was a component of one of three communities of saprobic fungi associated with roadside verges ( the land between the road edge and the adjacent wall , fence or hedge ) planted with common oak ( Quercus robur ) ; the verges also supported the growth of the mushroom Russula ochroleuca , a host of C. cookei .
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= Entranceway at Main Street at Roycroft Boulevard =
Entranceway at Main Street at Roycroft Boulevard is a suburban residential subdivision entranceway built in 1918 . It is on Main Street ( New York State Route 5 ) in the hamlet of Snyder , New York , in the town of Amherst within Erie County . The entranceway is a marker that represents the American suburbanization of rural areas , suburbanization that occurred through transportation @-@ related land development on the edges of urban areas . It consists of a variety of half @-@ height wall formations , featuring a semicircular wall on the Roycroft Boulevard median 's intersection with Main Street . The entranceway was added to the National Register of Historic Places on December 7 , 2005 .
= = History = =
Williamsville developed around a mill erected in 1811 , and the town of Amherst was born in 1818 . At that time , Main Street was the main link from Williamsville and Amherst to Buffalo . Main Street was displaced as " the unchallenged main artery of Amherst and Western New York " by the Erie Canal in 1825 and later by adjacent railroads . By 1866 , Buffalo Street Railway Company built a street car system that ran on Main Street from Amherst to Buffalo . Daily stage coach service also began in 1866 along Main Street and continued until it was displaced by an electric trolley in 1893 , the track ran 4 @.@ 5 miles ( 7 @.@ 2 km ) from Main and Bailey Avenue ( U.S. Route 62 in New York ) to the east with stops that included Entranceways at Main Street at Lamarck Drive and Smallwood Drive .
The early 20th century estate era gave way to the residential subdivision era . Suburban Buffalo 's subdivisions took on an urban flavor along the area 's main thoroughfares and paths of migration . Charles S. Burkhardt began Audubon Terrace on 400 acres north of Main Street in October 1919 on the Taylor and Satterfield Estates .
= = Location = =
Today , Main Street is a four @-@ lane road running east @-@ west through Snyder connecting Williamsville ( the other side of Interstate 290 , known as the Youngman Expressway ) to points westward such as the neighboring hamlet of Eggertsville and downtown Buffalo . The entranceway is located proximate to large residential areas of trees and grass , 1920s @-@ built subdivisions flanking a wide central median . It is situated three blocks east of Harlem Road ( New York State Route 240 ) . Across Main Street and northeast from the Entranceway is the Eggertsville @-@ Snyder Branch Library of the Buffalo & Erie County Public Library located at 4622 Main Street . Each side of the median serves one @-@ way traffic . The entranceways sit on the two south side corners of this T @-@ junction intersection .
= = Architecture = =
Completed in 1918 , the entranceway 's featured element is the nearly semi @-@ circular random ashlar stone half @-@ walls on Roycroft Boulevard 's axis of symmetry , which is at a 22 degree angle to Main Street . The wall has one central and two end square posts that are approximately 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) in height and that have poured concrete caps that are not original . Each post has a metal and glass contemporary street lamp projecting from its center . Quarter points of the arc have stone pilaster ornamentation . The running portion of the wall has a continuous cast in place coping cap shaped at a 45 degree angle , which forms an attached buttress three quarters the height of the posts . Past repairs have included incompatible stone and mortar patches . The Main Street paving and the grassy median abut the convex and concave sides , respectively . According to the August 5 , 2005 , application , the entranceway is in a state of disrepair , lacking a visible base and having a tilt .
On opposite sides of the Roycroft Boulevard roadways from the central feature are flanking structures with random ashlar stone posts and half @-@ height walls . They are oriented parallel to the angular Roycroft Boulevard and have lengths proportionate to the central wall end post 's distance from Main Street . Both walls are L @-@ shaped with the longer length extending along Roycroft Boulevard and having a short cornered length along Main Street . These walls have capped , square stone buttress @-@ less posts and corners marked by wall @-@ height stone pilaster . On the opposite side of each from the a concrete sidewalk parallel to Roycroft Boulevard is a free @-@ standing stone post . The west side is in fair condition , while the east side is out of vertical alignment and is in poor condition . The east side has the distinction of retaining the only original cast concrete cap with a circular recess on its north end post . It presumably once held an original lamp post and was once painted white . Its south end post has a four piece , white terra cotta cap resembling the other non @-@ original end posts in the set of structures .
= = Legacy = =
The entryways remain in their original location , retain original design , and setting . They continue to mark the entrance to the subdivision 's entrance for vehicular and pedestrian traffic as they were originally designed to do . Abbott and Beymer Land Co. purchased the land for the Aurora Park subdivision that the entranceway has marked since its 1918 construction . The street and plot plan were designed by the Straley Brothers , who were civil engineers and surveyors from Buffalo . County engineer , George C. Diehl , had a role in the development of this subdivision . The entranceway was added to the National Register of Historic Places on December 7 , 2005 .
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= Battle of Gettysburg , First Day =
The First Day of the Battle of Gettysburg during the American Civil War took place on July 1 , 1863 , and began as an engagement between isolated units of the Army of Northern Virginia under Confederate General Robert E. Lee and the Army of the Potomac under Union Maj. Gen. George G. Meade . It soon escalated into a major battle which culminated in the outnumbered and defeated Union forces retreating to the high ground south of Gettysburg , Pennsylvania .
The first @-@ day battle proceeded in three phases as combatants continued to arrive at the battlefield . In the morning , two brigades of Confederate Maj. Gen. Henry Heth 's division ( of Lt. Gen. A.P. Hill 's Third Corps ) were delayed by dismounted Union cavalrymen under Brig. Gen. John Buford . As infantry reinforcements arrived under Maj. Gen. John F. Reynolds of the Union I Corps , the Confederate assaults down the Chambersburg Pike were repulsed , although Gen. Reynolds was killed .
By early afternoon , the Union XI Corps had arrived , and the Union position was in a semicircle from west to north of the town . The Confederate Second Corps under Lt. Gen. Richard S. Ewell began a massive assault from the north , with Maj. Gen. Robert E. Rodes 's division attacking from Oak Hill and Maj. Gen. Jubal A. Early 's division attacking across the open fields north of town . The Union lines generally held under extremely heavy pressure , although the salient at Barlow 's Knoll was overrun .
The third phase of the battle came as Rodes renewed his assault from the north and Heth returned with his entire division from the west , accompanied by the division of Maj. Gen. W. Dorsey Pender . Heavy fighting in Herbst 's Woods ( near the Lutheran Theological Seminary ) and on Oak Ridge finally caused the Union line to collapse . Some of the Federals conducted a fighting withdrawal through the town , suffering heavy casualties and losing many prisoners ; others simply retreated . They took up good defensive positions on Cemetery Hill and waited for additional attacks . Despite discretionary orders from Robert E. Lee to take the heights " if practicable , " Richard Ewell chose not to attack . Historians have debated ever since how the battle might have ended differently if he had found it practicable to do so .
= = Background = =
= = = Military situation = = =
= = Opposing forces = =
= = = Union = = =
= = = Confederate = = =
= = Morning = =
= = = Defense by Buford 's cavalry = = =
On the morning of July 1 , Union cavalry in the division of Brig. Gen. John Buford were awaiting the approach of Confederate infantry forces from the direction of Cashtown , to the northwest . Confederate forces from the brigade of Brig. Gen. J. Johnston Pettigrew had briefly clashed with Union forces the day before but believed they were Pennsylvania militia of little consequence , not the regular army cavalry that was screening the approach of the Army of the Potomac .
General Buford realized the importance of the high ground directly to the south of Gettysburg . He knew that if the Confederates could gain control of the heights , Meade 's army would have a hard time dislodging them . He decided to utilize three ridges west of Gettysburg : Herr Ridge , McPherson Ridge , and Seminary Ridge ( proceeding west to east toward the town ) . These were appropriate terrain for a delaying action by his small division against superior Confederate infantry forces , meant to buy time awaiting the arrival of Union infantrymen who could occupy the strong defensive positions south of town , Cemetery Hill , Cemetery Ridge , and Culp 's Hill . Early that morning , Reynolds , who was commanding the Left Wing of the Army of the Potomac , ordered his corps to march to Buford 's location , with the XI Corps ( Maj. Gen. Oliver O. Howard ) to follow closely behind .
Confederate Maj. Gen. Henry Heth 's division , from Lt. Gen. A.P. Hill 's Third Corps , advanced towards Gettysburg . Heth deployed no cavalry and led , unconventionally , with the artillery battalion of Major William J. Pegram . Two infantry brigades followed , commanded by Brig. Gens . James J. Archer and Joseph R. Davis , proceeding easterly in columns along the Chambersburg Pike . Three miles ( 5 km ) west of town , about 7 : 30 a.m. , Heth 's two brigades met light resistance from cavalry vedettes and deployed into line . Eventually , they reached dismounted troopers from Col. William Gamble 's cavalry brigade . The first shot of the battle was claimed to be fired by Lieutenant Marcellus E. Jones of the 8th Illinois Cavalry , fired at an unidentified man on a gray horse over a half @-@ mile away ; the act was merely symbolic . Buford 's 2 @,@ 748 troopers would soon be faced with 7 @,@ 600 Confederate infantrymen , deploying from columns into line of battle .
Gamble 's men mounted determined resistance and delaying tactics from behind fence posts with rapid fire from their breech @-@ loading carbines . It is a modern myth that they were armed with multi @-@ shot repeating carbines . Nevertheless , they were able to fire two or three times faster than a muzzle @-@ loaded carbine or rifle . Also , the breech @-@ loading design meant that Union troops did not have to stand to reload and could do so safely behind cover . This was a great advantage over the Confederates , who still had to stand to reload , thus providing an easier target . But this was so far a relatively bloodless affair . By 10 : 20 a.m. , the Confederates had reached Herr Ridge and had pushed the Federal cavalrymen east to McPherson Ridge , when the vanguard of the I Corps finally arrived , the division of Maj. Gen. James S. Wadsworth . The troops were led personally by Gen. Reynolds , who conferred briefly with Buford and hurried back to bring more men forward .
= = = Davis versus Cutler = = =
The morning infantry fighting occurred on either side of the Chambersburg Pike , mostly on McPherson Ridge . To the north , an unfinished railroad bed opened three shallow cuts in the ridges . To the south , the dominant features were Willoughby Run and Herbst Woods ( sometimes called McPherson Woods , but they were the property of John Herbst ) . Brig. Gen. Lysander Cutler 's Union brigade opposed Davis 's brigade ; three of Cutler 's regiments were north of the Pike , two to the south . To the left of Cutler , Brig. Gen. Solomon Meredith 's Iron Brigade opposed Archer .
General Reynolds directed both brigades into position and placed guns from the Maine battery of Capt. James A. Hall where Calef 's had stood earlier . While the general rode his horse along the east end of Herbst Woods , shouting " Forward men ! Forward for God 's sake , and drive those fellows out of the woods , " he fell from his horse , killed instantly by a bullet striking him behind the ear . ( Some historians believe Reynolds was felled by a sharpshooter , but it is more likely that he was killed by random shot in a volley of rifle fire directed at the 2nd Wisconsin . ) Maj. Gen. Abner Doubleday assumed command of the I Corps .
On the right of the Union line , three regiments of Cutler 's brigade were fired on by Davis 's brigade before they could get into position on the ridge . Davis 's line overlapped the right of Cutler 's , making the Union position untenable , and Wadsworth ordered Cutler 's regiments back to Seminary Ridge . The commander of the 147th New York , Lt. Col. Francis C. Miller , was shot before he could inform his troops of the withdrawal , and they remained to fight under heavy pressure until a second order came . In under 30 minutes , 45 % of Gen. Cutler 's 1 @,@ 007 men became casualties , with the 147th losing 207 of its 380 officers and men . Some of Davis 's victorious men turned toward the Union positions south of the railroad bed while others drove east toward Seminary Ridge . This defocused the Confederate effort north of the pike .
= = = Archer versus Meredith = = =
South of the pike , Archer 's men were expecting an easy fight against dismounted cavalrymen and were astonished to recognize the black Hardee hats worn by the men facing them through the woods : the famous Iron Brigade , formed from regiments in the Western states of Indiana , Michigan , and Wisconsin , had a reputation as fierce , tenacious fighters . As the Confederates crossed Willoughby Run and climbed the slope into Herbst Woods , they were enveloped on their right by the longer Union line , the reverse of the situation north of the pike .
Brig. Gen. Archer was captured in the fighting , the first general officer in Robert E. Lee 's army to suffer that fate . Archer was most likely positioned around the 14th Tennessee when he was captured by Private Patrick Moloney of Company G. , 2nd Wisconsin , " a brave patriotic and fervent young Irishman . " Archer resisted capture , but Moloney overpowered him . Moloney was killed later that day , but he received the Medal of Honor for his exploit . When Archer was taken to the rear , he encountered his former Army colleague Gen. Doubleday , who greeted him good @-@ naturedly , " Good morning , Archer ! How are you ? I am glad to see you ! " Archer replied , " Well , I am not glad to see you by a damn sight ! "
= = = Railroad cut = = =
At around 11 a.m. , Doubleday sent his reserve regiment , the 6th Wisconsin , an Iron Brigade regiment , commanded by Lt. Col. Rufus R. Dawes , north in the direction of Davis 's disorganized brigade . The Wisconsin men paused at the fence along the pike and fired , which halted Davis 's attack on Cutler 's men and caused many of them to seek cover in the unfinished railroad cut . The 6th joined the 95th New York and the 84th New York ( also known as the 14th Brooklyn ) , a " demi @-@ brigade " commanded by Col. E.B. Fowler , along the pike . The three regiments charged to the railroad cut , where Davis 's men were seeking cover . The majority of the 600 @-@ foot ( 180 m ) cut ( shown on the map as the center cut of three ) was too deep to be an effective firing position — as deep as 15 feet ( 4 @.@ 5 m ) . Making the situation more difficult was the absence of their overall commander , General Davis , whose location was unknown .
The men of the three regiments nevertheless faced daunting fire as they charged toward the cut . The 6th Wisconsin 's American flag went down at least three times during the charge . At one point Dawes took up the fallen flag before it was seized from him by a corporal of the color guard . As the Union line neared the Confederates , its flanks became folded back and it took on the appearance of an inverted V. When the Union men reached the railroad cut , vicious hand @-@ to @-@ hand and bayonet fighting broke out . They were able to pour enfilading fire from both ends of the cut , and many Confederates considered surrender . Colonel Dawes took the initiative by shouting " Where is the colonel of this regiment ? " Major John Blair of the 2nd Mississippi stood up and responded , " Who are you ? " Dawes replied , " I command this regiment . Surrender or I will fire . " Dawes later described what happened next :
The officer replied not a word , but promptly handed me his sword , and his men , who still held them , threw down their muskets . The coolness , self possession , and discipline which held back our men from pouring a general volley saved a hundred lives of the enemy , and as my mind goes back to the fearful excitement of the moment , I marvel at it .
Despite this surrender , leaving Dawes standing awkwardly holding seven swords , the fighting continued for minutes more and numerous Confederates were able to escape back to Herr Ridge . The three Union regiments lost 390 – 440 of 1 @,@ 184 engaged , but they had blunted Davis 's attack , prevented them from striking the rear of the Iron Brigade , and so overwhelmed the Confederate brigade that it was unable to participate significantly in combat for the rest of the day . The Confederate losses were about 500 killed and wounded and over 200 prisoners out of 1 @,@ 707 engaged .
= = Midday lull = =
By 11 : 30 a.m. , the battlefield was temporarily quiet . On the Confederate side , Henry Heth faced an embarrassing situation . He had been under orders from General Lee to avoid a general engagement until the full Army of Northern Virginia had concentrated in the area . But his excursion to Gettysburg , ostensibly to find shoes , was essentially a reconnaissance in force conducted by a full infantry division . This indeed had started a general engagement and Heth was on the losing side so far . By 12 : 30 p.m. , his remaining two brigades , under Brig. Gen. J. Johnston Pettigrew and Col. John M. Brockenbrough , had arrived on the scene , as had the division ( four brigades ) of Maj. Gen. Dorsey Pender , also from Hill 's Corps . Hill 's remaining division ( Maj. Gen. Richard H. Anderson ) did not arrive until late in the day .
Considerably more Confederate forces were on the way , however . Two divisions of the Second Corps , commanded by Lt. Gen. Richard S. Ewell , were approaching Gettysburg from the north , from the towns of Carlisle and York . The five brigades of Maj. Gen. Robert E. Rodes marched down the Carlisle Road but left it before reaching town to advance down the wooded crest of Oak Ridge , where they could link up with the left flank of Hill 's Corps . The four brigades under Maj. Gen. Jubal A. Early approached on the Harrisburg Road . Union cavalry outposts north of the town detected both movements . Ewell 's remaining division ( Maj. Gen. Edward " Allegheny " Johnson ) did not arrive until late in the day .
On the Union side , Doubleday reorganized his lines as more units of the I Corps arrived . First on hand was the Corps Artillery under Col. Charles S. Wainwright , followed by two brigades from Doubleday 's division , now commanded by Brig. Gen. Thomas A. Rowley , which Doubleday placed on either end of his line . The XI Corps arrived from the south before noon , moving up the Taneytown and Emmitsburg Roads . Maj. Gen. Oliver O. Howard was surveying the area from the roof of the Fahnestock Brothers ' dry @-@ goods store downtown at about 11 : 30 when he heard that Reynolds had been killed and that he was now in command of all Union forces on the field . He recalled : " My heart was heavy and the situation was grave indeed , but surely I did not hesitate a moment . God helping us , we will stay here till the Army comes . I assumed the command of the field . "
Howard immediately sent messengers to summon reinforcements from the III Corps ( Maj. Gen. Daniel E. Sickles ) and the XII Corps ( Maj. Gen. Henry W. Slocum ) . Howard 's first XI Corps division to arrive , under Maj. Gen. Carl Schurz , was sent north to take a position on Oak Ridge and link up with the right of the I Corps . ( The division was commanded temporarily by Brig. Gen. Alexander Schimmelfennig while Schurz filled in for Howard as XI Corps commander . ) The division of Brig. Gen. Francis C. Barlow was placed on Schurz 's right to support him . The third division to arrive , under Brig. Gen. Adolph von Steinwehr , was placed on Cemetery Hill along with two batteries of artillery to hold the hill as a rallying point if the Union troops could not hold their positions ; this placement on the hill corresponded with orders sent earlier in the day to Howard by Reynolds just before he was killed .
However , Rodes beat Schurz to Oak Hill , so the XI Corps division was forced to take up positions in the broad plain north of the town , below and to the east of Oak Hill . They linked up with the I Corps reserve division of Brig. Gen. John C. Robinson , whose two brigades had been sent forward by Doubleday when he heard about Ewell 's arrival . Howard 's defensive line was not a particularly strong one in the north . He was soon outnumbered ( his XI Corps , still suffering the effects of their defeat at the Battle of Chancellorsville , had only 8 @,@ 700 effectives ) , and the terrain his men occupied in the north was poorly selected for defense . He held out some hope that reinforcements from Slocum 's XII Corps would arrive up the Baltimore Pike in time to make a difference .
= = Afternoon = =
In the afternoon , there was fighting both west ( Hill 's Corps renewing their attacks on the I Corps ) and north ( Ewell 's Corps attacking the I and XI Corps ) of Gettysburg . Ewell , on Oak Hill with Rodes , saw Howard 's troops deploying before him , and he interpreted this as the start of an attack and implicit permission to set aside Gen. Lee 's order not to bring about a general engagement .
= = = Rodes attacks from Oak Hill = = =
Rodes initially sent three brigades south against Union troops that represented the right flank of the I Corps and the left flank of the XI Corps : from east to west , Brig. Gen. George P. Doles , Col. Edward A. O 'Neal , and Brig. Gen. Alfred Iverson . Doles 's Georgia brigade stood guarding the flank , awaiting the arrival of Early 's division . Both O 'Neal 's and Iverson 's attacks fared poorly against the six veteran regiments in the brigade of Brig. Gen. Henry Baxter , manning a line in a shallow inverted V , facing north on the ridge behind the Mummasburg Road . O 'Neal 's men were sent forward without coordinating with Iverson on their flank and fell back under heavy fire from the I Corps troops .
Iverson failed to perform even a rudimentary reconnaissance and sent his men forward blindly while he stayed in the rear ( as had O 'Neal , minutes earlier ) . More of Baxter 's men were concealed in woods behind a stone wall and rose to fire withering volleys from less than 100 yards ( 91 m ) away , creating over 800 casualties among the 1 @,@ 350 North Carolinians . Stories are told about groups of dead bodies lying in almost parade @-@ ground formations , heels of their boots perfectly aligned . ( The bodies were later buried on the scene , and this area is today known as " Iverson 's Pits " , source of many local tales of supernatural phenomena . )
Baxter 's brigade was worn down and out of ammunition . At 3 : 00 p.m. he withdrew his brigade , and Gen. Robinson replaced it with the brigade of Brig. Gen. Gabriel R. Paul . Rodes then committed his two reserve brigades : Brig. Gens . Junius Daniel and Dodson Ramseur . Ramseur attacked first , but Paul 's brigade held its crucial position . Paul had a bullet go in one temple and out the other , blinding him permanently ( he survived the wound and lived 20 more years after the battle ) . Before the end of the day , three other commanders of that brigade were wounded .
Daniel 's North Carolina brigade then attempted to break the I Corps line to the southwest along the Chambersburg Pike . They ran into stiff resistance from Col. Roy Stone 's Pennsylvania " Bucktail Brigade " in the same area around the railroad cut as the morning 's battle . Fierce fighting eventually ground to a standstill .
= = = Heth renews his attack = = =
Gen. Lee arrived on the battlefield at about 2 : 30 p.m. , as Rodes 's men were in mid @-@ attack . Seeing that a major assault was underway , he lifted his restriction on a general engagement and gave permission to Hill to resume his attacks from the morning . First in line was Heth 's division again , with two fresh brigades : Pettigrew 's North Carolinians and Col. John M. Brockenbrough 's Virginians .
Pettigrew 's Brigade was deployed in a line that extended south beyond the ground defended by the Iron Brigade . Enveloping the left flank of the 19th Indiana , Pettigrew 's North Carolinians , the largest brigade in the army , drove back the Iron Brigade in some of the fiercest fighting of the war . The Iron Brigade was pushed out of the woods , made three temporary stands in the open ground to the east , but then had to fall back toward the Lutheran Theological Seminary . Gen. Meredith was downed with a head wound , made all the worse when his horse fell on him . To the left of the Iron Brigade was the brigade of Col. Chapman Biddle , defending open ground on McPherson Ridge , but they were outflanked and decimated . To the right , Stone 's Bucktails , facing both west and north along the Chambersburg Pike , were attacked by both Brockenbrough and Daniel .
Casualties were severe that afternoon . The 26th North Carolina ( the largest regiment of the army with 839 men ) lost heavily , leaving the first day 's fight with around 212 men . Their commander , Colonel Henry K. Burgwyn , was fatally wounded by a bullet through his chest . By the end of the three @-@ day battle , they had about 152 men standing , the highest casualty percentage for one battle of any regiment , North or South . One of the Union regiments , the 24th Michigan , lost 399 of 496 . It had nine color bearers shot down , and its commander , Col. Henry A. Morrow , was wounded in the head and captured . The 151st Pennsylvania of Biddle 's brigade lost 337 of 467 .
The highest ranking casualty of this engagement was Gen. Heth , who was struck by a bullet in the head . He was apparently saved because he had stuffed wads of paper into a new hat , which was otherwise too large for his head . But there were two consequences to this glancing blow . Heth was unconscious for over 24 hours and had no further command involvement in the three @-@ day battle . He was also unable to urge Pender 's division to move forward and supplement his struggling assault . Pender was oddly passive during this phase of the battle ; the typically more aggressive tendencies of a young general in Lee 's army would have seen him move forward on his own accord . Hill shared the blame for failing to order him forward as well , but he claimed illness . History cannot know Pender 's motivations ; he was mortally wounded the next day and left no report .
= = = Early attacks XI Corps = = =
Maj. Gen. Oliver O. Howard of the XI Corps had a difficult defensive problem . He had only two divisions ( four brigades ) to cover the wide expanse of featureless farmland north of town . He and Maj. Gen. Carl Schurz , temporarily in command of the corps while Howard was in overall command on the field , deployed the division of Brig. Gen. Alexander Schimmelfennig on the left and Brig. Gen. Francis C. Barlow on the right . From the left , the brigades were Schimmelfennig 's ( under Col. George von Amsberg ) , Col. Włodzimierz Krzyżanowski , Brig. Gen. Adelbert Ames , and Col. Leopold von Gilsa . Howard recalled that he selected this line as a logical continuation of the I Corps line formed on his left . This decision has been criticized by historians , such as Edwin B. Coddington , as being too far forward , with a right flank vulnerable to envelopment by the enemy . ( Coddington suggests that a more defensible line would have been along Stevens Run , about 600 feet north of the railroad , a shorter line to defend , with better fields of fire , and with a more secure right flank . )
Making the Federal defense more difficult , Barlow advanced farther north than Schimmelfennig 's division , occupying a 50 @-@ foot ( 15 m ) elevation above Rock Creek named Blocher 's Knoll ( known today as Barlow 's Knoll ) . Barlow 's justification was that he wanted to prevent Doles 's Brigade , of Rodes 's division , from occupying it and using it as an artillery platform against him . General Schurz claimed afterward that Barlow had misunderstood his orders by taking this position . ( In Schurz 's official report , however , he states that Barlow " had been directing the movements of his troops with the most praiseworthy coolness and intrepidity , unmindful of the shower of bullets around , " and " was severely wounded , and had to be carried off the battle @-@ field . " ) By taking the knoll , Barlow was following Howard 's directive to obstruct the advance of Early 's division , and in doing so , deprive him of an artillery platform , as von Steinwehr fortified the position on Cemetery Hill . The position on the knoll turned out to be unfortunate , as it created a salient in the line that could be assaulted from multiple sides . Schurz ordered Krzyżanowski 's brigade , which had heretofore been sitting en masse at the north end of town ( without further order to position from Schurz ) forward to assist Barlow 's two brigades on the knoll , but they arrived too late and in insufficient numbers to help . Historian Harry W. Pfanz judges Barlow 's decision to be a " blunder " that " ensured the defeat of the corps . "
Richard Ewell 's second division , under Jubal Early , swept down the Harrisburg Road , deployed in a battle line three brigades wide , almost a mile across ( 1 @,@ 600 m ) and almost half a mile ( 800 m ) wider than the Union defensive line . Early started with a large @-@ scale artillery bombardment . The Georgia brigade of Brigadier @-@ General John B. Gordon was then directed for a frontal attack against Barlow 's Knoll , pinning down the defenders , while the brigades of Brigadier @-@ General Harry T. Hays and Colonel Isaac E. Avery swung around their exposed flank . At the same time the Georgians under Doles launched a synchronized assault with Gordon . The defenders of Barlow 's Knoll targeted by Gordon were 900 men of von Gilsa 's brigade ; in May , two of his regiments had been the initial target of Thomas J. " Stonewall " Jackson 's flanking attack at Chancellorsville . The men of the 54th and 68th New York held out as long as they could , but they were overwhelmed . Then the 153rd Pennsylvania succumbed . Barlow , attempting to rally his troops , was shot in the side and captured . Barlow 's second brigade , under Ames , came under attack by Doles and Gordon . Both Union brigades conducted a disorderly retreat to the south .
On the left flank of the XI Corps , the attack focused on Gen. Schimmelfennig 's division . They were subjected to a deadly artillery crossfire from Rodes ' and Early 's batteries , and as they deployed they were attacked by Doles ' infantry . Early 's troops were able to employ a flanking attack and roll up the division from the right , and they fell back in confusion toward the town . A desperate counterattack by the 157th New York from von Amsberg 's brigade was surrounded on three sides , causing it to suffer 307 casualties ( 75 % ) .
Gen. Howard , witnessing this disaster , sent forward an artillery battery and an infantry brigade from von Steinwehr 's reserve force , under Col. Charles Coster . Coster 's battle line just north of the town in Kuhn 's brickyard was overwhelmed by Hays and Avery . He provided valuable cover for the retreating soldiers , but at a high price : of Coster 's 800 men , 313 were captured , as were two of the four guns from the battery .
The collapse of the XI Corps was completed by 4 p.m. , after a fight of less than an hour . They suffered 3 @,@ 200 casualties ( 1 @,@ 400 of them prisoners ) , about half the number sent forward from Cemetery Hill . The losses in Gordon 's and Doles 's brigades were under 750 .
= = = Rodes and Pender break through = = =
Rodes 's original faulty attack at 2 : 00 had stalled , but he launched his reserve brigade , under Ramseur , against Paul 's Brigade in the salient on the Mummasburg Road , with Doles 's Brigade against the left flank of the XI Corps . Daniel 's Brigade resumed its attack , now to the east against Baxter on Oak Ridge . This time Rodes was more successful , mostly because Early coordinated an attack on his flank .
In the west , the Union troops had fallen back to the Seminary and built hasty breastworks running 600 yards ( 550 m ) north @-@ south before the western face of Schmucker Hall , bolstered by 20 guns of Wainwright 's battalion . Dorsey Pender 's division of Hill 's Corps stepped through the exhausted lines of Heth 's men at about 4 : 00 p.m. to finish off the I Corps survivors . The brigade of Brig. Gen. Alfred M. Scales attacked first , on the northern flank . His five regiments of 1 @,@ 400 North Carolinians were virtually annihilated in one of the fiercest artillery barrages of the war , rivaling Pickett 's Charge to come , but on a more concentrated scale . Twenty guns spaced only 5 yards ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) apart fired spherical case , explosive shells , canister , and double canister rounds into the approaching brigade , which emerged from the fight with only 500 men standing and a single lieutenant in command . Scales wrote afterwards that he found " only a squad here and there marked the place where regiments had rested . "
The attack continued in the southern @-@ central area , where Col. Abner M. Perrin ordered his South Carolina brigade ( four regiments of 1 @,@ 500 men ) to advance rapidly without pausing to fire . Perrin was prominently on horseback leading his men but miraculously was untouched . He directed his men to a weak point in the breastworks on the Union left , a 50 @-@ yard ( 46 m ) gap between Biddle 's left @-@ hand regiment , the 121st Pennsylvania , and Gamble 's cavalrymen , attempting to guard the flank . They broke through , enveloping the Union line and rolling it up to the north as Scales 's men continued to pin down the right flank . By 4 : 30 p.m. , the Union position was untenable , and the men could see the XI Corps retreating from the northern battle , pursued by masses of Confederates . Doubleday ordered a withdrawal east to Cemetery Hill .
On the southern flank , the North Carolina brigade of Brig. Gen. James H. Lane contributed little to the assault ; he was kept busy by a clash with Union cavalry on the Hagerstown Road . Brig. Gen. Edward L. Thomas 's Georgia Brigade was in reserve well to the rear , not summoned by Pender or Hill to assist or exploit the breakthrough .
= = = Union retreat = = =
The sequence of retreating units remains unclear . Each of the two corps cast blame on the other . There are three main versions of events extant . The first , most prevalent , version is that the fiasco on Barlow 's Knoll triggered a collapse that ran counterclockwise around the line . The second is that both Barlow 's line and the Seminary defense collapsed at about the same time . The third is that Robinson 's division in the center gave way and that spread both left and right . Gen. Howard told Gen. Meade that his corps was forced to retreat only because the I Corps collapsed first on his flank , which may have reduced his embarrassment but was unappreciated by Doubleday and his men . ( Doubleday 's career was effectively ruined by Howard 's story . )
Union troops retreated in different states of order . The brigades on Seminary Ridge were said to move deliberately and slowly , keeping in control , although Col. Wainwright 's artillery was not informed of the order to retreat and found themselves alone . When Wainwright realized his situation , he ordered his gun crews to withdraw at a walk , not wishing to panic the infantry and start a rout . As pressure eventually increased , Wainwright ordered his 17 remaining guns to gallop down Chambersburg Street , three abreast . A.P. Hill failed to commit any of his reserves to the pursuit of the Seminary defenders , a great missed opportunity .
Near the railroad cut , Daniel 's Brigade renewed their assault , and almost 500 Union soldiers surrendered and were taken prisoner . Paul 's Brigade , under attack by Ramseur , became seriously isolated and Gen. Robinson ordered it to withdraw . He ordered the 16th Maine to hold its position " at any cost " as a rear guard against the enemy pursuit . The regiment , commanded by Col. Charles Tilden , returned to the stone wall on the Mummasburg Road , and their fierce fire gave sufficient time for the rest of the brigade to escape , which they did , in considerably more disarray than those from the Seminary . The 16th Maine started the day with 298 men , but at the end of this holding action there were only 35 survivors .
For the XI Corps , it was a sad reminder of their retreat at Chancellorsville in May . Under heavy pursuit by Hays and Avery , they clogged the streets of the town ; no one in the corps had planned routes for this contingency . Hand @-@ to @-@ hand fighting broke out in various places . Parts of the corps conducted an organized fighting retreat , such as Coster 's stand in the brickyard . The private citizens of Gettysburg panicked amidst the turmoil , and artillery shells bursting overhead and fleeing refugees added to the congestion . Some soldiers sought to avoid capture by hiding in basements and in fenced backyards . Gen. Alexander Schimmelfennig was one such person who climbed a fence and hid behind a woodpile in the kitchen garden of the Garlach family for the rest of the three @-@ day battle . The only advantage that the XI Corps soldiers had was that they were familiar with the route to Cemetery Hill , having passed through that way in the morning ; many in the I Corps , including senior officers , did not know where the cemetery was .
As the Union troops climbed Cemetery Hill , they encountered the determined Maj. Gen. Winfield Scott Hancock . At midday , Gen. Meade was nine miles ( 14 km ) south of Gettysburg in Taneytown , Maryland , when he heard that Reynolds had been killed . He immediately dispatched Hancock , commander of the II Corps and his most trusted subordinate , to the scene with orders to take command of the field and to determine whether Gettysburg was an appropriate place for a major battle . ( Meade 's original plan had been to man a defensive line on Pipe Creek , a few miles south in Maryland . But the serious battle underway was making that a difficult option . )
When Hancock arrived on Cemetery Hill , he met with Howard and they had a brief disagreement about Meade 's command order . As the senior officer , Howard yielded only grudgingly to Hancock 's direction . Although Hancock arrived after 4 : 00 p.m. and commanded no units on the field that day , he took control of the Union troops arriving on the hill and directed them to defensive positions with his " imperious and defiant " ( and profane ) persona . As to the choice of Gettysburg as the battlefield , Hancock told Howard " I think this the strongest position by nature upon which to fight a battle that I ever saw . " When Howard agreed , Hancock concluded the discussion : " Very well , sir , I select this as the battle @-@ field . " Brig. Gen. Gouverneur K. Warren , chief engineer of the Army of the Potomac , inspected the ground and concurred with Hancock .
= = Evening = =
Gen. Lee also understood the defensive potential to the Union army if they held the high ground of Cemetery Hill . He sent orders to Ewell to " carry the hill occupied by the enemy , if he found it practicable , but to avoid a general engagement until the arrival of the other divisions of the army . " In the face of this discretionary , and possibly contradictory , order , Ewell chose not to attempt the assault . One reason posited was the battle fatigue of his men in the late afternoon , although " Allegheny " Johnson 's division of Ewell 's Corps was within an hour of arriving on the battlefield . Another was the difficulty of assaulting the hill through the narrow corridors afforded by the streets of Gettysburg immediately to the north . Ewell requested assistance from A.P. Hill , but that general felt his corps was too depleted from the day 's battle and General Lee did not want to bring up Maj. Gen. Richard H. Anderson 's division from the reserve . Ewell did consider taking Culp 's Hill , which would have made the Union position on Cemetery Hill untenable . However , Jubal Early opposed the idea when it was reported that Union troops ( probably Slocum 's XII Corps ) were approaching on the York Pike , and he sent the brigades of John B. Gordon and Brig. Gen. William " Extra Billy " Smith to block that perceived threat ; Early urged waiting for Johnson 's division to take the hill . After Johnson 's division arrived via the Chambersburg Pike , it maneuvered toward the east of town in preparation to take the hill , but a small reconnaissance party sent in advance encountered a picket line of the 7th Indiana Infantry , which opened fire and captured a Confederate officer and soldier . The remainder of the Confederates fled and attempts to seize Culp 's Hill on July 1 came to an end .
Lee 's order has been criticized because it left too much discretion to Ewell . Numerous historians and proponents of the Lost Cause movement ( most prominently Jubal Early , despite his own reluctance to support an attack at the time ) have speculated how the more aggressive Stonewall Jackson would have acted on this order if he had lived to command this wing of Lee 's army , and how differently the second day of battle would have proceeded with Confederate artillery on Cemetery Hill , commanding the length of Cemetery Ridge and the Federal lines of communications on the Baltimore Pike . Stephen W. Sears has suggested that Gen. Meade would have invoked his original plan for a defensive line on Pipe Creek and withdrawn the Army of the Potomac , although that movement would have been a dangerous operation under pressure from Lee .
Most of the rest of both armies arrived that evening or early the next morning . Johnson 's division joined Ewell and Maj. Gen. Richard H. Anderson 's joined Hill . Two of the three divisions of the First Corps , commanded by Lt. Gen. James Longstreet , arrived in the morning . Three cavalry brigades under Maj. Gen. J.E.B. Stuart were still out of the area , on a wide @-@ ranging raid to the northeast . Gen. Lee sorely felt the loss of the " eyes and ears of the Army " ; Stuart 's absence had contributed to the accidental start of the battle that morning and left Lee unsure about enemy dispositions through most of July 2 . On the Union side , Meade arrived after midnight . The II Corps and III Corps took up positions on Cemetery Ridge , and the XII Corps and the V Corps were nearby to the east . Only the VI Corps was a significant distance from the battlefield , marching rapidly to join the Army of the Potomac .
The first day at Gettysburg — more significant than simply a prelude to the bloody second and third days — ranks as the 23rd biggest battle of the war by number of troops engaged . About one quarter of Meade 's army ( 22 @,@ 000 men ) and one third of Lee 's army ( 27 @,@ 000 ) were engaged . Union casualties were almost 9 @,@ 000 , Confederate slightly more than 6 @,@ 000 .
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= Strange Tales ( pulp magazine ) =
Strange Tales ( cover @-@ titled Strange Tales of Mystery and Terror ) was a U.S. pulp magazine first published from 1931 to 1933 by Clayton Publications . It specialized in fantasy and weird fiction , and was a significant competitor to Weird Tales , the leading magazine in the field . Its published stories include " Wolves of Darkness " by Jack Williamson , as well as work by Robert E. Howard and Clark Ashton Smith . The magazine ceased publication when Clayton entered bankruptcy . It was temporarily revived by Wildside Press , which published three issues edited by Robert M. Price from 2003 to 2007 .
= = Publication history and contents = =
Fantasy and occult fiction had often appeared in popular magazines prior to the twentieth century , but the first magazine to specialize in the genre , Weird Tales , appeared in 1923 and by the 1930s was the genre 's industry leader . Strange Tales , launched in 1931 by Clayton Publications as a direct rival to Weird Tales , was one of a handful of magazines to seriously challenge for leadership of the field . It was edited by Harry Bates , who also edited Clayton 's Astounding Stories of Super Science , which had begun publication the previous year . Strange Tales was launched as a fantasy magazine , but like Weird Tales it often published science @-@ fiction stories , although unlike its rival its focus was on action stories rather than strange ideas . The title was originally planned to be Strange Stories , but Macfadden Publications , who had published True Strange Stories in 1929 , challenged the title and forced Clayton to change it .
Bates paid two cents per word , a higher rate than Weird Tales . As a result , Strange Tales attracted some of the better writers of the day . Well @-@ received stories included " Wolves of Darkness " by Jack Williamson , " Murgunstruum " by Hugh B. Cave , and " Cassius " by Henry Whitehead . Clark Ashton Smith contributed five stories , including " The Return of the Sorcerer " in the first issue , and Edmond Hamilton and August Derleth also appeared in the magazine . Robert E. Howard , later to become famous as the author of the Conan the Barbarian stories , sent several stories to Strange Tales ; some of the stories Bates rejected , such as " The Thing on the Roof " and " The Horror from the Mound " , later appeared in Weird Tales , but Bates accepted " The People of the Dark " after asking for revisions , and it was published in the June 1932 issue . Howard also sold " The Valley of the Lost " to Bates , but it had not yet appeared when Clayton went bankrupt , and did not finally see publication until the 1960s . H.P. Lovecraft submitted several stories to Bates in early 1931 , before the first issue had appeared , but the only work of his that appeared in Strange Tales was Henry Whitehead 's " The Trap " , part of which had been ghost @-@ written by Lovecraft , and which appeared in the March 1932 issue . In one of Lovecraft 's letters he comments that he would not contribute to Strange Tales because " Bates couldn 't guarantee me immunity from the copy @-@ slasher 's shears and blue pencil " , but unpublished letters of his make it clear that his stories were too atmospheric and lacking in action for Bates . Lovecraft 's response was dismissive , and he was subsequently contemptuous of both Bates and Clayton in his letters . The cover art for all seven covers was painted by Hans Wessolowski , under his professional name of " Wesso " . Science @-@ fiction historian Robert Weinberg asserts that Strange Tales published better material than Weird Tales during its short run , and fellow historian Mike Ashley regards it as a " close rival " to Weird Tales .
Between 2003 and 2007 , Wildside Press brought out three further issues , undated and numbered 8 through 10 , edited by Robert M. Price . The contents included stories by L. Sprague de Camp , Richard Lupoff , and John Betancourt , and a reprint of " The Devil 's Crypt " , a story by E. Hoffmann Price that had appeared in Strange Detective Stories .
= = Bibliographic details = =
The full title was Strange Tales of Mystery and Terror , and the magazine is sometimes indexed under this title . Each issue was 144 pages long and priced at US $ 0 @.@ 25 ( equivalent to about $ 4 in 2015 ) . The seven issues were divided into two volumes of three and a final volume of a single issue . A reprint anthology in facsimile format , also titled Strange Tales , appeared in 1976 from Odyssey Press , edited by Diane Howard , William H. Desmond , John Howard , and Robert K. Wiener . In addition , all stories from the first four issues , and most from the next two , were reprinted in four magazines edited by Robert A.W. Lowndes from the mid @-@ 1960s to the early 1970s : Magazine of Horror , Startling Mystery Stories , Weird Terror Tales , and Bizarre Fantasy Tales .
The three Wildside Press revival issues were 112 pages , 92 pages , and 58 pages long , respectively ; the size increased with each issue , from small pulp size , to a slightly larger format , to a full size pulp layout . They were not printed on pulp paper . Between 2004 and 2008 Wildside also reissued three of the original magazines in facsimile format ; the issues chosen were dated March and October 1932 , and January 1933 .
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= Sonic Advance 3 =
Sonic Advance 3 ( ソニックアドバンス3 , Sonikku Adobansu Surī ) is a platform video game developed by Dimps and Sonic Team and published by Sega in Japan and THQ in North America and Europe for the Game Boy Advance . It was released worldwide in June 2004 . It is part of the Sonic the Hedgehog series ; and the chronological sequel to Sonic Battle . The game stars the characters Sonic , Tails , Amy , Knuckles , and Cream as they seek to keep Doctor Eggman and his robot assistant Gemerl from building empires on each of seven chunks Eggman has divided the Earth into .
The game is a fast @-@ paced 2D platformer that takes place across seven zones , each divided into three acts and a boss fight . It allows one or two players to control any two of the five characters ; each one has different abilities that allow players varying access to parts of levels . While the graphics are mainly 2D , the game features some 3D rotation effects . It sold quickly upon release and received positive reviews from critics , who praised its gameplay and aesthetics , though they were more divided on the team @-@ up dynamic .
= = Gameplay = =
Similarly to Sonic Advance 1 and 2 before it , Advance 3 is a fast @-@ paced 2D platformer . The player controls one of five characters simultaneously with a second one as a sidekick ; alternately , a second player joins and one controls each character . The two characters run and jump through a series of seven levels , destroying robots along the way . The player collects rings in levels and boss battles as a form of health : upon being hit by an enemy or harmful obstacle , the player 's rings will scatter and can be recollected . Being hit while carrying no rings , being crushed by an obstacle , or falling into a bottomless pit causes death ; running out of lives incurs a game over screen .
The levels contain features like vertical loops , springs , and rails that the player can grind on . Each level is divided into three acts , punctuated by a boss fight with Doctor Eggman at the end ; all three acts , the boss fight , and two minigames that grant the player extra lives are bound by a hub world . Within each act , the player collects Chao creatures ; finding 10 in all 3 acts in one zone grants the player access to a special stage , where a Chaos Emerald can be found . Collecting all seven Chaos Emeralds , which can be done after completion of the main campaign , allows the player to fight an extra final boss for the game 's true ending .
The player can select any two @-@ member permutation of its five playable characters : Sonic the Hedgehog , Tails , Amy Rose , Knuckles the Echidna , and Cream the Rabbit , provided the two desired characters have been unlocked ; only Sonic and Tails are available at the beginning , while the other three must be rescued from Eggman over the course of the game . Each character has a unique ability : Sonic can perform a spinning attack in mid @-@ air , Tails can fly using his two tails as a propeller , Amy can smash enemies with her hammer , Knuckles can glide long distances and climb walls , and Cream can fly using her ears as wings and attack enemies with her Chao friend , Cheese . The second player character can also give powers to the first by pressing the R button ; for example , pressing and holding R while Tails is the sidekick blasts both characters into the air . In addition , the second character will collect rings and destroy enemies the first has not . Outside the main game , there are two battle modes for two to four players , in which any of the characters can be selected : racing and Chao collecting .
= = Plot = =
Before the events of the game , Doctor Eggman builds a robotic assistant named Gemerl , who is based on Emerl , another robot that appeared in Sonic Battle . Eggman uses the Chaos Emeralds to perform a technique called Chaos Control and tear the Earth apart , with the intention of creating a segment of his impending empire on each chunk of the planet . This action separates Sonic and Tails from Amy , Knuckles , and Cream , all of whom Eggman finds and captures . The two friends travel through the game 's seven levels to recapture their friends and the Emeralds .
The final boss fight takes place at a temple . If the player defeats Eggman there without having all seven Emeralds , Eggman and Gemerl escape and fall off the edge of the temple . Peace is restored to the world , and Omochao snaps a picture of the five heroes . However , the game alerts the player that the Emeralds must still be collected for the true ending . If the player defeats Eggman at the temple with the Emeralds , Gemerl stops in his tracks while running away with Eggman and attacks Sonic , causing the Emeralds to scatter . Gemerl uses them to take on a giant , orb @-@ shaped form , but Sonic also uses their power to attain his Super Sonic form . With Eggman 's help , Super Sonic destroys Gemerl . Tails later finds Gemerl 's broken body on a beach and repairs it such that it is non @-@ aggressive , and the game ends with Cream playing with Gemerl at her mother Vanilla 's house .
= = Development and release = =
Sonic Advance 3 was published by Sega in Japan and by THQ in North America and Europe . Like Advance 1 and 2 , its development was shared by Dimps and Sega subsidiary Sonic Team since the latter was understaffed on employees familiar with the Game Boy Advance hardware . Yuji Naka , then President of Sonic Team , had limited involvement in the development of Sonic Advance 3 , and he conceived of the team @-@ up dynamic . While the game is fundamentally 2D , it features some Mode 7 3D rotation effects . THQ announced the game in a press release on September 11 , 2003 . The game was later exhibited at E3 2003 .
= = Reception = =
Sonic Advance 3 was reportedly " racing off store shelves " as soon as it was released . The game also received positive reviews from critics , with respective scores of 79 % and 80 % at review aggregators Metacritic and GameRankings . It later won Handheld Game of the Year at the 2004 Golden Joystick Awards and sold over 100 @,@ 000 copies in the United Kingdom alone .
Critics gave mixed opinions to the team @-@ up dynamic . Nich Maragos from 1UP.com celebrated that Sonic Team had " finally [ come ] up with a way of introducing teamwork and variance between characters that doesn 't overwhelm Sonic 's bread @-@ and @-@ butter gameplay . " Maragos singled this out as the main divider between Advance 3 and Sonic Heroes , a game that he found surprisingly linear in level design considering that it , unlike Advance 3 , was in 3D . Maragos , GameSpot 's Frank Provo , IGN 's Craig Harris , and Game Informer 's Lisa Mason appreciated the increase in replayability Sonic 's friends brought . However , Mason , as well as reviewer Stardingo from GamePro , thought that they played too much like Sonic and did not add much to the experience . Darryl Vassar of GameSpy took a different point of criticism : he acknowledged the presence of genuinely different character abilities , but perceived that their only purpose was to find Chao , whom he called " pointless " . Maragos noted that the " mid @-@ air trick " system from Advance 2 was optional in Advance 3 , but spoke positively about its usefulness in locating " hidden areas " . Harris argued that such varying team abilities contributed to occasional " cheapness " in the level design , because " most of the characters have absolutely no defense when hopping off items like springboards " .
However , the gameplay was mostly well @-@ received otherwise . Vassar acclaimed the level design : he both called the levels " enormous and fast " and praised the slower , smaller sections for " keeping the levels distinct and adding short interludes to the constant running and loops . " Harris also praised the " clever " level design . However , Mason found it " simplistic " , while Stardingo saw " repetition " in the typical formula . Maragos criticized the bipolar difficulty of the bosses and some minor control issues . Vassar , however , appreciated the return from Advance 2 's running @-@ based boss battles to more traditional ones . Further praise from Harris , conversely , went to the multiplayer mode and — along with Stardingo — to the presence of a hub world , which Harris and Stardingo thought gave the game structure .
The game 's aesthetics were also well received . Provo stated that " in terms of graphics and sound , Sonic Advance 3 is on par with the best that companies like Nintendo and Konami have had to offer this year " . He specifically complimented the character animations , simulations of underwater waves , and in @-@ depth background effects . Vassar praised Advance 3 for continuing Advance 1 and 2 's emulation of the " colorful , angular , and stylized look " of the original Sonic the Hedgehog for the Sega Genesis , as well as its " twangy , upbeat tunes " . Stardingo thought similarly overall but criticized the " garish " themes of the level Toy Kingdom .
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= Falstaff ( opera ) =
Falstaff ( Italian pronunciation : [ ˈfalstaf ] ) is an opera in three acts by the Italian composer Giuseppe Verdi ( 1813 – 1901 ) . The libretto was adapted by Arrigo Boito from Shakespeare 's The Merry Wives of Windsor and scenes from Henry IV , parts 1 and 2 . The work premiered on 9 February 1893 at La Scala , Milan .
Verdi wrote Falstaff , which was the last of his 28 operas , as he was approaching the age of 80 . It was his second comedy , and his third work based on a Shakespeare play , following Macbeth and Otello . The plot revolves around the thwarted , sometimes farcical , efforts of the fat knight , Sir John Falstaff , to seduce two married women to gain access to their husbands ' wealth .
Verdi was concerned about working on a new opera at his advanced age , but he yearned to write a comic work and was pleased with Boito 's draft libretto . It took the collaborators three years from mid @-@ 1889 to complete . Although the prospect of a new opera from Verdi aroused immense interest in Italy and around the world , Falstaff did not prove to be as popular as earlier works in the composer 's canon . After the initial performances in Italy , other European countries and the US , the work was neglected until the conductor Arturo Toscanini insisted on its revival at La Scala and the Metropolitan Opera in New York from the late 1890s into the next century . Some felt that the piece suffered from a lack of the full @-@ blooded melodies of the best of Verdi 's previous operas , a view strongly contradicted by Toscanini . Conductors of the generation after Toscanini to champion the work included Herbert von Karajan , Georg Solti and Leonard Bernstein . The work is now part of the regular operatic repertory .
Verdi made numerous changes to the music after the first performance , and editors have found difficulty in agreeing on a definitive score . The work was first recorded in 1932 and has subsequently received many studio and live recordings . Singers closely associated with the title role have included Victor Maurel ( the first Falstaff ) , Mariano Stabile , Giuseppe Valdengo , Tito Gobbi , Geraint Evans and Bryn Terfel .
= = Composition history = =
= = = Conception = = =
By 1889 Verdi had been an opera composer for more than fifty years . He had written 27 operas , of which only one was a comedy , his second work , Un giorno di regno , staged unsuccessfully in 1840 . His fellow composer Rossini commented that he admired Verdi greatly , but thought him incapable of writing a comedy . Verdi disagreed and said that he longed to write another light @-@ hearted opera , but nobody would give him the chance . He had included moments of comedy even in his tragic operas , for example in Un ballo in maschera and La forza del destino .
For a comic subject Verdi considered Cervantes 's Don Quixote and plays by Goldoni , Molière and Labiche , but found none of them wholly suitable . The singer Victor Maurel sent him a French libretto based on Shakespeare 's The Taming of the Shrew . Verdi liked it , but replied that " to deal with it properly you need a Rossini or a Donizetti " . Following the success of Otello in 1887 he commented , " After having relentlessly massacred so many heroes and heroines , I have at last the right to laugh a little . " He confided his ambition to the librettist of Otello , Arrigo Boito . Boito said nothing at the time , but he secretly began work on a libretto based on The Merry Wives of Windsor with additional material taken from Henry IV , parts 1 and 2 . Many composers had set the play to music , with little success , among them Carl Ditters von Dittersdorf ( 1796 ) , Antonio Salieri ( 1799 ) , Michael William Balfe ( 1835 ) and Adolphe Adam ( 1856 ) . The first version to secure a place in the operatic repertoire was Otto Nicolai 's The Merry Wives of Windsor in 1849 , but its success was largely confined to German opera houses .
Boito was doubly pleased with The Merry Wives as a plot . Not only was it Shakespearian , it was based in part on Trecento Italian works – Il Pecorone by Ser Giovanni Fiorentino , and Boccaccio 's Decameron . Boito adopted a deliberately archaic form of Italian to " lead Shakespeare 's farce back to its clear Tuscan source " , as he put it . He trimmed the plot , halved the number of characters in the play , and gave the character of Falstaff more depth by incorporating dozens of passages from Henry IV .
Verdi received the draft libretto a few weeks later , by early July 1889 , at a time when his interest had been piqued by reading Shakespeare 's play : " Benissimo ! Benissimo ! ... No one could have done better than you " , he wrote back . Like Boito , Verdi loved and revered Shakespeare . The composer did not speak English , but he owned and frequently re @-@ read Shakespeare 's plays in Italian translations by Carlo Rusconi and Giulio Carcano , which he kept by his bedside . He had earlier set operatic adaptations of Shakespeare 's Macbeth ( in 1847 ) and Othello ( in 1887 ) and had considered King Lear as a subject ; Boito had suggested Antony and Cleopatra .
Verdi still had doubts , and on the next day sent another letter to Boito expressing his concerns . He wrote of " the large number of years " in his age , his health ( which he admitted was still good ) and his ability to complete the project : " if I were not to finish the music ? " He said that the project could all be a waste of the younger man 's time and distract Boito from completing his own new opera ( which became Nerone ) . Yet , as his biographer Mary Jane Phillips @-@ Matz notes , " Verdi could not hide his delight at the idea of writing another opera " . On 10 July 1889 he wrote again :
Amen ; so be it ! So let 's do Falstaff ! For now , let 's not think of obstacles , of age , of illnesses ! I also want to keep the deepest secrecy : a word that I underline three times to you that no one must know anything about it ! [ He notes that his wife will know about it , but assures Boito that she can keep a secret . ] Anyway , if you are in the mood , then start to write .
= = = Composition = = =
Boito 's original sketch is lost , but surviving correspondence shows that the finished opera is not greatly different from his first thoughts . The major differences were that an act 2 monologue for Ford was moved from scene 2 to scene 1 , and that the last act originally ended with the marriage of the lovers rather than with the lively vocal and orchestral fugue , which was Verdi 's idea . He wrote to Boito in August 1889 telling him that he was writing a fugue : " Yes , Sir ! A fugue ... and a buffa fugue " , which " could probably be fitted in " .
Verdi accepted the need to trim Shakespeare 's plot to keep the opera within an acceptable length . He was sorry , nonetheless , to see the loss of Falstaff 's second humiliation , dressed up as the Wise Woman of Brentford to escape from Ford . He wrote of his desire to do justice to Shakespeare : " To sketch the characters in a few strokes , to weave the plot , to extract all the juice from that enormous Shakespearian orange " . Shortly after the premiere an English critic , R A Streatfeild , remarked on how Verdi succeeded :
The leading note of [ Falstaff ] ' s character is sublime self @-@ conceit . If his belief in himself were shattered , he would be merely a vulgar sensualist and debauchee . As it is , he is a hero . For one terrible moment in the last act his self @-@ satisfaction wavers . He looks round and sees every one laughing at him . Can it be that he has been made a fool of ? But no , he puts the horrible suggestion from him , and in a flash is himself again . " Son io , " he exclaims with a triumphant inspiration , " che vi fa scaltri . L 'arguzia mia crea l 'arguzia degli altri . " [ " I am not only witty in myself , but the cause that wit is in other men " , a line from Henry IV part 2 . ] Verdi has caught this touch and indeed a hundred others throughout the opera with astonishing truth and delicacy .
In November Boito took the completed first act to Verdi at Sant 'Agata , along with the second act , which was still under construction : " That act has the devil on its back ; and when you touch it , it burns " , Boito complained . They worked on the opera for a week , then Verdi and his wife Giuseppina Strepponi went to Genoa . No more work was done for some time .
The writer Russ McDonald observes that a letter from Boito to Verdi touches on the musical techniques used in the opera – he wrote of how to portray the characters Nannetta and Fenton : " I can 't quite explain it : I would like as one sprinkles sugar on a tart to sprinkle the whole comedy with that happy love without concentrating it at any one point . "
The first act was completed by March 1890 ; the rest of the opera was not composed in chronological order , as had been Verdi 's usual practice . The musicologist Roger Parker comments that this piecemeal approach may have been " an indication of the relative independence of individual scenes " . Progress was slow , with composition " carried out in short bursts of activity interspersed with long fallow periods " partly caused by the composer 's depression . Verdi was weighed down by the fear of being unable to complete the score , and also by the deaths and impending deaths of close friends , including the conductors Franco Faccio and Emanuele Muzio . There was no pressure on the composer to hurry . As he observed at the time , he was not working on a commission from a particular opera house , as he had in the past , but was composing for his own pleasure : " in writing Falstaff , I haven 't thought about either theatres or singers " . He reiterated this idea in December 1890 , a time when his spirits were very low after Muzio 's death that November : " Will I finish it [ Falstaff ] ? Or will I not finish it ? Who knows ! I am writing without any aim , without a goal , just to pass a few hours of the day " . By early 1891 he was declaring that he could not finish the work that year , but in May he expressed some small optimism , which by mid @-@ June , had turned into :
The Big Belly [ " pancione " , the name given to the opera before the composition of Falstaff became public knowledge ] is on the road to madness . There are some days when he does not move , he sleeps , and is in a bad humour . At other times he shouts , runs , jumps , and tears the place apart ; I let him act up a bit , but if he goes on like this , I will put him in a muzzle and straitjacket .
Boito was overjoyed , and Verdi reported that he was still working on the opera . The two men met in October or November 1891 , after which the Verdis were in Genoa for the winter . They were both taken ill there , and two months of work were lost . By mid @-@ April 1892 the scoring of the first act was complete and by June – July Verdi was considering potential singers for roles in Falstaff . For the title role he wanted Victor Maurel , the baritone who had sung Iago in Otello , but at first the singer sought contractual terms that Verdi found unacceptable : " His demands were so outrageous , exorbitant , [ and ] incredible that there was nothing else to do but stop the entire project " . Eventually they reached agreement and Maurel was cast .
By September Verdi had agreed in a letter to his publisher Casa Ricordi that La Scala could present the premiere during the 1892 – 93 season , but that he would retain control over every aspect of the production . An early February date was mentioned along with the demand that the house would be available exclusively after 2 January 1893 and that , even after the dress rehearsal , he could withdraw the opera : " I will leave the theatre , and [ Ricordi ] will have to take the score away " . The public learned of the new opera towards the end of 1892 , and intense interest was aroused , increased rather than diminished by the secrecy with which Verdi surrounded the preparations ; rehearsals were in private , and the press was kept at arm 's length . Apart from Verdi 's outrage at the way that La Scala announced the season 's programme on 7 December – " either a revival of Tannhäuser or Falstaff " – things went smoothly in January 1893 up to the premiere performance on 9 February .
= = Performance history = =
= = = Premieres = = =
The first performance of Falstaff was at La Scala in Milan on 9 February 1893 , nearly six years after Verdi 's previous premiere . For the first night , official ticket prices were thirty times greater than usual . Royalty , aristocracy , critics and leading figures from the arts all over Europe were present . The performance was a huge success under the baton of Edoardo Mascheroni ; numbers were encored , and at the end the applause for Verdi and the cast lasted an hour . That was followed by a tumultuous welcome when the composer , his wife and Boito arrived at the Grand Hotel de Milan .
Over the next two months the work was given twenty @-@ two performances in Milan and then taken by the original company , led by Maurel , to Genoa , Rome , Venice , Trieste , Vienna and , without Maurel , to Berlin . Verdi and his wife left Milan on 2 March ; Ricordi encouraged the composer to go to the planned Rome performance of 14 April , to maintain the momentum and excitement that the opera had generated . The Verdis , along with Boito and Giulio Ricordi , attended together with King Umberto I and other major royal and political figures of the day . The king introduced Verdi to the audience from the Royal Box to great acclaim , " a national recognition and apotheosis of Verdi that had never been tendered him before " , notes Phillips @-@ Matz .
During these early performances Verdi made substantial changes to the score . For some of these he altered his manuscript , but for others musicologists have had to rely on the numerous full and piano scores put out by Ricordi . Further changes were made for the Paris premiere in 1894 , which are also inadequately documented . Ricordi attempted to keep up with the changes , issuing new edition after new edition , but the orchestral and piano scores were often mutually contradictory . The Verdi scholar James Hepokoski considers that a definitive score of the opera is impossible , leaving companies and conductors to choose between a variety of options . In a 2013 study Philip Gossett disagrees , believing that the autograph is essentially a reliable source , augmented by contemporary Ricordi editions for the few passages that Verdi omitted to amend in his own score .
The first performances outside the Kingdom of Italy were in Trieste and Vienna , in May 1893 . The work was given in the Americas and across Europe . The Berlin premiere of 1893 so excited Ferruccio Busoni that he drafted a letter to Verdi , in which he addressed him as " Italy 's leading composer " and " one of the noblest persons of our time " , and in which he explained that " Falstaff provoked in me such a revolution of spirit that I can ... date [ to the experience ] the beginning of a new epoch in my artistic life . " Antonio Scotti played the title role in Buenos Aires in July 1893 ; Gustav Mahler conducted the opera in Hamburg in January 1894 ; a Russian translation was presented in St Petersburg in the same month . Paris was regarded by many as the operatic capital of Europe , and for the production there in April 1894 Boito , who was fluent in French , made his own translation with the help of the Parisian poet Paul Solanges . This translation , approved by Verdi , is quite free in its rendering of Boito 's original Italian text . Boito was content to delegate the English and German translations to William Beatty Kingston and Max Kalbeck respectively . The London premiere , sung in Italian , was at Covent Garden on 19 May 1894 . The conductor was Mancinelli , and Zilli and Pini Corsi repeated their original roles . Falstaff was sung by Arturo Pessina ; Maurel played the role at Covent Garden the following season . On 4 February 1895 the work was first presented at the Metropolitan Opera , New York ; Mancinelli conducted and the cast included Maurel as Falstaff , Emma Eames as Alice , Zélie de Lussan as Nannetta and Sofia Scalchi as Mistress Quickly .
= = = Neglect = = =
After the initial excitement , audiences quickly diminished . Operagoers were nonplussed by the absence of big traditional arias and choruses . A contemporary critic summed it up : " ' Is this our Verdi ? ' they asked themselves . ' But where is the motive ; where are the broad melodies ... where are the usual ensembles ; the finales ? ' " By the time of Verdi 's death in 1901 the work had fallen out of the international repertoire . The rising young conductor Arturo Toscanini was a strong advocate of the work , and did much to save it from neglect . As musical director of La Scala ( from 1898 ) and the Metropolitan Opera ( from 1908 ) , he programmed Falstaff from the start of his tenure . Richard Aldrich , music critic of The New York Times , wrote that Toscanini 's revival " ought to be marked in red letters in the record of the season . Falstaff , which was first produced here on Feb. 4 . 1895 , has not been given since the following season , and was heard in these two seasons only half a dozen times in all . " Aldrich added that though the general public might have had difficulty with the work , " to connoisseurs it was an unending delight " .
In Britain , as in continental Europe and the US , the work fell out of the repertoire . Sir Thomas Beecham revived it in 1919 , and recalling in his memoirs that the public had stayed away he commented :
I have often been asked why I think Falstaff is not more of a box @-@ office attraction , and I do not think the answer is far to seek . Let it be admitted that there are fragments of melody as exquisite and haunting as anything that Verdi has written elsewhere , such as the duet of Nanetta and Fenton in the first act and the song of Fenton at the beginning of the final scene , which have something of the lingering beauty of an Indian summer . But in comparison with every other work of the composer , it is wanting in tunes of a broad and impressive character , and one or two of the type of " O Mia Regina " , " Ritorna Vincitor " , or " Ora per sempre addio " might have helped the situation .
Toscanini recognised that this was the view of many , but he believed the work to be Verdi 's greatest opera ; he said , " I believe it will take years and years before the general public understand this masterpiece , but when they really know it they will run to hear it like they do now for Rigoletto and La traviata . "
= = = Re @-@ emergence = = =
Toscanini returned to La Scala in 1921 and remained in charge there until 1929 , presenting Falstaff in every season . He took the work to Germany and Austria in the late 1920s and the 1930s , conducting it in Vienna , Berlin and at three successive Salzburg Festivals . Among those inspired by Toscanini 's performances were Herbert von Karajan and Georg Solti , who were among his répétiteurs at Salzburg . Toscanini 's younger colleague Tullio Serafin continued to present the work in Germany and Austria after Toscanini refused to perform there because of his loathing of the Nazi regime .
When Karajan was in a position to do so he added Falstaff to the repertoire of his opera company at Aachen in 1941 , and he remained a proponent of the work for the rest of his career , presenting it frequently in Vienna , Salzburg and elsewhere , and making audio and video recordings of it . Solti also became closely associated with Falstaff , as did Carlo Maria Giulini ; they both conducted many performances of the work in mainland Europe , Britain and the US and made several recordings . Leonard Bernstein conducted the work at the Met and the Vienna State Opera , and on record . The advocacy of these and later conductors has given the work an assured place in the modern repertoire .
Among revivals in the 1950s and later , Hepokoski singles out as particularly notable the Glyndebourne productions with Fernando Corena and later Geraint Evans in the title role ; three different stagings by Franco Zeffirelli , for the Holland Festival ( 1956 ) , Covent Garden ( 1961 ) and the Metropolitan Opera ( 1964 ) ; and Luchino Visconti 's 1966 version in Vienna . A 1982 production by Ronald Eyre , more reflective and melancholy than usual , was staged in Los Angeles , London and Florence ; Renato Bruson was Falstaff and Giulini conducted . Among more recent players of the title role Bryn Terfel has taken the part at Covent Garden in 1999 , in a production by Graham Vick , conducted by Bernard Haitink. and at the Metropolitan Opera in a revival of the Zeffirelli production , conducted by James Levine in 2006 .
Although Falstaff has become a regular repertoire work there nonetheless remains a view expressed by John von Rhein in The Chicago Tribune in 1985 : " Falstaff probably always will fall into the category of ' connoisseur 's opera ' rather than taking its place as a popular favorite on the order of La Traviata or Aida . " As noted by Operabase , during the 2012 – 13 season , the work appeared at number 32 of the 50 operas most often performed ; in the 2009 – 10 season it ranked at number 24 .
= = Roles = =
= = Synopsis = =
Time : The reign of Henry IV , 1399 to 1413
Place : Windsor , England
= = = Act 1 = = =
A room at the Garter Inn
Falstaff and his servants , Bardolfo and Pistola , are drinking at the inn . Dr Caius bursts in and accuses Falstaff of burgling his house and Bardolfo of picking his pocket . He is ejected . Falstaff hands a letter to each of his servants for delivery to Alice Ford and Meg Page , two wealthy married women . In these two identical letters , Falstaff professes his love for each of the women , although it is access to their husbands ' money that he chiefly covets . Bardolfo and Pistola refuse , claiming that honour prevents them from obeying him . Falstaff dispatches his page , Robin , to deliver the letters . Falstaff delivers a tirade at his rebellious followers ( L 'onore ! Ladri ... ! / " Honour ! You rogues ... ! " ) telling them that honour is a mere word and is of no practical value . He chases them out of his sight .
Ford 's garden
Alice and Meg have received Falstaff 's letters . They compare them , see that they are identical and , together with Mistress Quickly and Nannetta Ford , resolve to punish Falstaff . Meanwhile , Ford has been warned of the letters by Bardolfo and Pistola . All three are thirsty for revenge and are supported by Dr Caius and Fenton , a young gentleman . To Ford 's disapproval , Fenton is in love with Nannetta . Finding a moment to be alone , the young lovers exchange banter . They are interrupted by the return of Alice , Meg and Mistress Quickly . The act ends with an ensemble in which the women and the men separately plan revenge on Falstaff .
= = = Act 2 = = =
A room at the Garter Inn
Falstaff is alone at the inn . Bardolfo and Pistola , now in the pay of Ford , enter and pretend to beg for forgiveness for past transgressions . They announce to their master the arrival of Mistress Quickly , who delivers an invitation to go to Alice 's house that afternoon between the hours of two and three . She also delivers an answer from Meg Page and assures Falstaff that neither is aware of the other 's letter . Falstaff celebrates his potential success ( " Va , vecchio John " / " Go , old Jack , go your own way " ) . Ford arrives , masquerading as " Signor Fontana " , supposedly an admirer of Alice ; he offers money to the fat knight to seduce her . Falstaff is puzzled at the request , and " Fontana " explains that if Alice succumbs to Falstaff , it will then be easier for Fontana to overcome her virtuous scruples . Falstaff agrees with pleasure and reveals that he already has a rendezvous arranged with Alice for two o 'clock – the hour when Ford is always absent from home . Falstaff goes off to change into his best clothes ; Ford is consumed with jealousy ( È sogno o realtà ? / " Is it a dream or reality ? " ) . When Falstaff returns in his finery , they leave together with elaborate displays of mutual courtesy .
A room in Ford 's house
The three women plot their strategy ( " Gaie Comari di Windsor " / " Merry wives of Windsor , the time has come ! " ) . They are in high spirits , but Alice notices that Nannetta is not . This is because Ford plans to marry her to Dr Caius , a man old enough to be her grandfather ; the women reassure her that they will prevent it . Mistress Quickly announces Falstaff 's arrival , and Mistress Ford has a large laundry basket and a screen placed in readiness . Falstaff 's attempts to seduce Alice with tales of his past glory ( " Quand 'ero paggio del Duca di Norfolk " / " When I was page to the Duke of Norfolk I was slender " ) are cut short , as Mistress Quickly reports the impending arrival of Ford with a retinue of henchmen to catch his wife 's lover . Falstaff hides first behind the screen , and then the women hide him in the laundry basket . In the meantime Fenton and Nannetta hide behind the screen . The men hear the sound of a kiss behind it . They assume it is Falstaff with Alice , but instead they find the young lovers . Ford orders Fenton to leave . Inside the hamper Falstaff is almost suffocating . While the men resume the search of the house Alice orders her servants to throw the laundry basket through the window into the River Thames , where Falstaff endures the jeers of the crowd .
= = = Act 3 = = =
Before the inn
Falstaff glumly curses the sorry state of the world . Some mulled wine soon improves his mood . Mistress Quickly arrives and delivers another invitation to meet Alice . Falstaff at first wants nothing to do with it , but she persuades him . He is to meet Alice at midnight at Herne 's Oak in Windsor Great Park dressed up as Herne the Hunter . He and Mistress Quickly go inside the inn . Ford has realised his error in suspecting his wife , and they and their allies have been watching secretly . They now concoct a plan for Falstaff 's punishment : dressed as supernatural creatures , they will ambush and torment him at midnight . Ford privately proposes a separate plot to Caius : Nannetta will be disguised as Queen of the Fairies , Caius will wear a monk 's costume , and Ford will join the two of them with a nuptial blessing . Mistress Quickly overhears and quietly vows to thwart Ford 's scheme .
Herne 's Oak in Windsor Park on a moonlit midnight
Fenton arrives at the oak tree and sings of his happiness ( " Dal labbro il canto estasiato vola " / " From my lips , a song of ecstasy flies " ) ending with " Lips that are kissed lose none of their allure . " Nannetta enters to finish the line with " Indeed , they renew it , like the moon . " The women arrive and disguise Fenton as a monk , telling him that they have arranged to spoil Ford 's and Caius 's plans . Nannetta , as the Fairy Queen , instructs her helpers ( " Sul fil d 'un soffio etesio " / " On the breath of a fragrant breeze , fly , nimble spirits " ) before all the characters arrive on the scene . Falstaff 's attempted love scene with Alice is interrupted by the announcement that witches are approaching , and the men , disguised as elves and fairies , soundly thrash Falstaff . At length he recognises Bardolfo in disguise . The joke is over , and Falstaff acknowledges that he has received his due . Ford announces that a wedding shall ensue . Caius and the Queen of the Fairies enter . A second couple , also in masquerade , ask Ford to deliver the same blessing for them as well . Ford conducts the double ceremony . Caius finds that instead of Nannetta , his bride is the disguised Bardolfo , and Ford has unwittingly blessed the marriage of Fenton and Nannetta . Ford accepts the fait accompli with good grace . Falstaff , pleased to find himself not the only dupe , proclaims in a fugue , which the entire company sings , that all the world is folly , and all are figures of fun ( Tutto nel mondo è burla ... Tutti gabbati ! / " Everything in the world is a jest ... " ) .
= = Music and drama = =
Verdi scored Falstaff for three flutes ( third doubling piccolo ) , two oboes , English horn , two clarinets , bass clarinet , two bassoons , four horns , three trumpets , four trombones , timpani , percussion ( triangle , cymbals , bass drum ) , harp , and strings . In addition , a guitar , natural horn , and bell are heard from offstage . Unlike most of Verdi 's earlier operatic scores , Falstaff is through @-@ composed . No list of numbers is printed in the published full score . The score differs from much of Verdi 's earlier work by having no overture : there are seven bars for the orchestra before the first voice ( Dr Caius ) enters . The critic Rodney Milnes comments that " enjoyment ... shines from every bar in its irresistible forward impulse , its effortless melody , its rhythmic vitality , and sureness of dramatic pace and construction . " In The New Grove Dictionary of Opera , Roger Parker writes that :
the listener is bombarded by a stunning diversity of rhythms , orchestral textures , melodic motifs and harmonic devices . Passages that in earlier times would have furnished material for an entire number here crowd in on each other , shouldering themselves unceremoniously to the fore in bewildering succession .
The opera was described by its creators as a commedia lirica . McDonald commented in 2009 that Falstaff is very different – a stylistic departure – from Verdi 's earlier work . In McDonald 's view most of the musical expression is in the dialogue , and there is only one traditional aria . The result is that " such stylistic economy – more sophisticated , more challenging than he had employed before – is the keynote of the work . " McDonald argues that consciously or unconsciously , Verdi was developing the idiom that would come to dominate the music of the 20th century : " the lyricism is abbreviated , glanced at rather than indulged . Melodies bloom suddenly and then vanish , replaced by contrasting tempo or an unexpected phrase that introduces another character or idea " . In McDonald 's view the orchestral writing acts as a sophisticated commentator on the action . It has influenced at least one of Verdi 's operatic successors : in 1952 Imogen Holst , musical assistant to Benjamin Britten , wrote , after a performance of Falstaff , " I realised for the first time how much Ben owes to [ Verdi ] . There are orchestral bits which are just as funny to listen to as the comic instrumental bits in A. Herring ! "
The extent to which Falstaff is a " Shakespearian " opera has often been debated by critics . Although the action is taken from The Merry Wives of Windsor , some commentators feel that Boito and Verdi have transmuted Shakespeare 's play into a wholly Italian work . The soprano Elisabeth Schwarzkopf believed there was nothing English or Shakespearian about the comedy : " it was all done through the music " . In 1961 Peter Heyworth wrote in The Observer , " Because of Shakespeare we like to think of Falstaff as a work that has a certain Englishness . In fact the opera is no more English than Aida is Egyptian . Boito and Verdi between them transformed the fat knight into one of the archetypes of opera buffa . " Verdi himself , however , felt that the Falstaff of the opera is not a conventional Italian buffo character , but portrays Shakespeare 's fuller , more ambiguous Falstaff of the Henry IV plays : " My Falstaff is not merely the hero of The Merry Wives of Windsor , who is simply a buffoon , and allows himself to be tricked by the women , but also the Falstaff of the two parts of Henry IV . Boito has written the libretto in accordance . " A contemporary critic argued that the text " imitated with marvellous accuracy the metre and rhythm of Shakespeare 's verse " , but Hepokoski notes Boito 's use of traditional Italian metric conventions .
Another recurrent question is how much , if at all , Verdi was influenced by Wagner 's comic opera Die Meistersinger . At the time of the premiere this was a sensitive subject ; many Italians were suspicious of or hostile to Wagner 's music , and were protective in a nationalistic way of Verdi 's reputation . Nevertheless , Verdi 's new style was markedly different from that of his popular works of the 1850s and 1860s , and it seemed to some to have Wagnerian echoes . In 1999 the critic Andrew Porter wrote , " That Falstaff was Verdi 's and Boito 's answer to Wagner 's Meistersinger seems evident now . But the Italian Falstaff moves more quickly . " Toscanini , who did more than anyone else to bring Falstaff into the regular operatic repertoire , commented :
the difference between Falstaff , which is the absolute masterpiece , and Die Meistersinger , which is an outstanding Wagnerian opera . Just think for a moment how many musical means – beautiful ones , certainly – Wagner must make use of to describe the Nuremberg night . And look how Verdi gets a similarly startling effect at a similar moment with three notes .
Verdi scholars including Julian Budden have analysed the music in symphonic terms – the opening section " a perfect little sonata movement " , the second act concluding with a variant of the classic slow concertante ensemble leading to a fast stretto , and the whole opera ending with " the most academic of musical forms " , a fugue . Milnes suggests that this shows " a wise old conservative 's warning about the excesses of the verismo school of Italian opera " already on the rise by the 1890s . Among the solo numbers woven into the continuous score are Falstaff 's " honour " monologue , which concludes the first scene , and his reminiscent arietta ( " Quand 'ero paggio " ) about himself as a young page . The young lovers , Nannetta and Fenton , are given a lyrical and playful duet ( " Labbra di foco " ) in Act I ; in Act III , Fenton 's impassioned love song , " Dal labbro il canto estasiato vola " briefly becomes a duet when Nannetta joins him . She then has the last substantial solo section of the score , the " fairy " aria , " Sul fil d 'un soffio etesio " , described by Parker as " yet another aria suffused with the soft orchestral colours that characterize this scene " .
The score is seen by the critic Richard Osborne as rich in self @-@ parody , with sinister themes from Rigoletto and Un ballo in maschera transmuted into comedy . For Osborne the nocturnal music of Act III draws on the examples of Weber , Berlioz and Mendelssohn , creating a mood akin to that of Shakespeare 's A Midsummer Night 's Dream . Osborne views the whole opera as an ensemble piece , and he comments that grand soliloquy in the old Verdian style is reserved for Ford 's " jealousy " aria in Act II , which is almost tragic in style but comic in effect , making Ford " a figure to be laughed at . " Osborne concludes his analysis , " Falstaff is comedy 's musical apogee : the finest opera , inspired by the finest dramatist , by the finest opera composer the world has known " .
= = Recordings = =
There are two early recordings of Falstaff 's short arietta " Quand 'ero paggio " . Pini Corsi , the original Ford , recorded it in 1904 , and Maurel followed in 1907 . The first recording of the complete opera was made by Italian Columbia in March and April 1932 . It was conducted by Lorenzo Molajoli with the chorus and orchestra of La Scala , and a cast including Giacomo Rimini as Falstaff and Pia Tassinari as Alice . Some live stage performances were recorded in the 1930s , but the next studio recording was that conducted by Toscanini for broadcast by NBC in 1950 , released on disc by RCA . The first stereophonic recording was conducted by Herbert von Karajan for EMI in 1956 .
Among the singers whose performances of the title role are on live or studio recordings , Italians include Renato Bruson , Tito Gobbi , Rolando Panerai , Ruggero Raimondi , Mariano Stabile , Giuseppe Taddei and Giuseppe Valdengo ; Francophone singers include Gabriel Bacquier , Jean @-@ Philippe Lafont and José van Dam ; Germans include Walter Berry , Dietrich Fischer @-@ Dieskau and Hans Hotter ; and UK and US singers include Geraint Evans , Donald Gramm , Bryn Terfel , Leonard Warren and Willard White .
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= Cy Young =
Denton True " Cy " Young ( March 29 , 1867 – November 4 , 1955 ) was an American Major League Baseball pitcher . During his 22 @-@ season baseball career ( 1890 – 1911 ) , he pitched for five different teams . Young established numerous pitching records , some of which have stood for a century . Young compiled 511 wins , which is most in Major League history and 94 ahead of Walter Johnson who is second on the list . Young was elected to the National Baseball Hall of Fame in 1937 .
One year after Young 's death , the Cy Young Award was created to honor the previous season 's best pitcher .
In addition to wins , Young still holds the major league records for most career innings pitched ( 7 @,@ 356 ) , most career games started ( 815 ) , and most complete games ( 749 ) . He also retired with 316 losses , the most in MLB history . Young 's 76 career shutouts are fourth all @-@ time . He also won at least 30 games in a season five times , with ten other seasons of 20 or more wins . In addition , Young pitched three no @-@ hitters , including the third perfect game in baseball history , first in baseball 's " modern era " . In 1999 , 88 years after his final major league appearance and 44 years after his death , editors at The Sporting News ranked Young 14th on their list of " Baseball 's 100 Greatest Players " . That same year , baseball fans named him to the Major League Baseball All @-@ Century Team .
Young 's career started in 1890 with the Cleveland Spiders . After eight years with the Spiders , Young was moved to St. Louis in 1899 . After two years there , Young jumped to the newly created American League , joining the Boston franchise . He was traded back to Cleveland in 1909 , before spending the final two months of his career with the Boston Rustlers . After his retirement , Young went back to his farm in Ohio , where he stayed until his death at age 88 in 1955 .
= = Early life = =
Cy Young was the oldest child born to McKinzie Young , Jr. and German American Nancy Mottmiller . The couple had four more children : Jesse Carlton , Alonzo , Ella , and Anthony . When the couple married , McKinzie 's father gave him the 54 acres ( 220 @,@ 000 m2 ) of farm land he owned . Young was born in Gilmore , a tiny farming community located in Washington Township , Tuscarawas County , Ohio . He was christened Denton True Young . Some sources later , and even today , list his middle name erroneously as " Tecumseh " , apparently as a result of being nicknamed " The Chief " by teammates .
He was raised on one of the local farms and went by the name Dent Young in his early years . Young was also known as " Farmer Young " and " Farmboy Young " . Young stopped his formal education after he completed the sixth grade so he could help out on the family 's farm . In 1885 , Young moved with his father to Nebraska , and in the summer of 1887 , they returned to Gilmore .
Young played for many amateur baseball leagues during his youth , including a " semi @-@ pro " Carrollton team in 1888 . Young pitched and played second base . The first box score known containing the name Young came from that season . In that game , Young played first base and had three hits in three at @-@ bats . After the season , Young received an offer to play for the minor league Canton team , which started Young 's professional career .
= = Professional career = =
= = = Before Major League Baseball = = =
Young began his professional career in 1889 with the Canton , Ohio team of the Tri @-@ State League , a professional minor league . During his tryout , Young impressed the scouts , recalling years later , " I almost tore the boards off the grandstand with my fast ball . " Cy Young 's nickname came from the fences that he had destroyed using his fastball . The fences looked like a cyclone had hit them . Reporters later shortened the name to " Cy " , which became the nickname Young used for the rest of his life . During Young 's one year with the Canton team , he won 15 games and lost 15 .
Franchises in the National League , the major professional baseball league at the time , wanted the best players available to them . Therefore , in 1890 , Young signed with the Cleveland Spiders , a team which had moved from the American Association to the National League the previous year .
= = = Cleveland Spiders = = =
On August 6 , 1890 , Young 's major league debut , he pitched a three @-@ hit shutout . While Young was on the Spiders , Chief Zimmer was his catcher more often than any other player . Bill James , a baseball statistician , estimated that Zimmer caught Young in more games than any other battery in baseball history .
Early on , Young established himself as one of the harder @-@ throwing pitchers in the game . Bill James wrote that Zimmer often put a piece of beefsteak inside his baseball glove to protect his catching hand from Young 's fastball . In the absence of radar guns , however , it is impossible to say just how hard Young actually threw . Young continued to perform at a high level during the 1890 season . On the last day of the season , Young won both games of a doubleheader . In the first weeks of Young 's career , Cap Anson , the player @-@ manager of the Chicago Colts spotted Young 's ability . Anson told Spiders ' manager Gus Schmelz , " He 's too green to do your club much good , but I believe if I taught him what I know , I might make a pitcher out of him in a couple of years . He 's not worth it now , but I 'm willing to give you $ 1 @,@ 000 ( $ 26 @,@ 337 today ) for him . " Schmelz replied , " Cap , you can keep your thousand and we 'll keep the rube . "
Two years after Young 's debut , the National League moved the pitcher 's position back by 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) . Since 1881 , pitchers had pitched within a " box " whose front line was 50 feet ( 15 m ) from home base , and since 1887 they had been compelled to toe the back line of the box when delivering the ball . The back line was 55 feet 6 inches ( 16 @.@ 92 m ) away from home . In 1893 , 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) was added to the back line , yielding the modern pitching distance of 60 feet 6 inches ( 18 @.@ 44 m ) . In the book The Neyer / James Guide to Pitchers , sports journalist Rob Neyer wrote that the speed with which pitchers like Cy Young , Amos Rusie , and Jouett Meekin threw was the impetus that caused the move .
The 1892 regular season was a success for Young , who led the National League in wins ( 36 ) , ERA ( 1 @.@ 93 ) , and shutouts ( 9 ) . Just as many contemporary Minor League Baseball leagues operate today , the National League was using a split season format during the 1892 season . The Boston Beaneaters won the first @-@ half title , and the Spiders won the second @-@ half title , with a best @-@ of @-@ nine series determining the league champion . Despite the Spiders ' second half run , the Beaneaters swept the series , five games to none . Young pitched three complete games in the series , but lost two decisions . He also threw a complete game shutout , but the game ended in a 0 – 0 tie .
The Spiders faced the Baltimore Orioles in the Temple Cup , a precursor to the World Series , in 1895 . Young won three games in the series and Cleveland won the Cup , four games to one . It was around this time that Young added what he called a " slow ball " to his pitching repertoire to reduce stress on his arm . The pitch today is called a changeup .
In 1896 , Young lost a no @-@ hitter with two outs in the ninth inning when Ed Delahanty of the Philadelphia Phillies hit a single . On September 18 , 1897 , Young pitched the first no @-@ hitter of his career in a game against the Cincinnati Reds . Although Young did not walk a batter , the Spiders committed four errors while on defense . One of the errors had originally been ruled a hit , but the Cleveland third baseman sent a note to the press box after the eighth inning , saying he had made an error , and the ruling was changed . Young later said , that , despite his teammate 's gesture , he considered the game to be a one @-@ hitter .
= = = Shift to St. Louis = = =
Prior to the 1899 season , Frank Robison , the Spiders owner , bought the St. Louis Browns , thus owning two clubs simultaneously . The Browns were renamed the " Perfectos " , and restocked with Cleveland talent . Just weeks before the season opener , most of the better Spiders players were transferred to St. Louis , including fellow pitcher Pete McBride and three future Hall of Famers : Young , Jesse Burkett , and Bobby Wallace . The roster maneuvers failed to create a powerhouse Perfectos team , as St. Louis finished fifth in both 1899 and 1900 . Meanwhile , the depleted Spiders lost 134 games , the most in MLB history , before folding . Young spent two years with St. Louis , which is where he found his favorite catcher , Lou Criger . The two men were teammates for a decade .
= = = Move to the American League = = =
In 1901 , the rival American League declared major league status and set about raiding National League rosters . Young left St. Louis and joined the American League 's Boston Americans for a $ 3 @,@ 500 contract ( $ 99 @,@ 554 today ) . Young would remain with the Boston team until 1909 . In his first year in the American League , Young was dominant . Pitching to Criger , who had also jumped to Boston , Young led the league in wins , strikeouts , and ERA , thus earning the colloquial AL Triple Crown for pitchers . Young won almost 42 % of his team 's games in 1901 , accounting for 33 of his team 's 79 wins . In February 1902 , before the start of the baseball season , Young served as a pitching coach at Harvard University . The sixth @-@ grade graduate instructing Harvard students delighted Boston newspapers . The following year , Young coached at Mercer University during the spring . The team went on to win the Georgia state championship in 1903 , 1904 , and 1905 .
The Boston Americans played the Pittsburgh Pirates in the first modern World Series in 1903 . Young , who started Game One against the visiting Pirates , thus threw the first pitch in modern World Series history . The Pirates scored four runs in that first inning , and Young lost the game . Young performed better in subsequent games , winning his next two starts . He also drove in three runs in Game Five . Young finished the series with a 2 – 1 record and a 1 @.@ 85 ERA in four appearances , and Boston defeated Pittsburgh , five games to three games .
After one @-@ hitting Boston on May 2 , 1904 , Philadelphia Athletics pitcher Rube Waddell taunted Young to face him so that he could repeat his performance against Boston 's ace . Three days later , Young pitched a perfect game against Waddell and the Athletics . It was the first perfect game in American League history . Waddell was the 27th and last batter , and when he flied out , Young shouted , " How do you like that , you hayseed ? " Waddell had picked an inauspicious time to issue his challenge . Young 's perfect game was the centerpiece of a pitching streak . Young set major league records for the most consecutive scoreless innings pitched and the most consecutive innings without allowing a hit ; the latter record still stands at 25 @.@ 1 innings , or 76 hitless batters . Even after allowing a hit , Young 's scoreless streak reached a then @-@ record 45 shutout innings . Before Young , only two pitchers had thrown perfect games . This occurred in 1880 , when Lee Richmond and John Montgomery Ward pitched perfect games within five days of each other , although under somewhat different rules : the front edge of the pitcher 's box was only 45 feet ( 14 m ) from home base ( the modern release point is about 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) farther away ) ; walks required eight balls ; and pitchers were obliged to throw side @-@ armed . Young 's perfect game was the first under the modern rules established in 1893 . One year later , on July 4 , 1905 , Rube Waddell beat Young and the Americans , 4 – 2 , in a 20 @-@ inning matchup . Young pitched 13 consecutive scoreless innings before he gave up a pair of unearned runs in the final inning . Young did not walk a batter and was later quoted : " For my part , I think it was the greatest game of ball I ever took part in . " In 1907 , Young and Waddell faced off in a scoreless 13 @-@ inning tie .
In 1908 , Young pitched the third no @-@ hitter of his career . Three months past his 41st birthday , Cy Young was the oldest pitcher to record a no @-@ hitter , a record which would stand 82 years until 43 @-@ year @-@ old Nolan Ryan surpassed the feat . Only a walk kept Young from his second perfect game . After that runner was caught stealing , no other batter reached base . At this time , Young was the second @-@ oldest player in either league . In another game one month before his no @-@ hitter , he allowed just one single while facing 28 batters . On August 13 , 1908 , the league celebrated " Cy Young Day . " No American League games were played on that day , and a group of All @-@ Stars from the league 's other teams gathered in Boston to play against Young and the Red Sox . When the season ended , he posted a 1 @.@ 26 ERA , which gave him not only the lowest in his career , but also gave him a Major League record of being the oldest pitcher with 150 + innings pitched to post a season ERA under 1 @.@ 50 .
= = = Cleveland Naps and retirement = = =
Young was traded back to Cleveland , the place where he played over half his career , before the 1909 season , to the Cleveland Naps of the American League . The following season , 1910 , he won his 500th career game on July 19 against Washington . He split 1911 , his final year , between the Naps and the Boston Rustlers .
On September 22 , 1911 , Young shut out the Pittsburgh Pirates , 1 – 0 , for his last career victory . In his final start two weeks later , the last eight batters of Young 's career combined to hit a triple , four singles , and three doubles .
= = College coaching career = =
In February 1902 , before the start of the baseball season , Young served as a pitching coach at Harvard University . The sixth @-@ grade graduate instructing Harvard students delighted Boston newspapers . The following year , Young coached at Mercer University , in Macon , Georgia during the spring . The team went on to win the Georgia state championship in 1903 , 1904 , and 1905 .
= = After baseball = =
Beginning in 1912 , Young lived and worked on his farm . In 1913 , he served as manager of the Cleveland Green Sox of the Federal League , which was at the time an outlaw minor league . However , he never worked in baseball after that .
Young 's wife , Roba , whom he had known since childhood , died in 1933 . After she died , Young tried several jobs , and eventually moved in with friends John and Ruth Benedum and did odd jobs for them . Young took part in many baseball events after his retirement . In 1937 , 26 years after he retired from baseball , Young was inducted into the Baseball Hall of Fame . He was among the first to donate mementos to the Hall .
By 1940 , Young 's only source of income was stock dividends of $ 300 per year ( $ 5 @,@ 067 today ) . On November 4 , 1955 , Young died on the Benedum 's farm at the age of 88 . He was buried in Peoli , Ohio .
= = Baseball legacy = =
Young retired with 511 career wins , which remains the record for most career wins by a pitcher . At the time , Pud Galvin had the second most career wins with 364 . Walter Johnson , then in his fourth season , finished his career with 417 wins and , as of 2015 , remains second on the list . In 1921 , Johnson broke Young 's career record for strikeouts .
Young 's career is seen as a bridge from baseball 's earliest days to its modern era ; he pitched against stars such as Cap Anson , already an established player when the National League was first formed in 1876 , as well as against Eddie Collins , who played until 1930 . When Young 's career began , pitchers delivered the baseball underhand and fouls were not counted as strikes . The pitcher 's mound was not moved back to its present position of 60 feet 6 inches ( 18 @.@ 44 m ) until Young 's fourth season ; he did not wear a glove until his sixth season .
Young led his league in wins five times ( 1892 , 1895 , and 1901 – 1903 ) , finishing second twice . His career high was 36 in 1892 . He had fifteen seasons with twenty or more wins , two more than the runners @-@ up , Christy Mathewson and Warren Spahn . Young won two ERA titles during his career , in 1892 ( 1 @.@ 93 ) and in 1901 ( 1 @.@ 62 ) , and was three times the runner @-@ up . Young 's earned run average was below 2 @.@ 00 six times , but this was not uncommon during the dead @-@ ball era . Although Young threw over 400 innings in each of his first four full seasons , he did not lead his league until 1902 . He had 40 or more complete games nine times . Young also led his league in strikeouts twice ( with 140 in 1896 , and 158 in 1901 ) , and in shutouts seven times . Young led his league in fewest walks per nine innings thirteen times and finished second one season . Only twice in his 22 @-@ year career did Young finish lower than 5th in the category . Although the WHIP ratio was not calculated until well after Young 's death , Young was the retroactive league leader in this category seven times and was second or third another seven times . Young is tied with Roger Clemens for the most career wins by a Boston Red Sox pitcher . They each won 192 games while with the franchise .
Particularly after his fastball slowed , Young relied upon his control . Young was once quoted as saying , " Some may have thought it was essential to know how to curve a ball before anything else . Experience , to my mind , teaches to the contrary . Any young player who has good control will become a successful curve pitcher long before the pitcher who is endeavoring to master both curves and control at the same time . The curve is merely an accessory to control . " In addition to his exceptional control , Young was also a workhorse who avoided injury . For nineteen consecutive years , from 1891 through 1909 , Young was in his leagues ' top ten for innings pitched ; in fourteen of the seasons , he was in the top five . Not until 1900 , a decade into his career , did Young pitch two consecutive incomplete games . By habit , Young restricted his practice throws in spring training . " I figured the old arm had just so many throws in it " , said Young , " and there wasn 't any use wasting them . " Young once described his approach before a game :
I never warmed up ten , fifteen minutes before a game like most pitchers do . I 'd loosen up , three , four minutes . Five at the outside . And I never went to the bullpen . Oh , I 'd relieve all right , plenty of times , but I went right from the bench to the box , and I 'd take a few warm @-@ up pitches and be ready . Then I had good control . I aimed to make the batter hit the ball , and I threw as few pitches as possible . That 's why I was able to work every other day .
By the time of his retirement , Young 's control had faltered . He had also gained weight . In three of his last four years , he was the oldest player in the league .
In 1956 , about one year after Young 's death , the Cy Young Award was created . The first award was given to Brooklyn 's Don Newcombe . Originally , it was a single award covering the whole of baseball . The honor was divided into two Cy Young Awards in 1967 , one for each league .
On September 23 , 1993 , a statue dedicated to him was unveiled by Northeastern University on the site of the Red Sox 's original stadium , the Huntington Avenue Grounds . It was there that Young had pitched the first game of the 1903 World Series , as well as the first perfect game in the modern era of baseball . A home plate @-@ shaped plaque next to the statue reads :
On October 1 , 1903 the first modern World Series between the American League champion Boston Pilgrims ( later known as the Red Sox ) and the National League champion Pittsburgh Pirates was played on this site . General admission tickets were fifty cents . The Pilgrims , led by twenty @-@ eight game winner Cy Young , trailed the series three games to one but then swept four consecutive victories to win the championship five games to three .
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= Siward Barn =
Siward Barn ( Old English : Sigeweard Bearn ) was an 11th @-@ century English thegn and landowner @-@ warrior . He appears in the extant sources in the period following the Norman Conquest of England , joining the northern resistance to William the Conqueror by the end of the 1060s . Siward 's resistance continued until his capture on the Isle of Ely alongside Æthelwine , Bishop of Durham , Earl Morcar , and Hereward ( " the Wake " ) as cited in the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle . Siward and his confiscated properties in central and northern England were mentioned in Domesday Book , and from this it is clear that he was one of the main antecessors of Henry de Ferrers , father of Robert de Ferrers , the first Earl of Derby .
Following his capture in 1071 , he was imprisoned . This incarceration lasted until 1087 , when a guilt @-@ ridden King William , in expectation of his own death , ordered Siward 's release . Firm evidence of Siward 's later life is non @-@ existent , but some historians have argued that he took up a career in the Varangian Guard at Constantinople , in the service of the Emperor Alexios I Komnenos . The sources upon which this theory is based also allege that Siward led a party of English colonists to the Black Sea , who renamed their conquered territory New England .
= = Origins = =
Identifying Siward 's origin is difficult for historians because of the large number of Siwards in England in the mid @-@ 11th century . Other notable Siwards include Siward of Maldon and Siward Grossus , both men of substance with landholdings larger or comparable to Siward Barn 's . The Anglo @-@ Norman writer Orderic Vitalis , when describing William the Conqueror 's stay at Barking , says that Morcar , formerly Earl of Northumbria , and Edwine , Earl of Mercia , came and submitted to King William , followed by Copsi , Earl of Northumbria , along with Thurkil of Limis , Eadric the Wild , and " Ealdred and Siward , the sons of Æthelgar , grandsons [ or grand @-@ nephews ] ( pronepotes ) of King Edward " .
Edward Augustus Freeman and other historians have thought that this Siward was Siward Barn , arguing that Siward must have been a descendant of Uhtred the Bold , Earl of Northumbria , and Ælfgifu , daughter of King Æthelred the Unready , King Edward 's father . Historian and translator of Orderic , Marjorie Chibnall , pointed out that this Siward is mentioned later in his Ecclesiastical History as a Shropshire landowner , in connection with the foundation of Shrewsbury Abbey . Ann Williams likewise rejected this identification , identifying this Siward firmly with the Shropshire thegn Siward Grossus . According to Williams ' reconstruction , Siward Grossus and his brother Ealdred were the sons of Æthelgar by a daughter of Eadric Streona , Ealdorman of Mercia and Eadgyth , another daughter of King Æthelred , explaining the relationship Orderic believed they had with Edward the Confessor .
Another historian , Forrest Scott , guessed that Siward was a member of the family of Northumbrian earls , presumably connected in some way to Siward , Earl of Northumbria . Margaret Faull and Marie Stinson , the editors of the Philimore Domesday Book for Yorkshire , believed that Siward was " a senior member of the house of Bamburgh and possibly a brother or half @-@ brother of Earl Gospatric " . Another historian , Geoffrey Barrow , pointed out that Faull and Stinson gave no evidence for this assertion , and doubted the hypothesis because of Siward 's Danish name .
= = From York to Ely = =
In 1068 , there was a revolt in the north of England against the rule of King William , few details of which are recorded . It was serious enough to worry King William , who marched north and began the construction of castles at Warwick , Nottingham , York , Lincoln , Huntingdon and Cambridge . Earl Cospatric apparently fled to Scotland and in the beginning of 1069 King William appointed the Picard Robert de Comines as the new earl of Northumbria .
During the winter the English murdered Earl William and Robert fitz Richard , the custodian of the new castle at York , and trapped William Malet , the first Norman sheriff of York , in the castle . King William went north in the spring or summer of 1069 , relieved the siege of Malet , and restored the castle , placing William fitz Osbern in charge . The leaders of the revolt were Edgar the Ætheling ( claimant to the English throne ) , Gospatric of Northumbria , and , among others , Mærle @-@ Sveinn , former sheriff of Lincoln , and many senior Northumbria nobles .
In the autumn of 1069 , a fleet under the Danish king Sweyn Estridsson and his brother Earl Osbjorn arrived off the coast of England . It is from this point that Siward 's involvement in the revolt is documented . Orderic Vitalis related that :
The Ætheling , Waltheof , Siward , and the other English leaders had joined the Danes ... The Danes reached York , and a general rising of the inhabitants swelled their ranks . Waltheof , Gospatric ( Gaius Patricius ) , Mærle @-@ Sveinn ( Marius Suenus ) , Elnoc , Arnketil , and the four sons of Karle were in the advance guard and led the Danish and Norwegian forces .
What followed was William 's most devastating punitive expedition , the so @-@ called " Harrying of the North " , conducted during the winter of 1069 / 70 . After two minor engagements disadvantageous to the Danes , King William came to an agreement with Earl Osbjorn that neutralised them . William held Christmas court at the ruined city of York , and brought Waltheof and Gospatric back into his peace at the River Tees .
Siward was at Wearmouth in the summer of 1070 , with Edgar and Mærle @-@ Sveinn , while William marched to the River Tyne with his marauding army . Although William burnt down the church of Jarrow , he left Edgar 's party undisturbed . Siward must have gone to Scotland in this year , for the Historia Regum reports that in 1071 Morcar ( previously earl of Northumbria ) and Hereward went by ship to the Isle of Ely , and that " Æthelwine , bishop of Durham , and Siward , nicknamed Barn , sailing back from Scotland " arrived there too . This is also related by the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle , which confirms that :
Bishop Æthelwine and Siweard Bearn came to Ely and many hundred men with them " .
It was at Ely that Siward and all the other notables , save Hereward , were captured by King William .
= = Confiscation and release = =
By 1086 , perhaps soon before or after his capture , many of Siward 's lands were given to the Norman warrior Henry de Ferrers , though other successors included Geoffrey de La Guerche and William d 'Ecouis . According to the Domesday Book , in " the time of Edward " ( TRE ) , or rather on the day of the death of Edward the Confessor , Siward held twenty @-@ one manors in eight different English counties .
In Berkshire , Greenham ( £ 8 ) , Lockinge ( £ 10 ) and Stanford in the Vale ( £ 30 ; now in Oxfordshire ) ; in Gloucestershire , Lechlade ( £ 20 ) ; in Warwickshire , Grendon ( £ 2 ) , Burton Hastings ( £ 4 ) and Harbury ( £ 2 ) ; in Derbyshire , Brassington ( £ 6 ) , Croxhall ( £ 3 ) , Catton ( £ 3 ) , Cubley ( £ 5 ) , Norbury and Roston ( £ 5 ) , Duffield ( £ 9 ) , Breadhall ( £ 4 ) , " Wormhill " ( waste ) and Moreley ( waste ) ; in Nottinghamshire , Leake ( £ 6 ) and Bonnington ( s . 6 ) ; in Yorkshire Adlingfleet ( £ 4 ) ; in Lincolnshire , Whitton ( £ 10 ) and Haxey ( 5 ) ; and in Norfolk Sheringham ( £ 4 ) and Salthouse ( £ 2 ) . Ann Williams doubted that the estates in Berkshire belonged to Siward Barn , noting the possibility that these estates belonged to Siward of Maldon .
The total value of his holdings is put at 142 libra ( " pounds " ) and 6 solidi ( " shillings " ) . Siward Barn ranks 21st out of all the English landowners in the time of King Edward below the rank of earl .
Nothing more is heard of Siward until 1087 , the year of the death of William the Conqueror . The Chronicle of John of Worcester relates that :
On his [ King William 's ] return [ from France ] fierce intestinal pains afflicted him , and he got worse from day to day . When , as his illness worsened , he felt the day of his death approaching , he set free his brother , Odo , bishop of Bayeux , earls Morkar and Roger , Siward called Barn , and Wulfnoth , King Harold 's brother ( whom he had kept in custody since childhood ) , as well as all he had kept imprisoned either in England or Normandy . Then he handed the English kingdom over to William [ Rufus ] , and granted the Norman duchy to Robert [ Curthose ] , who was then exiled in France . In this way , fortified by the holy viaticum , he abandoned both life and kingdom on Thursday , 9 September , after ruling the English kingdom for twenty years , ten months , and twenty @-@ eight days .
A similar account is in the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle , recension E , though specific names are omitted . This unfortunately is also the last notice of Siward in any near @-@ contemporary , reliable source .
= = Varangian and colonist ? = =
Two modern historians , however , have argued that Siward subsequently became a mercenary in the service of the Byzantine Emperor Alexios I Komnenos . A 13th @-@ century French chronicle known as the Chronicon Laudunensis ( or Chronicon universale anonymi Laudunensis , " the anonymous universal chronicle of Laon " ) and the 14th century Icelandic text , the Játvarðar Saga , a short saga devoted to the life of Edward the Confessor , both relate a story about English warriors who sail to Constantinople to escape the dominion of the Normans , and found a colony in the Black Sea called New England . The Játvarðar Saga says that the leader of this expedition was one " Siward earl of Gloucester " ( Sigurð jarl af Glocestr ) .
Siward and his force were said to have rescued Constantinople from a siege by " heathens " , after which the emperor Alexios offered Siward and his men positions in the Varangian Guard . According to both sources , Siward and some of the English expressed their desire to have a territory of their own , and so Alexius told them of a land over the sea that had formerly been part of the empire , but was now occupied by heathens . The emperor subsequently granted this land to the English , and a party led by Earl Siward sailed onwards to take control of it . The land , the sources allege , lay " 6 days north and north @-@ east of Constantinople " , a distance and direction that puts the territory somewhere in or around the Crimea and Sea of Azov . Earl Siward , after many battles , defeated and drove away the heathens . The Chronicon Laudunensis says that this territory was renamed " New England " , while the Játvarðar Saga claims that the towns of the land were named after English towns , including London and York . The Chronicon alleges that , later , the English rebelled against Byzantine authority and became pirates .
The theory that this Siward is Siward Barn was advocated by Jonathan Shepard and Christine Fell . Shepard pointed out , although never called " Earl of Gloucester " , Siward had holdings in Gloucestershire – the only substantial Siward in Domesday Book with property in that county — and was indeed a participant in resistance to the Normans . Shepard argued that the narrative in question referred not , as the Chronicon Laudunensis had asserted , to the 1070s , but to the 1090s , after Siward 's release from prison . Fell , while acknowledging that there were two Siwards participating in resistance to William the Conqueror , Siward Barn and Siward of Maldon , pointed out that Siward Barn is more prominent in the literary sources and , unlike Siward of Maldon , had property in Gloucestershire . Two other historians who have since commented on the point , John Godfrey and Ann Williams , accepted that the identification is tenuous and remained neutral .
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= Readville ( MBTA station ) =
Readville is a passenger rail station located slightly northwest of Wolcott Square in the Readville section of the Hyde Park neighborhood of Boston , Massachusetts . It serves multiple lines on the MBTA ( Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority ) Commuter Rail system , with access to the Fairmount Line and Franklin Line on separate platforms . Readville is the terminus of the Fairmount Line , although a small number of rush hour trains continue through the station to and from the Franklin Line . The station has platforms in place on the Northeast Corridor , but they are not used by Providence / Stoughton Line trains except during service disruptions .
Passenger service has run to Readville continuously since the Boston and Providence Railroad opened in 1834 . Separate stations on two levels were consolidated by the New Haven Railroad around 1898 . Until 1958 , the railroad had its heavy maintenance facilities located in Readville 5 @-@ Yard to the west of the station . The station building burned down in 1983 , but the MBTA built replacement platforms and ramps in 1992 .
= = History = =
= = = Early stations = = =
The Boston and Providence Railroad was built through Readville starting in 1832 , and passenger service on the main line and a branch to Dedham began in 1834 . The Norfolk County Railroad built the Midland Division starting in 1853 from Islington to Boston through Readville , and full service began in July 1855 . The Midland Branch , also called the Dorchester Branch , connected the Norfolk County Railroad ( which then ran to Blackstone , Massachusetts to Boston . The Midland Division crossed the Boston & Providence on a high grade and bridge ; there was initially no track connection between the two railroads . The Norfolk County was acquired by the Boston , Hartford and Erie Railroad in 1868 and then to the New York and New England Railroad in 1875 , becoming the latter 's primary route into Boston . Readville served as a short turn turnback point for B & P trains from 1867 to 1880 and after 1899 .
The Midland Branch station , located on the upper level closer to Wolcott Square , was originally known as Blue Hills after the nearby range of hills However , by 1888 it too was known as Readville . Near the beginning of the 20th century , the two stations were consolidated as one under the New Haven . After the New York , New Haven and Hartford Railroad acquired the Boston & Providence in 1893 and the NY & NE in 1898 , the two stations were consolidated . A connecting track was built in 1899 allowing trains from Franklin and beyond to run on the Northeast Corridor to Boston , and the two @-@ story Readville depot was built to serve both levels on the station . An under @-@ track passage provided access to the southbound B & P platform and the NY & NE track area .
= = = Dedham and Midland branches = = =
The Dedham Branch briefly became an important piece of the New Haven 's commuter system . Between 1926 and 1938 , trains operated on a loop using the Dedham Branch and the Norfolk County Railroad 's former route through West Roxbury ( part of which is now part of the Needham Line ) . In 1940 , service to Dedham via West Roxbury was discontinued , leaving the Dedham Branch as the only rail access to Dedham . However , traffic to Dedham continued to decline , and the last service ( a single daily round trip ) to Dedham via the Dedham Branch ended on April 21 , 1967 . The MBTA purchased the abandoned right of way from Penn Central on January 27 , 1973 .
The Midland Branch also declined in importance after the Franklin division was connected to the New Haven mainline in 1899 . Through trains from Connecticut were redirected to the mainline at Readville , leaving only Franklin and Readville locals to use the Midland . Service on the line from Boston to Readville was discontinued in 1938 ; it returned in 1940 but ended more permanently in March 1944 . Through trains to Connecticut ( discontinued in 1955 ) and commuter trains to Blackstone ( discontinued April 24 , 1966 ) and Franklin continued to use the section from Readville to Islington .
= = = MBTA era = = =
From 1944 to 1979 , the configuration of Readville was static : the two @-@ story depot served the lower level ( Northeast Corridor ) tracks , while the elevated track to Franklin and beyond was served by a small shack with stairs to the lower level . Starting in 1979 , construction of the Southwest Corridor necessitated closure of the main line between Back Bay and Forest Hills . From November 3 , 1979 until October 5 , 1987 , all Franklin Line and Providence / Stoughton Line service ran to Boston on the Midland Division via Readville .
The two @-@ story station building was destroyed by a fire on June 11 , 1983 . The building had been vacant since the early 1970s and was a frequent target of vandalism ; the fire was judged to be of suspicious origin . The MBTA did not replace the building , but handicapped @-@ accessible platforms were installed in 1992 and were connected with footbridges .
When Franklin and Providence / Stoughton service returned to the main line , service on the Midland had become popular enough to justify a continued shuttle service along the line from Boston to Fairmount . The Fairmount Shuttle was extended to Readville on November 30 , 1987 as the Fairmount Line . Since 1987 , Providence / Stoughton Line service has run through Readville without making a station stop , even though there are platforms in place to allow such use .
The 1898 @-@ built bridge over the Northeast Corridor , now used by Franklin Line trains running via Fairmount , is planned for replacement . The span will be replaced with a prebuilt bridge in a single weekend with minimal impact to Amtrak and MBTA service on the Corridor , with the old abutments left in place as retaining walls . The design contract was awarded in 2012 , and a construction contract was to be awarded in 2015 .
= = = Proposed Orange Line extension = = =
Readville is located in a densely populated neighborhood just nine miles from downtown Boston , making it a strong candidate for rapid transit service rather than conventional low @-@ frequency commuter rail service . The 1945 Coolidge Commission Report recommended that an extension of the Orange Line south from Forest Hills be built to Dedham via West Roxbury rather than Hyde Park and Readville . The 1966 Program for Mass Transportation recommended a bifurcated Orange Line , with one branch to West Roxbury or Hersey and another to Readville or Route 128 via Hyde Park . Various reports over the next two decades continued to recommend various combinations of the extensions ; however , due to cost , the 1987 relocation of the Orange Line to the Southwest Corridor was terminated at Forest Hills . Hyde Park , Readville , and the Needham Line instead received limited upgrades like handicapped @-@ accessible platforms .
The 2004 Program for Mass Transportation listed an extension to Route 128 with intermediate stops at Mount Hope , Hyde Park , and Readville at a cost of $ 342 @.@ 8 million . The extension was listed as low priority due to environmental issue with crossing the wetlands south of Readville , and because the corridor already had commuter rail service .
= = Station layout = =
Readville has an unusual layout because it is built on the crossing of two rail lines . The Fairmount Line and Franklin Line each have a single track atop an embankment . The Fairmount Line has a single side platform , while the Franklin Line has two . The Fairmount Line track continues atop a bridge over the Northeast Corridor to join with the Franklin Line . This connection is used by several trains each rush hour , allowing trains from the Franklin Line to avoid congestion in the crowded Southwest Corridor .
At ground level , the three @-@ track Northeast Corridor runs through the station . There are two side platforms ; however , Providence / Stoughton Line trains do not stop at Readville in regular service . The platforms are occasionally used during service disruptions when Fairmount Line service is not running or when trains cannot stop at Hyde Park .
Next to the Franklin Line embankment , two abandoned tracks run to the former Dedham Branch and Readville 5 @-@ Yard .
Readville station is fully handicapped accessible , although accessible routes are only available from the Hyde Park Avenue entrance . Every platform includes a 1 @-@ car length ( " mini @-@ high " ) high @-@ level platform , which allows passengers to board level with the train car floors . The platforms are all connected by a system of pedestrian bridges which include accessible ramps .
= = = Railroad yards = = =
Readville station is bounded by several railroad yards which were mostly built in the first half of the 20th century . East of the station on the Fairmount Line is the Readville Interim Repair Facility , an MBTA commuter rail maintenance facility and layover yard . Readville 1 @-@ Yard is an active CSX freight yard located south of the station , on tracks connecting the Fairmount Line to the Northeast Corridor . Additionally , there were formerly several yard tracks along the Northeast Corridor north of the station .
West of the station , Readville 5 @-@ Yard lies south of the former Dedham branch . The 42 @-@ acre ( 17 ha ) 5 @-@ Yard is split between Boston and Dedham , Massachusetts and was formerly owned and used by the New York , New Haven and Hartford Railroad , which had shops on the site until 1958 . The Penn Central Railroad acquired the yard along with the rest of the New Haven in 1968 ; the property was transferred to Conrail on March 30 , 1976 , and to Amtrak a day later . The MBTA acquired the yard from Amtrak on November 11 , 1987 and used it to store railroad @-@ related materials . Site remediation for environmental contamination including lead , arsenic , and PAHs was completed in 2011 .
In March 2012 , the MBTA announced that the contamination had been fully removed , and revealed plans to place solar panels in the west part of 5 @-@ Yard . The panels would be installed and maintained for at least 20 years by an outside contractor . Bidding began in May 2012 , with the stipulation that the solar array would be operational by the spring of 2013 . The contract was chosen in September 2012 , with a revised completion date of October 2013 . In July 2013 , MassDOT ( the MBTA 's parent agency ) announced that construction would not begin until at least 2014 due to a state solar program reaching capacity earlier than expected . As of January 2015 , the installation was to occur in June 2015 .
= = Bus connections = =
Readville has connections to two MBTA Bus routes :
32 Wolcott Square or Cleary Square – Forest Hills Station via Hyde Park Avenue
33 Dedham Line – Mattapan Station via River Street
The 32 route runs on Hyde Park Avenue to Wolcott Square , while the 33 runs on Readville Street just to the west .
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= Snuffy 's Parents Get a Divorce =
" Snuffy 's Parents Get a Divorce " is an episode of the children 's television program Sesame Street . Produced in 1992 , it never aired because tests showed several unintended negative effects . Sesame Street has had a history of presenting difficult topics as part of its affective curriculum goals , including death , marriage , childbirth , and disaster . Extensive research was done before these episodes were written and produced , to ascertain their focus , and after they aired , to analyze the effect they had on viewers , and that was the case for " Snuffy 's Parents Get a Divorce " . The show 's producers had expressed a desire to produce the episode as early as 1989 , and they were convinced that it was a topic they should address after the US Census Bureau reported that 40 % of American children had experienced divorce .
The producers chose to present the Muppet Mr. Snuffleupagus ( " Snuffy " ) and his family 's experience of divorce . The episode was written by staff writer Norman Stiles , who also wrote the 1983 episode in which Mr. Hooper 's death was explained . Every word of the divorce episode was reviewed by the Children 's Television Workshop 's ( CTW ) advisory board , content experts , and developmental psychologists . After tests showed that their young viewers were confused by the episode and did not understand important concepts about divorce , the producers decided to not air it , despite the investment they had made . It was the first time the show 's producers made this kind of decision , and was cited as an example of the producer 's practice of " listening to the voices of children and by putting their needs first " , despite the costs .
Sesame Street did not address the topic of divorce until November 2012 , when they produced , for limited audiences , Little Children , Big Challenges : Divorce , as part of their resiliency initiative . Like in " Snuffy 's Parents Get a Divorce " , the production used a Muppet , Abby Cadabby , to represent the child experiencing divorce . Whereas Snuffy was shown going through it in real time , Abby 's parents ' divorce was in the past , which gave her time to adjust .
= = Background = =
Sesame Street , which premiered in 1969 , was the first children 's television program to use a detailed and comprehensive educational curriculum , with specific educational goals , in its content . The show 's goals included both cognitive and affective objectives . Initially , the cognitive skills of its young viewers were stressed over affective skills , which were addressed indirectly because the producers , writers , and researchers believed that focusing on cognitive skills would increase children 's self @-@ esteem and feelings of competency . Eventually , after the show 's first season , its critics forced its staff to address affective goals more overtly , which occurred after " extensive research and planning " .
According to writer Michael Davis , Sesame Street 's curriculum began addressing affective goals more overtly during the 1980s . For example , the producers addressed grief after the 1982 death of Will Lee , who had played Mr. Hooper since the show 's premiere . Author David Borgenicht called the episode " poignant " , and Davis called it " a landmark broadcast " and " a truly memorable episode , one of the show 's best " . For the 1988 and 1989 seasons , the topics of love , marriage , and childbirth were addressed when the show 's staff created a storyline in which the characters Luis and Maria fall in love , marry , and have a child , Gabi . Extensive research was done before these episodes were written and produced , to ascertain their focus , and after they aired , to analyze the effect they had on viewers . The show also addressed real @-@ life disasters . For example , the producers addressed the September 11 terrorist attacks with an episode that aired in early 2002 . They also produced a series of four episodes that aired after Hurricane Katrina in 2005 .
= = Development = =
The Children 's Television Workshop ( CTW , later Sesame Workshop ) , the organization responsible for the production of Sesame Street , considered and discussed addressing the topic of divorce for many years before developing an episode . As early as 1989 , writer and director Jon Stone expressed his intention of writing a script about it , stating , " My two projects for this year are drugs and divorce . Divorce is a difficult one . Perhaps we could do it with puppets . I am also writing a script on drugs and peer pressure " . Executive producer Dulcy Singer vetoed the idea in 1990 , before it reached development . While she felt complex social matters should be discussed on the series , she felt the issue was irrelevant to inner city and financially disadvantaged families , which was the show 's target audience . She said that " divorce is a middle @-@ class thing , " and suggested instead that an episode focus on a single @-@ parent family , with the child born out of wedlock with an absent father . Singer stated , even after the episode was filmed , " We were really nervous about the show , and we didn 't think it was a shoo @-@ in . When you 're dealing with something like death , the approach can be universal . But with divorce , it 's so personal . People react differently . " The topic of divorce was discussed again the following year , after the US Census Bureau released statistics suggesting 40 percent of all children in the United States , not just the middle classes , would soon live in divorced households .
Producer / director Lisa Simon stated , regarding the difficulty the producers and writers had with crafting the episode , " We hope to get to it by the end of the season . It always takes us a while to figure out how to do an issue appropriately , from a child 's point of view " . Puppeteer Jerry Nelson , who was one of the original performers of Snuffy , noted , " Now we delve into things like divorce that are likely to affect small children very heavily . We didn 't touch those things before " .
Instead of using the human characters in the show 's cast , the writers and producers decided to use Muppets to present their narrative about the effects of divorce on young children . They chose to use the family of Mr. Snuffleupagus ( " Snuffy " ) , a large Muppet that had been on the show since 1971 . Long @-@ time cast member Bob McGrath stated , " They knew they couldn 't do it with either of our married couples — Gordon and Susan or Maria and Luis — so they tried it with Snuffleupagus , writing a show about his parents getting divorced " . According to Simon , " With puppets , it 's slightly less frightening ... The kids have somebody to identify with . They see the puppet characters have feelings and work through a difficult issue many of them will have to face " .
Staff writer Norman Stiles , who also wrote the episode in which Mr. Hooper 's death was explained , was assigned to compose the script . Every word of the divorce episode was reviewed by CTW 's advisory board , content experts , and developmental psychologists . The episode featured Gordon explaining the concept of divorce , Snuffy being assured that his parents still loved him , and the characters talking and singing " about how Snuffy will have good homes , and so on and so on " .
= = Test results = =
As with the Mr. Hooper episode , " Snuffy 's Parents Get a Divorce " was studied extensively for comprehension and attention . After it was filmed , it was screened before a test audience of 60 children in four daycare centers . The results found several unintended negative effects . As The Christian Science Monitor said , " it bombed " . Despite Gordon 's reassuring the Muppets Elmo , Big Bird , and Telly , children believed that their parents ' arguments would lead to their divorce . They also were unsure that Snuffy and his little sister Alice 's parents loved them despite the divorce , were unclear where the characters ' parents lived ( especially their father , who had never appeared on the show before ) . Many viewers also thought that Snuffy and Alice would never see their father again . According to Singer , " The kids came away with negative messages ... The kids misunderstood arguments . They said arguments did mean divorce . Some thought Snuffy 's parents were moving away even though we said just the opposite . A number said the parents would no longer be in love with them " .
Based upon their findings , and despite the expense and their intention to air " Snuffy 's Parents Get a Divorce " in April 1992 , the CTW decided not to risk possibly harming their audience and not air the episode . McGrath said , " They wrote a whole show and taped it , and it was just devastating for test groups of kids . So they just threw the whole thing in the garbage and never tried it again . It was just too difficult a concept for a 3 @-@ year @-@ old " . CTW Research director Valeria Lovelace recommended scrapping the episode and going " back to the drawing board " , and the idea was abandoned , at least for the season . Producer Michael Loman recalled , " We ate the cost and never aired it . We feel there are a range of issues that we can deal with in the family that do not go to the extreme of divorce " . According to Sesame Street researcher Susan Scheiner , it was the first time the CTW had produced an episode , and after making a large investment , found after tests that the episode did not work . Rosemarie T. Truglio and her colleagues at the CTW cited the episode as an example of the CTW 's practice of " listening to the voices of children and by putting their needs first " .
= = Legacy = =
Sesame Street did not address the subject of divorce until November 2012 , when its producers created , as part of their resiliency initiative , Little Children , Big Challenges : Divorce . It was made available to military families and to the general public through family courts , counseling services , and parenting and child care programs . It included a 22 @-@ minute DVD , a caregiver guide , a storybook , a tip sheet for extended families and friends , mobile apps and social networking sites , and an online toolkit . Like in " Snuffy 's Parents Get a Divorce " , the Little Children , Big Challenges production also used a Muppet , Abby Cadabby , to represent the child experiencing divorce . Whereas Snuffy was shown going through it in real time , Abby 's parents ' divorce was in the past , which gave her time to adjust .
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= Walther von Brauchitsch =
Heinrich Alfred Hermann Walther von Brauchitsch ( 4 October 1881 – 18 October 1948 ) was a German field marshal and the Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of the German Army in the early years of World War II .
Born into an aristocratic military family , Brauchitsch joined the 3rd Guards Grenadier Regiment 1901 . He served on the staff of several formations that fought over a dozen major battles of World War I , serving with the XVI Corps , 34th Infantry Division and Guards Reserve Corps as a staff officer before taking part in no fewer than twenty @-@ eight notable clashes on the Western Front , including the Battle of Verdun , the Battle of Armentières , the Battle at the Aisne , and the Battle of the Lys . For his service on the Western Front , he was awarded the Iron Cross and the House Order of Hohenzollern .
After Hitler 's rise to power in 1933 , Brauchitsch was put in charge of the East Prussian Military District , and became a popular officer because of his kindness to the civilian Prussian population in times of local fires . Although he personally disliked Nazism , he borrowed immense sums of money from Hitler and eventually became dependent on his financial help . Brauchitsch primarily served as Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of the German Army before World War II , from 1938 , and during the two first years of war , until 1941 . He played a key role in the Battle of France and oversaw the German military campaigns in Yugoslavia and Greece . For his part in Battle of France , Brauchitsch became one of 12 generals promoted to field marshal on 19 July 1940 . After a first heart attack in November 1941 and the failed Moscow offensive in December 1941 , Hitler dismissed him as Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of the Army ; he spent the rest of the war in enforced retirement , and never saw Hitler again . After World War II , Brauchitsch was arrested on charges of war crimes , but died of a heart attack in 1948 before he could be prosecuted .
Brauchitsch married Elizabeth von Karstedt , an heiress from Brandenburg , in 1910 , with whom he had three children . They were divorced in 1938 and , shortly after , he married Charlotte Rüffer .
= = Early life = =
Brauchitsch was born in Berlin on 4 October 1881 as the sixth child of Bernhard Eduard von Brauchitsch , a cavalry general , and his wife Charlotte Bertha von Gordon , a housewife . The Brauchitsch family , which originally came from Silesia , had a long tradition of military service , and like his forefathers , Brauchitsch was raised in the tradition of the Prussian officer corps . His family moved in the leading social circles of Berlin 's high society , and his family name and father 's military rank put him on equal footing with any officer or official . In his teens , Brauchitsch was interested in liberal and conservative politics , and was fascinated by the fine art pieces that were sculpted in Berlin in the late 1880s . To help him pursue these interests , his father enrolled him at Französisches Gymnasium Berlin rather than a military academy .
In 1895 Brauchitsch joined the military academy in Potsdam . He later transferred to the Hauptkadettenanstalt Groß Lichterfelde , where in his final year he belonged to the " Selekta " ( top class for gifted students ) . and was chosen , as his brother Adolf five years before , as a page by Empress Augusta Victoria . During his time serving the empress at court , he learned manners and bearing that were noted for the rest of his life .
Upon graduation he received his commission and joined the 9th Company of the 3 . Garde @-@ Grenadier @-@ Regiment " Königin @-@ Elisabeth " in Charlottenburg as second lieutenant on 22 March 1900 . A medical condition made him unfit for service in the infantry , and Brauchitsch made a request for secondment to the recently formed 3 . Garde @-@ Feldartillerie @-@ Regiment ( 3rd Guards Field Artillery Regiment ) , which was granted on 1 December 1900 . After the secondment of six months , the commander of the regiment approved his permanent transfer to the regiment , where Brauchitsch , himself a keen horseman , was put in charge of training recruits in riding and driving .
While serving as an adjutant and later staff officer of his regiment , he noticed that his fellow officers and superiors showed no particular interest in artillery tactics . As he considered artillery to be his specialty , he instead joined the General Staff office in Berlin , where he was promoted to first lieutenant ( in 1909 ) .
= = World War I = =
By the outbreak of World War I in August 1914 , Brauchitsch had reached the rank of captain ( promoted in 1913 ) , and was appointed staff officer to the XVI Army Corps stationed near Metz . He would be in the thick of the Great War from start to finish serving in the 34th Infantry Division and Guards Reserve Corps . Between 1914 and 1916 , he was based near Othain , Véry , and Varennes , where he took part in the Battle of Verdun and Battle of the Argonne Forest . In the remaining two years of the conflict , Brauchitsch saw more action , taking part in notable engagements such as the third Battle of the Aisne , the Battle of Aisne @-@ Marne , the second Battle of the Aisne , the Battle of Armentières , and the Battle of Flanders . His contributions to the war effort did not go unnoticed ; Brauchitsch was awarded the Iron Cross 1st Class and the House Order of Hohenzollern , and ended the war with the rank of major .
= = Weimar Republic = =
The German military underwent a forced reduction in 1919 to comply with the Treaty of Versailles , but Brauchitsch managed to stay in the military . He remained with the General Staff , where he had no opportunity to use his knowledge of artillery . Eventually , in 1920 , he was permitted to transfer to the staff of the 2nd Artillery Regiment . The following year , he worked in the Ministry of the Reichswehr , in the Artillery Department .
Brauchitsch 's assignment in the Artillery Department was to reorganize artillery formations and implement lessons learned in the closing months of the war . He added ideas of his own , including modifying the classification system for light , medium , and heavy artillery . Heavy artillery , formerly known as " corps artillery " , now became " reinforcement artillery " . He also added emphasis on the combination and co @-@ operation between artillery and infantry .
After three years in the Artillery Department , he was promoted to lieutenant colonel in 1925 . As of 1 November 1927 , Brauchitsch was appointed Chief of Staff of the 6th Infantry Division in Münster , Westphalia , one of the strongest garrisons in the west of Germany . In the last years of the Weimar Republic , he took over the Army Training Department and became a colonel ( promoted in 1928 ) .
= = Nazi Germany = =
In 1933 , Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party came to power and began to expand the military , in order to realize Hitler 's military ambitions . Two years before , Brauchitsch had received his major general promotion . On 1 February 1933 , he was named commander of the East Prussian Military District ( Wehrkreis I ) and Chief of the 1st Division in Königsberg . As a consequence of the German re @-@ armament the command position Befehlshaber im Wehrkreis I ( Commander of the 1st Military District ) was expanded . The staff of the 1st Division formed the staff of the 1st Army Corps and Brauchitsch was appointed its first commanding general on 21 June 1935 .
Although Brauchitsch felt at home in Prussia , he had a clash with Erich Koch , the local Gauleiter ( party head and de facto head of civil administration of the province ) . Koch was known as somewhat of a crook who greatly enjoyed the power he possessed , and who would bring violence to his enemies . As neither Koch nor Brauchitsch wanted to lose their jobs in the region , the two attempted to keep their feud unofficial . As a result , Berlin hardly learned of their dispute .
A dispute emerged a few years later , when Brauchitsch learned that Reichsführer @-@ SS Heinrich Himmler planned to replace the army guards in East Prussia with SS men , with the purpose of persecuting Jews , Protestant and Catholic churches in the district . Even though Brauchitsch managed to prevent the SS replacement of the army troops in the region , Himmler categorized him as " a junker " , and informed Hitler of the disagreement . Brauchitsch claimed he had done his duty , saying laconically , " Civilians are not allowed to enter that area . "
Brauchitsch obtained the rank of general of artillery in 1936 . So when the Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of the Army , Werner von Fritsch , was accused of homosexuality , Hitler appointed Brauchitsch a colonel general and the new army chief , on the recommendation of the Army High Command on 4 February 1938 . The homosexual allegations were in reality a trap set by Hitler as an excuse to dismiss one of the aristocratic senior officers within the Army High Command . Fritsch 's removal was a severe test of the stability of the German internal administration of that time .
Brauchitsch welcomed the Nazi policy of rearmament . The relationship between Hitler and Brauchitsch improved during Brauchitsch 's confusion about whether to leave his wife for his mistress , in the middle of the Munich Crisis ; Hitler set aside his usual anti @-@ divorce sentiments and encouraged Brauchitsch to divorce and remarry . Hitler even lent him 80 @,@ 000 Reichsmarks so he could afford the divorce . Over time , Brauchitsch became largely reliant on Hitler for financial help .
Like Colonel General Ludwig Beck , Brauchitsch opposed Hitler 's annexation of Austria and intervention in Czechoslovakia , although he did not resist Hitler 's plans for war , again preferring to refrain from politics .
In the final months before World War II , Brauchitsch focused on Italy 's potential to aid the Nazi military cause . This turned out not to be an easy task , as the Italian leader Benito Mussolini expected economic support from the Reich in return for his military collaboration . Fritsch had already told Brauchitsch that the Italian military was in " extremely poor fighting shape " . Joachim von Ribbentrop , Germany 's Foreign Minister and the main architect of the Axis alliance , constantly interfered with Brauchitsch 's efforts , as he wanted to see his work consolidated at all costs .
= = World War II = =
Even though Brauchitsch was in charge of operational affairs during the Polish and French campaigns , he had very little influence , as a whole , as to the war 's progress . During the invasion of Poland , he oversaw most plans . The campaign was often cited as the first example of " blitzkrieg " . Blitzkrieg was not a theory or an official doctrine . The Polish Campaign did not resemble the popular perception of what became known as blitzkrieg . The Panzer Divisions were spread thinly among the infantry and were not granted operational independence or grouped en masse , as they would in Western Europe . The operative method of the Wehrmacht in Poland followed the more traditional Vernichtungsgedanke . What is commonly referred to as blitzkrieg did not develop until after the campaign in the west in June 1940 . It was not the cause but rather the consequence of victory . Brauchitsch himself had to be convinced that armour could act independently at the operational level , before the campaign .
By early November 1939 , Brauchitsch and Chief of the General Staff Franz Halder started to consider overthrowing Hitler , who had fixed " X @-@ day " , the invasion of France , as 12 November 1939 . Both officers believed that the invasion was doomed to fail . On 5 November 1939 , the Army General Staff prepared a special memorandum purporting to recommend against launching an attack on the Western powers that year . Brauchitsch reluctantly agreed to read the document to Hitler and did so in a meeting on 5 November . Brauchitsch attempted to talk Hitler into putting off X @-@ day by saying that morale in the German Army was worse than in 1918 , a statement that enraged Hitler . He harshly berated Brauchitsch for incompetence . Brauchitsch went on to complain :
The aggressive spirit of the German infantry is sadly below the standard of the First World War ... [ there has been ] certain symptoms of insubordination similar to those of 1917 – 18 . "
Hitler flew into a rage , accusing the General Staff and Brauchitsch personally of disloyalty , cowardice , sabotage , and defeatism . He returned to the army headquarters at Zossen , where he " arrived in such poor shape that at first he could only give a somewhat incoherent account of the proceedings . " After that meeting , both Brauchitsch and Halder told Carl Friedrich Goerdeler , a key leader of the anti @-@ Nazi movement , that overthrowing Hitler was simply something that they could not do and that he should find other officers to take part in the plot . Hitler called a meeting of the General Staff , where he declared that he would smash the West within a year . He also vowed to " destroy the spirit of Zossen " , a threat that panicked Halder to such an extent that he forced the conspirators to abort their second planned coup attempt . On 7 November , following heavy snowstorms , Hitler put off X @-@ Day until further notice , which removed Brauchitsch and Halder 's primary motivation for the plot .
While preparations were underway for the Battle of France , a German planner and strategist named Erich von Manstein , then serving as chief of staff of Army Group A , presented his famous Sichelschnitt ( " sickle cut " ) plan . Brauchitsch and Halder , however , did not approve of the plan . When Manstein insisted on the plan being accepted , Halder suggested transferring Manstein far away to the east , so as to reduce his influence in the planning process . Brauchitsch agreed and transferred him to Silesia . However , Hitler invited a group of officers to lunch , and Manstein was among them . He managed to present his plan directly to Hitler . The following day , Hitler ordered Brauchitsch to accept Manstein 's plan , which the Führer presented as his own .
Despite his original scepticism , Brauchitsch eventually saw the plan 's potential and felt that the army had a real chance of success in France .
After the surprisingly swift fall of France , Brauchitsch was promoted to field marshal in July 1940 , during the 1940 Field Marshal Ceremony . After France had been occupied and divided , he and the rest of the high command were looking forward to a similarly easy and swift campaign against Great Britain , now seriously weakened by the French campaign . He was confident that Britain would be easily defeated : " We consider the victory already won . England remains secure , but only so long as we choose . "
Had Operation Sealion , the plan for the invasion of Britain , succeeded , Hitler intended to place Brauchitsch in charge of the new conquest . As the Luftwaffe could not gain the requisite air superiority , the Battle of Britain was lost and so the plan was shelved and eventually cancelled .
In the swift invasion and occupation of Yugoslavia and Greece in early April 1941 , the Germans committed some 337 @,@ 000 men , 2 @,@ 000 mortars , 1 @,@ 500 artillery pieces , 1 @,@ 100 anti @-@ tank guns , 875 tanks and 740 other armoured fighting vehicles , all of which were under the overall command of Brauchitsch . By the end of the month , all of Yugoslavia and Greece were in German hands .
Brauchitsch supported harsh measures against the Polish population , which he claimed were needed for securing German Lebensraum ( " living space " ) . He had a central role in the death sentences for Polish prisoners taken in the defense of the Polish Post Office in Danzig , rejecting the clemency appeal .
He ordered his army and commanders to cease criticism of racist Nazi policies , as harsh measures were needed for the " forthcoming battle of destiny of the German people " . When Germany turned East and invaded the Soviet Union in June 1941 , he again played a key part , making modifications to the original plan . Like his friend and colleague , Wilhelm Keitel , Brauchitsch did not protest when Hitler gave the German army the same instructions as the SS on who to kill in the occupied territory , but he later issued a series of decrees that ordered that Commissars were to be shot only if their anti @-@ German sentiments were " especially recognizable " .
As the Battle of Moscow got underway , his health was starting to fail . Even so , he continued his work , as he was determined to take Moscow before the start of the severe Russian winter . The army 's failure to take Moscow earned Hitler 's enmity , and things worsened for him , as he endured a serious heart attack in November . He was also informed that he had a malignant cardiac disease , most likely incurable .
Like other generals in the aftermath of the failure at Moscow , Brauchitsch was made a scapegoat . He was dismissed as Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of the German Army on 19 December and was transferred to the Führerreserve ( officers reserve ) , where he remained without assignment until the end of the war ; he never saw Hitler again .
Brauchitsch spent the last three years of the war in the Tři Trubky hunting lodge in the Brdy mountains southwest of Prague . One of his few public comments after retirement was a statement condemning the 20 July plot against Hitler for which he denounced several former colleagues . Later , he excused himself to Halder , claiming he had been forced to do so to save a relative 's life .
= = = Trial and death = = =
After the war , in August 1945 , Brauchitsch was arrested at his estate and imprisoned at Camp 198 in South Wales . His war crime charges included conspiracy and crimes against humanity . He died on 18 October 1948 of bronchial pneumonia in a British @-@ controlled military hospital in Hamburg , aged 67 , before he could be prosecuted . He was buried at Salzgitter cemetery , Lower Saxony , Germany .
= = Personal life = =
In 1910 , Brauchitsch married his first wife , Elizabeth von Karstedt , a wealthy heiress to 300 @,@ 000 acres ( 1 @,@ 200 km2 ) in Brandenburg . The couple had two sons and a daughter , including Bernd von Brauchitsch , who later served in the Luftwaffe during World War II as Hermann Göring 's adjutant . They were divorced in 1938 after 28 years of marriage , as Brauchitsch had developed another romantic interest .
In 1925 , Brauchitsch met Charlotte Rueffer , the daughter of a Silesian judge . He wanted a divorce , but his wife refused . Rueffer later married a bank director named Schmidt , who drowned in his bath during a visit to Berlin . When Brauchitsch returned from East Prussia in 1937 , the pair resumed their affair . They married immediately after Brauchitsch had divorced Karstedt .
Brauchitsch was the uncle of Manfred von Brauchitsch , a 1930s Mercedes @-@ Benz " Silver Arrow " Grand Prix driver , and also Hans Bernd von Haeften and Werner von Haeften , who were members of the German resistance against Hitler .
= = Assessment = =
Historian Helmut Krausnick characterizes Brauchitsch as " an outstanding professional who lived up to the traditions of his profession , but especially lacked the strength of personality to deal with Hitler " . Historian Ian Kershaw on the other hand regards Brauchitsch as a " spineless individual , who was frightened by Hitler . He was no person to lead any type of front or revolt . "
= = Awards = =
Iron Cross ( 1914 )
2nd Class ( 13 September 1914 )
1st Class ( 1 October 1915 )
Württemberg Friedrich Order with Swords ( 7 May 1915 )
Knight 's Cross of the House Order of Hohenzollern with Swords ( 15 May 1917 )
Saxe @-@ Meiningen Honour Cross for War Merit ( 2 January 1918 )
Service Award for 25 service years ( 17 April 1920 )
The Honour Cross of the World War 1914 / 1918 ( 18 December 1934 )
Wehrmacht Long Service Award 1st Class ( 2 October 1936 )
Royal Hungarian Order of Merit 1st Class ( 20 August 1938 )
Star of the German Red Cross Decoration ( 5 September 1938 )
Anschluss Medal ( 21 November 1938 )
Grand Cross of the Royal Italian Order of Saints Maurice and Lazarus ( 3 January 1939 )
Grand Cross of the Order of the White Rose of Finland ( 10 March 1939 )
Order of the Yugoslav Crown 1st Class ( 1 June 1939 )
Sudetenland Medal with Clasp ( 7 June 1939 )
Clasp to the Iron Cross ( 1939 )
2nd Class ( 30 September 1939 )
1st Class ( 30 September 1939 )
Knights Cross of the Iron Cross on 30 September 1939 as Colonel General and Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of the Army
Memel Medal ( 30 November 1939 )
Spanish Military Merit Cross 1st Class ( 1939 )
Grand Cross of the Royal Bulgarian Order of St Alexander with Swords ( 15 May 1941 )
Grand Cross of the Royal Hungarian Order of Merit with Swords ( 31 May 1941 )
Grand Cross of the Romanian Order of Michael the Brave ( 11 October 1941 )
Slovak War Victory Cross 1st Class ( 20 October 1941 )
Grand Cross of the Finnish Order of the Cross of Liberty ( 19 July 1942 )
Japanese Order of the Rising Sun 1st Class ( 26 September 1942 )
= = Dates of rank = =
Leutnant ( Second Lieutenant ) – 22 March 1900
Oberleutnant ( First Lieutenant ) – 18 October 1909
Hauptmann ( Captain ) – 18 December 1913
Major ( Major ) – 15 July 1918
Oberstleutnant ( Lieutenant Colonel ) – 1 June 1923
Oberst ( Colonel ) – 1 April 1928
Generalmajor ( Major General ) – 1 October 1931
Generalleutnant ( Lieutenant General ) – 1 October 1933
General der Artillerie ( General of Artillery ) – 1 October 1935
Generaloberst ( Colonel General ) – 4 February 1938
Generalfeldmarschall ( Field Marshal ) – 19 July 1940
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= It 's All Coming Back to Me Now =
" It 's All Coming Back to Me Now " is a power ballad written by Jim Steinman . According to Steinman , the song was inspired by Wuthering Heights , and was an attempt to write " the most passionate , romantic song " he could ever create . The Sunday Times posits that " Steinman protects his songs as if they were his children " . Meat Loaf had wanted to record " It 's All Coming Back ... " for years , but Steinman saw it as a " woman 's song . " Steinman won a court movement preventing Meat Loaf from recording it . Girl group Pandora 's Box went on to record it and it was subsequently made famous through a cover by Celine Dion , which upset Meat Loaf because he was going to use it for a planned album with the working title Bat Out of Hell III . Alternately , Meat Loaf has said the song was intended for Bat Out of Hell II and given to the singer in 1986 , but that they both decided to use " I 'd Do Anything for Love ( But I Won 't Do That ) " for Bat II , and save this song for Bat III .
The song has had three major releases . The first version appeared on the concept album Original Sin , recorded by Pandora 's Box . It was then recorded by Celine Dion for her album Falling into You , and her version was a commercial hit , reaching No. 2 in the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 and No. 3 in the UK Singles Chart . Meat Loaf recorded it as a duet with Norwegian singer Marion Raven for Bat III and released it as a single in 2006 .
A music video was produced for each of the three versions ; death is a recurring theme in all of these videos , fitting in with the suggestion in Virgin 's press release for Original Sin that " in Steinman 's songs , the dead come to life and the living are doomed to die . " This is particularly evident when the dead characters seem to be resurrected in the memories of the main vocalist . Although in the case of Celine Dion 's video , the theme is less about the living being doomed and more about a lost love .
= = Inspiration = =
Influenced by Emily Brontë 's novel Wuthering Heights , Steinman compared the song to ' Heathcliff digging up Cathy 's corpse and dancing with it in the cold moonlight ' . In the Jim Steinman Opens Pandora 's Box promotional video , he posits that the novel :
is always made much too polite ; it always has been in movies . This isn 't the Wuthering Heights of Kate Bush -- that little fanciful Wuthering Heights . The scene they always cut out is the scene when Heathcliff digs up Catherine 's body and dances in the moonlight and on the beach with it . I think you can 't get much more operatic or passionate than that . I was trying to write a song about dead things coming to life . I was trying to write a song about being enslaved and obsessed by love , not just enchanted and happy with it . It was about the dark side of love ; about the ability to be resurrected by it ... I just tried to put everything I could into it , and I 'm real proud of it .
In another interview , Steinman expands on his comments about the song being about the ' dark side of love ' .
It 's about obsession , and that can be scary because you 're not in control and you don 't know where it 's going to stop . It says that , at any point in somebody 's life , when they loved somebody strongly enough and that person returns , a certain touch , a certain physical gesture can turn them from being defiant and disgusted with this person to being subservient again . And it 's not just a pleasurable feeling that comes back , it 's the complete terror and loss of control that comes back . And I think that 's ultimately a great weapon .
The website Allmusic called the song ' a tormented ballad about romantic loss and regret built on a spooky yet heart @-@ wrenching piano melody ' . The torment is present in the song 's opening ( ' There were nights when the wind was so cold ' ) , from which the singer recovers ( ' I finished crying in the instant that you left ... And I banished every memory you and I had ever made ' ) . However , the defiance in the verses are replaced by the return of the ' subservient ' feelings in the chorus ( ' when you touch me like this , and you hold me like that ... ' ) ; this juxtaposition continues throughout the song .
'There were those empty threats and hollow lies
'And whenever you tried to hurt me
'I just hurt you even worse and so much deeper.'
Eroticism is implied in the lines ' There were nights of endless pleasure ' and ' The flesh and the fantasies : all coming back to me ' . The song ends with a passionate , quiet reprise of the chorus . Critics have also identified Wagner , of whom Steinman is an admirer , as an inspiration . Specifying this song , the Sunday Times said " the theme of Wagner 's opera Tristan and Isolde , with its extreme passions and obsessive love , informs all his best work . "
A 2007 article in the Toronto Star claims that the song was written as Steinman 's " tryout " as lyricist for Andrew Lloyd Webber 's Sunset Boulevard .
= = Pandora 's Box = =
In 1989 , Steinman produced a concept album , Original Sin , with an all @-@ female group called Pandora 's Box . The album featured many tracks that would later be recorded by other artists , particularly Meat Loaf . Elaine Caswell was the lead vocalist for " It 's All Coming Back To Me Now " , who apparently collapsed five times during its recording . Caswell has since performed the song as part of The Dream Engine at Joe 's Pub in New York City .
For the track , Roy Bittan performed on the grand piano , with Steinman and Jeff Bova on keyboards . Guitars were by Eddie Martinez , with Steve Buslowe on bass guitar . Todd Rundgren arranged the background vocals , which were performed by Ellen Foley , Gina Taylor and Deliria Wilde . The song was released as a single in the United Kingdom during October 1989 , but only reached No. 51 in the singles charts . In its review of the album , Kerrang ! magazine called the song ' excruciatingly operatic ' .
Ken Russell directed the video , which was filmed at Pinewood Studios in Buckinghamshire . Steinman wrote the script , based on Russell 's " Nessun Dorma " segment in the compilation opera movie Aria . Scholar Joseph Lanza describes the video :
a woman 's near @-@ death experience [ from a motorcycle crash ] is set amid operatic excesses and black leather . In a simulated city engulfed by an apocalyptic blaze , British vocalist Elaine Caswell sings and participates in a ritual to celebrate the song 's " nights of sacred pleasure " ... [ The soundtstage ] is stocked with gravestones , motorcycles , python and dancers ( allegedly from the London production of Cats ) , strapped in chaps , studded bras , and spiked codpieces .
The girl , near death , is being ministered to by paramedics , fantasizing and being ' sexually aroused by a large python and writhing on a bed that lit up in time with the music , while surrounded by a group of bemused , semi @-@ naked dancers ' . When Steinman 's manager saw it , he responded ' It 's a porno movie ! ' The two @-@ day shoot ran over schedule and budget , costing £ 35 @,@ 000 an hour . Russell and Steinman even designed a sequence where a motorcyclist would cycle up the steps of a local church @-@ tower , jump out of the turrets at the top , and then explode ; alas , the wardens of the church refused permission .
The 7 " , 12 " and CD singles featured Steven Margoshes 's piano solo " Pray Lewd " ( containing elements of " It 's All Coming Back to Me Now " ) , Steinman 's monologue " I 've Been Dreaming Up a Storm Lately " , and " Requiem Metal " , a sample from Verdi 's Requiem Mass , all from the album Original Sin .
= = Celine Dion = =
The song is the first on Dion 's album Falling into You . Jim Steinman produced the track , with Steven Rinkoff and Roy Bittan as co @-@ producers . Bat Out of Hell and Meat Loaf collaborators Todd Rundgren , Eric Troyer , Rory Dodd , Glen Burtnick and Kasim Sulton provided backing vocals . An edited version of the song was then released on Celine 's album All the Way ... A Decade of Song . On Celine 's Falling Into You album the song 's original length is seven minutes and thirty @-@ seven seconds while on her All The Way album it is only five minutes and thirty @-@ one seconds .
In 2008 , " It 's All Coming Back to Me Now " was included on Celine 's greatest hits compilation My Love : Essential Collection . Live performances can be found in the A New Day ... Live in Las Vegas , Taking Chances World Tour : The Concert , and Céline ... une seule fois / Live 2013 albums . Dion also performed this song during her 2016 Summer Tour.The song was included in My Love : Essential Collection , which on some editions restores the song back to its original length .
= = = Personnel = = =
Roy Bittan - grand piano
Jeff Bova - keyboards , programming
Jimmy Bralower - drums , percussion
Steve Buslowe - bass
Tim Pierce - guitar
Eddie Martinez - additional guitars
Kenny Aronoff - additional drums
Bashiri Johnson - additional percussion
Todd Rundgren , Eric Troyer , Rory Dodd , Glen Burtnick , Kasim Sulton - background vocals
= = = Critical reception = = =
The cover has received acclaim from international critics . The Calgary Sun stated : " [ The song ] is undoubtedly the highlight of her English @-@ language recording career . Dion 's over @-@ the @-@ top vocals soar and swoop around Steinman 's epic , ostentatious arrangement . Not surprisingly , everything else that follows ... pales in comparison . " Toronto 's Eye Weekly said Steinman 's " fatal absence from the last Meat Loaf record is finally justified here , " and The Miami Herald said " Dion knocks a couple out of the ballpark ... [ the song ] features seven minutes of Wagnerian bombast , thunderclap piano chords and emoting that would wither an opera diva . Sure , it 's over @-@ the @-@ top but it 's passionate and musical . " Allmusic senior editor Stephen Thomas Erlewine marked this song as a standout along with " Falling Into You " and praised it : " Dion shines on mock epics like Jim Steinman 's " It 's All Coming Back to Me Now . " The New York Times ' Stephen Holden wrote : " The melodrama peaks with two overblown Jim Steinman productions : " It 's All Coming Back to Me Now " , a romantic flashback replete with thunderclaps ... "
Some other reviews were less enthusiastic . After labelling Dion " a Madonna @-@ meets @-@ Meat Loaf vocal freak " , The Vancouver Sun called the song " intensely self @-@ indulgent , pompously self @-@ important and mediocre beyond belief , the song just never ends . " The Ottawa Sun called it ' turgid ' , while The Toronto Sun , coincidentally , said that it " sounds like a Meat Loaf reject . "
According to the Sunday Times , Andrew Lloyd Webber told Steinman he thought this song " the greatest love song ever written , " and on hearing the Dion version reportedly said : " This will be the record of the millennium . "
= = = Music video = = =
Nigel Dick directed the music video for Dion 's version , with Simon Archer as cinematographer and Jaromir Svarc as art director . It was shot between June 29 and July 3 , 1996 in the summer palace of the Austrian Emperor , Ploskovice and Barandov Studios , Prague , Czech Republic ; it was later released in July 1996 . Castle Ploskovice in Ploskovice supplied the exterior of the gothic mansion . There are two versions of this music video ; the full version ( about 7 : 44 in length ) and the single version ( about 6 : 00 in length ) . Both of them are included on Dion 's 2001 DVD video collection All the Way ... A Decade of Song & Video .
The video opens with a man dying in an explosive motorcycle crash , after lightning strikes a tree down in his path . Dion 's character is haunted by her lover 's image , which she sees through a mirror , and images of them together through picture frames . There are stylistic similarities to Russell Mulcahy 's video for Steinman 's " Total Eclipse of the Heart " , to the extent that Slant Magazine calls Dick 's video an update .
= = = Official versions = = =
Several versions of the CD single were released in 1996 . They featured the songs " The Power of the Dream " , " Le fils de Superman " , " Fly " , " To Love You More " , and a live version of " Where Does My Heart Beat Now " ; a cassette and 7 " vinyl version were also released . Another CD contained several dance remixes , although these attracted negative reviews . While praising its original form , Allmusic said that ' as a dance song , it misses the mark ... the final ' Moran ' mix is a little better [ than the other dance mixes ] because the vocals don 't pop up until three and a half minutes into the song ' .
= = = Charts = = =
= = = Certifications and sales = = =
= = Meat Loaf and Marion Raven = =
In interviews , Meat Loaf has said that , in his mind , the song was always meant to be a duet . It was recorded as a duet by Meat Loaf and Marion Raven for the album Bat Out of Hell III : The Monster Is Loose , produced by Desmond Child . Raven had been working on her solo album with Child , and was chosen because the timbre of her voice starkly contrasts to Meat Loaf 's . In promotional interviews , Meat Loaf said that " I believe that the version that Marion Raven and myself did on this album is the definitive version . "
Meat Loaf cried when he first heard the song , which " is the only time that 's happened . " He has also said that the song could refer to Steinman and himself , with an array of emotions coming back every time they work together . Referring to lines like ' when I kiss you like that ' , he said that although " I love Jim Steinman " , he wouldn 't French kiss him .
To me it wasn 't a song about romance , it was about me and Jim Steinman . We 'd had a load of problems with managers in the early ' 80s and all of a sudden after five years we started to communicate . After I 'd been to his house , he sent me the song , and it was " It 's All Coming Back To Me Now " . Not the line ' When you kiss me like that ' , but the emotional connection . It doesn 't have to be literal .
P. R. Brown directed this video , which premiered on VH1 Classic on August 8 , 2006 . There are similarities between the video for Meat Loaf 's version of the song , and that the video for that of Celine Dion , with Meat Loaf being haunted by the memory of his lover . It is structured differently , however , with the story being told through flashback . Shots when Raven 's character is alive have a distinct yellow tint , with a darker , blue tint for those after her death . Whereas the motorcyclist dies before the first verse in the Dion version , Raven 's crash and resulting death is not shown until the final chorus . Meat Loaf becomes angry with Raven because the ghost of Raven 's former lover appears at a masquerade ball they are attending ( some reviewers have compared this to the Stanley Kubrick film Eyes Wide Shut ) .
This version of the song replaces the word ' nights ' with ' lights ' , in the line ' There were nights of endless pleasure ' . The ending of the single version is different , concluding with an additional ' We forgive and forget and it 's all coming back to me now ' . The album version , following those recorded by Pandora 's Box and Celine Dion , ends with the female voice whispering ' And if we ... ' , followed by four piano notes .
The track was available to download from iTunes in the United Kingdom in August 2006 , two months before its UK release on October 16 . The CD single includes the song " Black Betty " , with the limited edition 7 " featuring " Whore " , a rock duet with Patti Russo ; it was also released as a DVD single . The album version was made available on Meat Loaf and Marion Raven 's respective MySpace sites in August , with the single version being played during some of their promotional interviews , such as that on BBC Radio 2 . The cover art is by Julie Bell , who is also the artist for the album Bat out Of Hell III .
The single entered the UK charts at No. 6 on October 22 , 2006 , giving Meat Loaf his highest position in the UK charts since " I 'd Lie for You ( And That 's the Truth ) " reached No. 2 in 1995 . Critical reaction was generally positive , with The Guardian saying that the song is " ostensibly a reflection on love , but imbued with the delicacy of aircraft carriers colliding at sea . "
Marion Raven joined Meat Loaf for his 2007 tour of Europe . She was the supporting act , promoting her album Set Me Free . Meat Loaf introduced her again on stage at the latter stages of the concerts to duet on " It 's All Coming Back to Me Now " . A performance was recorded and released on DVD as 3 Bats Live .
= = = Charts = = =
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= The Sword of Shannara =
The Sword of Shannara is a 1977 epic fantasy novel by Terry Brooks . It is the first book of the Original Shannara Trilogy , followed by The Elfstones of Shannara and The Wishsong of Shannara . Brooks was heavily influenced by J.R.R. Tolkien 's The Lord of the Rings and began writing The Sword of Shannara in 1967 . It took him seven years to complete , as he was writing the novel while attending law school . Ballantine Books used it to launch the company 's new subsidiary Del Rey Books . Its success boosted the commercial expansion of the fantasy genre .
The novel interweaves two major plots into a fictional world called the Four Lands . One follows the protagonist Shea Ohmsford on his quest to obtain the Sword of Shannara and confront the Warlock Lord ( the antagonist ) with it . The other plot shadows Prince Balinor Buckhannah 's attempt to oust his insane brother Palance from the throne of Callahorn while the country and its capital ( Tyrsis ) come under attack from overwhelming armies of the Warlock Lord . Throughout the novel , underlying themes appear of mundane heroism and nuclear holocaust .
Critics have derided the novel for being derivative of J.R.R. Tolkien 's The Lord of the Rings . Some have accused Brooks of lifting the entire plot and many of his characters directly from Lord of the Rings ; others have regarded the book more favorably and say that new writers often start by copying the style of established writers .
= = Plot summary = =
= = = History = = =
The Sword of Shannara 's events take place 2000 years after a Great War : nuclear holocaust has wiped out most of the planet . During this time , Mankind mutates into several distinct races : Men , Dwarves , Gnomes , and Trolls , all named after creatures from " age @-@ old " myths . Also , the Elves begin to emerge after having been in seclusion and hiding for centuries . The warring that caused the holocaust is referred to as the " Great Wars " throughout the novel . These wars rearranged the planet 's geographical attributes and wiped out most human life on Earth . Most advanced technology has been lost , but magic has been rediscovered .
A thousand years before The Sword of Shannara , an Elf named Galaphile gathers all of the people who still had some knowledge of the old world to Paranor to try to bring peace and order to all of the races . They name themselves the First Druid Council . Brona , a rogue Druid , and his followers leave , taking the Ildatch with them ; this magical tome controls their minds . 250 years later , Brona begins the First War of the Races when he convinces all Men to attack the other races . He almost succeeds in seizing rule of the Four Lands , but the tide turns , and the war ends with his defeat and disappearance . The Druids divide the Four Lands among the races and become reclusive , withdrawing to Paranor because of their shame at the betrayal by one of their own members .
Two and a half centuries after the First War of the Races , Brona returns as the Warlock Lord , now with Skull Bearers as his servants . Chronicled in the prequel novel First King of Shannara , the Second War of the Races begins with the destruction of the Druid Order . A lone Druid , Bremen , forges a magical talisman to destroy the Warlock Lord ; it is given to the Elven King , Jerle Shannara . As it takes the form of a blade , the talisman is named the Sword of Shannara . It succeeds in banishing the Warlock Lord . He is not killed , but his army is defeated by the combined armies of the Elves and Dwarves . Peace comes at a high price , interracial tension is renewed and the Druids have vanished .
= = = Present = = =
= = = = From Shady Vale to Paranor = = = =
Five centuries later , the Ohmsford family of Shady Vale in the Southland takes in the half @-@ Elven child Shea . He takes the name Ohmsford and is raised as a brother to the family 's son Flick . Becoming inseparable , the brothers run the family inn .
Some time later , the last Druid Allanon arrives in Shady Vale . Allanon warns the Ohmsford brothers that the Warlock Lord has returned to the Skull Kingdom in the Northland and is coming for Shea . As the last descendant of Jerle Shannara , Shea is the only one capable of wielding the Sword of Shannara against the Warlock Lord .
Allanon departs , leaving Shea three Blue Elfstones for protection . He tells Shea to flee at the sign of the Skull . A few weeks later , a creature bearing a symbol of a skull shows up : a Skull Bearer , one of the Warlock Lord 's " winged black destroyers " , has arrived to search for Shea . The brothers are forced to flee with the Skull Bearer on their heels . They take refuge in the nearby city of Leah where they find Shea 's friend Menion , the son of the city 's lord . Menion decides to accompany the two , and he travels with them to Culhaven , to meet with Allanon . While at Culhaven , they are joined by a prince of Callahorn , Balinor Buckhannah , two elven brothers , Durin and Dayel Elessedil , and the dwarf Hendel .
The party sets out for Paranor . But along the way , Shea falls over a waterfall and becomes separated from the group . Allanon spurs the group to continue to Paranor . Once there , the party gets into a battle with minions of the Warlock Lord and find that the Sword of Shannara has already been removed . The party then learns of the Warlock Lord 's invasion of the Southland , and decide to split up to do what they can to stop it .
= = = = In the Southland = = = =
Disguised by Allanon , Flick infiltrates the enemy camp and rescues the captive Elven King , Eventine Elessedil ; at the same time , in Kern , Menion saves a woman named Shirl Ravenlock and falls in love with her . They organize an evacuation of Kern before the Northland army reaches the city .
Balinor returns to Tyrsis to activate the Border Legion only to find that it has been disbanded . Balinor is then imprisoned by his insane brother Palance Buckhannah , who has taken control of Callahorn 's rule . His advisor , Stenmin , has driven Palance insane with drugs , making him his pawn . With help from Menion , Balinor escapes and confronts both Palance and Stenmin . Practically cornered , Stenmin stabs Palance as a distraction and flees .
Now commanded by Balinor , Callahorn 's reformed Border Legion marches out of Tyrsis and engages the Northland army at the Mermiddon River , killing many Northlanders before being forced to pull back ; the Border Legion retreats to Tyrsis and make preparations for defense . During the siege of Tyrsis , Hendel and Menion come upon Stenmin and some of his supporters . Hendel is killed , but Menion kills Stenmin . After three days , the Border Legion is beaten back from the Outer Wall of Tyrsis as a result of treachery — the wall falls when the traitors destroy the locks on the main gate , jamming it open . At the defenders ' last stand on the Bridge of Sendic , the Northlanders abruptly break and run .
= = = = In the Northland = = = =
After being captured by Gnomes , Shea is rescued by the one @-@ handed thief Panamon Creel and his mute Troll companion Keltset Mallicos . Journeying to the Northland , they reach the Skull Kingdom , where the insane Gnome deserter Orl Fane has carried the Sword of Shannara .
Infiltrating the Warlock Lord 's fortress in the Skull Mountain , Shea reaches the sword and unsheathes it . He learns about its true power , the ability to confront those with the truth about their lives . The Warlock Lord materializes and tries to destroy Shea , but the youth stands his ground and confronts his enemy with the sword . Although immune to physical weapons , the Warlock Lord vanishes after being forced to confront the truth about himself : he had deluded himself into believing that he is immortal , but this is impossible . The Sword forces him to confront this paradox , and it kills him .
Keltset sacrifices himself to save his companions during the Skull Kingdom 's destruction . In the south , the Northland army retreats after the Warlock Lord 's downfall . Allanon saves Shea 's life and reveals himself as Bremen 's centuries @-@ old son , before disappearing to sleep . Peace returns to the Four Lands . Balinor takes up his country 's rule , while Dayel and Durin return to the Westland , and Menion returns to Leah with Shirl . Shea and Flick reunite and return to Shady Vale .
= = Characters = =
Shea Ohmsford , the protagonist , Flick 's adopted brother and the only remaining descendant of Jerle Shannara . Shea must find an ancient magical sword , the Sword of Shannara , and use it to destroy the antagonist , the Warlock Lord . A major theme of this novel revolves around Shea — part of his quest includes finding a belief in himself . This is a search that every subsequent Brooks protagonist must undergo .
Flick Ohmsford , Shea 's brother . He helps Shea escape Shady Vale and ' tags along ' with the group that goes to recover the Sword . He rescues Eventine " solo " after Allanon disguises him as a Gnome .
Menion Leah , a friend of Shea and the Prince of the small country of Leah . He guides Shea and Flick to Culhaven after their escape of Shady Vale and the Skull Bearer . He is the first of many from the House of Leah to befriend a member of the Ohmsford family .
Allanon , a Druid who has been alive for around 400 years through the use of Druid Sleep . He guides and mentors the group on their quest to find the Sword . Allanon has been described as a parallel to Merlin from Arthurian legend .
Balinor Buckhannah , the Crown Prince of the country of Callahorn and the " charismatic commander of [ the ] Border Legion " . He left the capital , Tyrsis , after a fight with his insane brother , Palance ; upon returning , he was thrown into a dungeon by him .
Hendel , a " taciturn " Dwarf warrior . He first appears in the novel when he saves Menion Leah from a Siren , and was part of the company that went to find the Sword .
Durin Elessedil , the older brother of Dayel and cousin to King Eventine . He was part of the company that went to find the Sword .
Dayel Elessedil , the younger brother of Durin and cousin to King Eventine . He was part of the company that went to find the Sword .
Stenmin , a traitor to Callahorn now working for the Warlock Lord . He poisoned both Palance and Ruhl Buckhannah , the King of Callahorn , eventually killing Ruhl and driving Palance insane .
Palance Buckhannah , the brother of Balinor Buckhannah and a prince of Callahorn . He was driven insane as a result of drugs fed to him by Stenmin , and at his urging , took control of Callahorn when his father ' took ill ' .
Panamon Creel , a one @-@ handed " con man " wanderer whose left hand is now a pike . He saved Shea from a patrol of Gnomes . The inspiration from his character came directly from Rupert of Hentzau from The Prisoner of Zenda , by Anthony Hope .
Keltset Mallicos , Panamon 's mute companion . He is mute as a result of the Warlock Lord . He was able to save Panamon and Shea after they were captured by Trolls because he had been awarded the Black Irix , the highest honor any Troll can receive , and therefore is considered incapable of treachery . The Trolls then helped them get to Skull Mountain so that Shea could confront the Warlock Lord .
Brona ( the Warlock Lord ) , the former Druid and antagonist of the novel . In days long ago , Brona was a Druid before he was subverted by dark magic . He believes that he is immortal , and so he still lives . When he was confronted with the power of the Sword , " truth " , he was forced to see that he was really dead , and immediately disappeared .
Skull Bearers , " winged black destroyers " who " sacrificed their humanity " to become the Warlock Lord 's most trusted servants . They fly around at different points of the novel , demoralizing troops . They are usually seen only at night , though one does fly during the day over the city of Tyrsis on the last day of the battle .
Shirl Ravenlock , the daughter of an elder on the governing council of Kern , and a descendant of royal blood . She was kidnapped by Stenmin , but is accidentally rescued by Menion Leah . Menion and Shirl soon fall in love with each other . She is one of only two women to appear directly in the book , with the other being the Siren .
Orl Fane , a " Gollum @-@ like " Gnome who " covets the Sword as Gollum does the ring . " He stole the Sword and forced Panamon , Keltset and Shea to track him down . He was driven insane and killed by the Warlock Lord after he took control of his mind and forced him to try to take the Sword .
= = Background = =
Brooks began writing The Sword of Shannara in 1967 when he was twenty @-@ three years old . He started writing the novel to challenge himself and as a way of staying " sane " while he attended law school at Washington and Lee University . Brooks had been a writer since high school , but he had never found ' his ' genre : " I tried my hand at science fiction , westerns , war stories , you name it . All those efforts ... weren 't very good . " When he was starting college , he was given a copy of Tolkien 's The Lord of the Rings to read for the first time . From then on , Brooks knew that he had found a genre he could write in . Writing Sword took seven years , as Brooks worked on it only sporadically while also completing his law school courses and rewrote it many times .
Brooks initially submitted his manuscript to DAW Books , whose editor Donald A. Wollheim rejected it and recommended submission to Judy @-@ Lynn del Rey at Ballantine Books instead . Ballantine Books accepted The Sword of Shannara in November 1974 . Brooks ' editor was Lester del Rey , who used the book to launch Ballantine 's new Del Rey Books imprint / subsidiary . Del Rey chose it because he felt that it was " the first long epic fantasy adventure which had any chance of meeting the demands of Tolkien readers for similar pleasures . "
In 1977 , The Sword of Shannara was simultaneously released as a trade paperback by Ballantine Books and hardback by Random House . The Brothers Hildebrandt , who had previously done illustration work for the work of Tolkien , was asked to make the cover . Greg Hildebrandt remembers the Del Reys as being " obsessed with the project . It was their baby . " The novel was a commercial success , becoming the first fantasy fiction novel to appear on The New York Times trade paperback bestseller list .
The original inspiration for The Sword of Shannara was Brooks ' desire to put " Tolkien 's magic and fairy creatures [ into ] the worlds of Walter Scott and [ Alexander ] Dumas " . Later , other inspirations jumped onto Brooks ' bandwagon . Brooks was inspired by J.R.R. Tolkien The Lord of the Rings and adventure fiction such as Alexandre Dumas ' The Three Musketeers , Robert Louis Stevenson 's Treasure Island , Arthur Conan Doyle 's The White Company and Walter Scott 's Ivanhoe .
Brooks decided not to use historical settings like these works . He instead followed Tolkien 's use of a fantasy setting instead :
I would set my adventure story in an imaginary world , a vast , sprawling , mythical world like that of Tolkien , filled with magic that had replaced science and races that had evolved from Man . But I was not Tolkien and did not share his background in academia or his interest in cultural study . So I would eliminate the poetry and songs , the digressions on the ways and habits of types of characters , and the appendices of language and backstory that characterized and informed Tolkien 's work . I would write the sort of straightforward adventure story that barreled ahead , picking up speed as it went , compelling a turning of pages until there were no more pages to be turned .
He admits that he was very influenced by The Lord of the Rings when writing it , being his first novel , but that he has evolved his own style since :
Tolkien approached it as an academic , and he was writing it as an academic effort , not as popular fiction . I ’ m a popular fiction writer , that 's the way I approached it . And I think that you 're right , too , about the fact that I was heavily under the influence of Tolkien when I wrote Sword of Shannara and it shows in that particular book . But I 've really gotten a long way away from Tolkien these days and not very many people come up to me any more and say , “ Well , gee , you 're writing an awful lot like Tolkien . ” They don ’ t say that any more .
Brooks also made decisions about his novel 's characterization and use of magic , saying that the magic " couldn 't be dependable or simply good or bad " . Also , he wanted to blur the distinctions between good and evil , " because life simply [ doesn 't ] work that way . " He wanted to ensure that readers would identify with his protagonist , Shea , which he accomplished by casting Shea as " a person simply trying to muddle through " .
= = Major themes = =
" Ordinary men placed in extraordinary circumstances " is a prevalent theme in The Sword of Shannara . Brooks credits Tolkien with introducing this theme of mundane heroism into fantasy literature and influencing his own fiction . " [ M ] y protagonists are cut from the same bolt of cloth as Bilbo and Frodo Baggins . It was Tolkien 's genius to reinvent the traditional epic fantasy by making the central character neither God nor hero , but a simple man in search of a way to do the right thing . ... I was impressed enough by how it had changed the face of epic fantasy that I never gave a second thought to not using it as the cornerstone of my own writing . "
The Sword of Shannara is set in a post @-@ apocalyptic Earth , where chemical and nuclear holocaust devastated the land in the distant past . Due to the numerous references in Sword to this catastrophe , Brooks was asked a question about whether he thought that his ' prediction ' might come true . He answered :
I don 't see myself as a negative person , so I don 't think I 've ever thought we would destroy ourselves . But it does worry me that not only are we capable of [ nuclear war ] , but [ we also ] flirt with the idea periodically . One mistake , after all . . . Anyway , I used the background in [ The ] Sword of Shannara more in a cautionary vein than as a prophecy . Also , it was necessary to destroy civilization in order to take a look at what it would mean to have to build it back up again using magic . A civilization once destroyed by misuse of power is a bit wary the second time out about what new power can do .
Environment plays a role in all of the Shannara novels : " Environment is a character in my story and almost always plays a major role in affecting the story 's outcome . I have always believed that fantasy , in particular , because it takes place in an imaginary world with at least some imaginary characters , needs to make the reader feel at home in the setting . That means bringing the setting alive for the reader , which is what creating environment as a character is really all about . " However , Brooks believes that Sword was more about behavioral issues and personal sacrifice .
= = Literary significance and reception = =
The Sword of Shannara received mixed reviews following its publication , most of which remarked on its similarity to J. R. R. Tolkien 's The Lord of the Rings . Choice stated that the novel was an " exceptionally well @-@ written , very readable ... entrance into the genre ... [ that ] will be accepted by most teenagers . " Marshall Tymn also thought that it contained quality prose . Tymn believed that Sword followed Lord of the Rings too closely , but he also cited some of the differences , such as the use of a post @-@ holocaust setting with the races that sprang from that , and the " entertaining conartist , Panamon Creel , ... and ... an unexpected ending springing from the nature of the sword . " Cathi Dunn MacRae assessed all of Brooks ' works in her 1998 book Presenting Young Adult Fantasy Fiction . On The Sword of Shannara , she thought this :
In this postholocaust world of our future , Brooks parallels the mystic arts ... with science , two powers that are not good or evil but become either by the way we use them . Evil is a corruption of truth , erupting from the selfish use of power for one 's own ends . Good arises from the insistence on truth , allowing us to realize our indelible bonds with others of all races , and our connection with nature and earth . Anything unnatural is evil , such as the Warlock Lord 's immortality , which recalls similar abuse of nature by Le Guin 's Cob and by Barbara Hambly 's wizard Suraklin .
One of Brooks ' strengths is his plot 's momentum , maintained through cliffhangers , unexpected twists of fortune , and the dance of many characters ' constant movements . This brisk pace alters when characters pause to ruminate , which draws out suspense and reveals motivation . However , first novelist Brooks as puppet master is not always in control of the strings . With no single point of view centered in one character , his focus is diffused , and the anxieties and realizations of each character beg [ an ] to sound the same , blurring their identities with repetition .
= = = Sword and The Lord of the Rings = = =
The Sword of Shannara has drawn extensive criticism from critics who believe that Brooks derived too much of his novel from Tolkien 's The Lord of the Rings . In 1978 , influential fantasy editor Lin Carter denounced The Sword of Shannara as " the single most cold @-@ blooded , complete rip @-@ off of another book that I have ever read " . Elaborating on his disapproval of the book , Carter wrote that " Terry Brooks wasn 't trying to imitate Tolkien 's prose , just steal his story line and complete cast of characters , and [ Brooks ] did it with such clumsiness and so heavy @-@ handedly , that he virtually rubbed your nose in it . " Roger C. Schlobin was kinder in his assessment , though he still thought that The Sword of Shannara was a disappointment because of its similarities to The Lord of the Rings . Brian Attebery accused The Sword of Shannara of being " undigested Tolkien " which was " especially blatant in its point @-@ for @-@ point correspondence " with The Lord of the Rings . In an educational article on writing , author Orson Scott Card cited The Sword of Shannara as a cautionary example of overly derivative writing , finding the work " artistically displeasing " for this reason .
Assessing The Sword of Shannara three decades after its publication , Tolkien scholar Tom Shippey agreed with Attebery , as Shippey found that the novel was distinctive for " the dogged way in which it follow [ ed ] Tolkien point for point " . Within Brooks ' novel , Shippey located " analogues " for Tolkien characters such as Sauron ( Brona ) , Gandalf ( Allanon ) , the Hobbits ( Shea and Flick ) , Aragorn ( Menion ) , Boromir ( Balinor ) , Gimli ( Hendel ) , Legolas ( Durin and Dayel ) , Gollum ( Orl Fane ) , the Barrow @-@ wight ( Mist Wraith ) , and the Nazgûl ( Skull Bearers ) , among others . He also found plot similarities to events in The Lord of the Rings such as the Fellowship of the Ring 's formation and adventures , the journeys to Rivendell ( Culhaven ) and Lothlórien ( Storlock ) , Gandalf 's ( Allanon ) fall in Moria ( Paranor ) and subsequent reappearance , and the Rohirrim 's arrival at the Battle of the Pelennor Fields ( Battle of Tirsys ) , among others . Avoiding direct commentary on the book 's quality , Shippey attributed the book 's success to the post @-@ Tolkienian advent of the fantasy genre : " What The Sword of Shannara seems to show is that many readers had developed the taste ... for heroic fantasy so strongly that if they could not get the real thing they would take any substitute , no matter how diluted . "
Terry Brooks has said that Tolkien 's works were a major influence in his writing , though he has also said that Tolkien was not his only influence . Other influences included his editor Lester del Rey , as well as the many different books which he had read over his life . Also , mythology and ancient civilizations that he had learned about in school gave him a wealth of knowledge from which he drew . Many of these influences are reflected in Brooks ' works .
In a 2001 Interzone essay , author Gene Wolfe defended Brooks ' derivation of material from Tolkien : " Terry Brooks has often been disparaged for imitating Tolkien , particularly by those reviewers who find his books inferior to Tolkien 's own . I can say only that I wish there were more imitators -- we need them -- and that all imitations of so great an original must necessarily be inferior . " In a commentary for The New York Times Book Review , Frank Herbert , author of the science fiction novel Dune , also defended Brooks , saying :
Don 't fault Brooks for entering the world of letters through the Tolkien door . Every writer owes a similar debt to those who have come before . Some will admit it . Tolkien 's debt was equally obvious . The classical myth structure is deeply embedded in Western society .
That 's why you should not be surprised at finding these elements in The Sword of Shannara . Yes , you will find here the young prince in search of his grail ; the secret ( and not always benign ) powers of nature ; the magician ; the wise old man ; the witch mother ; the malignant threat from a sorcerer ; the holy talisman ; the virgin queen ; the fool ( in the ancient tarot sense of the one who asks the disturbing questions ) and all of the other Arthurian trappings .
What Brooks has done is to present a marvelous exposition of why the idea is not the story . Because of the popular assumption ( which assumes mythic proportions of its own ) that ideas form 99 percent of a story , writers are plagued by that foolish question , " Where do you get your ideas ? " Brooks demonstrates that it doesn 't matter where you get the idea ; what matters is that you tell a rousing story .
Herbert said that " Brooks revert [ ed ] to his own style ... somewhere around Chapter 20 " and remarked upon what Brooks did not take from Tolkien :
In the last chapters , you get the Brooksian innovations — the Rock Troll [ Keltset ] , who is deep and mute and whose actions , thus , are far more important than any words could be ; the Grim Druid , who really changes character in the second half of the book , becoming far more complex and devious ( the name Allanon should give you a clue ) ; Balinor , the Prince of Callahorn , whose role breaks with myth tradition ; the Warlock Lord , who pretty much fills the traditional role of evil — but that 's what you expect of evil and it doesn 't blight a good story .
Herbert also praised the characters of evil in the book : " Ah , the monsters in this book . Brooks creates distillations of horror that hark back to childhood 's shadows , when the most important thing about a fearful creature was that you didn 't know its exact shape and intent . You only knew that it wanted you . The black @-@ winged skull bearer , for instance , is more than a euphemism for death . In a 2001 article for Seattle Weekly , David Massengill also commented upon Brooks ' main characters , calling them " idiosyncratic adventurers . "
Other contemporary newspapers took separate sides on the Sword and Lord of the Rings issue . John Batchelor , writing for The Village Voice , thought that it was the weakest of the 1977 surge in fantasy , ranking it below Stephen R. Donaldson 's The Chronicles of Thomas Covenant , the Unbeliever , Seamus Cullen 's Astra and Flondrix , and The Silmarillion , edited by Christopher Tolkien , while commenting that it " unabashedly cop [ ied ] " Lord of the Rings . However , he also believed that it was serviceable , simply because there is something exciting about sending off a group to face evil alone . Taking the opposite stance , L.V. Keptert in the Sydney Morning Herald believed that the book was similar enough to Tolkien that it would draw the many fans of that book to Sword , but it was only similar on a most basic level , and a valid comparison could not be made between the two . The Pittsburgh Press took a similar stance , saying that Sword embodied the Tolkien spirit and tradition but was quite able to stand apart from Lord of the Rings .
= = = Book impact = = =
The Sword of Shannara sold about 125 @,@ 000 copies in its first month in print . This success provided a major boost to the fantasy genre .
Louise J. Winters writes that " until Shannara , no fantasy writer except J. R. R. Tolkien had made such an impression on the general public . " Critic David Pringle credits Brooks for " demonstrat [ ing ] in 1977 that the commercial success of Tolkien 's The Lord of the Rings had not been a fluke , and that fantasy really did have the potential to become a mass @-@ market genre " . With Stephen R. Donaldson 's The Chronicles of Thomas Covenant , the Unbeliever , The Sword of Shannara ushered in " the era of the big commercial fantasy " and helped make epic fantasy the leading fantasy subgenre . The Sword of Shannara and its sequels helped inspire later versions of Dungeons and Dragons .
= = Television adaptation = =
The Shannara books were to be adapted by Mike Newell , the director of Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire , but he left the project . The books eventually were adapted for television by Farah Films and executive produced by Brooks , Dan Farah , and Stewart Till . This begins with Elfstones , leaving Sword for later . The Shannara Chronicles premiered on American television network MTV on January 5 , 2016 .
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= Curley Byrd =
Harry Clifton " Curley " Byrd ( February 12 , 1889 – October 2 , 1970 ) was an American university administrator , educator , athlete , coach , and politician . Byrd began a long association with the University of Maryland as an undergraduate in 1905 , and eventually rose to the position of university president from 1936 to 1954 .
In the interim , he had also served as the university 's athletic director and head coach for the football and baseball teams . Byrd amassed a 119 – 82 – 15 record in football from 1911 to 1934 and 88 – 73 – 4 record in baseball from 1913 to 1923 . Byrd Stadium , the university 's current football field , and its predecessor were both named in his honor . In graduate school at Georgetown University , he became one of football 's early users of the newly legalized forward pass , and he had a brief baseball career including one season as pitcher for the San Francisco Seals .
Byrd resigned as university president in order to enter politics in 1954 . He ran an unsuccessful campaign as the Democratic candidate for Maryland Governor against Theodore McKeldin . Byrd later received appointments to state offices with responsibilities in the Potomac River and Chesapeake Bay . In the 1960s , he made unsuccessful bids for seats in each chamber of the United States Congress . Byrd was a proponent of a " separate but equal " status of racial segregation in his roles as both university administrator and political candidate .
In 2015 , the student government association agreed to a resolution in support of changing the name of Byrd Stadium because of Byrd 's segregationist history . On September 28 , 2015 , University of Maryland President Wallace Loh appointed task force to develop viewpoints and options . The University President then made a recommendation to the University System of Maryland Board of Regents — the governing body of Maryland state universities — to change the name to " Maryland Stadium " . The ultimate decision on any name change rests with the Board of Regents . On December 11 , 2015 , the Board of Regents voted 12 @-@ 5 to remove the " Byrd " from the stadium 's name , renaming it Maryland Stadium for the time being .
= = Early life = =
Harry Clifton Byrd was born on February 12 , 1889 , in Crisfield , Maryland . He was one of six children of oysterman and county commissioner William Franklin Byrd and his wife Sallie May Byrd . In his youth , Byrd worked in the Chesapeake Bay fishing industry , where he saved most of his money to finance his college education . He attended Crisfield High School , where he excelled on the baseball diamond , and was also known as his hometown 's first recreational jogger .
A later source described how he appeared in 1905 :
" He was tall , and as the saying goes , built like a whip . He had a startlingly handsome face , with big , flashing eyes , a splotch of florid red on each cheek , and a mane of black curly hair ... He looked like Rupert of Hentzau , and had all of that worthy 's cold , sinister resolution about everything that he did . "
= = College career = =
In 1905 , Byrd graduated from Crisfield High School and enrolled at the Maryland Agricultural College , which is now known as the University of Maryland . Byrd was a star college athlete and participated in varsity football , baseball , and track . He served as the football team captain in 1907 , as the pitcher on the baseball team , and set a school record 10 @.@ 0 @-@ second 100 @-@ yard dash in track . Before leaving Crisfield , Byrd 's father warned him not to " try to play that thing called football . " He ignored the advice and reported for football practice where head coach Fred K. Nielsen told the undersized Byrd to " play with the kids " and that " football 's a man 's game . " He was allowed , however , to fill in as an end on the scout team due to a shortage of players . After sitting out the first three games , Nielsen sent Byrd in as a substitute against Navy , and his play was impressive enough to earn a position on the first team . After the elder Byrd read of his son 's newfound stardom in the newspaper , he wrote , " Since you 're going to play football , I 'm glad to see you 're doing it well . " During the summers and on weekends , Byrd supplemented his income by continuing work as a fisherman . He graduated second in his class with a Bachelor of Science degree in civil engineering in 1908 .
After graduation from Maryland , Byrd spent the next three years doing graduate work in law and journalism at George Washington University , Georgetown University , and Western Maryland College ( now known as McDaniel College ) . In a time before eligibility limitations , he played football at George Washington and Georgetown and ran track at Western Maryland . At Georgetown in 1909 , he was called the first quarterback in the East to master the forward pass , several years before Gus Dorais of Notre Dame did so in 1913 . According to The Georgetown Hoyas : A Story of A Rambunctious Football Team , Dorais 's " end @-@ over @-@ end ' discus ' throw was an exact copy " of Byrd 's passing technique , and the Irish " got the headlines because they had a press agent and Georgetown didn 't . "
Byrd also played for Maryland @-@ based semi @-@ professional baseball teams while pursuing his graduate studies . In 1910 , the Chicago White Sox signed Byrd , but he was soon traded to the San Francisco Seals , a semi @-@ professional Pacific Coast League baseball team with whom he pitched in 1912 . He returned to Maryland later that year , and in 1913 , married Katherine Dunlop Turnbull . Before they divorced twenty years later , the couple had three sons and a daughter : Harry , Sterling , William , and Evelyn .
= = Coaching career = =
In 1911 , injuries claimed enough Maryland Agricultural football players that the team could no longer field a practice squad to scrimmage against . The college turned to Byrd , who was serving as coach at Western High School in Georgetown , and he was willing to help his alma mater with scrimmages . Byrd later replaced head coach Charley Donnelly , who resigned mid @-@ season after accumulating a 2 – 4 – 2 record . Byrd led the Aggies to wins in both of their final games of the season , against Western Maryland , 6 – 0 , and Gallaudet , 6 – 2 .
In 1913 , the Maryland Agricultural College hired Byrd as an instructor in English and history , and he was named the head coach of the track and baseball teams , the latter of which he coached through 1923 . According to author David Ungrady in Tales from the Maryland Terrapins , the university initially offered Byrd $ 300 to coach football , but he demanded $ 1 @,@ 200 . The two parties came to agree upon that salary for all of his coaching and teaching duties which spanned nine months of the year . Byrd also worked as a sportswriter for The Washington Star , a job he held until 1932 .
As football coach , he developed a unique offensive scheme called the " Byrd system " , which combined elements of the single @-@ wing and double @-@ wing formations . One of Byrd 's track and football players , Geary Eppley , said , " He never yelled in practice or at a game ... He pointed out mistakes and explained what you did wrong . He took a calm approach . The strongest thing he 'd say was ' for cripes sake . ' "
In 1915 , his duties were expanded to include those of athletic director . That same year , he requested funds for the construction of the campus 's first dedicated football stadium , which was named in his honor . During his tenure as head football coach from 1911 to 1934 , he compiled a 119 – 82 – 15 record .
= = Administrative career = =
Byrd was appointed to the post of assistant university president in 1918 . He became a proponent of unification of the Maryland Agricultural College and the Baltimore professional schools into a single public University of Maryland , and he was instrumental in what became the Consolidation Act of 1920 . Byrd named the student newspaper The Diamondback in 1921 , and in 1933 , he was the lead advocate for the adoption of the diamondback terrapin as the university 's official nickname and mascot .
In 1932 , Byrd was promoted to vice president of the university . In July 1935 , he was named the acting president of the university , and was officially appointed to the presidency in February 1936 . During his tenure , the budget , facilities , faculty , and enrollment increased significantly . The school budget was increased and the campus expanded largely due to Byrd 's deft political maneuvering in Annapolis and Washington . The school also saw a large growth in enrollment , due in part to returning veterans making use of the G.I. Bill after World War II . From 1945 to 1948 , the university budget increased from $ 4 @.@ 8 million to $ 9 @.@ 8 million . Between 1935 and 1954 , student enrollment grew from 3 @,@ 400 to 16 @,@ 000 . Over that same time period , the value of the campus rose from $ 5 million to $ 65 million . Byrd , however stood fast on faculty salaries . He reportedly said , " Ph.D.s are a dime a dozen . " For years , Byrd refused to release the university 's financial records to state legislators , and how exactly he secured funding for many of his projects was largely a mystery . According to booster Jack Heise , Byrd financed a new basketball arena through the out @-@ of @-@ state tuition , paid by the federal government , for Maryland high school graduates who attended the university on the G.I. Bill . The General Accounting Office calculated that the extra fees totaled more than $ 2 million , but determined that they were within the bounds of legality .
Byrd was a staunch supporter of a " separate but equal " state university system . The Princess Anne campus provided agricultural education and Morgan State College provided liberal arts education for the state 's black students , while the University of Maryland remained open only to white students . In 1951 , Governor Theodore McKeldin criticized the University of Maryland as an example of wasteful state spending , and was especially critical of expansions to the Princess Anne campus , which was geographically disconnected from the state 's black population and not attracting many students to study agriculture . Contractors had begun projects at the college before approval from the public works board , which was described as a usual practice under Byrd . Byrd acceded to McKeldin and secured approval from the board for both the Princess Anne expansions as well as a sizable increase to the university budget .
In 1945 , Byrd hired 32 @-@ year @-@ old Paul " Bear " Bryant to his first head coaching post . Bryant led the Terrapins to a 6 – 2 – 1 record , but the two personalities clashed . The tensions came to a head when Byrd reinstated a player Bryant had suspended for violating team rules . Bryant resigned as head coach an hour later , which caused an uproar among students until he interceded to restore order .
Two years later , Byrd hired Jim Tatum as football coach . The year prior at Oklahoma , Tatum fielded a winning team , but the athletic department ran up a huge deficit and some players were paid in violation of conference rules , which resulted in university president George Cross firing athletic director Jap Haskell . The media blamed Tatum for his termination . Tatum told Cross to refute Tatum 's role in the matter , and threatened to reveal the Oklahoma team had been paid $ 6 @,@ 000 after the 1947 Gator Bowl . Cross asked Byrd to persuade Tatum not to go public , and according to author Gary King in An Autumn Remembered , Byrd replied , " Persuade , hell ! I 'll tell him to keep his damn mouth shut ! " Tatum remained as coach at Maryland from 1947 to 1955 , and amassed a 73 – 15 – 4 record .
In 1948 , the National Collegiate Athletic Association passed a set of regulations called the Purity Code , later renamed the Sanity Code , which permitted student @-@ athletes free tuition and meals , but required that part @-@ time jobs be legitimate and their pay commensurate with the work . Schools found to be in violation could be expelled from the NCAA . In 1950 , seven schools , called the " Sinful Seven " — Virginia , Maryland , VMI , Virginia Tech , The Citadel , Boston College , and Villanova — admitted they were in violation of the code . Time magazine asserted violators were far more widespread than those seven that had confessed . Maryland was the only Sinful Seven school that was also a major football power with eighty scholarship players , and Byrd led them in their stand against the Sanity Code . University of Virginia president Colgate Darden called the code hypocritical , and The Citadel 's leadership refused to " lie to stay in the association " and requested termination of its NCAA membership . At the convention to decide Virginia 's fate , Byrd said , " Does Ohio State want to vote for expulsion of Virginia , when Ohio State has facilities to take care of four or five as many athletes as Virginia ? " The ensuing vote fell 25 short of the needed two @-@ thirds majority to expel the Sinful Seven .
In 1951 , the football team 's 10 – 0 season culminated in a 28 – 13 victory over first @-@ ranked Tennessee in the 1952 Sugar Bowl . Maryland 's participation , however , was in violation of a Southern Conference resolution passed mid @-@ season that banned participation in postseason bowl games . Byrd had Maryland accept the bowl invitation , despite Tatum 's objections . The coach thought the threatened sanctions , which prevented Maryland from playing any Southern Conference games the following season , would severely disadvantage his team . In 1952 , Maryland and Clemson , which had also violated the bowl game ban , were sanctioned , and the incident hastened the break @-@ up of the Southern Conference and formation of the Atlantic Coast Conference , of which both schools were founding members .
Opponents in The Baltimore Sun alleged that Byrd emphasized athletics over academics and belittled him as the only college football coach to rise to the position of university president . Among the campus expansions , Byrd was responsible for the construction of Byrd Stadium in 1950 and Cole Field House in 1955 , which at the time was the largest basketball arena in the Southern Conference . Critics alleged that both facilities were constructed at the expense of campus libraries . Byrd also built the University of Maryland Golf Course in 1959 . Byrd resigned from the post in 1953 and his tenure ended effectively on December 31 .
= = Political career = =
Byrd resigned from the presidency in January 1954 to embark upon an unsuccessful campaign for Governor of Maryland . He narrowly beat perennial candidate George P. Mahoney in the Democratic primary by 50 @.@ 64 % to 49 @.@ 37 % and faced Republican incumbent McKeldin in the general election . Byrd campaigned on his stance of separate but equal . McKeldin won comfortable majorities in Baltimore 's black , Jewish , and upper @-@ middle class white districts , while Byrd took all of the blue @-@ collar white South and East Baltimore neighborhoods , including McKeldin 's boyhood home along Eutaw Street . Elsewhere in the state , however , middle @-@ class white voters did not support Byrd . Byrd lost by 54 @.@ 46 % to 45 @.@ 54 % . He went on to make unsuccessful bids for the Democratic nominations to the U.S. Senate in 1964 and the U.S. Congress in 1966 .
Despite his lack of success in campaigning , Byrd did receive several gubernatorial appointments : Chairman of the Maryland Tidewater Fisheries Commission , Maryland Commissioner to the Potomac River Fisheries Commission , and Chairman of the Commission on Chesapeake Bay Affairs . In 1959 , Governor J. Millard Tawes appointed Byrd as commissioner of tidewater fisheries . When a fisheries officer killed a Virginian waterman illegally dredging , Byrd disarmed the force . The action was credited with helping to end the long @-@ standing Potomac River Oyster Wars . Following the example of other oyster @-@ producing states , Byrd authorized fossil shell mining to produce culch , crushed shells used to form oyster beds . Byrd ignored Tawes ' warning to " stay away from private planting " by promoting the formation of leasing cooperatives , but his plan failed due to opposition in the Maryland General Assembly .
= = Business career = =
Byrd was also active in business and civic organizations . In 1951 , he was involved in the merger that formed the Suburban Trust Company , which in 1960 was the largest bank in Maryland outside of Baltimore City . He later served as the company 's vice president . Byrd also did business in real estate and construction . Byrd was active with service organizations . In 1962 , he became a member of the Loyal Order of the Moose . Byrd organized the College Park Rotary Club and served as its first president . Byrd was a member of the Defense Orientation Conference Association ( DOCA ) , an organization which educates civilians on the Defense Department 's programs and policies .
= = Death = =
Byrd died of a heart condition on October 2 , 1970 at the University of Maryland Hospital in Baltimore , Maryland . He is interred at Asbury United Methodist Church Cemetery in Crisfield , Maryland , and his epitaph reads : " Harry Clifton ' Curley ' Byrd , Educator – Statesman – Conservationist , President Emeritus , Father and Builder of the Greater Consolidated University of Maryland , Founded 1920 . " Byrd was inducted into the University of Maryland Athletic Hall of Fame in 1982 .
= = Head coaching record = =
= = = Football = = =
= = = Baseball = = =
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= Bart Star =
" Bart Star " is the sixth episode in the ninth season of the American animated television series The Simpsons . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on November 9 , 1997 . Written by Donick Cary and directed by Dominic Polcino , the episode guest starred Joe Namath , Roy Firestone , and Mike Judge . The episode sees Homer becoming the coach of a pee @-@ wee football team and expresses nepotism for Bart by making him the quarterback which receives backlash from the whole team , including Bart himself . The episode was critically well received .
= = Plot = =
Following a Health convention held in Springfield , the children of Springfield ( including Bart ) are deemed to be overweight . To help them stay in shape , the parents enroll their children in pee @-@ wee football . The coach , Ned Flanders , helps keep the team undefeated , but Homer heckles him relentlessly . Flanders finally snaps and turns the job over to Homer .
Homer initially acts tough towards Bart , but when he is reminded of how his father was hard on him as a child , he decides to be nicer to Bart. The next day , he decides to cut many players from the team , and replaces star quarterback Nelson with Bart , causing an uproar from the team . Bart is unable to play the position well and causes the team 's first loss . While training at night Bart meets Joe Namath , who promises to help him , but soon after Joe 's wife fixes the car , which had broken down due to vapor lock , Joe leaves without helping Bart.
Lisa suggests that Bart pretend he is injured to get out of quarterbacking , which he eagerly does , but Homer claims that without Bart the team must forfeit . This causes Bart to become angry and quit the team . The next game , Nelson is made quarterback again and the team wins , but Homer has nobody to celebrate with and becomes lonely . Afterwards , Homer finds Bart and persuades him to rejoin the team . The next day , during the championship game , the score is tied when Chief Wiggum comes to arrest Nelson . Bart decides to pretend he is Nelson and the team finally wins the championship .
= = Production = =
The episode was written by Donick Cary , who obtained inspiration from an experience in high school he had with a football coach who had a son on the team . Similarly , show runner Mike Scully had been on a soccer team whose coach would give his son special treatment .
George Meyer obtained inspiration for the scene toward the beginning of the episode where Rainier Wolfcastle is taunting the children from an experience he had with Arnold Schwarzenegger . He was following Schwarzenegger during a hike , and overheard him taunting his children . Schwarzenegger 's influence was seen in the same scene , as he was appointed to be the chairman of the President 's Council on Physical Fitness and Sports , on which he served from 1990 to 1993 .
The final scene took a long time to write . The writing staff found it difficult to come up with a resolution that would end on positive terms for Bart and Homer , and was originally different when it was read at the writing table .
= = = Casting = = =
Joe Namath , Roy Firestone , and Mike Judge guest starred in the episode . Scully claims that Judge was paid $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 to appear in the episode , where he voiced the cameo of Hank Hill . The appearance was actually a cross @-@ promotion for Judge 's animated show King of the Hill which followed The Simpsons on Fox 's Sunday schedule in 1997 . Other King of the Hill characters ( Hank 's niece Luanne , Hank 's wife Peggy , Hank 's son Bobby , and Hank 's friends , Dale Gribble , Bill Dauterive , and Boomhauer ) were present in the scene , although none of them spoke . Marv Albert was originally going to play Firestone 's part as a sports radio host , but was dropped following sexual assault charges that were made against him around the time the episode was in pre @-@ production . Albert would later appear , however , in the season 20 episode " The Burns and The Bees " .
= = Reception = =
In its original broadcast , " Bart Star " finished 27th in ratings for the week of November 3 – 9 , 1997 , with a Nielsen rating of 10 @.@ 8 , equivalent to approximately 10 @.@ 6 million viewing households . It was the third highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week , following The X @-@ Files and King of the Hill .
Since airing , the episode has received positive reviews from critics . The authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , thought well of the episode , saying , " A fun episode , where you root for Bart and , unusually , Nelson - all the way through . Homer is just too stupid for words , but that 's excusable because we finally see Ned Flanders lose it , big time ! " In 2011 , Keith Plocek of LA Weekly 's Squid Ink blog named the scene in which Homer tries to purchase " beer that has candy floating in it " ( which Homer calls skittlebrau ) at the Kwik @-@ E @-@ Mart as the fourth best food moment on the show .
The director of the episode , Dominic Polcino , greatly enjoyed the episode , and claims that it is his favorite episode that he directed .
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= Yugoslav submarine Smeli =
The Yugoslav submarine Smeli ( Daring ) was the second of the Osvetnik @-@ class diesel @-@ electric submarines built by Ateliers et Chantiers de la Loire , Nantes , France for the navy of the Kingdom of Serbs , Croats and Slovenes ( later Yugoslavia ) . She was launched in 1928 , and was built to a partial double hull Simonot design similar to the French Circé class . She was armed with six 550 mm ( 22 in ) torpedo tubes , one 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) gun , and one 40 mm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) anti @-@ aircraft gun , and could dive to 80 metres ( 260 ft ) .
Prior to World War II she participated in several cruises to Mediterranean ports . During the German @-@ led Axis invasion of Yugoslavia in April 1941 , she was captured by Italian forces at the Bay of Kotor . Initially designated N2 , her armament was changed and her conning tower modified . Due to her age and shallow diving depth , when she was commissioned into the Regia Marina as Antonio Bajamonti her service was limited to training and experimentation . She was scuttled at La Spezia in Liguria by the Italians in September 1943 the day after the Italian surrender .
= = Description and construction = =
Yugoslav naval policy in the interwar period lacked direction until the mid @-@ 1920s , although it was generally accepted that the Adriatic coastline was effectively a sea frontier that the naval arm was responsible for securing with the limited resources made available to it . In 1926 , a modest ten @-@ year construction program was initiated to build up a force of submarines , coastal torpedo boats , torpedo bombers and conventional bomber aircraft to perform this role . The Osvetnik @-@ class submarines were one of the acquisitions aimed at developing a naval force capable of meeting this challenge .
Smeli was built for the Kingdom of Serbs , Croats and Slovenes ( later Yugoslavia ) by the Ateliers et Chantiers de la Loire company at Nantes , France . Her partial double hull design , was based on a Simonot design , similar to the French Circé @-@ class . Her Serbo @-@ Croatian name translates as " Daring " . Along with her sister submarine of the class , Osvetnik , she had an overall length of 66 @.@ 5 m ( 218 ft 2 in ) , a beam of 5 @.@ 4 m ( 17 ft 9 in ) , and a surfaced draught of 3 @.@ 8 m ( 12 ft 6 in ) . Her surfaced displacement was 630 long tons ( 640 t ) or 809 long tons ( 822 t ) submerged , and her crew consisted of 43 officers and enlisted men . She had an operational depth of 80 m ( 260 ft ) .
She had two shafts driven by two MAN ( Maschinenfabrik ) diesel engines ( when surfaced ) or two Nancy electric motors ( when submerged ) , and carried 25 tonnes ( 25 long tons ) of fuel oil . The diesel engines were rated at 1 @,@ 480 bhp ( 1 @,@ 100 kW ) and the electric motors at 1 @,@ 000 shp ( 750 kW ) , and she was designed to reach a top speed of 14 @.@ 5 knots ( 26 @.@ 9 km / h ; 16 @.@ 7 mph ) under diesel power while surfaced , and 9 @.@ 2 knots ( 17 @.@ 0 km / h ; 10 @.@ 6 mph ) on her electric motors when submerged . She was armed with six 550 mm ( 22 in ) torpedo tubes ( four bow @-@ mounted , two stern @-@ mounted ) , one 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) gun , and one 40 mm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) anti @-@ aircraft gun . She had a surfaced radius of action of 3 @,@ 500 nautical miles ( 6 @,@ 500 km ; 4 @,@ 000 mi ) at 9 knots ( 17 km / h ; 10 mph ) , and 75 nautical miles ( 139 km ; 86 mi ) at 5 knots ( 9 @.@ 3 km / h ; 5 @.@ 8 mph ) submerged .
= = Service history = =
Smeli was the second of her class , and the fourth submarine of the navy of the Kingdom of Serbs , Croats and Slovenes , which subsequently became the Royal Yugoslav Navy . She and Osvetnik arrived in the Bay of Kotor on 9 December 1929 . In 1932 , the British naval attaché reported that Yugoslav ships engaged in few exercises , manoeuvres or gunnery training due to reduced budgets . In October 1934 , Smeli visited Bizerte in the French protectorate of Tunisia , and the Kelibia Roads off the coast of Tunisia . In August and September 1937 , Smeli , along with the British @-@ made submarine Hrabri and the depot ship Zmaj visited Greece , including the port of Piraeus , and the islands of Crete and Corfu .
When the German @-@ led Axis invasion of Yugoslavia began on 6 April 1941 , she was located in the Bay of Kotor on the southern Adriatic coast along with the three other submarines of the flotilla . She was subsequently captured by the Italian XVII Corps at the Bay of Kotor . Still in good condition , she was taken as war booty , and initially designated N2 . She was refitted and modernised at Pola in the upper Adriatic , which involved the replacement of some of her armament and modifications to her conning tower . After these modifications , her displacement was 665 long tons ( 676 t ) ( 822 long tons ( 835 t ) submerged ) . She was commissioned by the Italians as the Bajamonti @-@ class Antonio Bajamonti , named after Antonio Bajamonti , the 19th @-@ century politician and mayor of the Dalmatian port of Split . Despite her submerged stability and good diving rate , her age and shallow diving depth meant that she was only used for training and experimentation . She was scuttled by the Italians at La Spezia in Liguria on 9 September 1943 , the day after the Italian surrender .
= = = Books = = =
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= Robert Keable =
Robert Keable ( 6 March 1887 – 22 December 1927 ) was a British novelist , formerly a missionary and priest in the Church of England . He resigned his ministry following his experiences in the First World War and caused a scandal with his 1921 novel Simon Called Peter , the tale of a priest 's wartime affair with a young nurse . The book sold 600 @,@ 000 copies in the 1920s alone , was referenced in The Great Gatsby , and was cited in a double murder investigation . Fêted in the United States , but critically less than well @-@ received , Keable moved to Tahiti where he continued to write , producing both novels and theological works , until his death at age 40 of a kidney complaint .
Keable was raised in Bedfordshire and educated at Magdalene College , Cambridge . He entered a theological college after graduation and was ordained a priest in 1911 . He spent the next several years as a missionary in Africa , stationed on Zanzibar and in Basutoland , before returning to Europe as an army chaplain during the First World War . There , he met and fell in love with a young nurse , Grace Eileen Joly Beresford Buck , a development over which he eventually quit the Church of England and left his wife , Sybil . Returning to England after the war , Keable resigned his ministry and began to write novels : his first , 1921 's Simon Called Peter , became a runaway success and launched Keable into a life of literary celebrity . Increasingly disillusioned with the hypocrisies he saw in contemporary British life , he and Buck left Europe for Tahiti in 1922 . The couple lived there happily until Buck 's death in childbirth in 1924 , after which Keable 's health began to fade . He nonetheless struck up a later relationship with a Tahitian woman , Ina , with whom he had a son , and continued to publish novels until his death of a kidney condition in 1927 .
Keable 's most famous publication was his first novel , Simon Called Peter , but he produced a prodigious literary output , spanning theological tracts through poetry to travel guides . Simon Called Peter 's sequel , Recompense , was made into a film , and his later novels all attracted substantial attention . His writings generally met with much greater popular than critical approbation , and Simon Called Peter was sufficiently incendiary to be banned . The book nonetheless became a contemporary best @-@ seller .
Much of Keable 's fiction contained autobiographical elements , often centring on his attitudes toward and experience of the Christian religious establishment . As well as these fictional explorations he produced a final , non @-@ fiction work , The Great Galilean , outlining the religious views he developed during a lifetime 's uneasy relationship to Anglicanism and Catholicism . He came to believe that the historical Jesus bore little relationship to the Jesus of Christian tradition , and , in The Great Galilean , attempted to reconcile his ambivalence about the orthodoxies of the Church with his enduring belief in an all @-@ loving God . Keable 's views earned him many unfavourable reviews and the contempt of the church in which he had practised , but foreshadowed ideas of free love that became prominent later in the 20th century .
= = Early life = =
Keable was named after his father , Robert Henry Keable , a successful businessman who in 1904 , when his son was 17 , was ordained an Anglican priest and became vicar at Pavenham , Bedfordshire . Robert Keable had a younger brother , Henry , who died of typhoid c.1918. The young Keable attended Whitgift School in Croydon , Surrey , where he was nicknamed " Kibbles " and noted for his " fluent and facetious " contributions to the school paper , the Whitgiftian . Influenced by his father 's piety he became an active lay preacher and member of the YMCA as a teenager . Keable 's was an austere , Anglican upbringing , the effect of which , his biographer Hugh Cecil has suggested , was to leave the young man industrious , somewhat preacherly in his writing style , and with a devoutness not particularly tied to the specific faith in which he 'd been raised .
Keable went up to Magdalene College , Cambridge , in 1905 . His peers there included the future Everest explorer George Mallory and Arthur Tedder , 1st Baron Tedder . Though his contemporaries described him as a quiet , devout student who initially associated only with other " religious @-@ minded " men , he later became more sociable and rowed in the college second eight . He took a first in the History Tripos , graduating with his BA in 1908 and receiving his MA in 1914 . At Magdalene he was a great friend of Arthur Grimble , the future commissioner of the Gilbert and Ellice Islands . Grimble 's daughter , in a biography of her father , described the undergraduate Keable as devout , " earnest , somewhat introspective " and deeply literary . She records that he spent his university vacations on missionary work . He is known also to have taught in East Africa under YMCA auspices , and to have climbed Mount Kilimanjaro .
Among the most significant acquaintances Keable made at Cambridge were two brothers among the fellowship , Arthur and Hugh Benson . The Bensons were sons of a highly accomplished academic and religious family ; their father , Edward White Benson , was Archbishop of Canterbury and their mother , Mary Sidgwick Benson , the sister of the philosopher Henry Sidgwick , had set up a lesbian household with Lucy Tait ( daughter of the previous archbishop of Canterbury ) after her husband 's death . In the years just before Keable came to Cambridge Hugh Benson ( the inspiration for Keable 's character " Father Vassall " in Peradventure ( 1921 ) ) had departed from the Anglicanism of his upbringing in favour of the Roman Catholic Church , being ordained a Catholic priest in 1904 . According to Keable 's contemporaries , the two met when Edouardo Ginistrelli , a neighbour on Keable 's staircase , invited them both to lunch : " Keable ... fell under the spell of Fr Benson 's winning personality , " wrote James I. James , a college acquaintance of Keable 's : " Keable 's Anglican loyalty remained , but it was a new kind of loyalty . He spoke no more of Protestantism but always of Catholicism ... in Chapel he now genuflected and crossed himself . A strange mystic element deep down in his being began to stir ... I often suspected that Fr Benson had posed to this clever mind – for Keable was clever – the arguments that had recently brought himself to Catholicism . " Benson was also a novelist and , under his influence , the sensory , aesthetic dimension of Keable 's own writing ( and of his faith ) began to develop . Benson sensed in Keable an " inclination to Rome " , but Keable elected for the Anglican priesthood , joining the theological college of Westcott House and serving as canon at Bradford after completing his studies .
= = Priesthood = =
In 1911 Keable was ordained a priest of the Church of England at Ripon . His friend Hugh Benson regretted that Keable had not turned to Catholicism , a decision Benson felt would lead Keable to ultimate disenchantment with the Church . In a letter he told Keable :
You are the first I ever met of whom I could say ' I know that he knows Christ , and that he is turning his back on him ; and I know he knows it too.'
= = = African missions = = =
From 1912 – 1914 Keable was sent overseas with the Universities ' Mission to Central Africa , a decision perhaps intended to " save him from Rome " . He served under Frank Weston , the Bishop of Zanzibar , a staunch Anglican with whom Keable clashed : Keable objected to Weston 's unorthodox methods for training black African priests ; Weston , a vehement supporter of these priests , saw prejudice in Keable 's views . Weston was to inspire the " Bishop of Moçambique " character in Keable 's 1921 novel Peradventure . In Africa , Keable wrote his first two books : 1912 's Darkness or Light , a history of the Universities ' Mission to Central Africa , and the manuscript for City of the Dawn ( published in 1915 ) , a portrait of Zanzibar that " showed genuine religious fervour , as well as a characteristic sentimentality . "
Keable returned to the UK in 1914 as a result of illness , precipitated perhaps by the rigour of service upon which Weston insisted in Zanzibar . He was offered a church posting in Sheffield but declined , fearing " the pull of Rome " if left within reach of Catholic influences in Britain . Instead , he made two attempts to enlist for armed service during the First World War ; ill health thwarted both , so he returned to Africa for mission work , becoming rector of three parishes ( including Leribe , Basutoland ) , under the diocese of the Bishop of Bloemfontein . He published some ten devotional works and works on missionary practice during this time , including The Loneliness of Christ , and a book of verse titled Songs of the narrow way . The damaging effects of the illness he had suffered were compounded by an assault while in the field : accounts vary , with some friends recalling that Keable received a blow to the head from a " powerful native " , and others describing a gunshot wound to the thigh , inflicted by a ( probably drunk or deranged ) Mosutu . Keable 's biographer Cecil has suggested that the whole incident may have been a fabrication of Keable 's .
In 1915 Keable married Sybil Armitage at Durban . The pair had met in Bradford ; Sybil was " passionately religious , with a strong social conscience and robust health ... a big , handsome ( some thought beautiful ) woman with auburn hair . " She was well suited to the demands of life as a missionary 's wife , and inspired the character Edith in Keable 's later novel Peradventure , but the pair were temperamentally ill @-@ matched ( and described by Keable 's biographer Cecil as " sexually incompatible " ) . They had no children ; Hugh Benson suspected that the marriage had been a gesture on Keable 's part to render impossible the lingering prospect that he might become a monk .
= = = First World War = = =
Keable eventually achieved his wish of going to war in 1917 , when a South African contingent was mustered for military service in France and Keable volunteered to go with them as chaplain . His experiences there were to form the basis for his first and most successful novel , Simon Called Peter . Appointed an army chaplain on 26 May 1917 , Keable travelled to the Rouen sector with a Native Labour Contingent of 21 @,@ 000 men . These men were paid £ 3 per month to unload supply ships and provide infrastructure support for military operations in Europe . As a chaplain , with the rank of captain , Keable was expected to be at the disposal of the army at large , and ministered to those seeing active infantry service as well as to labourers . Padres were formally required to remain behind the lines , but it is apparent that Keable nonetheless saw something of the realities of the frontline .
Like many padres during the First World War , Keable reassessed his approach to his congregation . The men to whom he ministered , he came to believe , cared nothing for the finer points of Anglican theological dispute : from the church they wanted only " entertainment and a barely spiritual form of practical Christianity . " Keable argued as much openly , suggesting that the Protestant chaplaincy in France should be amalgamated into the operations of the YMCA , and that only the Roman Catholic padres – who seemed to have quite a different , more immediate relationship with their Celtic and Lancastrian companies – should remain . His public airing of these views attracted censure from the church ( and particularly from Frank Weston , who was also serving ) , but reflected the openness that made him popular with the officers in France . A smoker , he was known to share whisky and sodas in the officers ' mess , and – as does the title character in Simon Called Peter – to have become acquainted with a devoutly religious French prostitute .
Another transformative experience of Keable 's war was his acquaintance with Grace Eileen Joly Beresford Buck , known as " Jolie " , an 18 @-@ year @-@ old nurse from a prominent British family ( the daughter of William Tenant Buck and Beatrice Elinor Biddulph Beresford ; her ancestors included the Dukes of Rutland ) who was driving trucks for the Canadian Lumber Corps when the two met . The pair began a lifelong affair , though Keable did not yet leave his wife . Instead , at the war 's close , he returned to Leribe . He remained until 1919 , torn by his increasing alienation from the church and his experiences during the war . There he wrote his first novel , Simon Called Peter , in an intensive 20 @-@ day spell : " I laid a parson 's life bare " , he said of his writing , " and didn 't care a damn . " At last , in 1919 , Keable resigned his ministry and left the Anglican church .
= = Literary career = =
After leaving the church Keable and Sybil moved back to England , settling at West Wratting , Cambridgeshire , where both began to explore the Roman Catholic Church . Sybil converted and became a devout Catholic , but Keable also read works in contemporary philosophy and the books of Charles Darwin , and appears briefly to have lost his faith altogether . He wrote , of the history of Christianity , " I can see creative evolution at work . What is behind it , I don 't know . But I 'm inclined to think that I do not believe it is anything which the old concept of God really covers . "
To support the family Keable worked during 1921 as an assistant @-@ master at Dulwich College , and served the following year at Dunstable Grammar School . He continued to write : the manuscript for Simon Called Peter had found a publisher , Michael Sadleir at Constable , who liked its prospects and commissioned from Keable a second novel . He commenced The Mother of All Living , " an intense love @-@ drama set in South Africa " , which reflected his new interest in African traditional religion and featured a Bergsonian concept of " life @-@ force " as an alternative to theology .
Then Simon Called Peter was published , and met with astonishing success . The book reportedly sold over 600 @,@ 000 copies during the 1920s , reaching a 66th edition by 1922 . A largely autobiographical work , Simon Called Peter is the tale of a priest , Peter Graham , who has an affair in wartime France with a nurse named Julie . The title character almost abandons his faith for love , but experiences a direct revelation of Christ while watching a Catholic mass and is given up by his lover , who sees his sincerity . Its runaway popularity won Keable a level of celebrity : he spent a lot of time in London and took up again with Buck , who was now usually known as " Betty " ( she , by her token , called Keable " Bill " ) . The two met often at Gwen Otter 's salon at No. 1 Ralston Street , in Chelsea , near to where Keable had lodgings ; they made many friends , though refrained from fully overt displays of couplehood out of deference to Buck 's distressed parents and Keable 's wife . At this time , Keable appears to have become , in some measure , a proponent of open relationships and free love . He concluded that Buck had a right to pursue relationships with other men , though there is no firm evidence that she did , and " that a warm and spontaneous sexual nature , far from being in conflict with Christian love , was in fact a manifestation of it . "
Keable 's developing attitudes and relationship with " Betty " disgusted his wife , Sybil , but as a devout Catholic she refused to divorce . This left Keable unable to marry Buck , and contributed to a growing sense on his part of alienation from English society . At last , in 1922 , he managed legally to separate from his wife . He took up the suggestion of former college friend Arthur Grimble , by then a colonial administrator in the Ellice Islands , that he visit the South Pacific , a fashionable destination for 1920s Europeans . To Keable the South Seas appeared to offer escape from the hypocrisies of British society , as well as furnishing a climate better suited to his never @-@ hearty constitution . In 1922 Keable and Buck sailed aboard the Bendigo for the South Pacific via Australia , where Keable undertook a book tour , giving lectures in which he broadcast his new sexual ethics : that unmarried couples in love could have deeply moral relationships , while loveless spouses who stayed together for convention 's sake were committing acts of deep immorality . His views scandalised the contemporary press , but Frank Weston noted in correspondence that Keable as a " shipwrecked priest " made quite a useful cautionary tale for novices .
= = Tahiti = =
Keable was to remain resident in Tahiti for the rest of his life . He wrote once of his regret that the Tahitians had not succeeded in converting William Ellis , a nineteenth @-@ century Christian missionary sent there to attempt to proselytise them . " Bill and Betty " settled at first in Paul Gauguin 's former home at Punaavia . The house was quite luxurious , overlooking a bay with views of Moorea island . Buck drove a Dodge and enjoyed Tahiti 's ample supplies of cheap French wine ; Keable " brooded on Gauguin 's gesture against spiritual suffocation " , and eventually moved the household further inland , to a native @-@ style house in the wilder surrounds of Teahuahu , near Papeari . The couple made friends with the Swedish artist Paul Engdahl . Keable continued to write copiously , adding to his oeuvre the novel Recompense , a sequel to Simon Called Peter . He undertook several book tours of the United States and spent his spare time answering fanmail , swimming , and sailing .
Then , in 1924 , Buck fell pregnant . The couple agreed that she should return to England for better healthcare during the birth , and she went there to set up a home with her mother 's help . In early November 1924 she gave birth prematurely to a son , Anthony , and a few days later died of poisoning from chloroform administered against the pain of delivery . The grief @-@ stricken Keable 's own health worsened and he was advised to return to Tahiti ; the baby , too weak to travel , was left in England with Jack and Rita Elliott , friends of the couple 's since the Ralston Street salon days . The Elliotts were eventually to adopt him .
Keable remained in Tahiti , his health worsening . He suffered weight loss , diabetes , high blood pressure and fever , all stemming from a kidney illness . Nonetheless , he completed the novel Numerous Treasure , which he had begun before Buck 's death ; the bittersweet tale of a Polynesian woman who shared her name with a cocktail and a brand of cigarettes was a commercial success , and has been considered a valuable portrait of early @-@ century Tahitian life . His health and spirits rallied in the years after Buck 's death : he completed a travel book , Tahiti , Isle of Dreams , and a book tour of the United States and Europe . On returning to Tahiti he struck up a relationship with a mixed @-@ race islander named Ina , and made many new friends including the writers Alec Waugh ( elder brother of Evelyn ) , who had been inspired to visit Tahiti by Numerous Treasure , Zane Grey , and James Norman Hall . Waugh described the Keable of this period " reclined among cushions , clad only in a pareo , while his Tahitian princess , bare @-@ shouldered and bare @-@ footed , her black hair falling to her waist and a white flower behind her ear , glided negligently about the house " – and yet noted that , on suggesting a cup of tea , Keable 's voice still took on " the parsonical intonation with which fifteen years earlier he had summoned the parish children to a Sunday school treat . "
1927 's Lighten Our Darkness ( or Ann Decides ) was his last important novel . The tale of a Catholic priest restored to faith by a woman 's love was , however , poorly received , and the follow @-@ up Madness of Monty , a " kindly , innocuous comedy " , went over worse still . Instead , helped by James Norman Hall to overcome his failing eyesight , Keable devoted his attention to The Great Galilean , a non @-@ fictional account of the historical Jesus and his relationship to the Jesus of religious tradition .
Away from his writing , he and Ina conceived a child : Ina gave birth to a son , named Henry Reheatoa ( meaning " glorious warrior " ) , with whom Keable was delighted and to whom he bequeathed all his Tahitian properties . In November 1927 he initiated formal divorce proceedings against Sybil in an attempt to legitimise this son .
In December 1927 Keable contracted a worsened kidney infection , became septic and delirious , and , on 22 December , died at home . The New York Times obituary identified the illness that killed him as Bright 's disease ; the term was used to refer to a number of nephritic kidney conditions .
Though , according to acquaintances , many of his friends had heard nothing from him since his departure for Tahiti , his will made provision for a scholarship at Magdalene and named the college as his residuary legatee . His literary assets at death were valued at £ 5 @,@ 007 . Though Keable received a Protestant burial in Papeete , some accounts suggest that in the last weeks of his life he formally converted to Catholicism . Other commentators suggest the pagan sentiments he expressed about the birth of his new son as a riposte to social convention tend to indicate otherwise . Hugh Cecil argues that , at his death , Keable most likely just became " able to reconcile his two ideals , romantic @-@ erotic and religious , and could die peacefully accepting the rituals he loved . "
= = Religious views = =
The religious views Keable developed after leaving the Church of England influenced his novels ; he eventually articulated his own theology in his final book , The Great Galilean , a theological work . The unorthodoxy of his views was not always well received . A reviewer of his novel Peradventure observed " Peradventure starts as a Church of England tract , becomes what would appear to be a Roman Catholic tract , and before the end is reached the reader is in doubt as to just what sort of tract it is . "
His last book , The Great Galilean , has been characterised by one biographer as Keable 's attempt " to renconcile his love of Jesus with his failure to believe in him as a God . " The book sought to distinguish the " historical Jesus " of record from the " traditional Jesus " of church worship . The historical Jesus , Keable said , was so poorly known that there survived too little information for a three @-@ line obituary . Instead , the figure that Christians worshipped was a " traditional Jesus " , recorded in the Gospels from an oral tradition that was not really biographical . This " traditional Jesus " became a " literary Jesus " , the central figure of the four gospels , and it is on this figure – quite distinct from the actual , historical Jesus – that the contemporary church centred . Keable sought to criticise the attitude in the contemporary church toward " traditional Jesus " , given how much of the rest of " traditional " religion Protestantism had discarded . However , Keable was at pains to stress that the " traditional " Jesus should not be seen as an imposture , or something to be discarded . The ahistoricity of the traditional Jesus , he said , should not be a reason to leave the church . Without this traditional Jesus , he predicted , Western civilisation would fade and fall . He was , then , critical of the specific ways in which the contemporary church construed Jesus , in its attempts to conflate the traditional Jesus with historical Jesus , which Keable considered impossible . He blamed these actions of the church for the declining numbers of worshippers , and accused it of draining Christianity of profundity by relying too heavily on rationalism and rigid structure .
Though he believed that the historical Jesus was barely known , Keable nonetheless devoted much attention in The Last Galilean to trying to understand the figure . He emphasised the humanity of historical Jesus , who , he wrote , had shared humanity 's ignorance – though had also been blessed with an extraordinarily undistorted mind . He wrote of a Jesus tolerant – even fond – of sinners , and one who , understanding the importance of love and sex to the average man , advocated love as the most important thing , above any church rule or regulation . This Jesus was a great prophet of free love , associated and in harmony with a " spirit of all life " .
The Great Galilean was not well received . The New York Times reviewer called it hopelessly muddled , finding Keable 's claims about the unknowability of Jesus contrary to his efforts to understand and worship him : " Frankly , we do not know what to make of it . We can only suppose that street preaching at Cambridge , and even climbing Kilimanjaro , are not conducive to logic . "
= = Critical reception = =
Keable 's novels won him immense international popularity and intense controversy . His novels were equated with Mrs Humphry Ward 's Robert Elsmere , a similarly scandalous tale of religious doubt among the clergy published 40 years earlier : H.D.A. Major , editor of the Modern Churchman magazine , made this comparison with respect to Keable 's Peradventure , noting " It is slighter , but it has need to be . The twentieth century novel reader is intellectually and morally lighter than the nineteenth . " Reporting his death , the Melbourne Argus attributed the best @-@ selling popularity of Keable 's novels to the licentiousness of their contents : " they have no literary value " . His former college acquaintance James later wrote that " his friends sought to dissuade him from publication . The transition from the beautiful book on The Loneliness of Christ ( 1914 ) – of his Central African period – to Simon Called Peter ( 1921 ) came as a great shock to all who had known and loved him in earlier days . " Where Rosemary Grimble calls Keable 's novels " splendidly erotic " , a Birmingham News correspondent in Birmingham , Alabama , accused Keable of " fashioning abnormalities " . Other critics called his success " undeserved " and attributed it to prurience on the part of his readers . Reviewers also suggested that the contrast between Keable 's ecclesiastical background and the frank , often sexual , content of his novels attracted curiosity in itself . A Time columnist , " J.F. " , expressed the fascination of this disconnect overtly , responding to a piece titled " The censorship of thought " that Keable had contributed to a 1922 volume , Nonsenseorship ( sic ) , after Simon Called Peter 's publication had made him notorious . " Surely , here is a modern personality worth the study of the psychologists , " J.F. wrote , noting the romance of Keable 's unusual circumstances : " From a quiet English clergyman to the author of a sensational best @-@ seller who has taken up his permanent residence in the South Seas seems a long jump . " In person , he said , Keable was the antithesis of his novels ' striking directness :
He does not impress one as a radical gentleman . There is nothing to suggest the resigned clergyman , author of books marked by their sex frankness and melodrama . In fact , his scholarly bearing and gentleness mark him rather as the country curate , who should be acting as a character in a novel by May Sinclair and passing out crumpets to maiden ladies in a decorous drawing @-@ room instead of writing of Tahitian damsels as he has done in his new novel , Numerous Treasure .
It was for Simon Called Peter , a tale of a wartime romance between an English priest and a Red Cross nurse , that Keable acquired most of his notoriety . As well as its best @-@ selling print editions , the story was adapted as a stage play by Jules Eckert Goodman and Edward Knoblock in 1924 . The show enjoyed popular success in Chicago before moving on to New York .
A great deal of media coverage of Simon Called Peter concerned its involvement in a prominent United States court case , over the double murder in New Brunswick , New Jersey of Edward Wheeler Hall , a rector , and Elenor Mills , a married member of his congregation , with whom he had been conducting an affair . During their courtship Hall had presented Mills with copies of Simon Called Peter , which also featured a romance between a priest and a woman , and The Mother of All Living . John Sumner , the secretary of the Society for the Suppression of Vice , seized upon this fact and tried to have the books ' American publisher arrested . He claimed that Simon Called Peter could be used to corrupt and seduce the innocent : " Published with a title savouring of religion and written by a clergyman , it had an innocent look which admitted it to society where the ordinary licentious novel could not circulate . " A magistrate , declining the request to issue an arrest warrant against the publisher , nonetheless agreed that the book was " nasty " and " particularly objectionable because written by a clergyman . "
Shortly afterwards , a Boston judge deemed the book obscene , and fined a librarian ( who protested that she had a long queue of patrons waiting to borrow the book ) US $ 100 for circulating it . Keable himself professed surprise at the intensity of the reaction to the book , saying that his missionary and military experiences must have " blunted [ his ] perceptions as to what the general public felt . " In response to the banning in Boston of another of his books , Numerous Treasure , he wrote to his editor George Putnam that he had in the past month received fanmail from a bookseller , a request for his photograph from a girls ' high school library , and " an intimation that I had been adopted as the literary patron of a class at an American university . I feel vaguely that Boston ought to be told . "
The net effect of the Simon Called Peter controversy was to make Keable a celebrity . The book became so well known that F. Scott Fitzgerald , who described the novel as " really immoral " , gave it to protagonist Nick Carraway to read in his famous novel The Great Gatsby , and had the character pronounce " Either it was terrible stuff or the whiskey distorted things , because it didn 't make sense to me . " The book 's sequel , Recompense , was optioned as a film by Warner Brothers , starring Marie Prevost and Monte Blue . Keable himself found the screenplay so altered from the original text , he wryly proposed that he write another novel based on it . His first visit to the United States , in autumn 1924 , was announced in the New York Times ; he took in a production of the Simon Called Peter stage play in New York before returning to Polynesia via New Orleans , Los Angeles , and San Francisco . On his return , the Times printed a very lengthy letter from Keable on the subject of the origins of the cocktail , headlining it " Robert Keable , in His Tahiti Retreat , Makes a Case for Englishmen , or Their " Greek and Roman Ancestors , " as the Inventors . "
The same paper had received Keable 's second novel , 1922 's The Mother of All Living , favourably ; reviewer Louise Maundell Fields called it " Not only ... better from an artistic point of view [ than Simon Called Peter ] ... its general outlook is both steadier and more mature . [ ... ] the book has in it so much that is well done and worth while that one does not feel inclined to carp at its comparatively few weaknesses . " On the whole , other reviews were less favourable . The characters in both Peradventure and Recompense were criticised for lacking depth : reviewers said they served only as vehicles for conveying different theoretical points of view . A later book , 1927 's Ann Decides , was dismissed succinctly by the Chicago Daily Tribune as " tosh " .
P.W. Wilson , in a New York Times piece on contemporary religious literature two years after Keable had died , called Keable 's life " a spiritual tragedy " , and described his thinking as fundamentally contradictory :
" His mind , like rock , reveals by strata the volcanic and other experiences to which it has been subjected . "
Keable 's distinction between the historical and the traditional Jesus , Wilson argued , was ultimately muddled and internally inconsistent , his verdicts on the illiberality of the contemporary church at odds with his own abiding conviction .
Late in the 20th century Keable received some revisionist attention . Simon Called Peter came back into print , with a recent edition published in 2008 . Biographer Hugh Cecil , including Keable in his 1995 anthology of neglected Great War writers , concluded :
From early in his career he had used his talents to the full and seized life with both hands . His works , though seldom read now , were no mean achievement , intellectually or artistically , even if their high quality was rarely sustained throughout a whole book ... Robert Keable was quintessentially the divided twentieth century man , yearning for self @-@ realization and for a faith , and full of guilt and self @-@ hatred . Yet as we have seen , Simon Called Peter is not an unhappy book ... Robert 's experience of war ... seemed to reveal the nature of real goodness , loyalty , and love .
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= Fire Station No. 23 ( Los Angeles , California ) =
Fire Station No. 23 is a former fire station in Downtown Los Angeles . Built in 1910 as an operating fire station , it was also the Los Angeles Fire Department 's headquarters until 1920 and the residence of every fire chief from 1910 @-@ 1928 . When it opened , it spawned a political firestorm due to the ornate interior and expensive imported materials , leading to its being called the " Taj Mahal " of firehouses . After 50 years of operation , the station was closed in 1960 as the department began replacing older stations with new facilities . Since the 1980s , Fire Station No. 23 has been a popular filming location . Motion pictures filmed at the station include the Ghostbusters movies , The Mask , Police Academy 2 , Flatliners , Firehouse and National Security .
= = History = =
= = = Construction controversy = = =
In June 1909 , the city of Los Angeles announced plans to build a three @-@ story fire station in the heart of the wholesale and manufacturing district that would also serve as the fire department 's headquarters . The projected cost of the station was placed at $ 35 @,@ 000 .
When the station opened in September 1910 at a final cost of $ 53 @,@ 000 , a controversy arose over the cost and use of expensive materials , including Peruvian mahogany in the chief 's living quarters . It was considered the " most elaborate and richest engine @-@ house west of New York " and maybe the " most ornate ... in this or any other world . " The Los Angeles Times reported on its opulence as follows :
" It is the interior which is to reincarnate man and beast in the fire department . It is the interior which is a sort of Nirvana for a soulful legion of blue @-@ shirted civil service graduates . Its spell will be hypnotic , for if the visitor starts in with the third floor he will leave by Winston Street in stupefaction . "
The building was an unusually narrow structure , only 26 feet ( 7 @.@ 9 m ) wide but 167 feet ( 51 m ) deep stretching the entire distance from Fifth to Winston Streets . The main floor was an arcade connecting Fifth and Winston Streets with stalls for ten horses , repressed vitrified brick , walls of white enamel tiling , and pressed steel ceilings 21 feet ( 6 @.@ 4 m ) above the floor . More than anything else , it was the extravagant third floor living quarters , described as " the chief 's boudoir " and a " palace for chiefs , " that drew the most attention . Access to the third floor was by a private elevator that " moves noiselessly and stealthily to the upper haven . " The third floor was covered in Peruvian mahogany with French bevel glass mirrors , a mantel of Vermont marble , polished inlaid oak floors , a private slide pole , a massive brass bed , private roof garden , and " a tub big enough for two chiefs . " The Times reported : " Notice the Peruvian mahogany carefully , and you will see that the heart of the log has been chosen and that its grain has been placed so that it gives the appearance of real flames . Certainly the esthetic for the reception room of the engine @-@ house de luxe . " The chief 's apartment alone was reported to have cost $ 25 @,@ 000 . The Times noted that the quarters rivaled the finest suites in the country , referred to it as a " Sybaritic effort , " and offered its sarcastic speculation that the house captain would be expected to " wear evening dress after 6 o 'clock , at least . "
The unveiling of the ornate fire station set off " a political and civic storm . " It was called a waste of taxpayer funds , as critics contended " three station houses could be built for what this cost . " Amid the outcry , city fire commissioners denied knowledge that the fire house was to have been so luxurious , though newspapers reported that the commissioners had approved the plans .
= = = Operation = = =
Fire Station No. 23 remained an active firehouse from 1910 @-@ 1960 . When it opened , it was manned by fifteen firefighters and ten horses . The original equipment included a horse wagon , chief 's buggy , and a pumper that used a vertical tube boiler . The company 's first major call was a fire in the old Byrne Building that took ten hours to extinguish .
The station also served as the department 's headquarters from 1910 – 1920 , and the home for every fire chief from 1910 to 1928 , including chief Ralph J. Scott . Chief Scott 's wife , Addie Scott , lived with him on the third floor and later recalled the station 's early days : " I remember the horses . They really knew what to do . When the bell would ring , they would come out and stand there to be hitched up . ... It was a nice life here for us . ... I remember trying to wax all these floors , and I just couldn 't do it . So someone came and helped me . This is a lot of floor space you know . "
Fire Station No. 23 was closed in November 1960 as the Los Angeles Fire Department began replacing older stations with newer stations with modern facilities . At the time of its closure , some of the 1 @,@ 100 men who had worked there attended a ceremony as the building was " mustered out of service . "
= = Museum = =
= = = Historic status = = =
In 1966 , the station was declared a Historic Cultural Monument by the Los Angeles Cultural Heritage Commission ; at the time of the declaration the Los Angeles Times called it the " Taj Mahal of fire stations . " A Library of Congress survey of 250 firehouses concluded that Station 23 's interior was " unmatched in its beauty . " It was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1980 .
= = = Controversy over restoration = = =
Through the 1960s and 1970s , the station deteriorated . The surrounding neighborhood became part of the city 's Skid Row and the station became " a hangout for the street people . " Looters stole most of the copper tubing and brasswork , banisters , doorknobs , firebells , and even the five brass firepoles .
By the mid @-@ 1970s , concerns were raised that the building had become a hazard , and some proposed tearing it down . However , in 1979 , the Fire Commission announced plans to restore the rooms back to their 1910 condition and turn the station into a museum . The City Council placed the station under control of the fire department , but provided that no city funds were to be used in creating the museum .
In 1981 , officials of the fire department set up a nonprofit organization called Olde 23 to raise funds to build the museum , but sufficient funds were never raised . The projected cost of the museum , even in 1982 , was $ 1 million , and critics questioned the wisdom of building a museum in Skid Row . In 1988 , the city settled on a different location for the Los Angeles Fire Department Museum — Engine Co . No. 27 in Hollywood .
Fire Station No. 23 became the subject of controversy again in 1995 when the Los Angeles Times ran a 2 @,@ 200 @-@ word , front @-@ page article reporting on alleged misuse of city funds by Olde 23 , the nonprofit charged with restoration of the station . Even though plans for the fire department museum had shifted to another location years earlier , Olde 23 continued to live on , banking more than $ 200 @,@ 000 in fees from film and television producers using the station house as a shooting location . The Times reported that ex @-@ Chief Donald O. Manning had not told other city agencies about Olde 23 's continued operations , and Olde 23 had failed to turn over the income , as required by city law . Investigations by the Times and the City Controller also revealed that some filming fees had been paid in cash to James Croak , an American artist who leased the building from the City of Los Angeles from 1978 – 85 , but no illegality was found as Mr. Croak had the right to sub @-@ lease the property for short periods as long as he notified the landlord that he was doing so . Notably Mr. Croak used most of the money to replace missing brass fire poles , balustrades and other period fixtures that were missing . Other fees were not accounted for , and Olde 23 the museum Non @-@ Profit had even collected fees for use of other city fire stations as shooting locations . Also , even after the city chose a new location for a fire department museum , the chief did not use the funds collected by " Olde 23 " for the museum . The controversy came to light after an angry official for Warner Bros. wrote a memorandum complaining about " donations " to the Fire Department and referring to such donations as " extortion . "
= = Filming location = =
Since 1978 when James Croak occupied the building after an 18 @-@ year vacancy , Fire Station No. 23 became a popular filming location for motion pictures , television productions , commercials , and music videos . In 1995 , the Los Angeles Times wrote : " With its finely restored interior and turn @-@ of @-@ the @-@ century architecture , old Fire Station 23 in Downtown Los Angeles is one of the choicest filming locations in town . " One producer called it " a great raw architectural space that you can do a lot with . "
The first major motion picture filmed at Station 23 was Hammett ( 1982 ) by German director Wim Wenders , followed two years later by Ghostbusters . The station was used in the 1984 production as the location for the interior scenes of the headquarters of Drs. Venkman , Stantz and Spengler and Winston Zeddemore . Another station in New York , the Hook & Ladder Company 8 firehouse , was used for the exterior shots . The success of Ghostbusters helped popularize the station as a shooting location , and Fire Station No. 23 has since then been used in more than 50 productions , including Big Trouble in Little China ( 1986 ) , Ghostbusters II ( 1989 ) , The Mask ( 1994 ) , Police Academy 2 ( 1985 ) , A @-@ Team ( 1986 ) and V.I. Warshawski ( 1991 ) , Flatliners ( 1991 ) , Lost Highway ( 1997 ) , National Security ( 2003 ) , and RE ( e ) volution ( 2005 ) .
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= British Library =
The British Library is the national library of the United Kingdom and the largest library in the world by number of items catalogued . A Grade I listed building , the library is a major research library , holding around 170 million items from many countries , in many languages and in many formats , both print and digital : books , manuscripts , journals , newspapers , magazines , sound and music recordings , videos , play @-@ scripts , patents , databases , maps , stamps , prints , drawings . The Library 's collections include around 14 million books , along with substantial holdings of manuscripts and historical items dating back as far as 2000 BC .
As a legal deposit library , the British Library receives copies of all books produced in the United Kingdom and Ireland , including a significant proportion of overseas titles distributed in the UK . It also has a programme for content acquisitions . The British Library adds some three million items every year occupying 9 @.@ 6 kilometres ( 6 @.@ 0 mi ) of new shelf space .
The library is a non @-@ departmental public body sponsored by the Department for Culture , Media and Sport . It is located on the north side of Euston Road in St Pancras , London ( between Euston railway station and St Pancras railway station ) and has a document storage centre and reading room near Boston Spa , 2 @.@ 5 miles ( 4 @.@ 0 km ) east of Wetherby in West Yorkshire .
In 1973 , the British Library Act 1972 detached the library department from the British Museum , but it continued to host the now separated British Library in the same Reading Room and building as the museum until the library moved to a purpose @-@ built building at St Pancras , London .
= = Historical background = =
The British Library was created on 1 July 1973 as a result of the British Library Act 1972 . Prior to this , the national library was part of the British Museum , which provided the bulk of the holdings of the new library , alongside smaller organisations which were folded in ( such as the National Central Library , the National Lending Library for Science and Technology and the British National Bibliography ) . In 1974 functions previously exercised by the Office for Scientific and Technical Information were taken over ; in 1982 the India Office Library and Records and the HMSO Binderies became British Library responsibilities . In 1983 , the Library absorbed the National Sound Archive , which holds many sound and video recordings , with over a million discs and thousands of tapes .
The core of the Library 's historical collections is based on a series of donations and acquisitions from the 18th century , known as the " foundation collections " . These include the books and manuscripts of Sir Robert Cotton , Sir Hans Sloane , Robert Harley and the King 's Library of King George III , as well as the Old Royal Library donated by King George II .
For many years its collections were dispersed in various buildings around central London , in places such as Bloomsbury ( within the British Museum ) , Chancery Lane , Bayswater , and Holborn with an interlibrary lending centre at Boston Spa , Wetherby in West Yorkshire ( situated on Thorp Arch Trading Estate ) and the newspaper library at Colindale , north @-@ west London .
Initial plans for the British Library required demolition of an integral part of Bloomsbury – a seven @-@ acre swathe of streets immediately in front of the Museum , so that the Library could be situated directly opposite . After a long and hard @-@ fought campaign led by Dr George Wagner , this decision was overturned and the library was instead constructed by John Laing plc on a site at Euston Road next to St Pancras railway station .
From 1997 to 2009 the main collection was housed in this single new building and the collection of British and overseas newspapers was housed at Colindale . In July 2008 the Library announced that it would be moving low @-@ use items to a new storage facility in Boston Spa in Yorkshire and that it planned to close the newspaper library at Colindale , ahead of a later move to a similar facility on the same site . From January 2009 to April 2012 over 200 km of material was moved to the Additional Storage Building and is now delivered to British Library Reading Rooms in London on request by a daily shuttle service . Construction work on the Newspaper Storage Building was completed in 2013 and the newspaper library at Colindale closed on 8 November 2013 . The collection has now been split between the St Pancras and Boston Spa sites . The British Library Document Supply Service ( BLDSS ) and the Library 's Document Supply Collection is based on the same site in Boston Spa . Collections housed in Yorkshire , comprising low @-@ use material and the newspaper and Document Supply collections , make up around 70 % of the total material the library holds . The Library previously had a book storage depot in Woolwich , south @-@ east London , which is no longer in use .
The new library was designed specially for the purpose by the architect Colin St John Wilson . Facing Euston Road is a large piazza that includes pieces of public art , such as large sculptures by Eduardo Paolozzi ( a bronze statue based on William Blake 's study of Isaac Newton ) and Antony Gormley . It is the largest public building constructed in the United Kingdom in the 20th century .
In the middle of the building is a six @-@ storey glass tower inspired by a similar structure in the Beinecke Library , containing the King 's Library with 65 @,@ 000 printed volumes along with other pamphlets , manuscripts and maps collected by King George III between 1763 and 1820 . In December 2009 a new storage building at Boston Spa was opened by Rosie Winterton . The new facility , costing £ 26 million , has a capacity for seven million items , stored in more than 140 @,@ 000 bar @-@ coded containers , which are retrieved by robots , from the 162 @.@ 7 miles of temperature and humidity @-@ controlled storage space .
On Friday , 5 April 2013 , Lucie Burgess , the British Library 's head of content strategy , announced that , starting that weekend , the Library would begin saving all sites with the suffix .uk ( every British website , e @-@ book , online newsletter , and blog ) in a bid to preserve the nation 's " digital memory " ( which as of then amounted to about 4 @.@ 8 million sites containing 1 billion web pages ) . The Library would make all the material publicly available to users by the end of 2013 , and would ensure that , through technological advancements , all the material is preserved for future generations , despite the fluidity of the Internet .
The building was Grade I listed on 1 August 2015 .
= = Legal deposit = =
In England , Legal Deposit can be traced back to at least 1610 . The Copyright Act 1911 established the principle of the legal deposit , ensuring that the British Library and five other libraries in Great Britain and Ireland are entitled to receive a free copy of every item published or distributed in Britain . The other five libraries are : the Bodleian Library at Oxford ; the University Library at Cambridge ; the Trinity College Library at Dublin ; and the National Libraries of Scotland and Wales . The British Library is the only one that must automatically receive a copy of every item published in Britain ; the others are entitled to these items , but must specifically request them from the publisher after learning that they have been or are about to be published , a task done centrally by the Agency for the Legal Deposit Libraries .
Further , under the terms of Irish copyright law ( most recently the Copyright and Related Rights Act 2000 ) , the British Library is entitled to automatically receive a free copy of every book published in Ireland , alongside the National Library of Ireland , the Trinity College Library at Dublin , the library of the University of Limerick , the library of Dublin City University and the libraries of the four constituent universities of the National University of Ireland . The Bodleian Library , Cambridge University Library , and the National Libraries of Scotland and Wales are also entitled to copies of material published in Ireland , but again must formally make requests .
In 2003 the Ipswich MP Chris Mole introduced a Private Member 's Bill which became the Legal Deposit Libraries Act 2003 . The Act extends United Kingdom legal deposit requirements to electronic documents , such as CD @-@ ROMs and selected websites .
The Library also holds the Asia , Pacific and Africa Collections ( APAC ) which include the India Office Records and materials in the languages of Asia and of north and north @-@ east Africa .
= = Using the library 's reading rooms = =
The Library is open to everyone who has a genuine need to use its collections . Anyone with a permanent address who wishes to carry out research can apply for a Reader Pass ; they are required to provide proof of signature and address .
Historically , only those wishing to use specialised material unavailable in other public or academic libraries would be given a Reader Pass . The Library has been criticised for admitting numbers of undergraduate students , who have access to their own university libraries , to the reading rooms . The Library replied that it has always admitted undergraduates as long as they have a legitimate personal , work @-@ related or academic research purpose .
The majority of catalogue entries can be found on Explore the British Library , the Library 's main catalogue , which is based on Primo . Other collections have their own catalogues , such as western manuscripts . The large reading rooms offer hundreds of seats which are often filled with researchers , especially during the Easter and summer holidays .
British Library Reader Pass holders are also able to view the Document Supply Collection in the Reading Room at the Library 's site in Boston Spa in Yorkshire as well as the hard copy newspaper collection from 29 September 2014 . Now that access is available to legal deposit collection material , it is necessary for visitors to register as a Reader to use the Boston Spa Reading Room .
= = Material available online = =
The British Library makes a number of images of items within its collections available online . Its Online Gallery gives access to 30 @,@ 000 images from various medieval books , together with a handful of exhibition @-@ style items in a proprietary format , such as the Lindisfarne Gospels . This includes the facility to " turn the virtual pages " of a few documents , such as Leonardo da Vinci 's notebooks . Catalogue entries for a large number of the illuminated manuscript collections are available online , with selected images of pages or miniatures from a growing number of them , and there is a database of significant bookbindings . British Library Sounds provides free online access to over 60 @,@ 000 sound recordings .
The British Library 's commercial secure electronic delivery service was started in 2003 at a cost of £ 6 million . This offers more than 100 million items ( including 280 @,@ 000 journal titles , 50 million patents , 5 million reports , 476 @,@ 000 US dissertations and 433 @,@ 000 conference proceedings ) for researchers and library patrons worldwide which were previously unavailable outside the Library because of copyright restrictions . In line with a government directive that the British Library must cover a percentage of its operating costs , a fee is charged to the user . However , this service is no longer profitable and has led to a series of restructures to try to prevent further losses . When Google Books started , the British Library signed an agreement with Microsoft to digitise a number of books from the British Library for its Live Search Books project . This material was only available to readers in the US , and closed in May 2008 . The scanned books are currently available via the British Library catalogue or Amazon .
In October 2010 the British Library launched its Management and business studies portal . This website is designed to allow digital access to management research reports , consulting reports , working papers and articles .
In November 2011 , four million newspaper pages from the 18th and 19th centuries were made available online . The project will scan up to 40 million pages over the next 10 years . The archive is free to search , but there is a charge for accessing the pages themselves .
= = Electronic collections = =
Explore the British Library is the latest iteration of the online catalogue . It contains nearly 57 million records and may be used to search , view and order items from the collections or search the contents of the Library 's website . The Library 's electronic collections include over 40 @,@ 000 ejournals , 800 databases and other electronic resources . A number of these are available for remote access to registered St Pancras Reader Pass holders .
= = Digital Library System = =
In 2012 , the UK legal deposit libraries signed a memorandum of understanding to create a shared technical infrastructure implementing the Digital Library System developed by the British Library . The DLS was in anticipation of the Legal Deposit Libraries ( Non @-@ Print Works ) Regulations 2013 , an extension of the Legal Deposit Libraries Act 2003 to include non @-@ print electronic publications from 6 April 2013 . Four storage nodes , located in London , Boston Spa , Aberystwyth , and Edinburgh , linked via a secure network in constant communication automatically replicate , self ‐ check , and repair data . A complete crawl of every .uk domain ( and other TLD 's with UK based server GeoIP ) has been added annually to the DLS since 2013 , which also contains all of the Internet Archive 's 1996 @-@ 2013 .uk collection . The policy and system is based on that of the Bibliothèque nationale de France , which has crawled ( via IA until 2010 ) the .fr domain annually ( 62TB 's in 2015 ) since 2006 .
= = Exhibitions = =
A number of books and manuscripts are on display to the general public in the Sir John Ritblat Gallery which is open seven days a week at no charge . Some of the manuscripts in the exhibition include Beowulf , the Lindisfarne Gospels and St Cuthbert Gospel , a Gutenberg Bible , Geoffrey Chaucer 's Canterbury Tales , Thomas Malory 's Le Morte d 'Arthur ( King Arthur ) , Captain Cook 's journal , Jane Austen 's History of England , Charlotte Brontë 's Jane Eyre , Lewis Carroll 's Alice 's Adventures Under Ground , Rudyard Kipling 's Just So Stories , Charles Dickens 's Nicholas Nickleby , Virginia Woolf 's Mrs Dalloway and a room devoted solely to Magna Carta , as well as several Qu 'rans and Asian items .
In addition to the permanent exhibition , there are frequent thematic exhibitions which have covered maps , sacred texts , the history of the English language , and law , including a celebration of the 800th anniversary of the Magna Carta .
= = Business and IP Centre = =
In May 2005 , the British Library received a grant of £ 1 million from the London Development Agency to change two of its reading rooms into the Business & IP Centre . The Centre was opened in March 2006 . It holds arguably the most comprehensive collection of business and intellectual property ( IP ) material in the United Kingdom and is the official library of the UK Intellectual Property Office .
The collection is divided up into four main information areas : market research , company information , trade directories , and journals . It is free of charge in hard copy and online via approximately 30 subscription databases . Registered readers can access the collection and the databases .
There are over 50 million patent specifications from 40 countries in a collection dating back to 1855 . The collection also includes official gazettes on patents , trade marks and Registered Design ; law reports and other material on litigation ; and information on copyright . This is available in hard copy and via online databases .
Staff are trained to guide small and medium enterprises ( SME ) and entrepreneurs to use the full range of resources .
Since 2012 , Stephen Fear is currently the British Library 's Entrepreneur in Residence and Ambassador .
= = Document Supply Service = =
As part of its establishment in 1973 , the British Library absorbed the National Lending Library for Science and Technology ( NLL ) , based near Boston Spa in Yorkshire , which had been established in 1961 . Before this , the site had housed a World War II Royal Ordnance Factory , ROF Thorp Arch , which closed in 1957 . When the NLL became part of the British Library in 1973 it changed its name to the British Library Lending Division , in 1985 it was renamed as the British Library Document Supply Centre and is now known as the British Library Document Supply Service , often abbreviated as BLDSS .
BLDSS now holds 87 @.@ 5 million items , including 296 @,@ 000 international journal titles , 400 @,@ 000 conference proceedings , 3 million monographs , 5 million official publications , and 500 @,@ 000 UK and North American theses and dissertations . 12 @.@ 5 million articles in the Document Supply Collection are held electronically and can be downloaded immediately .
The collection supports research and development in UK , overseas and international industry , particularly in the pharmaceutical industry . BLDSS also provides material to Higher Education institutions , students and staff and members of the public , who can order items through their Public Library or through the Library 's BL Document Supply Service ( BLDSS ) . The Document Supply Service also offers Find it For Me and Get it For Me services which assist researchers in accessing hard @-@ to @-@ find material .
In April 2013 , BLDSS launched its new online ordering and tracking system , which enables customers to search available items , view detailed availability , pricing and delivery time information , place and track orders , and manage account preferences online .
= = Sound archive = =
The British Library Sound Archive holds more than a million discs and 185 @,@ 000 tapes . The collections come from all over the world and cover the entire range of recorded sound from music , drama and literature to oral history and wildlife sounds , stretching back over more than 100 years . The Sound Archive 's online catalogue is updated daily .
It is possible to listen to recordings from the collection in selected Reading Rooms in the Library through their SoundServer and Listening and Viewing Service , which is based in the Rare Books & Music Reading Room .
In 2006 the Library launched a new online resource British Library Sounds which makes over 60 @,@ 000 of the Sound Archive 's recordings available online for UK higher and further education and the general public .
= = Newspapers = =
The Library holds an almost complete collection of British and Irish newspapers since 1840 . This is partly because of the legal deposit legislation of 1869 , which required newspapers to supply a copy of each edition of a newspaper to the library . London editions of national daily and Sunday newspapers are complete back to 1801 . In total the collection consists of 660 @,@ 000 bound volumes and 370 @,@ 000 reels of microfilm containing tens of millions of newspapers with 52 @,@ 000 titles on 45 km of shelves . From earlier dates , the collections include the Thomason Tracts , comprising 7 @,@ 200 17th @-@ century newspapers , and the Burney Collection , featuring nearly 1 million pages of newspapers from the late 18th and early 19th centuries . The section also holds extensive collections of non @-@ British newspapers , in numerous languages .
The Newspapers section was based in Colindale in North London until 2013 , when the buildings , which were considered to provide inadequate storage conditions and to be beyond improvement , were closed and sold for redevelopment . The physical holdings are now divided between the sites at St Pancras ( some high @-@ use periodicals , and rare items such as the Thomason Tracts and Burney collections ) and Boston Spa ( the bulk of the collections , stored in a new purpose @-@ built facility ) .
A significant and growing proportion of the collection is now made available to readers as surrogate facsimiles , either on microfilm , or , more recently , in digitised form . In 2010 a ten @-@ year programme of digitisation of the newspaper archives with commercial partner DC Thomson subsidiary Brightsolid began , and the British Newspaper Archive was launched in November 2011 . A dedicated newspaper reading room opened at St Pancras in April 2014 , including facilities for consulting microfilmed and digital materials , and , where no surrogate exists , hard @-@ copy material retrieved from Boston Spa .
= = Moving image services = =
Launched in October 2012 , the British Library 's moving image services provide access to nearly a million sound and moving image items onsite , supported by data for over 20 million sound and moving image recordings . The three services , which for copyright reasons can only be accessed from terminals within the Reading Rooms at St Pancras , Colindale or Boston Spa , are :
BBC Pilot / Redux : A collaboration with BBC Research & Development to mirror its archive which has , since June 2007 , been recording 24 / 7 of all of the BBC 's national and some regional broadcast output . BBC Pilot includes 2 @.@ 2 million catalogue records and 190 @,@ 000 playable programmes , but unlike BBC Redux it does not include any broadcasts beyond 2011 .
Broadcast News : Since May 2010 , the British Library has been making off @-@ air recordings of daily TV and radio news broadcasts from seventeen channels , including BBC , ITV , Channel 4 , Sky News , Al @-@ Jazeera English , NHK World , CNN , France 24 , Bloomberg , Russia Today and China 's CCTV News . Many of the programs come with subtitles , which can be electronically searched , greatly enhancing the value of the collection as a research tool .
Television & Radio Index for Learning & Teaching ( TRILT ) : Produced by the British Universities Film & Video Council ( BUFVC ) , TRILT is a database of all UK television and radio broadcasts since 2001 ( and selectively back to 1995 ) . Its 16 million records , growing by a million per year , cover every channel , broadcast and repeat .
= = Philatelic Collections = =
The British Library Philatelic Collections are held at St Pancras . The collections were established in 1891 with the donation of the Tapling collection , they steadily developed and now comprise over 25 major collections and a number of smaller ones , encompassing a wide range of disciplines . The collections include postage and revenue stamps , postal stationery , essays , proofs , covers and entries , " cinderella stamp " material , specimen issues , airmails , some postal history materials , official and private posts , etc . , for almost all countries and periods .
An extensive display of material from the collections is on exhibit , which may be the best permanent display of diverse classic stamps and philatelic material in the world . Approximately 80 @,@ 000 items on 6 @,@ 000 sheets may be viewed in 1 @,@ 000 display frames ; 2 @,@ 400 sheets are from the Tapling Collection . All other material , which covers the whole world , is available to students and researchers . As well as these collections , the library actively acquires literature on the subject . This makes the British Library one of the world 's prime philatelic research centres . The Head Curator of the Philatelic Collections is Paul Skinner .
= = Highlights of the collections = =
Highlights , some of which were selected by the British Library , include :
Diamond Sutra , the world 's earliest dated printed book printed in 868 during the Tang Dynasty
Codex Sinaiticus , the major portion of the world 's second @-@ oldest manuscript of the Bible in koine Greek ( 4th century ) .
Codex Alexandrinus , an early manuscript of the Bible in koine Greek
Lindisfarne Gospels , an illuminated Latin Gospel book from Anglo @-@ Saxon Northumbria
St Cuthbert Gospel , a Northumbrian gospel book with the oldest Western binding
Two Gutenberg Bibles , two copies of a Latin Bible printed at Mainz , Germany ( 1450s )
Giant medieval bibles such as the Worms Bible , Stavelot Bible , Parc Abbey Bible and Floreffe Bible
Schuttern Gospels , an early illuminated gospel book produced in Baden , Germany
Bible from Moutier @-@ Grandval Abbey , one of three illustrated bibles made in Tours in the 9th century
Two 1215 copies of Magna Carta
The sole surviving manuscript copy of the poem Beowulf
Bedford Hours a richly illustrated late medieval book of hours once owned by the Duke of Bedford
Gospels of Tsar Ivan Alexander , 1355 – 56 , the most important medieval Bulgarian manuscript .
Codex Arundel , one of Leonardo da Vinci 's notebooks .
William Tyndale 's 1534 English translation New Testament , the personal copy of Anne Boleyn .
Original manuscript of Handel 's Messiah
Manuscript of Alice 's Adventures Under Ground by Lewis Carroll ( given to the British Library by a consortium of American bibliophiles " in recognition of Britain 's courage in facing Hitler before America came into the war " )
= = Collections of manuscripts = =
= = = Foundation collections = = =
The three foundation collections are those which were brought together to form the initial manuscript holdings of the British Museum in 1753 :
Cotton manuscripts
Harley manuscripts
Sloane manuscripts
= = = Other named collections = = =
Other " named " collections of manuscripts include ( but are not limited to ) the following :
Arundel Manuscripts
Egerton manuscripts
King 's manuscripts
Lansdowne manuscripts
Royal manuscripts
Stefan Zweig Collection
Stowe manuscripts
= = = Additional manuscripts = = =
The Additional Manuscripts series covers manuscripts that are not part of the named collections , and contains all other manuscripts donated , purchased or bequeathed to the Library since 1756 . The numbering begins at 4101 , as the series is considered to be a continuation of the collection of Sloane manuscripts , which are numbered 1 to 4100 .
= = Chief Executives of the British Library = =
Sir Harry Hookway , the first Chief Executive ( 1973 to 1984 )
Dame Lynne Brindley ( 2000 to 2012 )
Roly Keating ( 2012 to present )
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= Hurricane Inga ( 1969 ) =
Hurricane Inga is the third longest @-@ lived Atlantic hurricane on record . The 11th tropical cyclone and 9th named storm of the 1969 Atlantic hurricane season , Inga developed on September 20 in the central Atlantic and tracked westward . After attaining tropical storm status , the system deteriorated into a depression , but once again intensified several days later . The storm eventually peaked in strength on October 5 , with winds corresponding to Category 3 on the modern @-@ day Saffir – Simpson Hurricane Scale . Throughout its path , Inga underwent several changes in direction and oscillations in strength , before dissipating on October 15 , 25 days after it formed . Despite its duration , Inga caused little damage , and mostly remained over open waters .
= = Meteorological history = =
On September 20 , a tropical disturbance in the Atlantic Ocean developed into a tropical depression . On the next morning , the National Hurricane Center reported that the system became a tropical storm while centered about 930 mi ( 1 @,@ 500 km ) east @-@ southeast of San Juan , Puerto Rico . At the time , the storm was moving towards the west at 14 mph ( 23 km / h ) . At the time , Inga was a very small tropical cyclone ; gale @-@ force winds extended less than 100 mi ( 160 km ) from the center . However , by September 23 , the storm had become disorganized and sprawling . Later that day , Inga weakened back into a tropical depression .
The depression continued west @-@ northwestward , passing north of the Leeward Islands , before drifting northwestward . It once again attained tropical storm status on September 28 , while situated well to the east of the Bahamas . Inga continued to intensify , and achieved hurricane status at 0000 UTC on September 30 , at which point it turned northeastward . The storm then abruptly , yet gradually , turned towards the south , and ultimately completed a counter @-@ clockwise loop as it bent back westward . Steering currents were weak , and the hurricane continued to proceed slowly . Late on October 3 , it turned to the northwest , still as a Category 1 hurricane on the modern @-@ day Saffir – Simpson Hurricane Scale . The storm then curved northeastward and intensified to Category 2 status at 0000 UTC on October 5 .
Inga accelerated somewhat as it passed to the southeast of Bermuda . By the morning hours of October 5 , it was determined that the hurricane posed no significant threat to the island . At 1200 UTC , the storm 's lowest known barometric pressure of 964 millibars was recorded . Shortly thereafter , it briefly strengthened to Category 3 status ; the cyclone peaked with maximum sustained winds of 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) . As it moved towards the open waters of the Atlantic and entered a cooler environment , it deteriorated to Category 1 intensity on October 6 . The hurricane slowed again , and as cold air became entrained into its circulation , it began to lose tropical characteristics .
However , Inga once again intensified and reattained Category 2 intensity on October 7 . At this point , the hurricane was drifting generally eastward . However , in time the storm turned towards the south and began to weaken . Operationally , the storm was believed to have downgraded to a tropical storm on October 8 and regained hurricane status thereafter , but instead it likely maintained Category 1 intensity steadily until October 10 . After the storm finally degenerated into a tropical storm , it curved southwestward . The storm 's center became ill @-@ defined and elongated at the storm continued to lose strength . Heading westward , Inga was downgraded to a tropical depression before dissipating fully on October 15 , about 290 mi ( 470 km ) from where it initially attained hurricane status .
= = Impact and records = =
Hurricane Inga lasted for nearly 25 days between September 20 and October 15 . This made it the third longest @-@ tracked Atlantic hurricane on record , behind the Hurricane San Ciriaco in August – September 1899 and Hurricane Ginger in September – October 1971 . The fourth , fifth , and sixth longest @-@ lived storms are Hurricane Nadine in 2012 , Hurricane Kyle in 2002 , and Hurricane Four in 1926 . At the time of its existence , however , Inga was believed to have been the longest @-@ lived Atlantic tropical cyclone on record . The National Hurricane Center issued 72 total advisories on the storm .
While Inga remained predominately over the open ocean , its outer fringes produced 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) wind gusts on Bermuda . The strong winds caused power failures , which were promptly restored . Residents were advised to monitor the storm in case of sudden changes in direction .
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= Djibril Cissé =
Djibril Cissé ( French pronunciation : [ dʒibʁil sise ] ; born 12 August 1981 ) is a former professional French footballer .
Cissé started his career at AC Arles in 1989 at the age of eight . After seven years at the club , he had a six @-@ month spell at Nîmes Olympique before moving to Auxerre joining the club 's youth system . Cissé spent two years in the system before graduating to the first team in 1998 . After playing for Auxerre for six seasons , scoring 90 goals in 166 appearances , he moved to Premier League club Liverpool in 2004 .
During his time at Anfield , Cissé played 79 games , scoring 24 times and winning the 2004 – 05 UEFA Champions League and 2005 – 06 FA Cup . He went on to play in Greece with Panathinaikos , Italy with S.S. Lazio , Qatar with Al @-@ Gharafa and Russia with Kuban Krasnodor . He also had further spells in English football with Sunderland and Queens Park Rangers , and France with Olympique de Marseille and SC Bastia . In 2015 , Cissé made one appearance for Réunion based club JS Saint @-@ Pierroise before retiring from professional football . In the course of his career , Cissé suffered from two leg breaks , breaking his left leg in 2004 and his right leg in 2006 .
Cissé represented the France national football team at the 2002 and 2010 FIFA World Cups and was also part of les Bleus ' 2003 FIFA Confederations Cup winning squad .
= = Club career = =
= = = Auxerre = = =
After starting his career with Nîmes Olympique , Cissé signed for AJ Auxerre at the age of 15 . Playing for the youth team in 1999 , Cissé won the Coupe Gambardella , the equivalent of the FA Youth Cup . After promotion to the first team squad by coach Guy Roux , Cissé made his Ligue 1 debut at the age of 17 as a substitute against Paris Saint @-@ Germain on 20 March 1999 . His first goal came at the start of the 2000 – 01 season in a 2 – 1 defeat of FC Metz . He ended this season , his first as a regular in the first team , with eight goals from 25 games .
In the 2001 – 02 season , Cissé was the top scorer in Ligue 1 with 22 goals from 29 matches as Auxerre finished in third place and qualified for the 2002 – 03 UEFA Champions League . Cissé 's form saw him make his debut for the French national team and earn a place in the team 's squad for the 2002 FIFA World Cup .
Cissé was again amongst the league 's top scorers in 2002 – 03 with 14 goals . He also scored six goals in six matches in Auxerre 's successful Coupe de France campaign , including both goals in the semi @-@ final defeat of Stade Rennais and the equalisier in the 2003 Coupe de France Final victory over PSG .
2003 – 04 proved to be Cissé 's most successful goalscoring season , with 30 goals in all competitions , including 26 in Ligue 1 to win the golden boot for the second time .
Overall , Cissé scored 70 goals in 128 league games for Auxerre before signing for Liverpool in a deal worth over £ 14 million in the summer of 2005 .
= = = Liverpool = = =
At Liverpool , Cissé scored 5 goals in 24 first @-@ team games in all competitions for Liverpool in the 2004 – 05 season . He had only played 19 games for Liverpool when a freak accident occurred while playing against Blackburn Rovers on 30 October 2004 . While Cissé and Blackburn 's Jay McEveley were challenging for the ball , Cissé 's boot got caught in the turf and his leg snapped . This resulted in a broken tibia and fibula , and physio Daryl Martin said " It could take six to nine months for a recovery and the absolute worst @-@ case scenario is 18 months ... " Cissé later revealed that had it not been for prompt attention from the trainers at the stadium , he would probably have lost the leg below the knee . He had pins inserted in the leg , and was expected to be out of action for the rest of the 2004 – 05 season. l
However , in an unexpected return , Cissé was able to come on as a 75th @-@ minute substitute in the second leg of Liverpool 's Champions League quarter @-@ final tie with Juventus on 13 April 2005 . He went on to score both Liverpool goals in their last Premiership match of the season , a 2 – 1 win over Aston Villa and also converted a penalty in Liverpool 's penalty shootout win over AC Milan in the Champions League final . During the 2005 – 06 season , Liverpool manager Rafael Benítez deployed Cissé on the right wing on numerous occasions . While his pace made him well suited to such a role , it was doubtful whether he would be happy to continue in this role rather than in his preferred position as striker . He scored two goals as Liverpool won the 2005 UEFA Super Cup . Cissé also scored Liverpool 's opening goal in the 2006 FA Cup Final with a sliding shot past West Ham United keeper Shaka Hislop . Liverpool went on to win 3 – 1 on penalties . He ended the 05 / 06 season with 19 goals in all competitions .
= = = Marseille = = =
From summer 2005 , the media had linked Cissé with a move away from Anfield . Speculation intensified as the season went on . In early June 2006 , it was reported that a transfer to Olympique de Marseille had been agreed . The very same day Cissé broke his leg during France 's final warm up match against China on 7 June 2006 . It was thought that even though a relatively quick recovery was expected , Cissé 's transfer would be postponed until at least the January transfer window . However , the two teams agreed a loan deal in July 2006 .
Cissé made his return to training on 20 October 2006 , and scored his first goal for Olympique de Marseille on 22 December 2006 when they beat AS Saint @-@ Étienne 2 – 1 . With only four goals in 14 appearances by April , Cissé 's performances were drawing such criticism that former player Jean @-@ Pierre Papin urged Cissé 's critics to be more patient while the striker recovered from his career @-@ threatening injury . Despite the slow start , Cissé managed to score 4 goals in his final 7 league appearances to finish with 8 goals in 21 league appearances , helping Marseille to finish 2nd in the 2006 – 07 season and guarantee a Champions League place for the 2007 – 08 season . On 12 May 2007 , he scored 2 goals in the French Cup Final against Sochaux , although Marseille still lost the match 5 – 4 on penalties , after a 2 – 2 stalemate after extra time following a late equaliser by another Liverpool player on loan Anthony Le Tallec .
On 7 July 2007 , Marseille president Pape Diouf announced that the club had struck a deal with Liverpool to sign Cissé permanently , for an estimated fee of € 8 million . But subsequently , Cissé was linked with a return to the English Premier League with Blackburn Rovers , Wigan Athletic , Tottenham Hotspur , Portsmouth and Bolton Wanderers said to be interested . Manchester City had their approach for Cissé rejected by Marseille boss , who said , " He is wanted , that is for sure , I myself have been approached by Manchester City ( about Cissé ) but I turned it down categorically " . On 26 January 2008 , Cissé scored a hat @-@ trick in Marseille 's 6 – 1 win against Caen .
= = = Sunderland = = =
On 20 August 2008 , Cisse secured a loan switch to Premier League club Sunderland . At the same ground where he had scored on his Liverpool debut , Cissé scored the winning header on his debut against Tottenham to make it 2 – 1 to Sunderland . A few days later , Cissé announced his desire to secure a permanent deal with the club . Manager Roy Keane also expressed his desire to sign Cissé , telling The News of the World , " I 'd be happy to break the transfer record if Djibril 's doing the business " . In the Tyne @-@ Wear derby , Cissé scored his third Sunderland goal on 25 October 2008 , with Sunderland winning 2 – 1 . After scoring in a 4 – 1 victory against Hull , Cissé stated that despite the departure of Roy Keane from Sunderland , he still wished to complete a permanent move to the club . On 18 April 2009 , Cisse scored his 10th league goal of the season in a 1 – 0 victory over Hull City at the Stadium of Light . On 24 May , it was confirmed that Sunderland would not be taking up the option to sign Cissé permanently , and he subsequently returned to Marseille .
= = = Panathinaikos = = =
On 25 June 2009 , Cissé signed a four @-@ year contract with Panathinaikos . It was reported that the player would earn € 2 @.@ 5 million per year , while French club Marseille would get an estimated € 8 million as a transfer fee . The total cost of the transfer is about € 20 million , taking into account the various bonuses . He scored his first goal in Greece against Crete @-@ based Ergotelis and soon he became the new leader of the team . He was the Superleague topscorer for the 2009 – 10 leading his team to win the double . In his first year in Greece , Cissé scored 23 goals in 28 matches .
Cissé 's performances made Panathinaikos fans love him . He had stated that after making the double in Greece he would love to play again in the Champions League with Panathinaikos and looking for a successful season also in Greece . On 30 October 2010 , he scored two goals ( one penalty ) in the Derby of the eternal enemies against arch @-@ rivals Olympiacos in a 2 – 1 home win . At the MVP award ceremony for the 8th fixture , Cissé said " I am not only a player of Panathinaikos , but I am also a fan . " In the new season , he has already scored 18 goals in 20 matches in the Greek League and one goal in the Greek Cup . He was also the team captain of Panathinaikos and the most valuable player of the club .
On 21 February 2011 , Olympiacos beat Panathinaikos in Karaiskaki Stadium ( 2 – 1 ) , after a controversial ( regarding the referees decisions ) game . After the game , Cisse had an wrangle with Olympiacos ' president Evangelos Marinakis . He was beaten by Olympiakos ' fans ( later called them " barbarians " ) and stated that he was going to appeal to the UEFA . He stated also that he had lost his patience with the questionable , according to his opinion , refereeing in Greece : " I will make my decisions but believe me , I ’ ve had enough . I can ’ t go on under these conditions . " One month later , Cissé reached 50 goals as a Panathinaikos player in domestic and European competitions . He celebrated this goal by wearing a T @-@ shirt of Panathinaikos supporters group Gate 13 . Cisse left Greece and Panathinaikos after celebrating in a farewell party with him as the DJ and he gave a promise to Panathinaikos fans that he will return .
= = = Lazio = = =
Cissé was transferred to Serie A club Lazio on 12 July 2011 for € 5 @.@ 8 million . He signed a four @-@ year contract with the Italian side . He made his debut in a UEFA Europa League match against FK Rabotnički on 18 August , scoring two goals in a 6 – 0 win for the home side . Cissé scored his only league goal for Lazio on his league debut in a 2 – 2 draw with Milan at the San Siro on 9 September .
= = = Queens Park Rangers = = =
On 31 January 2012 , Cissé signed a two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ year deal with Queens Park Rangers for an undisclosed fee . He was Mark Hughes ' fourth signing since taking over as manager . He scored on his debut , against Aston Villa in a 2 – 2 draw at Villa Park on 1 February . He was then given a straight red card in his second game for violent conduct , when he reacted to a late challenge by Wolverhampton Wanderers player Roger Johnson by grabbing Johnson by the throat . With QPR down to ten men , they went on to lose the game 2 – 1 . On 21 March 2012 , Cissé scored QPR 's equalising goal in a 3 – 2 victory against his former club Liverpool . Three days later , he was sent off for the second time in his first five games for QPR when he received a straight red card for a two @-@ footed lunge on Sunderland 's Fraizer Campbell . He then returned from suspension on 29 April 2012 , and scored a late consolation goal against Chelsea in a 6 – 1 loss at Stamford Bridge . Cissé went on to score his fifth goal in seven matches to win the match against Stoke City . On 13 May 2012 Cisse scored the goal to make it 1 – 1 against Manchester City . This was his sixth goal in eight matches for QPR . QPR went on to lose the match 3 – 2 , as City scored two goals in stoppage time , but avoided relegation as Bolton succumbed to a 2 – 2 draw at Stoke . Cissé picked the number nine for his jersey and scored his first goal in the 2012 – 13 season in a 3 – 2 loss against Reading in the League Cup and his first Premier League goal of the season , also against Reading on 4 November . In January 2013 he joined Qatari club Al Gharafa on loan until the end of the season . His loan ended on 30 June , he made nine league appearances and scored one goal in the championship and four in the AFC Champions League . Cissé left QPR by mutual consent on 28 June 2013 .
= = = Kuban Krasnodar = = =
On 3 July 2013 , Cissé signed a one @-@ year contract ( plus one in option ) with Kuban Krasnodar .
= = = Bastia = = =
On 1 January 2014 , Cissé signed an 18 @-@ month deal with Bastia .
= = = JS Saint @-@ Pierroise = = =
In June 2015 , Cissé signed for JS Saint @-@ Pierroise of the Réunion Premier League on a month @-@ long contract starting in September of the same year .
= = = Retirement = = =
On 20 October 2015 , Cissé announced his retirement from football at the age of 34 due to injury .
= = International career = =
= = = Youth career = = =
Cissé played for the France Under @-@ 19 team in the 2001 FIFA World Youth Championship , where they reached the quarter @-@ finals , with the player scoring six goals in five games . These goals included a hat @-@ trick against Iran on 18 June 2001 in a 5 – 0 win on their opening game , and two goals against Germany on 27 June 2001 in the round of 16 .
He was on the France Under @-@ 21 team. in the 2004 UEFA European Under @-@ 21 Football Championship . Cissé scored two goals against Portugal in the first leg of qualification playoffs , winning 2 – 1 . In the second leg , Cissé scored a goal but for kicking Mário Sérgio he was sent off . France went on to lose the game 4 – 1 on penalties , after drawing 3 – 3 on aggregate . As a result of the sending off , he was given a five match ban and missed UEFA Euro 2004 .
= = = Senior career = = =
Cissé made his international debut , age 21 , against Belgium coming on as a 48th @-@ minute substitute for David Trezeguet on 18 May 2002 . The team manager Roger Lemerre included Cissé in his 23 @-@ man squad for the 2002 FIFA World Cup . In the tournament he played in all of the group matches against Senegal , Uruguay , and Denmark , coming on as a substitute in all three games but France were eliminated in the World Cup group stages . His first goal in the senior tournament came on 7 September 2002 against Cyprus in the Euro 2004qualifiers . Cissé was part of the 2003 FIFA Confederations Cup championship team . He scored his only goal of the tournament from the penalty spot in France 's 1 – 0 win against Colombia on 18 June 2003 .
After being banned from UEFA Euro 2004 , Cisse was next in the 2006 FIFA World Cup tournament in Germany . In France 's final warm @-@ up match against China on 7 June 2006 , he suffered another broken leg when ten minutes into the game he was knocked off balance by the China captain Zheng Zhi and fell with his leg twisting under him . " It 's so tough to hear Djibril scream like that , " said fellow French striker Thierry Henry . " You lose a teammate and also a friend . But he is tough ; he will come back . " He needed immediate surgery to repair his open fractured tibia so was out of the tournament . During the UEFA Euro 2008 qualifying campaign , Cissé played three games , but did not win a place in the France squad for the finals .
After demonstrating his goal @-@ scoring form for Panathinaikos , in March 2010 , Cissé was recalled to the French squad for a friendly against Spain in Paris . When introduced into the match as a substitute , he had a considerable impact , heading on a Florent Malouda cross only for Iker Casillas to push it onto the post . On 11 May 2010 , he was included by manager Raymond Domenech in France 's final 23 @-@ man squad for the 2010 FIFA World Cup in South Africa . On 22 June , he was in France 's starting eleven for the team 's final game of the group stage versus South Africa .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Club = = =
As of 13 January 2015
= = = International = = =
= = Honours = =
= = = Club = = =
Auxerre
Coupe de France ( 1 ) : 2002 – 03
Liverpool
FA Cup ( 1 ) : 2005 – 06
UEFA Champions League ( 1 ) : 2004 – 05
UEFA Super Cup ( 1 ) : 2005
Panathinaikos
Superleague Greece ( 1 ) : 2009 – 10
Greek Football Cup ( 1 ) : 2010
= = = International = = =
France
FIFA Confederations Cup : 2003
= = = Individual = = =
Ligue 1 Top Scorer : 2001 – 02 , 2003 – 04
UNFP Young Player of the Year : 2001 – 02
Super League Greece Top Scorer : 2010 , 2011
Super League Greece Best Foreign Player : 2010
= = Personal life = =
Cissé was born to Ivorian parents in France . His late father Mangué Cissé was a professional footballer and had captained his country before his parents moved to France in 1974 . Djibril was the seventh and last child of his family , after siblings Nma , Damaye , Abou , Fode , Seni and Hamed . After his move to Liverpool , Cissé purchased a house in the village of Frodsham , Cheshire , and in doing became Lord of the Manor of Frodsham . Soon after buying the house , his decision to refuse the Cheshire Forest Hunt permission to hunt on his land received substantial press coverage . On 18 June 2005 , Djibril Cissé married former hairdresser Jude Littler . The wedding took place at Bodelwyddan Castle , with notable guests including Shaun Wright @-@ Phillips and Cissé 's French national teammates Louis Saha and Sylvain Wiltord . Cissé got married in a tuxedo in the red of Liverpool .
The now @-@ divorced couple had three children , Cassius , Prince Kobe and Marley Jackson , and Cissé has a daughter , Ilona , from a previous relationship .
Cissé also had a cameo role in a French action comedy film Taxi 4 , featuring in a high @-@ speed driving scene .
Cissé has his own clothing range and fragrance , branded " Mr Lenoir " .
In October / September 2015 he will be participating in the French version of Dancing with the Stars season 6 of Danse avec les stars .
In October 2015 , Cissé was one of four people arrested in France over an alleged attempt to blackmail an international footballer in a sex tape extortion plot .
Cissé is a Roman Catholic convert from Islam .
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= Going , Going , Gone ( Grey 's Anatomy ) =
" Going , Going , Gone " is the first episode of the ninth season of the American television medical drama Grey 's Anatomy , and the show 's 173rd episode overall . Written by Stacy McKee and directed by Rob Corn , the episode was originally broadcast on the American Broadcasting Company ( ABC ) in the United States on September 27 , 2012 . The initial airing was viewed by 11 @.@ 73 million people and garnered a 4 @.@ 4 Nielsen rating in the 18 – 49 demographic , registering the show as the week 's highest rated television drama .
Grey 's Anatomy centers around a group of physicians struggling to balance their professional lives with their personal lives . In this episode , the doctors of Seattle Grace Mercy West Hospital cope with the physical and emotional reverberations of the aviation accident that took place in the season eight finale , while several surgical residents are promoted . Further storylines include Dr. Cristina Yang ( Sandra Oh ) relocating to a different hospital , and a group of new interns being intimidated by Dr. Meredith Grey ( Ellen Pompeo ) .
The episode saw the death of Dr. Mark Sloan ( Eric Dane ) ; the actor was let go due to budget cuts by the producers . Excessive spoilers were not released , in order to keep the fates of select characters unknown . However , multiple cast members leaked pictures from the set . Jason George returned in guest capacity , along with newcomers William Daniels , Steven Culp , Philip Casnoff , Gaius Charles , Camilla Luddington , Tina Majorino , and Jerrika Hinton . Critics generally regarded " Going , Going , Gone " as disconsolate .
= = Plot = =
In the season eight finale , Dr. Meredith Grey ( Ellen Pompeo ) , Dr. Derek Shepherd ( Patrick Dempsey ) , Dr. Cristina Yang ( Sandra Oh ) , Dr. Lexie Grey ( Chyler Leigh ) , Dr. Mark Sloan ( Eric Dane ) , and Dr. Arizona Robbins ( Jessica Capshaw ) are caught in an aviation accident , leaving Lexie Grey dead , and the rest of the doctors stranded . " Going , Going , Gone " picks up about one month after the crash , and throughout the episode , features home videos of Sloan . The episode begins with Seattle Grace Mercy West Hospital 's new interns , Dr. Shane Ross ( Gaius Charles ) , Dr. Jo Wilson ( Camilla Luddington ) , Dr. Heather Brookes ( Tina Majorino ) , and Dr. Stephanie Edwards ( Jerrika Hinton ) , expressing fear of Meredith Grey , who is now an attending general surgeon . It is revealed that former resident Dr. Alex Karev ( Justin Chambers ) will be pursuing a pediatric surgical fellowship at Johns Hopkins Hospital . The scene switches to Minnesota , where Yang is now a cardiothoracic surgical fellow .
Back in Seattle , Dr. Ben Warren ( Jason George ) surprises his fiancée Dr. Miranda Bailey ( Chandra Wilson ) with a visit . The couple reunites with constant sexual activity , for which the interns tease Bailey . Meanwhile , Dr. Callie Torres ( Sara Ramirez ) allows Shepherd to operate on a spinal cord , despite his hand being broken from the plane crash . Thereafter , it is revealed that Sloan is in a comatose state , and will be taken off of life support that evening . In the hospital cafeteria , Meredith Grey announces that Wilson will be given the honor of performing a supervised appendectomy , a procedure historically used as a reward for interns . The hospital 's chief of surgery , Dr. Owen Hunt ( Kevin McKidd ) , introduces the new pediatric surgery attending , Dr. Mel Barnett ( Philip Casnoff ) , to Torres and Karev . Barnett informs Karev that he will not be continuing with the African orphan charity program ( a function to treat ill children from Third World countries ) , something that was initially finalized by the latter and former chief of pediatric surgery , Robbins . Karev becomes upset about this , and asks Torres to prevent Barnett from discontinuing the program , though Torres shows no interest in helping Karev .
During Shepherd 's surgery , his hand becomes numb , and he frustratedly exits the operating room . In the intern appendectomy , Wilson makes a mistake and freezes , leading to a scolding from Meredith Grey . Back in Minnesota , Yang is annoyed by the peppy attitudes of her superiors at Mayo Clinic , Dr. Craig Thomas ( William Daniels ) and Dr. Parker ( Steven Culp ) , so she decides to take a trip to Seattle for Sloan 's death . However , her PTSD hinders her from boarding the plane , and she ultimately remains in Minnesota . Meanwhile , Dr. Jackson Avery ( Jesse Williams ) , now a plastic surgical fellow , sits by Sloan 's bedside and talks of medical cases to him . Dr. Richard Webber ( James Pickens , Jr . ) enters Sloan 's hospital room and removes him from life support . Unable to cope with Sloan 's death , Meredith Grey boards a plane to visit Yang , but panics before it takes off . Shortly thereafter , Meredith Grey finds Karev at the airport bar , where he reveals that he will be staying at Seattle Grace Mercy West Hospital . The next morning , Hunt visits Dr. April Kepner ( Sarah Drew ) at her family 's farm , and asks her to begin working in Seattle again . At the conclusion of the episode , Torres returns home to Robbins , who is revealed to have had her lower left leg amputated as a result of the crash .
= = Production = =
Running for approximately 43 minutes , the episode was written by Stacy McKee and directed by Rob Corn . The episode featured the songs " Body of Work " , " My Heart Goes Boom Boom " , " My Oh My " , " Feels Like the End " , " Portions for Foxes " , " Without You " , and " Into You " . George returned to the episode as Warren , while Daniels , Culp , Casnoff , Charles , Luddington , Majorino , and Hinton made their first appearances as Thomas , Parker , Barnett , Ross , Wilson , Brookes , and Edwards , respectively . The episode 's initial script read @-@ through took place on July 16 , 2012 . Scenes in the operating room were filmed at the Prospect Studios in Los Feliz , Los Angeles . While creating the visual of Robbins ' amputated leg , the special effects crew digitally removed Capshaw 's real leg , and replaced it with a graphically created limb .
Prior to broadcast , series creator Shonda Rhimes did not release much information about the season premiere . However , it was revealed prior to broadcast that there would be a time jump in the episode . After it was announced that Dane would be departing shortly after the commencement of the ninth season , Dempsey uploaded a set picture on Twitter of Sloan in bad condition . Due to the unwanted release of spoilers , the American Broadcasting Company ( ABC ) requested that he delete the photo , and it was subsequently removed . The cast and crew of Grey 's Anatomy were being particularly quiet about the fate of Capshaw 's character . This secrecy was compromised when McKidd posted a picture on his Twitter account of the editing room , in which there was a picture of Robbins alive on the screen . The picture has since been taken down .
Discussing Robbins ' storyline in " Going , Going , Gone " , Capshaw revealed that she was " shocked " when it was made known to her that the character 's leg would be amputated . The actress additionally noted that it was difficult to keep the fate of her character a secret . Following the premiere , E ! Online reported that Dane 's death and departure in the premiere were results of budgetary cuts , mandated by ABC . Speaking of Sloan 's death , Rhimes said it was the " most tragic " , adding that " he 's part of the fabric of the show " . Rhimes wrote that anything other than the character dying would entail him leaving his daughter behind , something the writers did not want . However , she noted that the writing team considered having him move to Los Angeles to be with Dr. Addison Montgomery ( Kate Walsh ) after her departure from Private Practice , but they feared it would have given the impression that his love confession for Lexie Grey was forgotten .
= = Reception = =
= = = Broadcast and ratings = = =
" Going , Going , Gone " was originally broadcast on Thursday , September 27 , 2012 in the United States on ABC . The episode 's total viewership of 11 @.@ 73 million ranked the show second in its 9 : 00 EST time slot , trailing CBS 's Person of Interest ( 14 @.@ 28 million ) , and fifth for the night , behind CBS 's Two and a Half Men ( 12 @.@ 54 million ) , Elementary ( 13 @.@ 41 million ) , and The Big Bang Theory ( 15 @.@ 66 million ) . The installment 's 4 @.@ 4 Nielsen rating in the target 18 – 49 demographic ranked the series first in its time slot and second for the night , trailing only CBS 's The Big Bang Theory ( 5 @.@ 0 ) . In the key 18 – 34 demographic , the episode earned a 3 @.@ 9 Nielsen rating , qualifying Grey 's Anatomy as the top television program of the night in that demographic . " Going , Going , Gone " ' s total viewership and 18 – 49 rating tallied the show 's highest numbers since " Suddenly " on Thursday , January 5 , 2012 ( 4 @.@ 5 18 – 49 rating , 12 @.@ 12 million viewers ) .
The 11 @.@ 73 million people tuned into the episode marked a 3 percent viewership increase from the season eight finale ( 11 @.@ 44 million ) , and a 13 percent increase from the previous season premiere ( 10 @.@ 38 million ) . The episode 's 4 @.@ 4 Nielsen rating in the 18 – 49 demographic was a 7 percent increase from the season eight finale and previous season premiere , which both received 4 @.@ 1 18 – 49 ratings . The Nielsen score additionally registered the show as the week 's highest rated drama and third @-@ highest rated scripted series in the 18 – 49 demographic , placing behind CBS 's The Big Bang Theory ( 5 @.@ 0 ) and ABC 's Modern Family ( 5 @.@ 5 ) . Seven days of time @-@ shifted viewing added on an additional 1 @.@ 5 rating points in the 18 – 49 demographic and 3 @.@ 28 million viewers , bringing the total viewership for the episode to 15 @.@ 01 million viewers with a 5 @.@ 9 Nielsen rating in the 18 – 49 demographic .
= = = Critical reviews = = =
The majority of critics concluded that the episode was disconsolate . E ! Online 's Kristin dos Santos called the installment " gut @-@ wrenching " , saying it was the type of episode that " rips out your heart and feeds it to you with a spoon " . Ann Oldenburg of USA Today summarized that the episode required viewers to " reach for the Kleenex " . TV Guide 's Natalie Abrams called the episode " heartbreaking " , and praised the performances by Dempsey and Ramirez for their realism . Writing for Newsday , Verne Gay called Sloan 's death scene " touching " , and opined that the show will be different without the character 's presence .
Kelly Schremph of Hollywood.com said the installment was " emotionally exhausting " , adding that it foreshadowed a " drama @-@ packed season " . Schremph commented that all of the changes made it feel like an alternative reality episode , such as was featured in season eight . Writing for Entertainment Weekly , Tanner Stransky expressed similar viewpoints with Schremph , commenting that the installment paved the way for a great season , and that it resembled season eight 's alternative reality episode . Stransky appreciated the " dignity " provided in Sloan 's death scene , noting that the song played during the scene was " killer " and " so fitting " . Jason Hughes of The Huffington Post called Sloan 's death day " fateful " . TV Fanatic gave a largely positive review to the season , " Grey 's Anatomy always knows how to bring the drama and they did not fail in the Season 9 Premiere . "
The International Business Times ' Arlene Paredes concluded that the episode " raised the bar for deeply emotional yet again " , and noted that it was " one of the most high @-@ anticipated TV [ returns ] this fall " . TVLine 's Michael Ausiello opined that the attempt to hide Robbins ' fate was the " worst kept secret in TV land " . Writing for AfterEllen , Bridget McManus threatened to boycott the show if Capshaw 's character was killed , but thought the FaceTime calls between Yang and Meredith Grey were humorous . Mark A. Perigard of the Boston Herald was critical of the time it took to rescue the doctors , and deemed the flashbacks featuring Sloan " unconvincing " . Zap2it 's Carina Adly MacKenzie opined that it " became increasingly clear " that Sloan would die as the episode progressed , and praised Capshaw 's performance , noting that it was " brief but truly striking " .
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= Jon Cryer =
Jonathan Niven " Jon " Cryer ( born April 16 , 1965 ) is an American actor , screenwriter , television director , and film producer . Born into a show business family , Cryer made his motion picture debut as a teenaged photographer in the 1984 romantic comedy No Small Affair ; his breakout role came in 1986 , playing " Duckie " Dale in the John Hughes @-@ written film Pretty in Pink . In 1998 , he wrote and produced the independent film Went to Coney Island on a Mission from God ... Be Back by Five .
Although Cryer gained fame with his early film roles , it took several years to find success on television ; none of his star vehicles , including The Famous Teddy Z , Partners , and The Trouble with Normal , lasted more than 22 episodes . In 2003 , Cryer was cast as Alan Harper on the CBS sitcom Two and a Half Men , for which he won two Primetime Emmy Awards in 2009 and 2012 . Cryer received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame for Television in 2011 .
Cryer 's other film appearances include Hiding Out ( 1987 ) , Hot Shots ( 1991 ) , Tortured ( 2008 ) , Shorts ( 2009 ) , and Hit by Lightning ( 2014 ) . He also has a recurring role in the CBS drama series , NCIS , playing Dr. Cyril Taft .
After appearing on the podcast Crime Writers On ... it was announced Cryer is joining the team at the Undisclosed podcast for their second season .
= = Early life = =
Cryer was born in New York City , New York . His mother , Gretchen Cryer ( née Kiger ) , is a playwright , songwriter , actress , and singer ; his father , Donald David Cryer , is an actor and singer who originally studied to be a minister . Cryer 's paternal grandfather , Rev. Dr. Donald W. Cryer , was a well @-@ known Methodist minister . He has two sisters , Robin and Shelly .
When Cryer was twelve years old , he decided that he wanted to become an actor . When his mother heard this , she thought he should have a backup plan , and joked : " Plumbing is a pretty good career . " Cryer attended Stagedoor Manor Performing Arts Training Center for several summers as a teenager , and is a 1983 graduate of the Bronx High School of Science . He was classmates with screenwriter and film director Boaz Yakin . To his mother 's " great disappointment " , Cryer skipped college and went to study acting at the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art ( RADA ) in London , United Kingdom .
= = Career = =
Cryer 's first professional acting effort was as David in the Broadway play Torch Song Trilogy , replacing Matthew Broderick , whom he " closely resembled " . Cryer was later an understudy and replacement for Broderick in Neil Simon 's Brighton Beach Memoirs in 1989 .
At age 19 , Cryer appeared in the 1984 romantic comedy film No Small Affair , in the lead role as Charles Cummings , after the original production with Matthew Broderick was shut down due to a heart attack by director , Martin Ritt . He went on to have small roles in films and television movies , and he made his breakthrough as Phil " Duckie " Dale in the John Hughes @-@ scripted film Pretty in Pink . In an interview with the Daily News , Cryer 's mother said that after Pretty in Pink , she started getting calls from teenage girls from all over the world , who would leave hysterical , giggling messages on her answering machine . In 1989 , he got the lead role in the TV comedy series , The Famous Teddy Z. His performance gained poor reviews and the show was canceled after the first season .
A year later , he starred with Charlie Sheen in the Jim Abrahams comedy Hot Shots ! , which was received very positively . Cryer is frequently linked to the Brat Pack . In a March 2009 interview on Anytime with Bob Kushell , Cryer stated that he had auditioned for St. Elmo 's Fire but was not cast in a role . In 1993 , he was asked to audition for the role of Chandler Bing on Friends , while doing a play in London . His reading was videotaped by a British casting agent but the tape failed to arrive in the U.S. before the network had made its final decision .
In 1995 , he was cast as Bob in the sitcom Partners , which , like his prior show The Famous Teddy Z , was canceled after its first season . In an interview with Time Out New York he stated , " Hey , every show I 'm in goes down . Think about this : George Clooney was in 28 pilots , or something . It means nothing " . After guest starring on shows such as Dharma & Greg and The Outer Limits , he successfully wrote and produced the film , Went to Coney Island on a Mission from God ... Be Back by Five . It debuted in 1998 at the Los Angeles Film Festival and gained positive reviews from critics . Leonard Maltin from Playboy Magazine called it " A breath of fresh air " . In 2000 , he was cast as the lead in a comedy series called The Trouble With Normal . For the third time , Cryer starred in a show which was canceled after its first season .
Cryer 's long run of unsuccessful TV projects finally ended three years later . Against the wishes of CBS executives ( who were aware of his past failures ) and due to a friendship with Charlie Sheen , he was cast in 2003 to portray Alan Harper on the hit comedy series Two and a Half Men . He has earned seven Primetime Emmy Award nominations and two wins for his acting work on the show . In a comment on the show 's high ratings , he said : " When you ’ re on a show that 's fighting for survival every week , you stop trusting your instincts , because you think , ‘ My instincts haven 't worked so far . ’ But when people clearly like the show and are watching it in great numbers , it takes a huge amount of pressure off you . It allows you to trust your instincts and go with what has worked for you before . " After former co @-@ star Charlie Sheen 's departure from the series , Cryer 's character became the show 's main protagonist ( with Ashton Kutcher being cast as the co @-@ lead ] ] ) throughout the final four seasons , mainly due to the show 's retooled plot . At the end of the series of Two and a Half Men , Cryer is the only actor to have appeared in every episode of the series , since Sheen was fired in March 2011 and his on @-@ screen son Angus T. Jones left the series at the end of season 10 , after expressing the show as " filth " and that Jones is a " paid hypocrite " . All appeared to be forgiven , however , as Jones , contrary to Charlie Sheen , appeared to great appause in the finale . Before being cast for Two and a Half Men , Cryer auditioned for the role of Gaius Baltar on the Sci @-@ Fi Channel 's reimagined Battlestar Galactica , but the role went to James Callis . In 2008 , Cryer appeared with Laurence Fishburne and James Cromwell in the film Tortured , and in 2009 co @-@ starred with James Spader in the film Shorts .
Cryer made a guest appearance on the sitcom series Husbands in its second season . He was initially cast to voice the lead character in DisneyToon Studios ' animated film Planes , a spin @-@ off of Pixar 's Cars franchise , but later dropped out and was replaced by Dane Cook . Cryer did however receive a credit on the film for " additional story material . "
In 2015 , Cryer released a book titled So That Happened , a breezy , often comic tale chronicling Cryer 's 30 @-@ year career on stage , film and television .
Cryer currently appears in the highly popular CBS drama series , NCIS where he currently plays Navy Dr. Cyril Taft who treats NCIS Special Agent Leroy Jethro Gibbs ( Mark Harmon ) . Cryer had expressed a desire to appear in NCIS since it premiered on September 23 , 2003 .
Pursuing a passion for criminal justice Cryer joined the team of the popular podcast Undisclosed where he will be voicing the weekly addendum episode for the second season .
= = Personal life = =
Cryer married British actress Sarah Trigger in 1999 , with whom he has a son , Charlie Austin . The pair divorced in 2004 . In February 2007 , on an episode of The Tonight Show with Jay Leno , he announced that he would marry entertainment reporter Lisa Joyner ; the couple married in Mexico in June 2007 . On September 29 , 2009 , Jon and Lisa announced that they adopted a baby girl , whom they named Daisy .
When Pretty in Pink co @-@ star Molly Ringwald told Out magazine in 2012 that she believed Cryer 's character was gay , Cryer defended Duckie and other " slightly effeminate dorks , " and said he has had to live with others ' " faulty " gaydar . Also in 2012 , Joyner told Jeff Probst that when she and Cryer started dating , she wondered if he might be gay because " he never kissed me . " Cryer was asked in 2014 if he was " mistaken for gay " ; he again called himself " an effeminate heterosexual dork " and cracked a joke about never being propositioned : " Fellas , you 're dropping the ball . "
Prior to the 2008 presidential election , Cryer attended a fundraiser hosted by the McCain campaign and , according to news reports , endorsed Senator John McCain . When Cryer did not make a public endorsement for the 2012 race , his spokeswoman said that the 2008 report aligning him with the Republican Party was a " mistake " and that Cryer is " not really political . " He had attended events for both Republicans and Democrats " because he wanted to hear what both sides had to say . "
With regards to presumptive 2016 GOP nominee Donald J. Trump , Cryer shared his feelings on the May 5 , 2016 episode of the podcast Never Not Funny . Cryer stated , " I have been pointing out , and I have been screaming to the rooftops , that Donald Trump is the Charlie Sheen of politics . [ ... ] I have to tell you , I love Charlie Sheen , I loved working with him when he was sober , but he was , he 's full of shit . He has been full of shit , you know , he has serious addiction . You know , his addiction is obviously serious , drugs , and , but , Trump is just addicted to feeling important . You know , and I think if anybody is under the delusion that he cares about , uh , uh , anybody in America besides himself , they are , they are stoned and need to rethink their priorities , ' cause he 's , you know , ' cause it 's just ridiculous that 's he 's gotten as far as he has . "
= = Filmography = =
= = = Film = = =
= = = Television = = =
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= 13th Airborne Division ( United States ) =
The 13th Airborne Division was an airborne forces formation of division @-@ size of the United States Army that was active during World War II . The division was commanded for most of its existence by Major General Eldridge G. Chapman . It was officially activated in the United States in August 1943 at Fort Bragg in North Carolina , remaining active until February 1946 , but never saw combat .
After activation the division remained in the United States to complete its training . This training was completed by September 1944 , but had to be extended by a further four months when the division provided replacements for the 82nd and 101st Airborne Divisions . The division also encountered delays in mounting large @-@ scale training exercises due to a lack of transport aircraft in the United States . This shortage was caused by the 82nd and 101st Airborne Divisions taking priority over the 13th in terms of equipment due to the two divisions serving in combat in Europe . As a consequence of these delays the division was only fully trained and combat @-@ ready by January 1945 , and was transferred to France and the European Theater of Operations in February .
When the division arrived in France , it came under the command of the First Allied Airborne Army , which controlled all Allied airborne formations . The division , along with two others , was selected to participate in Operation Varsity , the airborne operation to support the Anglo @-@ Canadian 21st Army Group crossing the River Rhine , but was removed from the operation due to there being insufficient transport aircraft to carry all three divisions into combat . Several other operations were planned for the division after the end of Operation Varsity , but these operations were cancelled when their objectives were captured by the rapid advance of Allied ground forces and they became superfluous . After the end of the conflict in Europe , the 13th Airborne was shipped to the United States to stage there before it was to participate in the planned invasion of Japan , but the conflict in the Far East ended before it was required and it remained in the United States . The 13th Airborne Division was finally inactivated on 26 February 1946 and its combat personnel were transferred to the command of the 82nd Airborne Division .
= = Formation = =
The 13th Airborne Division was the fifth airborne division to be formed in the United States during World War II , and was officially activated on Friday the 13th of August 1943 at Fort Bragg , North Carolina , under the command of Major General George W. Griner Jr . Only a few months after the activation of the division , however , Major General Griner was ordered to take command of the 98th Infantry Division , and was replaced by Major General Eldridge G. Chapman , who would go on to command the division for the rest of the conflict . Chapman was one of the early pioneers of the American airborne concept , commanding the experimental 88th Airborne Infantry Battalion in late 1941 when he was a lieutenant colonel , before going on to take command of the 13th Airborne Division . The 88th Airborne Infantry Battalion would be renamed as the 88th Airborne Infantry Regiment , and then finally become the 88th Glider Infantry Regiment on 21 September 1942 , forming the core of the 13th Airborne Division . When it was activated , the 13th Airborne Division was initially composed of the 515th Parachute Infantry Regiment , the 88th Glider Infantry Regiment and the 326th Glider Infantry Regiment .
= = Shoulder sleeve insignia = =
The division 's shoulder patch , a winged unicorn in orange on an ultramarine blue , the branch of service colours of the United States Army Air Corps , was approved on 2 June 1943 . A gold on black " Airborne " tab was worn above the insignia .
The unicorn is associated , by tradition , with qualities of virtue , courage and strength . The horn of the unicorn signifies extreme courage . All of such virtues should be cultivated in all units . It is hoped that these virtues will be conspicuous in the 13th Airborne Division . The unicorn has been winged to represent its travel in the air as " Airborne . " The blue background is the color of the Infantry , which is the basic arm of the Division , and also indicates the sky , which is the distinctive medium of travel for the Division .
= = Actions during World War II = =
= = = Training = = =
Between August 1943 and February 1945 , the 13th Airborne Division remained in the United States and did not serve overseas or participate in any airborne operations , as it began training to become a combat @-@ ready formation . In comparison , the 82nd and 101st Airborne Divisions had been assigned as active combat formations to serve overseas in Europe , the 11th Airborne Division was scheduled to be deployed to the Pacific Theater of Operations , and the 17th Airborne Division had been assigned as the United States strategic reserve formation . During this period , the activities of the division primarily involved airborne training , as well as taking part in several training exercises . However , while airborne training for the first four American airborne divisions was conducted during 1943 , the 13th encountered considerable difficulties when it came to its turn for training . By the last few months of 1943 the 82nd and 101st Airborne Divisions had conducted airborne exercises and finished their training , and had then been transferred to Europe ; to ensure the divisions could conduct airborne operations , a majority of the transport aircraft available in the United States had been sent with them , and even more were transferred to Europe as replacements after the American airborne landings in Normandy in June 1944 . Consequently , very few transport aircraft were available for use by the 13th , and the original training exercise for the division that had been scheduled for June 1944 had to be postponed until 17 September , and then once again until 24 September .
The divisional training exercise took place around Camp Mackall , North Carolina , and suffered from a number of difficulties and problems . Poor weather delayed the beginning of the exercise until the night of 25 September , and it was only then that the aircraft carrying the first three battalions of paratroopers could take off and attempt to drop the airborne troops on three separate drop zones . A combination of poor visibility , and a lack of sufficient training for the pilots of the transport aircraft , resulted in the paratroopers being dispersed widely when dropped . Only sixty @-@ five percent of the airborne troops and equipment dropped on the first drop zone were ready for action ninety minutes later , and in the second drop zone the airborne troops were so scattered that by 10 : 00 the next morning the commander of the battalion only had control over twenty percent of his men . A similar number of paratroopers missed the third drop zone , although the majority were dropped in a relatively small area where they could gather . Further problems were encountered , as a plane crash killed eight paratroopers and four aircrew , and the glider @-@ borne elements of the division due to land were delayed by poor weather . After the initial night , the exercise continued for a further three days and included a complex supply mission designed to test whether it was possible to supply an isolated battalion of airborne troops .
Overall , observers present for the exercise reported that they had been impressed with the performance of the glider @-@ borne elements of the division . However , several noted that the training of the aircraft pilots for night formation flying and navigation was far from satisfactory . A recommendation was made that night that glider landings should be considered only when an emergency existed , and that otherwise gliders should take off during the night and land during daylight to avoid the wide dispersal of airborne troops and a decrease in efficiency . After these exercises had ended , the division continued to train , but encountered further delays . These were caused when 1 @,@ 652 men were removed from the division to provide reinforcements for U.S. Airborne units in the European Theater ; this drastically reduced the strength of the division and forced it to extend its training period for a further four months . After completing its training in January the division was preparing to transfer to the Pacific Theatre in early 1945 . However , the rapid advances made by German forces during the Battle of the Bulge led to the division being transferred to the European Theatre of Operations to reinforce Allied divisions already in combat .
= = = European Theater of Operations = = =
The division arrived in the European Theater of Operations in early February , coming under the command of the First Allied Airborne Army , and Major General Chapman was informed that there was a possibility that the division would be required to conduct airborne operations during the closing stages of the Battle of the Bulge . However , the campaign in the Ardennes ended before the division could be transported there . The next chance for the 13th to participate in an airborne operation , and to actually see combat , was in March 1945 when the Allies had penetrated into Germany itself and reached the River Rhine . A few weeks before the division was to participate in a combat jump over the Rhine it was reorganized , after a conference by the War Department had decided that a more efficient composition for an airborne division was two Parachute Infantry Regiments and only a single Glider Infantry Regiment . Subsequently the 517th Parachute Infantry Regiment , a veteran unit that had served in Italy , Southern France and the Ardennes , joined the division in early March , and the 88th Glider Infantry Regiment was combined into the 326th Glider Infantry Regiment that remained as the division 's sole glider @-@ based element . The 517th had recently fought during the Ardennes campaign , and had received a Presidential Unit Citation for its actions .
The Rhine river was a formidable natural obstacle to the Allied advance , but if breached would allow the Allies access to the North German Plain and ultimately to advance on Berlin and other major cities in Northern Germany . Following the ' Broad Front Approach ' laid out by General Dwight D. Eisenhower , the Supreme Allied Commander of the Allied Expeditionary Force , it was decided to attempt to breach the Rhine in several areas . Field Marshal Bernard Montgomery , commanding the Anglo @-@ Canadian 21st Army Group , devised a plan to allow the forces under his command to breach the Rhine , which he titled Operation Plunder , and which was subsequently authorized by Eisenhower . Plunder envisioned the British Second Army , under Lieutenant @-@ General Miles C. Dempsey , and the U.S. Ninth Army , under Lieutenant General William Simpson , crossing the Rhine at Rees , Wesel , and an area south of the Lippe Canal . To ensure that the operation was a success , Montgomery insisted that an airborne component was inserted into the plans for the operation to support the amphibious assaults that would take place , which was code @-@ named Operation Varsity . Three airborne divisions were initially chosen to take part in Varsity , these being the British 6th Airborne Division , the U.S. 17th Airborne Division , and finally the 13th , all of which were assigned to U.S. XVIII Airborne Corps , commanded by Major General Matthew Ridgway . However , it was discovered that there were only enough transport aircraft available in Europe to transport two airborne divisions into combat , and as such it was removed from Operation Varsity due to its lack of combat experience .
After its removal from Operation Varsity , the division remained in reserve as the Allied armies advanced even further into Germany , moving to Oise , France , on 3 April for supply and administrative tasks . The division was scheduled to participate in several other airborne operations ; however , these were all cancelled before they could take place . The first of these was Operation Arena , which envisioned landing between six and ten divisions into what was termed a ' strategic airhead ' in the Kassel region of Northern Germany ; the planners of the operations envisioned that the operation would deny a large swathe of territory to the German defenders and give the Allied armies a staging area for further advances into Germany . The 13th was chosen to participate , along with the 17th , 82nd and 101st Airborne Divisions and the British 6th and 1st Airborne Divisions . A preliminary date for 1 May was set for the operation once all of the required airborne and air @-@ landed infantry divisions had been located and supplied , but it was ultimately cancelled on 26 March due to the rapid movement of Allied ground forces negating the need for the operation . Two other airborne operations were planned to include the 13th . Operation Choker II was to be an airborne landing on the east bank of the Rhine near Worms , Germany ; planning for the operation got to an advanced stage , and the division was only hours from taking off from airfields in France when the operation was cancelled due to Allied ground forces overrunning the proposed landing areas . Operation Effective was designed to land the 13th south of Stuttgart , seize a nearby airfield and create an airhead for further forces to land in near the Black Forest . The operation was scheduled for 22 April , but was cancelled on 18 April due to Allied units encircling the Black Forest region and making it unnecessary .
= = Inactivation = =
The conflict with Germany came to an end a few weeks after Operation Effective was cancelled , and shortly afterwards it was announced that the division would be redeployed to the Pacific to participate in the invasion of Japan after a brief stop @-@ over in the United States . The deactivation of the 17th Airborne Division meant that the 13th acquired several combat units from that division to bolster it for its envisioned action in Japan . The division arrived in New York City on 23 August , but did not leave the United States before the surrender of Japan in September 1945 . With the conflict at an end , the division was no longer required by the United States Army , and it was permanently inactivated at Fort Bragg , North Carolina , on 25 February 1946 , with its personnel transferred to the command of the 82nd Airborne Division .
= = Divisional order of battle = =
Units of the 13th Airborne Division included :
88th Glider Infantry Regiment ( disbanded 1 March 1945 , assets to the 326th GIR )
189th Glider Infantry Regiment ( disbanded 4 – 8 December 1943 , replaced by 88th GIR and 326th GIR )
190th Glider Infantry Regiment ( disbanded 4 – 8 December 1943 , replaced by 88th GIR and 326th GIR )
326th Glider Infantry Regiment
515th Parachute Infantry Regiment
517th Parachute Infantry Regiment , ( assigned 1 March 1945 ; replaced 88th GIR )
HHB , Division Artillery
458th Parachute Field Artillery Battalion ( 75 mm )
460th Parachute Field Artillery Battalion ( 75 mm ) ( assigned 22 February 1945 )
676th Glider Field Artillery Battalion ( 75 mm )
677th Glider Field Artillery Battalion ( 75 mm )
129th Airborne Engineer Battalion
153rd Airborne Antiaircraft Battalion
222nd Airborne Medical Company
13th Parachute Maintenance Company
Headquarters Special Troops
Headquarters Company , 13th Airborne Division
Military Police Platoon
713th Airborne Ordnance Maintenance Company
513th Airborne Signal Company
409th Airborne Quartermaster Company
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= Myrmeciites =
Myrmeciites is an extinct form genus of bulldog ants in the subfamily Myrmeciinae of the family Formicidae , which contains three described species and two fossils not placed beyond the genus level . Described in 2006 from Ypresian stage ( Early Eocene ) deposits , all three of the described species and one unplaced fossil are from British Columbia , Canada , while the second unplaced fossil is from Washington State , USA . These ants were large , with the largest specimens collected reaching 3 centimetres ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) . The behaviour of these ants would have been similar to extant Myrmeciinae ants , such as solitary foraging , nesting either in the soil or trees , and leaving no pheromone trail to food sources . Due to the poor preservation of these ants , their phylogenetic position among Myrmeciinae is unclear , and no type species has been designated . These ants are classified as incertae sedis in Myrmeciinae , but some writers have classified it as incertae sedis within the insect order Hymenoptera . This reclassification however has not been accepted ; instead , Myrmeciites remains in Myrmeciinae .
= = History and classification = =
Fossils of Myrmeciites were first studied and described by Bruce Archibald , Stefan Cover and Corrie Moreau of the Museum of Comparative Zoology in Cambridge , Massachusetts . They published their 2006 description of the form genus ( which is a collection of species formally described but cannot be identified to genus level ) in an Annals of the Entomological Society of America journal article . The genus name is a combination of the ant subfamily name " Myrmeciinae " and the Latin suffix " ites " , meaning " having the nature of " , which is commonly used in the naming of fossil taxa . Its phylogenetic position within Myrmeciinae is unclear , due to the incomplete and poor preservation of the collected specimens . The paper that described the form genus included the description of three species , including Myrmeciites herculeanus , Myrmeciites ( ? ) goliath , and Myrmeciites ( ? ) tabanifluviensis .
Archibald and colleagues classified Myrmeciites as incertae sedis ( Latin for " of uncertain placement " ) within the ant subfamily Myrmeciinae , as the specimens are too poorly preserved to be assigned to any tribe . However , in a 2008 paper , Cesare Baroni Urbani of the University of Basel , Switzerland , classified Myrmeciites as incertae sedis within the insect order Hymenoptera ( which comprises the sawflies , wasps , bees and ants ) because the critical characters used to identify Myrmeciinae ants , or even the family Formicidae cannot be carried out on Myrmeciites . Despite these comments , a 2012 report by Russian palaeoentomologist Gennady M. Dlussky does not make any comment in regard to Baroni Urbani 's views ; instead , he accepts the classification of Archibald and colleagues .
= = Description = =
Archibald , Cover , and Moreau erected the form genus as an encompassing category for all fossil ants which , while belonging to the subfamily Myrmeciinae , lack details needed for placement in other described genera . This may be due to preservation quality or positioning of the individual ant resulting in obscured details . As Myrmeciites is a form genus it does not have a designated type species per the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature .
= = = M. herculeanus = = =
M. herculeanus was described from a single side of a compression fossil found at the Middle Ypresian McAbee Fossil Beds , Kamloops Group , near Cache Creek , British Columbia . The incomplete specimen numbered UCCIPR L @-@ 18 F @-@ 974 , is currently preserved in the paleontology collections housed at the Thompson Rivers University , Kamloops , British Columbia . Archibald , Cover , and Moreau coined the specific epithet " herculeanus " from the Latin name " Hercules " in reference to the notably sturdy and large morphology of the type specimen , and after the divine hero Heracles in Greek mythology , who was the son of Zeus and Alcmene . The species is discernible from the other species of Myrmeciinae by its notably larger size , the worker caste ant is estimated at over 20 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) in life . Its size is comparable to ants in the genus Ypresiomyrma . The shape of the petiole , a narrow waist that is located between the mesosoma and gaster is distinct from other species and is similar in structure to the genus Prionomyrmex though the shape and size of the mandibles are distinct . Overall , M. herculeanus was assigned to Myrmeciinae due to its mandible length , despite them being poorly preserved , and due to the appearance of its petiole and propodeum . The legs are long in comparison to its body length , and the gaster is robust . It is unknown if the species had a sting , due to the preservation of the specimen . The size of the single known worker is larger than any of the studied queens ; as Myrmeciinae queens are slightly larger than the other castes in a species , this indicates M. herculeanus is most likely a distinct species . Due to the incomplete nature of the type specimen , the species was placed in Myrmeciites .
= = = M. ( ? ) goliath = = =
The second species described from the McAbee Fossil Beds is M. ( ? ) goliath and as with M. herculeanus , it is known from one specimen , though both the part and counterpart are known for M. ( ? ) goliath . The holotype is housed in the Thompson Rivers University , Kamloops , collections as UCCIPR L @-@ 18 F @-@ 999 and UCCIPRL @-@ 18 F @-@ 1000 for each side respectively . The species name " goliath " was chosen by Archibald , Cover and Moreau in reference to the mythological Goliath , due to the notable size of the ant . The holotype specimen is a partial worker or queen which is incomplete , with a notable portion of the gaster missing . The species can be separated from other ants by the large size , the holotype approaching 3 centimetres ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) . The only other Eocene ants in this size range are members of the genus Titanomyrma , that were formerly placed in Formicium . M. ( ? ) goliath is distinguishable from Titanomyrma by the shape and structure of the antennae and length of the legs , which are notably shorter in Titanomyrma . The head is very round and flattened , compound eyes are present and the mandibles are small , less than half the length of the head . The head is also small in proportion to the mesosoma . The legs are large and long , and a poorly preserved petiole is known . Most of the specimen is preserved in fine detail , but some characters are so poorly preserved that the exact placement of M. ( ? ) goliath within Myrmeciinae cannot be confirmed . Only future fossils that are better preserved can clarify the position of M. ( ? ) goliath .
= = = M. ( ? ) tabanifluviensis = = =
Unlike the other described Myrmeciites species , M. ( ? ) tabanifluviensis is the only species not from the McAbee Fossil Beds . The holotype , currently deposited in the Courtenay and District Museum paleontology collections as 2003 @.@ 2 @.@ 10 CDM 034 was recovered from shale of an unnamed formation outcropping near the town of Horsefly , British Columbia . The specimen is incomplete with both the head and portions of the mesosoma and gaster missing . The adult had an estimated length in life of over 1 @.@ 5 centimetres ( 0 @.@ 59 in ) . The right portions of the legs are well preserved while the left legs are missing with two metatibia spurs , one of which is long and the other is short and narrow . Due to the incomplete nature of the specimen and position of the preserved portions , the gender is not identifiable , though the presence of wings indicates it to be a reproductive adult . The small size of the specimen , with a fore @-@ wing length of approximately 12 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 47 in ) , separates this species from other members of the British Columbia Myrmeciinae . The type locality for the species , near the Horsefly River , was the basis for Archibald , Cover and Moreau choosing the specific epithet tabanifluviensis , combined with the horsefly genus name Tabanus , the Latin word fluvius meaning " river " and the sufix -ensis meaning " origin " or " place " . The justification of placing this ant in Myrmeciites is due to incomplete preservation .
= = = Unplaced specimens = = =
Two additional specimens were placed within the form genus but not into a specific species . The Courtenay and District Museum specimen 2003 @.@ 2 @.@ 9 CDM 03 a & b is a 2 centimetres ( 20 mm ) long partial male recovered from the Falkland site , near Falkland , British Columbia . The generally robust nature of the specimen excludes it from the genus Avitomyrmex , but the details needed for placement between the genera Ypresiomyrma and Macabeemyrma are not present . The Stonerose Interpretive Center specimen " SR 05 @-@ 03 @-@ 01 " is a possible queen or worker which would have been an estimated 1 @.@ 5 centimetres ( 15 mm ) long in life . Due to the lateral preservation of the specimen , most characters for placing the specimen into one of the defined species are obscured or absent . The specimen was recovered from outcrops of the Klondike Mountain Formation north west of Republic , Washington .
= = Ecology = =
Archibald and colleagues suggested that the behavioural habits for Myrmeciites ants , like that of other extinct Myrmeciinae taxa , may have been similar to its extant relatives . Workers would forage onto trees or vegetation to capture arthropod prey or to feed on nectar , soiling either in the ground or in the trees , making them an arboreal nesting insect . Like other Myrmeciine ants , Myrmeciites most likely did not lay pheromone trails or recruit nestmates to food sources ; these ants may have been solitary foragers , relying on their eyes to hunt for prey and for navigational purposes . The nuptial flight of M. ( ? ) tabanifluviensis probably occurred during the late spring or summer , as in extant relatives .
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= DJ Hero =
DJ Hero is a music video game , developed by FreeStyleGames and published by Activision as a rhythm game spin @-@ off of the Guitar Hero franchise . It was released on October 27 , 2009 in North America and on October 29 , 2009 in Europe . The game is based on turntablism , the act of creating a new musical work from one or more previously recorded songs using record players and sound effect generators , and features 94 remixes of two different songs from a selection of over 100 different songs across numerous genres .
To score points , the player must press buttons to activate accented beats , adjust their crossfade between the two songs , and " scratch " the turntable on the game 's custom controller in time to marks that scroll on the screen to score points and perform well for the virtual crowd . The game features both a single player Career mode and cooperative and competitive multiplayer modes . The game also features a mode for selected songs for a DJ player to play alongside another player using a Guitar Hero guitar controller . Many DJ and mix artists have contributed to the game both in the game 's development , the creation of mixes , and in lending their images for playable avatars in the game ; these including DJ Shadow , Z @-@ Trip , DJ AM , Grandmaster Flash , DJ Jazzy Jeff , and Daft Punk .
DJ Hero was generally well received by game journalists , praising the departure from the Guitar Hero series @-@ style of gameplay , the use of the turntable controller to simulate the motions of a DJ and how the game 's difficulty curve helps the player to become skilled on it , and the game 's soundtrack ; several smaller issues were identified as potential improvements for a possible sequel . However , the game did not perform as strongly as expected by industry analysts , believed to be due to the waning interest in music games during 2009 ; regardless , DJ Hero is stated by NPD Group to be the highest @-@ grossing new intellectual property of 2009 in North America .
= = Gameplay = =
DJ Hero primarily simulates turntablism , a musical style used by disc jockeys to create a new mashup song by incorporating one or more previously recorded songs played on record players along with sound effect generators . The game features score attack gameplay similar to the Guitar Hero games . The controller consists of a wireless deck consisting of a movable turntable that supports 3 " stream " buttons , an effects dial , a crossfader , and a " Euphoria " button ; a hidden panel contains additional controller buttons to interact with the gaming console outside of the game . A portion of the controller can be detached and reattached to adapt the unit for left @-@ handed players . Notes travel in an arc across a spinning record on screen , and the player holds down one of the 3 stream buttons to play notes ; two buttons reflect the two songs used in that particular mix , and the third represents samples to add to the mix which can be adjusted with the effects dial . The player must also constantly adjust the crossfader to match onscreen symbols , which alters the relative volume of the songs as to bring one song to the forefront of the mix for a short time . Certain tracks are shown on screen as a series of up or down arrow , representing scratching sections , requiring the player to turn the turntable in the direction of the arrows while holding down the button to score points , mimicking the scratching of the record needle on vinyl albums . " Euphoria " is equivalent to Guitar Hero 's Star Power , collected by successfully completing specific phrases in the song mix , called Perfect Regions , and can be released by pressing the Euphoria button , doubling the player 's current multiplier as well as automatic crossfading when active . There is also a " Rewind " meter that builds through consistent successful playing , and once full , allows the player to rewind the song to fix errors in their performance . The player must continue to perform well or their performance meter will drop and the music track will cut out . Failing the song is not possible , unlike in Guitar Hero games .
A single player career mode is available , as well both competitive and cooperative multiplayer modes ( " DJ vs DJ " ) , playable locally or remotely . Ten songs have been specially mixed to also support gameplay with Guitar Hero and other compatible guitar controllers in a " DJ vs Guitar " mode . Players can also use a microphone for a non @-@ scoring addition to the mix . A Party Play mode allows the game to automatically play the songs with the ability for a player to jump in and play at any time .
= = Development = =
Activision had initially applied for a trademark on the name DJ Hero in early 2008 , leading to speculation that Activision was making plans to compete against Konami 's Beatmania series of music video games with their own DJ game as a possible spinoff of their popular Guitar Hero series . FreeStyleGames , a small developer of music games , was employed to help produce localized downloadable content for Guitar Hero games and develop another yet @-@ to @-@ be announced music game . This game was later revealed to be DJ Hero . Activision CEO Robert Kotick confirmed the existence of DJ Hero in an interview with CNBC on January 20 , 2009 , revealing a release " later this year " . Activision CFO Thomas Tippl stated that DJ Hero would be aimed at a broader audience than the Guitar Hero games primarily through the use of more contemporary music in its soundtrack . Producer Will Townsend stated they opted for a wide variety of music to " make sure that everybody has something in there that they want . " DJ Hero was designed as a party game and to make the player " the life of the party " , giving ways for them to be " in control of the music " , according to Townsend .
FreeStyleGames teamed up with London based music production company Crossfade Cartel owned by Ofei Sakyi and Dan Neil to ensure the overall quality of the soundtrack . The 16 man music production team used a combination of MIDI software along with the music sequencer program , Ableton Live ; the MIDI information was used to construct the gameplay elements such as crossfading and scratching with additional custom export software . Because of this nature , Neil stated that it was much easier to alter a mix to meet certain gameplay goals , taking only a few minutes to complete , compared with the development of songs for Guitar Hero .
The team worked alongside artists and DJ 's for incorporation of songs into the game . Neil stated they brought to artists and DJ 's working prototypes of the game and hardware to show them what the sampled music and final mixes sounded like , garnering interest from these groups . This led to securing of rights from several groups for their songs , though this did occur late in the development process . Mixing with celebrity DJ 's was performed either though electronic communications , or at FreeStyleGames ' studios or the homes or studios of the DJ 's themselves ; the team outlined the goals of the game and requested mixes that emphasized the gameplay featured , but avoided hampering the creativity of the artists .
DJ Shadow was brought in by Activision during November and December 2008 , at least a year into the development into the game , to help select individual songs , help with creating the mixes , and provide additional input for the game , and will also be a playable DJ avatar in the game . He was able to identify old effects samples that were used in the past for scratching for the developers to include the game . To create the mixes , DJ Shadow first created a " dry version " of each mix which did not include any embellishments . DJ Shadow then proceeded to build off that to create the " wet version " with added effects that was used as the base for the gameplay 's mixes . Artists Eminem and Jay @-@ Z have also served as consultants for the game ; a special edition of DJ Hero was branded with their names , and included a limited edition of the controller , a music CD of their songs , a DJ stand , and a travel case for the units . This version is titled " Renegade Edition . " Jay @-@ Z stated that he " [ loved ] the freedom " that the game gives him , and was able to work closely with Activision to put in new mixes that he envisioned , and considered the game " a DJ 's universe " , while Eminem believed DJ Hero was a game that he could " see [ himself ] actually playing " . DJ 's Z @-@ Trip and DJ AM both created mixes for the game and will also be playable DJ 's in the game ; Z @-@ Trip will also help demonstrate the game at the 2009 E3 Conference . Cut Chemist and J.Period will also be assisting in creating mixes for the game . Grandmaster Flash , DJ Jazzy Jeff , and Daft Punk have contributed remixes to the soundtrack and will also appear as playable avatars . In the case of Daft Punk , a special venue inspired by the group 's Alive 2007 tour was created , that Tim Riley , Vice President for Music Affairs at Activision , considered to be " the next best thing to being at a Daft Punk concert " . David Guetta has also contributed three mixes that were made available as downloadable content for the game ; Guetta would also serve as a spokesperson in the game 's European marketing . As part of the game 's promotion , the DJ Hero controller appears in the music video for Kid Cudi 's " Make Her Say " .
On August 28 , 2009 , DJ AM , a significant contributor to DJ Hero , was found dead in his apartment in New York City . His death did not affect the release of the game . Tim Riley , vice president of music affairs for Activision , stated that " We are deeply saddened by the loss of DJ AM . We hope that his work on the game will be a fitting tribute to his creative spirit and musical talent " . Also , at least one promotional video for the game has included a screen commemorating the deceased DJ , with the message " DJ AM , 1973 – 2009 . In memory of a visionary . "
Neversoft 's Brian Bright revealed that the use of Guitar Hero guitar controllers within DJ Hero arose when they tried to create mixes of guitar @-@ heavy and rock tracks in the game ; they felt something was missing in these mixes and added in the Guitar Hero @-@ style of play alongside it . Bright has stated that , while too late for the planned release of Guitar Hero 5 , they are looking towards future instrument controller interoperability , including use of the DJ Hero controller into gameplay for future Guitar Hero titles , or using drum controllers within DJ Hero .
= = = DJ Hero 2 = = =
DJ Hero 2 was officially announced in June 2010 and was released in October 2010 , featuring more than 70 mashups from over 85 artists . The game includes several new gameplay modes , including a " Empire " career mode , head @-@ to @-@ head DJ battles , social multiplayer modes , and a jump @-@ in and out Party Play mode similar to Guitar Hero 5 . The game includes more vocal options for singing and rapping to songs , and a freestyle mode for players . Artists include Eminem , Daft Punk , Chamillionaire , Dr. Dre , Chemical Brothers , Kanye West , Metallica , Lady Gaga , and Rihanna , while Deadmau5 , DJ Qbert , David Guetta and Tiësto are playable avatars in the game .
Prior to the game 's announcement , Activision revealed a month before the game 's release that it is actively seeking artists for downloadable content and a sequel to the game . One DJ in speculation to appear is DJ BJ , including mixer DJ Qbert . David Guetta has stated that he is set to work on the game 's sequel to arrive late in 2010 . Activision CEO Bobby Kotick stated that despite low sales of DJ Hero , they are committed to continuing the series , with the sequel due in 2010 . The sequel , DJ Hero 2 , was further confirmed during an Activision investors report for 2009 , citing it as one of only 2 major Guitar Hero titles to be expected from Activision in 2010 , with an expected late @-@ 2010 release date .
= = = DJ Hero 3D = = =
At Nintendo 's E3 press conference on June 15 , 2010 , the Nintendo 3DS handheld console was revealed . At the conference Nintendo listed a number of publishers and franchises coming to the 3DS , one of whom was Activision with DJ Hero 3D , a new installment in the DJ Hero series and the first handheld DJ Hero title . The gameplay is similar in nature to DJ Hero , where the stylus and touchscreen are used to mimic scratching and crossfading between songs . It is unknown if the game is still in development after Activision stopped production of the Guitar Hero and DJ Hero franchises .
= = = Legal conflicts = = =
On April 15 , 2009 , the publishers of Scratch : The Ultimate DJ , Genius Products and Numark , sued against Scratch 's developer , 7 Studios and Activision . The lawsuit contends that Activision purchased 7 Studios to both gain access to proprietary technology and to delay publication of the game so DJ Hero could come out first . The Los Angeles Superior Court in which the suit was filed did not grant the requested restraining order against Activision on DJ Hero . Activision states that Scratch was already delayed by as early as October 2008 , before they made contact with 7 Studios , and their acquisition of the developers did not impede them from completing Scratch . However , on April 20 , the court reversed its decision , awarding Genius and Numark a temporary restraining order , and ordered the " immediate return " of all of the material from 7 Studios from Activision , including all source code related to Scratch . 7 Studios subsequently filed a counter @-@ suit against Genius Products , claiming that they engaged in " unlawful and unsavoury business practices " that limited 7 Studios from completing the game as planned .
= = Soundtrack = =
Over 100 individual songs based on master recordings were licensed by Activision , composed into 93 DJ mixes by both participating internationally known DJs and an in @-@ house remix team . Unusually , the audio team also acted as the design team , playtesting all mixes and creating gameplay in tandem with producing the mixes . All mixes were produced using Ableton Live , with most of the scratch routines being performed by former DMC World DJ Champion DJ Blakey . All mixes used in the soundtrack were unique at the time of the game 's release . Celebrity mix artists include DJ Shadow , DJ Z @-@ Trip , DJ AM , and Daft Punk in addition to other mix artists listed below , although Daft Punk did not create their levels - they were all created by the in @-@ house remix team . Initial industry speculation stated that DJ Tiësto would be involved with the game , but this was eventually denied . Mix Master Mike of the Beastie Boys was reported to have signed an exclusivity deal with 7 Studios to appear in their game Scratch : The Ultimate DJ , meaning that he would also not appear on DJ Hero .
The individual songs themselves were pulled from a large number of music genres , including Pop , Grunge , Soul , R & B , Techno , Hip Hop , House , Drum & Bass . Most mashup concepts were conceived by the in @-@ house remix team . In addition to mixes using individual songs from both Eminem and Jay @-@ Z , including Jay @-@ Z 's " Izzo ( H.O.V.A. ) " and " Dirt Off Your Shoulder " . Eminem also stated that he will have additional songs included later in the year as downloadable content for the game , such as the " Jay @-@ Z vs. Eminem Mix Pack " released in March 2010 , featuring three mash up @-@ style songs combining the works of both artists . Universal Music Group is providing much of the content for the game .
= = Reception = =
= = = Reviews = = =
DJ Hero has received positive reviews from the gaming press , who consider the title as a fresh restart of the music genre given the large number of titles based on guitar play . The turntable peripheral was considered to be well designed to meet the needs of the game . The unit 's weight , size , and shape , and ability to cater to both left- and right @-@ handed players was commended . Many reviewers noted a need to alter the action of the crossfader , either by having better physical feedback to the player to indicate the center of the knob 's track , or by reducing the width of the track to better handle the rapid crossfade maneuvers . Reviewers also noted that there was a certain weight to the turntable portion of the controller which made scratching imprecise , particularly with the inner blue button where only minimal torque can be applied . The learning curve of the game across the various mixes was highly commended by reviewers for helping players to get used to the new controller . When progressing from " Medium " to " Hard " and " Expert " levels and encountering more complex mixes , reviewers thought the game felt transformed , bringing a difficult but more rewarding experience to the player as they begin emulating every part of a real DJ 's motions . Johnny Minkley of Eurogamer considered that while the learning curve is steep , with the " Easy " difficulty being " less thrilling and engaging " compared to Guitar Hero , the game was " structured fabulously to nudge you gradually closer to the summit " with each successive career set and difficulty mode . Cam Shae of IGN Australia felt that the changes in " Hard " mode over " Medium " were somewhat excessive , introducing both more crossfade effects and button @-@ pressing , and felt these could have been introduced separately in " Hard " and " Expert " modes . Richard Li of 1UP.com noted that the inability to fail a song is both " a bane and a boon " ; newer players would not feel frustration at trying to get used to the controller and would be able to quickly unlock all the sets in the game 's career mode , but without knowing where they failed , they would not have an idea of where they need to hone their skills to improve their performance at the game . The omission of a practice mode was noted by Daemon Hatfield of IGN , believing it would help in some of the more complex mixes by the DJ celebrities . Reviewers believed that the small faults in DJ Hero can be easily fixed for potential sequels .
Reviewers found the on @-@ disc soundtrack to be generally strong ; Hatfield believed that " the entire soundtrack is superb and could easily stand on its own outside the game " . Matt Helgeson of Game Informer considered it to be one of the " most adventurous " soundtracks of any music game , and said though it often relied too much on pop hits , it remained true to the spirit of the DJ mix scene . Minkley thought the game to have " vital , varied , surprising and vast musical content " and to be a fresh experience compared to previous music games . Other reviewers felt the soundtrack had some weak areas . Shae noted that many of the mixes felt like " random mash @-@ ups that take disparate songs " , which would be appropriate for a live DJ , but does not reflect well on the art of mixing that can be performed today . Li noted a clear distinction in the quality of the mixes between the early sets — those mostly created in @-@ house by FreeStyleGames — and the latter sets centered on the work of famous DJs . While Ben Kuchera of Ars Technica felt the soundtrack was good , he asserted that individual songs were unrecognizable because of modifications made to them for the mixes , and that they were more difficult to adjust to within the gameplay itself .
Many reviews for DJ Hero felt the addition of the non @-@ scoring freeform samples during certain parts of mixes were unnecessary and difficult to use , and with the limited number of samples available , ultimately would lead to overuse and make the mixes sound worse . Reviewers were critical of the game 's lackluster multiplayer modes . The DJ @-@ vs @-@ DJ mode was considered poor as both players play the same mix , in consideration of current band @-@ based music games where different players can play different parts of a song . This leads to minimal engagement between players , with each just attempting to maximize their score whenever possible on the controller . While some reviewers considered the DJ @-@ vs @-@ Guitar modes to be fun , others felt it was more a novelty due to the current tracks offered for this mode in the game . The game 's graphics were also considered as a negative , often using many strobing lights and creating concerns about possible epilepic seizures that could occur while watching the game . The character designs of the non @-@ celebrity avatars also continued to have the same Muppet @-@ like appearances that occur in the Guitar Hero series , and are overly stereotyped .
Time named DJ Hero one of the ten best video games of 2009 , considering it " the new contender for best party game " . USA Today considered DJ Hero the best music game of the year . DJ Hero also won Best Soundtrack at the Spike Video Game Awards 2009 . DJ Hero has been nominated for the " Outstanding Achievement in Soundtrack " Interactive Achievement Award from the Academy of Interactive Arts & Sciences .
= = = Sales = = =
Prior to DJ Hero 's release , game industry analysts had projected the title would sell 1 @.@ 6 million units in its first fiscal quarter ; however , after disappointing sales performances of Guitar Hero 5 and The Beatles : Rock Band in the month prior to DJ Hero 's release , analysis had lowered that expectation to 600 @,@ 000 units . NPD Group figures for the month of October reported only 123 @,@ 000 units of the game were sold in the United States , below the 175 @,@ 000 units projected by analysts . November sales in North America were estimated at 211 @,@ 000 units . Through January 2010 , the game has sold 789 @,@ 000 units in North America . Ars Technica , in considering the game as a " flop " in its present market due to these numbers , attributes the failure being due to four factors : the game was not suited for social play , the cost was prohibitive in the current market , the mixes in the game were relatively unknown despite the individual songs being well @-@ known , and there was a lack of familiarity with how a turntable works for mixing compared with a guitar or drum kit . However , despite these figures , Activision claims that DJ Hero is the highest @-@ grossing new intellectual property of 2009 in North America based on NPD data , which reporters attribute to the game 's higher cost . Activision 's Dan Amirch cited total North American sales of over 1 @.@ 2 million units by June 2010 , and commented on the " long tail " of sales that made DJ Hero initially appear to be a failure but instead has been considered a successful title by his company but they ran out of business . They still make money off their games today .
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= The Griffin Family History =
" The Griffin Family History " ( also known as " Untitled Griffin Family History " ) is the 27th episode of the fourth season of the animated comedy series Family Guy . It originally aired on Fox in the United States on May 14 , 2006 . The episode begins after robbers break into the Griffin family home , so the family flees to safety in their panic room . Trapped with no way out , Peter decides to pass the time by telling his family the story of the Griffin family history , narrating a chain of events that describe their equally exotic and dysfunctional ancestry .
The episode was written by John Viener and directed by Zac Moncrief . The episode featured guest performances by Lori Alan as Diane Simmons , and featured Chris Sheridan , Joey Slotnick , Danny Smith and Phil LaMarr as various characters . The episode received generally negative reviews from television critics , who dismissed it as clichéd . According to Nielsen rating , it was viewed in 8 @.@ 03 million homes in its original airing . The episode writer , John Viener , was nominated for an Annie Award for Writing in an Animated Television Production .
= = Plot = =
While attempting to make Peter brush his teeth , Lois hears a noise from downstairs and discovers burglars have entered the house . The rest of the family awakens and flee to Peter 's self @-@ built panic room and begin to monitor what the robbers are doing through hidden cameras . Due to the room not having a telephone or an inside door handle , they cannot escape , and Peter begins to tell stories about the history of the Griffin family .
The stories begin with the big bang , and then moves to the Paleolithic Age , where it is revealed that Peter 's ancestor invented the wheel . The second story sees another Moses as a member of the Griffin family during the Bronze Age leading the Israelites to freedom . The family soon discovers that Meg can fit through the vent , so they force Meg through the vent and into the kitchen . Peter uses a loud speaker to contact Meg from the panic room , therefore alerting the burglars to the fact that somebody is in the kitchen . In order to take the family 's mind off Meg being captured , Peter tells the story of Nate Griffin . Nate lived in the small village of Quahogsuana , but was captured by a white version of Cleveland Brown from South Carolina and taken to the United States . He , along with Quagdingo and Joe Mama , prank the ship captain . While sleeping , they push his bed into the ocean . Nate is caught after briefly escaping and forced to work on a plantation . He falls in love with the owner 's daughter , Lois 's relatives , and together , they bring up a secret family . After being discovered by his lover 's father , the couple and their children escape , where Nate sets up the Department of Motor Vehicles to " get back at the white man " .
After finishing the story , Peter carelessly aims a flare gun through an air vent , causing the sprinklers to come on . Meanwhile , Meg is trying to persuade the burglars to rape her but they are not interested . The rest of the family , still trapped in the panic room , are preparing to potentially drown from the sprinklers filling the room up with water . Peter tells the story of his ancestor , Willie " Black @-@ Eye " Griffin , who was a silent film star in the 1920s , but whose career later faltered due to his voice ( much like Bobcat Goldthwait 's ) not being cut out for talking pictures . Peter then tells his family about his great uncle , Peter Hitler , who was able to provide Adolf Hitler with success at his Munich speech , although annoying Adolf greatly . As the water from the sprinklers almost reaches its peak , Peter admits to the family that he did not care for The Godfather and a heated debate ensues , ending with Peter declaring his love for The Money Pit . At the last minute Joe rescues them , draining the water out of the room , thus saving their lives . Joe informs the family he has arrested the burglars , but they are pressing sexual harassment charges against Meg . Joe warns that they will need a lawyer to combat the charges , but the family ignores him , and Joe finally gives up and takes Meg away while the family ignores her cries for help .
= = Production = =
" The Griffin Family History " was written by John Viener and was directed by Zac Moncrief . It guest starred Lori Alan as Diane Simmons and featured Chris Sheridan , Joey Slotnick , Danny Smith and Phil LaMarr as various characters . During the episode 's depiction of how the universe was created , God exclaims " ah , you smell that ? " after holding a lighter to his butt when performing flatus ; this segment of audio was not broadcast on the Fox version of the episode . An additional scene not shown during the televised version was when the Griffins are depicted as dinosaurs . Originally , a Michael Jackson @-@ related scene was to be included in the episode , but it was re @-@ scheduled for a later episode due to limited time on this episode . In the original draft of the episode , Brian 's speech informing Peter of the dangers in the woods during the Nate Griffin story was intended to be longer , including Brian talking about automobile ratings , though it was shortened for unknown reasons . MacFarlane praises the animation sequence showing a horse running around Lois ' bedroom , describing it as " a piece of brilliance " .
Show producers removed a sketch which would include a rape joke upon Carter 's discovery of his daughter , Lois , with her secret family on the southern plantation . Unlike past requests to cut and / or alter jokes , this was not one imposed by the broadcast standards and practices ; this was done on the writers ' own accord . The sequence showing Peter 's silent film star ancestor being stabbed in a card fight was omitted from television broadcasting to save time . Near the end of the episode , the Griffins are shown arguing over the quality of The Godfather ; this scene is drawn from an actual argument that has taken place in the Family Guy writing room over its quality . MacFarlane prefers The ' Burbs and The Money Pit , both of which were received very poorly . Adolf Hitler talking to his wife about his annoyance at Peter Hitler , was also removed from television broadcasting for timing purposes .
= = Cultural references = =
The basic premise of the episode , as well as the design of Peter 's panic room , are based on the movie Panic Room . When Peter 's Paleolithic ancestor is attempting to market the wheel , Brian tells him " You so money , you don 't even know it " , a reference to the film Swingers . The story of Nate Griffin , an ancestor of Peter , makes references to the first installment of Roots , as well as the LAPD 's low @-@ speed pursuit of O. J. Simpson following his wife 's murder and the song " Hot for Teacher " . The scene in which the slave ship captain is thrown overboard uses the song " Are You Ready For the Summer " , from the film Meatballs . The story about Peter 's ancestor who was a silent film star is a spoof of Singin ' in the Rain , as the girl in Singin ' in the Rain did not have a good voice for the talking pictures .
= = Reception = =
" Untitled Griffin Family History " finished 49th in the weekly ratings for the week of May 8 – 14 , 2006 , with a Nielsen rating of 8 @.@ 03 . The episode received generally negative reviews from critics . In his review of the episode , Bob Sassone of TV Squad commented " All in all , a so @-@ so episode . It started rather strong but got weaker as it went along " . In his review of Family Guy , volume four , Michael Drucker of IGN stated " Untitled Griffin Family History " to be " as cliché as the tropes they 're mocking " . Despite this , John Viener , the writer of the episode was nominated for an Annie Award for Writing in an Animated Television Production .
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= Scream ( roller coaster ) =
Scream ( originally stylised as Scream ! ) is a floorless roller coaster at Six Flags Magic Mountain . Manufactured by Bolliger & Mabillard , Scream was the park 's sixteenth roller coaster and is located in Screampunk District area of the park . The 150 @-@ foot @-@ tall ( 46 m ) ride consists of a series of roller coaster elements including seven inversions ranging from a zero @-@ g roll to interlocking corkscrews . The ride is a mirror image of Bizarro at Six Flags Great Adventure . Unlike its counterpart , Scream has been criticized for its lack of theming . Scream is one of the less popular rides at the park with a wait time that is often 5 minutes or shorter .
= = History = =
In 1999 , Six Flags Great Adventure spent $ 42 million on new attractions including a prototype Floorless Coaster , Medusa ( later renamed Bizarro ) , developed and built by Bolliger & Mabillard . The immediate popularity of the ride led to several parks installing Floorless Coasters in the early 2000s .
In November 2002 , parts for Scream began arriving at Six Flags Magic Mountain . On November 14 , 2002 , the park officially announced that they would be adding Scream for the 2003 season , making it the park 's sixteenth roller coaster . According to the park , the ride was added to fill the " missing link to our coaster collection " . After five months construction , Scream officially opened to the public on April 12 , 2003 .
On April 9 , 2004 , a park employee was killed when they were hit by one of Scream 's trains during an after @-@ hours test run . According to a statement issued by the park , the employee " deviated from safety training procedures and walked underneath the ride " . The ride was closed immediately pending clearance by the California Occupational Safety and Health Administration . The administration cleared the ride for operation within two weeks .
= = Characteristics = =
= = = Statistics = = =
The 3 @,@ 985 @-@ foot @-@ long ( 1 @,@ 215 m ) Scream stands 150 feet ( 46 m ) tall . With a top speed of 63 miles per hour ( 101 km / h ) , the ride features seven inversions including a 128 @-@ foot @-@ tall ( 39 m ) vertical loop , a 96 @-@ foot @-@ tall ( 29 m ) dive loop , a zero @-@ g roll , a 78 @-@ foot @-@ tall ( 24 m ) cobra roll , and two interlocking corkscrews . Although the ride is a mirrored clone of the first Floorless Coaster ( Medusa / Bizarro at Six Flags Great Adventure ) , they feature a slight difference in height of about 8 feet ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) , and a difference in speed of 2 miles per hour ( 3 @.@ 2 km / h ) .
= = = Trains = = =
Scream operates with three floorless trains . Each train seats 32 riders in eight rows of four . This gives the ride a theoretical capacity of 1 @,@ 440 riders per hour . The open @-@ air trains feature seats which leave riders ' legs dangling above the track . Riders are restrainted with over @-@ the @-@ shoulder restraints . As the trains are floorless , the station has a retractable floor for safe boarding .
= = Ride experience = =
Once the train is loaded and secured , the floor is retracted and the train departs the station . A U @-@ turn to the right leads to the 150 @-@ foot @-@ tall ( 46 m ) chain lift hill . Once riders reach the top , they go through a small pre @-@ drop before dropping 141 feet ( 43 m ) to the right . The train then reaches a top speed of 63 miles per hour ( 101 km / h ) and enters the 128 @-@ foot @-@ tall ( 39 m ) vertical loop followed by a turn to the left into the 96 @-@ foot @-@ tall ( 29 m ) dive loop . After the diving loop , the train passes the station and goes through a zero @-@ g roll , where riders experience a feeling of weightlessness . The train then goes through the 78 @-@ foot @-@ tall ( 24 m ) cobra roll , a roller coaster element which inverts riders twice . Riders then enter the mid @-@ course brake run which is located next to the lift hill . The train drops out of the brake run to the right and enters a 270 @-@ degree helix followed by the two interlocking corkscrews . Riders to through a small dip then enter the final brake run before returning to the station .
= = Reception = =
The reception of Scream has been mixed . Arthur Levine of About.com gives the ride 4 out of 5 stars . He states " it 's remarkably smooth , loaded with airtime , and has plenty of surprises to warrant its name " . Levine did criticise the lack of theming and landscaping around the ride noting the immediate area surrounding the ride " includes a bone yard of coaster seats and parts " . Robert Niles of the Los Angeles Times shared a similar sentiment , stating " Scream creates an effective illusion that you are alone , flying above the track " but questions the ride 's location on a former parking lot . He highlights " a good story can elicit extreme thoughts and emotions . [ ... ] Why ignore those opportunities when building a thrill ride ? " . Niles concluded by stating " I feel a little neglected as I shuffle off the otherwise exciting ride " , referring to the lack of theming or storyline . Lynn Arave of the Deseret News praised the ride , rating it alongside the Riddler 's Revenge for the best rides in the park .
Scream has never featured in Amusement Today 's annual Golden Ticket Awards top 50 steel roller coasters . The mirrored clone at Six Flags Great Adventure peaked at position 16 in its debut year before ranking a further six times in the list .
In Mitch Hawker 's worldwide Best Roller Coaster Poll , Scream entered at position 52 in 2003 , before dropping to a low of 159 in the 2012 poll . The ride 's ranking in the poll is summarised in the table below .
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= Omaha , Nebraska =
Omaha ( / ˈoʊməhɑː / OH @-@ mə @-@ hah ) is the largest city in the state of Nebraska and the county seat of Douglas County . Omaha is located in the Midwestern United States on the Missouri River , about 10 miles ( 15 km ) north of the mouth of the Platte River . Omaha is the anchor of the Omaha @-@ Council Bluffs metropolitan area , which includes Council Bluffs , Iowa , across the Missouri River from Omaha . According to the 2010 census , Omaha 's population was 408 @,@ 958 , making it the nation 's 43rd @-@ largest city . According to the 2014 Population Estimates , Omaha 's population was 446 @,@ 599 . Including its suburbs , Omaha formed the 60th @-@ largest metropolitan area in the United States in 2013 , with an estimated population of 895 @,@ 151 residing in eight counties . The Omaha @-@ Council Bluffs @-@ Fremont , Nebraska @-@ IA Combined Statistical Area is 931 @,@ 667 , according to the U.S. Census Bureau 's 2013 estimate . There are nearly 1 @.@ 3 million residents within the Greater Omaha area , comprising a 50 @-@ mile ( 80 km ) radius of Downtown Omaha , the city 's center .
Omaha 's pioneer period began in 1854 , when the city was founded by speculators from neighboring Council Bluffs , Iowa . The city was founded along the Missouri River , and a crossing called Lone Tree Ferry earned the city its nickname , the " Gateway to the West " . Omaha introduced this new West to the world in 1898 , when it played host to the World 's Fair , dubbed the Trans @-@ Mississippi Exposition . During the 19th century , Omaha 's central location in the United States spurred the city to become an important national transportation hub . Throughout the rest of the 19th century , the transportation and jobbing sectors were important in the city , along with its railroads and breweries . In the 20th century , the Omaha Stockyards , once the world 's largest , and its meatpacking plants gained international prominence .
Today , Omaha is the home to the headquarters of five Fortune 500 companies : mega @-@ conglomerate Berkshire Hathaway ; packaged @-@ food giant ConAgra Foods ; one of the world 's largest construction companies , Kiewit Corporation ; insurance and financial firm Mutual of Omaha ; and the United States ' largest railroad operator , Union Pacific Corporation . Berkshire Hathaway is headed by local investor Warren Buffett , one of the richest people in the world , according to a decade 's worth of Forbes Magazine rankings , some of which have ranked him as high as No. 1 . Omaha is also the home to five Fortune 1000 headquarters : Green Plains Renewable Energy , TD Ameritrade , Valmont Industries , Werner Enterprises , and West Corporation . Also headquartered in Omaha are First National Bank of Omaha , the largest privately held bank in the United States ; three of the nation 's largest 10 architecture / engineering firms : DLR Group , HDR , Inc . , and Leo A Daly ; the Gallup Organization , of Gallup Poll fame ; and its riverfront Gallup University . Enron began in Omaha as Northern Natural Gas in 1930 , before taking over a smaller Houston company in 1985 to form InterNorth , which Kenneth Lay moved permanently to Houston , in 1987 .
The modern economy of Omaha is diverse and built on skilled knowledge jobs . In 2009 , Forbes identified Omaha as the nation 's number one " Best Bang @-@ For @-@ The Buck City " and ranked it number one on " America 's Fastest @-@ Recovering Cities " list . Tourism in Omaha benefits the city 's economy greatly , with the annual College World Series providing important revenue and the city 's Henry Doorly Zoo serving as the top attraction in Nebraska as well as being named the best zoo in the world by Trip Advisor in 2014 . Also , Omaha hosted the U.S. Olympic swim trials in 2008 , 2012 and 2016 . There is speculation that the swim trials , which serve as a major tourist attraction , will take place in Omaha again in 2020
Notable modern Omaha inventions include : the bobby pin and the " pink hair curler " , at Omaha 's Tip Top ; Butter Brickle Ice Cream and the Reuben sandwich , conceived by a chef at the then @-@ Blackstone Hotel on 33rd and Farnam Streets ; cake mix , developed by Duncan Hines , then a division of Omaha 's Nebraska Consolidated Mills , the forerunner to today 's ConAgra Foods ; center @-@ pivot irrigation by the Omaha company now known as Valmont Corporation ; Raisin Bran , developed by Omaha 's Skinner Macaroni Co . ; the ski lift , in 1936 , by Omaha 's Union Pacific Corp ; the " Top 40 " radio format , pioneered by Todd Storz , scion of Omaha 's Storz Brewing Co . , and head of Storz Broadcasting , which was the first in the U.S. to use the " Top 40 " format at Omaha 's KOWH Radio ; and the TV dinner , developed by Omaha 's Carl Swanson Co .
A character in a Rudyard Kipling essay claimed " dice were invented in Omaha , and the man who invented ' em , he made a colossal fortune . "
= = History = =
Various Native American tribes had lived in the land that became Omaha , including since the 17th century , the Omaha and Ponca , Dhegian @-@ Siouan @-@ language people who had originated in the lower Ohio River valley and migrated west by the early 17th century ; Pawnee , Otoe , Missouri , and Ioway . The word Omaha ( actually Umoⁿhoⁿ or Umaⁿhaⁿ ) means " Dwellers on the bluff " .
In 1804 the Lewis and Clark Expedition passed by the riverbanks where the city of Omaha would be built . Between July 30 and August 3 , 1804 , members of the expedition , including Meriwether Lewis and William Clark , met with Oto and Missouria tribal leaders at the Council Bluff at a point about 20 miles ( 30 km ) north of present @-@ day Omaha . Immediately south of that area , Americans built several fur trading outposts in succeeding years , including Fort Lisa in 1812 ; Fort Atkinson in 1819 ; Cabanné 's Trading Post , built in 1822 , and Fontenelle 's Post in 1823 , in what became Bellevue . There was fierce competition among fur traders until John Jacob Astor created the monopoly of the American Fur Company . The Mormons built a town called Cutler 's Park in the area in 1846 . While it was temporary , the settlement provided the basis for further development in the future .
Through 26 separate treaties with the United States federal government , Native American tribes in Nebraska gradually ceded the lands currently comprising the state . The treaty and cession involving the Omaha area occurred in 1854 when the Omaha Tribe ceded most of east @-@ central Nebraska . Logan Fontenelle , an interpreter for the Omaha and signatory to the 1854 treaty , played an essential role in those proceedings .
= = = Pioneer Omaha = = =
Before it was legal to claim land in Indian Country , William D. Brown was operating the Lone Tree Ferry to bring settlers from Council Bluffs , Iowa to the area that became Omaha . Brown is generally credited as having the first vision for a city where Omaha now sits . The passage of the Kansas – Nebraska Act in 1854 was presaged by the staking out of claims around the area to become Omaha by residents from neighboring Council Bluffs . On July 4 , 1854 , the city was informally established at a picnic on Capital Hill , current site of Omaha Central High School . Soon after , the Omaha Claim Club was formed to provide vigilante justice for claim jumpers and others who infringed on the land of many of the city 's founding fathers . Some of this land , which now wraps around Downtown Omaha , was later used to entice Nebraska Territorial legislators to an area called Scriptown . The Territorial capitol was located in Omaha , but when Nebraska became a state in 1867 , the capital was relocated to Lincoln , 53 miles ( 85 km ) south @-@ west of Omaha . The U.S. Supreme Court later ruled against numerous landowners whose violent actions were condemned in Baker v. Morton .
Many of Omaha 's founding figures stayed at the Douglas House or the Cozzens House Hotel . Dodge Street was important early in the city 's early commercial history ; North 24th Street and South 24th Street developed independently as business districts , as well . Early pioneers were buried in Prospect Hill Cemetery and Cedar Hill Cemetery . Cedar Hill closed in the 1860s and its graves were moved to Prospect Hill , where pioneers were later joined by soldiers from Fort Omaha , African Americans and early European immigrants . There are several other historical cemeteries in Omaha , historical Jewish synagogues and historical Christian churches dating from the pioneer era , as well . The city 's pioneering history is celebrated at two sculpture parks , Pioneer Courage and Spirit of Nebraska 's Wilderness and The Transcontinental Railroad .
= = = 19th century = = =
The economy of Omaha boomed and busted through its early years . Omaha was a stopping point for settlers and prospectors heading west , either overland or via the Missouri River . The steamboat Bertrand sank north of Omaha on its way to the goldfields in 1865 . Its massive collection of artifacts is on display at the nearby Desoto National Wildlife Refuge . The jobbing and wholesaling district brought new jobs , followed by the railroads and the stockyards . Groundbreaking for the First Transcontinental Railroad in 1863 , provided an essential developmental boom for the city . The Union Pacific Railroad was authorized by the U.S. Congress to begin building westward railways in 1862 ; in January 1866 it commenced construction out of Omaha .
Equally as important , the Union Stockyards were founded in 1883 . Within twenty years of the founding of the Union Stockyards in South Omaha , four of the five major meatpacking companies in the United States were located in Omaha . By the 1950s , half the city 's workforce was employed in meatpacking and processing . Meatpacking , jobbing and railroads were responsible for most of the growth in the city from the late 19th century through the early decades of the 20th century .
Immigrants soon created ethnic enclaves throughout the city , including Irish in Sheelytown in South Omaha ; Germans in the Near North Side , joined by the European Jews and black migrants from the South ; Little Italy and Little Bohemia in South Omaha . Beginning in the late 19th century , Omaha 's upper class lived in posh enclaves throughout the city , including the south and north Gold Coast neighborhoods , Bemis Park , Kountze Place , Field Club and throughout Midtown Omaha . They traveled the city 's sprawling park system on boulevards designed by renowned landscape architect Horace Cleveland . The Omaha Horse Railway first carried passengers throughout the city , as did the later Omaha Cable Tramway Company and several similar companies . In 1888 , the Omaha and Council Bluffs Railway and Bridge Company built the Douglas Street Bridge , the first pedestrian and wagon bridge between Omaha and Council Bluffs . Gambling , drinking and prostitution were widespread in the 19th century , first rampant in the city 's Burnt District and later in the Sporting District . Controlled by Omaha 's political boss Tom Dennison by 1890 , criminal elements enjoyed support from Omaha 's " perpetual " mayor , " Cowboy Jim " Dahlman , nicknamed for his eight terms as mayor . Calamities such as the Great Flood of 1881 did not slow down the city 's violence . In 1882 , the Camp Dump Strike pitted state militia against unionized strikers , drawing national attention to Omaha 's labor troubles . The Governor of Nebraska had to call in U.S. Army troops from nearby Fort Omaha to protect strikebreakers for the Burlington Railroad , bringing along Gatling guns and a cannon for defense . When the event ended , one man was dead and several were wounded . In 1891 , a mob hanged Joe Coe , an African @-@ American porter after he was accused of raping a white girl . There were several other riots and civil unrest events in Omaha during this period as well .
In 1898 , Omaha 's leaders , under the guidance of Gurdon Wattles , held the Trans @-@ Mississippi and International Exposition , touted as a celebration of agricultural and industrial growth throughout the Midwest . The Indian Congress , which drew more than 500 American Indians from across the country , was held simultaneously . More than 2 million visitors attended these events , located at Kountze Park and the Omaha Driving Park in the Kountze Place neighborhood .
= = = 20th century = = =
With dramatically increasing population in the 20th century , there was major civil unrest in Omaha , resulting from competition and fierce labor struggles . In 1900 , Omaha was the center of a national uproar over the kidnapping of Edward Cudahy , Jr . , the son of a local meatpacking magnate .
The city 's labor and management clashed in bitter strikes , racial tension escalated as blacks were hired as strikebreakers , and ethnic strife broke out . A major riot by ethnic whites in South Omaha destroyed the city 's Greek Town in 1909 , completely driving out the Greek population .
The civil rights movement in Omaha has roots that extend back to 1912 , when the first chapter of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People west of the Mississippi River was founded in the city .
The Omaha Easter Sunday Tornado of 1913 destroyed much of the city 's African @-@ American community , in addition to much of Midtown Omaha .
Six years later , in 1919 , the city was caught up in the Red Summer riots when thousands of ethnic whites marched from South Omaha to the courthouse to lynch a black worker , Willy Brown , a suspect in an alleged rape of a white woman . The mob burned the Douglas County Courthouse to get the prisoner , causing more than $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 damage . They hung and shot Will Brown , then burned his body . Troops were called in from Fort Omaha to quell the riot , prevent more crowds gathering in South Omaha , and to protect the black community in North Omaha .
The culture of North Omaha thrived throughout the 1920s through 1950s , with several creative figures , including Tillie Olsen , Wallace Thurman , Lloyd Hunter , and Anna Mae Winburn emerging from the vibrant Near North Side .
Musicians created their own world in Omaha , and also joined national bands and groups that toured and appeared in the city .
After the tumultuous Great Depression of the 1930s , Omaha rebounded with the development of Offutt Air Force Base just south of the city . The Glenn L. Martin Company operated a factory there in the 1940s that produced 521 B @-@ 29 Superfortresses , including the Enola Gay and Bockscar used in the atomic bombing of Japan in World War II .
The construction of Interstates 80 , 480 and 680 , along with the North Omaha Freeway , spurred development . There was also controversy , particularly in North Omaha , where several neighborhoods were bisected by new routes . Creighton University hosted the DePorres Club , an early civil rights group whose sit @-@ in strategies for integration of public facilities predated the national movement , starting in 1947 .
Following the development of the Glenn L. Martin Company bomber manufacturing plant in Bellevue at the beginning of World War II , the relocation of the Strategic Air Command to the Omaha suburb in 1948 provided a major economic boost to the area .
From the 1950s through the 1960s , more than 40 insurance companies were headquartered in Omaha , including Woodmen of the World and Mutual of Omaha . By the late 1960s , the city rivaled , but never surpassed , the United States insurance centers of Hartford , Connecticut , New York City and Boston , Massachusetts .
After surpassing Chicago in meat processing by the late 1950s , Omaha suffered the loss of 10 @,@ 000 jobs as both the railroad and meatpacking industries restructured . The city struggled for decades to shift its economy as workers suffered . Poverty became more entrenched among families who remained in North Omaha .
In the 1960s , three major race riots along North 24th Street destroyed the Near North Side 's economic base , with recovery slow for decades . In 1969 , Woodmen Tower was completed and became Omaha 's tallest building and first major skyscraper at 478 feet ( 146 m ) , a sign of renewal .
Since the 1970s , Omaha has continued expanding and growing , mostly to available land to the west . West Omaha has become home to the majority of the city 's population . North and South Omaha 's populations continue to be centers of new immigrants , with economic and racial diversity . In 1975 a major tornado , along with a major blizzard , caused more than $ 100 million in damages in 1975 dollars .
Downtown Omaha has since been rejuvenated in numerous ways , starting with the development of Gene Leahy Mall and W. Dale Clark Library in the late 1970s . In the 1980s , Omaha 's fruit warehouses were converted into a shopping area called the Old Market .
The demolition of Jobber 's Canyon in 1989 led to the creation of the ConAgra Foods campus . Several nearby buildings , including the Nash Block , have been converted into condominiums . The stockyards were taken down ; the only surviving building is the Livestock Exchange Building , which was converted to multi @-@ use and listed on the National Register of Historic Places .
A historic preservation movement in Omaha has led to a number of historic structures and districts being designated Omaha Landmarks or listed on the National Register of Historic Places . Much of the push toward preservation came after Omaha gained the notorious designation of having , in 1989 , demolished the largest @-@ ever National Register historic district in the United States , a record that still stands as of 2013 . The Jobbers Canyon Historic District , along the Missouri River , was felled for a new headquarters campus for ConAgra Foods , a company which threatened to relocate if Omaha did not allow them to raze the city 's historic district . The Jobber 's Canyon warehouses had before then been allowed to deteriorate and were the scene of several fires set by the homeless population that had come to live in the abandoned buildings . At the time , there were no plans in place for revitalizing the buildings .
In the 1980s and 1990s , Omaha also saw major company headquarters leave the city , including Enron , founded in the city in 1930 and taken to Houston in 1987 by the now @-@ notorious Kenneth Lay . First Data Corporation , a large credit @-@ card processor , also was founded in Omaha in 1969 ; as of 2009 , its headquarters are in Atlanta .
Inacom , founded in Omaha in 1991 , was a technology company that customized computer systems for large businesses , and was on the Fortune 500 list from 1997 until 2000 , when it filed for bankruptcy . Northwestern Bell , the Bell System affiliate for Northwestern states , had its headquarters in Omaha from its founding in 1896 until it moved to Denver in 1991 as US West . Level 3 Communications , a large Tier 1 network provider , was founded in Omaha in 1985 as Kiewit Diversified Group , a division of Kiewit Corporation , a Fortune 500 construction and mining company still headquartered in Omaha ; Level 3 moved to Denver in 1998 . World Com was founded by a merger with Omaha 's MFS Communications , started as Metropolitan Fiber Systems in 1993 . MFS , backed by Kiewit Corporation CEO Walter Scott and Warren Buffett , purchased UUNET , one of the largest Internet backbones in the world , for $ 2 billion in 1996 . The now @-@ infamous Bernie Ebbers purchased the much larger MFS for $ 14 @.@ 3 billion in 1997 under his World Com . He moved headquarters of the merged company from Omaha to Mississippi .
= = = 21st century = = =
Around the start of the 21st century , several new downtown skyscrapers and cultural institutions were built . One First National Center was completed in 2002 , surpassing the Woodmen Tower as the tallest building in Omaha as well as in the state at 634 feet ( 193 m ) . The creation of the city 's new North Downtown included the construction of the CenturyLink Center and the Slowdown / Film Streams development at North 14th and Webster Streets . Construction of the new TD Ameritrade Park began in 2009 and was completed in 2011 , also in the North Downtown area , near the CenturyLink Center .
New construction has occurred throughout the city since the start of the 21st century . Important retail and office developments have occurred in West Omaha such as the Village Pointe shopping center and several business parks including First National Business Park and parks for Bank of the West and C & A Industries , Inc and Morgan Stanley Smith Barney and several others . Downtown and Midtown Omaha have both seen the development of a significant number of condominiums in recent years . In Midtown Omaha significant mixed @-@ use projects are underway . The site of the former Ak @-@ Sar @-@ Ben arena has been redeveloped into a mixed use development Aksarben Village . In January 2009 Blue Cross Blue Shield of Nebraska announced plans to build a new 10 story , $ 98 million headquarters , in the Aksarben Village , completed in Spring 2011 . Gordmans is also currently building their new corporate headquarters in Aksarben . The other major mixed @-@ use development is Midtown Crossing at Turner Park . Developed by Mutual of Omaha , the development includes several condominium towers and retail businesses built around Omaha 's Turner Park .
The Holland Performing Arts Center opened in 2005 near the Gene Leahy Mall and the Union Pacific Center opened in 2004 .
There have also been several developments along the Missouri River waterfront in downtown . The Bob Kerrey Pedestrian Bridge was opened to foot and bicycle traffic on September 28 , 2008 . Started in 2003 , RiverFront Place Condos first phase was completed in 2006 and is fully occupied and the second phase was opened in 2011 . The development along Omaha 's riverfront is attributed with prompting the City of Council Bluffs to move their own riverfront development time line forward .
In the summers of 2008 , 2012 and 2016 the United States Olympic Team swimming trials were held in Omaha , at the Qwest / Century Link Center . The event was a highlight in the city 's sports community , as well as a showcase for redevelopment in the downtown area .
= = Geography = =
See also : Geography of Omaha , Omaha @-@ Council Bluffs metropolitan area .
Omaha is located at 41 ° 15 ′ N 96 ° 0 ′ W. According to the United States Census Bureau , the city has a total area of 130 @.@ 58 square miles ( 338 @.@ 20 km2 ) , of which 127 @.@ 09 square miles ( 329 @.@ 16 km2 ) is land and 3 @.@ 49 square miles ( 9 @.@ 04 km2 ) is water . Situated in the Midwestern United States on the bank of the Missouri River in eastern Nebraska , much of Omaha is built in the Missouri River Valley . Other significant bodies of water in the Omaha @-@ Council Bluffs metropolitan area include Lake Manawa , Papillion Creek , Carter Lake , Platte River and the Glenn Cunningham Lake . The city 's land has been altered considerably with substantial land grading throughout Downtown Omaha and scattered across the city . East Omaha sits on a flood plain west of the Missouri River . The area is the location of Carter Lake , an oxbow lake . The lake was once the site of East Omaha Island and Florence Lake , which dried up in the 1920s .
The Omaha @-@ Council Bluffs metropolitan area consists of eight counties ; five in Nebraska and three in Iowa . The metropolitan area now includes Harrison , Pottawattamie , and Mills Counties in Iowa and Washington , Douglas , Sarpy , Cass , and Saunders Counties in Nebraska . This area was formerly referred to only as the Omaha Metropolitan Statistical Area and consisted of only five counties : Pottawattamie in Iowa , and Washington , Douglas , Cass , and Sarpy in Nebraska . The Omaha @-@ Council Bluffs combined statistical area comprises the Omaha @-@ Council Bluffs metropolitan statistical area and the Fremont Micropolitan statistical area ; the CSA has a population of 858 @,@ 720 ( 2005 Census Bureau estimate ) . Omaha ranks as the 42nd @-@ largest city in the United States , and is the core city of its 60th @-@ largest metropolitan area . There are currently no consolidated city @-@ counties in the area ; the City of Omaha studied the possibility extensively through 2003 and concluded , " The City of Omaha and Douglas County should merge into a municipal county , work to commence immediately , and that functional consolidations begin immediately in as many departments as possible , including but not limited to parks , fleet management , facilities management , local planning , purchasing and personnel . "
Geographically , Omaha is considered as being located in the " Heartland " of the United States . Important environmental impacts on the natural habitat in the area include the spread of invasive plant species , restoring prairies and bur oak savanna habitats , and managing the whitetail deer population .
Omaha is home to several hospitals , located mostly along Dodge St ( US6 ) . Being the county seat , it is also the location of the county courthouse .
= = = Neighborhoods = = =
Omaha is generally divided into six geographic areas : Downtown , Midtown , North Omaha , South Omaha , West Omaha , and East Omaha . West Omaha includes the Miracle Hills , Boys Town , Regency , and Gateway areas . There is also a small community in East Omaha . The city has a wide range of historical and new neighborhoods and suburbs that reflect its socioeconomic diversity . Early neighborhood development happened in ethnic enclaves , including Little Italy , Little Bohemia , Little Mexico and Greek Town . According to U.S. Census data , five European ethnic enclaves existed in Omaha in 1880 , expanding to nine in 1900 .
Around the start of the 20th century. the City of Omaha annexed several surrounding communities , including Florence , Dundee and Benson . At the same time , the city annexed all of South Omaha , including the Dahlman and Burlington Road neighborhoods . From its first annexation in 1857 ( of East Omaha ) to its recent and controversial annexation of Elkhorn , Omaha has continually had an eye towards growth .
Starting in the 1950s , development of highways and new housing led to movement of middle class to suburbs in West Omaha . Some of the movement was designated as white flight from racial unrest in the 1960s . Newer and poorer migrants lived in older housing close to downtown ; those residents who were more established moved west into newer housing . Some suburbs are gated communities or have become edge cities . Recently , Omahans have made strides to revitalize the downtown and Midtown areas with the redevelopment of the Old Market , Turner Park , Gifford Park , and the designation of the Omaha Rail and Commerce Historic District .
= = = Landmark preservation = = =
Omaha is home to dozens of nationally , regionally and locally significant landmarks . The city has more than a dozen historic districts , including Fort Omaha Historic District , Gold Coast Historic District , Omaha Quartermaster Depot Historic District , Field Club Historic District , Bemis Park Historic District , and the South Omaha Main Street Historic District . Omaha is notorious for its 1989 demolition of 24 buildings in the Jobbers Canyon Historic District , which represents to date the largest loss of buildings on the National Register . The only original building surviving of that complex is the Nash Block .
Omaha has almost one hundred individual properties listed on the National Register of Historic Places , including the Bank of Florence , Holy Family Church , the Christian Specht Building and the Joslyn Castle . There are also three properties designated as National Historic Landmarks .
Locally designated landmarks , including residential , commercial , religious , educational , agricultural and socially significant locations across the city , honor Omaha 's cultural legacy and important history . The City of Omaha Landmarks Heritage Preservation Commission is the government body that works with the mayor of Omaha and the Omaha City Council to protect historic places . Important history organizations in the community include the Douglas County Historical Society .
= = = Climate = = =
Omaha , due to its latitude of 41 @.@ 26 ˚ N and location far from moderating bodies of water or mountain ranges , displays a humid continental climate ( Köppen Dfa ) , with hot summers and mild to cold , relatively dry winters . July averages 76 @.@ 7 ° F ( 24 @.@ 8 ° C ) , with moderate , to sometimes high humidity which then leads to relatively frequent thunderstorms . Temperatures reach 90 ° F ( 32 ° C ) on 29 days and 100 ° F ( 38 ° C ) on 1 @.@ 7 days annually . The January daily average is 23 @.@ 5 ° F ( − 4 @.@ 7 ° C ) , with lows reaching 0 ° F ( − 18 ° C ) on 11 days annually . The lowest temperature recorded in the city was − 32 ° F ( − 36 ° C ) on January 5 , 1884 , and the highest 114 ° F ( 46 ° C ) on July 25 , 1936 . Average yearly precipitation is 30 @.@ 6 inches ( 777 mm ) , falling mostly in the warmer months . What precipitation that does fall in winter usually takes the form of snow , with average seasonal snowfall being 28 @.@ 7 inches ( 73 cm ) .
Based on 30 @-@ year averages obtained from NOAA 's National Climatic Data Center for the months of December , January and February , Weather Channel ranked Omaha the 5th coldest major U.S. city as of 2014 .
= = Demographics = =
= = = 2010 census = = =
As of the census of 2010 , there were 408 @,@ 958 people , 162 @,@ 627 households , and 96 @,@ 477 families residing in the city . The population density was 3 @,@ 217 @.@ 9 inhabitants per square mile ( 1 @,@ 242 @.@ 4 / km2 ) . There were 177 @,@ 518 housing units at an average density of 1 @,@ 396 @.@ 8 per square mile ( 539 @.@ 3 / km2 ) . The racial makeup of the city was 73 @.@ 1 % White , 13 @.@ 7 % African American , 0 @.@ 8 % Native American , 2 @.@ 4 % Asian , 0 @.@ 1 % Pacific Islander , 6 @.@ 9 % from other races , and 3 @.@ 0 % from two or more races . Hispanic or Latino of any race were 13 @.@ 1 % of the population . Non @-@ Hispanic Whites were 68 @.@ 0 % of the population .
There were 162 @,@ 627 households of which 31 @.@ 3 % had children under the age of 18 living with them , 40 @.@ 6 % were married couples living together , 13 @.@ 7 % had a female householder with no husband present , 4 @.@ 9 % had a male householder with no wife present , and 40 @.@ 7 % were non @-@ families . 32 @.@ 3 % of all households were made up of individuals and 9 @.@ 3 % had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older . The average household size was 2 @.@ 45 and the average family size was 3 @.@ 14 .
The median age in the city was 33 @.@ 5 years . 25 @.@ 1 % of residents were under the age of 18 ; 11 @.@ 4 % were between the ages of 18 and 24 ; 27 @.@ 9 % were from 25 to 44 ; 24 @.@ 4 % were from 45 to 64 ; and 11 @.@ 4 % were 65 years of age or older . The gender makeup of the city was 49 @.@ 2 % male and 50 @.@ 8 % female .
= = = 2000 census = = =
As of the census of 2000 , there were 390 @,@ 007 people , 156 @,@ 738 households , and 94 @,@ 983 families residing within city limits . The population density was 3 @,@ 370 @.@ 7 people per square mile ( 1 @,@ 301 @.@ 5 / km2 ) . There were 165 @,@ 731 housing units at an average density of 1 @,@ 432 @.@ 4 per square mile ( 553 @.@ 1 / km2 ) . The racial makeup of the city was 78 @.@ 4 % White , 13 @.@ 3 % African American , 0 @.@ 7 % Native American , 1 @.@ 7 % Asian , 0 @.@ 1 % Pacific Islander , 3 @.@ 9 % from other races , and 1 @.@ 9 % from two or more races . 7 @.@ 5 % of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race .
The median income for a household in the city was US $ 40 @,@ 006 , and the median income for a family was $ 50 @,@ 821 . Males had a median income of $ 34 @,@ 301 versus $ 26 @,@ 652 for females . The per capita income for the city was $ 21 @,@ 756 . 11 @.@ 3 % of the population and 7 @.@ 8 % of families lived below the poverty line . Out of the total population , 15 @.@ 6 % of those under the age of 18 and 7 @.@ 4 % of those 65 and older were living below the poverty line .
= = = People = = =
Native Americans were the first residents of the Omaha area . The city of Omaha was established by European Americans from neighboring Council Bluffs who arrived from the Northeast United States a few years earlier . While much of the early population was of Yankee stock , over the next 100 years numerous ethnic groups moved to the city . In 1910 , the Census Bureau reported Omaha 's population as 96 @.@ 4 % White and 3 @.@ 6 % Black . Irish immigrants in Omaha originally moved to an area in present @-@ day North Omaha called " Gophertown " , as they lived in dirt dugouts . That population was followed by Polish immigrants in the Sheelytown neighborhood , and many immigrants were recruited for jobs in South Omaha 's stockyards and meatpacking industry . The German community in Omaha was largely responsible for founding its once @-@ thriving beer industry , including the Metz , Krug , Falstaff and the Storz breweries .
Since its founding , ethnic groups in the city have clustered in enclaves in north , south and downtown Omaha . In its early days , the sometimes lawless nature of a new frontier city included crime , such as illicit gambling and riots .
In the early 20th century , Jewish immigrants set up numerous businesses along the North 24th Street commercial area . It suffered with the loss of industrial jobs in the 1960s and later , the shifting of population west of the city . The commercial area is now the center of the African American community , concentrated in North Omaha . The African @-@ American community has maintained its social and religious base , while it is currently experiencing an economic revitalization .
The Little Italy neighborhood grew south of downtown , as many Italian immigrants came to the city to work in the Union Pacific shops . Scandinavians first came to Omaha as Mormon settlers in the Florence neighborhood . Czechs had a strong political and cultural voice in Omaha , and were involved in a variety of trades and businesses , including banks , wholesale houses , and funeral homes . The Notre Dame Academy and Convent and Czechoslovak Museum are legacies of their residence . Today the legacy of the city 's early European immigrant populations is evident in many social and cultural institutions in Downtown and South Omaha .
Mexicans originally immigrated to Omaha to work in the rail yards . Today they compose the majority of South Omaha 's Hispanic population and many have taken jobs in meat processing . Other significant early ethnic populations in Omaha included Danes , Poles , and Swedes .
A growing number of African immigrants have made their homes in Omaha in the last twenty years . There are approximately 8 @,@ 500 Sudanese living in Omaha , comprising the largest population of Sudanese refugees in the United States . Most have immigrated since 1995 because of warfare in their nation . Ten different tribes are represented , including the Nuer , Dinka , Equatorians , Maubans and Nubians . Most Sudanese people in Omaha speak the Nuer language . Other Africans have immigrated to Omaha as well , with one @-@ third from Nigeria , and significant populations from Kenya , Togo , Cameroon and Ghana .
With the expansion of railroad and industrial jobs in meatpacking , Omaha attracted many new immigrants and migrants . As the major city in Nebraska , it has historically been more racially and ethnically diverse than the rest of the state . At times rapid population change , overcrowded housing and job competition have aroused racial and ethnic tensions . Around the start of the 20th century , violence towards new immigrants in Omaha often erupted out of suspicions and fears .
The Greek Town Riot in 1909 flared after increased Greek immigration , Greeks ' working as strikebreakers , and the killing of an Irish policeman provoked violence among earlier immigrants such as ethnic Irish . That mob violence forced the Greek immigrant population to flee from the city . By 1910 , 53 @.@ 7 % of Omaha 's residents and 64 @.@ 2 % of South Omaha 's residents were foreign born or had at least one parent born outside of America . Six years after the Greek Town Riot , in 1915 , a Mexican immigrant named Juan Gonzalez was killed by a mob near Scribner , a town in the Greater Omaha metropolitan area . The event occurred after an Omaha Police Department officer was investigating a criminal operation selling goods stolen from the nearby railroad yards . Racial profiling targeted Gonzalez as the culprit . After escaping the city , he was trapped along the Elkhorn River , where the mob , including several policemen from Omaha , shot him more than twenty times . Afterward it was discovered that Gonzalez was unarmed , and that he had a reliable alibi for the time of the murder . Nobody was ever indicted for his lynching . In the fall of 1919 , following Red Summer , postwar social and economic tensions , the earlier hiring of blacks as strikebreakers , and job uncertainty contributed to a mob from South Omaha lynching Willy Brown and the ensuing Omaha Race Riot . Trying to defend Brown , the city 's mayor , Edward Parsons Smith , was lynched also , surviving only after a quick rescue .
Similar to other industrial cities in the U.S. , Omaha suffered severe job losses in the 1950s , more than 10 @,@ 000 in total , as both the railroad and meatpacking industries restructured . Stockyards and packing plants were located closer to ranches , and union achievements were lost as wages declined in surviving jobs . Many workers left the area if they could get to other jobs . Poverty deepened in areas of the city whose residents had depended on those jobs , specifically North and South Omaha . At the same time , with reduced revenues , the city had less financial ability to respond to longstanding problems . Despair after the assassination of Dr. Martin Luther King , Jr. in April 1968 contributed to riots in North Omaha , including one at the Logan Fontenelle Housing Project . For some , the Civil Rights Movement in Omaha , Nebraska evolved towards black nationalism , as the Black Panther Party was involved in tensions in the late 1960s . Organizations such as the Black Association for Nationalism Through Unity became popular among the city 's African @-@ American youth . This tension culminated in the cause célèbre trial of the Rice / Poindexter Case , in which an Omaha Police Department officer was killed by a bomb while answering an emergency call .
Whites in Omaha have followed the white flight pattern , suburbanizing to West Omaha over time . In the late 1990s and early 2000s , gang violence and incidents between the Omaha Police and black residents undermined relations between groups in North and South Omaha . More recent Hispanic immigrants , concentrated in South Omaha , have struggled to earn living wages in meatpacking , adapt to a new society , and deal with discrimination .
= = Economy = =
According to USA Today , Omaha ranks eighth among the nation 's 50 largest cities in both per @-@ capita billionaires and Fortune 500 companies . With diversification in several industries , including banking , insurance , telecommunications , architecture / construction , and transportation , Omaha 's economy has grown dramatically since the early 1990s . In 2001 Newsweek identified Omaha as one of the Top 10 high @-@ tech havens in the nation . Six national fiber optic networks converge in Omaha .
Omaha 's most prominent businessman is Warren Buffett , nicknamed the " Oracle of Omaha " , who is regularly ranked one of the richest people in the world . Five Omaha @-@ based companies : Berkshire Hathaway , ConAgra Foods , Union Pacific Railroad , Mutual of Omaha , and Kiewit Corporation , are among the Fortune 500 .
Omaha is the headquarters of several other major corporations , including the Gallup Organization , TD Ameritrade , infoGROUP , Werner Enterprises , First National Bank , Gavilon and First Comp Insurance . Many large technology firms have major operations or operational headquarters in Omaha , including Bank of the West , First Data , PayPal and LinkedIn . The city is also home to three of the 30 largest architecture firms in the United States , including HDR , Inc . , DLR Group , Inc . , and Leo A Daly . Omaha has the fifth highest percentage of low @-@ income African Americans in the country . In 2013 , Forbes ' named Omaha among its list of the Best Places for Business and Careers .
= = = Top employers = = =
According to the Greater Omaha Economic Development Partnership , the largest regional employers are :
= = = Tourism = = =
Tourist attractions in Omaha include history , sports , outdoors and cultural experiences . Its principal tourist attractions are the Henry Doorly Zoo and the College World Series . The Old Market in Downtown Omaha is another major attraction and is important to the city 's retail economy . The city has been a tourist destination for many years . Famous early visitors included British author Rudyard Kipling and General George Crook . In 1883 Omaha hosted the first official performance of the Buffalo Bill 's Wild West Show for eight thousand attendees . In 1898 the city hosted more than 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 visitors from across the United States at the Trans @-@ Mississippi and International Exposition , a world 's fair that lasted for more than half the year .
Research on leisure and hospitality situates Omaha in the same tier for tourists as the neighboring cities of Des Moines , Iowa , Topeka , Kansas , Kansas City , Missouri , Oklahoma City , Oklahoma , Denver , Colorado , and Sioux Falls , South Dakota . A recent study found that investment of $ 1 million in cultural tourism generated approximately $ 83 @,@ 000 in state and local taxes , and provided support for hundreds of jobs for the metropolitan area , which in turn led to additional tax revenue for government .
= = Culture = =
The city 's historical and cultural attractions have been lauded by numerous national newspapers , including the Boston Globe and The New York Times . Omaha is home to the Omaha Community Playhouse , the largest community theater in the United States . The Omaha Symphony Orchestra and its modern Holland Performing Arts Center , the Opera Omaha at the Orpheum theater , the Blue Barn Theatre , and The Rose Theater form the backbone of Omaha 's performing arts community . Opened in 1931 , the Joslyn Art Museum has significant art collections . Since its inception in 1976 , Omaha Children 's Museum has been a place where children can challenge themselves , discover how the world works and learn through play . The Bemis Center for Contemporary Arts , one of the nation 's premier urban artist colonies , was founded in Omaha in 1981 , and the Durham Museum is accredited with the Smithsonian Institution for traveling exhibits . The city is also home to the largest singly funded mural in the nation , " Fertile Ground " , by Meg Saligman . The annual Omaha Blues , Jazz , & Gospel Festival celebrates local music along with the Omaha Black Music Hall of Fame .
In 1955 Omaha 's Union Stockyards overtook Chicago 's stockyards as the United States ' meat packing center . This legacy is reflected in the cuisine of Omaha , with renowned steakhouses such as Gorat 's and the recently closed Mister C 's , as well as the retail chain Omaha Steaks .
= = = Henry Doorly Zoo = = =
The Henry Doorly Zoo is widely considered one of the premier zoos in the world . The zoo is home to the world 's largest nocturnal exhibit and indoor swamp ; the world 's largest indoor rainforest , the world 's largest indoor desert , and the largest geodesic dome in the world ( 13 stories tall ) . The Zoo is Nebraska 's number one paid attendance attraction and has welcomed more than 25 million visitors over the past 40 years .
= = = Old Market = = =
The Old Market is a major historic district in Downtown Omaha listed on the National Register of Historical Places . Today , its warehouses and other buildings house shops , restaurants , bars , coffee shops , and art galleries . Downtown is also the location of the Omaha Rail and Commerce Historic District , which has several art galleries and restaurants as well . The Omaha Botanical Gardens features 100 acres ( 40 ha ) with a variety of landscaping , and the new Kenefick Park recognizes Union Pacific Railroad 's long history in Omaha . North Omaha has several historical cultural attractions including the Dreamland Historical Project , Love 's Jazz and Art Center , and the John Beasley Theater . The annual River City Roundup is celebrated at Fort Omaha , and the neighborhood of Florence celebrates its history during " Florence Days " . Native Omaha Days is a biennial event celebrating Near North Side heritage .
Religious institutions reflect the city 's heritage . The city 's Christian community has several historical churches dating from the founding of the city . There are also all sizes of congregations , including small , medium and megachurches . Omaha hosts the only Church of Jesus Christ of Latter @-@ day Saints temple in Nebraska , along with a significant Jewish community . There are 152 parishes in the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Omaha , and several Orthodox Christian congregations throughout the city .
= = = Music = = =
Omaha 's rich history in rhythm and blues , and jazz gave rise to a number of influential bands , including Anna Mae Winburn 's Cotton Club Boys and Lloyd Hunter 's Seranaders . Rock and roll pioneer Wynonie Harris ; jazz great Preston Love ; drummer Buddy Miles ; and Luigi Waites are among the city 's homegrown talent . Doug Ingle from the late 1960s band Iron Butterfly was born in Omaha as was indie @-@ folk singer / songwriter Elliott Smith , though both were raised elsewhere .
Today , the diverse culture of Omaha includes a variety of performance venues , museums , and musical heritage , including the historically significant jazz scene in North Omaha and the modern and influential " Omaha Sound " .
Contemporary music groups either located in or originally from Omaha include Mannheim Steamroller , Bright Eyes , The Faint , Cursive , Azure Ray , Tilly and the Wall and 311 . During the late 1990s , Omaha became nationally known as the birthplace of Saddle Creek Records , and the subsequent " Omaha Sound " was born from their bands ' collective style .
Omaha also has a fledgling hip hop scene . Long @-@ time bastion Houston Alexander , a one @-@ time graffiti artist and professional Mixed Martial Arts competitor , is currently a local hip @-@ hop radio show host . Cerone Thompson , known as " Scrybe " , has had a number one single on college radio stations across the United States . He has also had several number one hits on the local hip hop station respectively titled , " Lose Control " and " Do What U Do " . More recently , in 2009 Eric Scheid , also known as " Titus " , released a single called " What Do You Believe " featuring Bizzy Bone from the nationally known hip hop group Bone Thugs @-@ n @-@ Harmony . The single was produced by Omaha producer J Keez . The record was released by Smashmode Publishing and Timeless Keys Music Publishing which are two Omaha @-@ based music publishing companies . South Omaha 's OTR Familia , consisting of MOC and Xpreshin aka XP , have worked with Fat Joes Terror Squad on several songs and have participated in summer concerts with Pitbull , Nicky Jam , and Aventura .
A long heritage of ethnic and cultural bands have come from Omaha . The Omaha Black Music Hall of Fame celebrates the city 's long history of African @-@ American music and the Strathdon Caledonia Pipe Band carries on a Scottish legacy . Internationally renowned composer Antonín Dvořák wrote his Ninth ( " New World " ) Symphony in 1893 based on his impressions of the region after visiting Omaha 's robust Czech community . In the period surrounding World War I Valentin J. Peter encouraged Germans in Omaha to celebrate their rich musical heritage , too . Frederick Metz , Gottlieb Storz and Frederick Krug were influential brewers whose beer gardens kept many German bands active .
= = = Popular culture = = =
In 1939 , the world premiere of the film Union Pacific was held in Omaha , Nebraska and the accompanying three @-@ day celebration drew 250 @,@ 000 people . A special train from Hollywood carried director Cecil B. DeMille and stars Barbara Stanwyck and Joel McCrea . Omaha 's Boys Town was made famous by the Spencer Tracy and Mickey Rooney movie Boys Town . Omaha has been featured in recent years by a handful of relatively big budget motion pictures . The city 's most extensive exposure can be accredited to Omaha native Alexander Payne , the Oscar @-@ nominated director who shot parts of About Schmidt , Citizen Ruth and Election in the city and suburbs of Papillion and La Vista .
Built in 1962 , Omaha 's Cinerama was called Indian Hills Theater . Its demolition in 2001 by the Nebraska Methodist Health System was unpopular , with objections from local historical and cultural groups and luminaries from around the world . The Dundee Theatre is the lone surviving single @-@ screen movie theater in Omaha and still shows films . A recent development to the Omaha film scene was the addition of Film Streams 's Ruth Sokolof Theater in North Downtown . The two @-@ screen theater is part of the Slowdown facility . It features new American independents , foreign films , documentaries , classics , themed series , and director retrospectives . There are many new theaters opening in Omaha . In addition to the five Douglas Theatres venues in Omaha , two more are opening , including Midtown Crossing Theatres , located on 32nd and Farnam Streets by the Mutual of Omaha Building . Westroads Mall has opened a new multiplex movie theater with 14 screens , operated by Rave Motion Pictures .
Songs about Omaha include " Omaha " by Moby Grape , " Omaha " , by the indie rock band Tapes ' n Tapes , " Omaha " by Counting Crows , " Omaha Celebration " by Pat Metheny , " Omaha " sung by Waylon Jennings , " Greater Omaha " by Desaparecidos , " Omaha Stylee " by 311 and " ( Ready Or Not ) Omaha Nebraska " by Bowling for Soup .
Popular young adult novel " Eleanor & Park " by Rainbow Rowell ( St. Martin 's Press , 2013 ) takes place in Omaha .
The 1935 winner of the Triple Crown of Thoroughbred Racing was named Omaha , and after traveling the world the horse eventually retired to a farm south of the city . The horse made promotional appearances at Ak @-@ Sar @-@ Ben during the 1950s and following his death in 1959 was buried at the racetrack 's Circle of Champions .
= = Sports and recreation = =
Sports have been important in Omaha for more than a century , and the city currently plays host to three minor @-@ league professional sports teams . It is perhaps more known as the home of the College World Series , to which it has played host since 1950 . The Kings , an NBA franchise , called Omaha and Kansas City home from 1972 to 1978 . The Kansas City @-@ Omaha Kings split their time between the two cities , playing at Kansas City 's Municipal Auditorium and the Omaha Civic Auditorium , before decamping solely to Kansas City until 1985 , when the team moved to its current home of Sacramento .
The Omaha Sports Commission is a quasi @-@ governmental nonprofit organization that coordinates much of the professional and amateur athletic activity in the city , including the 2008 , 2012 and 2016 US Olympic Swimming Team Trials and the building of a new stadium in North Downtown . The University of Nebraska and the Commission co @-@ hosted the 2008 National Collegiate Athletic Association ( NCAA ) Division One Women 's Volleyball Championship in December of that year . The 2016 Big 10 Baseball Championship was also played at the College World Series Stadium . Another quasi @-@ governmental board , the Metropolitan Entertainment and Convention Authority ( MECA ) , was created by city voters in 2000 , and is responsible for maintaining the CenturyLink Center Omaha .
Omaha 's Johnny Rosenblatt Stadium was home to the Omaha Storm Chasers ( at the time known as the Omaha Royals ) minor @-@ league baseball team ( the AAA affiliate of the Kansas City Royals ) . From 1950 to 2010 , it hosted the annual NCAA College World Series , or CWS , men 's baseball tournament in mid @-@ June .
After Rosenblatt Stadium closed , its tenants moved to new venues . On April 16 , 2011 , the Omaha Storm Chasers moved to Werner Park . The CWS moved to the downtown TD Ameritrade Park in 2011 . Omaha is also home to the Omaha Diamond Spirit , a collegiate summer baseball team that plays in the MINK league .
Omaha was home to a new expansion team in the United Football League that play from 2010 to 2011 . The Omaha Beef indoor football team played at the Omaha Civic Auditorium until 2012 when they moved to the new Ralston Arena .
The Creighton University Bluejays compete in a number of NCAA Division I sports as members of the Big East Conference . Baseball is played at TD Ameritrade Park Omaha , soccer is played at Morrison Stadium , and basketball is played at the 18 @,@ 000 seat CenturyLink Center . The Jays annually rank in the top 15 in attendance each year , averaging more than 16 @,@ 000 people per game . The Omaha Mavericks , representing the University of Nebraska Omaha ( UNO ) , also play Basketball , Baseball and Soccer in NCAA Division I as members of The Summit League . The UNO men 's ice hockey team plays in the National Collegiate Hockey Conference .
Ice hockey is a popular spectator sport in Omaha and there are two Omaha @-@ area teams . The Omaha Lancers , a United States Hockey League team play at the Ralston Arena . The Omaha Mavericks play in the on @-@ campus Baxter Arena .
Omaha has a thriving running community and many miles of paved running and biking trails throughout the city and surrounding communities . The Omaha Marathon involves a half @-@ marathon and a 10 @-@ kilometer ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) race that take place annually in September . Omaha also has a history of curling , including multiple junior national champions . The city 's historic boulevards were originally designed by Horace Cleveland in 1889 to work with the parks to create a seamless flow of trees , grass and flowers throughout the city . Florence Boulevard and Fontenelle Boulevard are among the remnants of this system . Omaha boasts more than 80 miles ( 129 km ) of trails for pedestrians , bicyclists and hikers . They include the American Discovery Trail , which traverses the entire United States , and the Lewis and Clark National Historic Trail passes through Omaha as it travels 3 @,@ 700 miles ( 5 @,@ 950 km ) westward from Illinois to Oregon . Trails throughout the area are included in comprehensive plans for the city of Omaha , the Omaha metropolitan area , Douglas County , and long @-@ distance coordinated plans between the municipalities of southeast Nebraska .
= = Government and politics = =
Omaha has a strong mayor form of government , along with a city council that is elected from seven districts across the city . The current mayor is Jean Stothert , who was elected in May 2013 . The longest serving mayor in Omaha 's history was " Cowboy " Jim Dahlman , who served 20 years over eight terms . He was regarded as the " wettest mayor in America " because of the flourishing number of bars in Omaha during his tenure . Dahlman was a close associate of political boss Tom Dennison . During Dahlman 's tenure , the city switched from its original strong @-@ mayor form of government to a city commission government . In 1956 , the city switched back .
The city clerk is Buster Brown . The City of Omaha administers twelve departments , including finance , police , human rights , libraries and planning . The Omaha City Council is the legislative branch and is made up seven members elected from districts across the city . The council enacts local ordinances and approves the city budget . Government priorities and activities are established in a budget ordinance approved annually . The council takes official action through the passage of ordinances and resolutions . Nebraska 's constitution grants the option of home rule to cities with more than 5 @,@ 000 residents , meaning they may operate under their own charters . Omaha is one of only three cities in Nebraska to use this option , out of 17 eligible . The City of Omaha is currently considering consolidating with Douglas County government .
Although registered Republicans outnumbered Democrats in the 2nd congressional district , which includes Omaha , Democratic presidential candidate Barack Obama opened three campaign offices in the city with 15 staff members to cover the state in fall 2008 . Mike Fahey , the former Democratic mayor of Omaha , said he would do whatever it took to deliver the district 's electoral vote to Obama ; and the Obama campaign considered the district " in play " . Former Nebraska U.S. Senator Bob Kerrey and former Senator Ben Nelson campaigned in the city for Obama , and in November 2008 Obama won the district 's electoral vote . This was an exceptional win , because with Nebraska 's split electoral vote system Obama became the first Democratic presidential candidate to win an electoral vote in Nebraska since 1964 .
In 2011 , Nebraska lawmakers moved Offutt Air Force Base and the town of Bellevue — an area with a large minority population — out of the Omaha @-@ based 2nd District and shifted in the Republican @-@ heavy Omaha suburbs in Sarpy County . The move is expected to dilute the city 's urban Democratic vote .
= = = Crime = = =
Omaha 's rate of violent crimes per 100 @,@ 000 residents has been lower than the average rates of three dozen United States cities of similar size . Unlike Omaha , those cities have experienced an increase in violent crime overall since 2003 . Rates for property crime have decreased for both Omaha and its peer cities during the same time period . In 2006 , Omaha was ranked for homicides as 46th out of the 72 cities in the United States of more than 250 @,@ 000 in population .
As a major industrial city into the mid @-@ 20th century , Omaha shared in social tensions of larger cities that accompanied rapid growth and many new immigrants and migrants . By the 1950s , Omaha was a center for illegal gambling , while experiencing dramatic job losses and unemployment because of dramatic restructuring of the railroads and the meatpacking industry , as well as other sectors . Persistent poverty resulting from racial discrimination and job losses generated different crimes in the late 20th century , with drug trade and drug abuse becoming associated with violent crime rates , which climbed after 1986 as Los Angeles gangs made affiliates in the city . Gambling in Omaha has been significant throughout the city 's history . From its founding in the 1850s through the 1930s , the city was known as a " wide @-@ open " town , meaning that gambling of all sorts was accepted either openly or in closed quarters . By the mid @-@ 20th century , Omaha reportedly had more illicit gambling per capita than any other city in the nation . From the 1930s through the 1970s the city 's gambling was controlled by an Italian criminal element . Today , gambling in Omaha is limited to keno , lotteries , and parimutuel betting , leaving Omahans to drive across the Missouri River to Council Bluffs , Iowa , where casinos are legal and there are numerous businesses operating currently . Recently a controversial proposal by the Ponca tribe of Nebraska was approved by the National Indian Gaming Commission . It will allow the tribe to build a casino in Carter Lake , Iowa , which sits geographically on the west side of the Missouri River , adjacent to Omaha , where casinos are illegal .
= = Education = =
Education in Omaha is provided by many private and public institutions . Omaha Public Schools is the largest public school district in Nebraska , with more than 47 @,@ 750 students in more than 75 schools . After a contentious period of uncertainty , in 2007 the Nebraska Legislature approved a plan to create a learning community for Omaha @-@ area school districts with a central administrative board . The Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Omaha maintains numerous private Catholic schools with 21 @,@ 500 students in 32 elementary schools and nine high schools . St. Cecilia Grade School at 3869 Webster St. in Midtown Omaha and St. Stephen the Martyr School at 168th and Q street in western Omaha earned national distinction when they received the U.S. Department of Education Blue Ribbon School award . Omaha is also home to Brownell @-@ Talbot School , the only preschool through grade 12 , independent college preparatory school in the state of Nebraska .
There are eleven colleges and universities among Omaha 's higher education institutions , including the University of Nebraska Omaha . The University of Nebraska Medical Center is located in midtown Omaha and is home to the Eppley Cancer Center , one of 66 designated Cancer Centers by the National Cancer Institute in the United States . The University of Nebraska College of Medicine , also located on the UNMC campus , is ranked 7th in the country by US News and World Report for primary care medical education . Omaha 's Creighton University is ranked the top non @-@ doctoral regional university in the Midwestern United States by U.S. News and World Report . Creighton maintains a 132 @-@ acre ( 0 @.@ 5 km2 ) campus just outside Downtown Omaha in the new North Downtown district , and the Jesuit institution has an enrollment of around 6 @,@ 700 in its undergraduate , graduate , medical , and law schools . There are more than 10 other colleges and universities in Omaha in the Omaha metro area .
= = Media = =
The city is the focus of the Omaha designated market area , and is the 76th largest in the United States .
Magazines
Omaha Magazine ( a weekly )
Newspapers
The major daily newspaper in Nebraska is the Omaha World @-@ Herald , which is the largest employee @-@ owned newspaper in the United States . Weeklies in the city include the Midlands Business Journal ( weekly business publication ) ; American Classifieds ( Formerly Thrifty Nickel ) , a weekly classified newspaper ; The Reader , as well as The Omaha Star . Founded in 1938 in North Omaha , the Star is Nebraska 's only African @-@ American newspaper .
Television networks and cable TV
Omaha 's four television news stations were found not to represent the city 's racial composition in a 2007 study . Cox Communications provides cable television services throughout the metropolitan area .
= = Infrastructure = =
In 2008 Kiplinger 's Personal Finance magazine ranked Omaha the No. 3 best city in the United States to " live , work and play " . Omaha 's growth has required the constant development of new urban infrastructure that influence , allow and encourage the constant expansion of the city .
Retail natural gas and water public utilities in Omaha are provided by the Metropolitan Utilities District . Nebraska is the only public power state in the nation . All electric utilities are non @-@ profit and customer @-@ owned . Electricity in the city is provided by the Omaha Public Power District . Public housing is governed by the Omaha Housing Authority , and public transportation is provided by Metro Area Transit . CenturyLink and Cox provide local telephone and internet services . The City of Omaha maintains two modern sewage treatment plants .
Portions of the Enron corporation began as Northern Natural Gas Company in Omaha . Northern currently provides three natural gas lines to Omaha . Enron formerly owned UtiliCorp United , Inc . , which became Aquila , Inc .. Peoples Natural Gas , a division of Aquila , Inc . , currently serves several surrounding communities around the Omaha metropolitan area , including Plattsmouth .
There are several hospitals in Omaha . Research hospitals include the Boys Town National Research Hospital , the University of Nebraska Medical Center and the Creighton University Medical Center . The Boys Town facility is well known for researchers in hearing @-@ related research and treatment . The University of Nebraska Medical Center hosts the Eppley Institute for Research in Cancer and Allied Diseases , a world @-@ renowned cancer treatment facility named in honor of Omahan Eugene Eppley .
= = = Transportation = = =
Omaha 's central role in the history of transportation across America earned it the nickname " Gate City of the West . " Despite President Lincoln 's decree that Council Bluffs , Iowa , be the starting point for the Union Pacific Railroad , construction began from Omaha on the eastern portion of the first transcontinental railroad . By the middle of the 20th century , Omaha was served by almost every major railroad . Today , the Omaha Rail and Commerce Historic District celebrates this connection , along with the listing of the Burlington Train Station and the Union Station on the National Register of Historic Places . First housed in the former Herndon House , the Union Pacific Railroad 's corporate headquarters have been in Omaha since the company began . Their new headquarters , the Union Pacific Center , was opened in Downtown Omaha in 2004 . Amtrak , the national passenger rail system , provides service through Omaha . The Greyhound lines terminal is at 1601 Jackson St in downtown Omaha . Megabus has a stop at Crossroads Mall – N 72nd St between Dodge St and Cass St , and provides service to Des Moines , Iowa City , and Chicago . Metro Transit , previously known as Metro Area Transit , is the local bus .
Omaha 's position as a transportation center was finalized with the 1872 opening of the Union Pacific Missouri River Bridge linking the transcontinental railroad to the railroads terminating in Council Bluffs . In 1888 , the first road bridge , the Douglas Street Bridge , opened . In the 1890s , the Illinois Central drawbridge opened as the largest bridge of its type in the world . Omaha 's Missouri River road bridges are now entering their second generation , including the Works Progress Administration @-@ financed South Omaha Bridge , now called Veteran 's Memorial Bridge , which was added to the National Register of Historic Places . In 2006 , Omaha and Council Bluffs announced joint plans to build the Missouri River Pedestrian Bridge , which opened in 2008 .
Today , the primary mode of transportation in Omaha is by automobile , with I @-@ 80 , I @-@ 480 , I @-@ 680 , I @-@ 29 , and U.S. Route 75 ( JFK Freeway and North Freeway ) providing freeway service across the metropolitan area . The expressway along West Dodge Road ( U.S. Route 6 and Nebraska Link 28B ) and U.S. Route 275 has been upgraded to freeway standards from I @-@ 680 to Fremont . City owned Metro Transit formerly as MAT Metro Area Transit provides public bus service to hundreds of locations throughout the Metro .
A 2011 study by Walk Score ranked Omaha 21st most walkable of fifty largest U.S. cities . There is an extensive trail system throughout the city for walkers , runners , bicyclists , and other pedestrian modes of transportation .
Omaha is laid out on a grid plan , with 12 blocks to the mile with a north @-@ to @-@ south house numbering system . Omaha is the location of a historic boulevard system designed by H.W.S. Cleveland who sought to combine the beauty of parks with the pleasure of driving cars . The historic Florence and Fontenelle Boulevards , as well as the modern Sorenson Parkway , are important elements in this system .
Eppley Airfield , Omaha 's airport , serves the region with over 4 @.@ 2 million passengers in 2006 . United Airlines , Southwest Airlines , Delta Air Lines , American Airlines , Alaska Airlines , Allegiant Air and Frontier Airlines serve the airport with direct and connecting service . Eppley is situated in East Omaha , with many users driving through Carter Lake , Iowa and getting a view of Carter Lake before getting there . General aviation airports serving the area are the Millard Municipal Airport , North Omaha Airport and the Council Bluffs Airport . Offutt Air Force Base continues to serve as a military airbase ; it is located at the southern edge of Bellevue , which in turn lies immediately south of Omaha .
= = Notable people = =
= = Sister cities = =
Omaha has six sister cities :
Braunschweig , Lower Saxony , Germany
Naas , County Kildare , Leinster , Ireland
Yantai , Shandong , China
Šiauliai , Lithuania
Xalapa , Veracruz , Mexico
Shizuoka , Shizuoka , Japan
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= Marquise Walker =
Marquise Walker ( born December 11 , 1978 ) is a former professional American football wide receiver and punt returner who signed to play in the National Football League ( NFL ) . He played college football at the University of Michigan where he set many of the school 's receiving records and became an 2001 College Football All @-@ American . In 2001 , he led the Big Ten Conference in receptions . In 2004 , Braylon Edwards surpassed most of his school records . In high school , Walker set several important New York State Public High School Athletic Association ( NYSPHSAA ) football records for receptions and reception yardage . All of these records have since been broken . Walker is remembered for a pair of spectacular one @-@ handed catches during the 2001 NCAA Division I @-@ A football season .
He was selected by the Tampa Bay Buccaneers with the 86th overall pick in the third round of the 2002 NFL Draft . He was injured during his first year with Tampa Bay and had several brief stints with several other NFL teams over the next two seasons . Walker has yet to succeed as a professional football player . Several scouts have noted that he is not fast enough to dominate at the professional level the way he did at lower levels using other skills such as balance , strength , and size . He had signed to play in the Arena Football League in 2006 , but did not play .
= = High school = =
Walker was born in Syracuse , New York , and was a high school football All @-@ American for Henninger High School in Syracuse . He was also a standout basketball player who averaged over twenty points a game as a sophomore and junior , but abandoned the sport for football . In high school , he established numerous NYSPHSAA football records : career receptions ( 181 ) , single @-@ season receptions ( 80 ) , and career receiving yards ( 3352 ) . In addition , he recorded the second highest single @-@ season yardage total ( 1190 ) . His 13 single @-@ season touchdowns was third in state history , and he totaled thirty @-@ five career touchdowns for Henninger . He played defensive back and accumulated two hundred tackles and fourteen interceptions . Walker was named as the Gatorade High School Football Player of the Year for New York State , and he was named to the 1997 USAToday All @-@ USA high school football team . He was ranked as the ninth best high school football prospect in the country in 1998 by the Sporting News .
Walker 's career high school records were broken in 2004 by Bruce Williams out of Syracuse 's Christian Brothers Academy , who played for the Syracuse Orange football team from 2005 through 2008 . Williams took four years to break Walker 's record which was set during only three years . Walker 's single season receptions record was broken in 2001 by Anthony Morat of Rome , New York 's " Free Academy " who later played Division III football at State University of New York at Cortland from 2003 – 2006 and earned 2006 first team All @-@ conference honors . Harold Jasper , whose career receiving yards record Walker broke , later played for the Iowa Hawkeyes football team and two Arena football teams . Jasper also was the only receiver to have had more single @-@ season yards in New York State history than Walker .
= = College career = =
Walker is best remembered for a pair of one @-@ handed catches he made in 2001 . Prior to the 2002 NFL Draft , Baltimore Ravens Senior vice president of football operations , Ozzie Newsome referred to Walker 's collegiate catches as some of the best catches he has seen in college in a long time . One of the one @-@ handed catches was a touchdown catch in the back of the end zone against the Iowa Hawkeyes football team in a 32 – 26 comeback from a 21 – 7 deficit on October 27 , 2001 . The Post @-@ Standard , Walker 's hometown newspaper , described his grab in the Iowa game this way : " There he was in the corner of the end zone , as two Iowa defensive backs stalked him like sentries . The ball , delivered high and wide , seemed an improbable stretch , an impossible goal . And yet , as it spiraled toward him , Marquise Walker leaped and lifted his right arm . His fingertips grazed the leather and tipped it skyward . And then , as he tumbled back to earth , he wrapped his hands around the ball and caressed it to his chest . Touchdown Michigan . "
Walker seriously considered playing for Syracuse University of the Big East Conference , but Syracuse Orange quarterback Donovan McNabb only had one more year remaining . McNabb , who was the Big East Conference offensive player of the decade for the 1990s , was not likely to be replaced by a quarterback of equal skill . Thus , Walker went on to wear # 4 at Michigan . Walker played football at Michigan from the 1998 NCAA Division I @-@ A football season through the 2001 season , finishing his career with 176 receptions for 2 @,@ 269 yards and 17 touchdowns . During his career he played on two Big Ten Championship teams ( 1998 , 2000 ) , but neither team went to the Rose Bowl . During his career , the two teams that he compiled the most total single @-@ opponent receiving yards against were Michigan 's fiercest conference opponents : He had 256 yards against Ohio State and 251 yards against Michigan State . His highest career single @-@ opponent touchdown and single @-@ opponent reception totals were also in the Michigan – Ohio State football rivalry games and his Paul Bunyan Trophy game totals were tied for second in both of these statistics .
Playing at Washington on September 8 , 2001 , Walker set the Michigan record for the most receptions in a game with 15 , surpassing Tai Streets and Brad Myers . He tied his mark later in season against Ohio State . This record continued to stand through the 2009 NCAA Division I FBS football season . Both of Walker 's 15 @-@ reception efforts came in losses . He first recorded 15 receptions against the Washington Huskies football team in a 23 – 18 loss where he accumulated 159 yards and two touchdowns from quarterback John Navarre . On that day he added a 13 @-@ yard run and a 15 @-@ yard punt return . Then on the November 24 , 2001 day that he surpassed Carter as the career receptions leader , he totaled 15 receptions in a 26 – 20 loss to the Ohio State Buckeyes football team while accumulating 160 yards and two touchdowns . These two games with 160 and 159 yards receiving were Walker 's career highs . His other 150 yard game came against the Michigan State football team during the same season on November 3 , 2001 with nine receptions . Walker had two touchdowns in each of his three 150 @-@ yard reception games .
Walker set several other records at Michigan that have been surpassed . His career reception total surpassed that of Anthony Carter as the most in school history . During his senior year in 2001 , Walker set Michigan single @-@ season records with 86 receptions and 1 @,@ 143 receiving yards , surpassing Jack Clancy ( who still holds the record for receptions for ten games ) and David Terrell , respectively . Walker also broke Mercury Hayes ' school record for most consecutive games with a reception ( 32 games ) . These marks were all surpassed by Braylon Edwards in 2004 . He also set the single @-@ season 100 @-@ yard games record with six . This mark has been surpassed by both Edwards and Mario Manningham .
During his time at Michigan he blocked a total of four punts . One block set up a field goal in Michigan 's 2001 20 – 17 victory against Wisconsin at Camp Randall Stadium . The NCAA Division I @-@ A career record was seven when he completed his eligibility and is now ten , and the Big Ten record was five and is now six based on the NCAA record book . The total continues to be a Michigan record by virtue of the fact that the NCAA record book does not recognize any Michigan player as having recorded more than four . However , some press reports credit Ed Frutig with five punt blocks during the eight @-@ game 1940 season .
Walker 's statistics ranked him highly in Big Ten Conference history . Both his single @-@ game reception total of 15 and his single @-@ season reception total of 86 were sixth in Big Ten history at the end of his career although both were ninth all time through the 2006 NCAA season . Walker won both the Big Ten Conference games and Big Ten all games receptions titles in 2001 . He ranked sixth in the nation in receptions per game with 7 @.@ 36 and 17th in reception yards per game with 94 @.@ 82 . During the 2001 season , his 1177 yards from scrimmage ( 1143 yards receiving and 34 rushing ) edged out B. J. Askew 's 1138 yards ( 236 yards receiving and 902 rushing ) for the team lead in yards from scrimmage . In addition , he threw a 51 @-@ yard pass completion to Jermaine Gonzales , and he compiled 206 yards as a punt returner . As a result , he also led the team in All @-@ purpose yards . In a game against the Purdue Boilermakers on October 13 , 2001 he totaled 249 yards of total offense , including 134 yards on seven receptions and 112 yards on seven punt returns . Walker earned team MVP honors for the 2001 season . He was a Biletnikoff Award finalist . Among his All @-@ American recognitions were a first @-@ team selection by the American Football Coaches Association , a second @-@ team selection by the Associated Press , and an honorable mention by CNNSI.com.
= = Professional career = =
Scouts for the professional football teams described Walker as a " Big physical receiver , who uses his size to muscle the ball away from defenders ... Lacks explosive speed , but has exceptional body control and balance . " In another scouting report he was described as a " Striding @-@ type runner who is not quick or sudden . Dominates average defensive backs but has a hard time getting separation vs. a good corner " In direct questioning during interviews , Walker confessed that he never had run a 40 @-@ yard dash and did not practice straight line speed . Thus , there was some consensus that he did not have the speed to play wide receiver in the National Football League and that he did not work on his speed . It was also said that he " Lacks soft hands and will do a lot of double @-@ catching and body @-@ catching . Has a lot of drops for a featured No. 1 receiver . "
When Jon Gruden took over the head coaching job of the Tampa Bay Buccaneers from Tony Dungy , he made Walker his first draft selection in the 2002 NFL Draft with the 86th overall selection that came in the third round of the draft . Although Walker was property of the Buccaneers for the 2002 NFL season he did not appear in any games . Walker had been behind Keyshawn Johnson , Joe Jurevicius and Keenan McCardell on the Buccaneer 2002 depth chart . Then , he injured his ankle in August and was inactive for the first four games of the season . He was injured in September with torn ligaments in his thumb and had season ending surgery , which caused the Buccaneers to place him on injured reserve in October . Thus , he was not on the game roster for the Super Bowl XXXVII Champion Buccaneers . He was traded to the Arizona Cardinals for running back Thomas Jones prior to the 2003 NFL season after the Cardinals lost their top three wide receivers ( including David Boston and Frank Sanders ) to free agency . He was cut by the Cardinals on August 23 , 2003 and picked up by the Cincinnati Bengals on August 25 , 2003 who released him on August 27 , 2003 . The Tennessee Titans briefly placed him on their practice squad while trying to convert him to tight end later during the season , and the Miami Dolphins worked him out at different times during the season .
Walker , who had signed with the Super Bowl Champion New England Patriots in February prior to the 2004 NFL season for the league minimum $ 305 @,@ 000 , was released by the Patriots on July 21 , 2004 . Walker signed with the Orlando Predators of the Arena Football League to play wide receiver and linebacker for Predator head coach Jay Gruden during the 2006 Arena Football League season . Gruden was also an offensive assistant coach with the Super Bowl XXXVII champion Buccaneers . Walker was waived by the Predators , and he has yet to play in the Arena Football League .
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= Buildings of Nuffield College , Oxford =
The buildings of Nuffield College , one of the colleges of the University of Oxford , are to the west of the city centre of Oxford , England , and stand on the site of the basin of the Oxford Canal . Nuffield College was founded in 1937 after a donation to the University by the car manufacturer Lord Nuffield ; he gave land for the college , as well as £ 900 @,@ 000 ( approximately £ 246 million in present @-@ day terms ) to build and endow it . The architect Austen Harrison , who had worked in Greece and Palestine , was appointed by the University to design the buildings . His initial design , heavily influenced by Mediterranean architecture , was rejected by Nuffield , who called it " un @-@ English " and refused to allow his name to be associated with it . Harrison reworked the plans , aiming for " something on the lines of Cotswold domestic architecture " , as Nuffield wanted .
Construction of the second design began in 1949 and was finished in 1960 . Progress was hampered by post @-@ war building restrictions , and the effects of inflation on Nuffield 's donation led to various cost @-@ saving changes to the plans . In one change , the tower , which had been planned to be ornamental , was redesigned to hold the college 's library . It was the first tower built in Oxford for 200 years and is about 150 feet ( 46 m ) tall , including the flèche on top . The buildings are arranged around two quadrangles , with residential accommodation for students and fellows in one , and the hall , library and administrative offices in the other . The chapel has stained glass windows designed by John Piper .
The architectural historian Sir Howard Colvin said that Harrison 's first design was Oxford 's " most notable architectural casualty of the 1930s " ; it has also been described as a " missed opportunity " to show that Oxford did not live " only in the past " . Reaction to the architecture of the college has been largely unfavourable . In the 1960s , it was described as " Oxford 's biggest monument to barren reaction " . The tower has been described as " ungainly " , and marred by repetitive windows . The travel writer Jan Morris wrote that the college was " a hodge @-@ podge from the start " . However , the architectural historian Sir Nikolaus Pevsner , although unimpressed with most of the college , thought that the tower helped the Oxford skyline and predicted it would " one day be loved " . The writer Simon Jenkins doubted Pevsner 's prediction , and claimed that " vegetation " was the " best hope " for the tower – as well as the rest of the college .
= = Lord Nuffield 's donation = =
The history of Nuffield College dates from 16 November 1937 , when the university entered a Deed of Covenant and Trust with Lord Nuffield . Nuffield , known as William Morris before he was raised to the peerage , was an industrialist and the founder of Morris Motors , which was based in Cowley , east Oxford . For the creation of Nuffield College and for his other donations ( which included funding a chair of Spanish studies and donating £ 2 million in 1936 for a school of medical research ) , he was described in 1949 by an editorial in The Times as " the greatest benefactor of the University since the Middle Ages " . He donated land on New Road , to the west of the city centre near the mound of Oxford Castle , on the site of the largely disused basin of the Oxford Canal . In 1937 , The Times described the half @-@ mile between the railway station and the city ( an area including the site of the proposed college ) as " something between a refuse heap and a slum " ; Nuffield had originally bought the canal basin to beautify that part of the city before he had the idea of building a college to accomplish this . As well as the land , Nuffield gave £ 900 @,@ 000 to build the college and to provide it with an endowment fund .
His plan was to create a college that specialised in engineering and business methods to provide a link between academia and industry , for which he initially offered the University £ 1 million ; £ 100 @,@ 000 was used for a physical chemistry laboratory ( completed in 1941 ) , of which he approved . However , although he was persuaded to put the remainder towards a college for social science studies instead , he still felt " cheated " . He later described the college as " that bloody Kremlin " , " where left @-@ wingers study at my expense " . He was sufficiently pleased with the work of the college to leave it most of his remaining fortune ( which was more than £ 3 million ) when he died in 1963 , although most of the bequest did not reach the college as it was needed to pay inheritance tax on Nuffield 's estate .
= = First design = =
Administration of Nuffield 's donation was the responsibility of the University , as the college did not become an independent body until after the Second World War . A sub @-@ committee , consisting of three heads of Oxford colleges ( Sir William Beveridge from University College ; Alfred Emden from St Edmund Hall ; and Linda Grier from Lady Margaret Hall ) , was appointed to choose the architect ; Emden appears to have played the major part in the group 's work . Eight architects were initially asked to compete , including Louis de Soissons , Vincent Harris , Austen Harrison , Charles Holden , Edward Maufe , and Hubert Worthington . All but Holden and Maufe submitted photographs of their work , and the sub @-@ committee then recommended Harrison , a decision confirmed after he was interviewed on 17 June 1938 . At that time , Harrison had never worked in Britain : although he had qualified there , he had practised in Greece and Palestine . Indeed , the college seems to have been his only project in the country , and remains his best known work , along with his later University of Ghana . Harrison was not given any restrictions or limitations on style ; Nuffield agreed to Harrison 's appointment , but was not consulted on the architectural style of the college before Harrison started work . When Nuffield 's donation was announced , it was reported that the " general idea " was that the college buildings should be sited behind gardens , similar to the memorial gardens at Christ Church , Oxford , so that those entering Oxford from the west would be faced with a " beautiful vista of well @-@ planned gardens seen through railings " ; this idea did not form part of Harrison 's designs .
After Harrison 's preliminary studies , it became clear that the proposed site could not contain a college and an institute for social science research as planned ; Nuffield agreed to provide an additional plot of land on the opposite side of Worcester Street . Harrison proposed to build the college on the main site , with the institute on the second site . The hall was to be at the east end of the main site , aligned east to west , with a tower at the west end ; the upper quadrangle , to the immediate west of the hall and aligned north to south , would have the Warden 's Lodging at the north end and the chapel at the south end ; steps would lead down from the upper quadrangle into the lower quadrangle , again aligned east to west , with the main entrance at the far east end of the lower quadrangle . The proposed institute would face the main college entrance across Worcester Street . The sub @-@ committee recommended that Harrison 's plans be adopted in January 1939 , and a model of the design was shown to Nuffield in June 1939 – he had been abroad for much of the intervening period .
Harrison 's design had " little that was English , still less that was recognisably Oxonian " , said the architectural historian Sir Howard Colvin . There were no pitched roofs , battlements , or pinnacles . Instead , the proposed building had " a strongly Mediterranean character " , inspired by medieval buildings in that region . White Portland stone was the chosen building material ; there were to be " stark " external walls and flat roofs , and a large semi @-@ circular doorway at the main entrance , with facetted voussoirs demonstrating the influence of the Muslim architecture of Norman Sicily . The tower , which was to have an internal dome and an external polygonal design , showed ( in Colvin 's view ) influences of Byzantium and parts of southern France . In the hall , there were to be aisles on the north and south sides of the main body of the hall , as in a basilica , with the arches and columns of the aisles designed in a Greek Doric style . The hall and its grand staircase , said Colvin , would have rivalled those of Christ Church . Although Harrison had not finished plans for the common rooms , the initial sketches had oriental touches , including fireplaces reminiscent of the Topkapı Palace in Istanbul . The Warden 's Lodging would have been " one of the most handsome and commodious of its kind " . However , Colvin thought that the chapel design was better suited to Mediterranean sunlight than Oxford gloom .
Colvin said that the " relationship between the principal buildings " was " elegantly worked out " and , " in a university of self @-@ contained spaces " , a design using two intersecting axes – one from the entrance to the hall and tower , the other from the chapel to the lodging – " represented an innovation in planning that was highly effective " . Colvin 's view was that the failure to construct the college according to this " impressive " design led to it being Oxford 's " most notable architectural casualty of the 1930s " . Had it been built , he said , it " would have taken its place among the major architectural monuments of Oxford " .
= = Second design = =
Nuffield was dismayed by the model of Harrison 's plans , as the buildings were not in the general Oxford collegiate style that he was known to favour . After a meeting with the University 's Vice @-@ Chancellor , A. D. Lindsay , Nuffield wrote to him on 15 August 1939 to say that he felt " obliged to adhere to my adverse judgement of the plans " . The design was " un @-@ English and out of keeping with the best tradition of Oxford architecture " , said Nuffield , adding that " if a building of this type were to be erected , I would not allow my name to be associated therewith " .
Harrison protested that the so @-@ called Oxford architectural tradition was a vague concept and also an accident of history : there was no uniform style uniting the buildings of the university and colleges , but instead different designs had been used , with varying modifications , over many centuries . Only a compromise would suit " a 20th century donor with an industrial background who sighs for romance , a committee of economists who are after results [ and ] the governing committee of a University steeped in its tradition " . Nevertheless , Harrison agreed to attempt to satisfy Nuffield 's desire for " something on the lines of Cotswold domestic architecture " , and produced a second design . The amount of accommodation provided was reduced . The main entrance was moved from the west to the south of the college , under the chapel ; it was to have an arcaded vestibule , allowing the quadrangle to be seen from the street , as Nuffield wanted . The flat roofs were replaced with pitched roofs with gable ends and dormer windows . The staircase leading to the hall was removed , and the hall repositioned on ground level , without aisles but with a hammerbeam roof of oak trusses . The tower , which would now contain the common room , was moved from the area of the former hall staircase to the east end of the chapel . When the plans were shown to Nuffield in early 1940 , the only change that he requested before giving his approval was for a " more conventional " tower to replace the spire on Harrison 's design .
= = Construction and completion = =
The Second World War meant that construction work on the main college buildings could not begin until 21 April 1949 , when the foundation stone was laid ; work on the warden 's residence had begun in October 1948 . Before the buildings were erected , the college operated from rented houses elsewhere in Oxford , on Banbury Road and Woodstock Road . There were further changes to Harrison 's second design , as not only had inflation between 1937 and 1949 reduced the value of Nuffield 's original donation , but additional savings had to be made in the difficult post @-@ war economic situation . A scale model , created in 1949 as work started , showed the alterations : a shortened tower , a plainer main entrance , and no arcades within the quadrangles . Further changes were made once work was under way , including the indefinite postponement of construction of the institute opposite the college . The plans of the tower were altered so that it would hold a library , instead of being purely ornamental , windows were added at regular intervals , and it was topped by a copper flèche , or small spire .
A further delay in construction was announced in 1951 , when labour and materials were restricted because of a government rearmament drive . Work to complete the quadrangle , including a hall , kitchen and the library tower , began in 1955 at a cost of £ 200 @,@ 000 . This money was donated to the college by the Nuffield Foundation upon Lord Nuffield 's recommendation . Until it was required for books , the fellows of the college used the upper floor as a Senior Common Room . The tower was completed in 1956 , and the college as a whole ( without the institute on the site opposite , which is now used as a car park ) was finished in 1960 . Work was still under way when the college was incorporated by royal charter in 1958 , thereby becoming a self @-@ governing entity . The charter was presented to the college by the Duke of Edinburgh on 6 June 1958 , at the first lunch to be served in the hall .
Colvin commented that , apart from the flèche which was similar to the initial plan , the college as finally built contained none of the elements that had given Harrison 's first design " interest and distinction " . The remaining " vestiges " of the first plan , he said , were the two main axes within the college , although " no longer focussed on major architectural incidents " , and the masonry around the main doors , cut to resemble the buildings of medieval Italy rather than those of Tudor England .
= = Buildings = =
The college presents a symmetrical front to New Road and the castle mound , with four small gables between a larger gable at either end . There are two quadrangles , with steps leading down from the upper quadrangle ( to the east ) to the lower quadrangle ( to the west ) . Residential accommodation for students and fellows is located in the lower quadrangle , whilst the hall , library , and administrative offices are in the upper quadrangle . The buildings are two storeys high , with dormers above . There are pools in the centre of the quadrangles ( the one in the lower quadrangle is the longer of the two ) ; the writer Simon Jenkins said that these are " almost puddles " , and saw them as relics of Harrison 's Mediterranean plan . The writer Peter Sager , however , thought that the pond represents the canal basin that previously occupied the site . The main entrance leads into the upper quadrangle , which has the hall on its east side . The square @-@ mullioned windows facing the quadrangles are arranged in close @-@ set groups of three ; at the east end of the upper quadrangle , the common room has a larger bay window . An abstract sculpture by Hubert Dalwood , from 1962 , has been positioned on the lawn inside the college . Dalwood also designed the fountain in the pool in the upper quadrangle , although his plan for a spray of water was not implemented , " leaving the sculpture with no obvious purpose " .
The hall has a floor of black and white marble and arches made of concrete supporting an oak roof with red panels . The furniture in the hall was designed by , and the chairs were built by , Edward Barnsley . Lord Nuffield 's coat of arms are displayed over the fireplace , carved from a single piece of stone , and his portrait , painted by Sir Arthur Cope , hangs in the hall . The chapel , on the south side of the college , can seat forty people . It has five abstract stained glass windows that were designed by John Piper and executed by Patrick Reyntiens , and a metal reredos with a bronze crucifix . The roofs are finished with Collyweston slates from Northamptonshire . Many other Oxford colleges are roofed with Stonesfield slate from a quarry 10 miles ( 16 km ) northwest of Oxford , but these were no longer available when Nuffield was built . The main building stone used is Clipsham stone . The tower , which has nine floors , is about 90 feet ( 27 m ) tall , with the flèche taking the total height to about 150 feet ( 46 m ) . It was the first tower built in Oxford for 200 years . Work was carried out in the library in 1999 to extend the total shelf @-@ length to just under 6 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 7 mi ) . The library contains paintings of " Spring " and " Winter " by Derrick Greaves and " Summer " and " Autumn " by Edward Middleditch .
= = Assessment = =
The architectural writer Geoffrey Tyack has written that Nuffield College was Oxford 's " most important architectural project of the immediate post @-@ war years " . Opinions about the architecture merits of the college have varied , although most have been unfavourable . The authors of a 1961 booklet on the architecture of modern Oxford said that it was " Oxford 's biggest monument to barren reaction " . The Cotswold style was " taken absurdly out of context and mercilessly stretched " , and did not " harmonise with the clumsy tower " , whilst the spire " [ perched ] uneasily ... despite its elaborate base " . An unnamed journalist wrote in The Times in 1959 that the main buildings of the quadrangles were " somewhat oddly wedded to small basins which irresistibly suggest a Lilliputian Versailles " . The same writer said that the tower rose " Manhattan @-@ wise for 10 storeys through the twentieth century , only to have a diminutive spire , escaped from the fifteenth , push through its top to steal the last laugh " . Peter Sager , too , thought that the " high @-@ rise library " could " easily stand on the Hudson " . Sir Howard Colvin said that the " utilitarian function " of the tower " accorded ill with its original ornamental purpose " , and that the architects had " failed to find a satisfactory solution " to the " repetitive uniformity of fenestration " . Of the flèche , Colvin said that it " makes its contribution to the Oxford skyline without any overt reference to historical precedent " . Geoffrey Tyack also disliked the tower , describing it as " an ungainly structure " that was " lit by a monotonous array of windows punched out of the wall surface " ; however , he thought the hall was " an effective reinterpretation of the traditional collegiate pattern " .
The architectural historian Sir Nikolaus Pevsner compared the college unfavourably to the designs of the Danish architect Arne Jacobsen for St Catherine 's College , Oxford , construction of which began in 1960 ( the year that Nuffield College was completed ) : St Catherine 's , in his view , was " the most perfect piece of architecture of 20th @-@ century Oxford " and made Nuffield " look even more absurd " . Nevertheless , he " proposed forgiveness " for the " mighty tower " , which " positively helps the famous skyline of Oxford " , adding that it has " enough identity to be sure that one day it will find affection " . He said that the tower had something of the architect Edwin Lutyens ' " felicitous manipulation of period details into a non @-@ period whole and will , I prophesy , one day be loved " , although he was less sure that this fate awaited the rest of the buildings . Simon Jenkins said of Pevsner 's prophecy about the tower , " I doubt it " ; he described it as " at best ungainly " , with a " weak spire " , and said that " vegetation was its best hope , as for the rest of Nuffield " . The college , in his view " required a sense of humour " .
Writing in 1952 , after the first section of the buildings was complete , J. M. Richards , the editor of the Architectural Review , said that Nuffield was " a large @-@ scale example of period @-@ style architecture which has no justification whatever on grounds of consideration for the neighbours and represents missed opportunity of a really tragic kind " . As the site was away from the " ancient colleges " of the city centre and in an area of " undistinguished nineteenth century commercial building " , there had been a " rare opportunity " of building something " belonging ... to the twentieth century , and of showing that Oxford does not live only in the past " . He said that the " compromise between contemporary needs and what is imagined to be the English collegiate tradition is quite unworthy of the educational enterprise the new foundation represents " . He was , however , " thankful " that the building used smooth @-@ faced stone " in the proper Oxford style " rather than rubble facing , which he said had been used elsewhere in Oxford " with extraordinarily unpleasing results " .
The architectural correspondent of The Times wrote that the architecture of the college was incongruous – it was " remarkable " that a college with connections to modern industry should be looking backwards in this way . " That a college devoted to modern scientific studies should be dressed up [ in the style of an antique Cotswold manor house ] has already been the subject of puzzled comment by many foreign visitors to Oxford . " Writing in The Observer , Patience Gray also disliked the college 's design , referring to the " Cotswold dementia " of the architecture , and the college 's " pokey windows and grotesque sugarloaf tower . " The chapel was described by the travel writer Jan Morris as " one of the sweetest little sanctuaries in Oxford " ; " very simple , almost stern " with a contrast between the black and white pews and the " rich colour " of the stained glass . However , she said that whilst Oxford colleges change in style over time as buildings are added or altered , " Nuffield was a hodge @-@ podge from the start , with a faintly Levantine tower upon a Cotswold Gothic base " .
The writer Miles Jebb considered the contrast between the hall 's black and white floor and red @-@ panelled roof to be " most effective " . He thought that the enclosed layout of the college was " a principal attraction " , but wrote that the tower 's " palpably utilitarian function detracts from its aesthetic attraction " , even though it made the " emphatic addition " to the skyline of Oxford that Nuffield wanted . A. R. Woolley , author of an Oxford University Press guide to the city and university , was more positive . He described the tower as " an exciting breakaway from the conventional " , with its spire as a " secular contribution to the sky @-@ line " . He said that the buildings " make a picturesque group of gabled Cotswold roofs " , adding that " [ t ] heir design is simple and depends for its effects upon its just proportions . It is at once traditional and original . "
In 1993 , the college became a Grade II listed building , a designation given to buildings of national importance and special interest . The kerbstones around the pool in the west quadrangle have been given separate Grade II listing , as an " integral part of the Nuffield College scheme " .
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= Nutrition Assistance for Puerto Rico =
Nutrition Assistance for Puerto Rico ( NAP ) — Spanish : Programa de Asistencia Nutricional ( PAN ) commonly known in Puerto Rican Spanish as Cupones ( English : Food Stamps ) — is a federal assistance nutritional program provided by the United States Department of Agriculture ( USDA ) solely to Puerto Rico . It provides over $ 1 @.@ 5 billion USD in supplemental economic resources to help just over 1 million impoverished residents cope with their nutritional needs . It is based on , though not directly part of , the USDA 's national Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program .
Since its inception in 1982 , the program has been providing low @-@ income families living in Puerto Rico with cash benefits used for food purchases . It is a collaborative effort between the USDA and the island 's government , where the former provides annual federal appropriations for the Puerto Rican government to distribute individually among eligible participants . Although the methods of providing such benefits have changed over the years , the program 's basic objective of helping low @-@ income families meet their nutritional needs has remained constant .
It has , however , been controversial throughout its existence . Federal reviews and assessments have revealed deficiencies in its operations and management , requiring the implementation of various changes , including increased scrutiny . It has also attracted both criticism and advocacy from Puerto Rico and the United States over its effectiveness in helping poor families , and its impact on Puerto Rico 's social classes and economy .
= = History = =
Food stamps have been issued in the United States since World War II , but the program did not include Puerto Rico until the early 1970s , when U.S. Public Laws 91 @-@ 671 of January 11 , 1971 and 93 @-@ 86 of November 1 , 1974 partially extended the Food Stamp Program to U.S. territories . The Food Stamp program was later expanded to provide full coverage and benefits to Puerto Rico and other territories under Section 19 of the Food Stamp Act of 1977 .
By 1977 , the Food Stamp Program in Puerto Rico was larger , in terms of both the percentage of the population participating and expenditures , than any of the programs operating in the 50 U.S. States , with 56 % of the Puerto Rican population participating in the program . In total , it accounted for approximately 8 percent of the national program 's beneficiaries , and its operations and benefits awarded accounted for 8 percent of the national program 's total federal expenditures .
To address these issues , the 1981 Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act ( OBRA ) eliminated Puerto Rico from the national Food Stamp program and created the Nutrition Assistance Program for Puerto Rico as a block grant to provide more administrative flexibility to the Commonwealth while reducing Federal expenditures . After a year of studies and design , it commenced operations on July 1 , 1982 with an annual appropriation of $ 825 million .
The new block grant program differed significantly from the former Food Stamp program in three major ways . First , the new NAP program was designed to distribute the benefits through physical cheques , ensuring that the benefit would be payable only to the beneficiary while at the same time reducing administrative costs , since the former physical vouchers ( cupones in Spanish ) were subject to storage and accountability problems , theft , counterfeiting and even trafficking . Second , the benefits were no longer restricted to vouchers redeemable only for food , but were provided in cash . The beneficiary could then elect to purchase a product or select services other than food . < ref " > FANRR @-@ 19 @-@ 3 , Chapter 11 , pg . 286 , par . 7 < / ref > Third , the overall assistance provided to Puerto Rico was limited to an annual block appropriation , requiring the Puerto Rican government to adjust its program management to allocate the funds . Between 1982 and 1986 , the U.S. Congress awarded $ 825 million annually in block grants for NAP program , and since then the appropriations have steadily increased by an estimated 3 % to 4 % to compensate for inflation . It has surpassed $ 1 billion annually since the early 1990s , and increased 30 % from 1993 to 2002 . Since fiscal year 2006 , the appropriation has reached over $ 1 @.@ 5 billion annually .
Over the years there has been a gradual decline in participation in the nutrition assistance program . Participation in the previous Food Stamp program was estimated at 56 % , more than 1 @.@ 5 million island residents , before the creation of the block grant . By 1994 , participation in the NAP program had decreased to 1 @.@ 3 million , and by 2006 it had decreased to just over 1 million . While the Puerto Rican population has steadily increased throughout those periods , the percentage of the population participating in the nutrition assistance program has significantly declined . With Puerto Rico 's current population estimated at 3 @,@ 944 @,@ 000 residents and a current estimated NAP participation of 1 million beneficiaries , the program 's participation rate is roughly 26 % , almost half of the participation under the original Food Stamp program in 1981 .
Since its creation , the program has received much criticism both within and outside Puerto Rico . Critics argue that , since the program provides non @-@ taxable income without any employment requirements , recipients receive free money without incentives for work , which hinders the economic output and development of the island , especially when Puerto Rico 's employment participation and unemployment rates have been consistently inferior to U.S. national levels , while the average aid provided in Puerto Rico has exceeded the U.S. national average ( $ 94 versus $ 74 @.@ 79 , respectively ; 2001 estimate ) . Because of this , Puerto Rico has been called the " welfare island " . People from the Dominican Republic do many of the jobs in Puerto Rico that pay too little to attract the locals . However , proponents of the program argue that Puerto Rico 's social condition is in far worse shape than any of the 50 U.S. states . Approximately half of the island 's population lives below the U.S. Federal poverty guidelines , and many have difficulties in meeting their nutritional needs due to increasing inflation and economic stagnation in the island . Furthermore , the relation between the NAP program 's benefits and the low employment participation and high unemployment rates has not been studied , and there is no consensus on their actual causes .
= = Program administration = =
The Food and Nutrition Service ( FNS ) , a component of the USDA , provides the funds to the Puerto Rican government 's Department of the Family to operate the program through an annual block grant , which covers the full cost of the benefits to participants , as well as fifty percent ( 50 % ) of the costs required to administer the program ( the remaining 50 % must be provided by the Puerto Rican government ) . Although federal regulations require Puerto Rico to pay the benefits during the year for which the annual block grant was awarded , since 2002 the federal government has allowed Puerto Rico to use 2 % of an annual surplus for benefits in future years .
As a condition of receiving the grant , the P.R. Department of the Family must submit an annual plan of operation to the FNS , which describes how it will distribute the funds assigned as nutrition assistance to qualifying persons . This includes identifying the island population which is eligible for the NAP benefits ( i.e. , family income limits , family status limits , etc . ) , establishing the process in which individual participants are selected , and the process of determining the benefit amount for each participant . The plan of operation is reviewed and approved by the FNS before funds are disbursed .
The Puerto Rico Department of the Family currently provides the benefits to each participating family through a debit card , which replaced the physical cheques in the early 2000s . The monthly benefit is deposited through an electronic benefit transfer ( EBT ) system into a government @-@ designated personal bank account , which can be accessed at any time with the debit card to withdraw cash or to make food purchases from authorized retailers . Since September 2001 , 75 % of each family ’ s monthly benefit has been designated exclusively for making direct food and grocery purchases , while the remaining 25 % can be withdrawn as a cash benefit . The EBT debit card system has improved the program ’ s payment accuracy rate to 96 @.@ 4 % in 2003 , 4 years ahead of its 2007 goal of 95 % accuracy .
The FNS also requires the Puerto Rican government to submit financial and performance reports on a regular basis , including quarterly Federal Cash Transactions Reports , quarterly and annual Financial Status Reports , and monthly Program Participation and Benefits Reports . These reports provide details on the program 's obligations and actual expenditures , and help the FNS monitor the use of program funds and reconcile the program ’ s budget with actual expenditures .
= = = Management assessment = = =
In a collaborative effort by the United States Office of Management and Budget ( OMB ) and various other Federal agencies , the NAP program was recently assessed and given a 44 % and 40 % score ( out of a possible 100 % ) in its Program Management and Program Results / Accountability performance indicators , respectively , stating that " the program 's financial management practices need improvement . " The assessment revealed that the Puerto Rican government has not established short @-@ term goals , objectives , and targets to evaluate the program ’ s performance and results , that the program 's oversight has been lax in previous years , and that the program 's impact and results in Puerto Rico 's society have not been evaluated in recent years . The financial management and oversight concerns were later emphasized when , on March 15 , 2007 , a U.S. investigative task force uncovered a $ 30 million fraud scheme involving 31 participants , including retailers and beneficiaries , who were withdrawing the funds as cash from the benefits designated exclusively for food purchases , and charging the customers a 20 % to 25 % fee for the transaction .
The Puerto Rican government 's Departments of Family , Education , and Health have since combined efforts to create a 5 @-@ year strategic plan to improve the program 's long @-@ term performance and financial management . The Family Department has recently implemented a quality control @-@ like program titled Measure of Efforts and Results System , which evaluates the quality and promptitude of services while reviewing various eligibility elements , to improve customer services and program management . The Department has also agreed to switch from a biennial audit to an annual Single Audit , and subject the program to periodic audits by its Administration for Socio @-@ Economic Development , to detect and correct problems more quickly . Furthermore , the USDA 's Office of Inspector General ( OIG ) has performed regular audits to assure compliance and identify areas for improvement .
Regardless of deficiencies , the federal government 's assessment revealed that the current NAP program is actually an improvement over the former Food Stamp program provided in Puerto Rico . In its 2005 assessment report , it concluded :
= = Program benefits = =
Under the NAP , participating families receive monthly cash benefits to supplement their incomes which must be used to purchase foods for preparation and consumption at home . In order to qualify for the program , potential beneficiaries must meet several conditions , listed as follows :
The candidate must be living in Puerto Rico to receive the benefits .
The candidate must maintain a maximum bank balance ( all checking and savings accounts combined ) of :
$ 2 @,@ 000 if the candidate is responsible for one or more persons age 60 or younger , or
$ 3 @,@ 000 if the candidate is responsible for one or more persons age 61 or older .
The candidate 's annual household income must not exceed the predefined income limits set by the Puerto Rico government ( see table , right ) .
The amount of a family ’ s monthly benefit payment depends on that family 's specific characteristics and financial circumstances , as well as the overall amount of program funds available for distribution . The latest statistics show that benefits average $ 103 each month ( 2003 , see table below right ) . It is the Puerto Rico government 's responsibility to establish the eligibility requirements and benefit levels for participation in the program . The benefits are revised annually every October 1 to consider the nutritional needs of Puerto Rico 's impoverished population , analyze the impact of inflation in Puerto Rico , and plan the distribution of available funds accordingly .
= = = Impact = = =
Since the program started in 1982 , only three formal studies over the nutritional impact of the benefits provided to each family have been publicly released , in 1985 , 1993 , and 1996 , respectively . All studies were designed to analyze the impact of the program with respect to the previous food stamps program , focusing on changes in household nutrient availability , while the 1985 and 1993 studies also focused on changes in household food expenditures ( the amount of money households spent on acquiring food ) .
The first and most widely recognized study , published by Mathematica Policy Research , Inc. in 1985 , found that the NAP program increased household food expenditures for beneficiaries when compared to non @-@ participating families , just as its predecessor did . It also found that the program had the same relevant impact on increasing household food expenditures as the previous food stamp program , however this has been contested by subsequent studies performed on the national food stamp program , which found that " stamp " or " coupon " -type benefits are more effective at increasing food expenditures than direct " cash " benefits . The 1993 study , which also researched the impact on household expenditures , formed a completely different conclusion : that the average beneficiaries under the NAP program spent $ 5 less per week on food than non @-@ participating families , considering if both would have the same amount of resources available . Nevertheless , this conclusion has also been questioned by subsequent research , attributing this result on the author 's determination of the population sample .
All studies revealed minor improvements in household nutrient availability , with the 1985 study revealing an improvement of vitamin and mineral consumption over non @-@ participating families and the 1993 study partially confirming these results . The most extensive study on nutrient availability was published in 1996 , which concluded that nutrition did not change significantly after the implementation of the NAP program for all beneficiaries , however most improvements were noted for very low @-@ income beneficiaries versus their non @-@ participating equivalents .
Although these three studies have been used by the federal government and other entities to understand the impact of the NAP program 's benefits , the data used by the authors dates back to the periods between 1977 and 1984 , providing limited relevant information for the current program of today . Additionally , subsequent research and analysis have revealed insufficiencies in the methodology applied by the authors of all three publications , thereby casting doubt on whether a definitive conclusion of the program 's overall impact has been established . A 2004 report published by USDA 's Economic Research Service evaluated the reliability and relevancy of these studies , concluding that they are not sufficient to determine the program 's current impact and performance , and stating :
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= Interstate 80 Business ( West Wendover , Nevada – Wendover , Utah ) =
Interstate 80 Business ( BL @-@ 80 ) is an unofficial business loop of Interstate 80 ( I @-@ 80 ) that is 2 @.@ 26 miles ( 3 @.@ 64 km ) long and serves as the main street for the US cities of West Wendover , Nevada , and Wendover , Utah , along a roadway named Wendover Boulevard . Wendover Boulevard was originally part of U.S. Route 40 ( US 40 ) , which connected California to New Jersey via Nevada and Utah . A portion of the Nevada segment is concurrent with U.S. Route 93 Alternate ( US 93 Alt . ) , and the entire portion in Utah is coterminous with Utah State Route 58 ( SR @-@ 58 ) . The Nevada Department of Transportation ( Nevada DOT ) applied for the business loop designation in the early 1980s but the designation has never been approved ; nevertheless , signs are posted in both states . Between July 1976 and 1993 , BL @-@ 80 was concurrent with State Route 224 ( SR 224 ) in Nevada .
= = Route description = =
Starting at the easternmost Nevada exit of I @-@ 80 , BL @-@ 80 heads south , concurrent with US 93 Alt. until it intersects with , and turns east onto , Wendover Boulevard . Just west of the intersection , the highway passes the West Wendover City Hall , which houses the West Wendover Municipal Court and Eastline Justice Court . Traveling east along Wendover Boulevard , BL @-@ 80 passes by the Peppermill casino , the West Wendover Visitors Center and Scobie Park . US 93 Alt. turns south towards Ely , while BL @-@ 80 continues east until it reaches the Montego Bay Resort and Wendover Nugget casinos . The casinos are connected via a sky bridge that allows pedestrian access between the hotels without crossing the highway . A line painted on the street marks the Nevada – Utah border . At the border , BL @-@ 80 becomes coterminous with Utah State Route 58 for the final stretch through Wendover , Utah .
BL @-@ 80 continues to the east past Aria Boulevard , which to the north connects to I @-@ 80 , and to the south leads to the historic Wendover Air Force Base , where the 509th Composite Group was stationed while it prepared to conduct atomic bomb attacks against Japan during 1944 and 1945 . The highway briefly parallels the Shafter Subdivision of the Union Pacific Railroad 's Central Corridor , which was formerly part of the Feather River Route of the Western Pacific Railroad . As the highway travels east towards a half trumpet interchange with I @-@ 80 , the number of lanes drops from five to two . Traffic from BL @-@ 80 can access eastbound I @-@ 80 or turn off onto Frontage Road ; however , to access westbound I @-@ 80 , travelers must continue eastbound until the next exit and turn around . Traffic into Wendover can access BL @-@ 80 from both directions of I @-@ 80 , and from Frontage Road .
The Utah segment of BL @-@ 80 is codified into Utah law as Utah Code § 72 @-@ 4 @-@ 111 . Every year , the Utah Department of Transportation ( UDOT ) conducts a series of surveys on its highways to measure traffic volume . This is expressed in terms of average annual daily traffic ( AADT ) , which is a measure of average traffic volume for any day of the year . In 2009 , UDOT calculated that an average of 2 @,@ 370 vehicles per day traveled on BL @-@ 80 at the state line . This is a significant decrease from the traffic counts earlier in the decade , which measured 11 @,@ 205 vehicles in 2006 , 10 @,@ 345 in 2005 , and 13 @,@ 840 in 2004 . Twenty @-@ one percent of this traffic consists of trucks .
= = History = =
A roadway , now named Wendover Boulevard , has existed since June 23 , 1925 , when the Victory Highway was completed through Wendover . Then governors George H. Dern of Utah and James G. Scrugham of Nevada , as well as the Secretary of Agriculture William M. Jardine were present to open the highway . Bill Smith and Herman Eckstein opened a filling station at the present location of the Wendover Nugget Casino at a cost of $ 500 early in 1926 ( equivalent to $ 33 thousand in 2015 ) . To welcome travelers to his station , he installed a light bulb at the top of a tall pole , which served as the only light in the desert . The earlier Lincoln Highway was re @-@ routed to follow the Victory Highway through the region by an order of the Lincoln Highway Association executive committee on October 18 , 1926 .
Wendover Boulevard was numbered US 40 through what are now the cities of West Wendover and Wendover beginning in 1926 . US 40 was the major thoroughfare between San Francisco , in the west , and Atlantic City , New Jersey , in the east . US 40 was routed along the Wendover Cut @-@ off , now known as Frontage Road , which was retained as a service road after the completion of the I @-@ 80 . The US 40 designation was removed by 1976 or 1977 , when I @-@ 80 was completed through the area . The designation of roadway now numbered US 93 Alt. has changed twice in the past . Between 1932 and 1953 , it was designated US 50 , and between 1954 and either 1978 and 1979 , it was designated US 50 Alt .
Two other roads have been numbered Utah SR @-@ 58 in the past . The first route designated SR @-@ 58 was formed in 1945 between SR @-@ 36 and Clover , but was decommissioned in 1953 . The second road to use the designation was formed in 1965 between I @-@ 15 in New Harmony back to I @-@ 15 via Kanarraville , but that road was decommissioned in 1969 . The current SR @-@ 58 was codified into Utah law in 1969 between the state line and the junction with Frontage Road , which was formerly US 40 . Wendover Boulevard between US 93 Alt. and the state line was designated SR 224 between July 1 , 1976 , and April 28 , 1993 , when the highway was transferred to Elko County .
Even though BL @-@ 80 is signed in both Nevada and Utah , the route has never been officially designated a business loop by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials ( AASHTO ) or by the Utah State Legislature . Nevada DOT applied for the designation , but in July 1982 the application was deferred by AASHTO until Utah submitted a request for a business loop . No such request has ever been submitted .
Prior to 2007 , BL @-@ 80 was the only connection to the city of Wendover from Utah . However , a new partial diamond interchange , which allows traffic from I @-@ 80 to exit going westbound and for traffic to enter I @-@ 80 eastbound , at Aria Boulevard was constructed . The Aria Boulevard interchange was first planned in 2005 , and was completed without using any federal funding .
In 2007 , the City of West Wendover had two historical markers installed along BL @-@ 80 , one at the state line , and the other at the intersection of US 93 Alt. to commemorate the Victory Highway and US 40 .
= = Major intersections = =
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= Invocation ( The X @-@ Files ) =
" Invocation " is the fifth episode of the eighth season of the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It premiered on the Fox network on December 3 , 2000 . The episode was written by David Amman and directed by Richard Compton . " Invocation " is a " Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week " story , unconnected to the series ' wider mythology . The episode received a Nielsen rating of 8 @.@ 2 and was viewed by 13 @.@ 9 million viewers . Overall , the episode received mixed reviews from critics .
The series centers on FBI special agents Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) and her new partner John Doggett ( Robert Patrick ) — following the alien abduction of her former partner , Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) — who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . In this episode , a little boy mysteriously reappears after having been kidnapped for ten years . However , he has not aged one bit after his disappearance . While the case stirs up painful memories for Doggett , suspicion stirs that the boy is not all he seems .
" Invocation " would introduce both the character of Luke Doggett , the deceased son of John Doggett , as well as a story arc involving his father trying to solve his murder . A majority of the episode was filmed in Pasadena , California .
= = Plot = =
In 1990 , Billy Underwood goes missing at a school fair in Dexter , Oklahoma . Ten years later , Billy 's mother Lisa Underwood arrives at the local elementary school to find the principal and staff waiting for her . Billy has mysteriously re @-@ appeared at the school , but doesn 't seem to have aged in the decade he was missing .
Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) and John Doggett ( Robert Patrick ) arrive at the police station to see Billy . Doggett interviews the boy , who seems to be mute . In attempt to get Billy to speak , Doggett keeps his backpack from him . This infuriates Lisa and leads Scully to question Doggett ’ s expertise in child abduction cases . Scully suggests that Billy is an alien abductee , but Doggett believes Ronald Purnell , a local delinquent , may have been involved in the boy 's disappearance . Doggett questions Purnell , who expresses confusion when the agent suggests that he should meet Billy . As Doggett sits in his car , he pulls out a photo of his deceased son , Luke .
When Billy is returned home , his brother and father are uneasy about his presence ; Lisa is blind to these problems . While Lisa and her husband argue about Billy , he goes into his brother ’ s room with a knife . The next morning , Lisa finds a bloody knife in his brother 's bed , although the boy is unscathed . Billy stands in the room staring at Josh . Forensic analysis shows the blood to be Billy 's , although there are no injuries on him . The knife bears a symbol that Billy drew while being interrogated by Doggett , which was also drawn by a psychic investigator ten years earlier . Meanwhile , Cal Jeppy shows up at Purnell 's trailer and hassles him . Purnell goes into the woods and digs up a skull . Later , Jeppy blackmails Purnell into silence over something related to Billy .
Scully and Doggett bring the psychic , Sharon Pearl , to meet Billy . After touching Billy , Pearl says that she feels powerful forces acting through him , and that she senses emanations from Doggett as well . She then goes into a seizure , the mysterious symbol forming on her forehead . Scully and Doggett later notice Purnell drive up to the Underwood home . Purnell panics when he sees Billy in his car , but after a short pursuit , Purnell is arrested . The agents fail to find Billy in the vehicle . Elsewhere , Josh Underwood is abducted at a gas station while looking at a horse trailer . The symbol appears on the trailer .
After interrogation by Doggett , Purnell confesses to snatching Billy in 1990 on behalf of someone else . Doggett recognizes Purnell was also a victim , and with enough prodding , gets a name : Cal Jeppy . The police and the two FBI agents go to Jeppy ’ s home and find Josh in a compartment under the floor of his horse trailer . Doggett chases Jeppy into the woods , catches him , and discovers the skull of Billy that Purnell dug up earlier . As the Underwoods stand over the shallow grave of their long dead son , Scully and Doggett discuss the case . Scully believes it was justice from beyond the grave and that the important thing is that it saved Josh Underwood .
= = Production = =
" Invocation " was written by producer David Amann , and marked his fifth script contribution to the series . " Invocation " was the first of two episode of The X @-@ Files to be directed by Richard Compton ; he would later go on to direct the eighth season episode " Medusa " . Although the episode was the fifth aired in the season , it was actually the sixth one filmed , as evidenced by its production number . A majority of the episode was filmed in Pasadena , California . Many of the extras from the episode auditioned via General Casting , a casting agency . The song that Ronald Purnell sang to Billy to keep him quiet and that was featured as a backmasked message on Scully 's tape @-@ recorder is a traditional African American lullaby from the southern United States called " All the Pretty Horses " .
In the episode , Doggett is told by a psychic that his very own son was kidnapped and murdered ; thus , " Invocation " would mark the first appearance of Luke Doggett , the son of John . Luke 's story would develop into an arc featuring Doggett trying to find out the truth about his son 's murder . Robert Patrick noted " [ ' Invocation ' started ] a very important arc , because you start to see the vulnerability of the Doggett character , what drives him . That 's where we first realize something 's happened to him . There 's a tragedy that 's involved with him . "
= = Reception = =
" Invocation " first aired on Fox on December 3 , 2000 . The episode earned a Nielsen household rating of 8 @.@ 2 , meaning that it was seen by 8 @.@ 2 % of the nation 's estimated households . The episode was viewed by 8 @.@ 27 million households , and 13 @.@ 9 million viewers . The episode ranked as the 41st most @-@ watched episode for the week ending December 3 . The episode aired in the United Kingdom and Ireland on Sky1 on March 8 , 2000 and received 0 @.@ 64 million viewers , making it the eighth most watched episode that week . Fox promoted the episode with the tagline " How can a child disappear for ten years ... and not age a single day ? Tonight , a family 's miracle may be a gift from hell . "
Television Without Pity writer Jessica Morgan rated the episode a B – , and , despite the moderate praise , finished her review with the statement , " I miss Mulder . " Zack Handlen of The A.V. Club awarded the episode a " B – " , writing that it is " an okay entry that ’ s kept from being completely forgettable by some memorable shots [ … ] and some decent Scully / Dogett banter . " Handlen held a mixed feeling toward 's Doggett 's backstory , noting that its introduction " does push the character in ways that undermine some of his strongest traits " .
Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated the episode two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of five . The two praised Amman 's ability to " elicit real @-@ world reactions out of fantastical situations " . However , Shearman and Pearson took issue with the way Doggett 's backstory was extrapolated . They noted that Doggett had been portrayed , up to the point in the series , as a " solid and reliable " character . However , " Invocation " sees him " [ break ] protocol and [ behave ] like a bully " because of a case reminiscent of that of his deceased son 's , a situation that , the two reason , is too similar to Mulder 's own search for the truth about his sister , Samantha . Paula Vitaris from Cinefantastique gave the episode a mixed review and awarded it two stars out of four . Vitaris bluntly wrote , " ' Invocation ' is a masterpiece , but only if you grade it on a ' Roadrunners ' bell @-@ curve . " She elaborated , calling it " a run @-@ of @-@ the @-@ mill stand @-@ alone , a combination of ' Revelations ' and ' The Calusari ' "
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= Through the Looking Glass ( Lost ) =
" Through the Looking Glass " is the third season finale of the ABC television series Lost , consisting of the 22nd and 23rd episodes of the third season . It is also the 71st and 72nd episodes overall . It was written by co @-@ creator / executive producer Damon Lindelof and executive producer Carlton Cuse , and directed by executive producer Jack Bender . When first aired on May 23 , 2007 , in the United States and Canada , it was watched by an average of 14 million American viewers . Like the previous two season finales , it was two hours long with advertisements , twice the length of a normal episode . It was edited into two individual episodes when released on DVD . The season finale is considered by some to be one of the best episodes of television ever broadcast . The episode garnered a number of awards and nominations , including three Primetime Emmy Awards nominations and a Directors Guild of America Award nomination .
The episode begins its narrative in late December 2004 , over ninety days after the crash of Oceanic Airlines Flight 815 . The battle between the crash survivors and the dangerous and mysterious island inhabitants referred to as the " Others " comes to a head as ten of the Others attack and are then ambushed at the survivors ' camp and are subsequently killed . Meanwhile , Jack Shephard ( played by Matthew Fox ) leads most of the survivors to the island 's radio tower to communicate with a nearby ship . Intercut with this story are off @-@ island scenes spotlighting Jack , who has become suicidally depressed and addicted to painkillers . In a twist ending , it is revealed that these scenes are flashforwards to sometime in the future , after Jack has left the island , rather than flashbacks as in previous episodes of Lost .
= = Plot = =
The Others intend to attack the camp and kidnap pregnant women for scientific research . The survivors are tipped off by the " Other " Karl ( Blake Bashoff ) and plan to kill the Others with dynamite @-@ rigged tents . Sayid Jarrah ( Naveen Andrews ) , Jin Kwon ( Daniel Dae Kim ) , and Bernard Nadler ( Sam Anderson ) remain at the beach , tasked with shooting the tents while the rest of the survivors journey with Danielle Rousseau ( Mira Furlan ) to the radio tower to communicate with Naomi Dorrit 's ( Marsha Thomason ) nearby ship . The Others arrive , and while Sayid and Bernard detonate their tents , Jin misses his target , which results in their capture . After hearing only two explosions , James " Sawyer " Ford ( Josh Holloway ) and Juliet Burke ( Elizabeth Mitchell ) turn back to see if they can help . Hugo " Hurley " Reyes ( Jorge Garcia ) , who was not allowed to accompany Sawyer and Juliet because of his weight , drives the van he found onto the beach , and the captives gain the upper hand , killing the remaining Others with the help of Sawyer and Juliet . Tom ( M.C. Gainey ) surrenders but Sawyer shoots him anyway .
In The Looking Glass , a research station of the Dharma Initiative , Charlie Pace ( Dominic Monaghan ) is captured by the resident Others Greta ( Lana Parrilla ) and Bonnie ( Tracy Middendorf ) . Ben Linus ( Michael Emerson ) learns of Charlie 's infiltration and sends Mikhail Bakunin ( Andrew Divoff ) to the station to kill the three to preserve the signal jamming . Mikhail arrives and kills Greta and Bonnie , only to be shot through the chest with a spear gun by Desmond Hume ( Henry Ian Cusick ) who emerges from a closet where he had hidden after diving down a short time after Charlie . Getting the code from Bonnie before she dies ( the notes to the middle eight of " Good Vibrations " by The Beach Boys ) , Charlie disables the jammer , and is contacted by Penny Widmore ( Sonya Walger ) via video transmission . Penny informs Charlie that she does not know Naomi , and did not send the boat that Naomi claims to be from . Despite his injury , Mikhail manages to swim out of the station and blasts the window of the jamming room with a grenade , killing himself and flooding the communications room . Charlie locks the door to save Desmond from drowning with him , but before he drowns , Charlie writes on his hand so Desmond can read : " NOT PENNY 'S BOAT " .
John Locke ( Terry O 'Quinn ) , one of the survivors , has been shot by Ben . Finding his legs paralyzed again , Locke is about to commit suicide , when he is stopped by what appears to be Walt Lloyd ( Malcolm David Kelley ) . Meanwhile , Ben tells Richard Alpert ( Nestor Carbonell ) to lead the rest of the Others to the " Temple " and then leaves the Others , with his adopted daughter Alex ( Tania Raymonde ) – Rousseau 's daughter and Karl 's girlfriend – to meet up with the survivors to persuade Jack not to call Naomi 's ship for rescue .
Kate is upset about Sawyer not wanting her to come back to the beach with him to rescue Sayid , Jin and Bernard . Jack tells her it is because Sawyer was trying to protect her . When she asks why Jack is defending Sawyer , Jack informs Kate Austen ( Evangeline Lilly ) that it is because he loves her . Kate also witnessed a kiss between him and Juliet . Ben and Alex intercept Jack 's group ; Ben informs Jack that Naomi is not who she says she is , and making contact with her boat will be disastrous for everyone . Ben orders the shooting of Sayid , Jin , and Bernard , and when Jack hears three shots , he attacks Ben and punches him in the face repeatedly . Unknown to Jack , the shots were fired into the sand , following earlier orders from Ben . Rousseau meets her sixteen @-@ year @-@ old daughter Alex , who was kidnapped by the Others shortly after her birth , and they tie Ben up . The trek party , now able to get a signal , arrives at the radio tower . Rousseau disables her distress signal , freeing the frequency for Naomi . However , Naomi is knifed in the back by Locke , who threatens to kill Jack if he calls Naomi 's boat . Locke cannot bring himself to kill Jack , who communicates with George Minkowski ( Fisher Stevens ) on Naomi 's boat . Minkowski tells the survivors they will be sending rescue .
In the flash sequences , Jack is shown to be depressed , bearded , heavily drinking and addicted to Oxycodone . After reading about the death of someone he knew , Jack appears to be ready to commit suicide by jumping off the Sixth Street Viaduct bridge . However , he is distracted by a car crash and goes to save the victims . Later , Jack visits the memorial service for the person he read about and finds himself to be the only attendee . In the last of the flashes , Kate appears and Jack discusses the island with her . It becomes clear that the sequences are actually flashforwards rather than flashbacks . Jack tells Kate about the memorial service . Kate says that she did not know about it , but she would not have attended even if she did . Jack also talks about using the " golden pass " they had received from Oceanic Airlines to fly back and forth across the Pacific Ocean every Friday , hoping that he will crash in the island . Jack laments that they should have never left and must return . However , Kate disagrees and leaves , not wanting to continue a conversation that they have apparently had before .
= = Production = =
The episode 's title is an allusion to Lewis Carroll 's novel Through the Looking @-@ Glass and a reference to the fictitious Dharma Initiative station featured in the previous episode . Shooting began on April 13 , 2007 and ended on May 7 , 2007 . The writers were so far behind schedule that parts of the episode were shot while later parts were still being written . Filming mostly took place on Oahu , Hawaii , with additional scenes shot in Los Angeles . The hospital scenes were filmed on the same sets used for the ABC show Grey 's Anatomy .
Despite not being mentioned in the official press release , then @-@ 15 @-@ year @-@ old Malcolm David Kelley returned to reprise his role as 10 @-@ year @-@ old Walt Lloyd , and received credit as a " special guest star " . Kelley ’ s character had left the island in the second season finale , only 26 days prior to the events of " Through the Looking Glass " ; however , Kelley had not filmed an episode in over a year . In his single scene , Walt has visibly aged , appears taller and has a deeper voice . The producers had hoped that Harold Perrineau , who plays Walt 's father Michael Dawson , would return in this episode , but he was busy filming the pilot for CBS ' Demons . Damon Lindelof and Carlton Cuse lent their voices for the unseen roles of the flight captain and newscaster , respectively .
This episode concluded the story arc about Charlie 's death , which began earlier in the season when Desmond prophesied Charlie 's death . Throughout the season , Charlie escaped death ; however , Desmond told Charlie that he had to die in order for his girlfriend , Claire Littleton , to get rescued from the island . The storyline of Charlie 's death was conceived while producing the latter part of the second season , after the storyline of Charlie 's drug addiction finished . The news of his character 's death was broken to Monaghan two episodes in advance , to which Monaghan felt " relief " for knowing the future of his job on the show . On the night of Monaghan 's second @-@ to @-@ last day on set , he was presented with a canoe paddle that had been made by the cast and crew . Monaghan hoped to return to Lost as a guest star in flashbacks or dreams .
Jack Bender stated that Matthew Fox " really commits body and soul into the story he 's telling " and Fox questioned whether he had ever been more tired than while shooting the double episode . Like the other Lost season finales , the final cliffhanger scene was given a codename — " The Rattlesnake in the Mailbox " — and kept top secret . After Lindelof and Cuse wrote the scene , only Fox , Lilly , Bender , and co @-@ executive producer Jean Higgins were given copies of the script . The scene was shot with a green screen in an abandoned Honolulu parking lot with the airport edited in . Despite the security measures , a complete and detailed episode synopsis was uploaded online over a week before the episode aired . Disney investigated the leak . The leak prompted Lindelof and Cuse to enter " radio silence " , which was temporarily broken at Comic @-@ Con International 2007 . The funeral parlor that Jack visits is called " Hoffs / Drawlar " , which is an anagram of " flashforward " . The idea of flashforwards was conceived by creators Lindelof and Abrams during the show 's conception . However , Cuse and Lindelof only started fleshing out the idea at the end of the first season , after they realized that flashbacks would eventually stop being revelatory and knew that they would eventually have to switch to flashforwards . With the announcement that the series would conclude 48 episodes after " Through the Looking Glass " , they felt comfortable playing flashforwards as early as the third season finale .
Post @-@ production wrapped on May 21 , 2007 , only two days before it aired on television . The score was composed by series musician Michael Giacchino , while popular music was also featured throughout the episode . Charlie also sings a song in the episode that was written by Dominic Monaghan , who plays him . A Lost season finale is approximately twice as long the average Lost episode . Due to the episode 's length , it was split into two parts in some countries and when released on DVD . Unlike most episodes , this episode did not feature a " previously on Lost … " recap at the start of the episode when it first aired ; however , it was originally preceded by a clip @-@ show titled " Lost : The Answers " , which recapped the third season . Cuse said that he and Lindelof think the finale is " very cool [ and ] we 're very proud of it . " Stephen McPherson , the president of ABC Entertainment , called " Through the Looking Glass " " one of the best episodes " of the series . Buena Vista Home Entertainment released " Through the Looking Glass " on the season 's DVD and Blu @-@ ray Disc sets on December 11 , 2007 in Region 1 . A featurette called " Lost : On Location " features cast and crew discussing production of select episodes , including " Through the Looking Glass " . The episode was rerun for the first time on January 30 , 2008 with on @-@ screen text in the lower third of the screen , similar to VH1 's Pop @-@ up Video . These pop @-@ ups were not written by Lost 's writers due to the 2007 – 2008 Writers Guild of America strike ; they were written by the marketing company Met / Hodder . This enhanced edition was viewed by almost 9 million Americans .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
In the U.S. , the episode brought in the best ratings for Lost in fifteen episodes . The two @-@ hour Wednesday broadcast on ABC made Lost the fourth most watched series of the week with an average of 13 @.@ 86 million American viewers , below the third season average of 14 @.@ 6 million . The first hour was viewed by 12 @.@ 67 million , and the audience increased to 15 @.@ 04 million in the second hour . The episode received a 5 @.@ 9 / 15 in the key adults 18 – 49 demographic . In the United Kingdom , the episode attracted 1 @.@ 21 million viewers , and was the second most watched program of the week on the non @-@ terrestrial channels , beaten only by Katie & Peter : The Next Chapter . In Australia , Lost was the thirty @-@ seventh most viewed show of the week , bringing in 1 @.@ 17 million viewers . In Canada , the episode placed sixteenth for the first half , with 911 @,@ 000 viewers and fifteenth for the second half , with 938 @,@ 000 viewers . The episodes were broadcast before and after American Idol .
= = = Critical response = = =
The episode garnered universal critical acclaim and is largely considered to be one of the greatest television episodes of all time . The Los Angeles Times wrote that the episode was " an unusually action @-@ packed and sanguinary spring cleaning that … left a host of … characters … dead " , Access Atlanta said " it was deeply satisfying . The first hour started a bit slow but the second hour had great twists , wonderfully emotional moments , both happy and sad " , and the Associated Press said that " the powerful season @-@ ending episode redeemed the series with the shrewdness and intrigue that made it so addictive in the first place . " The San Francisco Chronicle wrote that " not only was the pace fast , the teases taut , and the answers plenty , the writers took a compelling gamble … [ by telling ] viewers that in the future … maybe all … of the people on the Lost island get off . They get their wish . But in Jack , our guide through this series , the writers definitively say , ' Be careful what you wish for . ' " The San Jose Mercury News called the finale a " jaw @-@ dropping exercise in good storytelling . " The Pittsburgh Post @-@ Gazette commented that the flashforward " twist gave the saga renewed momentum as it begins its march toward a 2010 finish . " The season finale was summed up as " a mind @-@ blower , for sure , a radical two hours that gave us major fake @-@ outs , an army of dead bodies , the possibility of rescue [ and ] diverse portraits of heroism " by The Boston Globe , who added that the death of Charlie was " the most touching loss of the series so far . " The Palm Beach Post and Wizard named it the " Best Cliffhanger " of 2007 . The Chicago Tribune called it " a qualified success " with excellent pacing and action , however , the flashforward scenes were thought to be uninteresting and " clumsy " . Time ranked the episode as the best of 2007 and the " Rattlesnake in the Mailbox " as one of the ten best scenes of 2007 television .
The Futon Critic placed the episode first in the site 's annual " 50 Best Episodes " list . E ! said that " Through the Looking Glass " was possibly " the best episode ever of the entire series . " TV Guide described " Through the Looking Glass " as " a dizzying exercise in adventure , sustained tension and time @-@ shifting rug pulling [ that was ] spectacularly produced , amazingly directed and gloriously acted . " IGN gave the double episode a perfect 10 / 10 – the best review of the season – saying it was " nothing short of a masterpiece of storytelling with a brilliantly paced narrative . " IGN would conclude that the flashforward was the " Biggest Shock " in 2007 television . Both IGN and The Los Angeles Times would later declare " Through the Looking Glass " as the second best Lost episode , behind " The Constant " . BuddyTV praised the unpredictability , saying that " no other show can even attempt to do what Lost does . " BuddyTV would later call " Through the Looking Glass " the best finale of 2007 and Charlie 's death the saddest TV death of 2007 . " Through the Looking Glass " was TV.com 's " Editor 's Choice " for " Best Episode " of 2007 . AOL 's TV Squad gave the episode a 7 / 7 , noting that " the writers followed through on Desmond 's premonitions and successfully delivered the highly anticipated game @-@ changer . " Television Without Pity gave the third season finale an " A " . The Sydney Morning Herald wrote that Lost " may have unjumped [ the shark ] with [ the ] flashforward . " Entertainment Weekly ranked it as one of the top ten episodes of 2007 , saying that the cliffhanger " [ revealed ] new dimensions to [ Lost 's ] creative world . " Zap2It questioned " whether to be deeply frustrated ( again ) , really , really confused ( a distinct possibility ) or just in awe of the incredible mind- ( ahem ) show runners … have pulled off . " The writing for Locke was criticized , and one IGN writer said that " it seems irrational that he would go and [ stab Naomi ] in the back without explaining himself . " Lindelof stated " that we might be willing to give [ Locke ] the benefit of the doubt for any action he took in response to [ lying , gutshot , in a pit of Dharma corpses for two days and on the verge of taking his own life ] , even if considered slightly ' out of character ' . " Film and television director and writer Kevin Smith said that " to do [ 3 ] seasons and then suddenly throw a massive curveball is just so dramatically satisfying , you just take your hats off to the writers in a big , bad way . "
= = = Awards = = =
This episode was nominated for Outstanding Directing , Outstanding Writing , and Outstanding Single @-@ Camera Picture Editing for a Drama Series for the 59th Primetime Emmy Awards , but failed to win in any of the categories . This episode was also submitted for consideration for Outstanding Drama Series " ; however , it was not nominated . For his work on this episode , Jack Bender was nominated for the Directors Guild of America Award for Outstanding Directing – Drama Series .
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= Grapico =
Grapico is a caffeine @-@ free , artificially flavored carbonated soft drink with a purple color and a grape taste that is sold in the Southeastern United States . When introduced in 1916 , the product quickly became a success , which in part was due to implying that Grapico contained real grape juice even though it did not . In the spring of 1926 , J. Grossman 's Sons sold the Grapico business to New Orleans business Pan American Manufacturing Co . Pan American continued J. Grossman 's Sons ' improper practice of implying that Grapico contained real grape juice and lost the right to use the word " Grapico " to designate their artificial grape drink in 1929 .
Although the J. Grossman 's Sons line of the brand had ended , the Grapico brand continued on through Alabama businessman R. R. Rochell and his Birmingham , Alabama @-@ based Grapico Bottling Works . R. R. Rochell had first become a wholesale syrup customer of J. Grossman 's Sons in the Summer of 1917 to serve the Alabama soft drink market . By the time Pan American had lost their artificial grape drink name in 1929 , Rochell was selling bottled Grapico in Alabama , Florida , Georgia , Mississippi , and Louisiana .
Rochell received the federal trademark on Grapico in 1940 , giving his Grapico Company of America the right to use the name " Grapico " everywhere in the United States . In 1955 , Grapico Company of America attempted to expand its fruit @-@ flavored brands with Orangico , a sister product to Grapico that included real orange juice . The orange juice @-@ based Orangico did not sell well and the federal trademark eventually expired . In September 1981 , both the franchising rights to the Grapico brand name and The Pepsi Bottling Group in Newnan , Georgia were acquired by Buffalo Rock , an independent Pepsi bottler based in Birmingham , Alabama . Buffalo Rock revived the Orangico trademark in 1999 for an artificially flavored orange drink and introduced Diet Grapico in 2005 . Grapico is now produced at Buffalo Rock 's Birmingham , Alabama bottling facility .
= = History = =
Grapico was first sold in 1914 in New Orleans , Louisiana by J. Grossman 's Sons . In the Summer of 1917 , businessman R. R. Rochell and his Birmingham , Alabama based Grapico Bottling Works purchased Grapico syrup barrels from J. Grossman 's Sons and bottled and sold Grapico to the Alabama soft drink market . Present Grapico distributor Buffalo Rock , an independent Pepsi bottler based in Birmingham , Alabama , purchased the Grapico business in 1981 . The J. Grossman 's Sons ' Grapico retail sales line ended in 1929 and the present Grapico traces its roots to the Summer of 1917 in Birmingham , Alabama through R. R. Rochell 's Grapico .
= = = J. Grossman 's Sons ' Grapico = = =
J. Grossman 's Sons was a business that had been operating in New Orleans , Louisiana since at least 1884 . By the early 1900s , the business was being run by both Adolph Grossman and Isidore Grossman . Prior to developing Grapico , J. Grossman 's Sons served as creditors . In 1905 for example , a collection attorney successfully sued J. Grossman 's Sons to recover legal fees for reducing to judgment a debt of $ 875 owed to J. Grossman 's Sons . Also in 1905 , J. Grossman 's Sons unsuccessfully prevented the sale of their securing collateral , a debtor 's home , to the debtor 's daughter . In January 1912 , J. Grossman 's Sons lent $ 1000 to a Lewisburg , Louisiana saloon owner who they successfully sued eleven months later to recover the amount against his real estate .
J. Grossman 's Sons began manufacturing Grapico in 1914 . At that time , Grapico consisted of a syrup that , when mixed with soda water , had the taste , smell , and color of a genuine grape drink . The product was artificially colored and flavored with only an infinitesimal amount of grape juice or fruit of the grape .
Prior to 1916 , J. Grossman 's Sons contacted American jazz composers Peter DeRose and Ivan Reid to write a song about Grapico . DeRose , who would later be inducted into the Songwriters Hall of Fame , produced the piano accompanied song , Meet Me in the Land of Grapico . Meet Me in the Land of Grapico is a sentimental ballad from Tin Pan Alley that imagined a faraway Land of Grapico where love lives forever . The song ( see below ) and its cover sheet alluded to a grape vine @-@ covered arbor in the Land of Grapico , even though Grapico contained no grape juice . Dedicating the song to all the drinkers of Grapico , J. Grossman 's Sons published the song in 1916 and provided it free on request .
In the Summer of 1917 , businessman R. R. Rochell and his Birmingham , Alabama based Grapico Bottling Works began purchasing Grapico syrup barrels from J. Grossman 's Sons to bottle and sell the Alabama soft drink market . In that same year , Laurel , Mississippi based Grapico Bottling Company also became a wholesale customer of J. Grossman 's Sons and began bottling and selling Grapico in Mississippi . In 1918 , Rochell 's Grapico Bottling Works opened a bottling plant in Hattiesburg , Mississippi as a second Mississippi bottler and seller of Grapico .
By 1919 , Grapico manufacturer J. Grossman 's Sons was successful enough in their efforts to distribute Grapico that they awarded the Grapico advertising account to the Chambers Agency , Inc. of New Orleans . As early as November 1919 , businessman J. C. Kramer was doing business in Louisiana under the name of the Grapico Bottling Works ( Louisiana ) , a business unconnected with Rochell 's Grapico Bottling Works .
In 1920 , the demand for soft drinks significantly increased as a result of the prohibition against alcohol in the United States that began on January 29 , 1920 . The Grapico product was so successful by 1920 , that Grapico specifically was listed in the Louisiana law among generic items , Coca @-@ Cola , and RC Cola as items to be taxed : Section 22 of Act No. 233 of 1920 , which read :
That all persons , associations of persons , firms and corporations engaged in the sale of soda water , ice cream , confections , soda pop , Coca Cola , Chero @-@ Cola , Grapico or other similar soft drinks or beverages or refreshments , shall pay license based on the gross annual sales , and such licenses are hereby fixed and graded as follows .
In addition to experiencing taxes as a result of its success , the Grapico efforts found labor troubles . In 1920 , the International Union of United Brewery , Flour , Cereal , Soft Drink and Distillery Workers presented Grapico Bottling Company ( Mississippi ) with a union agreement . When the company refused to sign the agreement , the 112 employees at Grapico Bottling Company were called to strike . The Grapico Bottling Co. eventually signed the agreement .
In June 1922 , Grapico Bottling Works furthered the connection between the artificially flavored beverage and real grape juice through an advertisement campaign . On June 1 , 1922 , The Jacksonville Metropolis published a Grapico Bottling Works advertisement announcing a ten @-@ day writing contest that offered US $ 116 in prize money for essays on why a consumer would prefer " Sparkling Grapico " over real , fresh grapes . The advertisement indicated that Grapico was made from Pure Grape Juice with pure sugar and carbonated water and had no coloring or preservatives . Although not true , this information was consistent with the Grapico product labels used by J. Grossman 's Sons on the barrels that were shipped to and received by R. R. Rochell .
Mississippi based Grapico Bottling Company troubles did not end with its union problems . In September 1924 , John Henry Ennis of Ellisville , Mississippi purchased a Grapico . On drinking it , Ennis discovered that the contents were filled with filthy flies , some of which he swallowed and became sick . On filing a lawsuit against Grapico Bottling Company and its sole stockholder , Philip Carriere , Ennis learned that Grapico Bottling Company had filed for and successfully dissolved itself as a corporation between the time Ennis consumed the flies and filed suit against Grapico Bottling . On appeal , the Supreme Court of Mississippi issued an opinion that serve as precedent in Mississippi for the rule that a stockholder of a corporation is not liable for the debts , liabilities , and other acts of the corporation . After Grapico Bottling Company ( Mississippi ) dissolved in 1925 , Rochell 's Grapico Bottling Works became the sole supplier of Grapico to Mississippi .
= = = = Unfair competition through deceptive advertising = = = =
Since almost its inception in 1914 , Grapico was associated with real grape juice by J. Grossman 's Sons through its advertisements and business stationery . Publicly associating Grapico with genuine grape juice allowed J. Grossman 's Sons to compete directly with real grape juice producers such as Welch Grape Juice Co. and have an advantage over other imitation grape flavored beverage producers . A problem with this approach was that Grapico was an artificial grape drink that included neither real grape juice nor fruit from the grape .
In May 1926 , J. Grossman 's Sons became a defunct corporation and sold its Grapico formula and all rights connected to that formula to Pan American Manufacturing Co . , Inc . , a Louisiana corporation that had been manufacturing and selling extracts , ice cream powder , and syrups and flavors for soft drinks from New Orleans since 1911 . Pan American began manufacturing Grapico syrup and concentrate and continued supplying its wholesale customers outside of Louisiana with one @-@ gallon bottles of concentrated Grapico to allow them to make Grapico . In addition , through its subsidiary corporation , World Bottling Co . , Pan American continued supplying its retail customers in Louisiana with bottled Grapico for consumption . At the time Pan American acquired the Grapico business , it had three wholesale Grapico customers : Rochell 's Grapico Bottling Works in Birmingham , Alabama and two bottling plants operating in Mississippi . Grapico concentrate was sold by Pan American to its wholesale customers for $ 7 @.@ 50 per gallon and the finished bottled Grapico was by sold by Pan American and its three wholesale customers at 5 cents per 7 @-@ oz bottle .
Pan American continued associating their artificial grape drink with real grape juice in advertisements in trade periodicals , display cards , newspapers , boys ' caps for customers ' use , and in its company stationery . Typically , advertising material displayed images of grape vineyards and bunches of grapes together with the qualifying statements :
Sparkling
Grapico
Naturally Good
Acknowledged
The Best
Grape Drink
On The Market
Sparkling
Grapico
Naturally Good
The Drink of The Nation
In addition , Pan American continued J. Grossman 's Sons practice of using 7 @-@ oz clear bottles with molded labels prominently featuring a pictorial representation of a bunch of grapes with word " Grapico " . Given that the product was artificially colored and flavored to simulate the appearance , taste and smell of grape juice , the combination of the advertisements , the bottle grape bunch mold , and the product itself implied to others that the Grapico product was composed of pure grape juice .
In July 1928 , the Federal Trade Commission charged Pan American with unfair methods of competition and deceptive practices . After learning of the Federal Trade Commission complaint , Pan American altered the labels it used on its one @-@ gallon concentrate jugs . However , the efforts were too little , too late and Pan American and its " representatives , agents , servants , employees , and successors " lost the right to use the word " Grapico " to designate their artificial grape drink as of 1929 . Pan American 's wholesale customers , including R. R. Rochell , were seen as victims of Pan American 's unfair competition and the cease and desist order regarding the Grapico name did not extend to them .
= = = R. R. Rochell 's Grapico = = =
R. R. Rochell was a successful business man operating in Birmingham , Alabama . His success came despite the fact that he was illiterate . He was one of two major stock holders in the Edgewood Amusement Company , which dissolved in 1924 . Rochell began selling bottled Grapico in Alabama in 1917 and then in Mississippi in 1918 . In June 1920 , Rochell 's Grapico Bottling Works formally incorporated in Alabama as " The Grapico Bottling Works " .
Rochell 's early Grapico efforts were not without problems . For example , in November 1921 , Grapico Bottling Works acquired a US $ 648 Baltimore Semi @-@ Automatic Machine , Model B @-@ 1485 from New Orleans based Crown Cork and Seal Co. to cork and seal soda water bottles . Within three months , the bottle capper began to fail . Frequently , the neck of the moving bottles became stuck in the machine , which additionally broke bottles whose contents drenched workers . In addition , the caps made by the machine did not seal properly so that carbonation gas escaped from the Grapico bottles . After Grapico refused to pay the US $ 358 balance , the Sheriff seized the bottling machine from Grapico . The matter was resolved 3 ½ years later by the Louisiana First Circuit Court of Appeal , who set aside the machine sales contract so that Grapico Bottling Works no longer owed the balance .
By 1922 , R. R. Rochell 's Grapico had been expanded into the Florida soft drink market . With Grapico Bottling Company ( Mississippi ) dissolved in 1925 and Pan American prohibited from using the name " Grapico " in connection with the Grapico artificial grape drink , Rochell became the sole supplier of bottled Grapico in Alabama , Florida , Georgia , Mississippi , and Louisiana in 1929 .
In 1938 , R. R. Rochell was doing business in Alabama as " Orange Crush 7 @-@ Up Bottling Company . " At that time , it cost .44312 cents to produce a case of Grapico at Rochell 's plant in Birmingham and to deliver that same case approximately 100 miles ( 160 km ) away cost .32734 cents , making a total cost of approximately .77 cents per case to deliver a case of soft drinks to the areas surrounding Birmingham . The product was sold at .80 a case , for a .03 cent profit per case .
Just before he died in early 1940 , R. R. Rochell filed for a federal trademark on Grapico on behalf of Orange Crush 7 @-@ Up Bottling Company . The federal trademark issued just after Rochell. secured the national rights to the Grapico mark to the Orange Crush 7 @-@ Up Bottling Company . In that same year , Grapico was sold using the trademarked slogan ,
" The Drink of the Nation • Made its Way by the Way its Made . "
In June 1947 , Rochell 's business began using the names " The Grapico Bottling Company " and " The Grapico Company of America . " In October 1949 , " The Grapico Bottling Company " name was changed to " Orange Crush 7 Up Bottling Company " to reflect the work it was doing in Alabama on behalf of the Seven @-@ up Company . Despite the Alabama company 's efforts , the Seven @-@ up Company refused to grant The Grapico Company of America a bottling franchise to handle Seven @-@ up soft drinks . The business was operating as Orange Crush @-@ Grapico Bottling Company by 1953 . In July 1957 , the bottling business name was officially changed to " Orange Crush Grapico Company . "
In 1955 , Grapico Company of America expanded its fruit flavored brands into orange with Orangico , a play on the name Grapico . Orangico was to include real orange juice . The orange juice based Orangico did not sell well and the federal trademark eventually expired in 1999 .
In September 1981 , both the franchising rights to the Grapico brand name and The Pepsi Bottling Group in Newnan , Georgia were acquired by Buffalo Rock , an independent Pepsi bottler founded in Birmingham , Alabama in 1901 . Both Buffalo Rock and R.R. Rochell 's businesses were located in Birmingham since the early 1900s . For example , in October 1940 , R.R. Rochell 's business was located at 1031 11th Avenue North and Buffalo Rock 's business was located at 10th Avenue and 26th Street North — a distance of about three miles ( 5 km ) .
Between at least 1981 and 1988 , Grapico was distributed in only three states : Alabama , Florida and Georgia . In August 1988 , Buffalo Rock announced that they would expand distribution of Grapico the rest of the Southeastern United States . The announcement coincided with the new , more contemporary Grapico packaging . By June 1990 , Grapico was being sold in South Carolina .
Buffalo Rock revived the Orangico trademark in 1999 , this time to be used on an artificial orange syrup rather than a real orange based drink . Buffalo Rock introduced Diet Grapico in 2005 . Grapico is produced by Buffalo Rock through its Columbus , Georgia bottling facility , Sun Fresh Beverages , Inc .
= = In popular culture = =
Grapico is mentioned in Fried Green Tomatoes at the Whistle Stop Cafe , 1987 best selling novel by Fannie Flagg . Anne George 's 1996 novel Murder on a Bad Hair Day : A Southern Sisters Mystery , and the 2004 novel Making Waves by Cassandra King , Grapico mixed with Absolut Peppar jalapeño flavored vodka is a drink called the Ex @-@ girlfriend . It 's called the Ex @-@ girlfriend because " it 's sweet and seems like a good idea , but eventually it 's going to burn you and make you sick . " Grapico and coconut rum is called a " grapicolada . "
= = Gallery = =
Meet Me in the Land of Grapico
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= The Tip @-@ Off =
" The Tip @-@ Off " is the third episode of series seven of the British espionage television series Spooks , and the 59th episode overall . It was originally broadcast on digital channel BBC Three on 28 October 2008 , and repeated on frontline channel BBC One on 3 November . The episode was written by Russell Lewis ; with additional writing by Ben Richards ; and directed by Peter Hoar . In the episode , Ben Kaplan ( Alex Lanipekun ) goes undercover to infiltrate an Al @-@ Qaeda cell in London during a dry run before an expected attack . However , it later becomes apparent the terrorists are going to attack during the dry run .
Actor Alex Lanipekun believed the episode became a sort of " coming of age " for his character , as he had to deal with issues dealing with undercover operations including not to get close to a terrorist . The episode introduces the " Sugarhorse " story arc , which continues through to the series finale . In making the scene where Lucas North was waterboarded , Richard Armitage who portrays him was subjected to the actual torture to ensure the scene 's authenticity . It was seen by over five million viewers after its original broadcast , and was given generally positive reviews . However , it received criticism for featuring the waterboarding scene .
= = Plot = =
Chief of Section D Ros Myers ( Hermione Norris ) introduces Lucas North ( Richard Armitage ) to one of Adam Carter 's assets , Pakistani intelligence officer Marlin ( Emilio Doorgasingh ) . Marlin has information about a planned attack by Al @-@ Qaeda ; a cell intends to create Internet chatter , followed by a dry run , after which they will commence a series of suicide attacks . The ringleader behind this is Nadif Abdelrashid ( Ariyon Bakare ) who was previously responsible for similar attacks in Turkey and Somalia . Ben Kaplan is in his first undercover operation disguised as a recent convert to Islam and becomes part of the cell . As part of his cover , Ben shares a flat with Jawad ( Tariq Jordan ) , another member . However , over the course of the operation Ben becomes close to Jawad , which Ben 's handler Lucas advises against , as Jawad is not an innocent .
When Malcolm Wynn @-@ Jones ( Hugh Simon ) discovers the chatter , Ben relays to the team that the dry run will commence the following day . On the day , Ben finds that Abdelrashid intends to carry out the attack ahead of schedule and during the dry run after Ben , Jawad , and two other men are given bombs . Ben relays this message to Lucas . Ros dispatches CO19 to apprehend Abdelrachid in his office , who intends to remote detonate the bombs . Another CO19 squad , as well as Lucas and Jo Portman ( Miranda Raison ) follow the cell members to a street market , which they will use to maximise civilian casualties . Ben admits he is MI5 to Jawad , who runs in panic and attempts to manually detonate his bomb ; this results in getting gunned down by CO19 officers , much to Ben 's dismay . After stopping another two bombs , Jawad 's mobile phone rings , revealing Abdelrashid is not the " Mr. Big " ; it is Marlin . He remote detonates the last bomb , killing the terrorist and the two CO19 officers holding him .
Although one bomb did detonate , Harry Pearce ( Peter Firth ) views the operation a success , as the other three did not , and no civilians were killed . Ben tells Lucas he was right about Jawad ; he chose to become a bomber over seeing his family . Lucas receives a call from Marlin , who asks to meet with him . During the confrontation , Marlin admits he was forced to become Mr. Big when terrorists kidnapped his family . Now knowing he has failed , he commits suicide .
In a subplot , rainwater falls onto Lucas 's face , which triggers a flashback where he was tortured by FSB interrogators during his eight @-@ year imprisonment in Russia . The interrogators question him on " Sugarhorse . " Lucas relays this to Harry , who claims not knowing what Sugarhorse is . However , he later visits a retired spycatcher Bernard Qualtrough ( Richard Johnson ) believing there is high level mole within MI5 . He only reveals that Sugarhorse is MI5 's " best kept secret " that only five people , including Richard Dolby ( Robert East ) , the Director General , and himself , know the details of . Harry later returns to Qualtrough 's bookstore to find out who the mole might be , starting by looking into Dolby 's file .
= = Production = =
The episode was written by Russell Lewis , with additional writing by Ben Richards . Ben Kaplan became the central character of the episode . Actor Alex Lanipekin , who portrays Ben , stated that " The Tip @-@ Off " was a " kind of a coming of age " for the character , dealing with his first undercover operation . Lanipekun expanded :
The episode also introduces a story @-@ arc , about Sugarhorse , that would be resolved by the end of the seventh series . Hermione Norris describes Sugarhorse as " a group of spies who were brought together after the ending of the cold war to infiltrate , at the highest level , all forms of Russian intelligence so that if a nuclear power ever came into being and was at the hands of the Russian people , MI5 and MI6 could infiltrate it and stop it . " The cast read the brief on Sugarhorse , but were then told to shred it in order to maintain its secrecy from fans .
In a flashback sequence of the episode , Lucas is subjected to waterboarding , a method of torture . In order to ensure the authenticity of the sequence , Armitage was subjected to the actual torture . He agreed to perform the sequence after he was convinced by consultants from the FSB and CIA . Armitage was only waterboarded for a short time , and was filmed in slow motion to make it appear as if he was on for longer . Kudos film and television , the production company behind Spooks , had to follow several health and safety provisions from an advisor to ensure the sequence strictly adheres to the advice . The advisor and a medic were present during filming . The ambient temperature of the room was raised to make Armitage as comfortable as possible . However , after the sequence was shot , Armitage changed his opinion entirely , stating ; " I only lasted five to ten seconds , and the sound of my voice crying out to stop isn 't me acting . "
= = Broadcast and reception = =
The episode was originally broadcast on the digital channel BBC Three from 11 pm on Tuesday , 28 October 2008 , after the broadcast of the second episode on BBC One . The episode would later be repeated on BBC One on Monday , 3 November 2008 during the 9 pm to 10 pm time slot , except in Northern Ireland , where it was withheld until 10 : 35 pm . There is no ratings data available for the BBC Three broadcast . On the BBC One broadcast , the episode was seen by 5 @.@ 2 million viewers , an improvement of 140 @,@ 000 from the previous episode , with a 21 @.@ 6 per cent audience share , winning its time slot against the return of detective series Taggart on ITV1 , and other terrestrial channels . According to the Broadcasters ' Audience Research Board , the episode received final viewing figures of 5 @.@ 59 million , making the episode the 17th most seen broadcast on BBC One , and 32nd in overall television the week it was shown .
Mof Gimmers of TV Scoop was positive towards the episode , calling it " a tense week for Section D " and added " our guys did a pretty good job . " Gimmers also thought Ben " did well on his first undercover mission too , didn 't you think ? Apart from verging on sympathy for the young brainwashed bombers . Still , he 's young . He 'll get over it . " On Ros ' role in the episode , Gimmers said " I don 't think I 'll ever be able to say I 'm " warming " to such an ice queen as Ros , but I will admit to a growing admiration . " Scott Matthewman of The Stage stated " the seventh series of the spy show continues apace , " and praised the episode for " the superb performance of Hermione Norris as Ros Myers , fast becoming the twisted moral centre of the show . Both she and Peter Firth 's Harry Pearce get some great dialogue every week , so it 's a shame that the rest of the cast aren ’ t afforded the same luxury . "
The Guardian columnist Zoe Williams criticised the actual waterboarding in the torture scene , saying " it 's really unpleasant , [ Armitage ] concurred . ' I only lasted five to 10 seconds , and the sound of my voice crying out to stop isn 't me acting . ' Pal , that 's nice that you 're not showing off but this is all wrong and despicable : it 's like locking yourself and 10 friends into a loo on a commuter train , to see what it would be like on the train to Auschwitz . If you can make it stop whenever you like , you 're learning nothing and kicking people in the face while you 're at it . "
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= Dance Again ... the Hits =
Dance Again ... the Hits is the first greatest hits album of American entertainer Jennifer Lopez . It was released on July 20 , 2012 , by Epic Records , to coincide with the launch of her first world tour , the Dance Again World Tour . Lopez previously conceived plans for a greatest hits album in 2009 , but instead opted to use the material recorded for her seventh studio album , Love ? , which was released by Island Records in May 2011 after her departure from Epic Records in 2010 . As Lopez owed the label one last album to fulfill her contract , she began work on a new greatest hits album in November 2011 . She later became unsure whether she wanted to go along with plans to release a greatest hits album or a new studio album , eventually deciding on the former .
Dance Again ... the Hits comprises eleven previously released tracks , and two new recordings : " Dance Again " and " Goin ' In " . A deluxe edition of the album was also released , featuring three additional previously released tracks , and a DVD featuring a selection of eleven music videos . The album received generally positive reviews from music critics , who praised it as a reflection of Lopez 's success . Some critics expressed their disappointment in the absence of several successful singles , but deemed this as impressive , noting that this may have been due to the large volume of hit singles she has released over the years . Dance Again ... The Hits was a moderate commercial success , peaking within the top ten in fourteen national charts , and the top twenty in ten national charts .
= = Background and development = =
Following the commercial failure of her sixth studio album Brave ( 2007 ) — and while pregnant with twins Max and Emme — Lopez began working on new music for a future project in 2008 . The project was kept under wraps until February 2009 when a new song from the recording sessions titled " Hooked on You " leaked online . Following the leak of " Hooked on You " , " One Love " and " What Is Love ? " were subsequently leaked online in May . The leaked songs were , at the time , meant to appear on a greatest hits album that later turned into a studio album .
" Louboutins " , a song written and produced by The @-@ Dream and C. " Tricky " Stewart , was released as the lead single from her seventh studio album , Love ? , in November 2009 . However , upon release , the song failed to garner enough airplay to chart , despite topping the US Billboard Hot Dance Club Songs chart . Lopez subsequently left Epic Records in February 2010 , citing that she had fulfilled her contractual obligations and now wished to release Love ? under a new label . Her departure from the label temporarily halted production on the album , however upon signing a new contract with Island Records , recording resumed on the album . The New York Daily News revealed that Lopez would be taking some of the records recorded under Epic Records to Island Records so that they could be included on the album .
" On the Floor " , Lopez 's first single with the label , was released in February 2011 . The song topped the charts across the globe , becoming one of the most successful singles of the year . Following the release of " On the Floor " , Love ? produced two moderately successful singles : " I 'm Into You " and " Papi " , both of which topped the US Billboard Hot Dance Club Songs chart . Love ? itself was a moderate commercial success and was viewed as a humble comeback from Lopez , as many had considered her recording career over . It was announced in November that Lopez was again working on new material for a greatest hits album . The following month , Lopez revealed that she had been playing some of her new music for L.A. Reid , who signed her to Island Records and left the label to become the CEO and chairman of Epic Records . This led further speculation that Lopez had moved back to Epic Records , which was first reported in July . The reports were later confirmed untrue , as Lopez was back with Epic Records because she owed the label one final album to end her contract , despite previously announcing that she had fulfilled her contract with them .
= = New material = =
Lopez began working on a " collection of songs " in 2011 , unaware of what she was " going to do with them " . At the time , she was deciding whether she wanted to release a greatest hits album or a new studio album . Lopez stated that when it comes time to make an album , she doesn 't sit down and write for the entire thing . She revealed that she is always working on new music and that her albums " happen organically " when she has recorded enough material . Lopez explained : " I don 't ever stop . I keep going with it . These records , like ' Follow the Leader , ' [ a collaboration with Puerto Rican duo Wisin & Yandel ] they just kind of came about . It wasn 't something like , ' Oh , I 'm going to sit down and make a record right now . ' " Among the songs she recorded , two were chosen to be included on Dance Again ... The Hits : " Dance Again " and " Goin ' In " .
The album 's title and opening track , " Dance Again " , was written by RedOne , Enrique Iglesias , Bilal " The Chef " , AJ Junior and Pitbull , who is also featured in the song . After hearing a demo version of the track , she begged Iglesias to let her record the song , telling him that it was " her song " . Lopez , who was going through a divorce with Marc Anthony and the " breakup of a family " , felt as if the song had come to her at the " perfect moment " . According to Lopez , the period was devastating because family is very important to her . Lopez revealed : " I had to turn that into something better " ; she thought : " I don 't want to just survive it , I want to come out better than that . " Lopez didn 't want to be " the woman who stayed in bed for months " . " I knew I had to get through it . I 'd dance every day , I 'd work out , I 'd say a little prayer and I still wouldn 't feel any better . Then I 'd go to bed and get up the next day and do it all again . It was a process , and it very gradually got a little easier ... I had to do it for my kids . I had to get through it for them . " She re @-@ wrote parts of the verses to better relate to her experiences . The song " helped lift her out of the darkness " and gave her hope again . Looking back on the song in December 2012 , Lopez stated that : " ' Dance Again ' became my anthem ... an expression of what I needed to do at that time in my life and for what I was taking on with [ my career ] . It was a beautiful metaphor that became my reality . "
Lopez 's vocals for " Dance Again " were arranged by RedOne and produced by Kuk Harrell . They were recorded at Pinky 's Palace . Pitbull 's vocals were recorded by Al Burna at Al Burna Studios , Miami , Florida . Chris " Tek " O 'Ryan and Trevor Muzzy handled audio engineering of the song , with assistance from Anthony Falcone and Peter Mack . O 'Ryan and Trevor Muzzy were in charge of vocal editing . All instruments in the song were played and programmed by RedOne , who also produced the song . The song was later mixed by Trevor Muzzy . In an interview with Ryan Seacrest , Lopez revealed that she loved being able to collaborate with RedOne and Pitbull again . She stated : " We had a great chemistry the last time , and it was like ' We 're going to have to do something again . ' And this was the perfect song . I love the message of the song . That when something bad happens , your life is not over . You have to get up . You 're gonna live . You 're gonna to be okay . You 're gonna dance again . "
" Goin ' In " was written by Michael Warren , Jamahl Listenbee , Joseph Angel , Coleridge Tillman , David Quiñones and Tramar Dillard . Lopez 's vocals were produced by Harrell and recorded at Pinky 's Palace . Josh Gudwin and O 'Ryan handled audio engineering of the song , with assistance from Falcone and Mack . The song features additional vocals from American rapper Lil Jon . GoonRock produced and later mixed the song alongside Kenny Moran at The House on the Hill Studios in Los Angeles , California . Of GoonRock , Lopez commented by stating that he is " very forward with his sound " . After recording her vocals for the song , Flo Rida recorded a rap verse for the song . Those involved in the production of the song were extremely happy with the song before Flo Rida 's rap appeared on it , but once his vocals were on the song it " took it over the top top " . When choosing who she wanted to feature on the song , Lopez had several other rappers in mind , such as Big Sean . Lopez revealed : " We had a couple of people who said yes , that they would get on it , but [ Flo Rida ] just seemed like the perfect one . " She further explained that the style of the song " really fit Flo Rida " ; " It was half @-@ dance , but half kind of hard too . "
= = Critical response = =
Dance Again ... The Hits received generally positive reviews from contemporary music critics . At Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , the album received an average score of 72 , based on four reviews , which indicates " generally favorable reviews " . Sal Cinquenmani of Slant Magazine wrote that the " most immediately striking thing " about the compilation is " just how many hits [ she ] has racked up over the years " . " So many , in fact , that there 's a hefty handful of singles missing from the standard edition of the album " , using her number @-@ one single " All I Have " as an example of this . He stated that Lopez 's " output has been nothing if not on trend " , and that Dance Again ... The Hits plays not only as a chronicle of her music career , but of " pop music as a whole since just before the turn of the century " , with genres spanning Latin pop , dance , and R & B. According to Cinquenmani , the album also serves as a " historical record " of who the rappers du jour were " over the last dozen years or so " , from Big Pun , Fat Joe , Ja Rule , and Lil Wayne . He concluded by stating that if the compilation " proves anything " it 's that Lopez is , " if not the queen , then at least the duchess of reinvention and should never be counted out " .
Michael Cragg of BBC Music wrote that it 's " surprising that she hadn 't unleashed a hits collection before now given that she 's what you might politely call a ' singles artist ' " . He questioned the song choices , writing that the person who made the decision to not include " Papi " needs to have a " long , hard look in the mirror " , although it 's " hard to argue with most of what 's on offer " , Lopez " slipping effortlessly into different guises with each song " . He concluded by stating that : " A cipher for good songs rather than the reasons those songs are good she may be , but there are few that do it better " . Lewis Corner of Digital Spy too questioned the decisions of which songs appeared on the album , but wrote that : " the very fact that she can 't fit all her classics on to one disc can be seen as nothing more than a testament to her enduring career " . AllMusic 's Stephen Thomas Erlewine pointed out that Lopez 's other well or moderately charted songs such as " Play " , " I 'm Gonna Be Alright " , " I 'm Glad " , and " Hold You Down " were not present on the compilation , while also writing that her older hits didn 't fit neatly with her newer songs and that it 's sequencing was " scattershot " . Erlewine , nonetheless , said that " [ the album ] does have the familiar tunes , so it serves its purpose " .
Irving Tan of Sputnikmusic put Dance Again ... The Hits into the category of a greatest hits album that " you get facial brickbat of moderate @-@ to @-@ raw disappointment at the discovery of how thin and forced the artist 's discography really is " . He wrote that having another artist featured on nine of the thirteen tracks " gives the impression that as a product , having Jennifer Lopez alone is simply not enough " . He further criticized the decision to include the Murder remixes of " Ain 't It Funny " and " I 'm Real " over the original studio versions , stating that it was almost like " Sony Music held their hands up and admitted that the initial cuts that they published simply weren 't up to scratch " . Tan concluded that for a greatest hits album , the track listing is " simply all over the place " , with no indication that the record executives or Lopez " looked around for a logical start " or an " easy access ramp to her seven @-@ album canon " .
= = Commercial performance = =
Dance Again ... the Hits enjoyed moderate commercial success in the United States , peaking at number 20 on the Billboard 200 the week of its debut with sales of 14 @,@ 000 copies . The album performed better on the Billboard R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Albums component chart , where it managed to reach number six . Dance Again ... the Hits performed significantly lower on the Billboard 200 than Lopez 's seventh studio album Love ? , which peaked at number five , as well as her previous compilation album J to tha L – O ! The Remixes ( 2002 ) , which peaked at number one . After a month , the album had sold 38 @,@ 000 copies in the United States . As of December 2012 , Dance Again ... the Hits is Lopez 's second lowest performing album in the country ; only The Reel Me achieved a lower chart position in 2003 , peaking at number 69 . On the UK Albums Chart , Dance Again ... the Hits debuted at number four with sales of 9 @,@ 213 copies in its first week of release , matching the peak of J to Tha L @-@ O ! : The Remixes in that country .
Overseas , Dance Again ... the Hits performed well in most music markets , reaching the top ten in fourteen national charts , five of which were in the first five positions . Its highest position came from the Canadian Albums chart , where the album achieved number three . The album reached the same peak on the Italian Albums chart . Other countries where the album managed to score a high peak were Spain ( number five ) , Taiwan ( number three ) , the Czech Republic ( number six ) and Switzerland ( number seven ) . On the Australian Albums Chart , the album had a moderate commercial performance , reaching number 20 ; her previous compilation album , J to tha L – O ! The Remixes , achieved a higher position of number 11 . In Latin America , the album appeared on the Mexican Album chart , reaching a peak of number 10 .
= = Track listing = =
Notes
^ a signifies a vocal producer
^ b signifies an executive producer
^ c signifies a remixer
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits for Dance Again ... the Hits adapted from AllMusic .
= = Charts = =
= = Release history = =
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= Super Mario Strikers =
Super Mario Strikers , known as Mario Smash Football in Europe and Australia , is a five @-@ on @-@ five football ( soccer ) game developed by Next Level Games for the GameCube . The game was released in Europe and North America in late 2005 , and in Japan and Australia in 2006 . The game 's sequel , Mario Strikers Charged , was also developed by Next Level Games and is available for the Wii . The game 's developers had worked on the NHL series before development of Strikers , which served as an influence for the fast @-@ paced and physical nature of the game .
Strikers is a sports game incorporating characters and themes from the Mario franchise . The game features the basic aspects and objectives of a football game , although no referees are present and characters can legitimately shove others out of possession of the ball . As in other games such as Mario Power Tennis , the player can use Mario @-@ themed items such as bananas and red shells to hinder the opposition and gain the advantage . Each team 's captain can use " Super Strikes " that , if timed accurately , will result in two points scored for the striker 's team . Each team comprises a goal keeper , a main Mario character ( captain ) , and three of the same secondary Mario characters known as " side kicks " .
The game received " generally favorable reviews " according to video game review aggregator Metacritic . In general , reviewers lauded Strikers ' accessibility and multiplayer gameplay , but criticised the lack of gameplay modes and single @-@ player offerings .
= = Gameplay = =
Super Mario Strikers is a five @-@ a @-@ side football console video game comprising characters and themes from the Mario series . Each team consists of a captain character from the Mario series and three secondary Mario characters known as " sidekicks " . Kritter is the goalkeeper for all sides except the " Super Team " , which consists of four captain robots and a Robo @-@ Kritter . Both sidekicks and captains have varying gameplay attributes with " balanced " and " defensive " play types available . Strikers follows the basic gameplay featured in most football video games , including the ability to dash , tackle players , and lob the ball . Despite this , characters not in possession can legitimately hit opponents with or without the ball ( " Big Hit " ) , resulting in a more arcade @-@ like style of gameplay . The game also features " Perfect " passes and shots , which trigger in sequence if both a pass and shot are applied close to the opponent 's goal . The most powerful shot possible is the " Super Strike " , which only the captain can make and will account for two points if successful . Once charged , the player must time button presses accurately on a visible gauge to trigger a successful shot at goal , resulting in a character @-@ specific animation .
As in other Mario sports titles such as Mario Power Tennis , the player can use items — bananas , red shells , etc . — to impede the opponent . Some " power ups " can aid the user by granting temporary imperviousness while others immobilize and hinder the opponent . The central antagonist of the Mario universe , Bowser , will also appear occasionally as a non @-@ player character to obstruct the players from each side . Strikers include six stadia , each having barriers to prevent the ball going out of play . These stadia only vary aesthetically and do not affect gameplay , featuring different surfaces such as grass and wood . The player can adjust the match settings to limit or expand the match time and select whether features such as the Super Strike will be included . As the player advances through the game , further adjustments can be made called " cheats " , that can render goalkeepers weaker and grant an infinite number of items .
Strikers includes multiple gameplay modes such as the " Grudge Match " , which is the standard single and multiplayer match mode of the game . Trainings sessions come in the form of " Strikers 101 " , where the player can practice individual aspects such as shooting and dashing . " Cup Battles " allows up to four players to compete in tournaments against artificial intelligence opponents to advance through more difficult cups for rewards , with " Super " denoting the higher @-@ ranked tournaments .
= = Development = =
Strikers was developed by Next Level Games , who revealed the game at the E3 conference of 2005 in the form of a playable demonstration . In an interview , game director Mike Inglehart and marketing director Grace Kim revealed that Strikers was originally intended to be a more realistic Mario sports game , but the development team opted for an " over @-@ the @-@ top " style after numerous consultations with Nintendo . Next Level Games cited a connection between Strikers and NHL Hitz Pro in terms of gameplay mechanics , claiming that the latter influenced the " responsive gameplay " in Strikers , as well as the use of goalkeepers and on @-@ field collisions . The developers revealed that the character system would be " balanced and fun " , although Nintendo had " the ultimate say " in regards to character design , wanting strong and aggressive styles that did not deviate from past characterisations too much . For this reason , voice recording for Strikers required more lines and sounds than in other Mario sports titles .
Assisted by producer Ken Yeeloy , Inglehart stated in an interview a willingness to link any new feature of Strikers with the sport of football . With this , they decided to accentuate " the exciting parts " of the game , with Inglehart using the electric fences in the stadia as an example in reference to the physicality of the sport . They also explained reasons for not using a penalty or card system , rating the power @-@ up system as compensation for this considering power @-@ ups are awarded to the team of a player that has been pushed or shoved .
= = Reception = =
Super Mario Strikers received generally positive reviews from critics , with reviewers lauding the game 's characterisation and visual style , being reminiscent to that of Kazuto Nakazawa . GameSpot 's Brian Ekberg praised the game 's accessibility , stating that " Strikers ' pick @-@ up @-@ and @-@ play design will have you playing like a cartoon Pele in no time " . Similarly , critics welcomed the developers ' choice to forgo traditional football rules in the favour of a more arcade @-@ like style of gameplay . Despite this , IGN complained of a " disappointingly slim " variety of modes , as well as the perceived small roster of characters and inflexibility when choosing teams . On a similar note , Eurogamer criticised the vague presentation of characters attributes , making it difficult to determine what their respective strengths and weaknesses are . Despite enjoying the variety and appearance of Striker 's stadia , GameSpot noted only cosmetic differences among them , and criticised a lack of physical features to make them more interesting .
Strikers ' multiplayer gameplay in particular was welcomed by reviewers , who praised the developers for providing aggressive and fast @-@ paced action . Conversely , the game 's single player offerings gained a less enthusiastic response , with critics noting " boring " and repetitive gameplay . GameSpot thought some features were " overpowered " in parts , including the big @-@ hit tackles and the ability to dash constantly given the absence of a stamina meter . Despite this , Eurogamer remarked that it was deeper than first anticipated , while IGN lauded the game 's " tight controls " and use of Super Strikes . The ability to push enemies into the electric barrier and the use of items was also welcomed as a means to make the game entertaining while playing defensively .
The game 's visuals received a mixed response , with critics reporting occasional problems with Striker 's framerate . While praising the character models and goal animations , GameSpot bemoaned the absence of a " Mario feel " when appraising the menu and settings . IGN noted " blurry textures , uninspired stadium designs , and almost incomprehensibly a sometimes sluggish framerate " , despite enjoying the characters art style . The audio received a mediocre response , with critics praising the use of character and audience chants while criticising a lack of variety and repetitiveness . GameSpot thought the menu music had " some nice flair to it " , despite noting sounds such as Luigi 's goal celebration that , while charming when first heard , became tedious . In Japan , Famitsu gave the game a score of three sevens and one six for a total of 27 out of 40 ; Famitsu Cube + Advance , on the other hand , gave it a score of one nine , two eights , and one seven , for a total of 32 out of 40 .
Not all non @-@ video game publications gave the same praise for the game . Common Sense Media gave it all five stars and called it " a perfect game for a bunch of teenagers to play because it 's wacky , fast @-@ paced , and just plain fun . " However , Maxim gave it a score of seven out of ten and stated that " With matches of five @-@ on @-@ five taking place on small fields with really basic controls , Strikers is classic arcade @-@ style soccer , but the game gets an extra kick from power @-@ ups , random Bowser attacks , and a Telemundo @-@ style announcer . " The Sydney Morning Herald gave it a similar score of three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of five and called it " immediately likable " .
= = = Awards and sales = = =
In GameSpot 's E3 2005 coverage , this game was given the award " Best Sports Game " , and was nominated a finalist for " Best Game of Show " . It received GameSpy 's " Game of the Year 2005 " awards for " Best GameCube Sports " , " Best GameCube Multiplayer " , and was ranked second for all GameCube games in 2005 . It was a finalist for " Sports Game of the Year " by the Academy of Interactive Arts & Sciences for the 2006 Interactive Achievement Awards . Super Mario Strikers has sold 950 @,@ 000 in North America as of December 27 , 2007 .
= = = Top Players = = =
Since the release of the game , there have been many tournaments . Kevin " Bonj " Bongiovanni has been known to be the best player to have ever touched the game with his total earnings of $ 300 @,@ 000 in prize money . His combo of Yoshi and Birdo can matchup to anyone . Other Honorable Mentions : Kevin " Sully " Sullivan . Keith " I Peaked " Watkins .
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= Tropical Storm Norman ( 2000 ) =
Tropical Storm Norman was a tropical cyclone that hit Mexico in September 2000 . The sixteenth cyclone and fourteenth named storm of the 2000 Pacific hurricane season , Norman originated in a tropical wave that emerged from the coast of Africa on September 4 , and moved westward across the Atlantic Ocean ; the wave entered the Pacific on September 16 . The disturbance organized into a tropical depression on early on September 20 , and later that day the storm reached its peak intensity of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) , and subsequently made landfall to the west of Lázaro Cárdenas , Michoacán . After weakening to a tropical depression over land , the storm re @-@ emerged over open waters , and made a second landfall before dissipating shortly thereafter . The storm produced heavy rain that resulted in flooding and mudslides , killing about nine people .
= = Meteorological history = =
The origins of Tropical Storm Norman were from the same tropical wave that spawned Atlantic Hurricane Gordon , which emerged off the coast of Africa on September 4 . The wave moved westward , with the southern portion of the wave crossing Central America while Gordon formed in the northwest Caribbean Sea . When the wave reached the eastern Pacific Ocean on September 16 , it interacted with a pre @-@ existing low @-@ level circulation , which produced a large area of disturbed weather . On September 18 , the convection began contracting and organizing , gradually developing a circular area of thunderstorms with well @-@ defined outflow . It is estimated that at 0000 UTC on September 20 , the system developed into Tropical Depression Sixteen @-@ E , about 205 miles ( 335 km ) south @-@ southeast of Manzanillo , Colima .
Upon first becoming a tropical cyclone , the depression was located within an area of weak steering currents . Initially it was forecast to remain offshore ; with warm waters and light wind shear , the depression was forecast to intensify into a strong tropical storm , and possibly attain hurricane status . However , the circulation was difficult to locate , and as such its exact motion was uncertain . Ships in the region confirmed the center of the storm as further northeast than previously thought , but also confirmed tropical storm force winds ; as a result , the National Hurricane Center upgraded the depression to Tropical Storm Norman . Strengthening continued , and Norman attained peak winds of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) , shortly prior to making landfall west of Lázaro Cárdenas , Michoacán , late on September 20 .
Initially , the storm was forecast to dissipate quickly over land , although the possibility was noted for a westward turn , due to an anticyclone located over central Mexico . About 10 hours after moving ashore , Norman weakened to tropical depression status , and while moving further inland its track turned to the northwest . The center became very ill @-@ defined over the mountainous terrain of southwest Mexico , although stronger rainbands persisted offshore . Late on September 21 , the poorly defined center of Norman emerged into open waters near Puerto Vallarta , Jalisco , and subsequently turned northward . At first , the depression was forecast to re @-@ intensify into a minimal tropical storm ; however , its previous land interaction prevented it from ever re @-@ strengthening . The circulation remained close to the coastline , and at 1500 UTC on September 22 , Norman made landfall near Mazatlán , Sinaloa , as a weak tropical depression . Within a few hours , the cyclone dissipated over land .
= = Impact and preparations = =
In response to Norman 's upgrade into a tropical storm , a tropical storm warning was issued for the coast from Zihuatanejo to Manzanillo on September 20 . The warning was dropped after Norman made landfall the next day . No additional warnings were issued upon Norman 's reemergence over water because it was never expected to restrengthen .
Norman produced heavy rainfall across western Mexico , officially peaking at 14 in ( 360 mm ) at Callejones , Colima . At La Villita , Michoacán , total rainfall reached 9 @.@ 5 in ( 240 mm ) . However , the highest amount was actually at Petacalco / La Union . The rainfall caused severe flooding and mudslides , which killed about nine people . Additionally , the heavy precipitation flooded streets and homes as well as down trees . Four of the deaths occurred in the State of Chiapas as a result of a mudslide . Two more were swept away by raging rivers in the State of Veracruz , and another two people drowned in the State of Guerrero . In Chiapas , authorities evacuated about 300 families due to the flooding .
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= Shiva =
Shiva / ˈʃivə / ; Sanskrit : Śiva , Tamil : சிவன ் meaning " The Auspicious " is one of the three major deities of Hinduism . He is the chief within Shaivism , one of the three most influential denominations in contemporary Hinduism . He is one of the five primary forms of God in the Smarta Tradition , and " the Destroyer " .
At the highest level , Shiva is regarded as formless , limitless , transcendent , and unchanging as well . Shiva also has many benevolent and fearsome depictions . In benevolent aspects , he is depicted as an omniscient Yogi who lives an ascetic life on Mount Kailash , as well as a householder with wife Parvati and his two children , Ganesha and Kartikeya , and in fierce aspects , he is often depicted slaying demons . Shiva is also regarded as the patron god of yoga , meditation , and arts .
The main iconographical attributes of Shiva are the third eye on his forehead , the snake Vasuki around his neck , the adorning crescent moon , the holy river Ganga flowing from his matted hair , the trishula as his weapon and the damaru as his musical instrument . Shiva is usually worshiped in the aniconic form of Lingam .
The worship of Shiva is a pan @-@ Hindu tradition , practiced widely across all of India , Nepal , Sri Lanka and parts of Pakistan .
= = Etymology and other names = =
The Sanskrit word " Shiva " ( Devanagari : शिव , śiva ) comes from the Shri Rudram Chamakam of the Taittiriya Shakha ( TS 4 @.@ 5 , 4 @.@ 7 ) of the Krishna Yajurveda . The word means auspicious and it is used as an adjective only in the Rig Veda . In simple English transliteration it is written either as Shiva or Siva . The adjective śiva , is used as an attributive epithet for several Rigvedic deities , including Rudra . Other popular names associated with Shiva are Mahadeva , Mahesha , Maheshvara , Shankara , Shambhu , Rudra , Rishikesha ( man of knowledge ) , Hara , Trilochan , Devendra ( chief of the gods ) , Neelakanta , Subhankar and Trilokinatha ( meaning Lord of the three realms ) .
The Sanskrit word śaiva means " relating to the god Shiva " , and this term is the Sanskrit name both for one of the principal sects of Hinduism and for a member of that sect . It is used as an adjective to characterize certain beliefs and practices , such as Shaivism .
Some authors associate the name with the Tamil word śivappu meaning " red " , noting that Shiva is linked to the Sun ( śivan , " the Red one " , in Tamil ) and that Rudra is also called Babhru ( brown , or red ) in the Rigveda .
Adi Shankara , in his interpretation of the name Shiva , the 27th and 600th name of Vishnu sahasranama , the thousand names of Vishnu interprets Shiva to have multiple meanings : " The Pure One " , or " the One who is not affected by three Guṇas of Prakṛti ( Sattva , Rajas , and Tamas ) " or " the One who purifies everyone by the very utterance of His name . " Chinmayananda Saraswati , in his translation of the Vishnu sahasranama , further elaborates on that verse : Shiva means " the One who is eternally pure " or " the One who can never have any contamination of the imperfection of Rajas and Tamas " .
Shiva 's role as the primary deity of Shaivism is reflected in his epithets Mahādeva ( " Great god " ; mahā " Great " and deva " god " ) , Maheśvara ( " Great Lord " ; mahā " great " and īśvara " lord " ) , and Parameśvara ( " Supreme Lord " ) .
There are at least eight different versions of the Shiva Sahasranama , devotional hymns ( stotras ) listing many names of Shiva . The version appearing in Book 13 ( Anuśāsanaparvan ) of the Mahabharata is considered the kernel of this tradition . Shiva also has Dasha @-@ Sahasranamas ( 10 @,@ 000 names ) that are found in the Mahanyasa . The Shri Rudram Chamakam , also known as the Śatarudriya , is a devotional hymn to Shiva hailing him by many names .
= = Historical development and literature = =
Early prehistorical paintings at the Bhimbetka rock shelters , depict Shiva dancing , Shiva 's trident , and his mount Nandi but no other Vedic gods . The worship of Shiva is a pan @-@ Hindu tradition , practiced widely across all of India , Nepal and Sri Lanka .
= = = Assimilation of traditions = = =
The figure of Shiva as we know him today was built up over time , with the ideas of many regional sects being amalgamated into a single figure . How the persona of Shiva converged as a composite deity is not well documented . According to Vijay Nath :
Vishnu and Siva [ ... ] began to absorb countless local cults and deities within their folds . The latter were either taken to represent the multiple facets of the same god or else were supposed to denote different forms and appellations by which the god came to be known and worshipped . [ ... ] Siva became identified with countless local cults by the sheer suffixing of Isa or Isvara to the name of the local deity , e.g. , Bhutesvara , Hatakesvara , Chandesvara . "
An example of assimilation took place in Maharashtra , where a regional deity named Khandoba is a patron deity of farming and herding castes . The foremost center of worship of Khandoba in Maharashtra is in Jejuri . Khandoba has been assimilated as a form of Shiva himself , in which case he is worshipped in the form of a lingam . Khandoba 's varied associations also include an identification with Surya and Karttikeya .
= = = Indus Valley origins = = =
Many Indus valley seals show animals but one seal that has attracted attention shows a figure , either horned or wearing a horned headdress and possibly ithyphallic figure seated in a posture reminiscent of the Lotus position and surrounded by animals was named by early excavators of Mohenjo @-@ daro Pashupati ( lord of cattle ) , an epithet of the later Hindu gods Shiva and Rudra .
Some academics like Gavin Flood and John Keay have expressed doubts about this claim . John Keay writes that " He may indeed be an early manifestation of Lord Shiva as Pashu- pati " , but a couple of his specialties of this figure does not match with Rudra . Writing in 1997 Doris Meth Srinivasan rejected Marshall 's package of proto @-@ Shiva features , including that of three heads . She interprets what John Marshall interpreted as facial as not human but more bovine , possibly a divine buffalo @-@ man .
Writing in 2002 , Gregory L. Possehl concluded that while it would be appropriate to recognize the figure as a deity , its association with the water buffalo , and its posture as one of ritual discipline , regarding it as a proto @-@ Shiva would " go too far . "
= = = Vedic origins = = =
Shiva 's rise to a major position in the pantheon was facilitated by his identification with a host of Vedic deities , including Rudra , Agni , Indra , Prajapati , Vayu , and others .
= = = = Rudra = = = =
Shiva as we know him today shares many features with the Vedic god Rudra , and both Shiva and Rudra are viewed as the same personality in Hindu scriptures . The two names are used synonymously . Rudra , the god of the roaring storm , is usually portrayed in accordance with the element he represents as a fierce , destructive deity .
The oldest surviving text of Hinduism is the Rig Veda , which is dated to between 1700 and 1100 BC based on linguistic and philological evidence . A god named Rudra is mentioned in the Rig Veda . The name Rudra is still used as a name for Shiva . In RV 2 @.@ 33 , he is described as the " Father of the Rudras " , a group of storm gods .
The identification of Shiva with the older god Rudhra is not universally accepted , as Axel Michaels explains :
Rudra is called " The Archer " ( Sanskrit : Śarva ) , and the arrow is an essential attribute of Rudra . This name appears in the Shiva Sahasranama , and R. K. Sharma notes that it is used as a name of Shiva often in later languages .
The word is derived from the Sanskrit root śarv- , which means " to injure " or " to kill " , and Sharma uses that general sense in his interpretive translation of the name Śarva as " One who can kill the forces of darkness " . The names Dhanvin ( " Bowman " ) and Bāṇahasta ( " Archer " , literally " Armed with arrows in his hands " ) also refer to archery .
= = = = Agni = = = =
Rudra and Agni have a close relationship . The identification between Agni and Rudra in the Vedic literature was an important factor in the process of Rudra 's gradual development into the later character as Rudra @-@ Shiva . The identification of Agni with Rudra is explicitly noted in the Nirukta , an important early text on etymology , which says , " Agni is also called Rudra . " The interconnections between the two deities are complex , and according to Stella Kramrisch :
The fire myth of Rudra @-@ Śiva plays on the whole gamut of fire , valuing all its potentialities and phases , from conflagration to illumination .
In the Śatarudrīya , some epithets of Rudra , such as Sasipañjara ( " Of golden red hue as of flame " ) and Tivaṣīmati ( " Flaming bright " ) , suggest a fusing of the two deities . Agni is said to be a bull , and Lord Shiva possesses a bull as his vehicle , Nandi . The horns of Agni , who is sometimes characterized as a bull , are mentioned . In medieval sculpture , both Agni and the form of Shiva known as Bhairava have flaming hair as a special feature .
= = = = Indra = = = =
According to Wendy Doniger , the Puranic Shiva is a continuation of the Vedic Indra . Doniger gives several reasons for her hypothesis . Both are associated with mountains , rivers , male fertility , fierceness , fearlessness , warfare , transgression of established mores , the Aum sound , the Supreme Self . In the Rig Veda the term śiva is used to refer to Indra . ( 2 @.@ 20 @.@ 3 , 6 @.@ 45 @.@ 17 , and 8 @.@ 93 @.@ 3 . ) Indra , like Shiva , is likened to a bull . In the Rig Veda , Rudra is the father of the Maruts , but he is never associated with their warlike exploits as is Indra .
The Vedic beliefs and practices of the pre @-@ classical era were closely related to the hypothesised Proto @-@ Indo @-@ European religion , and the Indo @-@ Iranian religion . According to Anthony , the Old Indic religion probably emerged among Indo @-@ European immigrants in the contact zone between the Zeravshan River ( present @-@ day Uzbekistan ) and ( present @-@ day ) Iran . It was " a syncretic mixture of old Central Asian and new Indo @-@ European elements " , which borrowed " distinctive religious beliefs and practices " from the Bactria – Margiana Culture . At least 383 non @-@ Indo @-@ European words were borrowed from this culture , including the god Indra and the ritual drink Soma . According to Anthony ,
Many of the qualities of Indo @-@ Iranian god of might / victory , Verethraghna , were transferred to the adopted god Indra , who became the central deity of the developing Old Indic culture . Indra was the subject of 250 hymns , a quarter of the Rig Veda . He was associated more than any other deity with Soma , a stimulant drug ( perhaps derived from Ephedra ) probably borrowed from the BMAC religion . His rise to prominence was a peculiar trait of the Old Indic speakers .
= = = Later literature = = =
Rudra 's transformation from an ambiguously characterized deity to a supreme being began in the Shvetashvatara Upanishad ( 400 @-@ 200 BC ) , which founded the tradition of Rudra @-@ Shiva worship . Here they are identified as the creators of the cosmos and liberators of souls from the birth @-@ rebirth cycle . The period of 200 BC to 100 AD also marks the beginning of the Shaiva tradition focused on the worship of Shiva , with references to Shaiva ascetics in Patanjali 's Mahābhāṣya and in the Mahabharata .
The Shaiva Puranas , particularly the Shiva Purana and the Linga Purana , discuss the various forms of Shiva and the cosmology associated with him . The Tantras , composed between the 8th and 11th centuries , regard themselves as Sruti . Among these the Shaiva Agamas , are said to have been revealed by Shiva himself and are foundational texts for Shaiva Siddhanta .
= = Position within Hinduism = =
= = = Shaivism = = =
Shaivism is one of the four major sects of Hinduism , the others being Vaishnavism , Shaktism and the Smarta Tradition . Followers of Shaivism , called " Shaivas " , revere Shiva as the Supreme Being . Shaivas believe that Shiva is All and in all , the creator , preserver , destroyer , revealer and concealer of all that is . The tantric Shaiva tradition consists of the Kapalikas , Kashmir Shaivism and Shaiva Siddhanta . The Shiva Purana is one of the puranas , a genre of Hindu religious texts , dedicated to Shiva . Shaivism is widespread throughout India , Nepal , and Sri Lanka , mostly . Areas notable for the practice of Shaivism include parts of Southeast Asia , especially Malaysia , Singapore , and Indonesia . Indologist Axel Michaels suggests that Shaivism , like Vaishnavism , implies a unity which cannot be clearly found either in religious practice or in philosophical and esoteric doctrine . Furthermore , practice and doctrine must be kept separate .
= = = Panchayatana puja = = =
Panchayatana puja is the system of puja ( worship ) in the Smarta Tradition . It is said to have been introduced by Adi Shankara , the 8th century Hindu philosopher . It consists of the worship of five deities : Shiva , Vishnu , Devi , Surya and Ganesha . Depending on the tradition followed by Smarta households , one of these deities is kept in the center and the other four surround it . Worship is offered to all the deities . The five are represented by small murtis , or by five kinds of stones , or by five marks drawn on the floor .
= = = Trimurti = = =
The Trimurti is a concept in Hinduism in which the cosmic functions of creation , maintenance , and destruction are personified by the forms of Brahmā the creator , Vishnu the maintainer or preserver and Śhiva the destroyer or transformer . These three deities have been called " the Hindu triad " or the " Great Trinity " .
= = Attributes = =
Third eye : Shiva is often depicted with a third eye , with which he burned Desire ( Kāma ) to ashes , called " Tryambakam " ( Sanskrit : त ् र ् यम ् बकम ् ) , which occurs in many scriptural sources . In classical Sanskrit , the word ambaka denotes " an eye " , and in the Mahabharata , Shiva is depicted as three @-@ eyed , so this name is sometimes translated as " having three eyes " . However , in Vedic Sanskrit , the word ambā or ambikā means " mother " , and this early meaning of the word is the basis for the translation " three mothers " . These three mother @-@ goddesses who are collectively called the Ambikās . Other related translations have been based on the idea that the name actually refers to the oblations given to Rudra , which according to some traditions were shared with the goddess Ambikā . It has been mentioned that when Shiva loses his temper , his third eye opens which can reduce most things to ashes .
Crescent moon : Shiva bears on his head the crescent moon . The epithet Candraśekhara ( Sanskrit : चन ् द ् रशेखर " Having the moon as his crest " - candra |
= " moon " ; śekhara =
" crest , crown " ) refers to this feature . The placement of the moon on his head as a standard iconographic feature dates to the period when Rudra rose to prominence and became the major deity Rudra @-@ Shiva . The origin of this linkage may be due to the identification of the moon with Soma , and there is a hymn in the Rig Veda where Soma and Rudra are jointly implored , and in later literature , Soma and Rudra came to be identified with one another , as were Soma and the moon . The crescent moon is shown on the side of the Lord 's head as an ornament . The waxing and waning phenomenon of the moon symbolizes the time cycle through which creation evolves from the beginning to the end .
Ashes : Shiva smears his body with ashes ( bhasma ) . The ashes are said to represent the end of all material existence . Some forms of Shiva , such as Bhairava , are associated with a very old Indian tradition of cremation @-@ ground asceticism that was practiced by some groups who were outside the fold of brahmanic orthodoxy . These practices associated with cremation grounds are also mentioned in the Pali canon of Theravada Buddhism . One epithet for Shiva is " inhabitant of the cremation ground " ( Sanskrit : śmaśānavāsin , also spelled Shmashanavasin ) , referring to this connection .
Matted hair : Shiva 's distinctive hair style is noted in the epithets Jaṭin , " the one with matted hair " , and Kapardin , " endowed with matted hair " or " wearing his hair wound in a braid in a shell @-@ like ( kaparda ) fashion " . A kaparda is a cowrie shell , or a braid of hair in the form of a shell , or , more generally , hair that is shaggy or curly .
Blue throat : The epithet Nīlakaṇtha ( Sanskrit नीलकण ् ठ ; nīla |
= " blue " , kaṇtha =
" throat " ) . Since Shiva drank the Halahala poison churned up from the Samudra Manthan to eliminate its destructive capacity . Shocked by his act , Goddess Parvati strangled his neck and hence managed to stop it in his neck itself and prevent it from spreading all over the universe , supposed to be in Shiva 's stomach . However the poison was so potent that it changed the color of his neck to blue . ( See Maha Shivaratri . )
Sacred Ganga : The epithet Gangadhara , " Bearer of the river Ganga " ( Ganges ) . The Ganga flows from the matted hair of Shiva . The Gaṅgā ( Ganga ) , one of the major rivers of the country , is said to have made her abode in Shiva 's hair . The flow of the Ganga also represents the nectar of immortality .
Tiger skin : Shiva is often shown seated upon a tiger skin , an honour reserved for the most accomplished of Hindu ascetics , the Brahmarishis .
Serpents : Shiva is often shown garlanded with a snake .
Trident ( Trishula ) : Shiva 's particular weapon is the trident .
Drum : A small drum shaped like an hourglass is known as a damaru . This is one of the attributes of Shiva in his famous dancing representation known as Nataraja . A specific hand gesture ( mudra ) called ḍamaru @-@ hasta ( Sanskrit for " ḍamaru @-@ hand " ) is used to hold the drum . This drum is particularly used as an emblem by members of the Kāpālika sect .
Axe ( Parashu ) and Deer are held in Shiva 's hands in south Indian icons .
Nandī : Nandī , also known as " Nandin " , is the name of the bull that serves as Shiva 's mount ( Sanskrit : vāhana ) . Shiva 's association with cattle is reflected in his name Paśupati , or Pashupati ( Sanskrit : पशुपति ) , translated by Sharma as " lord of cattle " and by Kramrisch as " lord of animals " , who notes that it is particularly used as an epithet of Rudra . " Rishabha " or the bull represents Dharma Devata ( lord ) . Lord Siva rides on the bull . This denotes that Lord Siva is the protector of Dharma , is an embodiment of Dharma or righteousness .
Mount Kailāsa : Mount Kailash in the Himalayas is his traditional abode . In Hindu mythology , Mount Kailāsa is conceived as resembling a Linga , representing the center of the universe .
Gaṇa : The Gaṇas are attendants of Shiva and live in Kailash . They are often referred to as the bhutaganas , or ghostly hosts , on account of their nature . Generally benign , except when their lord is transgressed against , they are often invoked to intercede with the lord on behalf of the devotee . His son Ganesha was chosen as their leader by Shiva , hence Ganesha 's title gaṇa @-@ īśa or gaṇa @-@ pati , " lord of the gaṇas " .
Varanasi : Varanasi ( Benares ) is considered to be the city specially loved by Shiva , and is one of the holiest places of pilgrimage in India . It is referred to , in religious contexts , as Kashi .
= = Forms and depictions = =
According to Gavin Flood , " Shiva is a god of ambiguity and paradox , " whose attributes include opposing themes . The ambivalent nature of this deity is apparent in some of his names and the stories told about him .
= = = Destroyer and Benefactor = = =
In Yajurveda , two contrary sets of attributes for both malignant or terrific ( Sanskrit : rudra ) and benign or auspicious ( Sanskrit : śiva ) forms can be found , leading Chakravarti to conclude that " all the basic elements which created the complex Rudra @-@ Śiva sect of later ages are to be found here " . In the Mahabharata , Shiva is depicted as " the standard of invincibility , might , and terror " , as well as a figure of honor , delight , and brilliance .
The duality of Shiva 's fearful and auspicious attributes appears in contrasted names . The name Rudra reflects Shiva 's fearsome aspects . According to traditional etymologies , the Sanskrit name Rudra is derived from the root rud- , which means " to cry , howl " . Stella Kramrisch notes a different etymology connected with the adjectival form raudra , which means " wild , of rudra nature " , and translates the name Rudra as " the wild one " or " the fierce god " . R. K. Sharma follows this alternate etymology and translates the name as " terrible " . Hara is an important name that occurs three times in the Anushasanaparvan version of the Shiva sahasranama , where it is translated in different ways each time it occurs , following a commentorial tradition of not repeating an interpretation . Sharma translates the three as " one who captivates " , " one who consolidates " , and " one who destroys " . Kramrisch translates it as " the ravisher " . Another of Shiva 's fearsome forms is as Kāla " time " and Mahākāla " great time " , which ultimately destroys all things . The name Kāla appears in the Shiva Sahasranama , where it is translated by Ram Karan Sharma as " ( the Supreme Lord of ) Time . " Bhairava " terrible " or " frightful " is a fierce form associated with annihilation .
In contrast , the name Śaṇkara , " beneficent " or " conferring happiness " reflects his benign form . This name was adopted by the great Vedanta philosopher Adi Shankara ( c . 788 @-@ 820 ) , who is also known as Shankaracharya . The name Śambhu ( Sanskrit : शम ् भु ) , " causing happiness " , also reflects this benign aspect .
= = = Ascetic and Householder = = =
Shiva is depicted as both an ascetic yogi and as a householder , roles which have been traditionally mutually exclusive in Hindu society . When depicted as a yogi , he may be shown sitting and meditating . His epithet Mahāyogi ( " the great Yogi : Mahā |
= " great " , Yogi =
" one who practices Yoga " ) refers to his association with yoga . While Vedic religion was conceived mainly in terms of sacrifice , it was during the Epic period that the concepts of tapas , yoga , and asceticism became more important , and the depiction of Shiva as an ascetic sitting in philosophical isolation reflects these later concepts . Shiva is also depicted as a corpse below Goddess Kali , it represents that Shiva is a corpse without Shakti . He remains inert . While Shiva is the static form , Mahakali or Shakti is the dynamic aspect without whom Shiva is powerless .
As a family man and householder , he has a wife , Parvati and two sons , Ganesha and Kartikeya . His epithet Umāpati ( " The husband of Umā " ) refers to this idea , and Sharma notes that two other variants of this name that mean the same thing , Umākānta and Umādhava , also appear in the sahasranama . Umā in epic literature is known by many names , including the benign Pārvatī . She is identified with Devi , the Divine Mother ; Shakti ( divine energy ) as well as goddesses like Tripura Sundari , Durga , Kamakshi and Minakshi . The consorts of Shiva are the source of his creative energy . They represent the dynamic extension of Shiva onto this universe . His son Ganesha is worshipped throughout India and Nepal as the Remover of Obstacles , Lord of Beginnings and Lord of Obstacles . Kartikeya is worshipped in South India ( especially in Tamil Nadu , Kerala and Karnataka ) by the names Subrahmanya , Subrahmanyan , Shanmughan , Swaminathan and Murugan , and in Northern India by the names Skanda , Kumara , or Karttikeya .
Some regional deities are also identified as Shiva 's children . As one story goes , Shiva is enticed by the beauty and charm of Mohini , Vishnu 's female avatar , and procreates with her . As a result of this union , Shasta - identified with regional deities Ayyappan and Aiyanar - is born . Shiva is also mentioned in some scriptures to have had daughters like the serpent @-@ goddess Manasa and Ashokasundari . The demons Andhaka and Jalandhara and the god Mangala are considered children of Shiva .
= = = Nataraja = = =
The depiction of Shiva as Nataraja ( Sanskrit : naṭarāja , " Lord of Dance " ) is popular . The names Nartaka ( " dancer " ) and Nityanarta ( " eternal dancer " ) appear in the Shiva Sahasranama . His association with dance and also with music is prominent in the Puranic period . In addition to the specific iconographic form known as Nataraja , various other types of dancing forms ( Sanskrit : nṛtyamūrti ) are found in all parts of India , with many well @-@ defined varieties in Tamil Nadu in particular . The two most common forms of the dance are the Tandava , which later came to denote the powerful and masculine dance as Kala @-@ Mahakala associated with the destruction of the world . When it requires the world or universe to be destroyed , Lord Śiva does it by the tāṇḍavanṛtya. and Lasya , which is graceful and delicate and expresses emotions on a gentle level and is considered the feminine dance attributed to the goddess Parvati . Lasya is regarded as the female counterpart of Tandava . The Tandava @-@ Lasya dances are associated with the destruction @-@ creation of the world .
= = = Dakshinamurthy = = =
Dakṣiṇāmūrti ) literally describes a form ( mūrti ) of Shiva facing south ( dakṣiṇa ) . This form represents Shiva in his aspect as a teacher of yoga , music , and wisdom and giving exposition on the shastras . This iconographic form for depicting Shiva in Indian art is mostly from Tamil Nadu . Elements of this motif can include Shiva seated upon a deer @-@ throne and surrounded by sages who are receiving his instruction .
= = = Ardhanarishvara = = =
An iconographic representation of Shiva called Ardhanārīśvara shows him with one half of the body as male and the other half as female . According to Ellen Goldberg , the traditional Sanskrit name for this form is best translated as " the lord who is half woman " , not as " half @-@ man , half @-@ woman " . According to legend , Lord Shiva is pleased by the difficult austerites performed by the goddess Parvati , grants her the left half of his body . This form of Shiva is quite similar to the Yin @-@ Yang philosophy of Eastern Asia , though Ardhanārīśvara appears to be more ancient .
= = = Tripurantaka = = =
Shiva is often depicted as an archer in the act of destroying the triple fortresses , Tripura , of the Asuras . Shiva 's name Tripurāntaka , " ender of Tripura " , refers to this important story . In this aspect , Shiva is depicted with four arms wielding a bow and arrow , but different from the Pinakapani murti . He holds an axe and a deer on the upper pair of his arms . In the lower pair of the arms , he holds a bow and an arrow respectively . After destroying Tripura , Tripurantaka Shiva smeared his forehead with three strokes of Ashes . This has become a prominent symbol of Shiva and is practiced even today by Shaivites .
= = = Lingam = = =
Apart from anthropomorphic images of Shiva , the worship of Shiva in the form of a lingam , is also important . These are depicted in various forms . One common form is the shape of a vertical rounded column . Shiva means auspiciousness , and lingam means a sign or a symbol , so the Shivalinga is regarded as a " symbol of the great God of the universe who is all @-@ auspiciousness " . Shiva also means " one in whom the whole creation sleeps after dissolution " . Since , according to Hinduism , it is the same god that creates , sustains and withdraws the universe , the Shivalinga represents symbolically God Himself . Some scholars , such as Monier Monier @-@ Williams and Wendy Doniger , also view linga as a phallic symbol , although this interpretation is disputed by others , including Swami Vivekananda , Sivananda Saraswati , and S. N. Balagangadhara .
The worship of the lingam originated from the famous hymn in the Atharva @-@ Veda Samhitâ sung in praise of the Yupa @-@ Stambha , the sacrificial post . In that hymn , a description is found of the beginningless and endless Stambha or Skambha , and it is shown that the said Skambha is put in place of the eternal Brahman . Just as the Yajna ( sacrificial ) fire , its smoke , ashes , and flames , the Soma plant , and the ox that used to carry on its back the wood for the Vedic sacrifice gave place to the conceptions of the brightness of Shiva 's body , his tawny matted hair , his blue throat , and the riding on the bull of the Shiva , the Yupa @-@ Skambha gave place in time to the Shiva @-@ Linga . In the text Linga Purana , the same hymn is expanded in the shape of stories , meant to establish the glory of the great Stambha and the superiority of Shiva as Mahadeva . Jyotirlinga means " The Radiant sign of The Almighty " . The Jyotirlingas are mentioned in the Shiva Purana .
= = = The five mantras = = =
Five is a sacred number for Shiva . One of his most important mantras has five syllables ( namaḥ śivāya ) .
Shiva 's body is said to consist of five mantras , called the pañcabrahmans . As forms of God , each of these have their own names and distinct iconography :
Sadyojāta
Vāmadeva
Aghora
Tatpuruṣa
Īsāna
These are represented as the five faces of Shiva and are associated in various texts with the five elements , the five senses , the five organs of perception , and the five organs of action . Doctrinal differences and , possibly , errors in transmission , have resulted in some differences between texts in details of how these five forms are linked with various attributes . The overall meaning of these associations is summarized by Stella Kramrisch :
Through these transcendent categories , Śiva , the ultimate reality , becomes the efficient and material cause of all that exists .
According to the Pañcabrahma Upanishad :
One should know all things of the phenomenal world as of a fivefold character , for the reason that the eternal verity of Śiva is of the character of the fivefold Brahman . ( Pañcabrahma Upanishad 31 )
= = = Other forms = = =
Shiva , like some other Hindu deities , is said to have several incarnations , known as Avatars . Although Puranic scriptures contain occasional references to " ansh " avatars of Shiva , the idea is not universally accepted in Saivism . The Linga Purana speaks of twenty @-@ eight forms of Shiva which are sometimes seen as avatars . According to the Svetasvatara Upanishad , he has four avatars .
In the Hanuman Chalisa , Hanuman is identified as the eleventh avatar of Shiva and this belief is universal . Hanuman is popularly known as “ Rudraavtaar ” “ Rudra ” being a name of “ Shiva ” . Rama – the Vishnu avatar is considered by some to be the eleventh avatar of Rudra ( Shiva ) . Some traditions regard the sage Durvasa , the sage Agastya , the philosopher Adi Shankara and Ashwatthama as avatars of Shiva . Other forms of Shiva include Virabhadra and Sharabha .
= = Festivals = =
Maha Shivratri is a festival celebrated every year on the 13th day in the Krishna Paksha of the month of Phalguna in the Hindu calendar . This festival is of utmost importance to the devotees of Shiva . Mahashivaratri marks the night when Shiva performed the Tandava and it is the day that Shiva was married to Parvati . The holiday is often celebrated with special prayers and rituals offered up to Shiva , notably the Abhishek . This ritual , practiced throughout the night , is often performed every three hours with water , milk , yogurt , and honey . Bel ( aegle marmelos ) leaves are often offered up to the Hindu god , as it is considered necessary for a successful life . The offering of the leaves are considered so important that it is believed that someone who offers them without any intentions will be rewarded greatly .
= = Beyond Hinduism = =
Shiva is mentioned in Buddhist Tantra . Shiva as Upaya and Shakti as Prajna . In cosmologies of Buddhist tantra , Shiva is depicted as passive , with Shakti being his active counterpart .
The Japuji Sahib of the Guru Granth Sahib says , " The Guru is Shiva , the Guru is Vishnu and Brahma ; the Guru is Paarvati and Lakhshmi . " In the same chapter , it also says , " Shiva speaks , and the Siddhas listen . " In Dasam Granth , Guru Gobind Singh has mentioned two avtars of Rudra : Dattatreya Avtar and Parasnath Avtar .
The worship of Shiva became popular in Central Asia through the Hephthalite Empire , and Kushan Empire . Shaivism was also popular in Sogdia and the Kingdom of Yutian as found from the wall painting from Penjikent on the river Zervashan . In this depiction , Shiva is portrayed with a sacred halo and a sacred thread ( " Yajnopavita " ) . He is clad in tiger skin while his attendants are wearing Sogdian dress . A panel from Dandanwulike shows Shiva in His Trimurti form with Shakti kneeling on her right thigh . Another site in the Taklamakan Desert depicts him with four legs , seated cross @-@ legged on a cushioned seat supported by two bulls . It is also noted that Zoroastrian wind god Vayu @-@ Vata took on the iconographic appearance of Shiva .
In Indonesia , Shiva is also worshiped as Batara Guru . In the ancient times , all kingdoms were located on top of mountains . When he was young , before receiving his authority of power , his name was Sang Hyang Manikmaya . He is first of the children who hatched from the eggs laid by Manuk Patiaraja , wife of god Mulajadi na Bolon . This avatar is also worshiped in Malaysia . Shiva 's other form in Indonesian Hinduism is " Mahadewa " ( Mahadeva ) .
Daikokuten , one of the Seven Lucky Gods in Japan , is considered to be evolved from Shiva . The god enjoys an exalted position as a household deity in Japan and is worshipped as the god of wealth and fortune . The name is the Japanese equivalent of Mahākāla , the Buddhist name for Shiva .
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= Super Smash Bros. =
Super Smash Bros. , known in Japan as Dairantō Smash Brothers ( Japanese : 大乱闘スマッシュブラザーズ , Hepburn : Dairantō Sumasshu Burazāzu , lit . " Great Melee Smash Brothers " ) , is a series of crossover fighting games published by Nintendo , that primarily featuring characters from franchises established on its systems . All five games have been directed by Masahiro Sakurai .
The gameplay objective differs from that of traditional fighters by aiming to knock opponents out of the stage instead of depleting life bars . The original Super Smash Bros. , released in 1999 for the Nintendo 64 , had a small budget and was originally a Japan @-@ only release , but its domestic success led to a worldwide release . The series achieved even greater success with the release of Super Smash Bros. Melee , which was released in 2001 for the GameCube and became the best @-@ selling game on that system . A third installment , Super Smash Bros. Brawl , was released in 2008 for the Wii . Although HAL Laboratory has been the developer of the first two titles , the third game was developed through the collaboration of several companies . The fourth and fifth installments , Super Smash Bros. for Nintendo 3DS and Wii U , were released in 2014 for the Nintendo 3DS and Wii U , respectively . The 3DS installment was the first series title to be released on a handheld platform .
The series features many characters from Nintendo 's most popular franchises , including Mario , Fox McCloud , Link , Kirby , Samus Aran and Pikachu . The original Super Smash Bros. had 12 playable characters , and the roster count has risen to 26 characters in Melee , 39 in Brawl , and 58 in 3DS / Wii U ( seven of which are downloadable ) . Some characters are able to transform into different forms that have different styles of play and sets of moves . The games also feature non @-@ playable Nintendo characters , like Ridley and Petey Piranha . In Brawl , two third @-@ party characters were added , Solid Snake and Sonic the Hedgehog . Additional third @-@ party characters Mega Man , Pac @-@ Man , Ryu , Cloud Strife and Bayonetta appeared in 3DS and Wii U , while Solid Snake was removed from the line @-@ up .
Every title in the series has been well received by critics , with much praise given to the multiplayer mode experience . The Super Smash Bros. games have spawned a large competitive community and have been featured in several high profile gaming tournaments .
= = History = =
= = = Super Smash Bros. ( 1999 ) = = =
Super Smash Bros. was introduced in 1999 for the Nintendo 64 . It was released worldwide after selling over a million copies in Japan . It featured eight characters from the start ( Mario , Donkey Kong , Link , Samus , Yoshi , Kirby , Fox , and Pikachu ) , with four unlockable characters ( Luigi , Captain Falcon , Ness , and Jigglypuff ) , all of them created by Nintendo or one of its second @-@ party developers .
In Super Smash Bros. , up to four players can play in multiplayer ( Versus ) mode , with the specific rules of each match being predetermined by the players . There are two match types that can be chosen : Time , where the person with the most KOs at the end of the set time wins ; and stock , where each player has a set amount of lives and are eliminated from play when their lives are depleted .
This game 's one @-@ player mode included one adventure mode that always followed the same series of opponents although the player could change the difficulty . Other single player modes exist such as Training and several mini @-@ games , including " Break the Targets " and " Board the Platforms " . All of these were included in the sequel , with the exception of " Board the Platforms " .
There are nine playable stages in Versus mode , eight based on each of the starting characters ( such as Princess Peach 's Castle for Mario , Zebes for Samus , and Sector Z for Fox ) and the unlockable Mushroom Kingdom , based around motifs from the original Super Mario Bros. , even containing original sprites and the original version of the Overworld theme from that game .
= = = Super Smash Bros. Melee ( 2001 ) = = =
Super Smash Bros. Melee was released November 21 , 2001 , in Japan ; December 3 , 2001 , in North America ; May 24 , 2002 , in Europe ; and May 31 , 2002 , in Australia for the GameCube video game console . It had a larger budget and development team than Super Smash Bros. did and was released to much greater praise and acclaim among critics and consumers . Since its release , Super Smash Bros. Melee has sold more than 7 million copies and was the best @-@ selling game on the GameCube . Super Smash Bros. Melee features 26 characters , of which 15 are available initially , more than doubling the number of characters in its predecessor . There are also 29 stages .
It introduced two new single @-@ player modes alongside the Classic mode : Adventure mode and All @-@ Star mode . Adventure mode has platforming segments similar to the original 's " Race to the Finish " mini @-@ game , and All @-@ Star is a fight against every playable character in the game , allows the player only one life in which damage is accumulated over each battle and a limited number of heal items in between battles .
There are also significantly more multiplayer modes and a tournament mode allowing for 64 different competitors whom can all be controlled by a human player , although only up to four players can participate at the same time . Additionally , the game featured alternative battle modes , called " Special Melee , " which allows players to make many different alterations to the battle , along with alternative ways to judge a victory , such as through collecting coins throughout the match .
In place of Super Smash Bros. ' character profiles , Melee introduced trophies ( called " figures " in the Japanese version ) . The 293 trophies include three different profiles for each playable character , one unlocked in each single @-@ player mode . In addition , unlike its predecessor , Melee contains profiles for many Nintendo characters who are either non @-@ playable or do not appear in the game , as well as Nintendo items , stages , enemies , and elements .
= = = Super Smash Bros. Brawl ( 2008 ) = = =
Although a third Super Smash Bros. game had been announced long before E3 2006 , Nintendo unveiled its first information in the form of a trailer on May 10 , 2006 , and the game was named Super Smash Bros. Brawl . The trailer featured Solid Snake , of Konami 's Metal Gear fame , marking the first time that a third @-@ party character had been introduced as a playable character in a Super Smash Bros. title . A second third @-@ party character , Sonic the Hedgehog , from Nintendo 's former rival Sega was also confirmed as a playable character on October 10 , 2007 . Super Smash Bros. Brawl was released in Japan on January 31 , 2008 , in North America on March 9 , 2008 , in Australia on June 26 , 2008 , and Europe on June 27 , 2008 . Brawl is also the first game in the franchise to support online play , via the Nintendo Wi @-@ Fi Connection , and to offer the ability for players to construct their own original stages . The game features a total of 39 playable characters and 41 stages .
Brawl also features compatibility with four kinds of controllers ( the Wii Remote on its side , the Wii Remote and Nunchuk combination , the Classic Controller , and the GameCube controller ) , while its predecessors only used the one controller designed for that system . The player also has the ability to change the configuration of controls and the controller type .
Super Smash Bros. Brawl features a new Adventure Mode titled Super Smash Bros. Brawl : The Subspace Emissary . This mode features unique character storylines along with numerous side scrolling levels and multiple bosses to fight , as well as CG cut scenes explaining the storyline . The Subspace Emissary features a new group of antagonists called the Subspace Army , who are led by the Ancient Minister . Some of these enemy characters appeared in previous Nintendo video games , such as Petey Piranha from the Mario series and a squadron of R.O.B.s based on classic Nintendo hardware . The Subspace Emissary also boasts a number of original enemies , such as the Roader , a robotic unicycle ; the Bytan , a one @-@ eyed ball @-@ like creature which can replicate itself if left alone ; and the Primid , enemies that come in many variations . Though primarily a single @-@ player mode , The Subspace Emissary allows for cooperative multiplayer . There are five difficulty levels for each stage , and there is a method of increasing characters ' powers during the game . This is done by placing collected stickers onto the bottom of a character 's trophy between stages to improve various aspects of a fighter .
= = = Super Smash Bros. for Nintendo 3DS and Wii U ( 2014 ) = = =
At E3 2011 , it was confirmed that Super Smash Bros. will be coming to the Nintendo 3DS and Wii U , with the two games being cross @-@ compatible with each other in some way . Sakurai stated that the announcement was made public in order to attract developers needed for the games , as development for the titles did not start until May 2012 due to production on Kid Icarus : Uprising . On June 21 , 2012 , Nintendo announced that the creation of the games would be a co @-@ production between Sakurai 's Sora Ltd. and Bandai Namco Entertainment . The titles were officially revealed at E3 2013 , with new information being released via trailers , Nintendo Direct presentations , and developer posts on Miiverse . The game features 58 characters ( seven of which are downloadable ) with 19 brand new fighters , including third @-@ party characters Mega Man , Pac @-@ Man , Ryu , Cloud Strife , and Bayonetta . The game was released for Nintendo 3DS in Japan on September 13 , 2014 , and in North America and Europe on October 3 , 2014 , and in Australia on October 4 , 2014 . The Wii U version was released on November 21 , 2014 in North America , in Europe on November 28 , 2014 , in Australia on November 29 , 2014 , and in Japan on December 6 , 2014 .
= = = Future = = =
In April 2014 , Bandai Namco Entertainment posted a recruitment advertisement on a Japanese career job opportunity website . The recruitment page consisted of a listing for programmers for Super Smash Bros. 6 , which was expected to be released in 2015 for both the Wii U and Nintendo 3DS . The page noted there were 120 game developers working on the project at the time , and that the Bandai Namco expected that number to increase to 200 . However , shortly after its publication , the page was taken down .
In January 2015 in his column in Weekly Famitsu , Sakurai alluded to the possibility of retirement , expressing doubt that he would be able to continue making games if his career continued to be as stressful as it was . In December 2015 , Sakurai once again stated that he wasn 't sure if there will be another Smash Bros. game in the series . In January 2016 , it was rumoured that a new Super Smash Bros. game was being developed by Bandai Namco and that the game was planned as a launch title for Nintendo 's upcoming NX platform . However , it is currently unknown as to whether it will be another installment in the series or an enhanced port of the 3DS and Wii U versions .
= = Gameplay = =
Gameplay in the Super Smash Bros. series differs from many fighting games . Instead of winning by depleting an opponent 's life bar , players seek to launch their opponents off the stage and out of the map . Characters have a damage total which rises as they take damage , represented by a percentage value that measures up to 999 % . As a character 's percentage rises , the character can be knocked progressively farther by an opponent 's attacks . To knock out an opponent , the player must knock that character outside the arena 's boundaries in any direction . When a character is launched off the stage , the character can attempt to " recover " by using jumping moves and abilities to return to the stage . Some characters have an easier time recovering onto the stage than others due to their moves and abilities . Additionally , some characters vary in weight , with lighter characters being easier to launch than heavy characters .
Smash Bros. ' controls are greatly simplified in comparison to other fighting games , with one button used for standard attacks and another used for special attacks . Players can perform different types of moves by holding the directional controls up , down , to the side , or in a neutral position while pressing the attack or special button . As such , each character has four types of ground attacks , mid @-@ air attacks , and special attacks that can be performed . Quickly pressing or tapping a directional input and the attack button together while on the ground allows players to perform a chargeable " Smash Attack " , which is generally more powerful than other attacks . When characters are hit by attacks , they receive hitstun that temporarily disallows any attacks to be made . This allows combos to be performed . A shield button allows players to put up a defensive shield which weakens with repeated use and will leave the player unable to move if broken . Combining the shield button with directional inputs and attack buttons allows the player to also perform dodges , rolls , grabs , and throws . The three basic actions in Super Smash Bros. , attacking , grabbing , and shielding , are often described using a Rock @-@ paper @-@ scissors analogy : attacking beats grabbing , grabbing beats shielding , and shielding beats attacking . When a player knocks another player off of the main platform , they may perform an action called edge @-@ guarding . At the same time the player that has been knocked off will try to recover by jumping back onto the stage and avoiding the other players ' edge @-@ guarding .
Another element in the Super Smash Bros. series is battle items , the abundance of which players can adjust the before matches . There are conventional " battering items " , with which a player may hit an opponent , such as a baseball bat or a sword , throwing items , including Bob @-@ ombs and shells , and shooting items , either single shot guns or rapid fire blasters . Recovery items allow the user to reduce their damage percentage by varying amounts . Poké Balls are special items that release a random Pokémon onto the battlefield to assist the user . Brawl introduced the Assist Trophy item which serves a similar purpose ; instead of releasing Pokémon , it summons a character from a Nintendo franchise . Brawl also introduces the Smash Ball , which when broken allows fighters to perform a character @-@ specific super attack known as a " Final Smash " .
The rules that can be used in a match vary depending on the game , but the most commonly used settings across all games are Time and Stock . Time mode uses a point based system in which fighters earn points for knocking out their opponents and lose points for being knocked out or self @-@ destructing ( i.e. falling out of the arena by themselves ) . The player with the highest score at the end of the set time limit wins the match . Survival uses a life @-@ based system in which players are given a set number of lives , known as stock , with each fighter losing a life whenever they are knocked out , becoming eliminated if they run out of lives . The winner is the last fighter standing once all other fighters are eliminated or , if a time @-@ limit is applied to the match , the fighter with the most lives remaining once time runs out . In the event of a tie , such as two or more fighters sharing the highest score / life count at the end of the time limit or remaining fighters losing their last life simultaneously , a Sudden Death match takes place . Here , each of the tied fighters are given a starting damage percentage of 300 % , making them easier to launch off the stage , and the last fighter standing wins the match . In some games this process is repeated if the match ends in another tie .
Gameplay using competitive Smash Bros. rules is usually played in stock mode and with a timer . Items are turned off and the only tournament legal stages are those that do not feature hazards and other disruptive elements .
= = Characters = =
= = = Playable characters = = =
Each game in the series has a number of playable characters ( referred in the games as " fighters " ) taken from various Nintendo franchises . Starting with Brawl , characters from third @-@ party franchises have also made playable appearances . At the start of each game , some of the fighters will be locked from play . To unlock a hidden fighter , players need to clear certain conditions , such as playing a certain number of matches , and defeat that fighter in a match . In Brawl , players can also unlock fighters by encountering them in the Subspace Emissary mode . In Super Smash Bros. for Nintendo 3DS and Wii U , players are able to customise existing fighters with altered movesets and statistics , or make their own Mii Fighters that can be given different fighting styles , though these cannot be played in online matches with strangers .
Notes
= = = Non @-@ playable characters = = =
The following characters are non @-@ playable characters unless using glitches or cheat cartridges , that appear only in the various Single Player modes throughout the series , controlled by the computer , or as hazards in specific stages , or in Smash Run . Most of the non @-@ playable characters were created for use in the Super Smash Bros. series although some of them , such as Goombas , come from other game franchises .
= = = = Bosses = = = =
Throughout the Super Smash Bros. series , most single @-@ player modes have included several non @-@ playable boss characters . These bosses generally have a number of advantageous characteristics , such as extreme resistance to being knocked off the screen . Most of these bosses were created specifically for the Super Smash Bros. franchise , though some have made appearances in other games .
Master Hand ( マスターハンド , Masutā Hando ) is a glove @-@ like being that appears in all games to date , serving as the final boss of Classic Mode and , in Super Smash Bros. Melee , the 50th Event Match " Final Destination Match " . In Melee , Master Hand is playable via a system glitch . Super Smash Bros. Melee introduced a left @-@ hand counterpart to Master Hand named Crazy Hand ( クレイジーハンド , Kureijī Hando ) , which appears alongside Master Hand in some scenarios . Master Hand makes several appearances in Kirby & the Amazing Mirror as a miniboss , and partnered with Crazy Hand as the bosses of Candy Constellation . Master Hand and Crazy Hand look identical aside from their chirality , but Crazy Hand 's fingers act in a more impulsive and destructive way . While Master Hand is more relaxed and mature , Crazy Hand evokes the bizarre and his fingers move differently when he 's preparing for an attack . His attacks are also wilder and faster than those of Master Hand . UGO.com listed Master Hand first on their list of " The 25 Awesomest Hidden Characters " citing the glitch which allows him to be playable . In Super Smash Bros. for Nintendo 3DS and Wii U , fighting against Master Hand and Crazy Hand on a high intensity will lead to a battle against Master Core , a shape @-@ shifting being of dark energy that can take various forms , including that of the player 's fighter . After defeating these forms , the Master Core shows its true , vulnerable form .
Super Smash Bros. also features Metal Mario ( originally from Super Mario 64 ) and Giant Donkey Kong , who are simply enhanced versions of their respective characters . Metal Mario is simply Mario with increased resistance to being knocked out of the stage as well as a faster falling speed and more attack power , while Giant Donkey Kong is simply a larger and more powerful version of Donkey Kong . Both characters reappear in Super Smash Bros. Melee 's Adventure Mode along with Giant Kirby , Metal Luigi and two Tiny Donkey Kongs . However , due to items introduced in Melee ( the Metal Box , Super Mushroom , and Poison Mushroom , specifically ) , all of these seemingly non @-@ playable characters ( including the enhanced characters that were unplayable bosses in the first game ) are indeed playable for short amounts of time . Dark Link , a completely black form of Link , appears in Melee and Brawl as an opponent in an Event Match , and in Brawl and 3DS and Wii U is also a playable costume for Link .
Giga Bowser is a gigantic , enhanced version of Bowser introduced in Melee . He is the secret final boss of Melee 's Adventure mode , only appearing if certain conditions are met . Giga Bowser becomes playable for short periods of time in Brawl and 3DS and Wii U when Bowser performs his " Final Smash " attack . Bowser transforms into Giga Bowser , and is near invincible until the effect of the Final Smash wears off .
Tabuu ( タブー , Tabū ) is the villain of Super Smash Bros. Brawl 's story mode , The Subspace Emissary . He is a human @-@ shaped apparition composed of pure energy , with a single eye @-@ shaped object located where a person 's stomach would be . He is able to conjure several weapons for use in battle , including a rapier and large chakram . His other powers include the ability to change his size at will and teleportation . Towards the end of The Subspace Emissary , it is revealed that Tabuu is the entity that controlled Master Hand and the true antagonist behind the events of the story .
The Subspace Emissary also features other boss characters . Some of these characters , such as Petey Piranha , Ridley , Porky , and Rayquaza , are from other franchises . Three original bosses are also featured : the aforementioned Tabuu , Galleom ( ガレオム , Gareomu ) and Duon ( デュオン , Dyuon ) . Galleom is a giant cyborg that is fought two times in The Subspace Emissary . It usually attacks with its fists and body , but can also shoot missiles and transform into a tank @-@ like form . It also has a built in Subspace bomb that it uses to self @-@ destruct in the story mode . Duon is a giant robot that has two upper bodies positioned on top of a wheel . Its pink side uses projectile attacks , while the blue side uses blades on its arms and head . It is created when multiple Mr. Game and Watch clones fuse together .
= = = = Other characters = = = =
In each of the games , there is a group of characters that resemble the designs for the initial characters . In the Japanese versions of the games , these characters have always been called the " Mysterious Small Fry Enemy Corps " ( 謎のザコ敵軍団 , Nazo no Zako Teki Gundan ) . In the English regionalized versions of the games , they are given names that describe their physical form . These include the Fighting Polygon Team , the Fighting Wire Frames , the Fighting Alloy Team and the Fighting Mii Team . Along with Melee 's Adventure Mode came the inclusion of minor , generic enemies , such as Goombas from the Super Mario series and Octoroks from The Legend of Zelda series . This trend continues into Super Smash Bros. Brawl , which also includes an assortment of original characters to serve as non @-@ playable generic enemies led by the Subspace Army .
The Subspace Army ( 亜空軍 , Akūgun ) are the antagonists of Super Smash Bros. Brawl , appearing in The Subspace Emissary and led by the Ancient Minister ( エインシャント卿 , Einshanto Kyō ) . Their goal is to bring the entire world to Subspace piece by piece with devices called Subspace bombs ( detonated with the aid of two R.O.B.s , requires 3 minutes of waiting time ) . The Sandbag ( サンドバッグくん , Sandobaggu @-@ kun ) appears in the " Home @-@ Run Contest " minigame since Super Smash Bros. Melee . The object is to strike it as far as possible with either a Home @-@ Run Bat or a fighting move . Sandbag also appears randomly as an item that drops other items when hit in various other modes in Brawl .
= = Music = =
Super Smash Bros. features music from some of Nintendo 's popular gaming franchises . While many are newly arranged for the game , some pieces are taken directly from their sources . The music for the Nintendo 64 game was composed by Hirokazu Ando , who later returned as sound and music director in Melee . Melee also features tracks composed by Tadashi Ikegami , Shougo Sakai , and Takuto Kitsuta . Brawl features the collaboration of 38 composers , including Final Fantasy series composer Nobuo Uematsu , who composed the main theme . Like the previous game in the series , Super Smash Bros. for Nintendo 3DS and Wii U features many original and re @-@ arranged tracks from various different gaming franchises . Both versions have multiple musical tracks that can be selected and listened to using the returning " My Music " feature , including pieces taken directly from earlier Super Smash Bros. titles . The 3DS version features less music altogether than the Wii U version however , and only has two songs per stage because of size limitations . The 3DS version also has a " Play in Sleep Mode " option , allowing players to listen to the game 's music from the sound menu whilst the system is in sleep mode . On August 22 , 2014 , the Super Smash Bros. website revealed the list of composers and arrangers for the game . Various well known musicians such as Masashi Hamauzu , Yuzo Koshiro , Yasunori Mitsuda , Motoi Sakuraba , Yoko Shimomura , Mahito Yokota , along with many others , provided new arrangements for both versions of the game . The original music was created by Bandai Namco 's in @-@ house sound team . The Wii U specific musicians were revealed on October 23 , 2014 , and feature contributions from Akari Kaida , Michiru Yamane , Koji Kondo , Kazumi Totaka , and Hiroshi Okubo , among others .
Three soundtrack albums for the series have been released . An album with the original music for Super Smash Bros. was released in Japan by Teichiku Records in 2000 . In 2003 , Nintendo released Smashing ... Live ! , a live orchestrated performance of various pieces featured in Melee by the New Japan Philharmonic . A two @-@ disc promotional soundtrack was available for Club Nintendo members who registered both the 3DS and Wii U games between November 21 , 2014 and January 13 , 2015 .
= = Development = =
Super Smash Bros. was developed by HAL Laboratory , a Nintendo first @-@ party developer , during 1998 . It began as a prototype created by Masahiro Sakurai and Satoru Iwata in their spare time titled " Dragon King : The Fighting Game " , and originally featured no Nintendo characters . However , Sakurai hit on the idea of including fighters from different Nintendo franchises in order to provide " atmosphere " which he felt was necessary for a home console fighting game , and his idea was approved . The game had a small budget and little promotion , and was originally a Japan @-@ only release , but its huge success saw the game released worldwide .
HAL Laboratory developed Super Smash Bros. Melee , with Masahiro Sakurai as the head of production . The game was one of the first games released on the GameCube and highlighted the advancement in graphics from the Nintendo 64 . The developers wanted to pay homage to the debut of the GameCube by making an opening full motion video sequence that would attract people 's attention to the graphics . HAL worked with three separate graphic houses in Tokyo to make the opening sequence . On their official website , the developers posted screenshots and information highlighting and explaining the attention to physics and detail in the game , with references to changes from its predecessor .
At a pre @-@ E3 2005 press conference , the president of Nintendo , Satoru Iwata , announced the next installment of Super Smash Bros. was not only already in development for their next gaming console , but hoped it would be a launch title with Wi – Fi compatibility for online play . The announcement was unexpected to the creator of the Super Smash Bros. series , Masahiro Sakurai . Back in 2003 , he had left HAL Laboratory , the company that was in charge with the franchises ' development and was never informed of this announcement despite the fact shortly after resigning from the company , Iwata said if a new game was to be made , he would be in charge . It was not until after the conference Sakurai was called to Satoru Iwata 's room on the top floor of a Los Angeles hotel , where he was told by Iwata " We 'd like you to be involved in the production of the new Smash Bros. , if possible near the level of director " . Although Iwata had said he was hoping for it to be a launch title , Sakurai stated " I decided to become director . And as of May 2005 , I was the only member of the new Smash Bros. development team " . Development of the game never actually started until October 2005 , when Nintendo opened a new office in Tokyo just for its production . Nintendo also enlisted outside help from various developer studios , mainly Game Arts . Sakurai also stated that these people had spent excessive amounts of time playing Super Smash Bros. Melee . This team was given access to all the original material and tools from the development of Melee , courtesy of HAL Laboratory . Also , several Smash Bros. staff members that reside around the area of the new office joined the project 's development .
On the game 's official Japanese website , the developers explain reasons for making particular characters playable and explain why some characters were not available as playable characters upon release . Initially , the development team wanted to replace Ness with Lucas , the main character of Mother 3 for the Game Boy Advance , but they retained Ness in consideration of delays . The game 's creators have included Lucas in the game 's sequel , Super Smash Bros. Brawl . Video game developer Hideo Kojima originally requested Solid Snake , the protagonist of the Metal Gear series , to be a playable character in Super Smash Bros. Melee , but the game was too far in development for him to be included . As with Lucas , development time allowed for his inclusion in Brawl . Roy and Marth were initially intended to be playable exclusively in the Japanese version of Super Smash Bros. Melee . However , they received favorable attention during the game 's North American localization , leading to the decision for the developers to include them in the Western version . Comparisons have been formed by the developers between characters which have very similar moves to each other on the website . Such characters have been referred to as " clones " in the media .
At the Nintendo Media Conference at E3 2007 , it was announced by Nintendo of America president Reggie Fils @-@ Aime that Super Smash Bros. Brawl would be released on December 3 , 2007 in the Americas . However , just 2 months before its anticipated December release , the development team asked for more time to work on the game . During the Nintendo Conference on October 10 , 2007 , Nintendo Co . , Ltd. president Iwata announced the delay .
On October 11 , 2007 , George Harrison of Nintendo of America announced that Super Smash Bros. Brawl would be released on February 10 , 2008 in North America . On January 15 , 2008 , the game 's release was pushed back one week in Japan to January 31 and nearly a month in the Americas to March 9 . On April 24 , 2008 , it was confirmed by Nintendo of Europe that Brawl will be released in Europe on June 27 .
Director Masahiro Sakurai first announced that a new Super Smash Bros. game was planned for Nintendo 3DS and Wii U at E3 2011 in June 2011 , but development only officially began following the completion of Sakurai 's other project , Kid Icarus : Uprising , in March 2012 . The game was later revealed to be a joint @-@ project between Sora Ltd. and Bandai Namco Games , with various staff members from Bandai Namco 's Soulcalibur and Tekken series assisting Sakurai in development . Sakurai , who was previously the sole person responsible for balance in the series ' multiple fighters , has involved more staff to further improve the game 's competitive balance . The game was officially revealed at E3 2013 on June 11 , 2013 during a Nintendo Direct presentation . Along with screenshots being posted each weekday on the game 's official website and Miiverse community , various cinematic trailers were released , introducing each of the brand new fighters . Sakurai chose to use these trailers , which benefit from Internet sharing , as opposed to including a story campaign similar to the Subspace Emissary mode featured in Brawl , as he believed the impact of seeing the mode 's cinematic cutscenes for the first time was ruined by people uploading said scenes to video sharing websites .
At E3 2013 , Sakurai stated that the tripping mechanic introduced in Brawl was removed , with him also stating that the gameplay was between the fast @-@ paced and competitive style of Melee and the slower and more casual style of Brawl . While the games didn 't feature cross @-@ platform play between the Wii U and 3DS , due to each version featuring certain exclusive stages and gamemodes , there is an option to transfer customized characters and items between the two versions . The game builds upon the previous game 's third @-@ party involvement with the addition of third @-@ party characters such as Capcom 's Mega Man and Bandai Namco 's Pac @-@ Man , as well as the return of Sega 's Sonic the Hedgehog . This involvement expands beyond playable characters , as other third @-@ party characters , such as Ubisoft 's Rayman , are also included in the game as trophies . The addition of Mii characters was made in response to the growing number of requests from fans to have their dream characters included in the game . To prevent potential bullying , as well as to maintain game balance online , Mii Fighters cannot be used in online matches against strangers . The decision to release the Wii U version at a later date from the 3DS version was made to allow each version to receive a dedicated debugging period . Hardware limitations on the Nintendo 3DS led to various design choices , such as the removal of mid @-@ match transformations , the absence of the Ice Climbers , and the lack of Circle Pad Pro support .
= = Reception = =
Reviews for the Super Smash Bros. series are usually positive . The multiplayer mode in every title has been highly praised . However , single player modes have not been viewed as highly .
Super Smash Bros. has received praise for its multiplayer mode . Nintendo Power listed the series as being one of the greatest multiplayer experiences in Nintendo history , describing it as infinitely replayable due to its special moves and close @-@ quarters combat . There were criticisms , however , such as the game 's scoring being difficult to follow . In addition , the single @-@ player mode was criticized for its perceived difficulty and lack of features .
Super Smash Bros. Melee generally received a positive reception from reviewers , most of whom credited Melee 's expansion of gameplay features from Super Smash Bros. Focusing on the additional features , GameSpy commented that " Melee really scores big in the ' we 've added tons of great extra stuff ' department . " Reviewers compared the game favorably to Super Smash Bros. — IGN 's Fran Mirabella III stated that it was " in an entirely different league than the N64 version " ; GameSpot 's Miguel Lopez praised the game for offering an advanced " classic @-@ mode " compared to its predecessor , while detailing the Adventure Mode as " really a hit @-@ or @-@ miss experience . " Despite a mixed response to the single @-@ player modes , most reviewers expressed the game 's multiplayer mode as a strong component of the game . In their review of the game , GameSpy stated that " you 'll have a pretty hard time finding a more enjoyable multiplayer experience on any other console . "
Brawl received a perfect score from the Japanese magazine Famitsu . The reviewers praised the variety and depth of the single @-@ player content , the unpredictability of Final Smashes , and the dynamic fighting styles of the characters . Thunderbolt Games gave the game 10 out of 10 , calling it " a vastly improved entry into the venerable series " . Chris Slate of Nintendo Power also awarded Brawl a perfect score in its March 2008 issue , calling it " one of the very best games that Nintendo has ever produced " . IGN critic Matt Casamassina , in his February 11 Wii @-@ k in Review podcast , noted that although Brawl is a " solid fighter , " it does have " some issues that need to be acknowledged , " including " long loading times " and repetition in The Subspace Emissary .
Super Smash Bros. for 3DS and Super Smash Bros. for Wii U both garnered critical praise and were commercially successful , holding current ratings of 85 / 100 and 92 / 100 on Metacritic and 86 @.@ 10 % and 92 @.@ 39 % on GameRankings . Reviewers have particularly noted the large , diverse character roster , the improvements to game mechanics , and the variety of multiplayer options . Some criticisms in the 3DS version include a lack of single player modes and issues concerning the 3DS hardware , such as the size of characters on the smaller screen when zoomed out and latency issues during both local and online multiplayer . There were also reports of players damaging their 3DS Circle Pads while playing the game excessively . The Wii U version 's online play quality was mildly criticized for some inconsistency , but has overall been critically acclaimed . Daniel Dischoff of Game Revolution stated " It 's true that Super Smash Bros. evolves every time with regard to new features , items , and characters to choose from . While your favorite character may not return or a few annoying pickups may force you to turn off items altogether , this represents the biggest leap forward Smashers have seen yet . " Daniel Starky at GameSpot criticized the inconsistent online performance in the game , but still called it an " incredible game " , noting " With the Wii U release , Smash Bros. has fully realized its goals . " Jose Otero from IGN , praising the replayability of the game , states " Nearly every aspect of Smash Wii U seems fine @-@ tuned not only to appeal to the nostalgia of long @-@ time Nintendo fans , but also to be accessible to new players . "
Super Smash Bros sold 1 @.@ 4 million copies in Japan , and 2 @.@ 3 million in the U.S. Melee sold over 7 million units worldwide , becoming the best @-@ selling GameCube title . Brawl sold 1 @.@ 524 million units in Japan as of March 30 , 2008 , and sold 1 @.@ 4 million units in its first week in the United States , becoming Nintendo of America 's fastest selling title . The 3DS version sold over a million copies in its first weekend on sale in Japan , and has sold more than 3 @.@ 22 million copies worldwide as of October 2014 . Super Smash Bros. for Wii U became the fastest @-@ selling Wii U game to date , selling 3 @.@ 39 million units worldwide within just two months of availability , beating the record previously held by Mario Kart 8 .
= = Competitive play = =
The Super Smash Bros. series has been widely played as competitive video games and has been featured in several high @-@ profile tournaments . The first publicized Super Smash Bros. Melee tournaments were held in early 2002 . From 2004 to 2007 , Melee was on Major League Gaming 's tournament roster . In 2010 MLG picked up Brawl for its pro circuit for a year . During this time , Nintendo prohibited MLG from live streaming Brawl matches . At 2014 MLG Anaheim Melee was once again hosted at an MLG event . Melee was also included at the Evolution Championship Series ( Evo ) in 2007 , a fighting game tournament held in Las Vegas . Melee was again hosted at Evo 2013 after it won a charity drive to decide the final game to be featured in its tournament lineup . Due to the large turnout and popularity that year , Evo again included a Melee at their 2014 event and plans to do so in 2015 . New Jersey based Apex is another prominent Super Smash Bros. tournament , and has a series of qualifying events that are a prerequisite to playing at Apex . In 2015 Apex announced that they were officially sponsored by Nintendo of America . EVO 2015 was the largest Smash tournament in history and featured Super Smash Bros. for Wii U and Super Smash Bros. Melee with the former having 1 @,@ 926 entrants and the latter having 1 @,@ 869 .
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= Hyde Park Township , Cook County , Illinois =
Hyde Park Township is a former civil township in Cook County , Illinois , United States that existed as a separate municipality from 1861 until 1889 when it was annexed into the city of Chicago . Its borders are Pershing Road ( formerly 39th Street ) on the north , State Street on the west , Lake Michigan and the Indiana state line on the east , and 138th Street and the Calumet River on the south . This region comprised most of what is now known as the South Side of Chicago .
During Chicago 's initial explosive growth , it developed from an adjacent rural area to a developed residential , commercial and resort community . However , due to infrastructure limitations , legislative incentives and the lure of better municipal services it , along with numerous adjoining townships , agreed to be annexed into the city of Chicago , creating the largest city in the United States at that time .
= = History = =
= = = Early years = = =
The township was founded by Paul Cornell , who paid for a topographical survey of the lakefront south of the city in 1852 . In 1853 , following the advice of Senator Stephen Douglas , he bought 300 acres ( 1 @.@ 21 km2 ) of speculative property between 51st Street and 55th Street and set about developing the first Chicago railroad suburb . This area was 7 miles ( 11 @.@ 27 km ) south of the mouth of the Chicago River and 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 66 km ) south of downtown Chicago . In the 1850s , Chicago was still a walkable urban area well contained within a 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 22 km ) radius of the center . He selected the name Hyde Park to associate the area with the elite neighborhood of Hyde Park in New York as well as the famous royal park in London . By 1855 he began acquiring large land tracts , which he would subdivide into lots for sale in the 1870s .
In 1837 , the City of Chicago incorporated , and by the 1870s the surrounding townships had followed suit . After 1850 , Cook County was divided into basic governmental entities , which were designated as townships as a result of the new Illinois Constitution . Illinois 's permissive incorporation law empowered any community of 300 resident citizens to petition the Illinois legislature for incorporation as a municipality under a municipal charter with more extensive powers to provide services and tax local residents . Hyde Park Township was created by the Illinois General Assembly in 1861 within Cook County . This empowered the township to better govern the provision of services to its increasingly suburban residents .
= = = Annexation and current status = = =
Following the June 29 , 1889 elections , several suburban townships voted to be annexed to the city , which offered better services , such as improved water supply , sewerage , and fire and police protection . Hyde Park Township , however , had installed new waterworks in 1883 just north of 87th Street . Nonetheless , the majority of voters in 1889 supported annexation perhaps because of the city ’ s water system for fire prevention or because of the belief that township government had become too unwieldy . After the 1889 annexation Chicago was able to leverage efficiencies as the largest United States city in area and second largest in population .
The township has no current governmental structure or functions , other than being used by the Cook County Assessor 's office for taxation valuation and record keeping purposes . The Hyde Park Historical Society also offers middle school and high school awards with eligibility based on the historical boundaries . Hyde Park was the site of the Columbian Exposition of 1893 , and is also the location of the University of Chicago , which was founded two years after Hyde Park was annexed into Chicago , in 1891 .
= = Location = =
Hyde Park included the entirety of the following community areas ( see map , below right ) : Hyde Park ( 41 ) , Kenwood ( 39 ) , Woodlawn ( 42 ) , South Shore ( 43 ) , South Chicago ( 46 ) , East Side ( 52 ) , Hegewisch ( 55 ) , Avalon Park ( 45 ) , Calumet Heights ( 48 ) , South Deering ( 51 ) , Burnside ( 47 ) , Pullman ( 50 ) , and Riverdale ( 54 ) as well as the Southern part of Oakland ( 36 ) and the eastern parts of Grand Boulevard ( 38 ) , Washington Park ( 40 ) , Greater Grand Crossing ( 69 ) , Chatham ( 44 ) , Roseland ( 49 ) , and West Pullman ( 53 ) .
= = Demographics = =
When first created the township had only 350 residents . The creation of the Union Stock Yards in 1865 changed the evolutionary path of Hyde Park and the neighboring Lake Township , which became the industrial center while Hyde Park became the middle class enclave . The population of the township grew from 3 @,@ 600 in 1870 to 15 @,@ 700 ten years later . By 1889 the population had reached 85 @,@ 000 .
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= Grantham Canal =
The Grantham Canal is a canal that runs for 33 miles ( 53 km ) from Grantham , falling through 18 locks to West Bridgford where it joins the River Trent . It was built primarily to allow for the transportation of coal to Grantham . It opened in 1797 , and its profitability steadily increased until 1841 . It was then sold to a railway company , after which it declined , and was finally closed in 1936 .
Because it was used as a water supply for agriculture , most of the channel remained in water , although bridges were lowered . Since the 1970s , the Grantham Canal Society have been working towards its restoration , and two stretches are navigable to small vessels . Full restoration will require a new route where the canal joins the Trent , as road building has effectively severed the original route .
= = History = =
The concept of a canal from the River Trent to Grantham was first raised on 27 August 1791 , as a way of supplying the district with cheaper coal . The intent was for the navigation to join the Trent below Nottingham at Radcliffe @-@ on @-@ Trent . As William Jessop was surveying the Nottingham Canal at the time , he was aked to survey the Grantham route as well , and a bill was put before Parliament in 1792 . It was defeated , as there was opposition from coal suppliers , who delivered coal by road to Grantham , and from those who thought that the River Witham would be damaged by the project . A revised route was developed , with the junction now at West Bridgford , and an additional 3 @.@ 6 @-@ mile ( 5 @.@ 8 km ) branch to Bingham . A second bill was put forward and the act of Parliament received the Royal Assent on 30 April 1793 . Building work on the canal started in 1793 , with Jessop in overall charge , but with James Green and William King as resident engineers : Green , who was from Wollaton , was appointed engineer for the section of canal from the Trent to the Leicestershire border , while King , who was the agent for the Duke of Rutland , was responsible for the rest of the canal , including two reservoirs , one at Denton and the other at Knipton on the River Devon .
The act authorised an initial £ 75 @,@ 000 to be raised to pay for construction , together with an option to raise a further £ 30 @,@ 000 , of which £ 20 @,@ 000 should be raised by shares of £ 100 each among the initial subscribers , and £ 10 @,@ 000 by mortgaging the future income of the canal . However , this amount proved insufficient , and there was also disagreement between the shareholders as to their liability to raise the additional £ 20 @,@ 000 . As a result , a second act was sought . This received the Royal Assent on 3 March 1797 , and made clear the obligations of existing shareholders to pay the extra subscription , and also authorised an additional £ 24 @,@ 000 to be raised . The second act also removed restrictions in the first act , and allowed the company to set whatever rates it chose for using the canal .
The eastern section from the Leicestershire border was opened on 1 February 1797 , with the rest of the canal later that year . The canal was built with locks 75 by 14 feet ( 22 @.@ 9 by 4 @.@ 3 m ) , the same size as those on the Nottingham Canal to allow boats to use both . The branch to Bingham authorised by the first act was not built . The 18 locks raised the level of the canal by 140 feet ( 43 m ) from the Trent to Grantham . Eleven of them were located in the first 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) above the Trent , after which there was a level pound of around 20 miles ( 32 km ) before a flight of seven locks at Woolsthorpe , and a much shorter upper pound to Grantham . At Harlaxton , the canal passed through a deep cutting ( effectively crossing the watershed between the River Witham and the River Trent ) , which was only wide enough for a single boat , but this situation was partially rectified in 1801 when the cutting was widened in two places to allow boats travelling on opposite directions to cross . At Cropwell Bishop and Cropwell Butler , the route passed through gypsum beds , which resulted in problems with leakage .
= = = Operation = = =
The canal made sufficient money to repay substantial debts in 1804 and 1805 , after which dividends were paid to the shareholders , beginning at 2 per cent in 1806 , rising to 5 per cent in 1815 , and reaching their highest level of 8 @.@ 6 per cent in 1839 . The tolls brought in an income which remained below £ 9 @,@ 000 until 1823 , but then rose steadily to reach £ 13 @,@ 079 in 1841 . Traffic towards Grantham included coal and coke , lime , groceries and building materials . Some of it supplied villages along the line of the canal , and some of that which travelled the full distance was distributed by land to villages beyond Grantham . Downward traffic was largely agricultural produce , including corn , beans , malt and wool . Such produce was normally loaded at Grantham or Harby .
Initially , some of the coal carried on the canal had been transported in boats owned by the canal company , but they had given up this practice in 1812 . They resumed carrying coal in 1827 , because they felt that coal stocks at Grantham were not adequate , but were accused of price @-@ fixing . Although the penalty imposed by Lincoln Assizes was small , they ceased this trade , and the coal merchants agreed to maintain stocks of 2 @,@ 660 tons at Grantham . In 1833 , J. Rofe and his son made a proposal for a canal to connect Grantham and Sleaford , but this was not pursued .
= = = Decline = = =
In common with most canals , competition from railways posed a major threat , and in 1845 the canal owners agreed to sell it to the Ambergate , Nottingham , Boston and Eastern Junction Railway when their line from Ambergate to Grantham was opened . Although the railway was completed in 1850 , the railway company did not honour the agreement . The canal company brought a large number of cases against the railway company , and successfully opposed several bills which the railway were trying to get passed in Parliament . Eventually the railway company agreed to pay , and shareholders received £ 45 per share in cash , with the balance being in railway mortgages . The agreement was reached on 1 June 1854 , and the transfer of ownership took place on 20 December . Railway mergers meant that the canal came under the control of the Great Northern Railway in 1861 , and later the London and North Eastern Railway .
Traffic declined as the railway companies neglected the canal , and were down to 18 @,@ 802 tons in 1905 , on which the tolls amounted to £ 242 and an Act of Parliament was passed in 1936 , formally closing the canal , though there had been no boat traffic since 1929 . The closure act stipulated that water levels should be maintained at 2 feet ( 60 cm ) to support agricultural needs . This effectively guaranteed the continued existence of the canal channel , but structures such as locks and bridges deteriorated , and in the 1950s 46 of the 69 bridges over the canal were lowered as part of road improvement schemes . Although the low bridges act as barriers to navigation , large parts of the canal are still in water .
In 1948 Britain 's railways , and hence the canal , were nationalised , and became the responsibility of the British Transport Commission . In 1963 control of the canal passed to British Waterways . Under the terms of the Transport Act 1968 , all waterways within the jurisdiction of British Waterways were classified as commercial , cruising or remainder waterways . Remainder waterways were those that were deemed to have no economic future , and maintenance would only be carried out where failure to do so would create health or safety issues . The Grantham Canal was listed in this latter category .
= = Restoration = =
A plan to fill in a section of the canal in Nottingham resulted in a number of letters appearing in the local press in 1963 , and a student at Kesteven College produced a report on the state of the canal , which was presented to the Grantham Civic Society . In 1970 , the British Waterways Board attempted to obtain an act of parliament which would have allowed them to cease maintaining the water levels of the canal . The Inland Waterways Association campaigned against the bill , and the clause was amended . The Grantham Canal Society was formed soon afterwards , to promote restoration of the waterway . In 1974 , a National Boat Rally was held at Nottingham , to gain support for the restoration scheme , and to promote the idea of a new link to the Trent , which would pass through old gravel workings .
Together with British Waterways , the Inland Waterways Association and the Waterway Recovery Group , the Society began the work of restoration of the canal to navigation , a process which is still ongoing . A major development was the granting of permission in 1992 to remove an old railway embankment , which blocked the route near the top of the Woolsthorpe flight of locks . The task was completed by a number of Waterway Recovery Group workcamps . New gates were fitted to the top three locks , and rebuilding of Casthorpe bridge was funded by Lincolnshire County Council , opening up 4 @.@ 4 miles ( 7 @.@ 1 km ) of the canal for navigation . Further down the canal , restoration of a 2 @.@ 3 @-@ mile ( 3 @.@ 7 km ) section between Hickling Basin and Hose was funded by a derelict land grant of £ 400 @,@ 000 , received in 1993 . The Grantham Canal Partnership was formed in 1997 , as a way to take the project forwards . It consisted of representatives from each of the six local authorities through which the route passes , British Waterways , the Inland Waterways Association , the Grantham Canal Restoration Society and the Grantham Navigation Association , a group which had split off from the Canal Society in 1992 . As a result of the co @-@ operation , British Waterways formulated a draft business plan for the canal .
Following the restoration of the top three locks at Woolsthorpe in the 1990s , a 10 @-@ mile ( 16 @-@ km ) section from the A1 to Redmile will be completed once the bottom four locks of the flight are restored . The rebuilding of locks 6 and 7 , completed in 2000 , brought the number of locks restored to five , and approximately one quarter of the canal has been restored to navigable standard . Much improvement of the towpath has also taken place , and access to it is possible at most of the bridges .
A major setback occurred in 2007 , when one of the walls of Woolsthorpe top lock had to be propped to prevent it collapsing , and British Waterways took the decision to fill it in , as funding was not available to rebuild it . The Inland Waterways Association received a legacy of £ 100 @,@ 000 from the estate of Fredrick Woodman , designated for the Grantham Canal , but British Waterways ruled that no work could start until the whole cost of £ 175 @,@ 000 had been found . The balance was made up by grants of £ 40 @,@ 000 from Lincolnshire County Council and £ 35 @,@ 000 from the East Midlands Development Agency . The wall was demolished and rebuilt in three sections , utilizing 290 cubic yards ( 220 m3 ) of concrete and 7 @,@ 500 new bricks .
Restoration of most of the canal does not present major problems , but challenges are presented by the final sections at both ends . The original route to join the Trent has been severed by the building of the A52 road . A route was identified which followed the course of the Polser Brook , which passes under the A52 to the north of the canal , but by 2009 , three possible solutions were under consideration . These pose additional problems in finding funding , since they do not count as restoration , and many of the traditional funding sources are not then available . At Grantham , an embankment carrying the A1 road blocks the line of the canal , and the terminal basin has been filled in . There are plans for a tunnel under the A1 as part of a cycle route to improve access to Grantham , and the basin could be redeveloped in due course .
There is also a 5 @-@ mile ( 8 km ) dry section between Cotgrave and Kinoulton , which has presented problems since construction in the 18th century : gypsum in the soil reacted with the waterproof clay leading to leaking .
In early 2005 , the Grantham Canal Partnership appointed a full @-@ time Grantham Canal restoration manager , Kevin Mann , for an initial 18 @-@ month trial period . He would be responsible for planning and managing funding schemes for the restoration , identifying development opportunities and the promotion and interpretation of the canal . The trial proved to be successful , as he was still doing the job in 2009 .
= = Points of interest = =
= = Belvoir tramway = =
The Duke of Rutland also constructed a private wagonway or tramway between the wharf at Muston Gorse and Belvoir Castle . It was constructed in 1793 in anticipation of the opening of the canal . It was constructed with fish @-@ belly rail set into stone chairs , some of which , and some wagons , still exist in the castle cellars . The gauge was 4 ft 4 1 ⁄ 2 in ( 1 @,@ 333 mm ) , and the rails were supplied by The Butterley Company . Some are in the collection of the science museum , and the National Railway Museum where there is the chassis of one of the wagons .
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= Bridgwater and Taunton Canal =
The Bridgwater and Taunton Canal is a canal in the south @-@ west of England between Bridgwater and Taunton , opened in 1827 and linking the River Tone to the River Parrett . There were a number of abortive schemes to link the Bristol Channel to the English Channel by waterway in the 18th and early 19th centuries . These schemes followed the approximate route eventually taken by the Bridgwater and Taunton Canal , but the canal was instead built as part of a plan to link Bristol to Taunton by waterway .
The early years of operation were marred by a series of legal disputes , which were resolved when the Bridgwater and Taunton Canal Company and the Conservators , who managed the River Tone Navigation , agreed that the Canal Company should take over the Tone Navigation . The canal originally terminated at a basin at Huntworth , to the east of Bridgwater , but was later extended to a floating harbour at Bridgwater Docks on its western edge . Financially this was a disaster , as the extension was funded by a mortgage , and the arrival of the railways soon afterwards started the demise of the canal . The canal was rescued from bankruptcy by the Bristol and Exeter Railway in 1866 .
Despite commercial traffic ceasing in 1907 , the infrastructure was maintained in good order , and the canal was used for the transport of potable water from 1962 . The Countryside Act 1968 provided a framework for Somerset County Council to start the restoration of the canal as a leisure facility , which was completed in 1994 , when the canal was reopened throughout . Bridgwater Docks have been restored as a marina , but there is no navigable connection to the River Parrett , as the canal still transports drinking water for the people of Bridgwater .
= = History = =
Prior to the building of the canal , navigation between the towns of Bridgwater and Taunton was possible by using the River Parrett and the River Tone . The Tone had been improved by its Conservators , who had obtained Acts of Parliament in 1699 and 1707 , which had allowed them to straighten and dredge the river and parts of the Parrett , and to build locks and half @-@ locks to manage the water levels . The initial work was completed by 1717 , although further improvements including more locks continued to be made until the early 19th century .
= = = Precursors = = =
From 1768 there were a number of grand schemes proposed , all with the aim of linking the Bristol Channel to the English Channel by a waterway , thereby avoiding the need to navigate by sea around Cornwall and Devon . James Brindley was the first to survey a route , which would have run from the Bristol Channel to Exeter , following the course of the River Tone for part of its route . In 1769 , Robert Whitworth looked at a shorter route from Bridgwater Bay to Seaton , following the River Parrett and the River Axe . He was asked to reassess the route in the 1790s . William Jessop surveyed a route between Taunton and Exeter in 1794 , while another group proposed a canal linking Bristol , Nailsea , Bridgwater and Taunton , which was surveyed by William White . Jessop 's assistant , Josiah Easton , suggested a route from Uphill ( on the Bristol Channel ) to Seaton , again in 1794 , and the previous two schemes sought parliamentary approval as the Grand Western Canal and the Bristol and Western Canal , respectively . Only the first was authorised , but the economic downturn caused by the Napoleonic Wars meant that construction did not begin immediately .
John Rennie surveyed the line for a ship canal from the mouth of the River Parrett to Seaton in 1810 , which was designed for ships of 120 long tons ( 120 t ) , but it was felt that the economic situation would not support the projected expenditure of over £ 1 million . He then considered a more modest proposal , based on the original Bristol and Western plans , and the scheme , now renamed the Bristol and Taunton Canal , was authorised by an Act of Parliament dated 14 May 1811 . The company had powers to raise £ 420 @,@ 000 in shares and an additional £ 150 @,@ 000 if required , but economic concerns meant that the project did not start immediately . Powers for the Bristol to Bridgwater section lapsed in 1815 , but work finally commenced in 1822 , to be halted by an injunction because the authorised route was not being followed . A further Act , of 17 June 1824 , authorised the revised route , and changed the name of the project to the Bridgwater and Taunton Canal Company . The predicted costs for the construction of the shorter canal were £ 34 @,@ 145 , as opposed to £ 429 @,@ 990 for the longer scheme .
Three further schemes were proposed before the idea of a Channel @-@ to @-@ Channel link was abandoned . James Green proposed a tub @-@ boat canal in 1822 , capable of handling 5 @-@ long @-@ ton ( 5 @.@ 1 t ) boats , which would have used inclines instead of locks , and would have cost £ 120 @,@ 000 . Thomas Telford revived the idea of a ship canal in 1824 , which would have taken over the line of the Bridgwater and Taunton Canal – enabling 200 @-@ long @-@ ton ( 200 t ) boats to reach the south coast – at a cost of £ 1 @.@ 75 million . This was authorised in 1825 , but no further action occurred . Finally , a barge canal between Bridgwater and Beer , costing £ 600 @,@ 000 , was proposed in 1828 , but enthusiasm for large canal schemes was waning , and the advent of iron @-@ hulled steamships meant that the risks of navigation around the south @-@ west peninsula were reduced .
= = = Construction = = =
Construction of the canal began in 1822 , with James Hollinsworth as the engineer and John Easton as the senior surveyor . The Bristol and Taunton scheme had incorporated a high @-@ level crossing of the River Parrett , but the shortened canal would now join the Parrett at Huntworth , where a basin was to be constructed . This change of route resulted in the Reverend Robert Gray obtaining an injunction , and work on the lower half of the canal stopped until the new route could be properly authorised by the 1824 Act . By this time , the estimated cost had risen to £ 60 @,@ 000 . Below Durston , the canal was cut into the clay subsoil , the clay forming a naturally waterproof channel ; but from Durston to Taunton the canal bed had to be puddled with clay to make it watertight , as the underlying ground was shale .
The canal was to be about 12 miles ( 19 km ) long . It included a 700 @-@ yard ( 640 m ) embankment at Lyng , which was 40 feet ( 12 m ) high , two short cuttings , eleven brick @-@ built bridges to carry roads over the canal , and more than twelve timber swing bridges , built to provide accommodation crossings for farms which had been divided by the line of the canal . The lock at Firepool ( Taunton ) had a set of reverse @-@ facing gates , to prevent the canal draining if the level of the River Tone dropped . There were four more locks on the main line , and a lock at the entrance to Huntworth Basin . One final lock connected the basin to the river , and again it had a set of reverse @-@ facing gates , so that the basin could be drained at low tide , and the low level retained for maintenance if required . A system of paddle gearing – using metal ball weights at the top and metal cylinder weights at the bottom – is unique to the Bridgwater and Taunton Canal . Over fifty culverts were built to carry streams and drainage ditches under the canal . The work was completed with no recorded incidents of serious injury or death among the workforce .
By mid @-@ 1826 , the Canal Company had insufficient funds to complete the work , and a special meeting authorised the taking out of a mortgage to cover the £ 15 @,@ 000 deficit . The canal was an obvious competitor to the River Tone Navigation , which was managed by the Conservators of the River Tone , a legal body created for that purpose by Act of Parliament in 1699 . There was animosity between the Company and the Conservators , with the Company maintaining that they had a right to use the Tone to reach the centre of Taunton , and the Conservators maintaining that they did not . The canal was scheduled to be opened on 1 January 1827 , but the opening was delayed until 3 January , as the connection to the River Tone was not made until 2 January . The opening celebrations were hampered by snow and bitter cold weather .
= = = Operation = = =
The early years of the new canal were marred by legal disputes with the Conservators of the River Tone . The connection to the Tone at Taunton had been made forcibly , by the Canal Company breaching the bank of the river . In August 1827 they announced that they were taking over the Tone , and evicted William Goodland , the river superintendent , from his cottage . Despite a ruling by the Court of King 's Bench that their action was illegal , the Canal Company held on to the river until a High Court judgement in February 1830 . The Conservators promptly built a dam , to prevent boats reaching the river and water entering the canal , which they removed after further legal action and an Order of the Chancery Court . Reconciliation finally came in late 1831 , when the two parties proposed a new Act of Parliament to authorise the sale of the Tone Navigation to the Canal Company . This was obtained in July 1832 , and required the Canal Company to erect a new iron bridge to replace the existing North Town Bridge , which hampered access to the wharfs in Taunton . They also had powers to construct a lock and a short length of canal at French Weir , to connect with the Grand Western Canal , while the Conservators were allowed to conduct an annual inspection of the canal , and to resume their ownership of the river if the canal was not maintained in good order .
At the Bridgwater end , navigation onto the River Parrett was not easy , and the Corporation of Bridgwater had commissioned a number of surveys to construct a floating harbour . All came to nothing , but in 1836 the Bristol and Exeter Railway Company obtained an Act to construct a railway which would pass through Bridgwater . Subsequently the Canal Company , in order to protect their trade , sought their own Act to construct a floating harbour to the west of Bridgwater , and to extend the canal to join it . This was obtained on 21 April 1837 , and the works were started . The construction work involved a deep cutting from Albert Street to West Street , a short tunnel at West Street . There it entered Bridgwater Docks , which consisted of :
Inner basin that covered 4 acres ( 1 @.@ 6 ha )
Outer basin covering 0 @.@ 5 acres ( 0 @.@ 20 ha )
The two basins were connected by a lock , whilst towards the river a ship lock consisting of a single 40 @-@ foot ( 12 m ) gate , and a barge lock , consisting of a pair of 14 @-@ foot ( 4 @.@ 3 m ) gates . The whole outer basin could be used as a lock by larger ships up to 600 tons . The estimated cost of £ 25 @,@ 000 for the scheme escalated to nearly £ 100 @,@ 000 , most of which was raised by mortgage .
The new facilities were opened on 25 March 1841 , after which the basin and locks at Huntworth were filled in . Trade increased from 90 @,@ 000 long tons ( 91 @,@ 000 t ) in 1840 , before the harbour opened , to 120 @,@ 000 long tons ( 120 @,@ 000 t ) shortly afterwards . Around 2 @,@ 400 vessels per year were using the port by 1853 . The Canal Company had hoped that the opening of the Grand Western Canal in 1838 and the Chard Canal in 1842 would increase traffic significantly , but their impact was marginal . Despite commercial success , the interest payments on the mortgage were crippling , and in 1846 the company obtained an Act to convert the canal into a railway , although its powers were never used . Trade halved as railway competition increased , and the company was in the hands of receivers by the early 1850s .
In 1866 the Bristol and Exeter Railway stepped in and bought the canal . The main attraction was the dock , with its large volume of coal traffic , but they purchased both the canal and the dock for £ 64 @,@ 000 , under the terms of an Act of Parliament obtained that year , which included a requirement that there should always be " a good and sufficient water communication between the towns of Taunton and Bridgwater " . Unlike many such acquisitions , the canal was seen as a useful adjunct to the railway network , and was maintained in good order for several years , with the Conservators of the River Tone continuing their annual inspections , and reporting any defects to the railway company .
= = = Decline = = =
The canal was increasingly affected by water supply problems . The main source of water was the River Tone , although this was not fed into the canal at Firepool , in order to ensure that the mills on the upper section could function . Instead water was pumped out of the river at Creech , by the Charlton Pumping Station , where the river and canal were only 300 yards ( 270 m ) apart . Large volumes of water were discharged from the canal every fortnight , when the Bridgwater Dock was scoured , in order to free it from silt , while the Railway Company was extracting water to supply the station and steam locomotive sheds at Taunton . During the summer months there was often not enough water to go round .
The canal gradually became clogged with weed , and the railway took much of the trade . Between 1870 and 1874 , income dropped from £ 2 @,@ 500 to £ 1 @,@ 700 . Three years later , the Bristol and Exeter Railway merged with the Great Western Railway . The new owners were remote , and were more interested in the water supply for Taunton station and for the Bridgwater Dock , than running the canal as a going concern , with the result that the canal deteriorated further . The Conservators continued their annual inspections , but had little hope of any improvements being made .
The opening by the Great Western Railway of the Severn Tunnel in 1886 brought further decline , for the imports of coal and slate from South Wales to Bridgwater Dock and the canal could now be moved more directly . The provision in 1902 of water troughs on the railway near Creech , to enable non @-@ stop trains to pick up water , required another 100 @,@ 000 imperial gallons ( 450 m3 ) a day , which was extracted from the Tone . The remaining traffic moved to the railway , the last commercial boats used the canal , from Bridgwater dock to a wharf in North Town , Taunton , in 1907 , and the canal was effectively closed .
= = = Closure = = =
After the First World War the canal remained in a state of limbo – with minimal maintenance by the railway company – and was the haunt of fishermen and walkers . The Conservators continued their annual inspections , and the infrastructure remained in remarkably good order , compared to many other closed canals . The section near Creech St Michael was even used for swimming lessons for the local school children in the 1930s .
During the Second World War the route of the canal was employed as part of the Taunton Stop Line , a defensive line which followed the course of canals and railway embankments from the mouth of the Parrett to Seaton on the south coast . All permanent bridges were mined with demolition chambers . Hamp Bridge was prepared for demolition with four small charge chambers under the east side of the arch containing a total of 30 lb ( 14 kg ) of the explosive , ammonal . Anti @-@ tank obstacles were placed at bridge sites or locks to hinder bridging operations . All of the swing bridges were removed , but were then replaced with fixed timber bridges at towpath level . Only essential maintenance was carried out , to ensure a water supply for fire @-@ fighting and to prevent flooding . Although the physical structure of the canal was not damaged by enemy action , all of the Company records and traffic receipts , together with those of the Bristol and Exeter Railway , were destroyed during a bombing raid .
Control of the canal passed into public ownership with the Transport Act 1947 . Despite concerted efforts , the Conservators could not make any progress with the removal of the fixed low @-@ level bridges , which prevented maintenance from being carried out . The Inland Waterways Association started to take an active interest in the restoration of the canal from 1952 , but this was resisted by the British Transport Commission , who padlocked the lock gates to prevent them being used . Despite this , a team of seven men was employed to maintain the infrastructure through this period . The maintenance of the channel enabled the canal to become one of the first to be used for the commercial transport of water , which was pumped from the canal to Durleigh reservoir from 1962 onwards .
The canal was absorbed by the British Waterways Board in 1962 . The Conservators carried out an annual inspection in 1965 , the first since 1947 , but had to use a motor coach for most of the journey , as the locks were unusable . With the passing of the Transport Act 1968 , the canal was classified as a remainder waterway – little more than a drainage channel . Only essential maintenance to keep it safe was to be carried out . Soon afterwards , part of the cutting wall between West Street and Albert Street collapsed , and although the bed of the canal was cleared to ensure water could reach the dock , the towpath remained blocked for another nine years . Bridgwater Docks , which had been used by a small amount of coastal shipping , were finally closed in 1971 : the connection at the docks was stopped up , and the British Waterways Board were granted permission to cease maintaining the canal for navigation .
= = Restoration = =
From the late 1960s , there was a growing awareness of the benefits of retaining the canal . The Inland Waterways Association produced a report , entitled The Bridgwater and Taunton Canal - Waterway with a Future , suggesting that the canal had the potential for development as a linear Country Park , and the County Planning Officer for Somerset County Council produced a second report , suggesting that funds should be made available for maintenance and restoration , which the County Council duly adopted . The Countryside Act 1968 provided a framework for such action , and a visit in 1971 to see the work being done on the Monmouthshire and Brecon Canal as part of the creation of the Brecon Beacons National Park convinced the Council of the wisdom of such a course of action . By 1974 , Higher and Lower Maunsel locks , which are listed buildings , had been refurbished by the British Waterways Board , with funding from the County Council . Funding for towpath maintenance and weed cutting was also provided .
In December 1974 , the Council bought Bridgwater Dock from British Railways . The concrete wall across the barge lock was removed , but there was no intention to restore the ship lock . By 1980 , the Council had invested over £ 50 @,@ 000 in the restoration , which included Kings and Standards locks , and the bottom gates of Newtown Lock . Some bridges had been raised , but only to 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) , which allowed canoeing , but prevented bigger boats from using the waterway . Work on the deep cutting between West Street and Albert Street started in September 1978 , jointly funded by the County Council and Sedgemoor District Council , using direct labour , while a Manpower Services Commission scheme to dredge the canal from the dock to the cutting and to widen the towpath was funded by the District Council in 1981 .
The condition of the swing bridge at Bathpool caused a change in policy . There were objections to the plan to replace it with a fixed bridge with limited headroom , and the planning application was deferred . By 1983 , a six @-@ year plan to restore the canal was fully costed , and it was adopted by the British Waterways Board , the County Council , Sedgemoor District Council and Taunton Deane Borough Council in the following year . The scheme was supported by the West Country Branch of the Inland Waterways Association , who offered the services of the Waterway Recovery Group , to do some of the work . The swing bridges at Crossways , Boat and Anchor , and Fordgate were rebuilt , and by 1987 , 4 @.@ 5 miles ( 7 @.@ 2 km ) of canal were available for navigation . After some teething problems , it was decided that many of the rest of the accommodation bridges would be raised to give 8 feet ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) of headroom , rather than rebuilding them as swing bridges . Restoration of the bridges at the Taunton end continued during the early 1990s , and the canal was finally re @-@ opened in 1994 .
= = Current use = =
Boating on the canal is encouraged , although the lack of a link to the River Parrett at Bridgwater is restrictive . At this point , the Parrett is a salt water river , and is laden with silt , whereas the canal contains fresh water . Not only is there a risk of silt entering the canal , but the salt water cannot be allowed to contaminate the fresh , as the canal is still used for the transport of drinking water for the population of Bridgwater . The canal forms part of the local flood relief system , in winter taking water from the River Tone at Taunton and discharging it into the Parrett at a sluice in the western fringe of Bridgwater , near the Bridgwater Canalside Centre .
Bridgwater Docks , in which the tidal basin , locks , quaysides , bridges and fittings are listed buildings , is now a marina , and the old warehouse , built in 1840 – 50 has been converted into apartments , with new apartment blocks built nearby . The only commercially active industry located at the docks is Bowering 's Animal Feed Mill . The towpath forms part of Sustrans ' National Cycle Network route NCR @-@ 3 connecting Bath and Cornwall , and attracts numerous travellers . Plans have been proposed for the upgrading of the towpath and development of a visitor centre at Maunsel .
= = The Somerset Space Walk = =
The Taunton @-@ Bridgwater canal is also home to an installation termed the ' Somerset Space Walk ' , a scale model ( 530 million : 1 ) of the Solar System centred around the ' Sun ' at Maunsel lock with the planets located along the towpath in both directions . The Space Walk was designed by local man , Pip Youngman , in order to demonstrate the scale of the Solar System in an interactive way . The trail can be walked either from Taunton 's Brewhouse Theatre to Maunsel Lock ( Pluto to the Sun ) or from Bridgwater 's Morrison 's Supermarket to Maunsel Lock ( also Pluto to the Sun ) or of course , vice versa . From Pluto to the Sun from either town is an 11 kilometres ( 6 @.@ 8 mi ) walk .
= = Route = =
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= HMS Royal Sovereign ( 1891 ) =
HMS Royal Sovereign was the lead ship of the seven ships in her class of pre @-@ dreadnought battleships built for the Royal Navy in the 1890s . The ship was commissioned in 1892 and served as the flagship of the Channel Fleet for the next five years . She was transferred to the Mediterranean Fleet in 1897 and returned home in 1902 , and was briefly assigned as a coast guard ship before she began a lengthy refit in 1903 – 04 . Royal Sovereign was reduced to reserve in 1905 and was taken out of service in 1909 . The ship was sold for scrap four years later and subsequently broken up in Italy .
= = Design and description = =
The design of the Royal Sovereign @-@ class ships was derived from that of the Admiral @-@ class ironclad battleships , greatly enlarged to improve seakeeping and to provide space for a secondary armament as in the preceding Trafalgar @-@ class ironclad battleships . The ships displaced 14 @,@ 150 long tons ( 14 @,@ 380 t ) at normal load and 15 @,@ 580 long tons ( 15 @,@ 830 t ) at deep load . They had a length between perpendiculars of 380 feet ( 115 @.@ 8 m ) and an overall length of 410 feet 6 inches ( 125 @.@ 1 m ) , a beam of 75 feet ( 22 @.@ 9 m ) , and a draught of 27 feet 6 inches ( 8 @.@ 4 m ) . Their crew consisted of 670 officers and ratings .
The Royal Sovereigns were powered by a pair of three @-@ cylinder , vertical triple @-@ expansion steam engines , each driving one shaft . Her Humphrys & Tennant engines were designed to produce a total of 11 @,@ 000 indicated horsepower ( 8 @,@ 200 kW ) and a maximum speed of 17 @.@ 5 knots ( 32 @.@ 4 km / h ; 20 @.@ 1 mph ) using steam provided by eight cylindrical boilers with forced draught . Royal Sovereign was the first ship of the class to be completed , and was put through a lengthy set of steam trials of which only a few sets of figures have survived . She made 16 @.@ 41 knots ( 30 @.@ 39 km / h ; 18 @.@ 88 mph ) over eight hours from 9 @,@ 661 ihp ( 7 @,@ 204 kW ) using normal draught and 18 knots ( 33 km / h ; 21 mph ) over three hours from 13 @,@ 360 ihp ( 9 @,@ 960 kW ) using forced draught . Some of her boiler tubes were observed to crack and leak under the pressures involved ; as a result , the Navy decided not to push the boilers of the Royal Sovereign class past 11 @,@ 000 ihp to prevent similar damage . The ships carried a maximum of 1 @,@ 420 long tons ( 1 @,@ 443 t ) of coal , which gave them a range of 4 @,@ 720 nautical miles ( 8 @,@ 740 km ; 5 @,@ 430 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .
Their main armament consisted of four breech @-@ loading ( BL ) 13 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 343 mm ) guns mounted in two twin @-@ gun barbettes , one each fore and aft of the superstructure . Each gun was provided with 80 rounds . Their secondary armament consisted of ten quick @-@ firing ( QF ) 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) guns . 200 rounds per gun were carried by the ships . Sixteen QF 6 @-@ pounder ( 2 @.@ 2 in ( 57 mm ) ) and a dozen QF 3 @-@ pounder ( 1 @.@ 9 in ( 47 mm ) ) Hotchkiss guns were fitted for defence against torpedo boats . The two 3 @-@ pounders in the upper fighting top were removed in 1903 – 04 and all of the remaining light guns from the lower fighting tops and main deck followed in 1905 – 09 . The Royal Sovereign @-@ class ships mounted seven 14 @-@ inch ( 356 mm ) torpedo tubes , although Royal Sovereign had four of hers removed in 1903 – 04 .
The Royal Sovereigns ' armour scheme was similar to that of the Trafalgars , as the waterline belt of compound armour only protected the area between the barbettes . The 14 – 18 @-@ inch ( 356 – 457 mm ) belt and transverse bulkheads 14 – 16 inches ( 356 – 406 mm ) thick closed off the ends of the belt . Above the belt was a strake of 4 @-@ inch ( 102 mm ) Harvey armour closed off by 3 @-@ inch ( 76 mm ) oblique bulkheads . The barbettes were protected by compound armour , ranging in thickness from 11 to 17 inches ( 279 to 432 mm ) and the casemates for the 6 @-@ inch guns were protected by an equal thickness of armour . The thicknesses of the armour deck ranged from 2 @.@ 5 to 3 inches ( 64 to 76 mm ) . The walls of the forward conning tower were 12 – 14 inches ( 305 – 356 mm ) thick and the aft conning tower was protected by 3 @-@ inch plates .
= = Construction and career = =
The Royal Sovereign class was ordered as part of the Naval Defence Act 1889 that was a supplement to the normal naval estimates . Royal Sovereign , the seventh ship of her name to serve with the Royal Navy , was laid down on 30 September 1889 in a drydock because Portsmouth Dockyard lacked a slipway long enough to accommodate her . The ship was floated out of dock on 26 February 1891 and christened by Queen Victoria . She completed her sea trials in May 1892 and was commissioned on 31 May at a cost of £ 913 @,@ 986 . Royal Sovereign relieved the battleship HMS Camperdown as flagship of the Channel Squadron . From then until 13 August 1892 , she served as the flagship of the " Red Fleet " in the annual manoeuvres off the coast of Ireland . She reprised her role as the flagship of the Red Fleet , from 27 July to 6 August 1893 during the manoeuvres in the Irish Sea and the Western Approaches . To reduce her rolling , she was fitted with bilge keels in 1894 – 95 . In June 1895 , Royal Sovereign and three of her sister ships were part of a British naval squadron that attended the opening of the Kaiser Wilhelm Canal in Germany . During the third week of July 1896 , the ship took part in annual manoeuvres in the Irish Sea and off the southwest coast of England as part of " Fleet A " .
On 7 June 1897 , Royal Sovereign paid off and her crew was transferred to the battleship Mars which relieved her in the Channel Squadron . The next day , she recommissioned to relieve the battleship Trafalgar in the Mediterranean Sea . Before departing for the Mediterranean , she took part in the Fleet Review for the Diamond Jubilee of Queen Victoria at Spithead on 26 June 1897 , and from 7 – 11 July took part in annual manoeuvres off the coast of Ireland . She finally departed England for the Mediterranean in September . Upon arrival , Royal Sovereign joined the Mediterranean Fleet . On 18 January 1899 , Rear @-@ Admiral Gerard Noel , Second @-@ in @-@ Command of the Mediterranean Fleet , hoisted his flag aboard the ship and Captain Charles Henry Adair was appointed in command two days later . The following month the ship toured Italian waters , visiting Naples , Genoa , Palermo and Syracuse . On 14 July , she visited Fiume ( modern Rijeka ) , Croatia , in company with four other battleships , departing five days later . On the 28th , one man was killed aboard Royal Sovereign in a gun accident and he was buried at sea that evening .
On 9 November 1901 , off Greece , one of her six @-@ inch guns exploded when the breech was not fully closed , killing one officer and five Royal Marines and injuring one officer ( Sir Robert Keith Arbuthnot , 4th Bt ) and 19 seamen . Captain Frederick Inglefield was appointed in command on 26 November 1901 . After being relieved in the Mediterranean by the battleship London , Royal Sovereign departed Gibraltar on 9 July 1902 , arriving at Portsmouth , England , on 14 July 1902 . On 30 August 1902 , she commissioned under Captain George Primrose as a coast guard ship there . From 5 – 9 August 1903 , the ship participated in manoeuvres off the coast of Portugal . From 1903 to 1904 , she underwent an extensive refit at Portsmouth during which six @-@ inch armoured casemates were added for the six @-@ inch guns . On 9 February 1907 , Royal Sovereign commissioned as a special service vessel in reserve . As such , she was incorporated into the 4th Division of the Home Fleet with other such vessels in April 1909 . In September 1909 , Royal Sovereign was taken out of service and she was sold for scrap to G. Clarkson & Son for £ 40 @,@ 000 on 7 October 1913 . They resold her to GB Berterello of Genoa and the ship was demolished there .
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= William of York =
William of York ( late 11th century – 8 June 1154 ) , also known as William fitzHerbert , William I fitzHerbert and William of Thwayt , was an English priest and Archbishop of York . William has the unusual distinction of having been Archbishop of York twice , both before and after his rival Henry Murdac . He was a relative of King Stephen of England , and the king helped secure FitzHerbert 's election to York after a number of candidates had failed to secure papal confirmation . William faced opposition from the Cistercians who , after the election of the Cistercian Pope Eugene III , managed to have the archbishop deposed in favour of the Cistercian Murdac . From 1147 until 1153 , William worked to secure his restoration to York , which he finally achieved after the deaths of both Murdac and Eugene III . He did not retain the see long , as he died shortly after returning to York , allegedly having been poisoned . After William 's death miracles were reported at his tomb from the year 1177 onwards , and in the year 1227 he was declared a saint .
= = Early life = =
Born William fitzHerbert in York , William was the son of Herbert of Winchester , or Herbert fitzAlberic , chancellor and treasurer of King Henry I. Most sources say his mother was Emma , half @-@ sister of King Stephen and Henry of Blois , Bishop of Winchester , and that she was an illegitimate daughter of Stephen II , Count of Blois , Stephen 's father . New research , however , suggests that Emma might have been a daughter of Hunger fitzOdin , who held lands in Dorset in the Domesday survey . William was born sometime before the 1090s , but the exact date of birth is unknown .
William held the prebendary of Weighton in the diocese of Yorkshire between 27 June 1109 and 24 February 1114 . Sometime between 1109 and 1114 he was appointed Treasurer of York . He was also appointed archdeacon of the East Riding of Yorkshire at an unknown date between 1125 and 1133 . The influence of his rich and powerful father , who had many landholdings in Yorkshire may have been of benefit in gaining him these offices at a relatively early age . William apparently held both of these offices until his election as archbishop . Serving under Archbishop Thurstan of York , William became involved in Thurstan 's dispute with King Henry I after Henry demanded that the Archbishops of York should accept subordination to the Archbishops of Canterbury . William accompanied Thurstan into exile in Europe and on embassies to the papal court . Reconciliation with Henry allowed a return to York in 1121 . A papal ruling in favour of the independence of the Archbishops of York was finally delivered in 1127 .
= = Election problems = =
In January 1141 William was elected Archbishop of York . Originally , the cathedral chapter of York had elected Waltheof in 1140 , but that election was set aside because one of Waltheof 's supporters had made an uncanonical gift to secure Waltheof 's election . Then Henry of Blois tried to secure the see for Henry de Sully , another nephew of Stephen and Henry 's . Sully 's election was opposed by Pope Innocent II , who refused to confirm him as archbishop while he retained his post as Abbot of Fécamp . It was only at a third election , held in January 1141 , that William was selected . Whether he had been a candidate in the previous two elections is unknown .
The election was opposed by the Cistercian monasteries of Yorkshire , and by the archdeacons of York . The Cistercians opposed on the grounds that the Second Lateran Council in 1139 had given the religious houses of a diocese the right to participate in the election of the bishop . Theobald of Bec , the Archbishop of Canterbury , refused to recognise William 's election due to allegations of simony , or the acquisition of church positions by bribery , and of interference by King Stephen . In 1143 , Pope Innocent II ruled that FitzHerbert could be confirmed in office if he swore under oath that the allegations were false . After he swore the oath , Henry of Blois , who was also papal legate , found William innocent , and he was consecrated as archbishop on 26 September 1143 .
= = First archiepiscopate and deposition = =
As archbishop , William undertook a number of ecclesiastical reforms , and became popular with the people of York . However , he still needed a pallium , the sign of an archbishop 's authority from the pope , which he had not yet received . The Cistercians , who were still adamantly opposed his being archbishop , were determined to prevent his receiving it . William travelled to Rome in an attempt to obtain the pallium . The election of Pope Eugene III , a Cistercian , in 1145 , was a setback for FitzHerbert 's cause . Bernard of Clairvaux , the famous Cistercian abbot and religious leader , exerted all his influence to ensure William 's suspension , sending a series of complaints to the new pope that William had been intruded by secular powers into the see , that he was oppressing the Cistercian monasteries and that he had irregularly appointed William of St. Barbara as Dean of York . In the winter of 1145 – 46 Eugene re @-@ examined the case , declared that William had not been validly consecrated , and suspended him from office . William was required to obtain an in @-@ person refutation of the old charges by William of St. Barbara , who was now the Bishop of Durham .
While awaiting the final decision in his case , William took up residence with one of his friends , Roger II , King of Sicily . Hearing of his suspension , some of William 's supporters in York launched a damaging attack upon Fountains Abbey which destroyed many of the buildings . William was formally deposed as archbishop by Eugene in early 1147 and the deposition was confirmed at the Council of Reims on 21 March 1148 . Another election to York was held , and the candidates included Hilary of Chichester who was the king 's candidate , and Henry Murdac , the Cistercian abbot of Fountains Abbey . Murdac 's supporters included the Cistercians and most of the clergy of the diocese , including William 's former ally , William of St. Barbara . Both sides appealed to the pope , and the pope confirmed Murdac as the successful candidate . FitzHerbert then returned to Winchester , the city he had left forty years earlier to begin his career in York .
= = Second archiepiscopate = =
King Stephen refused to accept William 's deposition and the appointment of Murdac , and prevented Murdac from taking up residence in York . Stephen probably wished to trade recognition of Murdac for support for his son Eustace . Stephen was trying to secure the coronation of Eustace as his successor during his own lifetime , to defeat the rival claims to the throne of Henry of Anjou . Within a few years , however , both Murdac and the pope had died , so William travelled to Rome to plead with the new pope , Anastasius IV , for restoration to office . The pope concurred , and William 's reappointment was confirmed on 20 December 1153 . On his return to York , while crossing the Ouse Bridge in York in triumphal procession , the bridge collapsed , yet no one was killed .
= = Death and sainthood = =
However , after less than a month back in York , William died , on 8 June 1154 , allegedly due to poison administered in the chalice at Mass . One of FitzHerbert 's clerks accused Osbert de Bayeux , an archdeacon of York , of the murder , and Osbert was summoned before the king to be tried at the royal court . Before the trial could take place , however , Stephen died , and the trial never took place . William was buried in York Minster and within a few months of his death , miracles were attributed to his intervention and a sweet smell came from his tomb when it was damaged during a fire . Nor was the body decayed or burnt in the fire . Pope Honorius III then ordered an investigation into the miracles . In 1227 , he was canonised in Rome by Pope Honorius III .
William 's feast day is celebrated on 8 June , the day of his death , although his veneration is largely localised to York . Traditional iconography and windows often depict William 's crossing of the Tweed ; some iconography shows him crossing in a boat . William 's coat of arms traditionally depicts seven mascles or lozenges . St William 's College , which was named for him is next to York Minster . It was established between 1465 and 1467 with the permission of King Edward IV as the home for chantry priests of the Cathedral . His remains were rediscovered in the 1960s and are now in the crypt at York Minster .
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= Ontario Highway 136 =
King 's Highway 136 , commonly referred to as Highway 136 , was a provincially maintained highway in the Canadian province of Ontario that connected former Highway 24 near Caledon with Highway 9 in Orangeville . The majority of the route was located in the Regional Municipality of Peel ; however , the section in Orangeville was in Dufferin County . The route of Highway 136 was originally part of Highway 24 ; it was created in 1962 when Highway 24 was rerouted along Highway 51 . The highway remained unchanged until 1997 , when it was transferred to the Regional Municipality of Peel and the Town of Orangeville .
The majority of the former highway is rural in nature , passing through farmland on the highlands of the Niagara Escarpment , located a short distance south of the southern terminus of the route . Near its northern terminus , the surrounds are suburban as the highway enters Orangeville . The only notable community on the route outside of Orangeville is Alton .
= = Route description = =
Highway 136 was a short route through the northern section of Caledon . The former route is mostly rural , surrounded by the expanse of farmland that sits atop the Niagara Escarpment . The route follows several concession roads along its length , and is known locally by the names of those roads today . It begins at a junction with former Highway 24 ( Charleston Sideroad ) immediately north of Forks of the Credit Provincial Park , which straddles the escarpment northwest of Brampton . The route proceeds northwest alongside the Charles Sauriol Conservation Area for approximately 3 @.@ 75 kilometres ( 2 @.@ 33 mi ) before entering the community of Alton . Within Alton , the route follows Main Street until a broad 90 ° curve directs traffic northeast onto Queen Street . It follows this road out of the community , encountering a railway crossing and the Credit River at the town limits .
The route takes another 90 ° curve to the northwest , intersecting Porterfield Road , after which the route takes that name . It crosses the same railway line and proceeds north for 4 kilometres ( 2 @.@ 5 mi ) between farm fields . South of Orangeville , the route intersects the Orangeville Bypass ( Riddell Road ) , after which the farmland transitions to suburbs . It takes a broad curves to the northeast and becomes Townline Road , which acts as the boundary between Peel Region and Dufferin County as well as the town limits of Orangeville . After following this road for a kilometre , it intersects John Street . The final section of the route follows John Street northwest to end at former Highway 9 ( Broadway ) .
= = History = =
While the route dates back to 1962 as Highway 136 , it is a former alignment of Highway 24 , which was re @-@ routed along Highway 51 towards Highway 10 that year . The road was first designated on February 10 , 1937 as part of an extension of Highway 24 north from Guelph to Collingwood via Orangeville . Highway 136 was a gravel road at the time of the renumbering . The section between Cataract and Alton was paved first , in 1965 ; this was followed by the section between Alton and Orangeville in 1966 .
The primary purpose of Highway 136 as a provincial highway was to maintain the former routing of Highway 24 . However , as the route served a generally local and regional need , the Ministry of Transportation of Ontario transferred responsibility for signage and maintenance of the highway to the Regional Municipality of Peel and Town of Orangeville on April 1 , 1997 , at which point the majority of it was designated Peel Regional Road 25 . To avoid confusing motorists and to make the regional route numbers consistent with former provincial route numbers , Peel redesignated several roads on March 26 , 1998 . Regional Road 25 was renumbered as Regional Road 136 .
= = Major intersections = =
The following table lists the major junctions along Highway 136 , as noted by the Ministry of Transportation of Ontario .
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= M @-@ 78 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 78 is a state trunkline highway in the US state of Michigan . The western terminus is the intersection with M @-@ 66 north of Battle Creek in Pennfield Township . The roadway runs 10 @.@ 744 miles ( 17 @.@ 291 km ) through rural farmland and the community of Bellevue as it approaches its eastern terminus at an interchange with Interstate 69 ( I @-@ 69 ) near Olivet . The highway is used by between 3 @,@ 100 and 5 @,@ 300 vehicles on a daily basis .
When the state highway system was signed in 1919 , M @-@ 78 followed a similar routing . At Bellevue , it turned northeast to terminate at Charlotte . In the 1920s , the highway was extended southerly to the Indiana state line near Sturgis and northeasterly into the Lansing area . In the 1930s , M @-@ 78 was extended further on its northern and eastern end to Flint . The highway was converted into a freeway in sections starting in the 1960s . During that decade , the southern extension from the 1920s was removed from M @-@ 78 and added to other state highways , and in the 1970s , the northeastern extensions , now mostly freeways , were removed from M @-@ 78 as well . Two special routes were created as a result of the various reroutings in the Lansing area , both of which are no longer part of the state highway system .
= = Route description = =
M @-@ 78 begins at an intersection with M @-@ 66 in Pennfield Township , north of Battle Creek in Calhoun County . The trunkline passes through rural farm lands as it runs due east and northeast . It briefly crosses the southeast corner of Barry County as it enters Eaton County . There M @-@ 78 follows Battle Creek Highway past some small ponds and into the town of Bellevue . The trunkline becomes Capitol Avenue in town and turns south onto Main Street in the middle of the central business district . M @-@ 78 crosses a branch line of the Canadian National Railway before leaving town . Main Street turns easterly and becomes Butterfield Highway . M @-@ 78 crosses the Battle Creek River before terminating at I @-@ 69 's exit 48 in Bellevue Township .
M @-@ 78 is maintained by the Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) like other state highways in Michigan . As a part of these maintenance responsibilities , the department tracks the volume of traffic that uses the roadways under its jurisdiction . These volumes are expressed using a metric called annual average daily traffic , which is a statistical calculation of the average daily number of vehicles on a segment of roadway . MDOT 's surveys in 2010 showed that the highest traffic levels along M @-@ 78 were the 5 @,@ 256 vehicles daily on Capitol Avenue in Bellevue ; the lowest counts were the 3 @,@ 176 vehicles per day in Calhoun County . No part of M @-@ 78 has been listed on the National Highway System , a network of roads important to the country 's economy , defense , and mobility .
= = History = =
When the original state highway system was designated c . July 1 , 1919 , M @-@ 78 ran along a route similar that of today . It started north of Battle Creek at a junction with then M @-@ 79 and cut through the corner of Barry County to Bellevue , but it turned northeasterly to end at Charlotte at a junction with M @-@ 29 . By 1927 , M @-@ 78 was extended southward , replacing M @-@ 79 to the Indiana state line , connecting with State Road 9 ( SR 9 ) south of Sturgis . At the same time , a northerly addition extended the highway concurrently along US Highway 27 ( US 27 ) to Dewitt and then solo to a junction with M @-@ 47 near Pittsburg . The section north of Lansing was changed in 1929 . The section from Dewitt Pittsburg was redesignated M @-@ 104 , and M @-@ 78 was extended through East Lansing to Haslett . By 1936 , the highway was extended all the way into Flint to end at M @-@ 21 . Around the same time , a second routing through downtown Lansing for US 27 / M @-@ 78 was designated along Capitol Avenue ; the former route along Main , Kalamazoo and Larch streets and Grand Avenue was given the Truck M @-@ 78 designation .
In the latter half of 1941 or the beginning of 1942 , a section of the concurrent M @-@ 78 / M @-@ 86 was rerouted west of Colon in St. Joseph County . In 1950 , the bridge across the Grand River on Main Street was completed ; after completion , the mainline M @-@ 78 was routed over the bridge and up Larch Street , replacing Truck M @-@ 78 in the process . The former car @-@ only route on Capitol Avenue was removed from the state highway system . By the middle of 1960 , the first section of freeway along M @-@ 78 was opened in the Lennon area . The next year , the freeway had been extended as far southwest as Durand from the end at Lennon . By the start of 1962 , M @-@ 78 was a freeway from Perry at the junction with M @-@ 47 all the way to Swartz Creek near Flint .
On December 12 , 1962 , the I @-@ 96 freeway was completed around the south and west sides of Lansing , and a year later , the I @-@ 496 freeway was completed north into downtown from I @-@ 96 . M @-@ 78 was rerouted from the I @-@ 96 / US 27 interchange southwest of Lansing east along I @-@ 96 and then north on I @-@ 496 . From there , M @-@ 78 followed the one @-@ way pairing of Homer and Howard streets from the northern end of the freeway up to the one @-@ way couplet of Saginaw Street and Grand River Avenue , returning to its previous routing . The former route through downtown along US 27 was redesignated Business M @-@ 78 ( Bus . M @-@ 78 ) at the same time .
M @-@ 66 was extended southerly from Assyria through Battle Creek to the Indiana state line replacing sections of M @-@ 78 in 1965 . The US 127 freeway was completed from Mason north to Lansing in 1966 , adding the US 127 designation along the I @-@ 496 / M @-@ 78 freeway . The next year , M @-@ 78 's freeway was extended eastward to I @-@ 75 / US 10 / US 23 in Flint . The US 127 / M @-@ 78 freeway was extended north of I @-@ 496 in 1969 , and a discontinuous section of M @-@ 78 freeway east of Flint was completed around the same time frame . In 1970 , the I @-@ 496 freeway was completed and the Bus . M @-@ 78 designation was removed through Lansing . In 1972 , the highway was rerouted to run east of Bellevue to Olivet instead of northeast to Charlotte . The next year , all of M @-@ 78 northeast of Olivet was removed when I @-@ 69 between Charlotte and I @-@ 96 southwest of Lansing was completed ; this truncation produced the modern routing of M @-@ 78 in the state .
= = Major intersections = =
= = Related routes = =
= = = Truck route = = =
Truck M @-@ 78 was a former truck route through the city of Lansing . It started at the corner of Capitol Avenue and Main Street and ran along Main Street to Grand Avenue . There , it turned north on Grand Avenue to Kalamazoo Street and turned east on Kalamazoo over the Grand River . At Larch Street , Truck M @-@ 78 continued north to rejoin the mainline at the corner of Larch and Saginaw streets .
By the middle of 1936 , the US 27 / M @-@ 78 routing through Lansing was split into two . The mainline was restricted to cars only and moved to run along Capitol Avenue . The former routing was restricted to trucks only and designed as a truck route . In 1950 , the bridge for Main Street over the Grand River was completed and mainline US 27 was rerouted to use it to connect to Larch Street . From there north , US 27 / M @-@ 78 followed Larch Street supplanting the truck route , which was decommissioned at that time .
= = = Business route = = =
Business M @-@ 78 ( Bus . M @-@ 78 ) was a business loop through the city of Lansing . It ran from an interchange between US 27 / M @-@ 78 and I @-@ 96 on the southwest side of Lansing along US 27 ( Lansing Road ) into downtown . From there , it ran east on Main Street and north on Larch Street . At Saginaw Street , Bus . M @-@ 78 turned east to reconnect to M @-@ 78 .
The business loop was created in 1963 when M @-@ 78 was rerouted along the newly completed sections of the I @-@ 96 and I @-@ 496 freeways in the Lansing area . The designation was decommissioned in 1970 when I @-@ 496 was completed through downtown Lansing .
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= Tropical cyclone track forecasting =
Tropical cyclone track forecasting involves predicting where a tropical cyclone is going to track over the next five days , every 6 to 12 hours . The history of tropical cyclone track forecasting has evolved from a single station approach to a comprehensive approach which uses a variety of meteorological tools and methods to make predictions . The weather of a particular location can show signs of the approaching tropical cyclone , such as increasing swell , increasing cloudiness , falling barometric pressure , increasing tides , squalls , and heavy rainfall .
The forces that affect tropical cyclone steering are the higher latitude westerlies , the subtropical ridge , and the beta effect caused by changes of the coriolis force within fluids such as the atmosphere . Accurate track predictions depend on determining the position and strength of high and low pressure areas , and predicting how those areas will migrate during the life of a tropical system . Computer forecast models are used to help determine this motion as far out as five to seven days in the future .
= = History = =
The methods through which tropical cyclones are forecast have changed with the passage of time . The first known forecasts in the Western Hemisphere were made by Lt. Col. William Reed of the Corps of Royal Engineers at Barbados in 1847 . Reed mostly utilized barometric pressure measurements as the basis of his forecasts . Benito Viñes , S.J. , introduced a forecast and warning system based on cloud cover changes in Havana during the 1870s . Forecasting hurricane motion was based on tide movements , as well as cloud and barometer changes over time . In 1895 , it was noted that cool conditions with unusually high pressure preceded tropical cyclones in the West Indies by several days . Before the early 1900s , most forecasts were done by direct observations at weather stations , which were then relayed to forecast centers via telegraph . It was not until the advent of radio in the early twentieth century that observations from ships at sea were available to forecasters . Despite the issuance of hurricane watches and warnings for systems threatening the coast , forecasting the path of tropical cyclones did not occur until 1920 . By 1922 , it was known that the winds at 3 kilometres ( 9 @,@ 800 ft ) to 4 kilometres ( 13 @,@ 000 ft ) in height above the sea surface within the storms ' right front quadrant were representative of a storm 's steering , and that hurricanes tended to follow the outermost closed isobar of the subtropical ridge .
In 1937 , radiosondes were used to aide tropical cyclone forecasting . The next decade saw the advent of aircraft @-@ based reconnaissance by the military , starting with the first dedicated flight into a hurricane in 1943 , and the establishment of the Hurricane Hunters in 1944 . In the 1950s , coastal weather radars began to be used in the United States , and research reconnaissance flights by the precursor of the Hurricane Research Division began in 1954 . The launch of the first weather satellite , TIROS @-@ I , in 1960 , introduced new techniques to tropical cyclone forecasting that remain important to the present day . In the 1970s , buoys were introduced to improve the resolution of surface measurements , which until that point , were not available at all over sea surfaces .
= = Single station forecasting of a tropical cyclone passage = =
About four days in advance of a typical tropical cyclone , an ocean of 1 metre ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) in height will roll in about every 10 seconds , moving towards the coast from the direction of the tropical cyclone 's location . The ocean swell will slowly increase in height and frequency the closer a tropical cyclone gets to land . Two days in advance of the center 's passage , winds go calm as the tropical cyclone interrupts the environmental wind flow . Within 36 hours of the center passage , the pressure begins to fall and a veil of white cirrus clouds approaches from the cyclone 's direction . Within 24 hours of the closest approach to the center , low clouds begin to move in , also known as the bar of a tropical cyclone , as the barometric pressure begins to fall more rapidly and the winds begin to increase . Within 18 hours of the center 's approach , squally weather is common , with sudden increases in wind accompanied by rain showers or thunderstorms . Winds increase within 12 hours of the center 's approach , occasionally reaching hurricane force . The ocean 's surface becomes whipped with foam . Small items begin flying in the wind . Within 6 hours of the center 's arrival , rain becomes continuous and the storm surge begins to come inland . Within an hour of the center , the rain becomes very heavy and the highest winds within the tropical cyclone are experienced . When the center arrives with a strong tropical cyclone , weather conditions improve and the sun becomes visible as the eye moves overhead . At this point , the pressure ceases to drop as the lowest pressure within the storm 's center is reached . This is also when the peak depth of the storm surge occurs . Once the system departs , winds reverse and , along with the rain , suddenly increase . The storm surge retreats as the pressure suddenly rises in the wake of its center . One day after the center 's passage , the low overcast is replaced with a higher overcast , and the rain becomes intermittent . By 36 hours after the center 's passage , the high overcast breaks and the pressure begins to level off .
= = Basics = =
The large scale synoptic scale flow determines 70 to 90 percent of a tropical cyclone 's motion . The deep @-@ layered mean flow through the troposphere is considered to be the best tool in determining track direction and speed . If storms experience significant vertical wind shear , use of a lower level wind such as the 700 hPa pressure level ( at a height of 3 @,@ 000 metres ( 9 @,@ 800 ft ) above sea level ) will work out as a better predictor . Knowledge of the beta effect can be used to steer a tropical cyclone , since it leads to a more northwest heading for tropical cyclones in the Northern Hemisphere due to differences in the coriolis force around the cyclone . For example , the beta effect will allow a tropical cyclone to track poleward and slightly to the right of the deep layer steering flow while the system lies the south of the subtropical ridge . Northwest moving storms move quicker and left , while northeast moving storms move slower and left . The larger the cyclone , the larger the impact of the beta effect is likely to be .
= = = Fujiwhara effect = = =
When two or more tropical cyclones are in proximity to one another , they begin to rotate cyclonically around the midpoint between their circulation centers . In the northern hemisphere , this is in a counterclockwise direction , and in the southern hemisphere , a clockwise direction . Usually , the tropical cyclones need to be within 1 @,@ 450 kilometres ( 900 mi ) of each other for this effect to take place . It is a more common phenomenon in the northern Pacific ocean than elsewhere , due to the higher frequency of tropical cyclone activity which occurs in that region .
= = = Trochoidal motions = = =
Small wobbles in a tropical cyclone 's track can occur when the convection is distributed unevenly within its circulation . This can be due to changes in vertical wind shear or inner core structure . Because of this effect , forecasters use a longer term ( 6 to 24 hours ) motion to help forecast tropical cyclones , which acts to smooth out such wobbles .
= = Forecast models = =
High @-@ speed computers and sophisticated simulation software allow meteorologists to run computer models that forecast tropical cyclone tracks based on the future position and strength of high- and low @-@ pressure systems . Combining forecast models with increased understanding of the forces that act on tropical cyclones , and a wealth of data from Earth @-@ orbiting satellites and other sensors , scientists have increased the accuracy of track forecasts over recent decades . The addition of dropwindsonde missions around tropical cyclones in what are known as synoptic flow missions in the Atlantic Basin decreased track error by 15 @-@ 20 percent . Using a consensus of forecast models , as well as ensemble members of the various models , can help reduce forecast error . However , regardless how small the average error becomes , large errors within the guidance are still possible . An accurate track forecast is important , because if the track forecast is incorrect , forecasts for intensity , rainfall , storm surge , and tornado threat will also be incorrect .
= = Length of forecast period = =
Forecasts within hurricane advisories were issued one day into the future in 1954 before being extended to two days into the future in 1961 , and three days into the future in 1964 . Starting in the mid to late 1990s , research into tropical cyclones and how forecast models handle the systems led to substantial improvements in track error . By 2001 , the error had reduced sufficiently to extend track out to 5 days in the future on public advisories . In addition , at 1700 UTC during the hurricane season , a medium range coordination call takes place between the Hydrometeorological Prediction Center and the National Hurricane Center to coordinate tropical cyclone placement on the medium range pressure forecasts 6 and 7 days into the future for the northeast Pacific and Atlantic basins . Every so often , even at this time range , successful predictions can be made .
In forecasts , the National Hurricane Center uses a track forecast cone for the graphical representation of the uncertainty in its forecasts of a tropical cyclone 's future location . The cone represents the probable position of a tropical cyclone 's circulation center , and is made by drawing a set of circles centered at each forecast point — 12 , 24 , 36 , 48 , and 72 hours for a three @-@ day forecast , as well as 96 and 120 hours for a five @-@ day forecast . The radius of each circle is equal to encompass two @-@ thirds of the historical official forecast errors for the preceding five @-@ year period . The cone is then constructed by drawing a tangent line that connects the outside boundary of all the circles . The National Hurricane Center states that the entire track of the tropical cyclone " can be expected to remain within the cone roughly 60 @-@ 70 % of the time . "
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= Devon County War Memorial =
The Devon County War Memorial is a First World War memorial designed by Sir Edwin Lutyens situated on the cathedral green in Exeter , the county town of Devon , in the south west of England . It is one of fifteen War Crosses designed by Lutyens to a similar specification , and one of two to serve as a civic memorial in a city . The authorities in Devon originally planned to complete the construction of a cloister at Exeter Cathedral , which would be dedicated to the county 's war dead , but this scheme was abandoned due to lack of funds . The Devon County War Memorial Committee commissioned Lutyens to design a War Cross instead , deciding on the green of Exeter Cathedral after scouting for several locations . A war memorial for Exeter itself was being considered concurrently , but the two committees failed to work together , resulting in two separate memorials — the county memorial by the cathedral and Exeter City War Memorial in Northernhay Gardens .
The memorial , a simple granite cross hewn from a single stone quarried from Haytor on Dartmoor stands just to the west of the cathedral , in alignment with the altar . The cross sits on a granite plinth , which itself sits on three steps . It was unveiled by Edward , Prince of Wales on 16 May 1921 . The area around the memorial was remodelled after archaeological excavations in the 1970s . A processional way was added , leading to the cathedral close from the cathedral itself , along with a set of steps to a platform in front of the memorial , which emphasises its connection to the cathedral . The memorial is a grade II * listed building and , since 2015 , all of Lutyens ' war memorials in England have been protected by listed building status .
= = Background = =
In the aftermath of the First World War , thousands of war memorials were built across Britain . Amongst the most prominent designers of memorials was architect Sir Edwin Lutyens , described by Historic England as " the leading English architect of his generation " . Lutyens designed the Cenotaph on Whitehall in London , which became the focus for the national Remembrance Sunday commemorations , as well as the Thiepval Memorial to the Missing — the largest British war memorial anywhere in the world — and the Stone of Remembrance which appears in all large Commonwealth War Graves Commission cemeteries . Lutyens was also responsible for Castle Drogo , to the north of Exeter . The Devon County memorial is one of fifteen War Crosses designed by Lutyens to a similar specification between 1920 and 1925 . Most of Lutyens ' War Crosses were commissioned for small villages , but the Devon County memorial is one of two commissioned as a civic memorial in a city — the other being the York City War Memorial .
The idea of building a war memorial at all proved controversial ; the chairman of the local branch of the National Federation of Discharged and Demobilized Sailors and Soldiers was of the opinion that the funds would be better spent caring for surviving veterans and condemned the memorial as a " useless waste of money " . Despite this , the authorities were determined to erect some sort of memorial to the county 's war dead . The original plan was for the completion of the cloister of Exeter Cathedral to serve as a war memorial , but the idea was abandoned due to a lack of funds and instead Lutyens ' War Cross was commissioned in 1920 . The County War Memorial Committee , chaired by Hugh Fortescue , 4th Earl Fortescue , realised that it was unlikely to raise a large sum of money , and that communities across Devon would be focusing on their own commemorations and commissioning individual war memorials . Thus , they sought a simple but elegant monument . Several sites were considered , including Cawsand Beacon on Dartmoor and the Haldon Hills , but the committee 's preferred location was Exeter 's Cathedral Close , Exeter being the county town of Devon . The specific site was chosen so that the memorial would be visible from the High Street and Broadgate .
The memorial is one of two civic war memorials in Exeter , the other being the Exeter City War Memorial in Northernhay Gardens . Exeter Cathedral also contains memorials to the Devonshire Regiment and the Wessex Field Ambulance . The Devon County War Memorial Committee agreed to support the construction of a battlefield memorial at La Ville @-@ aux @-@ Bois @-@ lès @-@ Pontavert in France to honour the 2nd Battalion of the Devonshire Regiment , who endured particularly heavy fighting at Bois des Buttes during the Third Battle of the Aisne . The city war memorial , on the other hand , was the responsibility of a separate committee ; the city and county memorial committees conspicuously failed to work together . According to Sir James Owen , chairman of the city committee , the city offered a joint committee but the county " slammed the door in our face " , while Lord Fortescue accused the city of proceeding with its own project without any discussion with the county . The result was that two very different memorials were constructed in Exeter — the city 's memorial takes the form a figure of Victory on a large pedestal surrounded by further sculptures to form a cross .
= = History and design = =
The project proceeded simply once the original idea of completing the cloisters was abandoned . The memorial stands on the Cathedral Green , just to the west of the cathedral itself , in alignment with the altar . It takes the form of a 30 @-@ foot ( 9 @.@ 1 @-@ metre ) granite cross , quarried from Haytor on Dartmoor to the north of Exeter , and hewn from a single stone — the largest Lutyens was able to acquire . The cross has a diamond @-@ shaped tapered shaft with chamfered arms , no wider than the base , close to the top to form a cross . The cross sits on a three @-@ tiered base and a rectangular plinth , which itself sits on three stone steps as is customary for Lutyens ' war memorials . The central tier of the base bears the inscription " THE COUNTY OF DEVON TO HER GLORIOUS DEAD / 1914 – 1919 / TE DEUM LAUDAMUS / 1939 – 1945 " .
The memorial was unveiled on Whit Monday , 16 May 1921 by Edward , Prince of Wales ( later King Edward VIII ) , the heir to the throne , with Lutyens in attendance . Upon its completion , Lutyens said of the monument , " it is very simple and a monolith and its subtlety in line means labour , care and thought . [ ... ] It should endure forever " . At the unveiling ceremony , Lord Fortescue — chairman of the County War Memorial Committee — estimated that 11 @,@ 600 men and women from Devon had been killed while serving in the war ; he later estimated that a total of 63 @,@ 700 ( 8 @,@ 000 regulars , 36 @,@ 700 volunteers , and 19 @,@ 000 conscripts ) had served . The names of the fallen were recorded on a roll of honour , of which three copies were made : one for Exeter Cathedral , one to be held by the county , and one which the Prince of Wales placed in a hollow in the base of the war memorial . The prince 's visit generated considerable excitement in the area ; local people lined the street to welcome his motorcade and banners were flown from businesses on the High Street . After the unveiling , he spent ten days touring the local area .
In 1971 , archaeological excavations were undertaken around the western fringe of the cathedral and the remains of several Roman buildings were discovered . As a result , the area was remodelled by Sir Geoffrey Jellicoe who created a processional way leading to the cathedral from Cathedral Close , past the war memorial . At the same time , Jellicoe introduced a set of steps and a platform leading to the memorial which emphasises the memorial 's alignment with the altar and strengthens the visual connection between the memorial and the cathedral . A set of metal railings was erected around the foot of the memorial in 2006 — described by Lutyens researcher Tim Skelton as " an unfortunate addition " .
On 16 April 2009 , the memorial — including the processional way — were designated by English Heritage ( now Historic England ) a grade II * listed building for its special architectural or historic interest , a status which offers legal protection from unauthorised demolition or unauthorised modification .
In November 2015 , as part of commemorations for the centenary of the First World War , Lutyens ' war memorials were recognised as a " national collection " and all 44 of his free @-@ standing memorials were listed or had their listing status reviewed and their National Heritage List for England list entries were updated and expanded .
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= Somerset Coal Canal =
The Somerset Coal Canal ( originally known as the Somersetshire Coal Canal ) was a narrow canal in England , built around 1800 starting in basins at Paulton and Timsbury to nearby Camerton , over two aqueducts at Dunkerton , through a tunnel at Combe Hay , then via Midford and Monkton Combe to Limpley Stoke where it joined the Kennet and Avon Canal . This link gave the Somerset coalfield , ( which at its peak contained 80 collieries ) , access east toward London . The longest arm was 10 @.@ 6 miles ( 17 km ) long with 23 locks . From Midford an arm also ran via Writhlington to Radstock , with a tunnel at Wellow .
A feature of the canal was the variety of methods used at Combe Hay to overcome height differences between the upper and lower reaches , initially by the use of caisson locks and when this failed an inclined plane trackway and then finally a flight of 22 conventional locks .
The Radstock arm was never commercially successful and was replaced first with a tramway in 1815 and later incorporated into the Somerset and Dorset Joint Railway . The Paulton route flourished for nearly 100 years and was very profitable , carrying very high tonnages of coal for many decades ; this canal helped carry the fuel that powered the nearby city of Bath .
By the 1880s coal production declined as the various pits either ran out of coal or were flooded and subsequently closed . In 1896 the main pump at Dunkerton which maintained the canal water level failed . The resultant lowering in level meant that only small loads could be transported . A factor which reduced revenue from the canal still further . The declining income meant that the canal company could not afford to pay for a replacement pump .
The canal became disused after 1898 and officially closed in 1902 , being sold off to the various railway companies who were expanding their networks . The land bordering the canal route was then used for a few years to construct a railway . In October 2006 a grant was obtained from the Heritage Lottery Fund to carry out a technical study on one of the locks and its associated structures at Combe Hay .
In September 2014 restoration work began on the canal section from Paulton to Radford , with the aim of restoring the entire canal to navigation in the near future . The largest canal drydock in England has been revealed at Paulton ; culverts and bridges nearby are being reinstated or rebuilt ; and about 2 / 3 mile of canal from Paulton to Radford is likely to be in water by summer 2015 .
= = History = =
= = = Background = = =
In 1763 coal was discovered in Radstock and mining began in the area , however transport was a major problem because of the poor state of the roads . This cost and the potential for cheaper delivery of coal from south Wales via the Monmouthshire Canal led to the proposal for a canal which could transport the coal to Bath and Wiltshire . Initial surveys were conducted during 1793 by William Jessop and William Smith under the direction of John Rennie who presented the report on 14 October 1793 estimating the cost of construction of the canal at £ 80 @,@ 000 . Smith , who also worked at the Mearns Pit at High Littleton , made the original observations leading to his important stratification theory by observing the dips in the geological strata through which the canal was cut . Smith became Surveyor to the company , but was dismissed in April 1799 , apparently because he had used his position as surveyor to buy a local house at advantageous terms . He then set himself up in a private practice in Bath but was re @-@ engaged by the company in 1811 , to provide advice when repairs became necessary to the canal bed .
The canal was authorised by an Act of Parliament entitled " An Act for making and maintaining a navigable Canal , with certain Railways and Stone Roads , from several Collieries in the county of Somerset , to communicate with the intended Kennet and Avon Canal , in the parish of Bradford , in the county of Wilts " of 1794 , and further detailed surveys were carried out by Robert Whitworth and John Sutcliffe , who was then appointed as chief engineer .
= = = Construction = = =
In May 1795 tenders were invited for the first section to be built from the meadows near Goosehard ( or Gooseyard ) near Paulton to Hopyard in the Parish of Camerton . In June 1795 a contractor , ( Houghton & Son from Shropshire ) , started the terminus at Paulton meadows using local labour . This first section of the canal was completed on Monday 1 October 1798 ; the first load of coal along the canal was delivered to Bath via Dunkerton . Some 14 collieries at Timsbury & Paulton were connected to their respective basins in the meadow terminus by tramways . This involved the construction of three tramway bridges over the Cam brook . A further bridge at Upper Radford was required over the canal ; at this point tramways connected the Withy Mills and Radford workings . The course of the Cam brook was modified at various places to protect the canal from erosion . In 1799 William Whitmore and his partner , Norton , offered to build a balance ( or geometrical ) lift without payment , on condition that if successful they were to have £ 17 @,@ 300 and a royalty of 4 pence per ton of goods passed .
The design of the caisson lock at Combe Hay was not a success , on 15 February 1798 the first descent failed . Mr. Weldon ( the inventor ) , made one successful descent on 7 June and said " I will undertake to pass 1 @,@ 500 tons of goods through the lock in 12 hrs " . Tenders were invited on 28 June for further constructions . Two more attempts to use the caisson lock took place on 11 April & 2 May ( only the latter was successful ) . By 22 August 1799 the second rebuilding of the caisson had been abandoned . It was replaced by three locks and an inclined plane trackway , but the trackway was not successful either , and the company proposed to raise more money to finance the building of a flight of 19 locks to replace it , the use of which would incur an additional toll of one shilling per ton on all traffic . This was vigorously opposed by the owners of the Kennet and Avon Canal and the Wilts and Berks Canal , on the grounds that the price of coal to their customers would be too high . After negotiation , the company obtained a new Act of Parliament on 30 April 1802 , which authorised the formation of a separate body called " The Lock Fund of the Somerset Coal Canal Company " , with powers to raise the sum of £ 45 @,@ 000 . The money was raised by the Kennet and Avon , the Wilts and Berks and the Somerset Coal Canal each contributing £ 15 @,@ 000 , and the one shilling surcharge was to be levied until the capital had been repaid , after which it would cease . The act set the tonnage rates to be charged :
Fractions of a Mile to pay for Half a Mile , and of a Ton as a Quarter of a Ton ; Rates for Wharfage to be determined by the Company . In addition to the above Rates , One Shilling per Ton is paid on all Goods to the Lock Fund , which also receives Three Farthings per Ton from the Coal Canal company . The boats were weighed at Midford where a Weigh house was constructed in 1831 . The boats would be floated into a one @-@ ended lock , the gate closed and the water drained . This left the boat resting on a cradle suspended by angled rods attached to a beam which took the weight of the boat . One @-@ pound weights were then added to a pan with one pound being equivalent to one hundredweight until the system was in equilibrium and the weight was recorded . The weigh house at Midford was one of only four known to have been built in England and Wales .
= = = Operation = = =
The canal opened in 1805 and was used for passenger traffic as well as coal . In 1814 the Benedictine monks who came to Downside Abbey are said to have used the canal for the last stage of their journey . Another cargo carried by the canal was limestone from Combe Down . The peak level of cargo carried was in 1838 at 138 @,@ 403 tons resulting in over £ 17 @,@ 000 of tolls being paid . Cargoes of over 100 @,@ 000 tons were common until the 1870s when the decline in output of coal from the various Somerset coalpits , along with competition from the railways , dramatically reduced the canal 's profitability . When the main pump at Dunkerton failed it was not replaced and there was not sufficient water for continual operation of the locks . The canal went into liquidation in 1894 ; it closed in 1898 and was finally abandoned in 1904 when it was sold to the Great Western Railway for £ 2 @,@ 000 , and used as a branch of the Bristol and North Somerset Railway . The closure caused problems across the Somerset coalfield especially to the pits along the Paulton branch , which had relied on the canal for transportation .
= = = The Radstock branch = = =
When the Radstock branch was constructed , it was intended to link it to the main line of the Paulton branch at Midford , which was at a lower level at this point . The Lock Fund created in 1802 was to have paid for the construction of the locks , but because there was little regular traffic on the branch , the company built one lock , an aqueduct over the Midford Brook , and a short tramway to bridge the gap . This contributed to the economic failure of the branch , and its replacement by a tramway in 1815 . The tramway was laid along the former canal 's towpath . It was single @-@ line with passing places every 600 yards ( 549 m ) , and was originally laid using cast iron plates on stone block sleepers , but was relaid using wrought iron plates .
= = = Engineers and surveyors = = =
William Bennet ( d . 1826 )
John Hodgkinson
Benjamin Outram ( 1764 – 1805 )
John Rennie ( 1761 – 1821 )
William Smith ( 1769 – 1839 )
John Sutcliffe
Robert Weldon ( ? 1754 – 1810 )
Robert Whitworth ( d . 1799 )
Data from Jim Shead 's Waterways Information .
= = = Combe Hay and the caisson lock = = =
The fall over the route is 135 ft ( 41 m ) , which meant problems with supplying adequate water . The Cam brook was an inadequate source of water above Camerton , and the mills along it had water rights . Each narrow boat travelling through the series of locks ( 22 of them each 6 ft ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) deep ) with a 25 @-@ ton load of coal caused 85 tons of water to be discharged into the brook below the locks . As a result , the canal was designed with all 22 locks in one flight near Combe Hay and a pumping engine to raise water from the Cam this was the first canal to entirely depend on pumping .
A potential solution to the water supply problem was the use of caisson locks as proposed by Robert Weldon , three of which could replace the 22 conventional locks , because it wasted no water , however the technology had only been tried in a one @-@ third scale prototype . Each lock was 80 ft ( 24 m ) long and 60 ft ( 18 m ) deep and contained a closed wooden box which could take a barge . This box moved up and down in the 60 ft ( 18 m ) deep pool of water , which never left the lock . The box was demonstrated to the Prince Regent ( later George IV ) , but had engineering problems and was never successful commercially or built elsewhere .
It was temporarily replaced with an inclined plane by Benjamin Outram who had successfully installed inclined planes at the Peak Forest Canal in Derbyshire , whilst 22 locks and a Boulton & Watt Steam Pumping Station , capable of lifting 5 @,@ 000 tons of water in 12 hours , were built to the latest design with metal plate clad wooden gates .
Construction . The two images show a recently uncovered ( 2009 – 10 ) Spillway / Drain ( c1796 ) at Upper Midford , a location where a caisson to take the canal from the 180 ft level to the 134 ft level at Midford Aqueduct was proposed .
Each caisson would have had such a drain for maintenance purposes over the exit arch made to the same dimensions . The following extract from the Bath Herald newspaper provides the details of the chosen sites .
" 14 Jun 1798 Travel : Somerset coal canal – caisson cisterns to be formed at Combe Hay & nr . Midford . Sealed proposals reqd. on embanking & excavation with the masonry ; or each separately – send to sub @-@ committee , Waldegrave Arms , Radstock 20 Jul Plans & specs. on appl . "
For further Newspaper articles see here : - s : Bath Georgian Newspaper - Somerset Coal Canal
= = = Paulton and Timsbury basins = = =
located between the villages of Paulton and Timsbury was the terminus of the northern branch of the Somerset Coal Canal and was a central point for at least 15 collieries around Paulton , Timsbury and High Littleton , which were connected to the canal by tramroads . Timsbury basin was some 600ft to the west of Paulton basin .
On the northern side of Timsbury basin was the terminus for the tramroads which served Old Grove , Prior 's , Tyning and Hayeswood pits , with a branch line to Amesbury and Mearns pits . Parts of this line were still in use in 1873 , probably all carrying horse @-@ drawn wagons of coal . Tramroads on the southern side of the Paulton basin served Brittens , Littleborrok , Paulton Ham , Paulton Hill , Simons Hill terminating at Salisbury Colliery . In addition the Paulton Foundry used this line . The entire line was disused by 1871 as were the collieries it served .
The area has been designated as an ' area of special architectural or historic interest , the character or appearance of which it is desirable to preserve or enhance ' under section 69 of the Planning ( Listed Buildings and Conservation Areas ) Act 1990 .
= = = Coming of the railway = = =
The first railway to affect the canal was the Bristol and North Somerset Railway 's Frome to Radstock line completed in 1854 which took traffic away from the tramway . It finally closed in 1874 with the Somerset and Dorset Railway 's extension to Bath , built along its route from Radstock to Midford . Another branch line was constructed in 1882 from Hallatrow to Camerton , running alongside the canal for the last 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 km ) of its route .
The Great Western Railway built a railway line ( the Bristol and North Somerset Railway ) over some parts of the canal route from Limpley Stoke to Camerton , where it joined the existing 1882 branch line from Hallatrow to Camerton . This opened in 1910 for passenger and goods traffic , closed for the First World War , re @-@ opened after the war but ran for passengers only for two more years in the mid @-@ 1920s and finally closed to all traffic in the 1950s . The line was used in the 1950s Ealing comedy film The Titfield Thunderbolt .
= = Today = =
The route of the canal lies in a largely agricultural area dotted with small villages and minor roads . There are several stetches of the Paulton and Timsbury basins branch of the canal that are easily visible , and various stretches and features have been surveyed during 2014 . Full restoration of the entire length from Paulton to Dundas is being explored . Four locks on the original canal route at Combe Hay have been buried ; one by a 20ft railway embankment , and three overfilled by 10 - 20ft with building waste since the 1960s . It may no longer be feasible to reinstate the original locks 16 , 17 , 18 and 19 structures for this section .
At Upper Midford the canal is blocked entirely at the Accommodation bridge [ 1 ] by the 40ft high embankment of the railway that crosses it . [ 2 ] Most of the canal features along the entire route are on private land but the towpath survives in places as a right of way , while the later railway between Midford to Wellow has been surfaced to form part of National Cycle Route 24 . It has been proposed that a statue , commissioned by Sustrans , of William Smith , the father of English Geology , will be sited next to the path on the line of the canal commemorating his work as its surveyor and his recognition of the significance of rock strata .
= = Restoration works = =
= = = Limpley Stoke = = =
The quarter @-@ mile stretch at Brassknocker Basin where the canal joins the Kennet and Avon at Dundas Aqueduct was restored during the 1980s and is now a thriving marina with moorings . Excavations of the old stop lock ( at the junction with the Kennet and Avon canal ) showed that this had originally been a broad ( 14 feet ( 4 m ) ) lock that at some point was narrowed to 7 feet ( 2 m ) by moving the lock wall .
= = = Paulton and Timsbury basins = = =
Work started in 2013 to reveal and excavate the drydock next to the eastern Paulton Basin . This drydock appears to be the largest drydock anywhere on the canal system in England , being about 30 feet ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) wide and 83 feet ( 25 m ) long , large enough for three full @-@ length narrowboats to be worked on at the same time .
The drainage culvert at the southeast corner of the drydock was rebuilt in December 2013 , and the drydock itself completely excavated in April 2014 . The entrance to the drydock , at the western end , was surmounted by a bridge , partially demolished in 2002 but rebuilt during 2014 .
= = = Withy Mills = = =
Excavations began in May , 2014 at Terminus Bridge ; the arch was missing and the abutments were found to be in poor condition ; an earth bund between the abutments carried the public footpath and stopped the water draining from the Paulton and Timsbury Basins . A new earth bund was installed about 25 metres ( 82 ft ) west of Terminus Bridge to stop the water and allow work to continue on the bridge .
During excavations a drainage culvert was discovered about 20 metres ( 66 ft ) west of Terminus bridge . Work resumed in September and November 2014 to batter and reshape the canal embankments . Excess topsoil was removed and the towpath reinstated on the stretch to the east from Terminus bridge for about 200 metres ( 660 ft ) . On the same stretch a retaining wall was discovered in the south embankment continuing for about 100 metres ( 330 ft ) , possibly built as a repair to a weak section of canal banking . Vertical infills of white clay have been used along this wall .
= = = Grant to study history of the canal = = =
The canal has been studied for many years with exploration and restoration work being undertaken in Wellow and elsewhere . Particular effort , so far unsuccessful , has been put into trying to find the site of the second and third caisson locks at Combe Hay . In October 2006 a grant of £ 20 @,@ 000 was obtained from the Heritage Lottery Fund , by the Somersetshire Coal Canal Society in association with Bath & North East Somerset Council and the Avon Industrial Buildings Trust to carry out a technical study on one of the locks and associated structures at Combe Hay . Many of the locks and associated workings are listed buildings .
= = Route and points of interest = =
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= Blackrock ( play ) =
Blackrock is a play by Australian playwright Nick Enright that was first performed in 1995 . It was adapted from a 1992 play by Enright , entitled A Property of the Clan , which was inspired by the murder of Leigh Leigh in Stockton , Australia in 1989 . The plays were both well received critically , though they did attract criticism from both Leigh 's family and the media due to the fictionalisation of an actual murder . Despite repeated statements from Enright that the plays were a work of fiction , they have both often been considered by viewers to be a factual account . A Property of the Clan was shortlisted for a New South Wales Premier 's Literary Award in 1993 , and Blackrock won the AWGIE Award for Best Play in 1996 . Blackrock was developed into a feature film of the same name in 1997 .
= = Plot = =
Blackrock is an Australian beachside working @-@ class suburb where surfing is popular among youths like Jared . He has his first serious girlfriend , Rachel , who comes from a much wealthier part of the city . One day Ricko , the local surfing legend , returns from an 11 @-@ month trip . Rachel 's brother Toby 's 18th birthday party is being held at the local beach club a few days later , and Jared decides to merge a ' welcome home ' party for Ricko with the event . The party is unsupervised with alcohol freely available . The following morning , it is revealed that 15 @-@ year @-@ old Tracy Warner was killed at the party .
Three youths from the party , Davo , Scott , and Toby , tell Ricko that they raped Tracy , though left her alive . The three boys are later arrested for the sexual assault . Ricko confesses to Jared that he killed Tracy . He says he was attempting to have sex with her when she bit him and kicked him , so in a moment of rage he grabbed a rock and struck her . He has already told police that he was with Jared all night and asks Jared to confirm his alibi in the name of mateship ; Jared is torn between telling the truth and protecting his friend . After witnessing Ricko 's abusive behaviour towards their friend Tiffany , Jared decides to tell the truth . Ricko is detained by police and hangs himself in his cell .
Jared 's silence leads to the breakdown of his relationships with both Rachel and his mother Diane . In the play 's last scene , Jared confesses to Diane that he witnessed the three youths raping Tracy , though he did not intervene . He is unsure why he did nothing though he believes it was out of loyalty to the boys who were his mates . Ricko left Jared a suicide note giving him his panel van , though Jared asks his cousin Cherie to throw the keys to the vehicle in the ocean when she goes out surfing .
= = Development = =
= = = Origins as A Property of the Clan = = =
The play originated as Enright 's A Property of the Clan , a theatre @-@ in @-@ education piece written for Freewheels Theatre in Education in Newcastle which premiered in 1992 . Enright was approached by the director of Freewheels , Brian Joyce , who suggested the murder of Leigh Leigh as a subject for a play . Enright initially refused , but Joyce argued that the actual subject of the play would be the victim 's peer @-@ groups . Enright agreed , after being convinced a play could be made out of the conflicting responses to the crime . The title was taken from a quote in the psychological report that was made on Mathew Webster , the man who murdered Leigh , in preparation for his trial . The first decision regarding the play was to omit the criminal acts and the actual murder from it , instead focusing on the drama , its participants and the aftermath of the murder .
= = = Redevelopment as Blackrock = = =
In 1994 the Sydney Theatre Company commissioned Enright to develop the original 45 @-@ minute play into a full @-@ length production . Blackrock retained the original four characters but also added nine others . Associate professor Donna Lee Brien of Central Queensland University considered it to be a more fictionalised version of Leigh 's murder , though many viewers still considered it to be a factual account of the crime . The narrative and emphasis were reshaped for an adult audience outside of a specifically educational environment , also shifting the play 's focus . While A Property of the Clan focused on the possible motives for rape , Blackrock was said to centre on the boys involved in the crime , portraying them as victims of their society .
Blackrock was first performed at Wharf I , a theatre run by the Sydney Theatre Company , on 30 August 1995 . It also played at the Australian Theatre Festival in Canberra that same year . Blackrock continued to be performed at the Sydney Theatre Company throughout 1995 , and performed a sold @-@ out season at Wharf I in 1996 . It has since had many productions throughout Australia , including being performed by a Newcastle @-@ based theatre company , Tantrum Theatre , in 2010 . The 2010 version contained a few minor updates , such as referring to surfer Layne Beachley instead of Wendy Botha .
= = Reception = =
= = = A Property of the Clan = = =
Leigh 's family , who had learned of the play , attended a private screening of it ; some of them had not seen each other for two years . Leigh 's mother Robyn objected to the fictionalisation of her daughter 's murder , stating she would have preferred a documentary account . The rape and murder victim in A Property of the Clan was named Tracy , which Leigh 's family also objected to , as ' Tracey ' was the name of Leigh 's cousin and best friend . One of Leigh 's aunts asked Brian Joyce to change the character 's name out of respect for the family , however , the name remain unchanged , even after the play was rewritten and retitled Blackrock . The local media reported on the family objections to the play , and the day after the play opened , Freewheels faced " mounting disapproval " , and attempted to distance themselves from Leigh 's murder . Both Enright and Freewheels chairperson Sharon McMillan respond to the growing controversy . McMillan wrote in The Newcastle Herald , stating that media coverage of the play was " unfortunately " focusing on Leigh 's murder instead of the play 's message , also stating that some people reporting on it in this manner had not even watched the play . Enright stated that while the comparison to Leigh 's murder was of interest to the media , the play was actually about how any group of boys abuse any girl , and how they came to do it . Nevertheless , many viewers considered the play to be a factual account of the murder . Even though the rape and murder were not shown in the play , the audience were said to be able to fill in their blanks from their knowledge of Leigh 's killing .
Despite the controversy , the play was shown at various high schools in the Newcastle area , and following its positive critical reception , was shown nationally at high schools across the country over a period of eighteen months . However Newcastle High School , where both Leigh and Webster had been students , declined to book the play . The play was also shown at the National Institute of Dramatic Art in 1993 , and was shortlisted for a New South Wales Premier 's Literary Award that year .
= = = Blackrock = = =
John McCallum from The Australian gave a favourable review of the redeveloped play , also stating that the decision to transform the play from its original educational environment to a mainstream audience was a " bold move " that was " triumphantly successful . " Blackrock won an AWGIE Award for Best Play in 1996 . When the play was shown in Sydney , Joyce expressed disappointment at how it was misinterpreted as being about Leigh and " that community " .
People came up to me after and said " Is it really like that in Newcastle ? " ... I was very disheartened because I grew up on the Northern Beaches in Sydney and I didn 't see it as any different whatsoever . It was happening 20 years ago when I was young . I remember there was violence , there was rape , there was party rape and there was party rape with alcohol and a lot of violence associated with that .
When interviewed in 1996 while Blackrock was being adapted into a film , Joyce expressed regret that the media continually drawing connections between the play and Leigh 's murder had caused additional suffering for Leigh 's family , as he had initiated the play with the intention of aiding in the healing process of all the people affected by the murder . Reviewing a version of the play that was performed in 2010 , Caroline Wake from RealTime Arts likened the actors performing in the play to several of the initiation ceremonies that occur in the play itself , stating that to perform in Blackrock is to be " initiated into Newcastle ’ s history , to learn that along with the mines and the beaches , the death of Leigh Leigh too is your ambivalent inheritance . "
The New South Wales Department of Education and Communities hosts curriculum material for high school classwork on both plays .
= = Premiere production = =
Blackrock 's premiere production was directed by David Berthold , and featured the following cast :
Jared : Simon Lyndon
Cherie : Rebecca Smart
Ricko : Paul Bishop
Davo : Dan Wyllie
Scott : Teo Gebert
Toby : Joel Edgerton
Tiffany : Kristina Bidenko
Stewart / Len / Roy : John Walton
Marian / Glenys : Julie Godfrey
Rachel : Kym Wilson
Diane : Angela Punch McGregor
All other roles were played by members of the company .
= = Film adaptation = =
While the revisions to the play Blackrock were still being finalised , Enright started working with first @-@ time director Steven Vidler to produce a film version , which would also be titled Blackrock . Blackrock was released in 1997 . Rebecca Smart reprised her role as Cherie in the film . Simon Lyndon who portrayed Jared in the play was cast as Ricko in the film .
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= The Little Hero of Holland =
The Little Hero of Holland is a 1910 American silent short drama produced by the Thanhouser Company . It is an adaptation of the short fictional story popularized in Hans Brinker , or The Silver Skates , about a boy who plugs a leaking dike with his finger to prevent it from bursting . The role of the boy was played by Marie Eline , but little else is known about the production and cast of the film . The director may have been Barry O 'Neil and the writer may have been Lloyd Lonergan . Parts of the film were shot on Glen Park Island in New Rochelle , New York . The film was released on June 17 , 1910 and saw a wide release , including the United Kingdom . The film is presumed lost .
= = Plot = =
Though the film is presumed lost , a synopsis of the film was published in The Moving Picture World on June 18 , 1910 . It states : " Hans is a little Dutch boy , the son of a poor fisherman . He , like all children of Holland , is early impressed with the fact that the safety of the whole community depends on the strength of the dike . He is sent upon an errand to his aunt late one evening . Walking along the foot of the dike , he discovers a tiny hole , through which the water is pouring . Realizing that if left to flow through even this small aperture , the water would soon break down the dike and flood the village , he sticks his tiny finger in the hole , and waits for someone to come to his assistance . Night comes on . His family decided he has stayed with his aunt , and do not worry about him . In the morning he is found almost unconscious from fatigue and exposure , by his little sister who has been searching for him . She runs back and notifies the villagers , who come to his assistance , repair the dike , and carry the little hero back to the village in triumph . He is received by the burgomaster and praised by the minister . By his night 's heroism he has made himself a place in history , and will always be known as ' the little hero of Holland . ' "
= = Production = =
The writer of the scenario is unknown , but it was most likely Lloyd Lonergan . Lonergan was an experienced newspaperman employed by The New York Evening World while writing scripts for the Thanhouser productions . He was the most important script writer for Thanhouser , averaging 200 scripts a year from 1910 to 1915 . The film was an adaptation of the fictional story that was popularized in Hans Brinker , or The Silver Skates . The name of the boy , Hans , may be a reference to the erroneous association to unnamed character in the book . The film director is unknown , but it may have been Barry O 'Neil . Film historian Q. David Bowers does not attribute a cameraman for this production , but two possible candidates exist . Blair Smith was the first cameraman of the Thanhouser company , but he was soon joined by Carl Louis Gregory who had years of experience as a still and motion picture photographer . The role of the cameraman was uncredited in 1910 productions . Many of the scenes for the film were shot at Glen Park in New Rochelle , New York .
Only Marie Eline 's credit as Hans , the young boy , is credited . Eline had previously played an Italian boy in The Two Roses . The other members cast may have included the leading players of the Thanhouser productions , Anna Rosemond and Frank H. Crane . Rosemond was one of two leading ladies for the first year of the company . Crane was also involved in the very beginnings of the Thanhouser Company and acted in numerous productions before becoming a director at Thanhouser .
= = Release = =
The single reel drama , approximate 650 feet long , was released on June 17 , 1910 . Some trade publications list the length of the film as 1000 feet though . The United Kingdom release of the film may have had the name of the hero changed to Peter . A synopsis in The Bioscope on October 27 , 1910 refers to the hero by the name Peter . This alternative name for the hero of the story can be found in the 1910 publication of Reader 1st @-@ 4th by D. Appleton and Company . A review in The Moving Picture World was neutral because it lacked specific praise or criticism of the production . The film had a wide release , advertisements for the showing in theaters include those in Pennsylvania , Oklahoma , Indiana , and Missouri . The film is presumed lost .
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= Crystal Palace , London =
Crystal Palace is a residential area in south London , England , within the London Boroughs of Bromley , Croydon , Lambeth , Southwark and Lewisham . It is named after the former local landmark , the Crystal Palace , which stood in the area from 1854 to 1936 . The area is located approximately eight miles ( 13 km ) south east of Charing Cross and includes one of the highest points in London , at 367 feet ( 112 m ) , offering views over the capital . The area has no defined boundaries and straddles the convergence of five London boroughs and three postal districts , although an electoral ward named Crystal Palace and Crystal Palace Park are entirely contained within the London Borough of Bromley . It is contiguous with Anerley , Dulwich Wood , Gipsy Hill , Penge , South Norwood , Sydenham and Upper Norwood .
The district was a natural oak forest until development began in the 19th century , and before the arrival of the Crystal Palace the area was known as Sydenham Hill . The Norwood Ridge and an historic oak tree were used to mark parish boundaries . Today , the area is represented by three different parliamentary constituencies , four London Assembly constituencies and fourteen local authority councillors . After the Crystal Palace had burned down in 1936 , the site of the building and its grounds became Crystal Palace Park , which is the location of the National Sports Centre , containing an athletics track , stadium and other sports facilities . Crystal Palace Park has also been the setting for a number of concerts and films , including scenes from The Italian Job and The Pleasure Garden . Two television transmitter masts make the district a landmark location , visible from many parts of Greater London . Local landmarks include the Crystal Palace Triangle , a shopping district made up of three streets forming a triangle ; Westow Park , a smaller park that lies off the triangle to the south west of Crystal Palace Park ; and the Stambourne Woodland Walk .
A pneumatic railway was briefly trialled in the area in 1864 . Once the railways had arrived , Crystal Palace was eventually served by two railway stations , the high level and low level stations , built to handle the volume of passengers visiting the Crystal Palace . After the palace was destroyed by fire , and with railway travel declining in the UK more generally , passenger numbers fell and the high level station was closed in 1954 and demolished 7 years later . Rail services gradually declined , and for a period in the 1960s and 1970s there were plans to construct an urban motorway through the area as part of the London Ringways plan . More recently , rail travel has seen a resurgence in Crystal Palace , with rising passenger numbers , additional London Overground services stopping at the station , a major station redevelopment in 2012 and proposals to extend the Croydon Tramlink service to the railway and bus stations .
= = History = =
The ridge and the historic oak tree known as The Vicars Oak ( located at the present @-@ day crossroads of the A212 Church Road and A214 Westow Hill ) were used to mark parish boundaries . This has led to the Crystal Palace area straddling the boundaries of five London Boroughs ; Bromley , Croydon , Lambeth , Southwark and Lewisham . The area also straddles three postcode districts : SE19 , SE20 , and SE26 . The ancient boundary between Surrey and Kent passes through the area and from 1889 to 1965 the area lay on the south eastern boundary of the County of London . It included parts of Kent and Surrey until 1889 and then parts of Kent , London and Surrey between 1889 and 1965 .
For centuries the area was occupied by the Great North Wood , an extensive area of natural oak forest that formed a wilderness close to the southern edge of the then expanding city of London . The forest was a popular area for Londoners ' recreation right up to the 19th century , when it began to be built over . It was also a home of Gypsies , with some local street names and pubs recording the link . The area still retains vestiges of woodland . The third quarter of the 19th Century brought the Crystal Palace and the railways .
= = = The Crystal Palace = = =
The Crystal Palace was a cast @-@ iron and glass building originally erected in Hyde Park to house the Great Exhibition of 1851 . Following the success of the exhibition , the palace was moved and reconstructed in 1854 in a modified and enlarged form in the grounds of the Penge Place estate at Sydenham Hill . The buildings housed the Crystal Palace School of Art , Science , and Literature and Crystal Palace School of Engineering . It attracted visitors for over seven decades .
Sydenham Hill is one of the highest locations in London ; 109 metres ( 357 ft ) above sea level ( spot height on Ordnance Survey Map ) ; and the size of the palace and prominence of the site made it easy to identify from much of London . This led to the residential area around the building becoming known as Crystal Palace instead of Sydenham Hill . The palace was destroyed by fire on 30 November 1936 and the site of the building and its grounds is now known as Crystal Palace Park .
= = Landmarks = =
= = = Crystal Palace Triangle = = =
The " Crystal Palace Triangle " , formed by Westow Street , Westow Hill and Church Road , has a number of restaurants and several independent shops , as well as an indoor secondhand market and a farmer 's market on Haynes Lane . The triangle also contains a range of vintage furniture and clothing stores , as well as galleries , arts and crafts shops and other businesses . There is an ongoing campaign to turn a building recently converted into a church at 25 Church Road back into a cinema , after the former bingo hall was purchased by the Kingsway International Christian Centre .
Crystal Palace still retains much of its Victorian architecture , although housing styles are mixed , including Victorian terraces , mid @-@ war terraces and blocks of modern flats . Crystal Palace Park is surrounded by grand Victorian villas , many of which have been converted into flats and apartments .
= = = Transmitters = = =
Television transmission has been taking place from Crystal Palace since at least the 1930s and two TV transmitter towers — Crystal Palace Transmitter – 640 feet ( 200 m ) tall — and Croydon Transmitter – 500 feet ( 150 m ) tall — stand on the hill at Upper Norwood , making the district a landmark location visible from many parts of the London area . The towers may appear similar in height and design , but the Crystal Palace mast , constructed in 1956 , stands on a slightly higher elevation . The current Croydon tower was built in 1962 .
= = = Crystal Palace Park = = =
Crystal Palace Park is a large Victorian pleasure ground occupying much of the land within Crystal Palace and is one of the major London public parks . The park was maintained by the LCC and later the GLC , but with the abolition of the GLC in 1986 control of the entire park was given to the London Borough of Bromley . Crystal Palace railway station is located by the park , as is the National Sports Centre . The park was formerly used for motor racing and has been a venue for concerts , often performed at the site of the Crystal Palace Park Concert Platform . In July 2013 Chinese property developer ZhongRong Holdings announced it was drawing up plans to build a replica of the Crystal Palace on its original site in Crystal Palace Park . However , in February 2015 the developer 's sixteen @-@ month exclusivity agreement with Bromley to re @-@ develop the Palace expired and the project was cancelled .
The park is situated halfway along the Norwood Ridge at one of its highest points . This ridge offers views northward to central London , east to the Queen Elizabeth II Bridge and Greenwich , and southward to Croydon and the North Downs .
It is also one of the starting points for the Green Chain Walk , linking to places such as Chislehurst , Erith , the Thames Barrier and Thamesmead . Section 3 of the Capital Ring walk round London goes through the park .
= = = Westow Park = = =
A smaller park occupying 2 @.@ 73 hectares ( 6 @.@ 7 acres ) lies to the south west of the triangle on Church Road . Westow Park hosts the annual Crystal Palace Overground festival , a free community festival held over four days during the summer .
= = = Stambourne Woods = = =
To the south of the triangle is a small area of woodland occupying 1 @.@ 92 hectares , containing the Stambourne Woodland Walk . It was opened in 1984 and covers an area of land between developments on Stambourne Way and Fox Hill . The land originally formed the gardens of Victorian villas built on the hill overlooking Croydon , but fell into disrepair . In 1962 Croydon Council approved terms for buying the land from the Church Commissioners and other local freeholders , allowing the construction of a link . Paths and benches were installed but much of the vegetation was left undisturbed , creating a woodland pathway .
= = Geography = =
As the name Crystal Palace is relatively new , the borders of the area are not clearly defined and include parts of Anerley , Dulwich Wood , Gipsy Hill , Penge , South Norwood , Sydenham and Upper Norwood . Crystal Palace lies approximately eight miles ( 13 km ) to the south east of Charing Cross on the Norwood Ridge and includes one of the highest points of London at 112 metres above the mean sea level ( OS map reference TQ337707 ) . The Crystal Palace National Sports Centre , in the centre of the park , lies at 88 metres above the mean sea level . The soil in the area has been classified as typically " Slowly permeable , seasonally wet , slightly acid but base @-@ rich loamy and clayey soils " , with impeded drainage , moderate fertility and a loamy profile . The nearest Met Office climate station is based in Greenwich Park .
= = Local government = =
Crystal Palace sits on the boundary of four London boroughs – Bromley , Croydon , Lambeth and Southwark . A fifth borough – Lewisham – is nearby . As a result , the area is served by a diverse range of local government bodies and members of Parliament .
= = = Local authorities = = =
Several local authority councillors in the area were elected on 22 May 2014 , at the same time as the European Elections . All seats are now held by Labour party candidates , after 2 Liberal Democrats in Bromley and 1 Conservative in Southwark lost their seats . The elected officials by ward for Crystal Palace local authorities in May 2016 were :
= = = London Assembly = = =
The area is represented by four constituencies in the London Assembly . Their elected assembly members in May 2016 were :
= = = Westminster Parliament = = =
The area is represented by three constituencies in the Westminster Parliament . In May 2015 , their elected MPs were :
= = Media = =
= = = Films = = =
The Italian Job has a scene filmed at the athletics track in the Crystal Palace sports centre , in which Michael Caine says , " You were only supposed to blow the bloody doors off ! " The Pleasure Garden was also filmed in the park and Our Mother 's House has a scene featuring Dirk Bogarde with several children on the park 's boating lake .
= = = Music = = =
The park features prominently as the setting of an outdoor rave in the music video for The Chemical Brothers ' number 1 single " Setting Sun " .
A mini @-@ album about the history of the local area , entitled Fire & Glass : A Norwood Tragedy , was released in September 2007 by the Anglo @-@ Dutch group , H.E.R.R.
= = = Literature = = =
Arthur Conan Doyle was active in the area between 1891 and 1894 . Although he lived in nearby South Norwood he visited the Crystal Palace and Upper Norwood area regularly in connection with the Upper Norwood Literary and Scientific Society . The Foresters Hall on Westow Street was then known as the Welcome Hall ( or just Welcome ) and it was in that hall in May 1892 that Arthur Conan Doyle was elected president of the society . He was re @-@ elected to the post in 1893 and resigned in 1894 . Each occasion was in the same hall .
The writer Deborah Crombie sets her 2013 mystery , The Sound of Broken Glass , in the Crystal Palace area of London .
= = Sports = =
Crystal Palace has had a long association with sports and Crystal Palace F.C. ( 1861 ) which was an amateur football club , was one of the 12 founder members of The Football Association . The original football club disappeared from historical records in 1876 and it was not until 1905 that the current Crystal Palace F.C. club was re @-@ formed . The club played inside the grounds of The Crystal Palace , at the FA Cup Final venue which is now the site of the National Sports Centre , until it was forced to move out in 1915 because of the First World War . Despite eventually moving to a new stadium at Selhurst Park , the club retained the Crystal Palace name , which is in use to the present day .
The historical grounds also hosted the first England Rugby Union match against New Zealand in 1905 , which New Zealand won by 15 @-@ 0 , and the short @-@ lived London County Cricket Club .
In 1964 , a 15 @,@ 500 seater athletics stadium and sports centre was built on the site of the football grounds in Crystal Palace Park . The athletics stadium was known as the National Sports Centre and between 1999 and 2012 hosted the London Athletics Grand Prix among other international athletics meetings . The Crystal Palace triathletes club is also based here . Since the London 2012 Olympics , the status of the stadium and aquatics centre as the main facilities for their sports in London has been superseded by the London Aquatics Centre and Olympic Stadium . This led to Crystal Palace F.C. submitting plans to rebuild the stadium as a 40 @,@ 000 capacity football stadium , without the running track .
A motor racing circuit was opened around the Park in 1927 and the remains of the track now make up some of the access roads around the park . The track was extended to two miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) in 1936 , before being taken over by the Ministry of Defence at the start of World War II . Race meetings resumed in 1953 , and the circuit hosted a range of international racing events , continuing until the last races in 1974 .
= = Education = =
Crystal Palace contains three primary schools , Paxton Primary School , Rockmount Primary School and All Saints C of E Primary School , and one secondary school , Harris City Academy . Crystal Palace Park also contains a branch of Capel Manor College , offering courses in Animal Care , Arboriculture and Countryside , Horticulture and Landscaping and Garden Design along with other short courses .
In 2013 , due to a shortage of primary school places in both Crystal Palace and London , proposals to open a new primary school by September 2015 were put forward , with plans submitted to the Department for Education in January 2014 . The proposals were approved as part of wave 6 of the Free Schools Programme and the school is scheduled to open in September 2015 . As of October 2014 , the school is considering three possible building configurations – with the Greater London Authority running a public consultation on each option – all of which would involve demolishing one of the existing seated stands around the athletics track at the National Sports Centre .
= = Transport = =
= = = Roads = = =
The area is served by the A212 , A214 , A234 and A2199 roads . The roads that make up the triangle ( Westow Hill , Westow Street and Church Road ) form part of a one @-@ way system and are in a 24 @-@ hour controlled parking and loading zone . There is a coach park inside Crystal Palace Park .
The area would have been affected by the cancelled London Ringways motorway plans , as one of the radial routes connecting the South Cross Route to Ringway 2 ( the South Cross Route to Parkway D Radial ) would have run through a part of Crystal Palace Park , following the railway line .
= = = = Cycle routes = = = =
London Cycle Network routes 23 and 27 travel through Crystal Palace . Route 27 runs from Anerley Hill through part of Crystal Palace Park towards Bromley and route 23 through the Crystal Palace triangle to connect to Borough and Croydon .
= = = Rail = = =
Crystal Palace is accessible by rail from Crystal Palace railway station , where Southern trains run between Victoria on the Crystal Palace Line and London Bridge on the Brighton Main Line , and where London Overground trains run to Highbury & Islington on the East London Line . In addition , Southern services run to Beckenham Junction , Sutton and Epsom Downs . Crystal Palace railway station is one of the few stations to border two zones , Zones 3 and 4 . The South Gate of the Park is accessible by rail via Penge West , which is served by Southern trains from London Bridge and London Overground services .
Crystal Palace used to have a second railway station , the Crystal Palace ( High Level ) railway station . The station was built to serve passengers visiting the Crystal Palace , but after the fire in 1936 traffic on the branch line declined . During World War II the line serving the station was temporarily closed due to bomb damage . Although repairs were made and the line was reopened , the requirement for reconstruction work and the drop in traffic led to the decision to close the station and branch line in 1954 , followed by the demolition of the station in 1961 . Despite the demolition , a Grade II listed subway remains under Crystal Palace Parade . The Crystal Palace pneumatic railway was also built in Crystal Palace circa 1864 .
The low level station remained open , although passenger numbers at that station also fell after the fire of 1936 and many services were diverted to serve London – Croydon routes instead of the Victoria – London Bridge route . Rail travel was in decline across the UK in the 1960s and 1970s when the Beeching Axe was imposed . During the 1970s , two outer platforms used by terminating trains were abandoned and the third rail was removed .
More recently rail travel at the station has seen a resurgence and new services have started running . Passenger numbers increased each year between 2004 and 2013 . Since May 2010 , the station has served the East London Line branch of the London Overground , connecting with the Docklands and Shoreditch . In 2011 services were extended to Highbury and Islington . The station underwent redevelopment in 2012 , which brought the original Victorian booking hall back into use , created a new cafe in the station building and provided wheelchair access through the installation of three lifts ; this work was completed by the end of March 2013 .
= = = Tram = = =
There have been past proposals to connect the Croydon Tramlink to Crystal Palace , with mayoral candidates citing the desirability of the initiative .
= = = Bus = = =
The area is served by multiple bus routes , many of which terminate at Crystal Palace Bus Station . These services include routes N2 , 3 / N3 , N63 , 122 , N137 , 157 , 202 , 227 , 249 , 322 , 358 , 363 , 410 , 417 , 432 , 450 and 931 .
= = = Air = = =
The nearest major international airports are Heathrow and Gatwick . London City Airport and Biggin Hill Airport are also nearby .
= = Notable people = =
Marie Stopes , early promoter of sex education and contraception , was raised in a house on Cintra Park shortly after her birth in Edinburgh , in 1880 .
Benjamin Waterhouse Hawkins , artist and sculptor who created the Crystal Palace Dinosaurs in the park , lived on Belvedere Road between 1856 and 1872 .
Jim Bob , Carter USM frontman , currently lives in Crystal Palace .
The African @-@ American Shakespearian Actor Ira Aldridge lived in the Crystal Palace area .
The French novelist Émile Zola lived in what is now the Queen 's Hotel on Church Road between October 1898 and June 1899 . Zola fled to England after being convicted of criminal libel in France on 23 February 1898 , a direct consequence of the publication of his open letter " J 'accuse " .
Francis Pettit Smith , one of the inventors of the screw propeller and a contributor to the construction of the SS Archimedes , lived in the area between 1864 and 1870 .
British rapper Speech Debelle was born in Crystal Palace . She left the area because of " traffic and parking problems " .
Author , musician and National anarchist activist Troy Southgate was born and raised in Crystal Palace .
Camille Pissarro , Danish @-@ French Impressionist and Neo @-@ Impressionist painter , stayed in Crystal Palace between 1870 and 1871 .
= = Nearest places = =
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= Northern Lites =
" Northern Lites " is the ninth single by Super Furry Animals . It was the first single to be taken from the Guerrilla album and reached number 11 in the UK Singles Chart after its release on 10 May 1999 . The song was written by singer Gruff Rhys and was inspired by the El Niño phenomenon . The track 's title refers to the Aurora Borealis , a natural light display which the band were convinced they had seen prior to the song being written . Rhys wrote the melody for " Northern Lites " several years before it was completed but only decided on a calypso style after he wrote the lyrics . The steel drums on the track are played by keyboardist Cian Ciaran and were added on the spur of the moment after the group saw them " lying around " Real World Studios during recording .
Critical reaction was largely positive with the song being named " Single of the Week " in both the Melody Maker and NME , with the latter also listing the song at number 3 in their single of the year list for 1999 . The music video for " Northern Lites " was directed by Super Furry Animals and Martin McCarthy and features footage of curling and Irish road bowling although Rhys has blamed the song 's failure to chart higher on the fact that it " didn 't have a video " .
= = Themes and recording = =
" Northern Lites " was written by singer Gruff Rhys about " the weather " , and was particularly inspired by coverage of the " terrifying , worldwide , seven @-@ year phenomenon " of the west Pacific El Niño climate pattern on " weather channels " in 1998 . The song 's title refers to the Aurora Borealis , a natural light display which can be observed particularly in the polar regions , and usually at night . The band were convinced that they had seen the lights before the track was written but , as no @-@ one else was present , they could not get confirmation that what they had witnessed was not simply a " Furry fantasy " . Rhys has claimed that he would have called the song " Aurora Borealis " but " Latin song titles are out of the question " . Although Rhys has said that the song is " about asking Jesus if he decides to seek his revenge on us , to get it over with as soon as possible and blow us away to the Northern Lights " he has also stated that , although some critics have interpreted the track as being about " questioning one 's faith " , it is really " just a song about the weather " .
The melody of " Northern Lites " was written by Rhys several years before the track was released . The band experimented with reggae and " dirgy rock " styles before Rhys wrote the lyrics and , because they were inspired by adverse weather conditions affecting Latin America , tried playing along to a preset calypso rhythm track which was on his keyboard . The singer has stated that , although he does not think the band have " any right to make Latin @-@ influenced " songs , they did not choose a calypso style for the track in a cynical attempt to " crack South America " . The group are not " purists " and feel that Latin music is " part of [ a ] cultural esperanto " .
The track was recorded in the middle of 1998 at Real World Studios , Box , Wiltshire , along with the rest of Guerrilla , and was produced by Super Furry Animals . The band allowed " the music to dictate itself " during recording sessions , choosing to add steel drums on the spur of the moment after seeing the instruments " lying around " Real World during recording . The steel drum parts were performed by keyboardist Cian Ciaran , despite the fact he did not know how to play them .
= = Composition = =
" Northern Lites " is 3 minute and 31 seconds long and is in the key of E minor . The song begins with an intro with steel drums , featuring a flanging effect , before a brass section enters after 6 seconds playing a melody line accompanied by a güiro , sparse drums and an acoustic guitar playing the chords Em7 and A. The melody line plays twice after which Gruff Rhys begins singing the first verse alongside the güiro , guitar and steel drums which no longer have a flange effect . Towards the end of the verse a distorted guitar melody line plays alongside Rhys 's vocal and harmony backing vocals enter . The song 's first chorus begins at 48 seconds with Rhys singing " There 's a distant light , a forest fire burning everything in sight " . During the second verse the brass section rejoins , playing the same melody line from the intro . After another chorus the song 's extended " play @-@ out " section begins at 2 minutes and 13 seconds with Rhys repeating the lines " Don 't worry me , or hurry me , blow me far away to the Northern Lites " accompanied by harmony backing vocals . The track breaks down to just drums and vocals at 2 minutes and 40 seconds after which the band and brass section rejoin . A prominent lead guitar melody begins after 2 minutes and 47 seconds and plays alongside the vocals , acoustic guitar , brass and drums until the track fades out and ends at 3 minutes and 31 seconds .
= = Release and critical reception = =
" Northern Lites " was released on CD , cassette and 7 " on 10 May 1999 and reached number 11 on the UK Singles Chart . The cover features a model of a " three @-@ eyed , four @-@ armed , squid @-@ headed Eskimo warrior " designed by artist Pete Fowler . The warrior is shown holding " two portable poles of latitude and longitude " and has " the heating regulator of the world " around his neck . The track was included on the band 's greatest hits compilation album Songbook : The Singles , Vol . 1 , issued in 2004 .
" Northern Lites " received mostly positive reviews . The NME listed the song as the " Single of the Week " on its release , with reviewer Johnny Cigarettes stating that the track was " head and shoulders above anything released this or most other weeks " . Cigarettes saw " Northern Lites " as indicative of the Super Furry Animals ' " genius idiosyncrasy and elegantly eccentric class " and described the song as " somewhere between a Mexican cocktail bar , a ' 60s surf party , a Vegas lounge show and a really good acid trip " . Cigarettes compared the vocal harmonies on the track to those of The Beach Boys and stated that the song has a " classic , Bacharach " quality " although he did criticise the indecipherable lyrics which he felt could prevent the record from " its deserved 23 @-@ week residence at Number One " . In a later review of Guerrilla , the NME described the song as a " seamless fusion of tumbling xylophones and Caribbean brass " . The magazine listed the track at number 3 in their single of the year list for 1999 . " Northern Lites " was also awarded " Single of the Week " in the 15 May 1999 issue of the Melody Maker by guest reviewers Gay Dad , who described the song as " twisted and psychedelic " . Echoing the views of Johnny Cigarettes , Gay Dad likened the song to the work of Bacharach and Hal David and complained that they could not fully understand Rhys 's lyrics , as his vocals were too low in the mix .
Writing for Mojo , James McNair described " Northern Lites " as a mix of " Tijuana brass , steel drums , and itch @-@ scratching Latin percussion " and claimed that the " great " song was " one of the most frothily inventive pop confections " since Super Furry Animals ' 1998 track , " Ice Hockey Hair " . In Q , reviewer Peter Kane stated that the song 's combination of " cheesy calypso sway " and " Tijuana brass " were wonderful . Dave Simpson , writing in The Guardian , claimed that the song was " possibly the first hit to be massively influenced by Tito Puente . " In The Independent , Tim Perry stated that the " undeniably brilliant " " Northern Lites " was one of the highlights of the Guerrilla album . In a 2005 review of the reissued Guerrilla , Pitchfork 's Marc Hogan described the track as " horn @-@ laden tropicalia " ; in an earlier review of Songbook : The Singles , Vol . 1 , he had called " Northern Lites " " ' Deadweight ' -era Beck tropicalia " . Reviewing Songbook ... for PopMatters , Zeth Lundy described " Northern Lites " as " Brazilian @-@ infected " , while Ian Wade , reviewing the album for the BBC , called the song an " indie / calypso crossover " and Alan Woodhouse , reviewing Songbook ... for the NME labelled the track an " irresistible Caribbean @-@ flavoured tune . " Marc Hogan of Pitchfork claimed that the single 's b @-@ sides , including the " shiny , distorted mid @-@ tempo number " " This , That and the Other " , pale beside " Northern Lites " and the other tracks on Guerilla although they " do manage to scratch the itch for more SFA " .
= = = Accolades = = =
= = Music video = =
A promotional music video , directed by Super Furry Animals and Martin McCarthy , was produced to accompany the release of " Northern Lites " as a single . The video begins with a shot of Super Furry Animals ' ' SFA ' logo , which appears on the cover of " Northern Lites " , displayed above the words " Public information service " . This shot fades to show a full @-@ screen translucent , fluorescent blue , image of the " warrior " , also from the single 's cover , which moves from the centre to the bottom right before shrinking and remaining stationary in the top right for the duration of the video . The SFA logo from the introduction is shown in the top left , opposite the " warrior " image , and also remains throughout the video . The island Ailsa Craig is briefly shown , the island where in 2004 when the single was released , 60 to 70 % of all curling stones in use were made from granite from the island and is one of only two sources for all stones in the sport , the other being the Trefor Granite Quarry in Wales . Next , images of the sea and birds in flight are shown before footage of a bearded man , sitting on rocks beside the sea and singing along to the first verse is shown . This footage is intercut with shots of a man using a hammer and chisel on some boulders before walking away with a large rock . The rock is shown being spun and polished into a curling stone . A yellow handle is added to the stone and it is placed into a wooden box alongside another stone with a red handle . The box is closed and the word Nagano is seen printed on the lid . The video then cuts to shots of a Boeing 747 before wintery scenes of Nagano are shown , including a shot of people with umbrellas stood in the snow in front of a sign that reads " Nagano Olympics " . Footage from curling events are then shown until 2 minutes and 40 seconds when the video cuts to show a man in a grey suit dropping a handful of grass on a road . The video then ends with shots of Irish road bowling – several men are shown throwing a bowl down a road surrounded by spectators alongside scenes of men with measuring sticks and men exchanging banknotes . In a 2008 interview with Uncut , Gruff Rhys stated that " Northern Lites " " didn 't have a video " and suggested this as the reason the track was not a bigger hit than it was . The director who was originally scheduled to work on the video took up an offer of a Red Stripe commercial in Jamaica , leaving the band to collaborate with McCarthy . According to Rhys the group met the original director later and told him " We understand , we 'd have done the same . " Despite this , bassist Guto Pryce has described the " Northern Lites " music video as one of only a handful of the group 's videos that he actually likes .
= = Track listing = =
All songs by Super Furry Animals .
CD ( CRESCD314 ) , MC ( CRES314 ) , 7 " ( CRE314 )
" Northern Lites " – 3 : 30
" Rabid Dog " – 3 : 47
" This , That and the Other " – 5 : 59
= = Personnel = =
= = Singles chart position = =
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= Childhood 's End =
Childhood 's End is a 1953 science fiction novel by the British author Arthur C. Clarke . The story follows the peaceful alien invasion of Earth by the mysterious Overlords , whose arrival begins decades of apparent utopia under indirect alien rule , at the cost of human identity and culture .
Clarke 's idea for the book began with his short story " Guardian Angel " ( 1946 ) , which he expanded into a novel in 1952 , incorporating it as the first part of the book , " Earth and the Overlords " . Completed and published in 1953 , Childhood 's End sold out its first printing , received good reviews , and became Clarke 's first successful novel . The book is often regarded by both readers and critics as Clarke 's best novel , and is described as " a classic of alien literature " . Along with The Songs of Distant Earth ( 1986 ) , Clarke considered Childhood 's End one of his favourite own novels . The novel was nominated for the Retro Hugo Award for Best Novel in 2004 .
Several attempts to adapt the novel into a film or miniseries have been made with varying levels of success . Director Stanley Kubrick expressed interest in the 1960s , but collaborated with Clarke on 2001 : A Space Odyssey ( 1968 ) instead . The novel 's theme of transcendent evolution also appears in Clarke 's Space Odyssey series . In 1997 , the BBC produced a two @-@ hour radio dramatization of Childhood 's End that was adapted by Tony Mulholland . The Syfy Channel produced a three @-@ part , four @-@ hour television mini @-@ series of Childhood 's End , which was broadcast on December 14 – 16 , 2015 .
= = Plot summary = =
The novel is divided into three parts , following a third @-@ person omniscient narrative with no main character .
= = = Earth and the Overlords = = =
In the late 20th century , the United States and the Soviet Union are competing to launch the first spaceship into orbit , for military purposes . When vast alien spaceships suddenly position themselves above Earth 's principal cities , the space race ceases . After one week , the aliens announce they are assuming supervision of international affairs , to prevent humanity 's extinction , under the name of Overlords . They interfere only twice : in South Africa , where sometime before their arrival Apartheid had collapsed and was replaced with savage persecution of the white minority ; and in Spain , where they put an end to bull fighting . Some humans are suspicious of the Overlords ' benign intent , as they never visibly appear . Overlord Karellen , the " Supervisor for Earth , " who speaks directly only to Rikki Stormgren , the UN Secretary @-@ General , tells Stormgren that the Overlords will reveal themselves in 50 years , when humanity will have become used to their presence . Stormgren smuggles a device onto Karellen 's ship in an attempt to see Karellen 's true form . He succeeds , is shocked , and chooses to keep silent .
= = = The Golden Age = = =
Humankind enters a golden age of prosperity at the expense of creativity . Five decades after their arrival the Overlords reveal their appearance , resembling the traditional Christian folk images of demons : large bipeds with cloven hooves , leathery wings , horns , and tails . The Overlords are interested in psychic research , which humans suppose is part of their anthropological study . Rupert Boyce , a prolific book collector on the subject , allows one Overlord , Rashaverak , to study these books at his home . To impress his friends with Rashaverak 's presence , Boyce holds a party , during which he makes use of a Ouija board . An astrophysicist and Rupert 's brother @-@ in @-@ law , Jan Rodricks , asks the identity of the Overlords ' home star . George Greggson 's future wife Jean faints as the Ouija board reveals a star @-@ catalog number consistent with the direction in which Overlord supply ships appear and disappear . With the help of an oceanographer friend Jan Rodricks stows away on an Overlord supply ship and travels 40 light @-@ years to their home planet . Due to the time dilation of special relativity at near @-@ light speeds , the elapsed time on the ship is only a few weeks , and he arranges to endure it in drug @-@ induced hibernation .
= = = The Last Generation = = =
Although humanity and the Overlords have peaceful relations , some believe human innovation is being suppressed and that culture is becoming stagnant . One of these groups establishes New Athens , an island colony in the middle of the Pacific Ocean devoted to the creative arts , which George and Jean Greggson join . The Overlords conceal a special interest in the Greggsons ' children , Jeffrey and Jennifer Anne , and intervene to save Jeffrey 's life when a tsunami strikes the island . The Overlords have been watching them since the incident with the Ouija board , which revealed the seed of the coming transformation hidden within Jean .
Sixty years after the Overlords ' arrival , human children , beginning with the Greggsons ' , begin to display clairvoyance and telekinetic powers . Karellen reveals the Overlords ' purpose ; they serve the Overmind , a vast cosmic intelligence , born of amalgamated ancient civilizations , and freed from the limitations of material existence . The Overlords themselves are unable to join the Overmind , but serve it as a bridge species , fostering other races ' eventual union with it . For the transformed children 's safety , they are segregated on a continent of their own . No more human children are born , and many parents die or commit suicide . The members of New Athens destroy themselves with a nuclear bomb .
Jan Rodricks emerges from hibernation on the Overlord supply ship and arrives on their planet . The Overlords permit him a glimpse of how the Overmind communicates with them . When Jan returns to Earth ( approximately 80 years after his departure by Earth time ) he finds an unexpectedly altered planet . Humanity has effectively become extinct , and he is now the last man alive . Hundreds of millions of children – no longer fitting what Rodricks defines as " human " – remain on the quarantined continent , having become a single intelligence readying themselves to join the Overmind .
Some Overlords remain on Earth to study the children from a safe distance . When the evolved children mentally alter the Moon 's rotation and make other planetary manipulations , it becomes too dangerous to remain . The departing Overlords offer to take Rodricks with them , but he chooses to stay to witness Earth 's end , and transmit a report of what he sees .
Before they depart , Rodricks asks Rashaverak what encounter the Overlords had with humanity in the past , according to an assumption that the fear that humans had of their " demonic " form was due to a traumatic encounter with them in the distant past ; but Rashaverak explains that the primal fear experienced by humans was not due to a racial memory , but a racial premonition of the Overlords ' role in their metamorphosis .
The Overlords are eager to escape from their own evolutionary dead end by studying the Overmind , so Rodricks 's information is potentially of great value to them . By radio , Rodricks describes a vast burning column ascending from the planet . As the column disappears , Rodricks experiences a profound sense of emptiness when the Overlords have gone . Then material objects and the Earth itself begin to dissolve into transparency . Jan reports no fear , but a powerful sense of fulfillment . The Earth evaporates in a flash of light . Karellen looks back at the receding Solar System and gives a final salute to the human species .
= = Publication history = =
= = = Development = = =
The novel first took shape in July 1946 , when Clarke wrote " Guardian Angel " , a short story that would eventually become Part I of Childhood 's End . Clarke 's portrayal of the Overlords as devils was influenced by John W. Campbell 's depiction of the devilish Teff @-@ Hellani species in The Mightiest Machine , first serialized in Astounding Stories in 1934 . After finishing " Guardian Angel " , Clarke enrolled at King 's College London and served as the chairman of the British Interplanetary Society from 1946 to 1947 , and later from 1951 to 1953 . He earned a first @-@ class degree in mathematics and physics from King 's in 1948 , after which he worked as an assistant editor for Science Abstracts . " Guardian Angel " was submitted for publication but was rejected by several editors , including Campbell . At the request of Clarke 's agent and unbeknown to Clarke , the story was edited by James Blish , who rewrote the ending . Blish 's version of the story was accepted for publication in April 1950 by Famous Fantastic Mysteries magazine . Clarke 's original version of " Guardian Angel " was later published in the Winter 1950 issue of New Worlds magazine . The latter version published in New Worlds more closely resembles Part I of the novel , " Earth and the Overlords " .
After Clarke 's nonfiction science book The Exploration of Space ( 1951 ) was successfully received , he began to focus on his writing career . In February 1952 , Clarke started working on the novelization of " Guardian Angel " ; he completed a first draft of the novel Childhood 's End in December , and a final revision in January 1953 . Clarke travelled to New York in April 1953 with the novel and several of his other works . Literary agent Bernard Shir @-@ Cliff convinced Ballantine Books to buy everything Clarke had , including Childhood 's End , " Encounter in the Dawn " ( 1953 ) , ( which Ballantine retitled Expedition to Earth ) , and Prelude to Space ( 1951 ) . However , Clarke had composed two different endings for the novel , and the last chapter of Childhood 's End was still not finished . Clarke proceeded to Tampa Bay , Florida , to go scuba diving with George Grisinger , and on his way there visited his friend Frederick C. Durant - President of the International Astronautical Federation from 1953 to 1956 - and his family in the Washington Metropolitan Area , whilst he continued working on the last chapter . He then travelled to Atlanta , Georgia , where he visited Ian Macauley , a friend who was active in the anti @-@ segregation movement . Clarke finished the final chapter in Atlanta while Clarke and Macauley discussed racial issues ; these conversations may have influenced the development of the last chapter , particularly Clarke 's choice to make the character of Jan Rodricks – the last surviving member of the human species – a black man .
Clarke arrived in Florida at the end of April . The short story , " The Man Who Ploughed the Sea " , included in the Tales from the White Hart ( 1957 ) collection , was influenced by his time in Florida . While in Key Largo in late May , Clarke met Marilyn Mayfield , and after a romance lasting less than three weeks , they travelled to Manhattan and married at New York City Hall . The couple spent their honeymoon in the Pocono Mountains in Pennsylvania , where Clarke proofread Childhood 's End . In July , Clarke returned to England with Mayfield , but it quickly became clear that the marriage would not last as Clarke spent most of his time reading and writing , and talking about his work . Further , Clarke wanted to be a father , and Marilyn , who had a son from a previous marriage , informed Clarke after their marriage that she could no longer have children . When Childhood 's End was published the following month , it appeared with a dedication : " To Marilyn , For letting me read the proofs on our honeymoon . " The couple separated after a few months together , but remained married for the next decade .
= = = Publication = = =
Ballantine wanted to publish Childhood 's End before Expedition to Earth and Prelude to Space , but Clarke wanted to wait . He felt that it was a difficult book to release . He had written two different endings for the novel and was unsure of which to use . According to biographer Neil McAleer , Clarke 's uncertainty may have been because of its thematic focus on the paranormal and transcendence with the alien Overmind . While the theme was used effectively by Clarke in the novel , McAleer wrote that " it was not science fiction based on science , which he came to advocate and represent " . When he wrote Childhood 's End , Clarke was interested in the paranormal , and did not become a sceptic until much later in his life . Ballantine convinced Clarke to let them publish Childhood 's End first , and it was published on August 24 , 1953 , with a cover designed by American science fiction illustrator Richard M. Powers . Childhood 's End first appeared in paperback and hardcover editions , with the paperback as the primary edition , an unusual approach for the 1950s . For the first time in his career , Clarke became known as a novelist .
Decades later , Clarke was preparing a new edition of Childhood 's End after the story had become dated . After the book was first published , the Apollo missions landed humans on the Moon in 1969 , and in 1989 US President George H. W. Bush announced the Space Exploration Initiative ( SEI ) , calling for astronauts to eventually explore Mars . In 1990 , Clarke added a new foreword and revised the first chapter , changing the venue for the space race from the Moon to Mars . Editions since have appeared with the original opening or have included both versions . " Guardian Angel " has also appeared in two short story collections : The Sentinel ( 1983 ) , and The Collected Stories of Arthur C. Clarke ( 2001 ) .
= = Reception = =
The novel was well received by most readers and critics . Two months after publication , all 210 @,@ 000 copies of the first printing had been sold . The New York Times published two positive reviews of the book : Basil Davenport compared Clarke to Olaf Stapledon , C. S. Lewis , and H. G. Wells , a " very small group of writers who have used science fiction as the vehicle of philosophic ideas . " William DuBois called the book " a first rate tour de force that is well worth the attention of every thoughtful citizen in this age of anxiety . " Don Guzman of the Los Angeles Times admired the novel for its suspense , wisdom , and beauty . He compared Clarke 's role as a writer to that of an artist , " a master of sonorous language , a painter of pictures in futuristic colors , a Chesley Bonestell with words " . Galaxy reviewer Groff Conklin called the novel " a formidably impressive job ... a continuous kaleidoscope of the unexpected . "
Anthony Boucher and J. Francis McComas were more sceptical , and faulted the novel 's " curious imbalance between its large @-@ scale history and a number of episodic small @-@ scale stories . " While praising Clarke 's work as " Stapledonian [ for ] its historic concepts and also for the quality of its prose and thinking , " they concluded that Childhood 's End was " an awkward and imperfect book . " P. Schuyler Miller said the novel was " all imagination and poetry , " but concluded it was " not up to some of Clarke 's other writing " due to weakness in its " episodic structure . "
Brian W. Aldiss and David Wingrove wrote that Childhood 's End rested on " a rather banal philosophical idea , " but that Clarke " expressed [ it ] in simple but aspiring language that vaguely recalls the Psalms [ and ] combined [ it ] with a dramatized sense of loss [ for ] undeniable effect . "
In 2004 Childhood 's End was nominated for a retroactive Hugo Award for Best Novel for 1954 .
= = Adaptations , and media inspired by the novel = =
In the 1960s , director Stanley Kubrick was interested in making a film adaptation of the novel , but blacklisted director Abraham Polonsky had already optioned it . Instead , Kubrick collaborated with Clarke on adapting the short story " The Sentinel " into what eventually became 2001 : A Space Odyssey ( 1968 ) . Months before his performance at Woodstock in 1969 , folk singer and guitarist Richie Havens told Ebony magazine about his appreciation of Clarke 's story and expressed his interest in working on a future film adaptation of Childhood 's End . Screenplays by Polonsky and Howard Koch were never made into films .
Two British progressive rock bands coincidentally released songs based on the book in 1972 . The first was Pink Floyd , with their song " Childhood 's End " on the album Obscured by Clouds . Later in that same year , Genesis adapted part of the story into lyrics for their single " Watcher of the Skies " . A third progressive rock band , Van der Graaf Generator , included the song " Childlike Faith in Childhood 's End " on their 1976 album Still Life .
David Elgood first proposed a radio adaptation of the novel in 1974 , but nothing came of it in that decade .
Philip DeGuere , whose credits include the TV series Alias Smith and Jones , developed a script in the late 1970s for Universal , who planned to film it initially as a six @-@ hour mini @-@ series for CBS Television , and later as a two- or three @-@ hour telemovie for ABC . However , Universal discovered that its contracts with Arthur C. Clarke - some of which dated back to 1957 - were out of date . These contractual difficulties were resolved in 1979 and DeGuere worked with legendary comic book artist Neal Adams on preproduction drawings and other material . The project had Clarke 's approval . However Universal decided that the budget required would be nearly $ 40 million and they were only prepared to spend $ 10 million , so the movie was not made .
Director Brian Lighthill revisited the radio adaptation proposal and obtained the rights in 1995 . After Lighthill received a go @-@ ahead from BBC Radio in 1996 , he commissioned a script from Tony Mulholland , resulting in a new , two @-@ part adaptation . The BBC produced the two @-@ hour radio dramatization of the novel , and broadcast it on BBC Radio 4 in November 1997 . The recording was released on cassette by BBC Audiobooks in 1998 and on CD in 2007 .
As of 2002 , film rights to the novel were held by Universal Pictures , with director Kimberly Peirce attached to a project .
On October 28 , 2008 , Audible.com released a 7 @-@ hour 47 minute unabridged audiobook version of Childhood 's End , narrated by Eric Michael Summerer , under its Audible Frontiers imprint . An AudioFile review commended Summerer 's narration as " smoothly presented and fully credible " . An audio introduction and commentary is provided by Canadian science fiction author Robert J. Sawyer . The Japanese anime film , Kidou Senshi Gundam 00 : A Wakening of the Trailblazer , is loosely inspired by Childhood 's End
On April 10 , 2013 , the Syfy Channel announced its plans to develop a Childhood 's End TV miniseries . The three @-@ episode , four @-@ hour production premiered December 14 , 2015 . Charles Dance portrays the Supervisor Karellen .
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= The Sword =
The Sword is an American heavy metal band from Austin , Texas . Formed in 2003 , the band is composed of vocalist and guitarist John D. Cronise , guitarist Kyle Shutt , bassist Bryan Richie and drummer Santiago " Jimmy " Vela III . Originally signed to Kemado Records , the group released its debut album Age of Winters in 2006 , which had been largely written by Cronise prior to the band 's formation . Gods of the Earth was released two years later and gave the group its first entry on the US Billboard 200 chart .
In 2010 the band released Warp Riders , a concept album centered on an original science fiction narrative , which marked the first time the band had enlisted an external producer in Matt Bayles . Wingo left the group later in the year and was replaced briefly by Kevin Fender , before Vela joined in 2011 . After signing with Razor & Tie in 2012 , the group released its fourth album Apocryphon which was promoted worldwide on the Apocryphon Tour . The band 's fifth album , High Country , was released in 2015 .
The Sword is commonly categorized as a stoner rock or doom metal band , and is influenced by groups such as Black Sabbath and Sleep . The band has toured with a wide range of fellow metal artists , including ... And You Will Know Us by the Trail of Dead , Year Long Disaster and Metallica on multiple occasions . The Sword 's first album Age of Winters failed to chart , but subsequent releases have all gained increasing commercial success , with Apocryphon charting in the top 20 of the Billboard 200 .
= = History = =
= = = 2003 – 2007 : Formation , early years and Age of Winters = = =
After writing and recording music on his own for " a few years " , vocalist and guitarist John D. Cronise formed The Sword in 2003 with guitarist Kyle Shutt and drummer Trivett Wingo . Speaking about choosing the band 's name , Cronise claims that he researched the moniker first and found it " unbelievable " that it hadn 't already been used ; two bands did already have the name Sword though , including a Canadian heavy metal band , and the frontman states he " narrowly escaped litigation hell " before The Sword was finalised . The trio played their first show together on June 19 at Beerland in Austin , and released their first demo , entitled Age of Winters , before the end of the year . Bassist Bryan Richie joined to complete the four @-@ piece lineup of the band in early 2004 . Prior to the formation of The Sword , Cronise and Wingo had performed together in the group Ultimate Dragons , based in Richmond , Virginia , while Shutt and Richie had worked with multiple bands in Texas " united by a love of Led Zeppelin " . Cronise had also performed with a local band called Those Peabodys , but left as he felt he " needed to do something heavier " . After their first live performance together as a four @-@ piece at Austin 's Sound on Sound Records on March 17 , 2004 , the band released their second demo , The Sword , which was followed the next year by an extended play ( EP ) entitled Freya .
After performing at the 2005 South by Southwest festival , The Sword was signed by New York @-@ based record label Kemado Records , following a recommendation by Lamb of God guitarist Mark Morton . The band released its debut album Age of Winters in February 2006 , for which much of the material had been written by Cronise before the band 's formation and featured on the band 's early demos . In support of the album the band toured throughout 2006 and 2007 , with support acts including Lacuna Coil and Trivium in the United States , Nebula and Clutch in Europe , and Lamb of God in Japan . In November 2006 a cover version of the song " Freya " was featured as a playable track on the video game Guitar Hero II , and the original track was later released as the band 's first single in September 2007 . Age of Winters did not chart , but received widely positive reviews from critics including AllMusic 's Eduardo Rivadavia , who described the album as " remarkably well @-@ balanced and almost suspiciously immediate " .
= = = 2007 – 2009 : Gods of the Earth and first chart success = = =
In June 2007 the band contributed a new song , " Under the Boughs " ( which was later included on their second album ) , to the Kemado compilation Invaders . The group also released a split EP with Swedish doom metal band Witchcraft that month , contributing new track " Sea of Spears " and a cover of Led Zeppelin 's " Immigrant Song " to the record . Gods of the Earth was the band 's second album , released on April 1 , 2008 . The album , which is much more of a collaborative writing effort than its predecessor , provided the band with its first Billboard 200 chart entry , reaching number 102 . In support of the album , the band completed the Gods of the Earth Tour supported by artists such as Machine Head , Lamb of God , and Clutch ; the quartet also supported heavy metal veterans Metallica on their 2008 European Vacation Tour in July , and returned as the opening act for a number of legs on their World Magnetic Tour which continued through the opening months of 2009 until May .
A two @-@ disc box set containing the band 's first two albums Age of Winters and Gods of the Earth was released on November 25 , 2008 , and the song " The Black River " from Gods of the Earth was later included on the video game Guitar Hero : Metallica , released in March 2009 . The band 's music was also featured in the 2009 films Jennifer 's Body ( " Celestial Crown " ) and Horsemen ( " Maiden , Mother & Crone " ) , and in March 2009 The Sword won two local music awards : the High Times Doobie Award and the Austin Music Award for Best Metal Artist .
= = = 2009 – 2010 : Change in style and direction on Warp Riders = = =
The Sword spent the rest of 2009 writing material for their third album , which took the form of " a concept album centered around an original science fiction narrative " , and had more of a hard rock sound than the band 's previous releases . Some of the new songs were debuted at the 2009 Fun Fun Fun Fest in November , and were also played on " a short regional tour showcasing the new songs " in January . Recording for the follow @-@ up to Gods of the Earth began in Austin at Wire Recording in February 2010 ; Matt Bayles was hired to produce and engineer the album – a first for the band , as Cronise and Richie had respectively produced and engineered both Age of Winters and Gods of the Earth . Recording of the album , titled Warp Riders , was completed by April .
In May , the band contributed to a split release for the second time , covering Thin Lizzy 's " Cold Sweat " for a Volcom Entertainment Vinyl Club release with Year Long Disaster , who covered The Sword 's own track " Maiden , Mother & Crone " . In July , Warp Riders lead single " Tres Brujas " was released as a digital download , and a live EP entitled iTunes Festival : London 2010 ( recorded at the iTunes Festival in London on July 3 ) was also released as an iTunes @-@ exclusive download . A week after the album 's August 24 release , Warp Riders surpassed the commercial performance of Gods of the Earth when it debuted at number 47 on the Billboard 200 albums chart , selling almost 9 @,@ 000 copies in the first week of its release . The band supported Metallica again on a series of September tour dates in Australia , New Zealand and Japan as warm @-@ up for their own Warp Riders Tour , which began the following month .
= = = 2010 – 2012 : Drummer changes and Warp Riders Tour = = =
Five shows into the opening North American leg of the Warp Riders Tour , The Sword was forced to postpone all dates due to the departure of drummer Trivett Wingo . Explaining his decision to leave , Wingo commented that he felt " physically and emotionally unable to continue on as part of [ the band ] " , and later revealed that he had predicted he would eventually leave the band for " probably a couple of years " , justifying his decision by explaining that " my level of anxiety pertaining to being on tour got to the point where medication was not the answer . " Upon Wingo 's departure from The Sword , the remaining members of the band released the following statement :
For the later rescheduled tour dates , Austin @-@ based drummer Kevin Fender was enlisted to perform with Cronise , Shutt , and Richie as a temporary touring member of The Sword . The second single from Warp Riders , " ( The Night the Sky Cried ) Tears of Fire " , was released as a limited edition picture disc at the beginning of November backed with previously unreleased B @-@ side " Farstar " , and later in the month the video for " Lawless Lands " – part two of the Warp Riders trilogy – was released online . A number of European dates were rescheduled for May 2011 , and the third and final Warp Riders music video " Night City " was released in March . The Sword returned to North America in the summer , extending the Warp Riders Tour and performing with Kyuss Lives ! and MonstrO until October .
In October 2011 , Fender was replaced with Santiago " Jimmy " Vela III , and the band saw out the rest of 2011 touring in the United States . Guitarist Kyle Shutt later spoke about the drummer changes in an interview in 2012 , claiming that Wingo " took a shit all over [ the band ] " when he left , and that Fender was chosen as he already knew how to play the group 's songs .
= = = 2012 – 2014 : Record label change and return with Apocryphon = = =
In March 2012 it was announced that The Sword had signed a multi @-@ album worldwide deal with New York @-@ based label Razor & Tie , with plans for a fourth album starting with recording in June and a projected late @-@ 2012 release . In May the band released the single " Hammer of Heaven " , a song originally recorded in 2003 for the Age of Winters demo and later submitted for inclusion on the soundtrack to the film The Avengers . In the run @-@ up to the recording of their next album , the group only played a few shows in 2012 , most notably the Metallica @-@ organised festival Orion Music + More in June .
Working with producer J. Robbins , the group recorded the follow @-@ up to Warp Riders at Magpie Cage Studios in Baltimore , Maryland between June and July 2012 . The resulting album , Apocryphon , was released in October 2012 ; it debuted at number 17 on the Billboard 200 albums chart , selling over 16 @,@ 000 copies in its first week and providing a new chart record for the band . The album was released throughout Europe by Germany @-@ based label Napalm Records . The promotional tour for the album , the Apocryphon Tour , commenced the following week in the US , and continued across the world throughout the rest of 2012 and 2013 .
2012 and 2013 also saw The Sword expanding into business ventures outside of music , beginning in September 2012 with the release of the band 's own brand of hot sauce called Tears of Fire . The hot sauce , which is made with the ' ghost pepper ' Bhut Jolokia , was first announced and revealed on the Travel Channel series Anthony Bourdain : No Reservations on September 3 , before going on sale to the public the following day . This was followed in October by the release of the band 's first line of beer , Winter 's Wolves Beer , produced by Baltimore , Maryland @-@ based brewery Oliver Ales , and in July 2013 by a second line of beer , Iron Swan , produced by Texas @-@ based Real Ale Brewing .
In 2014 the band released lyric videos for Apocryphon tracks " The Hidden Masters " and " Arcane Montane " . Both were also released together as a set of 7 " vinyl singles , featuring remixes of each by Dylan C. Later that year , the band also worked with BMX company Subrosa on its own branded model , featuring artwork by Apocryphon artist J. H. Williams III and named after Apocryphon track " Eyes of the Stormwitch " .
= = = 2014 – present : International recognition with High Country = = =
Writing for The Sword 's fifth album began in late 2014 , which was recorded between March and April 2015 with former Grupo Fantasma guitarist Adrian Quesada as producer . Prior to starting recording , the group also embarked on a short tour between March 11 and 14 , visiting four cities in Louisiana , Tennessee and Oklahoma . High Country was released on August 21 , 2015 and the High Country Tour began in Europe on the same day . The album was the band 's first to chart outside of the US and UK , reaching number 74 on the Australian Albums Chart and number 91 on the German Albums Chart ; it reached number 30 on the US Billboard 200 . In 2016 , the band released a recording of " John the Revelator " for Record Store Day .
= = Style , songwriting and influence = =
While commonly labelled as a doom metal band , The Sword has also been identified as an example of the ' classic metal ' movement of stoner rock artists influenced by early metal bands such as Black Sabbath , Led Zeppelin and Blue Cheer . In addition to Sabbath , to whom the band is commonly compared , artists such as Sleep , Melvins and Slayer have been cited as influences by members of the band . With the release of Warp Riders , members of the band acknowledged that fans with a more " narrow @-@ minded " view of heavy metal may feel alienated by stylistic changes . Eduardo Rivadavia of allmusic describes the band as being " at the forefront of … the ' heritage ' or ' retro metal ' movement , " comparing their style to that of heavy metal veterans Black Sabbath and vocalist Cronise to Ozzy Osbourne . Rolling Stone also likens the band to Sabbath , as does AbsolutePunk.net in its review of Gods of the Earth , claiming that " It 's impossible not to compare [ the album ] to the works of Black Sabbath . "
While every member of the band contributes to the musical compositions , Cronise is the primary writer of the band 's lyrics . He often uses Norse mythology as a topic in his lyrics , notably in the song " Freya " , but cites literature as his main influence , identifying such authors as George R. R. Martin , Robert E. Howard , H. P. Lovecraft and Arthur C. Clarke as inspirations . On Warp Riders , Cronise was again credited for writing all the lyrics , and only guitarist Kyle Shutt was added to the credits for the musical compositions .
The band has cited Black Sabbath as a major influence , in addition to doom trio Sleep , sludge band the Melvins , thrash veterans Slayer , and heavy metal icons Iron Maiden and Deep Purple , among others . The band 's guitarists , in discussions of their musical influences , have identified ' classic ' metal guitar players such as James Hetfield of Metallica , Pantera 's Dimebag Darrell and Tony Iommi of Black Sabbath , and Cronise has also described Billy Gibbons ( of ZZ Top ) as a " huge influence . " In an interview with entertainment newspaper The A.V. Club , Cronise also revealed that local metal band HRM , rock musician Bob Seger and R & B singer Michael Jackson have been influences on The Sword 's sound .
= = Band members = =
= = Discography = =
Age of Winters ( 2006 )
Gods of the Earth ( 2008 )
Warp Riders ( 2010 )
Apocryphon ( 2012 )
High Country ( 2015 )
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= George W. Romney =
George Wilcken Romney ( July 8 , 1907 – July 26 , 1995 ) was an American businessman and Republican Party politician . He was chairman and president of American Motors Corporation from 1954 to 1962 , the 43rd Governor of Michigan from 1963 to 1969 , and the United States Secretary of Housing and Urban Development from 1969 to 1973 . He was the father of former Governor of Massachusetts and 2012 Republican presidential nominee Mitt Romney and the husband of former Michigan U.S. Senate candidate Lenore Romney .
Romney was born to American parents living in the Mormon colonies in Mexico ; events during the Mexican Revolution forced his family to flee back to the United States when he was a child . The family lived in several states and ended up in Salt Lake City , Utah , where they struggled during the Great Depression . Romney worked in a number of jobs , served as a Mormon missionary in the United Kingdom , and attended several colleges in the U.S. but did not graduate from any . In 1939 he moved to Detroit and joined the American Automobile Manufacturers Association , where he served as the chief spokesman for the automobile industry during World War II and headed a cooperative arrangement in which companies could share production improvements . He joined Nash @-@ Kelvinator in 1948 , and became the chief executive of its successor , American Motors Corporation , in 1954 . There he turned around the struggling firm by focusing all efforts on the compact Rambler car . Romney mocked the products of the " Big Three " automakers as " gas @-@ guzzling dinosaurs " and became one of the first high @-@ profile , media @-@ savvy business executives . Devoutly religious , he presided over the Detroit Stake of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter @-@ day Saints .
Having entered politics by participating in a state constitutional convention to rewrite the Michigan Constitution during 1961 – 1962 , Romney was elected Governor of Michigan in 1962 . Re @-@ elected by increasingly large margins in 1964 and 1966 , he worked to overhaul the state 's financial and revenue structure , greatly expanding the size of state government and introducing Michigan 's first state income tax . Romney was a strong supporter of the American Civil Rights Movement . He briefly represented moderate Republicans against conservative Republican Barry Goldwater during the 1964 U.S. presidential election . He requested the intervention of federal troops during the 1967 Detroit riot .
Initially a front runner for the Republican nomination for President of the United States in the 1968 election , he proved an ineffective campaigner and fell behind Richard Nixon in polls . After a mid @-@ 1967 remark that his earlier support for the Vietnam War had been due to a " brainwashing " by U.S. military and diplomatic officials in Vietnam , his campaign faltered even more and he withdrew from the contest in early 1968 . Elected president , Nixon appointed Romney as Secretary of Housing and Urban Development . Romney 's ambitious plans for housing production increases for the poor , and for open housing to desegregate suburbs , were modestly successful but often thwarted by Nixon . Romney left the administration at the start of Nixon 's second term in 1973 . Returning to private life , he advocated volunteerism and public service , and headed the National Center for Voluntary Action and its successor organizations from 1973 through 1991 . He also served as a regional representative of the Twelve within his church .
= = Early life and background = =
Romney 's grandparents were polygamous Mormons who fled the United States with their children owing to the federal government 's prosecution of polygamy . His maternal grandfather was Helaman Pratt ( 1846 – 1909 ) , who presided over the Mormon mission in Mexico City before moving to the Mexican state of Chihuahua and who was the son of original Mormon apostle Parley P. Pratt ( 1807 – 1857 ) . In the 1920s , Romney 's uncle Rey L. Pratt ( 1878 – 1931 ) played a major role in the preservation and expansion of the Mormon presence in Mexico and in its introduction to South America . A more distant kinsman was George Romney ( 1734 – 1802 ) , a noted portrait painter in Britain during the last quarter of the 18th century .
Romney 's parents , Gaskell Romney ( 1871 – 1955 ) and Anna Amelia Pratt ( 1876 – 1926 ) , were United States citizens and natives of the Territory of Utah . They married in 1895 in Mexico and lived in Colonia Dublán in Galeana in the state of Chihuahua ( one of the Mormon colonies in Mexico ) , where George was born on July 8 , 1907 . They practiced monogamy ( polygamy having been abolished by the 1890 Manifesto , although it persisted in places , especially Mexico ) . George had three older brothers , two younger brothers , and a younger sister . Gaskell Romney was a successful carpenter , house builder , and farmer who headed the most prosperous family in the colony , which was situated in an agricultural valley below the Sierra Madre Occidental . The family chose U.S. citizenship for their children , including George .
The Mexican Revolution broke out in 1910 and the Mormon colonies were endangered in 1911 – 1912 by raids from marauders , including " Red Flaggers " Pascual Orozco and José Inés Salazar . Young George heard the sound of distant gunfire and saw rebels walking through the village streets . The Romney family fled and returned to the United States in July 1912 , leaving their home and almost all of their property behind . Romney later said , " We were the first displaced persons of the 20th century . "
In the United States , Romney grew up in humble circumstances . The family subsisted with other Mormon refugees on government relief in El Paso , Texas , benefiting from a $ 100 @,@ 000 fund for refugees that the U.S. Congress had set up . After a few months they moved to Los Angeles , California , where Gaskell Romney worked as a carpenter . In kindergarten , other children mocked Romney 's national origin by calling him " Mex " .
In 1913 , the family moved to Oakley , Idaho , and bought a farm , where they grew and subsisted largely on Idaho potatoes . The farm was not on good land and failed when potato prices fell . The family moved to Salt Lake City , Utah , in 1916 , where Gaskell Romney resumed construction work , but the family remained generally poor . In 1917 , they moved to Rexburg , Idaho , where Gaskell became a successful home and commercial builder in an area growing owing to high World War I commodities prices .
George started working in wheat and sugar beet fields at the age of eleven and was the valedictorian at his grammar school graduation in 1921 ( by the sixth grade he had attended six different schools ) . The Depression of 1920 – 21 brought a collapse in prices and local building was abandoned . His family returned to Salt Lake City in 1921 , and while his father resumed construction , George became skilled at lath @-@ and @-@ plaster work . The family was again prospering when the Great Depression hit in 1929 and ruined them . George watched his parents fail financially in Idaho and Utah and having to take a dozen years to pay off their debts . Seeing their struggles influenced his life and business career .
In Salt Lake City , Romney worked while attending Roosevelt Junior High School and , beginning in 1922 , Latter @-@ day Saints High School . There he played halfback in football , guard in basketball , and right field in baseball , all with more persistence than talent , but in an effort to uphold the family tradition of athleticism , he earned varsity letters in all three sports . In his senior year , he and junior Lenore LaFount became high school sweethearts ; she was from a more well @-@ assimilated Mormon family . Academically , Romney was steady but undistinguished . He graduated from high school in 1925 ; his yearbook picture caption was " Serious , high minded , of noble nature — a real fellow . "
Partly to stay near Lenore , Romney spent the next year as a junior college student at the co @-@ located Latter @-@ day Saints University , where he was elected student body president . He was also president of the booster club and played on the basketball team that won the Utah – Idaho Junior College Tournament .
= = Missionary work = =
After becoming an elder , Romney earned enough money working to fund himself as a Mormon missionary . In October 1926 , he sailed to Great Britain and was first assigned to preach in a Glasgow , Scotland , slum . The abject poverty and hopelessness he saw there affected him greatly , but he was ineffective in gaining converts and temporarily suffered a crisis of faith .
In February 1927 , he was shifted to Edinburgh and in February 1928 to London , where he kept track of mission finances . He worked under renowned Quorum of the Twelve Apostles intellectuals James E. Talmage and John A. Widtsoe ; the latter 's admonitions to " Live mightily today , the greatest day of all time is today " made a lasting impression on him . Romney experienced British sights and culture and was introduced to members of the peerage and the Oxford Group .
In August 1928 , Romney became president of the Scottish missionary district . Operating in a whisky @-@ centric region was difficult , and he developed a new " task force " approach of sending more missionaries to a single location at a time ; this successfully drew local press attention and several hundred new recruits . Romney 's frequent public proselytizing – from Edinburgh 's Mound and in London from soap boxes at Speakers ' Corner in Hyde Park and from a platform at Trafalgar Square – developed his gifts for debate and sales , which he would use the rest of his career . Three decades later , Romney said that his missionary time had meant more to him in developing his career than any other experience .
= = Early career , marriage and children = =
Romney returned to the U.S. in late 1928 and studied briefly at the University of Utah and LDS Business College . He followed LaFount to Washington , D.C. , in fall 1929 , after her father , Harold A. Lafount , had accepted an appointment by President Calvin Coolidge to serve on the Federal Radio Commission . He worked for Massachusetts Democratic U.S. Senator David I. Walsh during 1929 and 1930 , first as a stenographer using speedwriting , then , when his abilities at that proved limited , as a staff aide working on tariffs and other legislative matters . Romney researched aspects of the proposed Smoot @-@ Hawley tariff legislation and sat in on committee meetings ; the job was a turning point in his career and gave him lifelong confidence in dealing with Congress .
With one of his brothers , Romney opened a dairy bar in nearby Rosslyn , Virginia , during this time . The business soon failed , in the midst of the Great Depression . He also attended George Washington University at night . Based upon a connection he made working for Walsh , Romney was hired as an apprentice for Alcoa in Pittsburgh in June 1930 .
When LaFount , an aspiring actress , began earning bit roles in Hollywood movies , Romney arranged to be transferred to Alcoa 's Los Angeles office for training as a salesman . There he took night classes at the University of Southern California . ( Romney did not attend for long , or graduate from , any of the colleges in which he was enrolled , accumulating only 2 ½ years of credits ; instead he has been described as an autodidact . ) LaFount had the opportunity to sign a $ 50 @,@ 000 , three @-@ year contract with Metro @-@ Goldwyn @-@ Mayer studios , but Romney convinced her to return to Washington with him as he was assigned a position there with Alcoa as a lobbyist . She later said she had never had a choice of both marriage and an acting career , because the latter would have upstaged him , but expressed no regrets about having chosen the former . Romney would later consider wooing her his greatest sales achievement .
The couple married on July 2 , 1931 , at Salt Lake City Temple . They would have four children : Margo Lynn ( born 1935 ) , Jane LaFount ( born 1938 ) , George Scott ( born 1941 ) , and Willard Mitt ( born 1947 ) . The couple 's marriage reflected aspects of their personalities and courtship . George was devoted to Lenore , and tried to bring her a flower every day , often a single rose with a love note . George was also a strong , blunt personality used to winning arguments by force of will , but the more self @-@ controlled Lenore was unintimidated and willing to push back against him . The couple quarreled so much as a result that their grandchildren would later nickname them " the Bickersons " , but in the end , their closeness would allow them to settle arguments amicably .
As a lobbyist , Romney frequently competed on behalf of the aluminum industry against the copper industry , and defended Alcoa against charges of being a monopoly . He also represented the Aluminum Wares Association . In the early 1930s , he helped get aluminum windows installed in the U.S. Department of Commerce Building , at the time the largest office building in the world .
Romney joined the National Press Club and the Burning Tree and Congressional Country Clubs ; one reporter watching Romney hurriedly play golf at the last said , " There is a young man who knows where he is going . " Lenore 's cultural refinement and hosting skills , along with her father 's social and political connections , helped George in business , and the couple met the Hoovers , the Roosevelts , and other prominent Washington figures . He was chosen by Pyke Johnson , a Denver newspaperman and automotive industry trade representative he met at the Press Club , to join the newly formed Trade Association Advisory Committee to the National Recovery Administration . The committee 's work continued even after the agency was declared unconstitutional in 1935 . During 1937 and 1938 , Romney was also president of the Washington Trade Association Executives .
= = Automotive industry representative = =
After nine years with Alcoa , Romney 's career had stagnated ; there were many layers of executives to climb through and a key promotion he had wanted was given to someone with more seniority . Pyke Johnson was vice president of the Automobile Manufacturers Association , which needed a manager for its new Detroit office . Romney got the job and moved there with his wife and two daughters in 1939 . An association study found Americans using their cars more for short trips and convinced Romney that the trend was towards more functional , basic transportation . In 1942 , he was promoted to general manager of the association , a position he held until 1948 . Romney also served as president of the Detroit Trade Association in 1941 .
In 1940 , as World War II raged overseas , Romney helped start the Automotive Committee for Air Defense , which coordinated planning between the automobile and aircraft industries . Immediately following the December 1941 attack on Pearl Harbor that drew the U.S. into the war , Romney helped turn that committee into , and became managing director of , the Automotive Council for War Production . This organization established a cooperative arrangement in which companies could share machine tools and production improvements , thus maximizing the industry 's contribution to the war production effort . It embodied Romney 's notion of " competitive cooperative capitalism " .
With labor leader Victor Reuther , Romney led the Detroit Victory Council , which sought to improve conditions for Detroit workers under wartime stress and deal with the causes of the 1943 Detroit race riots . Romney successfully appealed to the Federal Housing Administration to make housing available to black workers near the Ford Willow Run plant . He also served on the labor @-@ management committee of the Detroit section of the War Manpower Commission .
Romney became the chief spokesman of the automobile industry , often testifying before Congressional hearings about production , labor , and management issues ; he was mentioned or quoted in over 80 stories in The New York Times during this time . By war 's end , 654 manufacturing companies had joined the Automotive Council for War Production , and produced nearly $ 29 billion in output for the Allied military forces . This included over 3 million motorized vehicles , 80 percent of all tanks and tank parts , 75 percent of all aircraft engines , half of all diesel engines , and a third of all machine guns . Between a fifth and a quarter of all U.S. wartime production was accounted for by the automotive industry .
As peacetime production began , Romney persuaded government officials to forgo complex contract @-@ termination procedures , thus freeing auto plants to quickly produce cars for domestic consumption and avoid large layoffs . Romney was director of the American Trade Association Executives in 1944 and 1947 , and managing director of the National Automobile Golden Jubilee Committee in 1946 . From 1946 to 1949 , he represented U.S. employers as a delegate to the Metal Trades Industry conference of the International Labor Office . By 1950 , Romney was a member of the Citizens Housing and Planning Council , and criticized racial segregation in Detroit 's housing program when speaking before the Detroit City Council . Romney 's personality was blunt and intense , giving the impression of a " man in a hurry " , and he was considered a rising star in the industry .
= = American Motors Corporation chief executive = =
As managing director of the Automobile Manufacturers Association , Romney became good friends with then @-@ president George W. Mason . When Mason became chairman of the manufacturing firm Nash @-@ Kelvinator in 1948 , he invited Romney along " to learn the business from the ground up " as his roving assistant , and the new executive spent a year working in different parts of the company . At an inefficient Detroit refrigerator plant of the Kelvinator appliance division , Romney battled the Mechanics Educational Society of America union to institute a new industrial – labor relations program that forestalled the whole facility being shut down . He appealed to the workers by saying , " I am no college man . I 've laid floors , I 've done lathing . I 've thinned beets and shocked wheat . " As Mason 's protégé , Romney assumed executive assignment for the development of the Rambler .
Mason had long sought a merger of Nash @-@ Kelvinator with one or more other companies , and on May 1 , 1954 , it merged with Hudson Motor Car to become the American Motors Corporation ( AMC ) . It was the largest merger in the history of the industry , and Romney became an executive vice president of the new firm . In October 1954 , Mason suddenly died of acute pancreatitis and pneumonia . Romney was named AMC 's president and chairman of the board the same month .
When Romney took over , he reorganized upper management , brought in younger executives , and pruned and rebuilt AMC 's dealer network . Romney believed that the only way to compete with the " Big Three " ( General Motors , Ford , and Chrysler ) was to stake the future of AMC on a new smaller @-@ sized car line . Together with chief engineer Meade Moore , by the end of 1957 Romney had completely phased out the Nash and Hudson brands , whose sales had been lagging . The Rambler brand was selected for development and promotion , as AMC pursued an innovative strategy : manufacturing only compact cars . The company struggled badly at first , losing money in 1956 , more in 1957 , and experiencing defections from its dealer network . Romney instituted company @-@ wide savings and efficiency measures , and he and other executives reduced their salaries by up to 35 percent .
Though AMC was on the verge of being taken over by corporate raider Louis Wolfson in 1957 , Romney was able to fend him off . Then sales of the Rambler finally took off , leading to unexpected financial success for AMC . It posted its first quarterly profit in three years in 1958 , was the only car company to show increased sales during the recession of 1958 , and moved from thirteenth to seventh place among worldwide auto manufacturers . In contrast with the Hudson 's NASCAR racing success in the early 1950s , the Ramblers were frequent winners in the coast @-@ to @-@ coast Mobil Economy Run , an annual event on U.S. highways . Sales remained strong during 1960 and 1961 ; the Rambler was America 's third most popular car both years .
A believer in " competitive cooperative consumerism " , Romney was effective in his frequent appearances before Congress . He discussed what he saw as the twin evils of " big labor " and " big business " , and called on Congress to break up the Big Three . As the Big Three automakers introduced ever @-@ larger models , AMC undertook a " gas @-@ guzzling dinosaur fighter " strategy , and Romney became the company spokesperson in print advertisements , public appearances , and commercials on the Disneyland television program . Known for his fast @-@ paced , shirt @-@ sleeved management style that ignored organization charts and levels of responsibility , he often wrote the ad copy himself .
Romney became what automotive writer Joe Sherman termed " a folk hero of the American auto industry " and one of the first high @-@ profile media @-@ savvy business executives . His focus on small cars as a challenge to AMC 's domestic competitors , as well as the foreign @-@ car invasion , was documented in the April 6 , 1959 , cover story of Time magazine , which concluded that " Romney has brought off singlehanded one of the most remarkable selling jobs in U.S. industry . " A full biography of him was published in 1960 ; the company 's resurgence made Romney a household name . The Associated Press named Romney its Man of the Year in Industry for four consecutive years , 1958 through 1961 .
The company 's stock rose from $ 7 per share to $ 90 per share , making Romney a millionaire from stock options . However , whenever he felt his salary and bonus was excessively high for a year , he gave the excess back to the company . After initial wariness , he developed a good relationship with United Automobile Workers leader Walter Reuther , and AMC workers also benefited from a then @-@ novel profit @-@ sharing plan . Romney was one of only a few Michigan corporate chiefs to support passage and implementation of the state Fair Employment Practices Act .
= = Local church and civic leadership = =
Religion was a paramount force in Romney 's life . In a 1959 essay for the Detroit Free Press he said , " My religion is my most precious possession . ... Except for my religion , I easily could have become excessively occupied with industry , social and recreational activities . Sharing personal responsibility for church work with my fellow members has been a vital counterbalance in my life . " Following LDS Church practices , he did not drink alcohol or caffeinated beverages , smoke , or swear . Romney and his wife tithed , and from 1955 to 1965 , gave 19 percent of their income to the church and another 4 percent to charity .
Romney was a high priest in the Melchizedek priesthood of the LDS , and beginning in 1944 he headed the Detroit church branch ( which initially was small enough to meet in a member 's house ) . By the time he was AMC chief , he presided over the Detroit Stake , which included not only all of Metro Detroit , Ann Arbor , and the Toledo area of Ohio but also the western edge of Ontario along the Michigan border . In this role , Romney oversaw the religious work of some 2 @,@ 700 church members , occasionally preached sermons , and supervised the construction of the first stake tabernacle east of the Mississippi River in 100 years . Because the stake covered part of Canada , he often interacted with Canadian Mission President Thomas S. Monson . Romney 's rise to a leadership role in the church reflected the church 's journey from a fringe pioneer religion to one that was closely associated with mainstream American business and values . Due in part to his prominence , the larger Romney family tree would become viewed as " LDS royalty " .
Romney and his family lived in affluent Bloomfield Hills , having moved there from Detroit around 1953 . He became deeply active in Michigan civic affairs . He was on the board of directors of the Children 's Hospital of Michigan and the United Foundation of Detroit , and was chairman of the executive committee of the Detroit Round Table of Catholics , Jews , and Protestants . In 1959 , he received the Anti @-@ Defamation League of B 'nai B 'rith 's Americanism award .
Starting in 1956 , Romney headed a citizen @-@ based committee for improved educational programs in Detroit 's public schools . The 1958 final report of the Citizens Advisory Committee on School Needs was largely Romney 's work and received considerable public attention ; it made nearly 200 recommendations for economy and efficiency , better teacher pay , and new infrastructure funding . Romney helped a $ 90 @-@ million education @-@ related bond issue and tax increase win an upset victory in an April 1959 statewide referendum . He organized Citizens for Michigan in 1959 , a nonpartisan group that sought to study Detroit 's problems and build an informed electorate . Citizens for Michigan built on Romney 's belief that assorted interest groups held too much influence in government , and that only the cooperation of informed citizens acting for the benefit of all could counter them .
Based on his fame and accomplishments in a state where automobile making was a central topic of conversation , Romney was seen as a natural to enter politics . He first became directly involved in politics in 1959 , when he was a key force in the petition drive calling for a constitutional convention to rewrite the Michigan Constitution . Romney 's sales skills made Citizens for Michigan one of the most effective organizations among those calling for the convention . Previously unaffiliated politically , Romney declared himself a member of the Republican Party and gained election to the convention . By early 1960 , many in Michigan 's somewhat moribund Republican Party were touting Romney as a possible candidate for governor , U.S. senator , or even U.S. vice president .
Also in early 1960 , Romney served on the Fair Campaign Practices Committee , a group also having Jewish , Catholic , mainline and evangelical Protestant , and Orthodox Christian members . It issued a report whose guiding principles were that no candidate for elected office should be supported or opposed due to their religion and that no campaign for office should be seen as an opportunity to vote for one religion against another . This statement helped pave the way for John F. Kennedy 's famous speech on religion and public office later that year . Romney briefly considered a run in the 1960 Senate election , but instead became a vice president of the constitutional convention that revised the Michigan constitution during 1961 and 1962 .
= = Governor of Michigan = =
After a period of pained indecision and a 24 @-@ hour prayer fast , Romney stepped down from AMC in February 1962 to enter electoral politics ( given an indefinite leave of absence , he was succeeded as president of AMC by Roy Abernethy ) . Romney 's position as the leader of the moderate Republicans at the constitutional convention helped gain him the Republican nomination for Governor of Michigan . He ran against incumbent Democratic Governor John B. Swainson in the general election . Romney campaigned on revising the state 's tax structure , increasing its appeal to businesses and the general public , and getting it " rolling again " . Romney decried both the large influence of labor unions within the Democratic Party and the similarly large influence of big business within the Republican Party . His campaign was among the first to exploit the capabilities of electronic data processing .
Romney won by some 80 @,@ 000 votes and ended a fourteen @-@ year stretch of Democratic rule in the state executive spot . His win was attributed to his appeal to independent voters and to those from the increasingly influential suburbs of Detroit , who by 1962 were more likely to vote Republican than the heavily Democratic residents of the city itself . Additionally , Romney had appeal to labor union members that was unusual for a Republican . Democrats won all the other statewide executive offices in the election , including Democratic incumbent T. John Lesinski in the separate election for Lieutenant Governor of Michigan . Romney 's success caused immediate mention of him as a presidential possibility for 1964 , and President John F. Kennedy said privately in 1963 that , " The one fellow I don 't want to run against is Romney . "
Romney was sworn in as governor on January 1 , 1963 . His initial concern was the implementation of the overhaul of the state 's financial and revenue structure that had been authorized by the constitutional convention . In 1963 , he proposed a comprehensive tax revision package that included a flat @-@ rate state income tax , but general economic prosperity alleviated pressure on the state budget and the Michigan Legislature rejected the measure . Romney 's early difficulties with the legislature helped undermine an attempted push that year of Romney as a national political figure by former Richard Nixon associates . One Michigan Democrat said of Romney , " He has not yet learned that things in government are not necessarily done the moment the man at the top gives an order . He is eager and sometimes impatient . " But over his first two years in office , Romney was able to work with Democrats – who often had at least partial control of the legislature – and an informal bipartisan coalition formed which allowed Romney to accomplish many of his goals and initiatives .
Romney held a series of Governor 's Conferences , which sought to find new ideas from public services professionals and community activists who attended . He opened his office in the Michigan State Capitol to visitors , spending five minutes with every citizen who wanted to speak with him on Thursday mornings , and was always sure to shake the hands of schoolchildren visiting the capitol . He almost always eschewed political activities on Sunday , the Mormon Sabbath . His blunt and unequivocal manner sometimes caused friction , and family members and associates used the idiom " bull in a china shop " to describe him . He took a theatrical approach to governance , staging sudden appearances in settings where he might be politically unwelcome . One former aide later said that willful was too weak a word to describe him , and chose messianic instead . Romney saw a moral dimension in every issue and his political views were held with as much fervor as religious ones ; writer Theodore H. White said " the first quality that surfaced , as one met and talked with George Romney over a number of years , was a sincerity so profound that , in conversation , one was almost embarrassed . "
Romney supported the American Civil Rights Movement while governor . Although he belonged to a church that did not allow black people in its lay clergy , Romney 's hardscrabble background and subsequent life experiences led him to support the movement . He reflected , " It was only after I got to Detroit that I got to know Negroes and began to be able to evaluate them and I began to recognize that some Negroes are better and more capable than lots of whites . " During his first State of the State address in January 1963 , Romney declared that " Michigan 's most urgent human rights problem is racial discrimination — in housing , public accommodations , education , administration of justice , and employment . " Romney helped create the state 's first civil rights commission .
When Martin Luther King , Jr. came to Detroit in June 1963 and led the 120 @,@ 000 @-@ strong Great March on Detroit , Romney designated the occasion Freedom March Day in Michigan , and sent state senator Stanley Thayer to march with King as his emissary , but did not attend himself because it was on Sunday . Romney did participate in a much smaller march protesting housing discrimination the following Saturday in Grosse Pointe , after King had left . Romney 's advocacy of civil rights brought him criticism from some in his own church ; in January 1964 , Quorum of the Twelve Apostles member Delbert L. Stapley wrote him that a proposed civil rights bill was " vicious legislation " and telling him that " the Lord had placed the curse upon the Negro " and men should not seek its removal . Romney refused to change his position and increased his efforts towards civil rights . Regarding the church policy itself , Romney was among those liberal Mormons who hoped the church leadership would revise the theological interpretation that underlay it , but Romney did not believe in publicly criticizing the church , subsequently saying that fellow Mormon Stewart Udall 's 1967 published denunciation of the policy " cannot serve any useful religious purpose " .
In the 1964 U.S. presidential election , Senator Barry Goldwater quickly became the likely Republican Party nominee . Goldwater represented a new wave of American conservatism , of which the moderate Romney was not a part . Romney also felt that Goldwater would be a drag on Republicans running in all the other races that year , including Romney 's own ( at the time , Michigan had two @-@ year terms for its governor ) . Finally , Romney disagreed strongly with Goldwater 's views on civil rights ; he would later say , " Whites and Negroes , in my opinion , have got to learn to know each other . Barry Goldwater didn 't have any background to understand this , to fathom them , and I couldn 't get through to him . "
During the June 1964 National Governors ' Conference , 13 of 16 Republican governors present were opposed to Goldwater ; their leaders were Jim Rhodes of Ohio , Nelson Rockefeller of New York ( whose own campaign had just stalled out with a loss to Goldwater in the California primary ) , William Scranton of Pennsylvania , and Romney . In an unusual Sunday press conference , Romney declared , " If [ Goldwater 's ] views deviate as indicated from the heritage of our party , I will do everything within my power to keep him from becoming the party 's presidential nominee . " Romney had , however , previously vowed to Michigan voters that he would not run for president in 1964 . Detroit newspapers indicated they would not support him in any such bid , and Romney quickly decided to honor his pledge to stay out of the contest . Scranton entered instead , but Goldwater prevailed decisively at the 1964 Republican National Convention . Romney 's name was entered into nomination as a favorite son by U.S. Representative Gerald Ford of Michigan ( who had not wanted to choose between candidates during the primary campaign ) and he received the votes of 41 delegates in the roll call ( 40 of Michigan 's 48 and one from Kansas ) .
At the convention , Romney fought for a strengthened civil rights plank in the party platform that would pledge action to eliminate discrimination at the state , local , and private levels , but it was defeated on a voice vote . He also failed to win support for a statement that condemned both left- and right @-@ wing extremism without naming any organizations , which lost a standing vote by a two @-@ to @-@ one margin . Both of Romney 's positions were endorsed by former President Dwight Eisenhower , who had an approach to civic responsibilities similar to Romney 's . As the convention concluded , Romney neither endorsed nor repudiated Goldwater and vice presidential nominee William E. Miller , saying he had reservations about Goldwater 's lack of support for civil rights and the political extremism that Goldwater embodied .
For the fall 1964 elections , Romney cut himself off from the national ticket , refusing to even appear on the same stage with them and continuing to feud with Goldwater privately . He campaigned for governor in mostly Democratic areas , and when pressed at campaign appearances about whether he supported Goldwater , he replied , " You know darn well I 'm not ! " Romney was re @-@ elected in 1964 by a margin of over 380 @,@ 000 votes over Democratic Congressman Neil Staebler , despite Goldwater 's landslide defeat to President Lyndon B. Johnson that swept away many other Republican candidates . Romney won 15 percent of Michigan 's black vote , compared to Goldwater 's two percent .
In 1965 , Romney visited South Vietnam for 31 days and said that he was continuing his strong support for U.S. military involvement there . During 1966 , while son Mitt was away in France on missionary work , George Romney guided Mitt 's fiancée Ann Davies in her conversion to Mormonism . Governor Romney continued his support of civil rights ; after violence broke out during the Selma to Montgomery marches in 1965 , he marched at the front of a Detroit parade in solidarity with the marchers . In 1966 , Romney had his biggest electoral success , winning re @-@ election again by some 527 @,@ 000 votes over Democratic lawyer Zolton Ferency ( this time to a four @-@ year term , after a change in Michigan law ) . His share of the black vote rose to over 30 percent , a virtually unprecedented accomplishment for a Republican .
By 1967 , a looming deficit prompted the legislature to overhaul Michigan 's tax structure . Personal and corporate state income taxes were created while business receipts and corporation franchise taxes were eliminated . Passage of an income levy had eluded past Michigan governors , no matter which party controlled of the legislature . Romney 's success convincing Democratic and Republican factions to compromise on the details of the measure was considered a key test of his political ability .
The massive 12th Street riot in Detroit began during the predawn hours of July 23 , 1967 , precipitated by a police raid of a speakeasy in a predominantly black neighborhood . As the day wore on and looting and fires got worse , Romney called in the Michigan State Police and the Michigan National Guard . At 3 a.m. on July 24 , Romney and Detroit Mayor Jerome Cavanagh called U.S. Attorney General Ramsey Clark and requested that federal troops be sent . Clark indicated that to do so , Romney would have to declare a state of civil insurrection , which the governor was loath to do from fear that insurance companies would seize upon it as a reason to not cover losses owing to the riot . Elements of the 82nd and 101st U.S. Army Airborne Divisions were mobilized outside of the city . As the situation in Detroit worsened , Romney told Deputy Secretary of Defense Cyrus Vance , " We gotta move , man , we gotta move . " Near midnight on July 24 , President Johnson authorized thousands of paratroopers to enter Detroit . Johnson went on national television to announce his actions and made seven references to Romney 's inability to control the riot using state and local forces . Thousands of arrests took place and the rioting continued until July 27 . The final toll was the largest of any American civil disturbance in fifty years : 43 dead , over a thousand injured , 2 @,@ 500 stores looted , hundreds of homes burned , and some $ 50 million overall in property damage .
There were strong political implications in the handling of the riot , as Romney was seen as a leading Republican contender to challenge Johnson 's presidential re @-@ election the following year ; Romney believed the White House had intentionally slowed its response and he charged Johnson with having " played politics " in his actions . The riot notwithstanding , by the end of Romney 's governorship the state had made strong gains in civil rights related to public employment , government contracting , and access to public accommodations . Lesser improvements were made in combating discrimination in private employment , housing , education , and law enforcement . Considerable state and federal efforts were made during this time to improve the lot of Michigan 's migrant farm workers and Native Americans , without much progress for either .
Romney greatly expanded the size of state government while governor . His first state budget , for fiscal year 1963 , was $ 550 million , a $ 20 million increase over that of his predecessor Swainson . Romney had also inherited an $ 85 million budget deficit , but left office with a surplus . In the following fiscal years , the state budget increased to $ 684 million for 1964 , $ 820 million for 1965 , $ 1 billion for 1966 , $ 1 @.@ 1 billion for 1967 , and was proposed as $ 1 @.@ 3 billion for 1968 . Romney led the way for a large increase in state spending on education , and Michigan began to develop one of the nation 's most comprehensive systems of higher education . There was a significant increase in funding support for local governments and there were generous benefits for the poor and unemployed . Romney 's spending was enabled by the post – World War II economic expansion that generated continued government surpluses and by a consensus of both parties in Michigan to maintain extensive state bureaucracies and expand public sector services .
The bipartisan coalitions that Romney worked with in the state legislature enabled him to reach most of his legislative goals . His record as governor continued his reputation for having , as writer Theodore H. White said , " a knack for getting things done . " Noted University of Michigan historian Sidney Fine assessed him as " a highly successful governor " .
= = 1968 presidential campaign = =
Romney 's wide margin of re @-@ election as governor in November 1966 thrust him to the forefront of national Republicans . In addition to his political record , the tall , square @-@ jawed , handsome , graying Romney matched what the public thought a president should look like . Republican governors were determined not to let a Goldwater @-@ sized loss recur , and neither Rockefeller nor Scranton wanted to run again ; the governors quickly settled on Romney as their favorite for the Republican presidential nomination in the 1968 U.S. presidential election .
Former Congressman and Republican National Committee chair Leonard W. Hall became Romney 's informal campaign manager . A Gallup Poll after the November elections showed Romney as favored among Republicans over former Vice President Richard Nixon for the Republican nomination , 39 percent to 31 percent ; a Harris Poll showed Romney besting President Johnson among all voters by 54 percent to 46 percent . Nixon considered Romney his chief opponent . Romney announced an exploratory phase for a possible campaign in February 1967 , beginning with a visit to Alaska and the Rocky Mountain states .
Romney 's greatest weakness was a lack of foreign policy expertise and a need for a clear position on the Vietnam War . The press coverage of the trip focused on Vietnam and reporters were frustrated by Romney 's initial reluctance to speak about it . The qualities that helped Romney as an industry executive worked against him as a presidential candidate ; he had difficulty being articulate , often speaking at length and too forthrightly on a topic and then later correcting himself while maintaining he was not . Reporter Jack Germond joked that he was going to add a single key on his typewriter that would print , " Romney later explained .... " Life magazine wrote that Romney " manages to turn self @-@ expression into a positive ordeal " and that he was no different in private : " nobody can sound more like the public George Romney than the real George Romney let loose to ramble , inevitably away from the point and toward some distant moral precept . "
The perception grew that Romney was gaffe @-@ prone . The campaign , beset by internal rivalries , soon went through the first of several reorganizations . By then , Nixon had already overtaken Romney in Gallup 's Republican preference poll , a lead he would hold throughout the rest of the campaign . The techniques that had brought Romney victories in Michigan , such as operating outside established partisan formulas and keeping a distance from Republican Party organizational elements , proved ineffective in a party nominating contest .
Romney 's national poll ratings continued to erode , and by May he had lost his edge over Johnson . The Detroit riots of July 1967 did not change his standing among Republicans , but did give him a bounce in national polls against the increasingly unpopular president .
Questions were occasionally asked about Romney 's eligibility to run for President owing to his birth in Mexico , given the ambiguity in the United States Constitution over the phrase " natural @-@ born citizen " . Romney would depart the race before the matter could be more definitively resolved , although the preponderance of opinion then and since has been that he was eligible .
Romney was also the first Mormon to stage a credible run for the presidency . By this time , he was well known as a Mormon and perhaps the most nationally visible one since Brigham Young . But his membership in the LDS Church was scarcely mentioned at all during the campaign . What indirect discussion there was helped bring to national attention the church 's policy regarding blacks , but the contrast of Romney 's pro @-@ civil rights stance deflected any criticism of him and indirectly benefited the image of the church . Some historians and Mormons suspected then and later that had Romney 's campaign lasted longer and been more successful , his religion might have become a more prominent issue . Romney 's campaign did often focus on his core beliefs ; a Romney billboard in New Hampshire read " The Way To Stop Crime Is To Stop Moral Decay " . Dartmouth College students gave a bemused reaction to his morals message , displaying signs such as " God Is Alive and Thinks He 's George Romney " . A spate of books were published about Romney , more than for any other candidate , and included a friendly campaign biography , an attack from a former staffer , and a collection of Romney 's speeches .
On August 31 , 1967 , in a taped interview with locally influential ( and nationally syndicated ) talk show host Lou Gordon of WKBD @-@ TV in Detroit , Romney stated : " When I came back from Viet Nam [ in November 1965 ] , I 'd just had the greatest brainwashing that anybody can get . " He then shifted to opposing the war : " I no longer believe that it was necessary for us to get involved in South Vietnam to stop Communist aggression in Southeast Asia . " Decrying the " tragic " conflict , he urged " a sound peace in South Vietnam at an early time . " Thus Romney disavowed the war and reversed himself from his earlier stated belief that the war was " morally right and necessary " .
The " brainwashing " reference had been an offhand , unplanned remark that came at the end of a long , behind @-@ schedule day of campaigning . By September 7 , it found its way into prominence at The New York Times . Eight other governors who had been on the same 1965 trip as Romney said no such activity had taken place , and one of them , Philip H. Hoff of Vermont , said Romney 's remarks were " outrageous , kind of stinking ... Either he 's a most naïve man or he lacks judgment . " The connotations of brainwashing , following the experiences of American prisoners of war ( highlighted by the 1962 film The Manchurian Candidate ) , made Romney 's comment devastating , especially as it reinforced the negative image of Romney 's abilities that had already developed . The topic of brainwashing quickly became newspaper editorial and television talk show fodder , and Romney bore the brunt of the topical humor . Senator Eugene McCarthy , running against Johnson for the Democratic nomination , said that in Romney 's case , " a light rinse would have been sufficient . " Republican Congressman Robert T. Stafford of Vermont sounded a common concern : " If you 're running for the presidency , you are supposed to have too much on the ball to be brainwashed . " After the remark was aired , Romney 's poll ratings nosedived , going from 11 percent behind Nixon to 26 percent behind .
He nonetheless persevered , staging a three @-@ week , 17 @-@ city tour of the nation 's ghettos and disadvantaged areas that none of his advisors thought politically worthwhile . He sought to engage militants in dialogue , found himself exposed to the harsh realities and language of ghetto areas , and had an unusual encounter with hippies and The Diggers in San Francisco 's Haight @-@ Ashbury .
Romney formally announced on November 18 , 1967 , at Detroit 's Veterans Memorial Building , that he had " decided to fight for and win the Republican nomination and election to the Presidency of the United States . " His subsequent release of his federal tax returns – twelve years ' worth going back to his time as AMC head – was groundbreaking and established a precedent that many future presidential candidates would have to contend with . He spent the following months campaigning tirelessly , focusing on the New Hampshire primary , the first of the season , and doing all the on @-@ the @-@ ground activities known to that state : greeting workers at factory gates before dawn , having neighborhood meetings in private homes , and stopping at bowling alleys . He returned to Vietnam in December 1967 and made speeches and proposals on the subject , one of which presaged Nixon 's eventual policy of Vietnamization . For a while , he got an improved response from voters .
Two weeks before the March 12 primary , an internal poll showed Romney losing to Nixon by a six @-@ to @-@ one margin in New Hampshire . Rockefeller , seeing the poll result as well , publicly maintained his support for Romney but said he would be available for a draft ; the statement made national headlines and embittered Romney ( who would later claim it was Rockefeller 's entry , and not the " brainwashing " remark , that doomed him ) . Seeing his cause was hopeless , Romney announced his withdrawal as a presidential candidate on February 28 , 1968 . Romney wrote his son Mitt , still away on missionary work : " Your mother and I are not personally distressed . As a matter of fact , we are relieved . ... I aspired , and though I achieved not , I am satisfied . "
Nixon went on to gain the nomination . At the 1968 Republican National Convention in Miami Beach , Romney refused to release his delegates to Nixon , something Nixon did not forget . Romney finished a weak fifth , with only 50 votes on the roll call ( 44 of Michigan 's 48 , plus six from Utah ) . When party liberals and moderates and others expressed dismay at Nixon 's choice of Spiro Agnew as his running mate , Romney 's name was placed into nomination for vice president by Mayor of New York John Lindsay and pushed by several delegations . Romney said he did not initiate the move , but he made no effort to oppose it . Nixon saw the rebellion as a threat to his leadership and actively fought against it ; Romney lost to Agnew 1 @,@ 119 – 186 . Romney , however , worked for Nixon 's eventually successful campaign in the fall , which did earn him Nixon 's gratitude .
Presidential historian Theodore H. White wrote that during his campaign Romney gave " the impression of an honest and decent man simply not cut out to be President of the United States . " Governor Jim Rhodes of Ohio more memorably said , " Watching George Romney run for the presidency was like watching a duck try to make love to a football . "
= = Secretary of Housing and Urban Development = =
After the election , Nixon named Romney to be Secretary of Housing and Urban Development ( HUD ) . The president @-@ elect made the announcement as part of a nationally televised presentation of his new cabinet on December 11 , 1968 . Nixon praised Romney for his " missionary zeal " and said that he would also be tasked with mobilizing volunteer organizations to fight poverty and disease within the United States . In actuality , Nixon distrusted Romney politically , and appointed him to a liberally oriented , low @-@ profile federal agency partly to appease Republican moderates and partly to reduce Romney 's potential to challenge for the 1972 Republican presidential nomination .
Romney was confirmed by the Senate without opposition on January 20 , 1969 , the day of Nixon 's inauguration , and was sworn into office on January 22 , with Nixon at his side . Romney resigned as Governor of Michigan that same day , and was succeeded by Lieutenant Governor William G. Milliken . Milliken continued Romney 's model of downplaying party label and ideology , and Republicans held onto the governorship for three more terms until 1983 , though Michigan was one of the nation 's most blue @-@ collar states .
As secretary , Romney conducted the first reorganization of the department since its 1966 creation . His November 1969 plan brought programs with similar functions together under unified , policy @-@ based administration at the Washington level , and created two new assistant secretary positions . At the same time , he increased the number of regional and area offices and decentralized program operations and locality @-@ based decisions to them .
The Fair Housing Act of 1968 mandated a federal commitment towards housing desegregation , and required HUD to orient its programs in this direction . Romney , filled with moral passion , wanted to address the widening economic and geographic gulf between whites and blacks by moving blacks out of inner @-@ city ghettos into suburbs . Romney proposed an open housing scheme to facilitate desegregation , dubbed " Open Communities " ; HUD planned it for many months without keeping Nixon informed .
When the open housing proposal became public , local reaction was often hostile . This included Warren , Michigan , a blue @-@ collar suburb of Detroit where many blacks worked but could not live owing to the zoning practices , refusals , and intimidatory actions of white property owners , many of whom had come there from the city as part of white flight . HUD made Warren a prime target for Open Communities enforcement and threatened to halt all federal assistance to the town unless it took a series of actions to end racial discrimination there ; town officials said progress was being made and that their citizens resented forced integration . Romney rejected this response , partly because when he was governor , Warren residents had thrown rocks and garbage and yelled obscenities for days at a biracial couple who moved into town . Now the secretary said , " The youth of this nation , the minorities of this nation , the discriminated of this nation are not going to wait for ' nature to take its course . ' What is really at issue here is responsibility – moral responsibility . "
Romney visited Warren in July 1970 , and emphasized that affirmative action rather than forced integration was all that HUD was demanding , but the local populace was not satisfied and Romney was jeered as a police escort took him away from the meeting place . Nixon saw what happened in Warren and had no interest in the Open Communities policy in general , remarking to domestic adviser John Ehrlichman that , " This country is not ready at this time for either forcibly integrated housing or forcibly integrated education . " Open Communities also conflicted with Nixon 's use of the Southern strategy and his own views on race . Romney was forced to back down on Warren and release federal monies to them unconditionally .
When Black Jack , Missouri , subsequently resisted a HUD @-@ sponsored plan for desegregated lower- and middle @-@ income housing , Romney appealed to U.S. Attorney General John Mitchell for Justice Department intervention . In September 1970 , Mitchell refused and Romney 's plan collapsed . Under Romney , HUD did put into place stricter racial guidelines in relation to new public housing projects , but overall administration implementation of the Fair Housing Act was lacking . Some of the responsibility lay with Romney 's inattentiveness to gaining political backing for the policy , including the failure to rally natural allies such as the NAACP . Salisbury University historian Dean J. Kotlowski writes that , " No civil rights initiative developed on Nixon 's watch was as sincerely devised or poorly executed as open communities . "
Another of Romney 's initiatives was " Operation Breakthrough " , which was intended to increase the amount of housing available to the poor and which did have Nixon 's initial support . Based on his automotive industry experience , Romney thought that the cost of housing could be significantly reduced if in @-@ factory modular construction techniques were used . However , HUD officials saw it too as a means to spearhead desegregation ; Romney said , " We 've got to put an end to the idea of moving to suburban areas and living only among people of the same economic and social class " . This aspect of the program brought about strong opposition at the local suburban level and lost support in the White House as well . Over half of HUD 's research funds during this time were spent on Operation Breakthrough , and it was modestly successful in its building goals . It did not revolutionize home construction , and was phased out once Romney left HUD , but side effects of the program did lead to more modern and consistent building codes and to introduction of technological advances such as the smoke alarm . In any case , using conventional methods , HUD set records for the amount of construction of assisted housing for low- and moderate @-@ income families . Toward the end of his term , Romney oversaw demolition of the infamous Pruitt – Igoe housing project in St. Louis .
Romney was largely outside the president 's inner circle and had minimal influence within the Nixon administration . His intense , sometimes bombastic style of making bold advances and awkward pullbacks lacked adequate guile to succeed in Washington . Desegregation efforts in employment and education had more success than in housing during the Nixon administration , but HUD 's many missions and unwieldy structure , which sometimes worked at cross @-@ purposes , made it institutionally vulnerable to political attack . Romney also failed to understand or circumvent Nixon 's use of Ehrlichman and White House Chief of Staff H. R. Haldeman as policy gatekeepers and the consequent de facto downgrading of cabinet officers . Romney was used to being listened to and making his own decisions , and annoyed Nixon by casually interrupting him at meetings ; at one point , Nixon told Haldeman , " Just keep [ Romney ] away from me . " A statement by Romney that he would voluntarily reduce his salary to aid the federal budget was viewed by Nixon as an " ineffective grandstand play " .
By early 1970 , Nixon had decided he wanted Romney removed from his position . Nixon , who hated to fire people and was , as Ehrlichman later described , " notoriously inadept " at it , instead hatched a plot to get Romney to run in the 1970 U.S. Senate race in Michigan . Instead , George came up with the idea of his wife Lenore running , and she received the backing of some state Republicans . But there was resistance to the move and initial suspicion that her candidacy was just a stalking horse for keeping his options open . She barely survived a primary against a conservative opponent , then lost badly in the general election to incumbent Democrat Philip A. Hart . He then blamed others for her having entered the race , when he had been the major force behind it .
In late 1970 , after opposition to Open Communities reached a peak , Nixon again decided that Romney should go . Still reluctant to dismiss him , Nixon tried to get Romney to resign by forcing him to capitulate on a series of policy issues . Romney surprised both Nixon and Haldeman by agreeing to back off his positions , and Nixon kept him as HUD secretary . Nixon remarked privately afterwards , " [ Romney ] talks big but folds under pressure . " Puzzled by Nixon 's lack of apparent ideological consistency across different areas of the government , Romney told a friend , " I don 't know what the president believes in . Maybe he doesn 't believe in anything , " an assessment shared by others both inside and outside the administration .
In spring 1972 , a major scandal struck the Federal Housing Administration ( FHA ) , which since passage of the Housing and Urban Development Act of 1968 and the creation of the Government National Mortgage Association ( Ginnie Mae ) had been responsible for helping the poor buy homes in inner @-@ city areas via government @-@ backed mortgages . This was financed by mortgage @-@ backed securities , the first issues of which Romney had announced in 1970 . A number of FHA employees , along with a number of real estate firms and lawyers , were indicted for a scheme in which the value of cheap inner city homes was inflated and sold using those government @-@ backed mortgages to black buyers who could not really afford them , and the government was stuck for the bad loans when owners defaulted . FHA was under Romney 's purview , and he conceded that HUD had been unprepared to deal with speculators and had not been alert to earlier signs of illegal activity . The FHA scandal gave Nixon the ability to shut down HUD 's remaining desegregation efforts with little political risk ; by January 1973 , all federal housing funds had been frozen .
In August 1972 , Nixon announced Romney would inspect Hurricane Agnes flood damage in Wilkes @-@ Barre , Pennsylvania , but neglected to tell Romney first . Much of the area lacked shelter six weeks after the storm , residents were angry , and Romney got into a three @-@ way shouting match with Governor Milton J. Shapp and a local citizens ' representative . Romney denounced Shapp 's proposal that the federal government pay off the mortgages of victims as " unrealistic and demagogic " , and the representative angrily responded to Romney , " You don 't give a damn whether we live or die . " The confrontation received wide media attention , damaging Romney 's public reputation . Frustrated , Romney wanted to resign immediately , but Nixon , worried about the fallout to his 1972 re @-@ election campaign , insisted that Romney stay on . Romney agreed , although he indicated to the press that he would leave eventually .
Romney finally did hand in his resignation on November 9 , 1972 , following Nixon 's re @-@ election . His departure was announced on November 27 , 1972 , as part of the initial wave of departures from Nixon 's first @-@ term cabinet . Romney said he was unhappy with presidential candidates who declined to address " the real issues " facing the nation for fear they would lose votes , and said he would form a new national citizens ' organization that would attempt to enlighten the public on the most vital topics . He added that he would stay on as secretary until his successor could be appointed and confirmed , and did stay until Nixon 's second inauguration on January 20 , 1973 . Upon his departure , Romney said he looked forward " with great enthusiasm " to his return to private life .
The Boston Globe later termed Romney 's conflicts with Nixon a matter that " played out with Shakespearean drama " . Despite all the setbacks and frustrations , University at Buffalo political scientist Charles M. Lamb concluded that Romney pressed harder to achieve suburban integration than any prominent federal official from the 1970s through the 1990s . In 2008 , Lehman College sociology professor Christopher Bonastia assessed the Romney @-@ era HUD as having come " surprisingly close to implementing unpopular antidiscrimination policies " but in the end was unable to bring about meaningful alterations in American segregation patterns , with no equivalent effort having happened since then or likely to in the foreseeable future .
= = Public service , volunteerism , and final years = =
Romney was known as an advocate of public service , and volunteerism was a passion of his . He initiated several volunteer programs while Governor of Michigan , and at the beginning of the Nixon administration chaired the Cabinet Committee on Voluntary Action . Out of this the National Center for Voluntary Action was created : an independent , private , non @-@ profit organization intended to encourage volunteerism on the part of American citizens and organizations , to assist in program development for voluntary efforts , and to make voluntary action an important force in American society . Romney 's long interest in volunteerism stemmed from the Mormon belief in the power of institutions to transform the individual , but also had a secular basis . At the National Center 's first meeting on February 20 , 1970 , he said :
Americans have four basic ways of solving problems that are too big for individuals to handle by themselves . One is through the federal government . A second is through state governments and the local governments that the states create . The third is through the private sector – the economic sector that includes business , agriculture , and labor . The fourth method is the independent sector – the voluntary , cooperative action of free individuals and independent association . Voluntary action is the most powerful of these , because it is uniquely capable of stirring the people themselves and involving their enthusiastic energies , because it is their own – voluntary action is the people 's action . ... As Woodrow Wilson said , " The most powerful force on earth is the spontaneous cooperation of a free people . " Individualism makes cooperation worthwhile – but cooperation makes freedom possible .
In 1973 , after he left the cabinet , Romney became chair and CEO of the National Center for Voluntary Action . In 1979 , this organization merged with the Colorado @-@ based National Information Center on Volunteerism and became known as VOLUNTEER : The National Center for Citizen Involvement ; Romney headed the new organization . The organization simplified its name to VOLUNTEER : The National Center in 1984 and to the National Volunteer Center in 1990 . Romney remained as chair of these organizations throughout this time .
Within the LDS Church , Romney remained active and prominent , serving as patriarch of the Bloomfield Hills Stake and holding the office of regional representative of the Twelve , covering Michigan and northern Ohio . As part of a longtime habit of playing golf daily , he had long ago concocted a " compact 18 " format in which he played three balls on each of six holes , or similar formulations depending upon the amount of daylight . During the early part of the Reagan administration , Romney served on the President 's Task Force for Private Sector Initiatives along with LDS leader Monson . In 1987 , he held a four @-@ generation extended family reunion in Washington , where he showed the places and recounted the events of his life which had occurred there . Looking back on his and some other failed presidential bids , he once concluded , " You can 't be right too soon and win elections . "
President George H. W. Bush 's Points of Light Foundation was created in 1990 , also to encourage volunteerism . Romney received the Points of Light Foundation 's inaugural Lifetime Achievement Award from President Bush in April 1991 . The Bush administration wanted to tap Romney to chair the new foundation , but he reportedly refused to head two organizations doing the same thing and suggested they merge . They did so in September 1991 , and Romney became one of the founding directors of the Points of Light Foundation & Volunteer Center National Network . In the early 1990s , Romney was also involved in helping to set up the Commission on National and Community Service , one of the predecessors to the later Corporation for National and Community Service . He gave speeches emphasizing the vital role of people helping people , and in 1993 inspired the first national meeting of volunteer centers .
For much of his final two decades , Romney had been out of the political eye , but he re @-@ emerged to the general public when he campaigned for his son , Mitt Romney , during the younger Romney 's bid to unseat Senator Edward M. Kennedy in the 1994 U.S. Senate election in Massachusetts . Romney had urged Mitt to enter the race and moved into his son 's house for its duration , serving as an unofficial advisor . Romney was a vigorous surrogate for his son in public appearances and at fundraising events . When Kennedy 's campaign sought to bring up the LDS Church 's past policy on blacks , Romney interrupted Mitt 's press conference and said loudly , " I think it is absolutely wrong to keep hammering on the religious issues . And what Ted is trying to do is bring it into the picture . " The father counseled the son to be relaxed in appearance and to pay less attention to his political consultants and more to his own instincts , a change that the younger Romney made late in the ultimately unsuccessful campaign .
That same year , Ronna Romney , Romney 's ex @-@ daughter @-@ in @-@ law ( formerly married to G. Scott Romney ) , decided to seek the Republican nomination for the U.S. Senate from Michigan . While Mitt and G. Scott endorsed Ronna Romney , George Romney had endorsed her opponent and the eventual winner , Spencer Abraham , during the previous year when Ronna was considering a run but had not yet announced . A family spokesperson said that George Romney had endorsed Abraham before knowing Ronna Romney would run and could not go back on his word , although he did refrain from personally campaigning on Abraham 's behalf .
By January 1995 , amid press criticism of the Points of Light Foundation engaging in ineffective , wasteful spending , Romney expressed concern that the organization had too high a budget . Active to the end , in July 1995 , four days before his death , Romney proposed a presidential summit to encourage greater volunteerism and community service , and the night before his death he drove to a meeting of another volunteer organization .
On July 26 , 1995 , Romney died of a heart attack at the age of 88 while he was doing his morning exercising on a treadmill at his home in Bloomfield Hills , Michigan ; he was discovered by his wife Lenore but it was too late to save him . He was buried at the Fairview Cemetery in Brighton , Michigan . In addition to his wife and children , Romney was survived by 23 grandchildren and 33 great @-@ grandchildren .
= = Legacy = =
The Presidents ' Summit For America 's Future took place in Philadelphia in 1997 , manifesting Romney 's last volunteerism proposal , with the organization America 's Promise coming out of it . For many years , the Points of Light Foundation ( and its predecessor organization ) has given out an annual Lenore and George W. Romney Citizen Volunteer Award ( later retitled the George and Lenore Romney Citizen Volunteer Award ) ; the inaugural such award in 1987 went to George Romney himself . The Points of Light Foundation and the Corporation for National and Community Service also give out a George W. Romney Volunteer Center Excellence Award ( later the George W. Romney Excellence Award ) at the annual National Conference on Community Volunteering and National Service ( later the National Conference on Volunteering and Service ) . The George W. Romney Volunteer Center itself is sponsored by the United Way for Southeastern Michigan , and began during Romney 's lifetime .
Founded in 1998 with a grant from Romney 's immediate family , the George W. Romney Institute of Public Management in the Marriott School of Management at Brigham Young University honors the legacy left by Romney . Its mission is to develop people of high character who are committed to service , management , and leadership in the public sector and in non @-@ profit organizations throughout the world .
The building housing the main offices of the Governor of Michigan in Lansing is known as the George W. Romney Building following a 1997 renaming . The Governor George Romney Lifetime Achievement Award is given annually by the State of Michigan , to recognize citizens who have demonstrated a commitment to community involvement and volunteer service throughout their lifetimes . In 2010 , Adrian College in Michigan announced the opening of its George Romney Institute for Law and Public Policy . Its purpose is to explore the interdisciplinary nature of law and public policy and encourage practitioners , academics , and students to work together on issues in this realm .
= = Authored books = =
The Concerns of a Citizen . New York : G. P. Putnam 's Sons . 1968 . OCLC 897237 .
The Mission and the Dream . New York : G. P. Putnam 's Sons . 1968 . ( Galley proofs produced , but prepress process ceased before actual publication )
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= Berlin ( NCIS ) =
" Berlin " is the 21st episode of the tenth season of the American police procedural drama NCIS , and the 231st episode overall . It originally aired on CBS in the United States on April 23 , 2013 . The episode is written by Scott Williams and Gina Lucita Monreal and directed by Terrence O 'Hara , and was seen live by 17 @.@ 33 million viewers .
The episode advances a storyline focusing on the murder of significant secondary characters in the series and the romance between main characters Tony and Ziva . It carries the storyline surrounding the deaths of Ziva 's father , Mossad Director Eli David , and Vance 's wife , Jackie , who were both killed off in the January episode " Shabbat Shalom " . Ziva continues to pursue revenge against Eli 's killer , Ilan Bodnar , and Vance continues to endorse her actions despite orders from Homeland Security to rein them in .
" Berlin " introduced the new Mossad director , Orli Elbaz , portrayed by Marina Sirtis . Several actors reprised their roles from previous episodes , including Gabi Coccio as young Ziva , Ben Morrison as young Eli , and Oded Fehr as Ilan Bodnar .
The installment was generally well @-@ received , with the ratings being up from the previous week and critics giving it favorable reviews . The network and producers advertised the reported development of Ziva 's relationship with Tony within the episode . Particularly , a scene in which the characters dance together while in Berlin was heavily promoted and received favorable commentary from reviewers .
= = Background = =
NCIS follows a team of government agents who work for the Naval Criminal Investigative Service . The main cast includes Mark Harmon as team leader Leroy Jethro Gibbs , Michael Weatherly as Senior Agent Anthony " Tony " DiNozzo , Cote de Pablo as Mossad Liaison Officer turned NCIS Agent Ziva David , Pauley Perrette as Forensic Specialist Abby Sciuto , Sean Murray as Special Agent Timothy McGee , David McCallum as Autopsy Technician Donald " Ducky " Mallard , Rocky Carroll as NCIS Director Leon Vance , and Brian Dietzen as Medical Assistant Jimmy Palmer .
Executive producer Gary Glasberg began discussing the possibility of killing off Ziva 's father and Vance 's wife in the spring of 2012 . He approached Rocky Carroll and Cote de Pablo about the potential storyline , as well as Paula Newsome and Michael Nouri , who portray Jackie Vance and Eli David respectively . De Pablo was interested in the idea , seeing the ramifications of it as something that had not been explored with her character before , and Carroll agreed that the death of Vance 's wife would dynamically change his role in the series . Glasberg reported that Newsome and Nouri were understandably unhappy about their characters ' deaths , but agreed to " give it everything they could " . The plot twist , initially advertised as a " huge Ziva story " that would " rock Vance 's world " , culminated in Eli and Jackie being shot to death in a house attack in the 11th episode of the season , " Shabbat Shalom " .
The killings set the course for the rest of the season , and , in the following episode , " Shiva " , it is revealed that Eli 's protégé , Ilan Bodnar , had orchestrated the attack . Ziva begins to seek revenge with Vance 's support , covertly attempting to track Bodnar 's location after he escapes arrest and goes into hiding . In the episode directly prior to " Berlin " , Tony confronts her about her behavior , prompting her to approach Gibbs about going to Rome to apprehend Bodnar , where he is believed to be located . Gibbs agrees and instructs her to take Tony with her .
= = Plot = =
As the episode opens , Mossad Officer Amir Mantel ( Dove Meir ) is shot dead at point blank range in an American parking garage . At NCIS headquarters , Ziva cancels plans to pursue Eli David 's killer , Ilan Bodnar ( Oded Fehr ) , in Rome , having come to the conclusion that he will relocate to Berlin shortly . Before she and Tony depart , the new Mossad director , Orli Elbaz ( Marina Sirtis ) , arrives in hopes of collaborating with the agency in the search for Bodnar . Ziva frostily congratulates her for her promotion and declines an offer to put her in contact with Mossad operatives in Rome .
Elbaz informs Gibbs and Director Vance that five Mossad officers went rogue following Eli 's assassination in support of Bodnar 's attempted coup d 'état . She explains that Mantel had been investigating the situation when he was killed , and Vance hesitantly grants her request for cooperation among the agencies .
Beginning on the airplane to Berlin , flashbacks are interlaced throughout the episode , illustrating the tensions caused by Eli 's frequent absence during Ziva 's adolescence and the disintegration of Rivka ( Weronika Rosati ) and Eli David 's marriage . Also while on the plane , Ziva explains her rationale for changing their destination : her father had told her to convert all funds to diamonds with a dealer in Berlin should she ever need to go into hiding . She assumes that he would have given Bodnar , who he viewed as a son , the same advice .
She and Tony meet up with her Israeli friend , Adam Eshel ( Damon Dayoub ) , who gives them information on Bodnar 's whereabouts and intentions . Bodnar contacts Ziva on the computer , urging her to walk away . They are able to track his location but are unable to apprehend him as he disappears into a crowd . Later , they learn that he is planning to pick up the diamonds from an ally ( Willem Van Der Vegt ) at a night club . While waiting to intercept him , Tony dances with Ziva both to help her get a better view of the area and to calm her agitated state of mind . Bodnar seems to appear , but when Ziva approaches him , she is stunned to see that it is Ilan 's brother , Yaniv ( Iddo Goldberg ) .
Meanwhile , Gibbs and Vance order McGee to hack into the Mossad database , discovering that all five operatives Elbaz had claimed were rogue are still listed as active members and that Mantel was the only traitor . When confronted , Elbaz at first deflects , but when informed that " Bodnar " has been arrested in Berlin , admits that she had believed that he never left the United States . Realizing shortly after that it is Yaniv who is in custody , she explains that she had hoped that the other agencies ' search in Rome would cause Ilan to let his guard down . Vance and Homeland Senior Division Chief Tom Morrow ( Alan Dale ) , while angry about her deception , decide to look the other way .
As Ziva and Tony drive home from the airport , she divulges the reason for her resentment of the new director : Orli Elbaz was the reason for her parents ' divorce . She discloses that she had always believed that it was a political strategy on Elbaz 's part in attempt to advance her rank in Mossad , though she now thinks that it is possible that Elbaz had loved Eli . When she adds that she believes that she would be a different person were it not for Elbaz , Tony expresses thankfulness that things occurred the way they did .
The episode ends with a cliffhanger when an unknown vehicle crashes into their car , leaving their fates unclear .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing = = =
" Berlin " was written by Scott Williams and Gina Lucita Monreal . The episode marked the return of Ilan Bodnar , the " disgraced Mossad Deputy Director " last seen when he fled from both NCIS and Mossad after the deaths of Eli David and Jackie Vance . Following the two @-@ part episode arc in January surrounding the killings and the immediate aftermath , show runner Gary Glasberg decided to pull away from the storyline for a few months to focus on the typical police procedural work that the NCIS team is normally shown doing . The writers returned to the plot in " Chasing Ghosts " , the episode before " Berlin " by revealing that Ziva had been searching for Bodnar on her despite being told not to , intending to kill him as revenge .
Glasberg previewed Ziva 's state of mind and divulged , " People are going to see a Ziva David that they haven 't seen in a long time . There is a strength and a resolute determination . " A few days after the episode aired , Williams and Monreal stated :
Since we last saw Ilan Bodnar ... , we 've striven to whet your appetite with a few choice ingredients . 1 . Ziva 's determination for revenge . 2 . Tony 's watchful eye over his favorite Israeli , and ... 3 . The sparks that fly when 1 and 2 combine . Yep , the path of vengeance brings Tony and Ziva together in ways we can only hint at in other episodes . So when our fearless leader , Gary Glasberg , teamed us up with orders to add another chapter to this Tiva [ Tony and Ziva ] saga , we jumped at the challenge . And that was BEFORE we realized we 'd get to write flashbacks , and a dance , and a hotel room , and diamonds , and the new Mossad director , and Berlin , and a car crash . Truth is , start to finish , this episode was a blast . And it all started with Tiva …
= = = Casting = = =
" Berlin " marked the first appearance of Eli David 's killer , Ilan Bodnar , played by Oded Fehr , since the January episode " Shiva " . Gabi Coccio reprised her role as young Ziva for flashbacks threaded throughout the episode , and Ben Morrison acted alongside her as young Eli .
On March 25 , 2013 , the casting of Marina Sirtis as Orli Elbaz , the new director of Mossad , was announced . Sirtis , who formerly portrayed the main character Deanna Troi in the Star Trek enterprise , indicated that she enjoyed working with Mark Harmon and said that he welcomed her to the set by bringing her breakfast on the first day of filming .
" There is a lot of history between Ziva and Orli , " Glasberg hinted before the episode aired . He added that the characters ' relationship would be tense and complex ; their background and the reasoning behind Ziva 's animosity towards the new Mossad director would be explained in the final scenes . Sirtis described her character 's relationship with Ziva as electric , explaining that she saw Orli as a counterfoil to Ziva 's intensity and drive for vengeance . Their history , she believed , is " kind of mind @-@ blowing " ; it provides an explanation for subplots introduced earlier in the episode . She clarified that Director Elbaz would not be a " shrinking flower " : " She 's kickass . She 's strong . She 's manipulative . She uses every weapon in her female arsenal . These parts for middle @-@ aged women in Hollywood do not come along very often . I 'm thrilled that the producers of the show were brave enough to cast a woman in this role . They 're prepared to take risks . It 's a big gamble . "
= = = Filming = = =
Before the episode aired , a photograph depicting Tony and Ziva dancing while in Germany was released and promoted , and Glasberg commented , " This is a very personal moment of vulnerability where her guard goes down and she lets herself melt into his arms . I think it 's a moment that our Tiva fans will truly enjoy . "
Cote de Pablo relayed that there had been a dispute between the director , Terrence O 'Hara , and the actors during filming about how the scene should be choreographed . Both sides thought that it needed to be very intimate , but the director thought that the moment should be drawn out more while de Pablo and Michael Weatherly wanted to keep it brief . Furthermore , the latter two believed that simply looking at each other would be sufficient to convey the message to the audience . Eventually , de Pablo approached O 'Hara and said , " Listen , if there was any more time of staring into each other 's eyes , it would be like , cut to a hotel room . " In an interview , she explained that she and Weatherly played the characters as being at a more vulnerable level than is typical for the show . She likened Tony to a " man Teddy Bear " in the episode ; in the Tony @-@ Ziva dynamic , he is normally portrayed as being the more juvenile of the two while Ziva is more mature and worldly . In " Berlin " , their roles are largely reversed as more of " the little girl in Ziva " is shown and as Tony takes charge of the situation while they are dancing . De Pablo said that she found this reversal in their interactions to be an interesting change .
Producers Avery Drewe and Richie Owens coordinated the visual effects during the final scene of the episode and were only able to do one take during filming . Stunt driver Steve Kelso drove the SUV when it crashed into Tony 's car , reportedly driving at 50 miles per hour , though bloggers indicated that they thought that the car looked more like it was going 80 miles per hour .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" Berlin " was seen by 17 @.@ 33 million live viewers at its April 23 , 2013 broadcast , with a 2 @.@ 8 / 8 share among adults aged 18 to 49 . A rating point represents one percent of the total number of television sets in American households , and a share means the percentage of television sets in use tuned to the program . In total viewers , " Berlin " was the highest rated show on the night it aired . The spin @-@ off NCIS : Los Angeles drew second and was seen by 14 @.@ 22 million viewers . Berlin had higher ratings and attracted more adults aged 18 – 49 than the previous episode , " Chasing Ghosts " .
= = = Critical reviews = = =
BuddyTV marked " Berlin " as number 9 on its list of " The 10 Best ' Tiva ' Episodes " , and Entertainment Weekly contributor Sandra Gonzalez remarked that the episode had " some of the best ' Tiva ' moments of all time " . TVline reviewers Matt Webb Mitovich and Michael Ausiello commented that the episode gave Tiva fans " the best of times ... [ and ] the worst of times " , and that there were both light and dark moments for the couple , " including ' diamond shopping , ' dancing ( punctuated by a meaningful Eli flashback ) and , yes , hand @-@ holding . "
Douglas Wolfe from TV Fanatic gave the episode 4 @.@ 8 / 5 and said that he did not think the episode could have been executed better . Wolfe emphasized Ziva 's back story with her father and speculated that many of her choices were based upon events that her family experienced , including her father 's repeated absences and the breakup of her parents ' marriage due to Eli 's indiscretions with a young Orli Elbaz , which also explained Ziva 's resentment of Elbaz . Wolfe was touched by Ziva 's dance with Tony , and her flashback to dancing with her father as a child while he tells her , " My Ziva . One day you will dance with a man who deserves your love " . In a TV Fanatic round table , Steve Marsi added , " What an emotionally loaded quote from the Eli flashback , followed by the much @-@ anticipated present @-@ day dance . " He went on to say that Sirtis did well as the new Mossad director and that " Counselor Deanna Troi was nothing but a faint memory " . Michelle Calbert from TV Equals praised the storyline and agreed that Marina Sirtis performed well in the role , saying that she found Orli to be a more likeable character than Eli David .
" Berlin " ended with Tony and Ziva being in what appeared to be a severe car crash , so viewers speculated about the extent of the damage done and focused on the fact that Ziva 's portrayer had not yet renewed her contract for the show at the time . TV Guide called the car crash in the closing moments of the episode as its " best cliffhanger " of the week .
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= SMS Friedrich der Grosse ( 1911 ) =
SMS Friedrich der Grosse was the second vessel of the Kaiser class of battleships of the German Imperial Navy . Friedrich der Grosse 's keel was laid on 26 January 1910 at the AG Vulcan dockyard in Hamburg , her hull was launched on 10 June 1911 , and she was commissioned into the fleet on 15 October 1912 . The ship was equipped with ten 30 @.@ 5 @-@ centimeter ( 12 @.@ 0 in ) guns in five twin turrets , and had a top speed of 23 @.@ 4 knots ( 43 @.@ 3 km / h ; 26 @.@ 9 mph ) . Friedrich der Grosse was assigned to the III Squadron of the High Seas Fleet for the majority of World War I , and served as fleet flagship from her commissioning until 1917 .
Along with her four sister ships , Kaiser , Kaiserin , König Albert , and Prinzregent Luitpold , Friedrich der Grosse participated in all the major fleet operations of World War I , including the Battle of Jutland on 31 May – 1 June 1916 . Toward the center of the German line , Friedrich der Grosse was not as heavily engaged as the leading German ships , such as the battleships König and Grosser Kurfürst and the battlecruisers of the I Scouting Group — Friedrich der Grosse emerged from the battle completely unscathed . In 1917 , the new battleship Baden replaced Friedrich der Grosse as the fleet flagship .
After Germany 's defeat in the war and the signing of the Armistice in November 1918 , Friedrich der Grosse and most of the capital ships of the High Seas Fleet were interned by the British Royal Navy in Scapa Flow . The ships were disarmed and reduced to skeleton crews while the Allied powers negotiated the final version of the Treaty of Versailles . On 21 June 1919 , days before the treaty was signed , the commander of the interned fleet , Rear Admiral Ludwig von Reuter , ordered the fleet to be scuttled to ensure that the British would not be able to seize the ships . Friedrich der Grosse was raised in 1936 and broken up for scrap metal . Her bell was returned to Germany in 1965 and is now located at the Fleet Headquarters in Glücksburg .
= = Construction = =
Ordered under the contract name Ersatz Heimdall as a replacement for the obsolete coastal defense ship Heimdall , Friedrich der Grosse was laid down at the AG Vulcan dockyard in Hamburg on 26 January 1910 . She was launched on 10 June 1911 , after which AG Vulcan conducted builder 's trials . At her launching ceremony , Princess Alexandra Victoria performed the christening and Field Marshal Colmar Freiherr von der Goltz gave a speech . She was then transferred to Wilhelmshaven and commissioned into the fleet on 15 October 1912 . Exercises in the Baltic Sea followed ; Friedrich der Grosse then went to Kiel for final fitting @-@ out work . On 22 January 1913 , the ship was finally ready for active service . She cost the German government 45 @,@ 802 @,@ 000 marks .
Friedrich der Grosse was 172 @.@ 40 m ( 565 ft 7 in ) long overall and displaced a maximum of 27 @,@ 000 metric tons ( 26 @,@ 570 long tons ) . The ship had a beam of 29 m ( 95 ft 2 in ) and a draft of 9 @.@ 10 m ( 29 ft 10 in ) forward and 8 @.@ 80 m ( 28 ft 10 in ) aft . She was powered by three sets of AEG Curtis turbines , supplied with steam by 16 coal @-@ fired boilers . On trials , the powerplant produced a top speed of 22 @.@ 4 knots ( 41 @.@ 5 km / h ; 25 @.@ 8 mph ) . She carried 3 @,@ 600 metric tons ( 3 @,@ 500 long tons ) of coal , which enabled a maximum range of 7 @,@ 900 nautical miles ( 14 @,@ 600 km ; 9 @,@ 100 mi ) at a cruising speed of 12 knots ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) . Friedrich der Grosse was protected by heavy Krupp cemented armor ; the main armored belt was 350 mm ( 14 in ) thick amidships and the conning tower had 400 mm ( 16 in ) thick sides . The gun turrets had 300 mm ( 12 in ) sides . As with the other four ships in her class , Friedrich der Grosse carried anti @-@ torpedo nets until after the Battle of Jutland in 1916 .
The ship was armed with a main battery of ten 30 @.@ 5 cm SK L / 50 guns in five twin turrets . She disposed with the inefficient hexagonal turret arrangement of previous German battleships ; instead , three of the five turrets were mounted on the centerline , with two of them arranged in a superfiring pair aft . The other two turrets were placed en echelon amidships , such that both could fire on the broadside . The ship was also armed with fourteen 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) SK L / 45 guns in casemates amidships , eight 8 @.@ 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) SK L / 45 guns in casemates ; these were removed during the war and replaced with four 8 @.@ 8 cm L / 45 anti @-@ aircraft guns . Her armament was rounded out by five 50 cm ( 20 in ) torpedo tubes , all mounted in the ship 's hull .
= = Service history = =
After her commissioning in January 1913 , Friedrich der Grosse conducted sea trials before becoming the fleet flagship on 2 March , replacing Deutschland . The ship participated in her first round of fleet maneuvers in February 1913 , which were conducted in the Kattegat and the North Sea . The next month saw another round of exercises , from 12 to 14 March . The ship went into dock for periodic maintenance in April , and was ready for artillery training by the end of the month . Extensive fleet maneuvers were conducted in the North Sea from 5 to 27 May . Friedrich der Grosse , as the Navy 's newest battleship , was sent to Kiel for Kiel Week in June . While there , she was visited by the Italian king Victor Emmanuel III and his wife Elena . In mid @-@ July , the fleet conducted its annual summer cruise to Norway , which lasted until mid @-@ August . During the cruise , Friedrich der Grosse visited Balholmen , Norway . The autumn maneuvers followed after the fleet returned ; they lasted from 31 August to 9 September . Unit drills and individual ship training were conducted in October and November .
In early 1914 , Friedrich der Grosse participated in additional ship and unit training . The annual spring maneuvers were conducted in the North Sea at the end of March . Further fleet exercises followed in April and May in the Baltic and North Seas . The ship again went to Kiel Week that year . Despite the rising international tensions following the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand on 28 June , the High Seas Fleet began its summer cruise to Norway on 13 July . During the last peacetime cruise of the Imperial Navy , the fleet conducted drills off Skagen before proceeding to the Norwegian fjords on 25 July . The following day the fleet began to steam back to Germany , as a result of Austria @-@ Hungary 's ultimatum to Serbia . On the 27th , the entire fleet assembled off Cape Skudenes before returning to port , where they remained at a heightened state of readiness . War between Austria @-@ Hungary and Serbia broke out the following day , and in the span of a week all of the major European powers had joined the conflict .
= = = World War I = = =
The High Seas Fleet , including Friedrich der Grosse , conducted a number of sweeps and advances into the North Sea . The first occurred on 2 – 3 November 1914 , though no British forces were encountered . Admiral Friedrich von Ingenohl , the commander of the High Seas Fleet , adopted a strategy in which the battlecruisers of Rear Admiral Franz von Hipper 's I Scouting Group raided British coastal towns to lure out portions of the Grand Fleet where they could be destroyed by the High Seas Fleet . The raid on Scarborough , Hartlepool and Whitby on 15 – 16 December 1914 was the first such operation . On the evening of 15 December , the German battle fleet of some twelve dreadnoughts — including Friedrich der Grosse and her four sisters — and eight pre @-@ dreadnoughts came to within 10 nmi ( 19 km ; 12 mi ) of an isolated squadron of six British battleships . Skirmishes between the rival destroyer screens in the darkness convinced von Ingenohl that he was faced with the entire Grand Fleet . Under orders from Kaiser Wilhelm II to avoid risking the fleet unnecessarily , von Ingenohl broke off the engagement and turned the battle fleet back toward Germany .
Following the loss of SMS Blücher at the Battle of Dogger Bank in January 1915 , the Kaiser removed Admiral von Ingenohl from his post on 2 February . Admiral Hugo von Pohl replaced him as commander of the fleet . Admiral von Pohl conducted a series of fleet advances in 1915 in which Friedrich der Grosse took part ; in the first one on 29 – 30 March , the fleet steamed out to the north of Terschelling and return without incident . Another followed on 17 – 18 April , where Friedrich der Grosse and the rest of the fleet covered a mining operation by the II Scouting Group . Three days later , on 21 – 22 April , the High Seas Fleet advanced toward Dogger Bank , though again failed to meet any British forces .
The II Scouting Group performed another minelaying operation on 17 – 18 May , and Friedrich der Grosse and the rest of the fleet steamed out in support . Less than two weeks later on 29 – 30 May , the fleet attempted to conduct a sweep in the North Sea , but inclement weather forced Pohl to cancel the operation some 50 nmi ( 93 km ; 58 mi ) off Schiermonnikoog . The fleet remained in port until 10 August , when it sortied to Helgoland to cover the return of the auxiliary cruiser Möwe . A month later , on 11 – 12 September , the fleet covered another mine @-@ laying operation off the Swarte Bank . The last operation of the year , conducted on 23 – 24 October , was an advance without result in the direction of Horns Reef .
On 11 January 1916 , Admiral Reinhard Scheer replaced von Pohl , who was suffering from liver cancer . A week later on the 18th , Scheer hoisted his flag aboard Friedrich der Grosse . Scheer proposed a more aggressive policy designed to force a confrontation with the British Grand Fleet ; he received approval from the Kaiser in February . The first of Scheer 's operations was conducted the following month , on 5 – 7 March , with an uneventful sweep of the Hoofden . On 25 – 26 March , Scheer attempted to attack British forces that had raided Tondern , but failed to locate them . Another advance to Horns Reef followed on 21 – 22 April .
On 24 April , the battlecruisers of Von Hipper 's I Scouting Group conducted a raid on the English coast . Friedrich der Grosse and the rest of the fleet sailed in distant support . The battlecruiser Seydlitz struck a mine while en route to the target , and had to withdraw . The other battlecruisers bombarded the town of Lowestoft unopposed but , during the approach to Yarmouth , they encountered the British cruisers of the Harwich Force . A short artillery duel ensued before the Harwich Force withdrew . Reports of British submarines in the area prompted the retreat of the I Scouting Group . At this point , Scheer , who had been warned of the sortie of the Grand Fleet from its base in Scapa Flow , also withdrew to safer German waters .
= = = = Battle of Jutland = = = =
Soon after the Lowestoft raid , Scheer began planning another foray into the North Sea . He had initially intended to launch the operation in mid @-@ May , by which time the mine damage to Seydlitz was scheduled to be repaired — Scheer was unwilling to embark on a major raid without his battlecruiser forces at full strength . On 9 May , several battleships developed problems with their engines , which delayed the operation further , to 23 May . By 22 May , Seydlitz was still not fully repaired and the operation was again postponed , to 29 May . At noon on 29 May , the repairs to Seydlitz were finally completed , and the ship returned to the I Scouting Group . The plan called for Hipper 's battlecruisers to steam north to the Skagerrak , with the intention of luring out a portion of the British fleet so it could be destroyed by Scheer 's waiting battleships .
Friedrich der Grosse was the eighth ship in the German line ; the four König @-@ class ships of the V Division , III Battle Squadron , led the line , followed by four Kaiser @-@ class ships in the VI Division , III Battle Squadron . Friedrich der Grosse was the last ship in her division , directly astern of Prinzregent Luitpold and ahead of Ostfriesland , the flagship of Vice Admiral Schmidt 's I Division , I Battle Squadron . The eight Helgoland- and Nassau @-@ class battleships constituted the I Squadron , which was followed by the six elderly pre @-@ dreadnoughts of Rear Admiral Franz Mauve 's II Squadron . Hipper 's five battlecruisers , the scouting force for the fleet , left the Jade estuary at 02 : 00 on 31 May ; Scheer and the High Seas Fleet followed an hour and a half later .
Shortly before 16 : 00 the battlecruisers of I Scouting Group encountered the British 1st Battlecruiser Squadron under the command of Vice Admiral Sir David Beatty . The opposing ships began an artillery duel that saw the destruction of Indefatigable , shortly after 17 : 00 , and Queen Mary , less than half an hour later . By this time , the German battlecruisers were steaming south to draw the British ships toward the main body of the High Seas Fleet . At 17 : 30 , König 's crew spotted both the I Scouting Group and the 1st Battlecruiser Squadron approaching . The German battlecruisers were steaming to starboard , while the British ships steamed to port . At 17 : 45 , Scheer ordered a two @-@ point turn to port to bring his ships closer to the British battlecruisers and the accompanying fast battleships of the 5th Battle Squadron ; a minute later , he gave the order to open fire .
Friedrich der Grosse was still out of range of both the British battlecruisers and the 5th Battle Squadron , and so held her fire initially . Between 17 : 48 and 17 : 52 , Friedrich der Grosse and ten other battleships engaged the 2nd Light Cruiser Squadron , though only Nassau managed to score a hit during this period . Shortly after , the German battle line came across the disabled destroyers Nestor and Nomad . Friedrich der Grosse and her three sisters targeted Nomad and quickly sank her . Nestor was similarly dispatched by the I Squadron ships . Shortly after 19 : 00 , a melee between the German line and British cruisers took place . The center of the action was the damaged German cruiser Wiesbaden , which had been disabled by a shell from the British battlecruiser Invincible . Rear Admiral Behncke in König attempted to maneuver the III Squadron to cover the stricken cruiser . Simultaneously , the British 3rd and 4th Light Cruiser Squadrons began a torpedo attack on the German line ; while advancing to torpedo range , they smothered Wiesbaden with fire from their main guns . The eight III Squadron battleships fired on the British cruisers , but even the sustained fire from the battleships ' main guns failed to drive off the British cruisers . The armored cruisers Defence , Warrior , and Black Prince joined in the attack on the crippled Wiesbaden . While most of the III Squadron battleships rained heavy fire upon the attacking armored cruisers , Friedrich der Grosse and the I Squadron ships engaged the battleship Warspite at ranges from 9 @,@ 600 to 12 @,@ 500 yd ( 8 @,@ 800 to 11 @,@ 400 m ) , until Warspite disappeared in the haze . In this period , Warspite was hit by 13 heavy shells , though the ships that fired them are unknown .
After successfully withdrawing from the British , Scheer ordered the fleet to assume night cruising formation , though communication errors between Scheer aboard Friedrich der Grosse and Westfalen , the lead ship , caused delays . The series of reversals in course and confused maneuvers disorganized the fleet and inverted the sequence of ships , but by 23 : 30 the fleet had reached its cruising formation . Friedrich der Grosse was now the ninth ship in a line of twenty @-@ four , headed by the eight I Squadron ships . Shortly after 01 : 00 , the British cruiser Black Prince stumbled into the German line . Searchlights aboard Thüringen illuminated the target ; Friedrich der Grosse , Thüringen , Nassau , and Ostfriesland hammered the cruiser at point @-@ blank range with main and secondary guns . In the span of a few minutes Black Prince exploded and sank , taking her entire crew of 857 with her .
After a series of night engagements between the I Squadron battleships and British destroyers , the High Seas Fleet punched through the British light forces and reached Horns Reef by 04 : 00 on 1 June . The German fleet reached Wilhelmshaven a few hours later ; five of the I Squadron battleships took up defensive positions in the outer roadstead , and Kaiser , Kaiserin , Prinzregent Luitpold , and Kronprinz stood ready just outside the entrance to Wilhelmshaven . The rest of the fleet entered Wilhelmshaven , where Friedrich der Grosse and the other ships still in fighting condition replenished their stocks of coal and ammunition . In the course of the battle , Friedrich der Grosse had fired 72 main battery shells and 151 rounds from her secondary guns . She emerged from the battle completely undamaged .
= = = = Subsequent North Sea operations = = = =
On 18 August 1916 , Friedrich der Grosse took part in an operation to bombard Sunderland . Admiral Scheer attempted a repeat of the original 31 May plan : the two serviceable German battlecruisers , Moltke and Von der Tann , augmented by three faster dreadnoughts , were to bombard the coastal town of Sunderland in an attempt to draw out and destroy Beatty 's battlecruisers . Scheer , in Friedrich der Grosse , would trail behind with the rest of the fleet and provide support . Scheer turned north after receiving a false report from a zeppelin about a British unit in the area . As a result , the bombardment was not carried out , and by 14 : 35 , Scheer had been warned of the Grand Fleet 's approach and so turned his forces around and retreated to German ports .
Another fleet operation took place on 18 – 19 October , though it ended without encountering any British units . The fleet was reorganized on 1 December ; the four König @-@ class battleships remained in III Squadron , along with the newly commissioned Bayern , while the five Kaiser @-@ class ships , including Friedrich der Grosse , were transferred to IV Squadron . In March 1917 the new battleship Baden , built to serve as fleet flagship , entered service ; on the 17th , Scheer hauled down his flag from Friedrich der Grosse and transferred it to Baden . On 4 – 5 July , crewmen aboard Friedrich der Grosse staged a hunger strike in protest over the poor quality and insufficient quantity of the food they were given . The ship 's officers relented , fed the crew a meal of groat soup and agreed to form a Menagekommission , a council that gave the enlisted men a voice in their ration selection and preparation . Further insubordination on several vessels followed on 11 July , and the ringleaders were arrested and put on trial . Max Reichpietsch , a stoker from Friedrich der Grosse was sentenced to death and executed by firing squad on 5 September in Cologne .
= = = = Operation Albion = = = =
In early September 1917 , following the German conquest of the Russian port of Riga , the German navy decided to eliminate the Russian naval forces that still held the Gulf of Riga . The Admiralstab ( Navy High Command ) planned an operation to seize the Baltic island of Ösel , and specifically the Russian gun batteries on the Sworbe Peninsula . The Admiralstab issued orders on 18 September for a joint operation with the army to capture Ösel and Moon Islands ; the primary naval component was to comprise the flagship , Moltke , and the III and IV Battle Squadrons of the High Seas Fleet . Along with nine light cruisers , three torpedo boat flotillas , and dozens of mine warfare ships , the entire force numbered some 300 ships , supported by over 100 aircraft and six zeppelins . The invasion force amounted to approximately 24 @,@ 600 officers and enlisted men . Opposing the Germans were the old Russian pre @-@ dreadnoughts Slava and Tsesarevich , the armored cruisers Bayan , Admiral Makarov , and Diana , 26 destroyers , and several torpedo boats and gunboats . The garrison on Ösel numbered some 14 @,@ 000 men .
The operation began on the morning of 12 October , when Moltke and the III Squadron ships engaged Russian positions in Tagga Bay while Friedrich der Grosse and the rest of IV Squadron shelled Russian gun batteries on the Sworbe Peninsula on Ösel . The coastal artillery in both locations were quickly silenced by the battleships ' heavy guns . On the morning of the 14th , Friedrich der Grosse , Kaiserin , and König Albert were detached to support German troops advancing toward Anseküll . The three ships fired on the battery at Zerel for an hour , which prompted most of the Russian gun crews to flee their posts .
By 20 October , the fighting on the islands was winding down ; Moon , Ösel , and Dagö were in German possession . The previous day , the Admiralstab had ordered the cessation of naval actions and the return of the dreadnoughts to the High Seas Fleet as soon as possible . On 27 October , Friedrich der Grosse was detached from the Baltic and returned to the North Sea . Upon her return , she resumed guard duties . The ship participated in the fruitless advance to Norway on 23 – 25 April 1918 . Afterward , she went into drydock for extensive maintenance , which lasted from 26 July to 28 September .
= = = Fate = = =
Friedrich der Grosse and her four sisters were to have taken part in a final fleet action at the end of October 1918 , days before the Armistice was to take effect . The bulk of the High Seas Fleet was to have sortied from their base in Wilhelmshaven to engage the British Grand Fleet ; Scheer — by now the Grossadmiral ( Grand Admiral ) of the fleet — intended to inflict as much damage as possible on the British navy , to ensure a better bargaining position for Germany , despite the expected casualties . However , many of the war @-@ weary sailors felt the operation would disrupt the peace process and prolong the war . On the morning of 29 October 1918 , the order was given to sail from Wilhelmshaven the following day . Starting on the night of 29 October , sailors on Thüringen and then on several other battleships mutinied . On the 30th , crewmen aboard Friedrich der Grosse engaged in forms of passive resistance , including a " go @-@ slow " while replenishing the ship 's coal stock . The unrest ultimately forced Hipper and Scheer to cancel the operation . Informed of the situation , the Kaiser stated " I no longer have a navy . "
Following the capitulation of Germany in November 1918 , most of the High Seas Fleet , under the command of Rear Admiral Ludwig von Reuter , were interned in the British naval base in Scapa Flow . Prior to the departure of the German fleet , Admiral Adolf von Trotha made clear to Von Reuter that he could not allow the Allies to seize the ships , under any conditions . The fleet rendezvoused with the British light cruiser Cardiff , which led the ships to the Allied fleet that was to escort the Germans to Scapa Flow . The massive flotilla consisted of some 370 British , American , and French warships . Once the ships were interned , their guns were disabled through the removal of their breech blocks , and their crews were reduced to 200 officers and enlisted men .
The fleet remained in captivity during the negotiations that ultimately produced the Treaty of Versailles . Von Reuter believed that the British intended to seize the German ships on 21 June 1919 , which was the deadline for Germany to sign the peace treaty . Unaware that the deadline had been extended to the 23rd , Reuter ordered the ships to be sunk at the next opportunity . On the morning of 21 June , the British fleet left Scapa Flow to conduct training maneuvers , and at 11 : 20 Reuter transmitted the order to his ships . Friedrich der Grosse capsized and sank at 12 : 16 . In 1936 , the ship was raised and broken up for scrap ; the work was completed by 29 April 1937 . On 30 August 1965 , Britain returned the ship 's bell to Germany via the frigate Scheer ; it now resides at the Fleet Headquarters of the German Navy in Glücksburg .
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= Elmer S. Dailey =
Elmer S. Dailey , originally known as the Claire B. Follette , is a wooden barge built by William H. Follette in 1915 at Tonawanda , New York , and rebuilt and renamed in 1928 by Brown Drydock on Staten Island , New York . It was used to transport materials from New York , New Jersey and Connecticut . It is the only known surviving Erie Canal boat and is one of a few remaining wooden @-@ hulled canal boats . It sank in 1974 along with the Priscilla Dailey and the Berkshire No. 7 , and has deteriorated to the point that a salvage operation could result in it breaking apart . It was added to the National Register of Historic Places on December 21 , 1978 .
= = Description = =
The barge is an Erie Canal boat that has two Fairbanks @-@ Morse in @-@ line six @-@ cylinder diesel engines . It measures 105 @.@ 2 feet ( 32 @.@ 1 m ) long with a 17 @.@ 9 feet ( 5 @.@ 5 m ) beam . The depth of the hold is listed at 9 @.@ 9 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) and it had a listed capacity of 101 tons .
Clouette describes the Elmer S. Dailey as having an " almost rectangular hull in section and plan , with bluntly rounded bow and stern ... the bulwarks , perforated by scuppers , rise up to the stem which is slightly raked back . There are prominent strakes in the bow and topside along the sides of the vessel . A coaming about 2 feet ( 0 @.@ 61 m ) high frames the single large cargo opening which occupies about two @-@ thirds of the boat 's length " . The cargo opening is covered by convex hatch covers . Towards the stern is a rectangular pilothouse and a low cabin with a companionway which has a protruding stack .
= = History = =
The Elmer S. Dailey was originally known as the Claire B. Follette when it was built by William H. Follette in 1915 at Tonawanda , New York . In 1928 , the ship was rebuilt by Brown Drydock on Staten Island and acquired the name Elmer S. Dailey . Brown Drydock installed two Fairbanks @-@ Morse in @-@ line six @-@ cylinder diesel engines and added the pilothouse and stack . At an unspecified later date , one engine was removed and a direct @-@ drive engine , rated at 180 or 210 horsepower , operated on compressed air . In its final configuration , the vessel was manned by a three @-@ man crew .
The ship was owned by Stewart J. Dailey , a former mule driver on the Erie Canal who later became a partner in a Tonawanda shipbuilding company and afterwards opened his own business , S. J. Dailey Company .
The barge was used to transport materials between New York , New Jersey , and Connecticut , and after the diesel engines were added , it was able to push another barge . It was in service between 1941 and 1972 , and afterwards was moored in Bridgeport Harbor together with the Berkshire No. 7 and Priscilla Dailey .
In the spring of 1974 , one of the barges began to take on water , dragging down the other two . No part of the barge is visible above water . Elmer S. Dailey is listed in the U.S. Registry as # 166315 .
= = Importance = =
The Elmer S. Dailey is historically significant because it is the only known surviving Erie Canal boat and is one of a few remaining wooden @-@ hulled canal boats . It was added to the National Register of Historic Places on December 21 , 1978 . It and the other two barges that sank with it are the only shipwrecks in Connecticut listed on the National Register of Historic Places .
In 1998 , the historic status of the barges was a concern for the Port Authority of Bridgeport Harbor , as the sunken ships interfered with a billion @-@ dollar redevelopment project . Over the years , the barges had deteriorated so that an operation to salvage them would likely result in it breaking apart . No action had been taken by 2003 , but a report noted that prior to any activity of the Elmer S. Dailey the Federal Transit Administration and / or the City of Bridgeport should document the barge with photos and a technical description . Specifics regarding the documentation based on the activity would be archived at the State Historic Preservation Office and the Mystic Seaport Museum .
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= Joe Biden =
Joseph Robinette " Joe " Biden Jr . ( / ˈdʒoʊsᵻf rɒbᵻˈnɛt ˈbaɪdən / ; born November 20 , 1942 ) is the 47th and current Vice President of the United States , having been jointly elected twice with President Barack Obama . A member of the Democratic Party , Biden represented Delaware as a United States Senator from 1973 until becoming Vice President in 2009 .
Biden was born in Scranton , Pennsylvania , in 1942 , and lived there for ten years before moving to Delaware . He became an attorney in 1969 , and was elected to the New Castle County council in 1970 . Biden was first elected to the Senate in 1972 , and became the sixth @-@ youngest senator in U.S. history . He was re @-@ elected to the Senate six times , and was the fourth most senior senator at the time of his resignation to assume the Vice Presidency in 2009 . Biden was a long @-@ time member and former chairman of the Foreign Relations Committee . He opposed the Gulf War in 1991 , but advocated U.S. and NATO intervention in the Bosnian War in 1994 and 1995 . Biden voted in favor of the resolution authorizing the Iraq War in 2002 , but opposed the surge of U.S. troops in 2007 . He has also served as chairman of the Senate Judiciary Committee , dealing with issues related to drug policy , crime prevention , and civil liberties , and led the legislative efforts for creation of the Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act , and the Violence Against Women Act . He chaired the Judiciary Committee during the contentious U.S. Supreme Court nominations of Robert Bork and Clarence Thomas .
Biden unsuccessfully sought the Democratic presidential nomination in 1988 and in 2008 , both times dropping out early in the race . In the 2008 U.S. presidential election , Barack Obama chose Biden to be his running mate in the race , which they won . Biden became the first Roman Catholic , and the first Delawarean , to be Vice President of the United States .
As Vice President in the Obama administration , Biden oversaw the infrastructure spending aimed at counteracting the Great Recession , and U.S. policy toward Iraq up until the withdrawal of U.S. troops in 2011 . His ability to negotiate with congressional Republicans helped bring about legislation such as the Tax Relief , Unemployment Insurance Reauthorization , and Job Creation Act of 2010 that resolved a taxation deadlock , the Budget Control Act of 2011 that resolved that year 's debt ceiling crisis , and the American Taxpayer Relief Act of 2012 that addressed the impending " fiscal cliff " . In 2011 , Biden opposed going ahead with the military mission that resulted in the death of Osama bin Laden . Obama and Biden were re @-@ elected in 2012 . In October 2015 , after months of speculation , Biden chose not to run for President of the United States in 2016 .
= = Early life = =
Biden was born on November 20 , 1942 , at St. Mary 's Hospital in Scranton , Pennsylvania , to Catherine Eugenia " Jean " Biden ( née Finnegan ; 1917 – 2010 ) and Joseph Robinette " Joe " Biden Sr. ( 1915 – 2002 ) . He was the first of four siblings in a Catholic family , with a sister , Valerie , and two brothers , James and Frank , following . His mother was of either Irish or Northern Irish descent , with roots variously attributed to County Louth or County Londonderry . His paternal grandparents , Mary Elizabeth ( Robinette ) and Joseph H. Biden , an oil businessman from Baltimore , Maryland , were of English , French , and Irish ancestry . His paternal great @-@ great @-@ great grandfather , William Biden , was born in Sussex , England , and immigrated to the United States . His maternal great @-@ grandfather , Edward Francis Blewitt , was a member of the Pennsylvania State Senate .
Biden 's father had been very well @-@ off earlier in his life , but suffered several business reversals by the time Biden was born . For several years , the family had to live with Biden 's maternal grandparents , the Finnegans . When the Scranton area went into economic decline during the 1950s , Biden 's father could not find enough work . In 1953 , the Biden family moved to an apartment in Claymont , Delaware , where they lived for a few years before moving to a house in Wilmington , Delaware . Joe Biden Sr. then did better as a used car salesman , and the family 's circumstances were middle class .
Biden attended the Archmere Academy in Claymont , Delaware , where he was a standout halfback / wide receiver on the high school football team ; he helped lead a perennially losing team to an undefeated season in his senior year . He played on the baseball team as well . During these years , he participated in an anti @-@ segregation sit @-@ in at a Wilmington theatre . Academically , Biden was an above @-@ average student , was considered a natural leader among the students , and was elected class president during his junior and senior years . He graduated in 1961 .
Biden earned his BA in 1965 from the University of Delaware , with a double major in history and political science , graduating with a class rank of 506 out of 688 . His classmates were impressed by his cramming abilities , and he played halfback with the Blue Hens freshman football team . In 1964 , while on spring break in the Bahamas , he met and began dating Neilia Hunter , who was from an affluent background in Skaneateles , New York and attended Syracuse University . He told her that he aimed to become a Senator by the age of 30 and then President . He dropped a junior year plan to play for the varsity football team as a defensive back , enabling him to spend more time visiting out of state with her .
He then entered Syracuse University College of Law , receiving a half scholarship based on financial need with some additional assistance based on academics . By his own description , he found law school to be " the biggest bore in the world " and pulled many all @-@ nighters to get by . During his first year there , he was accused of having plagiarized 5 of 15 pages of a law review article . Biden said it was inadvertent due to his not knowing the proper rules of citation , and he was permitted to retake the course after receiving an " F " grade , which was subsequently dropped from his record ( this incident would later attract attention when further plagiarism accusations emerged in 1987 ) . He received his Juris Doctor in 1968 , graduating 76th of 85 in his class . Biden was admitted to the Delaware bar in 1969 .
Biden received student draft deferments during this period , at the peak of the Vietnam War , and in 1968 , he was reclassified by the Selective Service System as not available for service due to having had asthma as a teenager . He never took part in anti @-@ war demonstrations , later saying that at the time he was preoccupied with marriage and law school , and " wore sports coats ... not tie @-@ dyed " .
Negative impressions of drinking alcohol in the Biden and Finnegan families and in the neighborhood led to Joe Biden becoming a teetotaler . Biden suffered from stuttering through much of his childhood and into his twenties , and overcame it by spending many hours reciting poetry in front of a mirror .
= = Early political career and family life = =
On August 27 , 1966 , Biden , while still a law student , married Neilia Hunter . They overcame her parents ' initial reluctance for her to wed a Roman Catholic , and the ceremony was held in a Catholic church in Skaneateles . They had three children , Joseph R. " Beau " Biden III ( 1969 – 2015 ) , Robert Hunter ( born 1970 ) , and Naomi Christina ( 1971 – 1972 ) .
During 1968 , Biden clerked for six months at a Wilmington law firm headed by prominent local Republican William Prickett and , as he later said , " thought of myself as a Republican " . He disliked the conservative racial politics of incumbent Democratic Governor of Delaware Charles L. Terry and supported a more liberal Republican , Russell W. Peterson , who defeated Terry in 1968 . The local Republicans tried to recruit Biden , but he resisted due to his distaste for Republican presidential candidate Richard M. Nixon , and registered as an Independent instead .
In 1969 , Biden resumed practicing law in Wilmington , first as a public defender and then at a firm headed by Sid Balick , a locally active Democrat . Balick named Biden to the Democratic Forum , a group trying to reform and revitalize the state party , and Biden switched his registration to Democratic . Biden also started his own firm , Biden and Walsh . Corporate law , however , did not appeal to him and criminal law did not pay well . He supplemented his income by managing properties .
Later in 1969 , Biden ran as a Democrat for the New Castle County Council on a liberal platform that included support for public housing in the suburban area . He won by a solid , two @-@ thousand vote margin in the usually Republican district and in a bad year for Democrats in the state . Even before taking his seat , he was already talking about running for the U.S. Senate in a couple of years . Biden served on the County Council from 1970 to 1972 while continuing his private law practice . Among issues he addressed on the council was his opposition to large highway projects that might disrupt Wilmington neighborhoods , including those related to Interstate 95 .
= = United States Senator = =
= = = Election and tragedy ; recovery and new family = = =
Biden 's entry into the 1972 U.S. Senate election in Delaware presented a unique circumstance . Longtime Delaware political figure and Republican incumbent Senator J. Caleb Boggs was considering retirement , which would likely have left U.S. Representative Pete du Pont and Wilmington Mayor Harry G. Haskell Jr. in a divisive primary fight . To avoid that , U.S. President Richard M. Nixon helped convince Boggs to run again with full party support . No other Democrat wanted to run against Boggs . Biden 's campaign had virtually no money and was given no chance of winning . It was managed by his sister Valerie Biden Owens ( who would go on to manage his future campaigns as well ) and staffed by other members of his family , and relied upon handed @-@ out newsprint position papers and meeting voters face @-@ to @-@ face ; the small size of the state and lack of a major media market made the approach feasible . Biden did receive some assistance from the AFL @-@ CIO and Democratic pollster Patrick Caddell . Biden 's campaign issues focused on withdrawal from Vietnam , the environment , civil rights , mass transit , more equitable taxation , health care , the public 's dissatisfaction with politics @-@ as @-@ usual , and " change " . During the summer , Biden trailed by almost 30 percentage points , but his energy level , his attractive young family , and his ability to connect with voters ' emotions gave the surging Biden an advantage over the ready @-@ to @-@ retire Boggs . Biden won the November 7 , 1972 , election in an upset by a margin of 3 @,@ 162 votes .
On December 18 , 1972 , a few weeks after the election , Biden 's wife and one @-@ year @-@ old daughter Naomi were killed in an automobile accident while Christmas shopping in Hockessin , Delaware . Neilia Biden 's station wagon was hit by a tractor @-@ trailer as she pulled out from an intersection ; the truck driver was cleared of any wrongdoing . Biden 's sons Beau and Hunter survived the accident and were taken to the hospital in fair condition , Beau with a broken leg and other wounds , and Hunter with a minor skull fracture and other head injuries . Doctors soon said both would make full recoveries . Biden considered resigning to care for them , but was persuaded not to by Senate Majority Leader Mike Mansfield .
Biden was sworn into office on January 5 , 1973 , by Francis R. Valeo , the Secretary of the Senate in a small chapel at the Delaware Division of the Wilmington Medical Center . Beau was wheeled in with his leg still in traction ; Hunter , who had already been released , was also there , as were other members of the extended family . Witnesses and television cameras were also present and the event received national attention .
At age 30 ( the minimum age required to hold the office ) , Biden became the sixth @-@ youngest senator in U.S. history , and one of only 18 senators who took office before reaching the age of 31 . But the accident left him filled with both anger and religious doubt : " I liked to [ walk around seedy neighborhoods ] at night when I thought there was a better chance of finding a fight ... I had not known I was capable of such rage ... I felt God had played a horrible trick on me . " To be at home every day for his young sons , Biden began the practice of commuting every day by Amtrak train for 1 ½ hours each way from his home in the Wilmington suburbs to Washington , D.C. , which he continued to do throughout his Senate career . In the aftermath of the accident , he had trouble focusing on work , and appeared to just go through the motions of being a senator . In his memoirs , Biden notes that staffers were taking bets on how long he would last . A single father for five years , Biden left standing orders that he be interrupted in the Senate at any time if his sons called . In remembrance of his wife and daughter , Biden does not work on December 18 , the anniversary of the accident .
Biden 's elder son , Beau , became Delaware Attorney General and an Army Judge Advocate who served in Iraq ; his younger son , Hunter , became a Washington attorney and lobbyist . On May 30 , 2015 , Beau died at the age of 46 after a two @-@ year battle with brain cancer . At the time of his death , Beau had been widely seen as the frontrunner to be the Democratic nominee for Governor of Delaware in 2016 .
In 1975 , Biden met Jill Tracy Jacobs , who grew up in Willow Grove , Pennsylvania , and would become a teacher in Delaware . They had met on a blind date arranged by Biden 's brother , although it turned out that Biden had already noticed a photograph of her earlier in an advertisement for a local park in Wilmington , Delaware . Biden would credit her with renewing his interest in both politics and life . On June 17 , 1977 , Biden and Jacobs were married by a Catholic priest at the Chapel at the United Nations in New York . Jill Biden has a bachelor 's degree from the University of Delaware ; two master 's degrees , one from West Chester University , and one Villanova University ; and a doctorate in education from the University of Delaware . They have one daughter together , Ashley Blazer ( born 1981 ) , who became a social worker and staffer at the Delaware Department of Services for Children , Youth , and Their Families . Biden and his wife are Roman Catholics and regularly attend Mass at St. Joseph 's on the Brandywine in Greenville , Delaware .
= = = Early Senate activities = = =
During his first years in the Senate , Biden focused on legislation regarding consumer @-@ protection and environmental issues and called for greater accountability on the part of government . In mid @-@ 1974 , freshman Senator Biden was named one of the 200 Faces for the Future by Time magazine , in a profile that mentioned what had happened to his family and characterized Biden as " self @-@ confident " and " compulsively ambitious " .
Biden became ranking minority member of the U.S. Senate Committee on the Judiciary in 1981 . In 1984 , he was Democratic floor manager for the successful passage of the Comprehensive Crime Control Act ; civil libertarians praised him for modifying some of the Act 's provisions , and it was his most important legislative accomplishment at that point in time . Biden first considered running for president in that year , after he gained notice for giving speeches to party audiences that simultaneously scolded and encouraged Democrats .
Regarding foreign policy , during his first decade in the Senate , Biden focused on arms control issues . In response to the refusal of the U.S. Congress to ratify the SALT II Treaty signed in 1979 by Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev and President Jimmy Carter , Biden took the initiative to meet the Soviet Foreign Minister Andrei Gromyko , educated him about American concerns and interests , and secured several changes to address objections of the Foreign Relations Committee . When the Reagan administration wanted to interpret the 1972 SALT I Treaty loosely in order to allow the Strategic Defense Initiative to proceed , Biden argued for strict adherence to the treaty 's terms . Biden clashed again with the Reagan administration in 1986 over economic sanctions against South Africa ; he received considerable attention when he excoriated Secretary of State George P. Shultz at a Senate hearing because of the administration 's support of that country , which continued to practice the apartheid system .
= = = 1988 presidential campaign = = =
Biden ran for the 1988 Democratic presidential nomination , formally declaring his candidacy at the Wilmington train station on June 9 , 1987 . He was attempting to become the youngest president since John F. Kennedy . When the campaign began , Biden was considered a potentially strong candidate because of his moderate image , his speaking ability on the stump , his appeal to Baby Boomers , his high profile position as chair of the Senate Judiciary Committee at the upcoming Robert Bork Supreme Court nomination hearings , and his fundraising appeal . He raised $ 1 @.@ 7 million in the first quarter of 1987 , more than any other candidate .
By August 1987 , Biden 's campaign , whose messaging was confused due to staff rivalries , had begun to lag behind those of Michael Dukakis and Dick Gephardt , although he had still raised more funds than all candidates but Dukakis , and was seeing an upturn in Iowa polls . In September 1987 , the campaign ran into trouble when he was accused of plagiarizing a speech that had been made earlier that year by Neil Kinnock , leader of the British Labour Party . Kinnock 's speech included the lines :
" Why am I the first Kinnock in a thousand generations to be able to get to university ? [ Then pointing to his wife in the audience ] Why is Glenys the first woman in her family in a thousand generations to be able to get to university ? Was it because all our predecessors were thick ? "
While Biden 's speech included the lines :
" I started thinking as I was coming over here , why is it that Joe Biden is the first in his family ever to go to a university ? [ Then pointing to his wife in the audience ] Why is it that my wife who is sitting out there in the audience is the first in her family to ever go to college ? Is it because our fathers and mothers were not bright ? Is it because I 'm the first Biden in a thousand generations to get a college and a graduate degree that I was smarter than the rest ? "
Biden had in fact cited Kinnock as the source for the formulation on previous occasions . But he made no reference to the original source at the August 23 Democratic debate at the Iowa State Fair being reported on , nor in an August 26 interview for the National Education Association . Moreover , while political speeches often appropriate ideas and language from each other , Biden 's use came under more scrutiny because he fabricated aspects of his own family 's background in order to match Kinnock 's . Biden was soon found to have earlier that year lifted passages from a 1967 speech by Robert F. Kennedy ( for which Biden aides took the blame ) and a short phrase from the 1961 inaugural address of John F. Kennedy , and in two prior years to have done the same with a 1976 passage from Hubert H. Humphrey .
A few days later , Biden 's plagiarism incident in law school came to public light . Video was also released showing that when earlier questioned by a New Hampshire resident about his grades in law school , Biden had stated that he had graduated in the " top half " of his class , that he had attended law school on a full scholarship , and that he had received three degrees in college , each of which was untrue or exaggerations of his actual record .
The Kinnock and school revelations were magnified by the limited amount of other news about the nomination race at the time , when most of the public were not yet paying attention to any of the campaigns ; Biden thus fell into what The Washington Post writer Paul Taylor described as that year 's trend , a " trial by media ordeal " . Biden lacked a strong demographic or political group of support to help him survive the crisis . He withdrew from the nomination race on September 23 , 1987 , saying his candidacy had been overrun by " the exaggerated shadow " of his past mistakes .
After Biden withdrew from the race , it was revealed that the Dukakis campaign had secretly made a video highlighting the Biden – Kinnock comparison and distributed it to news outlets . Later in 1987 , the Delaware Supreme Court 's Board of Professional Responsibility cleared Biden of the law school plagiarism charges regarding his standing as a lawyer , saying Biden had " not violated any rules " .
In February 1988 , after suffering from several episodes of increasingly severe neck pain , Biden was taken by long @-@ distance ambulance to Walter Reed Army Medical Center and given lifesaving surgery to correct an intracranial berry aneurysm that had begun leaking ; the situation was serious enough that a priest had administered last rites at the hospital . While recuperating , he suffered a pulmonary embolism , which represented a major complication . Another operation to repair a second aneurysm , which had caused no symptoms but was also at risk from bursting , was performed in May 1988 . The hospitalization and recovery kept Biden from his duties in the U.S. Senate for seven months . Biden has had no recurrences or effects from the aneurysms since then . In retrospect , Biden 's family came to believe that the early end to his presidential campaign had been a blessing in disguise , for had he still been campaigning in the midst of the primaries in early 1988 , he might well have not have stopped to seek medical attention and the condition might have become unsurvivable .
= = = Judiciary Committee = = =
Biden was a long @-@ time member of the U.S. Senate Committee on the Judiciary . He chaired it from 1987 until 1995 and he served as ranking minority member on it from 1981 until 1987 and again from 1995 until 1997 .
While chairman , Biden presided over the two most contentious U.S. Supreme Court confirmation hearings in history , those for Robert Bork in 1987 and Clarence Thomas in 1991 . In the Bork hearings , Biden stated his opposition to Bork soon after the nomination , reversing an approval in an interview of a hypothetical Bork nomination he had made the previous year and angering conservatives who thought he could not conduct the hearings dispassionately . At the close , Biden won praise for conducting the proceedings fairly and with good humor and courage , as his 1988 presidential campaign collapsed in the middle of the hearings . Rejecting some of the less intellectually honest arguments that other Bork opponents were making , Biden framed his discussion around the belief that the U.S. Constitution provides rights to liberty and privacy that extend beyond those explicitly enumerated in the text , and that Bork 's strong originalism was ideologically incompatible with that view . Bork 's nomination was rejected in the committee by a 9 – 5 vote , and then rejected in the full Senate by a 58 – 42 margin .
In the Thomas hearings , Biden 's questions on constitutional issues were often long and convoluted , sometimes such that Thomas forgot the question being asked . Viewers of the high @-@ profile hearings were often annoyed by Biden 's style . Thomas later wrote that despite earlier private assurances from the senator , Biden 's questions had been akin to a beanball . The nomination came out of the committee without a recommendation , with Biden opposed . In part due to his own bad experiences in 1987 with his presidential campaign , Biden was reluctant to let personal matters enter into the hearings . Biden initially shared with committee , but not the public , Anita Hill 's sexual harassment charges , on the grounds she was not yet willing to testify . After she did , Biden did not permit other witnesses to testify further on her behalf , such as Angela Wright ( who made a similar charge ) and experts on harassment . Biden said he was striving to preserve Thomas 's right to privacy and the decency of the hearings . The nomination was approved by a 52 – 48 vote in the full Senate , with Biden again opposed . During and afterwards , Biden was strongly criticized by liberal legal groups and women 's groups for having mishandled the hearings and having not done enough to support Hill . Biden subsequently sought out women to serve on the Judiciary Committee and emphasized women 's issues in the committee 's legislative agenda .
Biden was involved in crafting many federal crime laws . He spearheaded the Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act of 1994 , also known as the Biden Crime Law , which included the Federal Assault Weapons Ban , which expired in 2004 after its ten @-@ year sunset period and was not renewed . It also included the landmark Violence Against Women Act ( VAWA ) , which contains a broad array of measures to combat domestic violence . In 2000 , the Supreme Court ruled in United States v. Morrison that the section of VAWA allowing a federal civil remedy for victims of gender @-@ motivated violence exceeded Congress 's authority and therefore was unconstitutional . Congress reauthorized VAWA in 2000 and 2005 . Biden has said , " I consider the Violence Against Women Act the single most significant legislation that I 've crafted during my 35 @-@ year tenure in the Senate . " In 2004 and 2005 , Biden enlisted major American technology companies in diagnosing the problems of the Austin , Texas @-@ based National Domestic Violence Hotline , and to donate equipment and expertise to it in a successful effort to improve its services .
Biden was critical of the actions of Independent Counsel Kenneth Starr during the 1990s Whitewater controversy and Lewinsky scandal investigations , and said " it 's going to be a cold day in hell " before another Independent Counsel is granted the same powers . Biden voted to acquit on both charges during the impeachment of President Clinton .
As chairman of the International Narcotics Control Caucus , Biden wrote the laws that created the U.S. " Drug Czar " , who oversees and coordinates national drug control policy . In April 2003 , he introduced the controversial Reducing Americans ' Vulnerability to Ecstasy Act , also known as the RAVE Act . He continued to work to stop the spread of " date rape drugs " such as flunitrazepam , and drugs such as Ecstasy and Ketamine . In 2004 , he worked to pass a bill outlawing steroids like androstenedione , the drug used by many baseball players .
Biden 's " Kids 2000 " legislation established a public / private partnership to provide computer centers , teachers , Internet access , and technical training to young people , particularly to low @-@ income and at @-@ risk youth .
= = = Foreign Relations Committee = = =
Biden was also a long @-@ time member of the U.S. Senate Committee on Foreign Relations . In 1997 , he became the ranking minority member and chaired the committee in January 2001 and from June 2001 through 2003 . When Democrats re @-@ took control of the Senate following the 2006 elections , Biden again assumed the top spot on the committee in 2007 . Biden was generally a liberal internationalist in foreign policy . He collaborated effectively with important Republican Senate figures such as Richard Lugar and Jesse Helms and sometimes went against elements of his own party . Biden was also co @-@ chair of the NATO Observer Group in the Senate . A partial list covering this time showed Biden meeting with some 150 leaders from nearly 60 countries and international organizations . Biden held frequent hearings as chair of the committee , as well as holding many subcommittee hearings during the three times he chaired the Subcommittee on European Affairs .
Biden became interested in the Yugoslav Wars after hearing about Serbian abuses during the Croatian War of Independence in 1991 . Once the Bosnian War broke out , Biden was among the first to call for the " lift and strike " policy of lifting the arms embargo , training Bosnian Muslims and supporting them with NATO air strikes , and investigating war crimes . Both the George H. W. Bush administration and Clinton administration were reluctant to implement the policy , fearing Balkan entanglement . In April 1993 , Biden spent a week in the Balkans and held a tense three @-@ hour meeting with Serbian leader Slobodan Milošević . Biden related that he told Milošević , " I think you 're a damn war criminal and you should be tried as one . " Biden wrote an amendment in 1992 to compel the Bush administration to arm the Bosnians , but deferred in 1994 to a somewhat softer stance preferred by the Clinton administration , before signing on the following year to a stronger measure sponsored by Bob Dole and Joe Lieberman . The engagement led to a successful NATO peacekeeping effort . Biden has called his role in affecting Balkans policy in the mid @-@ 1990s his " proudest moment in public life " that related to foreign policy . In 1999 , during the Kosovo War , Biden supported the NATO bombing campaign against Serbia and Montenegro , and co @-@ sponsored with his friend John McCain the McCain @-@ Biden Kosovo Resolution , which called on President Clinton to use all necessary force , including ground troops , to confront Milosevic over Serbian actions in Kosovo . In 1998 , Congressional Quarterly named Biden one of " Twelve Who Made a Difference " for playing a lead role in several foreign policy matters , including NATO enlargement and the successful passage of bills to streamline foreign affairs agencies and punish religious persecution overseas .
Biden had voted against authorization for the Gulf War in 1991 , siding with 45 of the 55 Democratic senators ; he said the U.S. was bearing almost all the burden in the anti @-@ Iraq coalition . Biden was a strong supporter of the 2001 war in Afghanistan , saying " Whatever it takes , we should do it . " Regarding Iraq , Biden stated in 2002 that Saddam Hussein was a threat to national security , and that there was no option but to eliminate that threat . In October 2002 , Biden voted in favor of the Authorization for Use of Military Force Against Iraq , justifying the Iraq War . While he soon became a critic of the war and viewed his vote as a " mistake " , he did not push to require a U.S. withdrawal . He supported the appropriations to pay for the occupation , but argued repeatedly that the war should be internationalized , that more soldiers were needed , and that the Bush administration should " level with the American people " about the cost and length of the conflict .
By late 2006 , Biden 's stance had shifted , and he opposed the troop surge of 2007 , saying General David Petraeus was " dead , flat wrong " in believing the surge could work . Biden was instead a leading advocate for dividing Iraq into a loose federation of three ethnic states . In November 2006 , Biden and Leslie H. Gelb , President Emeritus of the Council on Foreign Relations , released a comprehensive strategy to end sectarian violence in Iraq . Rather than continuing the present approach or withdrawing , the plan called for " a third way " : federalizing Iraq and giving Kurds , Shiites , and Sunnis " breathing room " in their own regions . In September 2007 , a non @-@ binding resolution passed the Senate endorsing such a scheme . However , the idea was unfamiliar , had no political constituency , and failed to gain traction . Iraq 's political leadership united in denouncing the resolution as a de facto partitioning of the country , and the U.S. Embassy in Baghdad issued a statement distancing itself .
In March 2004 , Biden secured the brief release of Libyan democracy activist and political prisoner Fathi Eljahmi , after meeting with leader Muammar Gaddafi in Tripoli . In May 2008 , Biden sharply criticized President George W. Bush for his speech to Israel 's Knesset in which he suggested that some Democrats were acting in the same way some Western leaders did when they appeased Hitler in the runup to World War II . Biden stated : " This is bullshit . This is malarkey . This is outrageous . Outrageous for the president of the United States to go to a foreign country , sit in the Knesset ... and make this kind of ridiculous statement . " Biden later apologized for using the expletive . Biden further stated , " Since when does this administration think that if you sit down , you have to eliminate the word ' no ' from your vocabulary ? "
= = = Delaware matters = = =
Biden was a familiar figure to his Delaware constituency , by virtue of his daily train commuting from there , and generally sought to attend to state needs . Biden was a strong supporter of increased Amtrak funding and rail security ; he hosted barbecues and an annual Christmas dinner for the Amtrak crews , and they would sometimes hold the last train of the night a few minutes so he could catch it . He earned the nickname " Amtrak Joe " as a result ( and in 2011 , Amtrak 's Wilmington Station was named the Joseph R. Biden Jr . Railroad Station , in honor of the over 7 @,@ 000 trips he made from there ) . He was an advocate for Delaware military installations , including Dover Air Force Base and New Castle Air National Guard Base .
In 1975 , Biden broke from liberal orthodoxy when he took legislative action to limit desegregation busing . In doing so , he said busing was a " bankrupt idea [ that violated ] the cardinal rule of common sense , " and that his opposition would make it easier for other liberals to follow suit . Three years later , Wilmington 's federally mandated cross @-@ district busing plan generated much turmoil , and in trying to legislate a compromise solution , Biden found himself alienating both black and white voters for a while .
Beginning in 1991 , Biden served as an adjunct professor at the Widener University School of Law , Delaware 's only law school , teaching a seminar on constitutional law . The seminar was one of Widener 's most popular , often with a waiting list for enrollment . Biden typically co @-@ taught the course with another professor , taking on at least half the course minutes and sometimes flying back from overseas to make one of the classes .
Biden was a sponsor of bankruptcy legislation during the 2000s , which was sought by MBNA , one of Delaware 's largest companies , and other credit card issuers . Biden allowed an amendment to the bill to increase the homestead exemption for homeowners declaring bankruptcy and fought for an amendment to forbid anti @-@ abortion felons from using bankruptcy to discharge fines ; the overall bill was vetoed by Bill Clinton in 2000 but then finally passed as the Bankruptcy Abuse Prevention and Consumer Protection Act in 2005 , with Biden supporting it . The downstate Sussex County region is the nation 's top chicken @-@ producing area , and Biden held up trade agreements with Russia when that country stopped importing U.S. chickens .
In 2007 , Biden requested and gained $ 67 million worth of projects for his constituents through congressional earmarks .
Biden sits on the board of advisors of the Close Up Foundation , which brings high school students to Washington for interaction with legislators on Capitol Hill .
= = = Characteristics as senator = = =
Following his initial election in 1972 , Biden was re @-@ elected to six additional terms , in the elections of 1978 , 1984 , 1990 , 1996 , 2002 , and 2008 , usually getting about 60 percent of the vote . He did not face strong opposition ; Pete du Pont , then governor , chose not to run against him in 1984 . Biden spent 28 years as a junior senator due to the two @-@ year seniority of his Republican colleague William V. Roth Jr . After Roth was defeated for re @-@ election by Tom Carper in 2000 , Biden became Delaware 's senior senator . He then became the longest @-@ serving senator in Delaware history . In May 1999 , Biden set the mark for youngest senator to cast 10 @,@ 000 votes .
With a net worth between $ 59 @,@ 000 and $ 366 @,@ 000 , and almost no outside income or investment income , Biden was consistently ranked as one of the least wealthy members of the Senate . Biden stated that he was listed as the second poorest member in Congress , a distinction that he was not proud of , but attributed to being elected early in his career . Biden realized early in his senatorial career how vulnerable poorer public officials are to offers of financial contributions in exchange for policy support , and he pushed campaign finance reform measures during his first term .
During his years as a senator , Biden amassed a reputation for loquaciousness , with his questions and remarks during Senate hearings being especially known for being long @-@ winded . He has been a strong speaker and debater and a frequent and effective guest on the Sunday morning talk shows . In public appearances , he is known to deviate from prepared remarks at will . According to political analyst Mark Halperin , he has shown " a persistent tendency to say silly , offensive , and off @-@ putting things " ; The New York Times writes that Biden 's " weak filters make him capable of blurting out pretty much anything " . Nor is Biden known for modesty ; journalist James Traub has written that " Biden 's vanity and his regard for his own gifts seem considerable even by the rarefied standards of the U.S. Senate . "
Political writer Howard Fineman has said that , " Biden is not an academic , he 's not a theoretical thinker , he 's a great street pol . He comes from a long line of working people in Scranton — auto salesmen , car dealers , people who know how to make a sale . He has that great Irish gift . " Political columnist David S. Broder has viewed Biden as having grown since he came to Washington and since his failed 1988 presidential bid : " He responds to real people — that 's been consistent throughout . And his ability to understand himself and deal with other politicians has gotten much much better . " Traub concludes that " Biden is the kind of fundamentally happy person who can be as generous toward others as he is to himself . "
= = 2008 presidential election = =
Biden ran for the Democratic nomination for president in 2008 , and on the national ticket as eventual nominee Barack Obama 's running @-@ mate .
= = = Biden presidential campaign = = =
Biden had thought about running for president again ever since his failed 1988 bid .
Biden declared his candidacy for president on January 31 , 2007 , after having discussed running for months prior , and first made a formal announcement to Tim Russert on Meet the Press on January 7 , stating he would " be the best Biden I can be . " In January 2006 , Delaware newspaper columnist Harry F. Themal wrote that Biden " occupies the sensible center of the Democratic Party . " Themal concludes that this is the position Biden desires , and that in a campaign " he plans to stress the dangers to the security of the average American , not just from the terrorist threat , but from the lack of health assistance , crime , and energy dependence on unstable parts of the world . "
During his campaign , Biden focused on the war in Iraq and his support for the implementation of the Biden @-@ Gelb plan to achieve political success . He touted his record in the Senate as the head of major congressional committees and his experience on foreign policy . Despite speculation to the contrary , Biden rejected the notion of accepting the position of Secretary of State , focusing only on the presidency . At a 2007 campaign event , Biden said , " I know a lot of my opponents out there say I 'd be a great Secretary of State . Seriously , every one of them . Do you watch any of the debates ? ' Joe 's right , Joe 's right , Joe 's right . ' " Other candidates ' comments that " Joe is right " in the Democratic debates were converted into a Biden campaign theme and ad . In mid @-@ 2007 , Biden stressed his foreign policy expertise compared to Obama 's , saying of the latter , " I think he can be ready , but right now I don 't believe he is . The presidency is not something that lends itself to on @-@ the @-@ job training . " Biden also said that Obama was copying some of his foreign policy ideas . Biden was noted for his one @-@ liners on the campaign trail , saying of Republican then @-@ frontrunner Rudy Giuliani at the debate on October 30 , 2007 , in Philadelphia , " There 's only three things he mentions in a sentence : a noun , and a verb and 9 / 11 . " Overall , Biden 's debate performances were an effective mixture of humor and sharp and surprisingly disciplined comments .
Biden made remarks during the campaign that attracted controversy . On the day of his January 2007 announcement , he spoke of fellow Democratic candidate and Senator Barack Obama : " I mean , you got the first mainstream African @-@ American who is articulate and bright and clean and a nice @-@ looking guy , I mean , that 's a storybook , man . " This comment undermined his campaign as soon as it began and significantly damaged his fund @-@ raising capabilities ; it later took second place on Time magazine 's list of Top 10 Campaign Gaffes for 2007 . Biden had earlier been criticized in July 2006 for a remark he made about his support among Indian Americans : " I 've had a great relationship . In Delaware , the largest growth in population is Indian @-@ Americans moving from India . You cannot go to a 7 @-@ Eleven or a Dunkin ' Donuts unless you have a slight Indian accent . I 'm not joking . " Biden later said the remark was not intended to be derogatory .
Overall , Biden had difficulty raising funds , struggled to draw people to his rallies , and failed to gain traction against the high @-@ profile candidacies of Obama and Senator Hillary Rodham Clinton ; he never rose above single digits in the national polls of the Democratic candidates . In the initial contest on January 3 , 2008 , Biden placed fifth in the Iowa caucuses , garnering slightly less than one percent of the state delegates . Biden withdrew from the race that evening , saying " There is nothing sad about tonight .... I feel no regret . "
Despite the lack of success , Biden 's stature in the political world rose as the result of his campaign . In particular , it changed the relationship between Biden and Obama . Although the two had served together on the Senate Foreign Relations Committee , they had not been close , with Biden having resented Obama 's quick rise to political stardom , and Obama having viewed Biden as garrulous and patronizing . Now , having gotten to know each other during 2007 , Obama appreciated Biden 's campaigning style and appeal to working class voters , and Biden was convinced that Obama was " the real deal " .
= = = Democratic nominee for vice president = = =
Since shortly following Biden 's withdrawal from the presidential race , Obama had been privately telling Biden that he was interested in finding an important place for him in a possible Obama administration . Biden declined Obama 's first request to vet him for the vice presidential slot , fearing the vice presidency would represent a loss in status and voice from his Senate position , but subsequently changed his mind . In a June 22 , 2008 , interview on NBC 's Meet the Press , Biden confirmed that , although he was not actively seeking a spot on the ticket , he would accept the vice presidential nomination if offered . In early August , Obama and Biden met in secret to discuss a possible vice @-@ presidential relationship , and the two hit it off well personally . On August 22 , 2008 , Barack Obama announced that Biden would be his running mate . The New York Times reported that the strategy behind the choice reflected a desire to fill out the ticket with someone who has foreign policy and national security experience — and not to help the ticket win a swing state or to emphasize Obama 's " change " message . Other observers pointed out Biden 's appeal to middle class and blue @-@ collar voters , as well as his willingness to aggressively challenge Republican nominee John McCain in a way that Obama seemed uncomfortable doing at times . In accepting Obama 's offer , Biden ruled out to him the possibility of running for president again in 2016 ( although comments by Biden in subsequent years seemed to back off that stance , with Biden not wanting to diminish his political power by appearing uninterested in advancement ) . Biden was officially nominated for vice president on August 27 by voice vote at the 2008 Democratic National Convention in Denver , Colorado .
After his selection as a vice presidential candidate , Biden was criticized by his own Roman Catholic Diocese of Wilmington Bishop Michael Saltarelli over his stance on abortion , which goes against the church 's pro @-@ life beliefs and teachings . The diocese confirmed that even if elected vice president , Biden would not be allowed to speak at Catholic schools . Biden was soon barred from receiving Holy Communion by the bishop of his original hometown of Scranton , Pennsylvania , because of his support for abortion rights ; however , Biden did continue to receive Communion at his local Delaware parish . Scranton became a flash point in the competition for swing state Catholic voters between the Democratic campaign and liberal Catholic groups , who stressed that other social issues should be considered as much or more than abortion , and many bishops and conservative Catholics , who maintained abortion was paramount . Biden said he believed that life began at conception but that he would not impose his personal religious views on others . Bishop Saltarelli had previously stated regarding stances similar to Biden 's : " No one today would accept this statement from any public servant : ' I am personally opposed to human slavery and racism but will not impose my personal conviction in the legislative arena . ' Likewise , none of us should accept this statement from any public servant : ' I am personally opposed to abortion but will not impose my personal conviction in the legislative arena . ' "
Biden 's vice presidential campaigning gained little media visibility , as far greater press attention was focused on the Republican running mate , Alaskan Governor Sarah Palin . During one week in September 2008 , for instance , the Pew Research Center 's Project for Excellence in Journalism found that Biden was only included in five percent of the news coverage of the race , far less than for the other three candidates on the tickets . Biden nevertheless focused on campaigning in economically challenged areas of swing states and trying to win over blue @-@ collar Democrats , especially those who had supported Hillary Rodham Clinton . Biden attacked McCain heavily , despite a long @-@ standing personal friendship ; he would say , " That guy I used to know , he 's gone . It literally saddens me . " As the financial crisis of 2007 – 2010 reached a peak with the liquidity crisis of September 2008 and the proposed bailout of United States financial system became a major factor in the campaign , Biden voted in favor of the $ 700 billion Emergency Economic Stabilization Act of 2008 , which passed the Senate 74 – 25 .
On October 2 , 2008 , Biden participated in the campaign 's one vice presidential debate with Palin . Post @-@ debate polls found that while Palin exceeded many voters ' expectations , Biden had won the debate overall . On October 5 , Biden suspended campaign events for a few days after the death of his mother @-@ in @-@ law . During the final days of the campaign , Biden focused on less @-@ populated , older , less well @-@ off areas of battleground states , especially in Florida , Ohio , and Pennsylvania , where polling indicated he was popular and where Obama had not campaigned or performed well in the Democratic primaries . He also campaigned in some normally Republican states , as well as in areas with large Catholic populations .
Under instructions from the Obama campaign , Biden kept his speeches succinct and tried to avoid off @-@ hand remarks , such as one about Obama being tested by a foreign power soon after taking office , which had attracted negative attention . Privately , Obama was frustrated by Biden 's remarks , saying " How many times is Biden gonna say something stupid ? " Obama campaign staffers referred to Biden blunders as " Joe bombs " and kept Biden uninformed about strategy discussions , which in turn irked Biden . Relations between the two campaigns became strained for a month , until Biden apologized on a call to Obama and the two built a stronger partnership . Publicly , Obama strategist David Axelrod said that any unexpected comments had been outweighed by Biden 's high popularity ratings . Nationally , Biden had a 60 percent favorability rating in a Pew Research Center poll , compared to Palin 's 44 percent .
On November 4 , 2008 , Obama was elected President and Biden Vice President of the United States . The Obama @-@ Biden ticket won 365 Electoral College votes to McCain @-@ Palin 's 173 , and had a 53 – 46 percent edge in the nationwide popular vote .
Biden had continued to run for his Senate seat as well as for Vice President , as permitted by Delaware law . On November 4 , Biden was also re @-@ elected as senator , defeating Republican Christine O 'Donnell . Having won both races , Biden made a point of holding off his resignation from the Senate so that he could be sworn in for his seventh term on January 6 , 2009 . He became the youngest senator ever to start a seventh full term , and said , " In all my life , the greatest honor bestowed upon me has been serving the people of Delaware as their United States senator . " Biden cast his last Senate vote on January 15 , supporting the release of the second $ 350 billion for the Troubled Asset Relief Program . Biden resigned from the Senate later that day ; in emotional farewell remarks on the Senate floor , where he had spent most of his adult life , Biden said , " Every good thing I have seen happen here , every bold step taken in the 36 @-@ plus years I have been here , came not from the application of pressure by interest groups , but through the maturation of personal relationships . "
= = Vice Presidency = =
= = = Post @-@ election transition and first term = = =
As the presidential transition of Barack Obama began , Biden said he was in daily meetings with Obama and that McCain was still his friend . The U.S. Secret Service codename given to Biden is " Celtic " , referencing his Irish roots .
Biden chose veteran Democratic lawyer and aide Ron Klain to be his chief of staff , and Time Washington bureau chief Jay Carney to be his director of communications . Biden intended to eliminate some of the explicit roles assumed by the vice presidency of his predecessor , Dick Cheney , who had established himself as an autonomous power center . Otherwise , Biden said he would not model his vice presidency on any of the ones before him , but instead would seek to provide advice and counsel on every critical decision Obama would make . Biden said he had been closely involved in all the cabinet appointments that were made during the transition . Biden was also named to head the new White House Task Force on Working Families , an initiative aimed at improving the economic well being of the middle class . As his last act as Chairman of the Foreign Relations Committee , Biden went on a trip to Iraq , Afghanistan and Pakistan during the second week of January 2009 , meeting with the leadership of those countries .
Biden became the 47th Vice President of the United States on January 20 , 2009 , when he was inaugurated alongside President Barack Obama . Biden is the first United States Vice President from Delaware and the first Roman Catholic to attain that office . Supreme Court Justice John Paul Stevens administered the oath of office to Biden .
In the early months of the Obama administration , Biden assumed the role of an important behind @-@ the @-@ scenes counselor . One role was to adjudicate disputes between Obama 's " team of rivals " . The president compared Biden 's efforts to a basketball player " who does a bunch of things that don 't show up in the stat sheet . " Biden played a key role in gaining Senate support for several major pieces of Obama legislation , and was a main factor in convincing Senator Arlen Specter to switch from the Republican to the Democratic party . Biden lost an internal debate to Secretary of State Hillary Rodham Clinton regarding his opposition to sending 21 @,@ 000 new troops to the war in Afghanistan . His skeptical voice was still considered valuable within the administration , however , and later in 2009 Biden 's views achieved more prominence within the White House as Obama reconsidered his Afghanistan strategy .
Biden made visits to Iraq about once every two months , including trips to Baghdad in August and September 2009 to listen to Prime Minister Nouri al @-@ Maliki and reiterate U.S. stances on Iraq 's future ; by this time he had become the administration 's point man in delivering messages to Iraqi leadership about expected progress in the country . More generally , overseeing Iraq policy became Biden ’ s responsibility , when the president said in 2009 : " Joe , you do Iraq " . Biden said Iraq " could be one of the great achievements of this administration . " Biden 's January 2010 visit to Iraq in the midst of turmoil over banned candidates from the upcoming Iraqi parliamentary election resulted in 59 of the several hundred candidates being reinstated by the Iraqi government two days later . By 2012 , Biden had made eight trips there , but his oversight of U.S. policy in Iraq receded with the exit in 2011 of U.S. troops .
Biden was also in charge of the oversight role for infrastructure spending from the Obama stimulus package intended to help counteract the ongoing recession , and stressed that only worthy projects should get funding . He talked with hundreds of governors , mayors , and other local officials in this role . During this period , Biden was satisfied that no major instances of waste or corruption had occurred , and when he completed that role in February 2011 , he said that the number of fraud incidents with stimulus monies had been less than one percent .
It took some time for the cautious Obama and the blunt , rambling Biden to work out ways of dealing with each other . In late April 2009 , Biden 's off @-@ message response to a question during the beginning of the swine flu outbreak , that he would advise family members against travelling on airplanes or subways , led to a swift retraction from the White House . The remark revived Biden 's reputation for gaffes , and led to a spate of late @-@ night television jokes themed on him being a loose @-@ talking buffoon . In the face of persistently rising unemployment through July 2009 , Biden acknowledged that the administration had " misread how bad the economy was " but maintained confidence that the stimulus package would create many more jobs once the pace of expenditures picked up . The same month , Secretary of State Clinton quickly disavowed Biden 's remarks disparaging Russia as a power , but despite any missteps , Biden still retained Obama 's confidence and was increasingly influential within the administration . On March 23 , 2010 , a microphone picked up Biden telling the president that his signing of the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act was " a big fucking deal " during live national news telecasts . White House press secretary Robert Gibbs replied via Twitter " And yes Mr. Vice President , you 're right ... " Senior Obama advisor Valerie Jarrett said that Biden 's loose talk " [ is ] part of what makes the vice president so endearing ... We wouldn 't change him one bit . " Former Senate colleague Lindsey Graham said , " If there were no gaffes , there 'd be no Joe . He 's someone you can 't help but like . " Biden gained a long @-@ running alter ego persona , " The President of Vice " , on the satirical news site The Onion , which parodied his job title . Despite their different personalities , Obama and Biden formed a friendship , partly based around Obama 's daughter Sasha and Biden 's granddaughter Maisy , who attended Sidwell Friends School together .
Biden 's most important role within the administration has been to question assumptions , playing a contrarian role . Obama said that , " The best thing about Joe is that when we get everybody together , he really forces people to think and defend their positions , to look at things from every angle , and that is very valuable for me . " Another senior Obama advisor said Biden " is always prepared to be the skunk at the family picnic to make sure we are as intellectually honest as possible . " On June 11 , 2010 , Biden represented the United States at the opening ceremony of the World Cup , attended the England v. U.S. game which was tied 1 – 1 , and visited Egypt , Kenya , and South Africa . Throughout , Joe and Jill Biden maintained a relaxed atmosphere at their official residence in Washington , often entertaining some of their grandchildren , and regularly returned to their home in Delaware .
Biden campaigned heavily for Democrats in the 2010 midterm elections , maintaining an attitude of optimism in the face of general predictions of large @-@ scale losses for the party . Following large @-@ scale Republican gains in the elections and the departure of White House Chief of Staff Rahm Emanuel , Biden 's past relationships with Republicans in Congress became more important . He led the successful administration effort to gain Senate approval for the New START treaty . In December 2010 , Biden 's advocacy within the White House for a middle ground , followed by his direct negotiations with Senate Minority Leader Mitch McConnell , were instrumental in producing the administration 's compromise tax package that revolved around a temporary extension of the Bush tax cuts . Biden then took the lead in trying to sell the agreement to a reluctant Democratic caucus in Congress , which was passed as the Tax Relief , Unemployment Insurance Reauthorization , and Job Creation Act of 2010 .
In March 2011 , Obama detailed Biden to lead negotiations between both houses of Congress and the White House in resolving federal spending levels for the rest of the year and avoid a government shutdown . By May 2011 , a " Biden panel " with six congressional members was trying to reach a bipartisan deal on raising the U.S. debt ceiling as part of an overall deficit reduction plan . The U.S. debt ceiling crisis developed over the next couple of months , but it was again Biden 's relationship with McConnell that proved to be a key factor in breaking a deadlock and finally bringing about a bipartisan deal to resolve it , in the form of the Budget Control Act of 2011 , signed on August 2 , 2011 , the same day that an unprecedented U.S. default had loomed . Biden had spent the most time bargaining with Congress on the debt question of anyone in the administration , and one Republican staffer said , " Biden 's the only guy with real negotiating authority , and [ McConnell ] knows that his word is good . He was a key to the deal . "
= = = 2012 re @-@ election campaign = = =
In October 2010 , Biden stated that Obama had asked him to remain as his running mate for the 2012 presidential election . With Obama 's popularity on the decline , however , in late 2011 White House Chief of Staff William M. Daley conducted some secret polling and focus group research into the idea of Secretary of State Clinton replacing Biden on the ticket . The notion was dropped when the results showed no appreciable improvement for Obama , and White House officials later said that Obama had never entertained the idea .
Biden 's May 2012 statement that he was " absolutely comfortable " with same @-@ sex marriage gained considerable public attention in comparison to President Obama 's position , which had been described as " evolving " . Biden made his statement without administration consent , and Obama and his aides were quite irked , since Obama had planned to shift position several months later , in the build @-@ up to the party convention , and since Biden had previously counseled the president to avoid the issue lest key Catholic voters be offended . Gay rights advocates seized upon the Biden stance , and within days , Obama announced that he too supported same @-@ sex marriage , an action in part forced by Biden 's unexpected remarks . Biden apologized to Obama in private for having spoken out , while Obama acknowledged publicly it had been done from the heart . The incident showed that Biden still struggled at times with message discipline ; as Time wrote , " everyone knows [ that ] Biden 's greatest strength is also his greatest weakness . " Relations were also strained between the campaigns when Biden appeared to use his to bolster fundraising contacts for a possible run on his own in the 2016 presidential election , and the vice president ended up being excluded from Obama campaign strategy meetings .
The Obama campaign nevertheless still valued Biden as a retail @-@ level politician who could connect with disaffected , blue collar workers and rural residents , and he had a heavy schedule of appearances in swing states as the Obama re @-@ election campaign began in earnest in spring 2012 . An August 2012 remark before a mixed @-@ race audience that proposed Republican relaxation of Wall Street regulations would " put y 'all back in chains " led to a similar analysis of Biden 's face @-@ to @-@ face campaigning abilities versus tendency to go off track . The Los Angeles Times wrote , " Most candidates give the same stump speech over and over , putting reporters if not the audience to sleep . But during any Biden speech , there might be a dozen moments to make press handlers cringe , and prompt reporters to turn to each other with amusement and confusion . " Time magazine wrote that Biden often goes too far and that " Along with the familiar Washington mix of neediness and overconfidence , Biden 's brain is wired for more than the usual amount of goofiness . "
Biden was officially nominated for a second term as vice president on September 6 by voice vote at the 2012 Democratic National Convention in Charlotte , North Carolina . He faced his Republican counterpart , Representative Paul Ryan , in the lone 2012 vice presidential debate on October 11 in Danville , Kentucky . There he made a feisty , emotional defense of the Obama administration 's record and energetically attacked the Republican ticket , in an effort to regain campaign momentum lost by Obama 's unfocused debate performance against Republican nominee Mitt Romney the week before .
On November 6 , 2012 , the president and vice president were elected to second terms . The Obama @-@ Biden ticket won 332 Electoral College votes to Romney @-@ Ryan 's 206 and had a 51 – 47 percent edge in the nationwide popular vote .
= = = Post @-@ election and second term = = =
In December 2012 , Biden was named by Obama to head the Gun Violence Task Force , created to address the causes of gun violence in the United States in the aftermath of the Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting . Later that month , during the final days before the country fell off the " fiscal cliff " , Biden 's relationship with McConnell once more proved important as the two negotiated a deal that led to the American Taxpayer Relief Act of 2012 being passed at the start of 2013 . It made permanent much of the Bush tax cuts but raised rates on upper income levels .
Biden was inaugurated to a second term in the early morning of January 20 , 2013 , at a small ceremony in his official residence with Justice Sonia Sotomayor presiding ( a public ceremony took place on January 21 ) . He continued to be in the forefront as , in the wake of the Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting , the Obama administration put forth executive orders and proposed legislation towards new gun control measures ( the legislation failed to pass ) .
During the discussions that led to the October 2013 passage of the Continuing Appropriations Act , 2014 , which resolved the U.S. federal government shutdown of 2013 and the U.S. debt @-@ ceiling crisis of 2013 , Biden played little role . This was due to Senate Majority Leader Harry Reid and other Democratic leaders cutting the vice president out of any direct talks with Congress , feeling that Biden had given too much away during previous negotiations .
Biden 's Violence Against Women Act was reauthorized again in 2013 . The act led to further related developments in the creation of the White House Council on Women and Girls , begun in the first term , as well as the White House Task Force to Protect Students from Sexual Assault , begun in January 2014 with Biden as co @-@ chair along with Jarrett .
As Iraq fell apart during 2014 , renewed attention was paid to the Biden @-@ Gelb Iraqi federalization plan of 2006 , with some observers suggesting that Biden had been right all along . Biden himself said that the U.S. would follow ISIL " to the gates of hell . "
By 2015 , a series of swearings @-@ in and other events where Biden placed his hands on women and girls and talked closely to them had attracted the attention of both the press and social media . In one case , a senator issued a statement afterward saying about his daughter , " No , she doesn 't think the vice president is creepy . " On January 17 , 2015 , secret service agents heard shots were fired as a vehicle drove near Biden 's Delaware residence at 8 : 28 p.m. outside the security perimeter , but the vice president and his wife , Jill were not home . A vehicle was observed by an agent leaving the scene at a high rate of speed .
On February 29 , 2016 , Biden gave a speech at the 88th Academy Awards to do with awareness for sexual assault ; he also introduced Lady Gaga .
= = = Death of Beau = = =
Almost 43 years after two family members died in an automobile accident , Biden and his family were struck by a second family tragedy on May 30 , 2015 : his son Beau died of brain cancer at age 46 , after battling it for several years . The nature and seriousness of the illness had not been previously disclosed to the public , and Biden had quietly reduced his public schedule in order to spend more time with his son , who at the time of his death had been widely seen as the frontrunner to be the Democratic nominee for Governor of Delaware in 2016 . The Vice President issued a statement saying , " The entire Biden family is saddened beyond words . "
= = 2016 presidential race = =
During much of his second term , Biden was said to be preparing for a possible bid for the 2016 Democratic presidential nomination . He will be 74 on January 20 , 2017 , the date on which the successful candidate will be sworn in , which would have made him the oldest president on inauguration in history . With his family , many friends , and donors encouraging him in mid @-@ 2015 to enter the race , and with Hillary Clinton 's favorability ratings in decline at that time , Biden was reported to again be seriously considering the prospect and a " Draft Biden 2016 " PAC was established .
As of September 11 , 2015 , Biden was still uncertain whether or not to run . Biden cited the recent death of his son being a large drain on his emotional energy , and that " nobody has a right ... to seek that office unless they 're willing to give it 110 % of who they are . "
On October 21 , speaking from a podium in the Rose Garden with his wife and President Obama by his side , Biden announced his decision not to enter the race for the Democratic presidential nomination in the 2016 election . In January 2016 , Biden affirmed not running was the right decision , but he admitted to regretting not running for President " every day . "
As of the end of January 2016 , neither Biden nor President Barack Obama had endorsed any candidate for the 2016 presidential election . Biden did miss his annual Thanksgiving tradition of going to Nantucket , opting instead to travel abroad and meet with several European leaders , and took time to meet with Martin O 'Malley , having previously met with Bernie Sanders . Neither of these meetings were considered endorsements , as Biden has said that he will meet with any candidate who asks .
Following Obama 's endorsement of Hillary Clinton on June 9 , 2016 , Biden also endorsed her later the same day . Though Biden and Clinton were supposed to campaign together in Scranton on July 8 , the appearance was canceled by Clinton in light of the shooting of Dallas police officers the previous day .
= = Political positions = =
Biden has supported deficit spending on fiscal stimulus in the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 ; the increased infrastructure spending proposed by the Obama administration ; mass transit , including Amtrak , bus , and subway subsidies ; same @-@ sex marriage ; and the reduced military spending proposed in the Obama Administration 's fiscal year 2014 budget .
A method that political scientists use for gauging ideology is to compare the annual ratings by the Americans for Democratic Action ( ADA ) with the ratings by the American Conservative Union ( ACU ) . Biden has a lifetime liberal 72 percent score from the ADA through 2004 , while the ACU awarded Biden a lifetime conservative rating of 13 percent through 2008 . Using another metric , Biden has a lifetime average liberal score of 77 @.@ 5 percent , according to a National Journal analysis that places him ideologically among the center of Senate Democrats as of 2008 . The Almanac of American Politics rates congressional votes as liberal or conservative on the political spectrum , in three policy areas : economic , social , and foreign . For 2005 – 2006 , Biden 's average ratings were as follows : the economic rating was 80 percent liberal and 13 percent conservative , the social rating was 78 percent liberal and 18 percent conservative , and the foreign rating was 71 percent liberal and 25 percent conservative . This has not changed much over time ; his liberal ratings in the mid @-@ 1980s were also in the 70 – 80 percent range .
Various advocacy groups have given Biden scores or grades as to how well his votes align with the positions of each group . The American Civil Liberties Union gives him an 80 percent lifetime score , with a 91 percent score for the 110th Congress . Biden opposes drilling for oil in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge and supports governmental funding to find new energy sources . Biden believes action must be taken on global warming . He co @-@ sponsored the Sense of the Senate resolution calling on the United States to be a part of the United Nations climate negotiations and the Boxer @-@ Sanders Global Warming Pollution Reduction Act , the most stringent climate bill in the United States Senate . Biden was given an 85 percent lifetime approval rating from AFL @-@ CIO , and he voted for the North American Free Trade Agreement ( NAFTA ) .
December 8 , 2015 Joe Biden spoke in Ukraine 's parliament in Kiev .
= = Awards and honors = =
Biden has received honorary degrees from the University of Scranton ( 1976 ) , Saint Joseph 's University ( 1981 ) , Widener University School of Law ( 2000 ) , Emerson College ( 2003 ) , his alma mater the University of Delaware ( 2004 ) , Suffolk University Law School ( 2005 ) , and his other alma mater Syracuse University ( 2009 ) .
Biden also received the Chancellor Medal from his alma mater , Syracuse University , in 1980 , and in 2005 , he received the George Arents Pioneer Medal — Syracuse 's highest alumni award — " for excellence in public affairs . "
In 2008 , Biden received the Best of Congress Award , for " improving the American quality of life through family @-@ friendly work policies , " from Working Mother magazine . Also in 2008 , Biden shared with fellow Senator Richard Lugar the Hilal @-@ i @-@ Pakistan award from the Government of Pakistan , " in recognition of their consistent support for Pakistan . " In 2009 , Biden received The Golden Medal of Freedom award from Kosovo , that region 's highest award , for his vocal support for their independence in the late 1990s .
Biden is an inductee of the Delaware Volunteer Firemen 's Association Hall of Fame . He was named to the Little League Hall of Excellence in 2009 .
= = Almanac = =
U.S. Senators are popularly elected and take office January 3 for a six @-@ year term ( except when appointed to fill existing vacancies ) .
= = Writings by Biden = =
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= Émile Durkheim =
David Émile Durkheim ( French : [ emil dyʁkɛm ] or [ dyʁkajm ] ; April 15 , 1858 – November 15 , 1917 ) was a French sociologist , social psychologist and philosopher . He formally established the academic discipline and — with Karl Marx and Max Weber — is commonly cited as the principal architect of modern social science and father of sociology .
Much of Durkheim 's work was concerned with how societies could maintain their integrity and coherence in modernity ; an era in which traditional social and religious ties are no longer assumed , and in which new social institutions have come into being . His first major sociological work was The Division of Labour in Society ( 1893 ) . In 1895 , he published The Rules of Sociological Method and set up the first European department of sociology , becoming France 's first professor of sociology . In 1898 , he established the journal L 'Année Sociologique . Durkheim 's seminal monograph , Suicide ( 1897 ) , a study of suicide rates in Catholic and Protestant populations , pioneered modern social research and served to distinguish social science from psychology and political philosophy . The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life ( 1912 ) presented a theory of religion , comparing the social and cultural lives of aboriginal and modern societies .
Durkheim was also deeply preoccupied with the acceptance of sociology as a legitimate science . He refined the positivism originally set forth by Auguste Comte , promoting what could be considered as a form of epistemological realism , as well as the use of the hypothetico @-@ deductive model in social science . For him , sociology was the science of institutions , if this term is understood in its broader meaning as " beliefs and modes of behaviour instituted by the collectivity " and its aim being to discover structural social facts . Durkheim was a major proponent of structural functionalism , a foundational perspective in both sociology and anthropology . In his view , social science should be purely holistic ; that is , sociology should study phenomena attributed to society at large , rather than being limited to the specific actions of individuals .
He remained a dominant force in French intellectual life until his death in 1917 , presenting numerous lectures and published works on a variety of topics , including the sociology of knowledge , morality , social stratification , religion , law , education , and deviance . Durkheimian terms such as " collective consciousness " have since entered the popular lexicon .
= = Biography = =
= = = Childhood and education = = =
Emile Durkheim was born in Épinal in Lorraine , the son of Mélanie ( Isidor ) and Moïse Durkheim . He came from a long line of devout French Jews ; his father , grandfather , and great @-@ grandfather had been rabbis . He began his education in a rabbinical school , but at an early age , he decided not to follow in his family 's footsteps and switched schools . Durkheim led a completely secular life . Much of his work was dedicated to demonstrating that religious phenomena stemmed from social rather than divine factors . While Durkheim chose not to follow in the family tradition , he did not sever ties with his family or with the Jewish community . Many of his most prominent collaborators and students were Jewish , and some were blood relations . Marcel Mauss , a notable social anthropologist of the pre @-@ war era , was his nephew . One of his nieces was Claudette ( née Raphael ) Bloch , a marine biologist and mother of Maurice Bloch , who became a noted anthropologist .
A precocious student , Durkheim entered the École Normale Supérieure ( ENS ) in 1879 , at his third attempt . The entering class that year was one of the most brilliant of the nineteenth century and many of his classmates , such as Jean Jaurès and Henri Bergson , would go on to become major figures in France 's intellectual history . At the ENS , Durkheim studied under the direction of Numa Denis Fustel de Coulanges , a classicist with a social scientific outlook , and wrote his Latin dissertation on Montesquieu . At the same time , he read Auguste Comte and Herbert Spencer . Thus Durkheim became interested in a scientific approach to society very early on in his career . This meant the first of many conflicts with the French academic system , which had no social science curriculum at the time . Durkheim found humanistic studies uninteresting , turning his attention from psychology and philosophy to ethics and eventually , sociology . He obtained his agrégation in philosophy in 1882 , though finishing next to last in his graduating class owing to serious illness the year before .
There was no way that a man of Durkheim 's views could receive a major academic appointment in Paris . From 1882 to 1887 he taught philosophy at several provincial schools . In 1885 he decided to leave for Germany , where for two years he studied sociology at the universities of Marburg , Berlin and Leipzig . As Durkheim indicated in several essays , it was in Leipzig that he learned to appreciate the value of empiricism and its language of concrete , complex things , in sharp contrast to the more abstract , clear and simple ideas of the Cartesian method . By 1886 , as part of his doctoral dissertation , he had completed the draft of his The Division of Labour in Society , and was working towards establishing the new science of sociology .
= = = Academic career = = =
Durkheim 's period in Germany resulted in the publication of numerous articles on German social science and philosophy ; Durkheim was particularly impressed by the work of Wilhelm Wundt . Durkheim 's articles gained recognition in France , and he received a teaching appointment in the University of Bordeaux in 1887 , where he was to teach the university 's first social science course . His official title was Chargé d 'un Cours de Science Sociale et de Pédagogie and thus he taught both pedagogy and sociology ( the latter had never been taught in France before ) . The appointment of the social scientist to the mostly humanistic faculty was an important sign of the change of times , and also the growing importance and recognition of the social sciences . From this position Durkheim helped reform the French school system and introduced the study of social science in its curriculum . However , his controversial beliefs that religion and morality could be explained in terms purely of social interaction earned him many critics .
Also in 1887 , Durkheim married Louise Dreyfus . They would have two children , Marie and André .
The 1890s were a period of remarkable creative output for Durkheim . In 1893 , he published The Division of Labour in Society , his doctoral dissertation and fundamental statement of the nature of human society and its development . Durkheim 's interest in social phenomena was spurred on by politics . France 's defeat in the Franco @-@ Prussian War led to the fall of the regime of Napoleon III , which was then replaced by the Third Republic . This in turn resulted in a backlash against the new secular and republican rule , as many people considered a vigorously nationalistic approach necessary to rejuvenate France 's fading power . Durkheim , a Jew and a staunch supporter of the Third Republic with a sympathy towards socialism , was thus in the political minority , a situation that galvanized him politically . The Dreyfus affair of 1894 only strengthened his activist stance .
In 1895 , he published The Rules of Sociological Method , a manifesto stating what sociology is and how it ought to be done , and founded the first European department of sociology at the University of Bordeaux . In 1898 , he founded L 'Année Sociologique , the first French social science journal . Its aim was to publish and publicize the work of what was , by then , a growing number of students and collaborators ( this is also the name used to refer to the group of students who developed his sociological program ) . In 1897 , he published Suicide , a case study that provided an example of what the sociological monograph might look like . Durkheim was one of the pioneers of the use of quantitative methods in criminology during his suicide case study .
By 1902 , Durkheim had finally achieved his goal of attaining a prominent position in Paris when he became the chair of education at the Sorbonne . Durkheim aimed for the Parisian position earlier , but the Parisian faculty took longer to accept what some called " sociological imperialism " and admit social science to their curriculum . He became a full professor ( Professor of the Science of Education ) there in 1906 , and in 1913 he was named Chair in " Education and Sociology " . Because French universities are technically institutions for training secondary school teachers , this position gave Durkheim considerable influence — his lectures were the only ones that were mandatory for the entire student body . Durkheim had much influence over the new generation of teachers ; around that time he also served as an advisor to the Ministry of Education . In 1912 , he published his last major work , The Elementary Forms of The Religious Life .
= = = Death = = =
The outbreak of World War I was to have a tragic effect on Durkheim 's life . His leftism was always patriotic rather than internationalist — he sought a secular , rational form of French life . But the coming of the war and the inevitable nationalist propaganda that followed made it difficult to sustain this already nuanced position . While Durkheim actively worked to support his country in the war , his reluctance to give in to simplistic nationalist fervor ( combined with his Jewish background ) made him a natural target of the now @-@ ascendant French Right . Even more seriously , the generations of students that Durkheim had trained were now being drafted to serve in the army , and many of them perished in the trenches . Finally , Durkheim 's own son , André , died on the war front in December 1915 — a loss from which Durkheim never recovered . Emotionally devastated , Durkheim collapsed of a stroke in Paris on November 15 , 1917 . He was buried at the Montparnasse Cemetery in Paris .
= = Durkheim 's thought = =
Throughout his career , Durkheim was concerned primarily with three goals . First , to establish sociology as a new academic discipline . Second , to analyze how societies could maintain their integrity and coherence in the modern era , when things such as shared religious and ethnic background could no longer be assumed ; to that end he wrote much about the effect of laws , religion , education and similar forces on society and social integration . Lastly , Durkheim was concerned with the practical implications of scientific knowledge . The importance of social integration is expressed throughout Durkheim 's work :
For if society lacks the unity that derives from the fact that the relationships between its parts are exactly regulated , that unity resulting from the harmonious articulation of its various functions assured by effective discipline and if , in addition , society lacks the unity based upon the commitment of men 's wills to a common objective , then it is no more than a pile of sand that the least jolt or the slightest puff will suffice to scatter .
= = = Inspirations = = =
During his university studies at the École , Durkheim was influenced by two neo @-@ Kantian scholars , Charles Bernard Renouvier and Émile Boutroux . The principles Durkheim absorbed from them included rationalism , scientific study of morality , anti @-@ utilitarianism and secular education . His methodology was influenced by Numa Denis Fustel de Coulanges , a supporter of the scientific method .
A fundamental influence on Durkheim 's thought was the sociological positivism of Auguste Comte , who effectively sought to extend and apply the scientific method found in the natural sciences to the social sciences . According to Comte , a true social science should stress for empirical facts , as well as induce general scientific laws from the relationship among these facts . There were many points on which Durkheim agreed with the positivist thesis . First , he accepted that the study of society was to be founded on an examination of facts . Second , like Comte , he acknowledged that the only valid guide to objective knowledge was the scientific method . Third , he agreed with Comte that the social sciences could become scientific only when they were stripped of their metaphysical abstractions and philosophical speculation . At the same time , Durkheim believed that Comte was still too philosophical in his outlook .
A second influence on Durkheim 's view of society beyond Comte 's positivism was the epistemological outlook called social realism . Although he never explicitly exposed it , Durkheim adopted a realist perspective in order to demonstrate the existence of social realities outside the individual and to show that these realities existed in the form of the objective relations of society . As an epistemology of science , realism can be defined as a perspective that takes as its central point of departure the view that external social realities exist in the outer world and that these realities are independent of the individual 's perception of them . This view opposes other predominant philosophical perspectives such as empiricism and positivism . Empiricists such as David Hume had argued that all realities in the outside world are products of human sense perception . According to empiricists , all realities are thus merely perceived : they do not exist independently of our perceptions , and have no causal power in themselves . Comte 's positivism went a step further by claiming that scientific laws could be deduced from empirical observations . Going beyond this , Durkheim claimed that sociology would not only discover " apparent " laws , but would be able to discover the inherent nature of society .
Scholars also debate the exact influence of Jewish thought on Durkheim 's work . The answer remains uncertain ; some scholars have argued that Durkheim 's thought is a form of secularized Jewish thought , while others argue that proving the existence of a direct influence of Jewish thought on Durkheim 's achievements is difficult or impossible .
= = = Establishing sociology = = =
Durkheim authored some of the most programmatic statements on what sociology is and how it should be practiced . His concern was to establish sociology as a science . Arguing for a place for sociology among other sciences he wrote :
Sociology is , then , not an auxiliary of any other science ; it is itself a distinct and autonomous science .
To give sociology a place in the academic world and to ensure that it is a legitimate science , it must have an object that is clear and distinct from philosophy or psychology , and its own methodology . He argued , " There is in every society a certain group of phenomena which may be differentiated from .... those studied by the other natural sciences . "
A fundamental aim of sociology is to discover structural " social facts " .
Establishment of sociology as an independent , recognized academic discipline is amongst Durkheim 's largest and most lasting legacies . Within sociology , his work has significantly influenced structuralism or structural functionalism . Scholars inspired by Durkheim include Marcel Mauss , Maurice Halbwachs , Célestin Bouglé , Alfred Radcliffe @-@ Brown , Talcott Parsons , Robert K. Merton , Jean Piaget , Claude Lévi @-@ Strauss , Ferdinand de Saussure , Michel Foucault , Clifford Geertz , Peter Berger , Robert Bellah , social reformer Patrick Hunout and others .
= = = Methodology = = =
In The Rules of Sociological Method ( 1895 ) , Durkheim expressed his will to establish a method that would guarantee sociology 's truly scientific character . One of the questions raised by the author concerns the objectivity of the sociologist : how may one study an object that , from the very beginning , conditions and relates to the observer ? According to Durkheim , observation must be as impartial and impersonal as possible , even though a " perfectly objective observation " in this sense may never be attained . A social fact must always be studied according to its relation with other social facts , never according to the individual who studies it . Sociology should therefore privilege comparison rather than the study of singular independent facts .
Durkheim sought to create one of the first rigorous scientific approaches to social phenomena . Along with Herbert Spencer , he was one of the first people to explain the existence and quality of different parts of a society by reference to what function they served in maintaining the quotidian ( i.e. by how they make society " work " ) . He also agreed with his organic analogy , comparing society to a living organism . Thus his work is sometimes seen as a precursor to functionalism . Durkheim also insisted that society was more than the sum of its parts .
Unlike his contemporaries Ferdinand Tönnies and Max Weber , he focused not on what motivates the actions of individuals ( an approach associated with methodological individualism ) , but rather on the study of social facts .
= = = Social facts = = =
A social fact is every way of acting , fixed or not , capable of exercising on the individual an external constraint ; or again , every way of acting which is general throughout a given society , while at the same time existing in its own right independent of its individual manifestations .
Durkheim 's work revolved around the study of social facts , a term he coined to describe phenomena that have an existence in and of themselves , are not bound to the actions of individuals , but have a coercive influence upon them . Durkheim argued that social facts have , sui generis , an independent existence greater and more objective than the actions of the individuals that compose society . Only such social facts can explain the observed social phenomena . Being exterior to the individual person , social facts may thus also exercise coercive power on the various people composing society , as it can sometimes be observed in the case of formal laws and regulations , but also in situations implying the presence of informal rules , such as religious rituals or family norms . Unlike the facts studied in natural sciences , a " social " fact thus refers to a specific category of phenomena :
The determining cause of a social fact must be sought among the antecedent social facts and not among the states of the individual consciousness .
Such social facts are endowed with a power of coercion , by reason of which they may control individual behaviors . According to Durkheim , these phenomena cannot be reduced to biological or psychological grounds . Social facts can be material ( physical objects ) or immaterial ( meanings , sentiments , etc . ) . The latter cannot be seen or touched , but they are external and coercive , and as such , they become real , gain " facticity " . Physical objects can represent both material and immaterial social facts ; for example a flag is a physical social fact that often has various immaterial social facts ( the meaning and importance of the flag ) attached to it .
Many social facts , however , have no material form . Even the most " individualistic " or " subjective " phenomena , such as love , freedom or suicide , would be regarded by Durkheim as objective social facts . Individuals composing society do not directly cause suicide : suicide , as a social fact , exists independently in society , and is caused by other social facts ( such as rules governing behavior and group attachment ) , whether an individual likes it or not . Whether a person " leaves " a society does not change anything to the fact that this society will still contain suicides . Suicide , like other immaterial social facts , exists independently of the will of an individual , cannot be eliminated , and is as influential – coercive – as physical laws such as gravity . Sociology 's task thus consists of discovering the qualities and characteristics of such social facts , which can be discovered through a quantitative or experimental approach ( Durkheim extensively relied on statistics ) .
= = = Society , collective consciousness and culture = = =
Regarding the society itself , like social institutions in general , Durkheim saw it as a set of social facts . Even more than " what society is " , Durkheim was interested in answering " how is a society created " and " what holds a society together " . In The Division of Labour in Society , Durkheim attempted to answer the question of what holds the society together . He assumes that humans are inherently egoistic , but norms , beliefs and values ( collective consciousness ) form the moral basis of the society , resulting in social integration . Collective consciousness is of key importance to the society , its requisite function without which the society cannot survive . Collective consciousness produces the society and holds it together , and at the same time individuals produce collective consciousness through their interactions . Through collective consciousness human beings become aware of one another as social beings , not just animals .
The totality of beliefs and sentiments common to the average members of a society forms a determinate system with a life of its own . It can be termed the collective or common consciousness .
In particular , the emotional part of the collective consciousness overrides our egoism : as we are emotionally bound to culture , we act socially because we recognize it is the responsible , moral way to act . A key to forming society is social interaction , and Durkheim believes that human beings , when in a group , will inevitably act in such a way that a society is formed .
The importance of another key social fact : the culture . Groups , when interacting , create their own culture and attach powerful emotions to it . He was one of the first scholars to consider the question of culture so intensely . Durkheim was interested in cultural diversity , and how the existence of diversity nonetheless fails to destroy a society . To that , Durkheim answered that any apparent cultural diversity is overridden by a larger , common , and more generalized cultural system , and the law .
In a socioevolutionary approach , Durkheim described the evolution of societies from mechanical solidarity to organic solidarity ( one rising from mutual need ) . As the societies become more complex , evolving from mechanical to organic solidarity , the division of labour is counteracting and replacing collective consciousness . In the simpler societies , people are connected to others due to personal ties and traditions ; in the larger , modern society they are connected due to increased reliance on others with regard to them performing their specialized tasks needed for the modern , highly complex society to survive . In mechanical solidarity , people are self @-@ sufficient , there is little integration and thus there is the need for use of force and repression to keep society together . Also , in such societies , people have much fewer options in life . In organic solidarity , people are much more integrated and interdependent and specialisation and cooperation is extensive . Progress from mechanical to organic solidarity is based first on population growth and increasing population density , second on increasing " morality density " ( development of more complex social interactions ) and thirdly , on the increasing specialisation in workplace . One of the ways mechanical and organic societies differ is the function of law : in mechanical society the law is focused on its punitive aspect , and aims to reinforce the cohesion of the community , often by making the punishment public and extreme ; whereas in the organic society the law focuses on repairing the damage done and is more focused on individuals than the community .
One of the main features of the modern , organic society is the importance , sacredness even , given to the concept – social fact – of the individual . The individual , rather than the collective , becomes the focus of rights and responsibilities , the center of public and private rituals holding the society together – a function once performed by the religion . To stress the importance of this concept , Durkheim talked of the " cult of the individual " :
Thus very far from there being the antagonism between the individual and society which is often claimed , moral individualism , the cult of the individual , is in fact the product of society itself . It is society that instituted it and made of man the god whose servant it is .
Durkheim saw the population density and growth as key factors in the evolution of the societies and advent of modernity . As the number of people in a given area increase , so does the number of interactions , and the society becomes more complex . Growing competition between the more numerous people also leads to further division of labour . In time , the importance of the state , the law and the individual increases , while that of the religion and moral solidarity decreases .
In another example of evolution of culture , Durkheim pointed to fashion , although in this case he noted a more cyclical phenomenon . According to Durkheim , fashion serves to differentiate between lower classes and upper classes , but because lower classes want to look like the upper classes , they will eventually adapt the upper class fashion , depreciating it , and forcing the upper class to adopt a new fashion .
= = = Social pathologies and crime = = =
As the society , Durkheim noted there are several possible pathologies that could lead to a breakdown of social integration and disintegration of the society : the two most important ones are anomie and forced division of labour ; lesser ones include the lack of coordination and suicide . By anomie Durkheim means a state when too rapid population growth reduces the amount of interaction between various groups , which in turn leads a breakdown of understanding ( norms , values , and so on ) . By forced division of labour Durkheim means a situation where power holders , driven by their desire for profit ( greed ) , results in people doing the work they are unsuited for . Such people are unhappy , and their desire to change the system can destabilize the society .
Durkheim 's views on crime were a departure from conventional notions . He believed that crime is " bound up with the fundamental conditions of all social life " and serves a social function . He stated that crime implies , " not only that the way remains open to necessary changes but that in certain cases it directly prepares these changes . " Examining the trial of Socrates , he argues that " his crime , namely , the independence of his thought , rendered a service not only to humanity but to his country " as " it served to prepare a new morality and faith that the Athenians needed " . As such , his crime " was a useful prelude to reforms " . In this sense , he saw crime as being able to release certain social tensions and so have a cleansing or purging effect in society . He further stated that " the authority which the moral conscience enjoys must not be excessive ; otherwise , no @-@ one would dare to criticize it , and it would too easily congeal into an immutable form . To make progress , individual originality must be able to express itself ... [ even ] the originality of the criminal ... shall also be possible " .
= = = = Suicide = = = =
In Suicide ( 1897 ) , Durkheim explores the differing suicide rates among Protestants and Catholics , arguing that stronger social control among Catholics results in lower suicide rates . According to Durkheim , Catholic society has normal levels of integration while Protestant society has low levels . Overall , Durkheim treated suicide as a social fact , explaining variations in its rate on a macro level , considering society @-@ scale phenomena such as lack of connections between people ( group attachment ) and lack of regulations of behavior , rather than individuals ' feelings and motivations .
This study has been extensively discussed by later scholars and several major criticisms have emerged . First , Durkheim took most of his data from earlier researchers , notably Adolph Wagner and Henry Morselli , who were much more careful in generalizing from their own data . Second , later researchers found that the Protestant – Catholic differences in suicide seemed to be limited to German @-@ speaking Europe and thus may have always been the spurious reflection of other factors . Durkheim 's study of suicide has been criticized as an example of the logical error termed the ecological fallacy . However , diverging views have contested whether Durkheim 's work really contained an ecological fallacy . More recent authors such as Berk ( 2006 ) have also questioned the micro – macro relations underlying Durkheim 's work . Some , such as Inkeles ( 1959 ) , Johnson ( 1965 ) and Gibbs ( 1968 ) , have claimed that Durkheim 's only intent was to explain suicide sociologically within a holistic perspective , emphasizing that " he intended his theory to explain variation among social environments in the incidence of suicide , not the suicides of particular individuals . "
Despite its limitations , Durkheim 's work on suicide has influenced proponents of control theory , and is often mentioned as a classic sociological study . The book pioneered modern social research and served to distinguish social science from psychology and political philosophy .
= = = Religion = = =
In The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life , Durkheim 's first purpose was to identify the social origin and function of religion as he felt that religion was a source of camaraderie and solidarity . His second purpose was to identify links between certain religions in different cultures , finding a common denominator . He wanted to understand the empirical , social aspect of religion that is common to all religions and goes beyond the concepts of spirituality and God .
Durkheim defined religion as
A religion is a unified system of beliefs and practices relative to sacred things , i.e. , things set apart and forbidden--beliefs and practices which unite in one single moral community called a Church , all those who adhere to them .
In this definition , Durkheim avoids references to supernatural or God . Durkheim argued that the concept of supernatural is relatively new , tied to the development of science and separation of supernatural — that which cannot be rationally explained — from natural , that which can . Thus , according to Durkheim , for early humans , everything was supernatural . Similarly , he points out that religions that give little importance to the concept of god exist , such as Buddhism , where the Four Noble Truths are much more important than any individual deity . With that , Durkheim argues , we are left with the following three concepts : the sacred ( the ideas that cannot be properly explained , inspire awe and are considered worthy of spiritual respect or devotion ) , the beliefs and practices ( which create highly emotional state — collective effervescence — and invest symbols with sacred importance ) , and the moral community ( a group of people sharing a common moral philosophy ) . Out of those three concepts , Durkheim focused on the sacred , noting that it is at the very core of a religion . He defined sacred things as :
... simply collective ideals that have fixed themselves on material objects ... they are only collective forces hypostasized , that is to say , moral forces ; they are made up of the ideas and sentiments awakened in us by the spectacle of society , and not of sensations coming from the physical world .
Durkheim saw religion as the most fundamental social institution of humankind , and one that gave rise to other social forms . It was the religion that gave humanity the strongest sense of collective consciousness . Durkheim saw the religion as a force that emerged in the early hunter and gatherer societies , as the emotions collective effervescence run high in the growing groups , forcing them to act in a new ways , and giving them a sense of some hidden force driving them . Over time , as emotions became symbolized and interactions ritualized , religion became more organized , giving a rise to the division between the sacred and the profane . However , Durkheim also believed that religion was becoming less important , as it was being gradually superseded by science and the cult of an individual .
Thus there is something eternal in religion that is destined to outlive the succession of particular symbols in which religious thought has clothed itself .
However , even if the religion was losing its importance for Durkheim , it still laid the foundation of modern society and the interactions that governed it . And despite the advent of alternative forces , Durkheim argued that no replacement for the force of religion had yet been created , . He expressed his doubt about modernity , seeing the modern times as " a period of transition and moral mediocrity " .
Durkheim also argued that our primary categories for understanding the world have their origins in religion . It is religion , Durkheim writes , that gave rise to most if not all other social constructs , including the larger society . Durkheim argued that categories are produced by the society , and thus are collective creations . Thus as people create societies , they also create categories , but at the same time , they do so unconsciously , and the categories are prior to any individual 's experience . In this way Durkheim attempted to bridge the divide between seeing categories as constructed out of human experience and as logically prior to that experience . Our understanding of the world is shaped by social facts ; for example the notion of time is defined by being measured through a calendar , which in turn was created to allow us to keep track of our social gatherings and rituals ; those in turn on their most basic level originated from religion . In the end , even the most logical and rational pursuit of science can trace its origins to religion . Durkheim states that , " Religion gave birth to all that is essential in the society .
In his work , Durkheim focused on totemism , the religion of the aboriginal Australians and Native Americans . Durkheim saw totemism as the most ancient religion , and focused on it as he believed its simplicity would ease the discussion of the essential elements of religion .
Durkheim 's work on religion was criticized on both empirical and theoretical grounds by specialists in the field . The most important critique came from Durkheim 's contemporary , Arnold van Gennep , an expert on religion and ritual , and also on Australian belief systems . Van Gennep argued that Durkheim 's views of primitive peoples and simple societies were " entirely erroneous " . Van Gennep further argued that Durkheim demonstrated a lack of critical stance towards his sources , collected by traders and priests , naively accepting their veracity , and that Durkheim interpreted freely from dubious data . At the conceptual level , van Gennep pointed out Durkheim 's tendency to press ethnography into a prefabricated theoretical scheme .
Despite such critiques , Durkheim 's work on religion has been widely praised for its theoretical insight and whose arguments and propositions , according to Robert Alun Jones , " have stimulated the interest and excitement of several generations of sociologists irrespective of theoretical ' school ' or field of specialization . "
= = = Sociology and philosophy = = =
= = = = Sociology of knowledge = = = =
While Durkheim 's work deals with a number of subjects , including suicide , the family , social structures , and social institutions , a large part of his work deals with the sociology of knowledge .
While publishing short articles on the subject earlier in his career ( for example the essay De quelques formes primitives de classification written in 1902 with Marcel Mauss ) , Durkheim 's definitive statement concerning the sociology of knowledge comes in his 1912 magnum opus The Elementary Forms of Religious Life . This book has as its goal not only the elucidation of the social origins and function of religion , but also the social origins and impact of society on language and logical thought . Durkheim worked largely out of a Kantian framework and sought to understand how the concepts and categories of logical thought could arise out of social life . He argued , for example , that the categories of space and time were not a priori . Rather , the category of space depends on a society 's social grouping and geographical use of space , and a group 's social rythme that determines our understanding of time . In this Durkheim sought to combine elements of rationalism and empiricism , arguing that certain aspects of logical thought common to all humans did exist , but that they were products of collective life ( thus contradicting the tabla rasa empiricist understanding whereby categories are acquired by individual experience alone ) , and that they were not universal a priori 's ( as Kant argued ) since the content of the categories differed from society to society .
Another key elements to Durkheim 's theory of knowledge is his concept of représentations collectives ( collective representations ) , which is outlined in The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life . Représentations collectives are the symbols and images that come to represent the ideas , beliefs , and values elaborated by a collectivity and are not reducible to individual constituents . They can include words , slogans , ideas , or any number of material items that can serve as a symbol , such as a cross , a rock , a temple , a feather etc . As Durkheim elaborates , représentations collectives are created through intense social interaction and are products of collective activity . As such these representations have the particular , and somewhat contradictory , aspect that they exist externally to the individual ( since they are created and controlled not by the individual but by society as a whole ) , and yet simultaneously within each individual of the society ( by virtue of that individual 's participation within society ) .
Arguably the most important " représentation collective " is language , which according to Durkheim is a product of collective action . And because language is a collective action , language contains within it a history of accumulated knowledge and experience that no individual would be capable of creating on their own . As Durkheim says , ' représentations collectives ' , and language in particular :
add to that which we can learn by our own personal experience all that wisdom and science which the group has accumulated in the course of centuries . Thinking by concepts , is not merely seeing reality on its most general side , but it is projecting a light upon the sensation which illuminates it , penetrates it and transforms it .
As such , language , as a social product , literally structures and shapes our experience of reality . This discursive approach to language and society would be developed by later French philosophers , such as Michel Foucault .
= = = = Morality = = = =
Durkheim defines morality as " a system of rules for conduct . " His analysis of morality is strongly marked by Immanuel Kant and his notion of duty . While Durkheim was influenced by Kant , he was highly critical of aspects of the latter 's moral theory and developed his own positions .
Durkheim agrees with Kant that within morality , there is an element of obligation , " a moral authority which , by manifesting itself in certain precepts particularly important to it , confers upon [ moral rules ] an obligatory character . " Morality tells us how to act from a position of superiority . There exists a certain , pre @-@ established moral norm to which we must conform . It is through this view that Durkheim makes a first critique of Kant in saying that moral duties originate in society , and are not to be found in some universal moral concept such as the categorical imperative . Durkheim also argues that morality is characterized not just by this obligation , but is also something that is desired by the individual . The individual believes that by adhering to morality , they are serving the common Good , and for this reason , the individual submits voluntarily to the moral commandment .
However , in order to accomplish its aims , morality must be legitimate in the eyes of those to whom it speaks . As Durkheim argues , this moral authority is primarily to be located in religion , which is why in any religion one finds a code of morality . For Durkheim , it is only society that has the resources , the respect , and the power to cultivate within an individual both the obligatory and the desirous aspects of morality .
= = Influences and legacy = =
Durkheim had an important impact on the development of Anthropology and Sociology , influencing thinkers from his school of sociology , such as Marcel Mauss , but also later thinkers , such as Maurice Halbwachs , Talcott Parsons , Alfred Radcliffe @-@ Brown , and Claude Levi @-@ Strauss . More recently , Durkheim has influenced sociologists such as Steven Lukes , Robert Bellah , and Pierre Bourdieu . His description of collective consciousness also deeply influenced the Turkish nationalism of Ziya Gökalp , the founding father of Turkish sociology .
Outside of sociology , he influenced philosophers Henri Bergson and Emmanuel Levinas , and his ideas can be found latently in the work of certain structuralist thinkers of the 60s , such as Alain Badiou , Louis Althusser , and Michel Foucault . Recently , Durkheim has influenced philosophers such as Charles Taylor and Hans Joas .
= = = Durkheim contra Searle = = =
Much of Durkheim 's work , however , remains unacknowledged in philosophy , despite its direct relevance . As proof one can look to John Searle , who wrote a book The Construction of Social Reality , in which he elaborates a theory of social facts and collective representations that he believed to be a landmark work that would bridge the gap between analytic and continental philosophy . Neil Gross however , demonstrates how Searle 's views on society are more or less a reconstitution of Durkheim 's theories of social facts , social institutions , collective representations and the like . Searle 's ideas are thus open to the same criticisms as Durkheim 's . Searle responded by saying that Durkheim 's work was worse than he had originally believed , and , admitting that he had not read much of Durkheim 's work , said that , " Because Durkheim ’ s account seemed so impoverished I did not read any further in his work . " Stephen Lukes , however , responded to Searle 's response to Gross and refutes point by point the allegations that Searle makes against Durkheim , essentially upholding the argument of Gross , that Searle 's work bears great resemblance to that of Durkheim 's . Lukes attributes Searle 's miscomprehension of Durkheim 's work to the fact that Searle , quite simply , never read Durkheim .
= = Selected works = =
Montesquieu 's contributions to the formation of social science ( 1892 )
The Division of Labour in Society ( 1893 )
The Rules of Sociological Method ( 1895 )
On the Normality of Crime ( 1895 )
Suicide ( 1897 )
The Prohibition of Incest and its Origins ( 1897 ) , published in L 'Année Sociologique , vol . 1 , pp. 1 – 70
Sociology and its Scientific Domain ( 1900 ) , translation of an Italian text entitled " La sociologia e il suo dominio scientifico "
Primitive Classification ( 1903 ) , in collaboration with Marcel Mauss
The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life ( 1912 )
Who Wanted War ? ( 1914 ) , in collaboration with Ernest Denis
Germany Above All ( 1915 )
Published posthumously :
Education and Sociology ( 1922 )
Sociology and Philosophy ( 1924 )
Moral Education ( 1925 )
Socialism ( 1928 )
Pragmatism and Sociology ( 1955 )
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= Calvatia sculpta =
Calvatia sculpta , commonly known as the sculpted puffball , the sculptured puffball , the pyramid puffball , and the Sierran puffball , is a species of puffball fungus in the Agaricaceae family . Attaining dimensions of up to 8 to 15 cm ( 3 @.@ 1 to 5 @.@ 9 in ) tall by 8 to 10 cm ( 3 @.@ 1 to 3 @.@ 9 in ) wide , the pear- or egg @-@ shaped puffball is readily recognizable because of the large pyramidal or polygonal warts covering its surface . It is edible when young , before the spores inside the fruit body disintegrate into a brownish powder . The spores are roughly spherical , and have wart @-@ like projections on their surfaces .
Originally described from the Sierra Nevada , C. sculpta is found in mountainous areas in western North America , and was found in a Brazilian dune in 2008 . It may be easily confused with Calbovista subsculpta , a similar puffball that — in addition to differences observable only with microscopy — is larger , and has slightly raised warts with a felt @-@ like texture . Other similar species include Calvatia arctica and immature specimens of Amanita magniverrucata .
= = Taxonomy and naming = =
The species was first described in 1885 by American mycologist Harvey Willson Harkness , under the name Lycoperdon sculptum . Harkness , who called it " a curious and strikingly beautiful species " , found fruit bodies growing at elevations between 1 @,@ 800 and 2 @,@ 400 meters ( 5 @,@ 900 and 7 @,@ 900 ft ) in the Sierra Nevada mountains . Although he noted that " in appearance it differs so much from any species known to us , as to be almost deemed worthy of generic rank " , he thought that placement in the puffball genus Lycoperdon was the most appropriate classification , despite its unusual cortex . Harkness 's type collections were destroyed in the fires following the 1906 San Francisco earthquake . In 1904 , Curtis Gates Lloyd considered the species better placed in Calvatia , because of the resemblance of its deeply colored capillitial threads ( coarse thick @-@ walled cells found in the gleba ) to those of Calvatia caelata ; he called the species Calvatia sculptum . The mushroom is known by several common names , including the " sculpted puffball " , the " sculptured puffball " , the " pyramid puffball " , and the " Sierran puffball " .
In 1992 , German mycologist Hanns Kreisel , in his survey of the genus Calvatia , defined the section Sculpta to contain C. sculpta and C. subcretacea . Two years later he merged the section Cretacea into Sculpta when it was shown that C. subcretacea was synonymous with the arctic @-@ alpine species C. arctica .
= = Description = =
The white pear- or egg @-@ shaped fruit body of C. sculpta may be 8 to 15 cm ( 3 @.@ 1 to 5 @.@ 9 in ) tall by 8 to 10 cm ( 3 @.@ 1 to 3 @.@ 9 in ) wide . The outer layer of tissue , known as the exoperidium , is covered on the outer surface with distinctive long , pointed , pyramid @-@ shaped warts , either erect or bent over and sometimes connected at the tip with other warts . The warts bear parallel horizontal lines towards the base . Mycologist David Arora opined that C. sculpta resembled " a cross between a geodesic dome and a giant glob of meringue . " In age , the peridium sloughs off and exposes a brownish spore mass . The interior of the puffball , the gleba , is firm and yellowish @-@ white when young , but gradually becomes powdery and deep olive @-@ brown as it matures .
The spores are roughly spherical , thick @-@ walled , 3 – 6 µm in diameter ( although some specimens collected in the USA range from 7 @.@ 2 to 9 @.@ 5 µm ) , and are covered with minute spines or warts . The use of scanning electron microscopy has revealed that these ornamentations on the spores are typically 0 @.@ 95 µm long . Spore ultrastructure is distinctive among Calvatia species , and has been used to help verify taxonomic groupings and confirm the status of species within the genus . The capillitia ( coarse , thick @-@ walled hyphae in the gleba ) are septate , with branches that are narrowed towards the tips ; they are 3 – 8 µm in diameter . When grown in pure culture in the laboratory , C. sculpta is , under certain conditions , able to grow structures called mycelial strands . These are linear aggregates of hyphae whereby older " leading " hyphae become enclosed by coiled layers of newer " tendril " hyphae . Mycelial strands provide a conduit for transporting water and nutrients across non @-@ nutrient material , allowing the fungus to reach new sources of food . They are also implicated in the formation of fruit bodies and sclerotia . The mycelia of C. sculpta can be induced to form mycelial strands when there is a permeable physical barrier between it and the agar substrate . The wide hyphae in the center of the mycelial strands contain protein @-@ dense structures on their cell walls that are shaped like a torus . Their function is unknown .
Calvatia sculpta produces the extracellular ( secreted outside the cell ) hydrolytic enzymes known as esterases and lipases . These classes of enzymes are of interest in biotechnology because of their use in industrial processes .
= = = Edibility = = =
Calvatia sculpta is edible , and said to be " choice " by some authors . The taste is described as " mild " and the flesh has no distinguishable odor . Arora recommends eating the puffball only when it is firm and white inside , as older specimens may have a distasteful iodine @-@ like flavor . The puffball may be preserved by freezing fresh or partially cooked slices , but their flavor and texture will deteriorate unless cooked immediately after thawing . Recommended cooking techniques for puffball slices include sautéing and coating in batter before frying . C. sculpta was used as a traditional food of the Plains and Sierra Miwok Indians of North America , who called the fungus potokele or patapsi . Puffballs were prepared by drying them in the sun , grinding them with a mortar , and boiling them before eating with acorn soup .
= = = Similar species = = =
The giant western puffball , Calvatia booniana , is much larger than C. sculpta — up to 60 cm ( 24 in ) in diameter and 30 cm ( 12 in ) tall — and has a smoother surface . Mature specimens of Calvatia arctica ( synonymous with Calvatia subcretacea , Gastropila subcretacea , and Handkea subcretacea ) can resemble immature specimens of C. sculpta . It is distinguished from C. sculpta by its tough , thicker peridial wall , and its scales are tipped with gray @-@ brown . Calbovista subsculpta is similar in appearance , but has more flattened and less prominent pyramidal warts . Microscopically , its capillitia are thin @-@ walled and frequently and irregularly branched , in contrast to the thick @-@ walled infrequently branched capillitia of C. sculpta . The " possibly toxic " Amanita magniverrucata , in its embryonic stage , has a superficial resemblance as it also has pyramidal cap warts . However , it grows at different elevations and different seasons than C. sculpta . Further , slicing the fruit body of A. magniverrucata in half will reveal internal structures of cap , gills and stem not present in puffballs .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
The sculptured puffball grows solitarily or in small groups in forest duff . It is typically associated with coniferous forests at high elevations , greater than about 750 m ( 2 @,@ 500 ft ) , on western mountains like the Sierra Nevada and the Cascade Range . The United States distribution includes the states of California , Oregon , Washington , and Idaho . An uncommon species , it fruits throughout spring , summer , and fall during wet weather .
Most commonly known from western North America , the species was reported growing on sandy soil in Dunas Park , Rio Grande do Norte state , northeastern Brazil in 2008 . The fruit bodies were associated with the roots of the native tree species Eugenia brasiliensis . Several hypotheses have been proposed to account for this disjunct distribution : the species may have been present before the Americas separated ; it may have been introduced to Brazil by human activity , and subsequently adapted to the environment there ; or the North and South American populations may represent a cryptic species complex — appearing morphologically similar but genetically distinct . The Brazilian population has not been compared genetically with North American specimens .
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= Harold M. McClelland =
Harold Mark McClelland ( November 4 , 1893 – November 19 , 1965 ) was a United States Air Force ( USAF ) major general who is considered the father of Air Force communications . He founded and led the 19th Bombardment Group in the early 1930s , commanded Rockwell Field for a year then was groomed for higher leadership , becoming the inspector for the General Headquarters Air Force ( GHQ ) in 1937 .
Between 1934 and 1938 , McClelland researched the technical and logistical aspects of long @-@ range air communications , an effort which resulted in the establishment of the Army Airways Communications System . Following this , he worked in the Operations and Training Division of the War Department General Staff , and served as chief of the Aviation division .
During World War II , McClelland organized the largest communications system the world had yet seen . McClelland , rated a command pilot , served as the chief of communications for the Central Intelligence Agency in the early 1950s .
In the USAF , an award is given annually in McClelland 's name , for excellence in large unit communications .
= = Early career = =
Harold Mark McClelland was born in Tiffin , Iowa , in 1893 . His siblings included two sisters and a younger brother , Herbert . McClelland graduated from Kansas State Agricultural College with a bachelor of science degree in 1916 . He was commissioned as a regular second lieutenant August 18 , 1917 and was promoted to first lieutenant at the same time .
McClelland was assigned successively to the Army service schools at Fort Leavenworth , Kansas . His electronics @-@ minded brother Herbert " Mac " McClelland was attending nearby Kansas State and the two young men built the first radio transmitter at the college in 1918 , stringing an antenna from the Physics building to a water tower . The station 9YV transmitted in Morse code , and may have broadcast the first regularly scheduled weather reports in the U.S. On November 19 , 1918 , McClelland joined the 48th Infantry at Norfolk , Virginia .
Detailed to the Aviation Section of the Signal Corps , McClelland earned his wings by attending ground school at the University of Texas , flying gunnery and advanced fighter courses at Rockwell Field in San Diego , California . Then followed an assignment at Roosevelt Field , New York , and in December 1918 , he became commandant of training , commanding officer of the cadet detachment and assistant engineering officer at Love Field , Dallas , Texas .
In July 1919 , McClelland was stationed at London , England as assistant aviation officer , Headquarters of the Provisional District of Great Britain , at the rank of captain . In September , with fellow Air Service pilot Lieutenant Colonel James E. Chaney , he was made an honorary member of the Royal Aero Club of the UK . He also saw service in England with the U.S. Army Liquidation Mission , and collected some advanced " voice radio " equipment from France to take back home for a demonstration in Manhattan . McClelland sailed from London aboard the RMS Saxonia as an unmarried member of the ship 's crew , arriving in New York on December 1 , 1920 .
= = Communications = =
In January 1921 , McClelland attended the Air Service Communications School at Fort Sill , Oklahoma , and after graduation , remained there as an instructor . In February 1922 , he was assigned to the Signal Corps radio laboratory at Camp Alfred Vail , New Jersey , as Air Service representative and from August 1922 to February 1924 , was officer in charge of the laboratory .
Transferred to Mitchel Field , New York , in September 1924 , with the 9th Observation Group , McClelland was posted signal officer and instructor in communications at summer training camps . From September 1925 to May 1926 , he attended a special radio course at Columbia University . While stationed in New York , McClelland agreed to fly a publicity stunt intended to bring more attention to the United States Army Air Corps ( USAAC ) , and aid the Citizens Military Training Camp . Enthusiastic Air Corps booster Major Benjamin Foulois , commander of Mitchel Field , arranged for a USAAC pilot to fly over and drop baseballs for Babe Ruth to catch . Ruth came out to Mitchel Field on July 23 , 1926 dressed up in an Army uniform ( he was in the Reserves ) to keep his end of the bargain . In the sweltering heat and humidity of a Long Island summer , in front of a row of newspaper and film cameramen , as well as radio and print reporters , McClelland flew over Ruth at a speed of 100 miles per hour ( 160 km / h ) and a height of about 250 to 300 feet ( 76 to 91 m ) . Foulois recalled that the first two baseballs that McClelland dropped near Ruth " knocked him flat " but that the third ball was caught with a shout of pain and then handed to the major . Foulois wrote in 1980 : " The last I saw of the Babe that day he was slowly flexing his burning hand and trying to smile about it as he left in a big limousine . "
On October 1 , 1927 , McClelland began a four @-@ year stint in the Training and Operations Division , Office of the Chief of the USAAC , at Washington , D.C. He then was given command of the 19th Bombardment Group , which he organized in 1931 and commanded until 1934 .
He drew two unusual assignments in 1934 . When the USAAC took over flying the air mail , McClelland acted as zone communications officer at Salt Lake City . Later in the year , he was communications and meteorological officer for General Henry H. Arnold 's Alaskan flight , which was to do much in shaping the trend of air communications .
In October 1934 , McClelland was given command of Rockwell Field and Rockwell Air Depot . In 1935 he began a series of courses , which saw him graduate from the Air Corps Tactical School , the Chemical Warfare School and the Command and General Staff School . In 1937 he became inspector for the General Headquarters Staff School . In 1937 he became inspector for the General Headquarters Air Force at Langley Field , Virginia .
At the request of General Arnold , from 1934 to 1938 , McClelland worked to devise a permanent airways communication system . In 1938 , McClelland 's efforts yielded the establishment of the Army Airways Communications System , a group that would develop into the Air Force Network Integration Center .
In August 1938 , McClelland was assigned to the Operations and Training Division of the War Department General Staff , Washington , D.C. at the rank of lieutenant colonel , and became chief of Aviation Branch of that division February 21 , 1941 . In May 1941 , McClelland , now colonel , was assigned as assistant chief of staff for operations and training of the Special Army Observer Group in London , England , and after the direct participation of the United States in World War II he retained the same role as assistant chief of staff , training and operations , but within the new European Theater of Operations , United States ( ETOUSA ) , and at the rank of brigadier general .
McClelland returned to the U.S. in July 1942 and was assigned to Headquarters Army Air Forces , Washington , D.C. , where he was director of technical services until March 1943 . He worked with Fred Terman to determine how best to conduct radio frequency searches and jamming of enemy communications . After serving the next several months as deputy assistant chief of Air Staff , operations , Headquarters Army Air Forces , he became the air communications officer in July 1943 .
= = Postwar = =
McClelland wrote an article for Bell Telephone Magazine in 1945 , entitled " In The Air , " describing military communications as used by Air Force units in the successful prosecution of the war .
In January 1946 , McClelland reported for newspaper and radio audiences that the recent radar contact with the Moon could well be an " opening step " in the search for life in space .
On April 8 , 1946 , McClelland became the first commanding general of the Airways and Air Communications Service , the group he had originally formed in 1938 as the Army Airways Communications System . On April 24 , 1946 , he was made commander of the Airways and Air Communications Service Alumni Association .
Upon creation of the Military Air Transport Service , June 6 , 1948 , McClelland was named deputy commander , services . These services included Airways and Air Communications Service , Air Weather Service , Air Rescue Service , Flight Service and National Interest Bases . In addition to his new duties , he continued as commanding general of Airways and Air Communications Service until September 10 , 1948 .
McClelland authored an essay about how radar affected the recent war — a work which was included in Volume 7 : Bombs Away — Your Air Force in Action of the Pictorial History of the Second World War , published in 1948 . On August 7 , McClelland read over the CBS Radio Network a 15 @-@ minute speech he had prepared for the radio series Adventures in Science . McClelland 's broadcast was entitled " Thunder and Lightning Flying . " McClelland stepped down as commander of AACS Alumni Association on September 9 , 1948 .
On August 30 , 1949 , McClelland was appointed director of communications @-@ electronics in the United States Department of Defense for the Joint Chiefs of Staff , with station at Washington , D.C.
In 1951 , a sharp increase in diplomatic tensions was seen by the Central Intelligence Agency ( CIA ) as the precursor to war . A greater volume of communications required a stronger system , and CIA Director Walter Bedell Smith hired McClelland as chief of CIA communications , a position known as " Assistant Director , Communications " , on September 10 , 1951 . There , McClelland oversaw the technical development and implementation of a secure global communications system . He served the CIA for 14 years until his death in Washington , D.C. in 1965 . McClelland was survived by his wife Doris C. McClelland , and by their son Alan J. McClelland of Houston , Texas . McClelland 's brother Herbert " Mac " McClelland continued to thrive as the founder and president of McClelland Sound in Wichita , Kansas , with clients that included McConnell Air Force Base and area businesses Boeing and Learjet .
= = Recognition = =
McClelland was awarded the Distinguished Service Medal , the Legion of Merit and Commander of the Order of the British Empire . His DSM citation reads , " ... as air communications officer , Headquarters Army Air Forces from July 1942 to August 1945 , [ he ] supervised the Army Airways Communications System which furnished communications and navigational aids along the military air routes throughout the world . He pioneered in military electronics , analyzed the enemy 's scientific research in this field and instituted radio and radar countermeasures . "
In 1951 , the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers ( IEEE ) awarded McClelland the Pioneer Award .
In honor of his work in military communications , the " Air Force Communications and Information Major General Harold M. McClelland Award " is given annually to the large USAF unit ( 301 or more members ) which has demonstrated " sustained superior performance and professional excellence while managing core communications and information functions and for contributions that most improved communications and information support to Air Force and ( or ) DoD operations and missions . "
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= Emanuel Lasker =
Emanuel Lasker ( December 24 , 1868 – January 11 , 1941 ) was a German chess player , mathematician , and philosopher who was World Chess Champion for 27 years ( from 1894 to 1921 ) . In his prime Lasker was one of the most dominant champions , and he is still generally regarded as one of the strongest players ever .
His contemporaries used to say that Lasker used a " psychological " approach to the game , and even that he sometimes deliberately played inferior moves to confuse opponents . Recent analysis , however , indicates that he was ahead of his time and used a more flexible approach than his contemporaries , which mystified many of them . Lasker knew contemporary analyses of openings well but disagreed with many of them . He published chess magazines and five chess books , but later players and commentators found it difficult to draw lessons from his methods .
Lasker made contributions to the development of other games . He was a first @-@ class contract bridge player and wrote about bridge and other games , including Go and his own invention , Lasca . His books about games presented a problem that is still considered notable in the mathematical analysis of card games . Lasker was also a research mathematician who was known for his contributions to commutative algebra , which included proving the primary decomposition of the ideals of polynomial rings . On the other hand , his philosophical works and a drama that he co @-@ authored received little attention .
= = Life and career = =
= = = Early years 1868 – 94 = = =
Emanuel Lasker was born on December 24 , 1868 at Berlinchen in Neumark ( now Barlinek in Poland ) , the son of a Jewish cantor . At the age of eleven he was sent to Berlin to study mathematics , where he lived with his brother Berthold , eight years his senior , who taught him how to play chess . According to the website Chessmetrics , Berthold was among the world 's top ten players in the early 1890s . To supplement their income Emanuel Lasker played chess and card games for small stakes , especially at the Café Kaiserhof .
Lasker shot up through the chess rankings in 1889 , when he won the Café Kaiserhof 's annual Winter tournament 1888 / 89 and the Hauptturnier A ( " second division " tournament ) at the sixth DSB Congress ( German Chess Federation 's congress ) held in Breslau . Winning the Hauptturnier earned Lasker the title of " master " . The candidates were divided into two groups of ten . The top four in each group competed in a final . Lasker won his section , with 2 ½ points more than his nearest rival . However , scores were reset to 0 for the final . With two rounds to go , Lasker trailed the leader , Viennese amateur von Feierfeil , by 1 ½ points . Lasker won both of his final games , while von Feierfeil lost in the penultimate round ( being mated in 121 moves after the position was reconstructed incorrectly following an adjournment ) and drew in the last round . The two players were now tied . Lasker won a playoff and garnered the master title . This enabled him to play in master @-@ level tournaments and thus launched his chess career .
Lasker finished second in an international tournament at Amsterdam , ahead of some well @-@ known masters , including Isidore Gunsberg ( assessed as the second strongest player in the world at that time by Chessmetrics ) . In 1890 he finished third in Graz , then shared first prize with his brother Berthold in a tournament in Berlin . In spring 1892 , he won two tournaments in London , the second and stronger of these without losing a game . At New York 1893 , he won all thirteen games , one of the few times in chess history that a player has achieved a perfect score in a significant tournament .
His record in matches was equally impressive : at Berlin in 1890 he drew a short play @-@ off match against his brother Berthold ; and won all his other matches from 1889 to 1893 , mostly against top @-@ class opponents : Curt von Bardeleben ( 1889 ; ranked 9th best player in the world by Chessmetrics at that time ) , Jacques Mieses ( 1889 ; ranked 11th ) , Henry Edward Bird ( 1890 ; then 60 years old ; ranked 29th ) , Berthold Englisch ( 1890 ; ranked 18th ) , Joseph Henry Blackburne ( 1892 , without losing a game ; Blackburne was aged 51 then , but still 9th in the world ) , Jackson Showalter ( 1892 – 93 ; 22nd ) and Celso Golmayo Zúpide ( 1893 ; 29th ) . Chessmetrics calculates that Emanuel Lasker became the world 's strongest player in mid @-@ 1890 , and that he was in the top ten from the very beginning of his recorded career in 1889 .
In 1892 Lasker founded the first of his chess magazines , The London Chess Fortnightly , which was published from August 15 , 1892 to July 30 , 1893 . In the second quarter of 1893 there was a gap of ten weeks between issues , allegedly because of problems with the printer . Shortly after its last issue Lasker traveled to the USA , where he spent the next two years .
Lasker challenged Siegbert Tarrasch , who had won three consecutive strong international tournaments ( Breslau 1889 , Manchester 1890 , and Dresden 1892 ) , to a match . Tarrasch haughtily declined , stating that Lasker should first prove his mettle by attempting to win one or two major international events .
= = = Chess competition 1894 – 1918 = = =
= = = = Matches against Steinitz = = = =
Rebuffed by Tarrasch , Lasker challenged the reigning World Champion Wilhelm Steinitz to a match for the title . Initially Lasker wanted to play for US $ 5 @,@ 000 a side and a match was agreed at stakes of $ 3 @,@ 000 a side , but Steinitz agreed to a series of reductions when Lasker found it difficult to raise the money . The final figure was $ 2 @,@ 000 , which was less than for some of Steinitz ' earlier matches ( the final combined stake of $ 4 @,@ 000 would be worth over $ 495 @,@ 000 at 2006 values ) . Although this was publicly praised as an act of sportsmanship on Steinitz ' part , Steinitz may have desperately needed the money . The match was played in 1894 , at venues in New York , Philadelphia , and Montreal . Steinitz had previously declared he would win without doubt , so it came as a shock when Lasker won the first game . Steinitz responded by winning the second , and maintained the balance through the sixth . However , Lasker won all the games from the seventh to the eleventh , and Steinitz asked for a week 's rest . When the match resumed , Steinitz looked in better shape and won the 13th and 14th games . Lasker struck back in the 15th and 16th , and Steinitz did not compensate for his losses in the middle of the match . Hence Lasker won convincingly with ten wins , five losses and four draws . Lasker thus became the second formally recognized World Chess Champion , and confirmed his title by beating Steinitz even more convincingly in their re @-@ match in 1896 – 97 ( ten wins , two losses , and five draws ) .
= = = = Tournament successes = = = =
Influential players and journalists belittled the 1894 match both before and after it took place . Lasker 's difficulty in getting backing may have been caused by hostile pre @-@ match comments from Gunsberg and Leopold Hoffer , who had long been a bitter enemy of Steinitz . One of the complaints was that Lasker had never played the other two members of the top four , Siegbert Tarrasch and Mikhail Chigorin – although Tarrasch had rejected a challenge from Lasker in 1892 , publicly telling him to go and win an international tournament first . After the match some commentators , notably Tarrasch , said Lasker had won mainly because Steinitz was old ( 58 in 1894 ) .
Emanuel Lasker answered these criticisms by creating an even more impressive playing record . Before World War I broke out his most serious " setbacks " were third place at Hastings 1895 ( where he may have been suffering from the after @-@ effects of typhoid fever ) , a tie for second at Cambridge Springs 1904 , and a tie for first at the Chigorin Memorial in St Petersburg 1909 . He won first prizes at very strong tournaments in St Petersburg ( 1895 – 96 , Quadrangular ) , Nuremberg ( 1896 ) , London ( 1899 ) , Paris ( 1900 ) and St Petersburg ( 1914 ) , where he overcame a 1 ½ -point deficit to finish ahead of the rising stars , Capablanca and Alexander Alekhine , who later became the next two World Champions . For decades chess writers have reported that Tsar Nicholas II of Russia conferred the title of " Grandmaster of Chess " upon each of the five finalists at St Petersburg 1914 ( Lasker , Capablanca , Alekhine , Tarrasch and Marshall ) , but chess historian Edward Winter has questioned this , stating that the earliest known sources supporting this story were published in 1940 and 1942 .
= = = = Matches against Marshall and Tarrasch = = = =
Lasker 's match record was as impressive between his 1896 – 97 re @-@ match with Steinitz and 1914 : he won all but one of his normal matches , and three of those were convincing defenses of his title . He first faced Marshall in the World Chess Championship 1907 , when despite his aggressive style , Marshall could not win a single game , losing eight and drawing seven ( final score : 11 ½ − 3 ½ ) .
He then played Tarrasch in the World Chess Championship 1908 , first at Düsseldorf then at Munich . Tarrasch firmly believed the game of chess was governed by a precise set of principles . For him the strength of a chess move was in its logic , not in its efficiency . Because of his stubborn principles he considered Lasker as a coffeehouse player who won his games only thanks to dubious tricks , while Lasker mocked the arrogance of Tarrasch who , in his opinion , shone more in salons than at the chessboard . At the opening ceremony , Tarrasch refused to talk to Lasker , only saying : " Mr. Lasker , I have only three words to say to you : check and mate ! "
Lasker gave a brilliant answer on the chessboard , winning four of the first five games , and playing a type of chess Tarrasch could not understand . For example , in the second game after 19 moves arose a situation ( see diagram at left ) in which Lasker was a pawn down , with a bad bishop and doubled pawns . At this point it appeared Tarrasch was winning , but 20 moves later he was forced to resign . Lasker eventually won by 10 ½ − 5 ½ ( eight wins , five draws , and three losses ) . Tarrasch claimed the wet weather was the cause of his defeat .
= = = = Matches against Janowski = = = =
In 1909 Lasker drew a short match ( two wins , two losses ) against Dawid Janowski , an all @-@ out attacking Polish expatriate . Several months later they played a longer match in Paris , and chess historians still debate whether this was for the World Chess Championship . Understanding Janowski 's style , Lasker chose to defend solidly so that Janowski unleashed his attacks too soon and left himself vulnerable . Lasker easily won the match 8 – 2 ( seven wins , two draws , one loss ) . This victory was convincing for everyone but Janowski , who asked for a revenge match . Lasker accepted and they played a World Chess Championship match in Berlin in November – December 1910 . Lasker crushed his opponent , winning 9 ½ − 1 ½ ( eight wins , three draws , no losses ) . Janowski did not understand Lasker 's moves , and after his first three losses he declared to Edward Lasker , " Your homonym plays so stupidly that I cannot even look at the chessboard when he thinks . I am afraid I will not do anything good in this match . "
= = = = Match against Schlechter = = = =
Between his two matches against Janowski , Lasker arranged another World Chess Championship in January – February 1910 against Carl Schlechter . Schlechter was a modest gentleman , who was generally unlikely to win the major chess tournaments by his peaceful inclination , his lack of aggressiveness and his willingness to accept most draw offers from his opponents ( about 80 % of his games finished by a draw ) . The conditions of the match against Lasker are still debated among chess historians , but it seems Schlechter accepted to play under very unfavourable conditions , notably that he would need to finish two points ahead of Lasker to be declared the winner of the match , and he would need to win a revenge match to be declared World Champion . The match was originally meant to consist of 30 games , but when it became obvious that there were insufficient funds ( Lasker demanded a fee of 1 @,@ 000 marks per game played ) , the number of games was reduced to ten , making the margin of two points all the more difficult .
At the beginning , Lasker tried to attack but Schlechter had no difficulty defending , so that the first four games finished in draws . In the fifth game Lasker had a big advantage , but committed a blunder that cost him the game . Hence at the middle of the match Schlechter was one point ahead . The next four games were drawn , despite fierce play from both players . In the sixth Schlechter managed to draw a game being a pawn down . In the seventh Lasker nearly lost because of a beautiful exchange sacrifice from Schlechter . In the ninth only a blunder from Lasker allowed Schlechter to draw a lost ending . The score before the last game was thus 5 – 4 for Schlechter . In the tenth game Schlechter tried to win tactically and took a big advantage , but he missed a clear win at the 35th move , continued to take increasing risks and finished by losing . Hence the match was a draw and Lasker remained World Champion .
= = = = Abandoned challenges = = = =
In 1911 Lasker received a challenge for a world title match against the rising star José Raúl Capablanca . Lasker was unwilling to play the traditional " first to win ten games " type of match in the semi @-@ tropical conditions of Havana , especially as drawn games were becoming more frequent and the match might last for over six months . He therefore made a counter @-@ proposal : if neither player had a lead of at least two games by the end of the match , it should be considered a draw ; the match should be limited to the best of thirty games , counting draws ; except that if either player won six games and led by at least two games before thirty games were completed , he should be declared the winner ; the champion should decide the venue and stakes , and should have the exclusive right to publish the games ; the challenger should deposit a forfeit of US $ 2 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to over $ 194 @,@ 000 in 2006 values ) ; the time limit should be twelve moves per hour ; play should be limited to two sessions of 2 ½ hours each per day , five days a week . Capablanca objected to the time limit , the short playing times , the thirty @-@ game limit , and especially the requirement that he must win by two games to claim the title , which he regarded as unfair . Lasker took offence at the terms in which Capablanca criticized the two @-@ game lead condition and broke off negotiations , and until 1914 Lasker and Capablanca were not on speaking terms . However , at the 1914 St. Petersburg tournament , Capablanca proposed a set of rules for the conduct of World Championship matches , which were accepted by all the leading players , including Lasker .
Late in 1912 Lasker entered into negotiations for a world title match with Akiba Rubinstein , whose tournament record for the previous few years had been on a par with Lasker 's and a little ahead of Capablanca 's . The two players agreed to play a match if Rubinstein could raise the funds , but Rubinstein had few rich friends to back him and the match was never played . This situation demonstrated some of the flaws inherent in the championship system then being used . The start of World War I in summer 1914 put an end to hopes that Lasker would play either Rubinstein or Capablanca for the World Championship in the near future . Throughout World War I ( 1914 – 18 ) Lasker played in only two serious chess events . He convincingly won ( 5 ½ − ½ ) a non @-@ title match against Tarrasch in 1916 . In September – October 1918 , shortly before the armistice , he won a quadrangular ( four @-@ player ) tournament , half a point ahead of Rubinstein .
= = = Academic activities 1894 – 1918 = = =
Despite his superb playing results , chess was not Lasker 's only interest . His parents recognized his intellectual talents , especially for mathematics , and sent the adolescent Emanuel to study in Berlin ( where he found he also had a talent for chess ) . Lasker gained his abitur ( high school graduation certificate ) at Landsberg an der Warthe , now a Polish town named Gorzów Wielkopolski but then part of Prussia . He then studied mathematics and philosophy at the universities in Berlin , Göttingen ( where David Hilbert was one of his doctoral advisors ) and Heidelberg .
In 1895 Lasker published two mathematical articles in Nature . On the advice of David Hilbert he registered for doctoral studies at Erlangen during 1900 – 02 . In 1901 he presented his doctoral thesis Über Reihen auf der Convergenzgrenze ( " On Series at Convergence Boundaries " ) at Erlangen and in the same year it was published by the Royal Society . He was awarded a doctorate in mathematics in 1902 . His most significant mathematical article , in 1905 , published a theorem of which Emmy Noether developed a more generalized form , which is now regarded as of fundamental importance to modern algebra and algebraic geometry .
Lasker held short @-@ term positions as a mathematics lecturer at Tulane University in New Orleans ( 1893 ) and Victoria University in Manchester ( 1901 ; Victoria University was one of the " parents " of the current University of Manchester ) . However , he was unable to secure a longer @-@ term position , and pursued his scholarly interests independently .
In 1906 Lasker published a booklet titled Kampf ( Struggle ) , in which he attempted to create a general theory of all competitive activities , including chess , business and war . He produced two other books which are generally categorized as philosophy , Das Begreifen der Welt ( Comprehending the World ; 1913 ) and Die Philosophie des Unvollendbar ( sic ; The Philosophy of the Unattainable ; 1918 ) .
= = = Other activities 1894 – 1918 = = =
In 1896 – 97 Lasker published his book Common Sense in Chess , based on lectures he had given in London in 1895 .
In 1903 , Lasker played in Ostend against Mikhail Chigorin , a six @-@ game match that was sponsored by the wealthy lawyer and industrialist Isaac Rice in order to test the Rice Gambit . Lasker narrowly lost the match . Three years later Lasker became secretary of the Rice Gambit Association , founded by Rice in order to promote the Rice Gambit , and in 1907 Lasker quoted with approval Rice 's views on the convergence of chess and military strategy .
In November 1904 , Lasker founded Lasker 's Chess Magazine , which ran until 1909 .
For a short time in 1906 Emanuel Lasker was interested in the strategy game Go , but soon returned to chess . He was introduced to the game by his namesake Edward Lasker , who wrote a successful book Go and Go @-@ Moku in 1934 .
At the age of 42 , in July 1911 , Lasker married Martha Cohn ( née Bamberger ) , a rich widow who was a year older than Lasker and already a grandmother . They lived in Berlin .
Martha Cohn wrote popular stories under the pseudonym " L. Marco " .
During World War I , Lasker invested all of his savings in German war bonds . Since Germany lost the war , Lasker lost all his money . During the war , he wrote a book which claimed that civilization would be in danger if Germany lost the war .
= = = Match against Capablanca = = =
In January 1920 Lasker and José Raúl Capablanca signed an agreement to play a World Championship match in 1921 , noting that Capablanca was not free to play in 1920 . Because of the delay , Lasker insisted on a final clause that allowed him to play anyone else for the championship in 1920 , that nullified the contract with Capablanca if Lasker lost a title match in 1920 , and that stipulated that if Lasker resigned the title Capablanca should become World Champion . Lasker had previously included in his agreement before World War I to play Akiba Rubinstein for the title a similar clause that if he resigned the title , it should become Rubinstein 's .
A report in the American Chess Bulletin ( July – August 1920 issue ) said that Lasker had resigned the world title in favor of Capablanca because the conditions of the match were unpopular in the chess world . The American Chess Bulletin speculated that the conditions were not sufficiently unpopular to warrant resignation of the title , and that Lasker 's real concern was that there was not enough financial backing to justify his devoting nine months to the match . When Lasker resigned the title in favor of Capablanca he was unaware that enthusiasts in Havana had just raised $ 20 @,@ 000 to fund the match provided it was played there . When Capablanca learned of Lasker 's resignation he went to the Netherlands , where Lasker was living at the time , to inform him that Havana would finance the match . In August 1920 Lasker agreed to play in Havana , but insisted that he was the challenger as Capablanca was now the champion . Capablanca signed an agreement that accepted this point , and soon afterwards published a letter confirming this . Lasker also stated that , if he beat Capablanca , he would resign the title so that younger masters could compete for it .
The match was played in March – April 1921 . After four draws , the fifth game saw Lasker blunder with Black in an equal ending . Capablanca 's solid style allowed him to easily draw the next four games , without taking any risks . In the tenth game , Lasker as White played a position with an isolated queen pawn but failed to create the necessary activity and Capablanca reached a superior ending , which he duly won . The eleventh and fourteenth games were also won by Capablanca , and Lasker resigned the match .
Reuben Fine and Harry Golombek attributed this to Lasker 's being in mysteriously poor form . On the other hand , Vladimir Kramnik thought that Lasker played quite well and the match was an " even and fascinating fight " until Lasker blundered in the last game , and explained that Capablanca was twenty years younger , a slightly stronger player , and had more recent competitive practice .
= = = 1921 to end of life = = =
By this time Lasker was nearly 53 years old , and he never played another serious match ; his only other match was a short exhibition against Frank James Marshall in 1940 , which Lasker lost . After winning the New York 1924 chess tournament ( 1 ½ points ahead of Capablanca ) and finishing second at Moscow in 1925 ( 1 ½ points behind Efim Bogoljubow , ½ point ahead of Capablanca ) , he effectively retired from serious chess .
During the Moscow 1925 chess tournament , Emanuel Lasker received a telegram informing him that the drama written by himself and his brother Berthold , Vom Menschen die Geschichte ( " History of Mankind " ) , had been accepted for performance at the Lessing theatre in Berlin . Emanuel Lasker was so distracted by this news that he lost badly to Carlos Torre the same day . The play , however , was not a success .
In 1926 Lasker wrote Lehrbuch des Schachspiels , which he re @-@ wrote in English in 1927 as Lasker 's Manual of Chess . He also wrote books on other games of mental skill : Encyclopedia of Games ( 1929 ) and Das verständige Kartenspiel ( means " Sensible Card Play " ; 1929 ; English translation in the same year ) , both of which posed a problem in the mathematical analysis of card games ; Brettspiele der Völker ( " Board Games of the Nations " ; 1931 ) , which includes 30 pages about Go and a section about a game he had invented in 1911 , Lasca .
In 1930 , Lasker was a special correspondent for Dutch and German newspapers reporting on the Culbertson @-@ Buller bridge match during which he became a registered teacher of the Culbertson system . He became an expert bridge player , representing Germany at international events in the early 1930s , and wrote Das Bridgespiel ( " The Game of Bridge " ) in 1931 .
In October 1928 Emanuel Lasker 's brother Berthold died .
In spring 1933 Adolf Hitler started a campaign of discrimination and intimidation against Jews , depriving them of their property and citizenship . Lasker and his wife Martha , who were both Jewish , were forced to leave Germany in the same year . After a short stay in England , in 1935 they were invited to live in the USSR by Nikolai Krylenko , the Commissar of Justice who was responsible for the Moscow show trials and , in his other capacity as Sports Minister , was an enthusiastic supporter of chess . In the USSR , Lasker renounced his German citizenship and received Soviet citizenship . He took permanent residence in Moscow , and was given a post at Moscow 's Institute for Mathematics and a post of trainer of the USSR national team . Lasker returned to competitive chess to make some money , finishing fifth in Zürich 1934 and third in Moscow 1935 ( undefeated , ½ point behind Mikhail Botvinnik and Salo Flohr ; ahead of Capablanca , Rudolf Spielmann and several Soviet masters ) , sixth in Moscow 1936 and seventh equal in Nottingham 1936 . His performance in Moscow 1935 at age 66 was hailed as " a biological miracle . "
Joseph Stalin 's Great Purge started at about the same time the Laskers arrived in the USSR . In August 1937 , Martha and Emanuel Lasker decided to leave the Soviet Union , and they moved , via the Netherlands , to the United States ( first Chicago , next New York ) in October 1937 . In the following year Emanuel Lasker 's patron , Krylenko , was purged . Lasker tried to support himself by giving chess and bridge lectures and exhibitions , as he was now too old for serious competition . In 1940 he published his last book , The Community of the Future , in which he proposed solutions for serious political problems , including anti @-@ Semitism and unemployment . He died of a kidney infection in New York on January 11 , 1941 , at the age of 72 , as a charity patient at the Mount Sinai Hospital . He was buried in the Beth Olom Cemetery , Queens , New York . He was survived by his wife Martha and his sister , Mrs. Lotta Hirschberg .
= = Assessment = =
= = = Playing strength and style = = =
Lasker was considered to have a " psychological " method of play in which he considered the subjective qualities of his opponent , in addition to the objective requirements of his position on the board . Richard Réti published a lengthy analysis of Lasker 's play in which he concluded that Lasker deliberately played inferior moves that he knew would make his opponent uncomfortable . W. H. K. Pollock commented , " It is no easy matter to reply correctly to Lasker 's bad moves . "
Lasker himself denied the claim that he deliberately played bad moves , and most modern writers agree . According to Grandmaster Andrew Soltis and International Master John L. Watson , the features that made his play mysterious to contemporaries now appear regularly in modern play : the g2 @-@ g4 " Spike " attack against the Dragon Sicilian ; sacrifices to gain positional advantage ; playing the " practical " move rather than trying to find the best move ; counterattacking and complicating the game before a disadvantage became serious . Former World Champion Vladimir Kramnik said , " He realized that different types of advantage could be interchangeable : tactical edge could be converted into strategic advantage and vice versa " , which mystified contemporaries who were just becoming used to the theories of Steinitz as codified by Siegbert Tarrasch .
Max Euwe opined that the real reason behind Lasker 's success was his " exceptional defensive technique " and that " almost all there is to say about defensive chess can be demonstrated by examples from the games of Steinitz and Lasker " , with the former exemplifying passive defence and the latter an active defence .
The famous win against José Raúl Capablanca at St. Petersburg in 1914 , which Lasker needed in order to retain any chance of catching up with Capablanca , is sometimes offered as evidence of his " psychological " approach . Reuben Fine describes Lasker 's choice of opening , the Exchange Variation of the Ruy Lopez , as " innocuous but psychologically potent " . However , an analysis of Lasker 's use of this variation throughout his career concludes that he had excellent results with it as White against top @-@ class opponents , and sometimes used it in " must @-@ win " situations . Luděk Pachman writes that Lasker 's choice presented his opponent with a dilemma : with only a ½ point lead , Capablanca would have wanted to play safe ; but the Exchange Variation 's pawn structure gives White an endgame advantage , and Black must use his bishop pair aggressively in the middle game to nullify this . In Kramnik 's opinion , Lasker 's play in this game demonstrated deep positional understanding , rather than psychology .
Fine reckoned Lasker paid little attention to the openings , but Capablanca thought Lasker knew the openings very well but disagreed with a lot of contemporary opening analysis . In fact before the 1894 world title match Lasker studied the openings thoroughly , especially Steinitz ' favorite lines . In Capablanca 's opinion , no player surpassed Lasker in the ability to assess a position quickly and accurately , in terms of who had the better prospects of winning and what strategy each side should adopt . Capablanca also wrote that Lasker was so adaptable that he played in no definite style , and that he was both a tenacious defender and a very efficient finisher of his own attacks .
He did everything at a high level . However , he was the first great endgame player , and instead of using his epic tactical skills solely for mating schemes , he used them for attack and , most importantly , for defense . In a way , he was the first universal player , which made him very odd indeed for those times . Like all great players , Lasker could play any type of position ; however , the classic course of a Lasker game was to concede some small concession to an opponent , exchange off either one or two minor pieces and then play a game of manoeuvre where he did not necessarily stand better but in which he could keep the position balanced . When his opponent could not maintain the balance , either by over @-@ pressing or by playing too passively , Lasker would have them . Although famed for his defence , Lasker was equally brutal in his treatment of opponents who overpressed or played passively .
Lasker followed Steinitz principles , and both demonstrated a completely different chess paradigm than the “ romantic ” mentality before them . Thanks to Steinitz and Lasker , positional players gradually became common ( Tarrasch , Schlechter , and Rubinstein stand out . ) But , while Steinitz created a new school of chess thought , Lasker ’ s talents were far harder for the masses to grasp ; hence there was no Lasker school .
In addition to his enormous chess skill , Lasker was said to have an excellent competitive temperament : his rival Siegbert Tarrasch once said , " Lasker occasionally loses a game , but he never loses his head . " Lasker enjoyed the need to adapt to varying styles and to the shifting fortunes of tournaments . Although very strong in matches , he was even stronger in tournaments . For over twenty years , he always finished ahead of the younger Capablanca : at St. Petersburg 1914 , New York 1924 , Moscow 1925 , and Moscow 1935 . Only in 1936 ( 15 years after their match ) , when Lasker was 67 , did Capablanca finish ahead of him .
In 1964 , Chessworld magazine published an article in which future World Champion Bobby Fischer listed the ten greatest players in history . Fischer did not include Lasker in the list , deriding him as a " coffee @-@ house player [ who ] knew nothing about openings and didn 't understand positional chess " . In a poll of the world 's leading players taken some time after Fischer 's list appeared , Tal , Korchnoi , and Robert Byrne all said that Lasker was the greatest player ever . Both Pal Benko and Byrne stated that Fischer later reconsidered and said that Lasker was a great player .
Statistical ranking systems place Lasker high among the greatest players of all time . The book Warriors of the Mind places him sixth , behind Garry Kasparov , Anatoly Karpov , Fischer , Mikhail Botvinnik and Capablanca . In his 1978 book The Rating of Chessplayers , Past and Present , Arpad Elo gave retrospective ratings to players based on their performance over the best five @-@ year span of their career . He concluded that Lasker was the joint second strongest player of those surveyed ( tied with Botvinnik and behind Capablanca ) . The most up @-@ to @-@ date system , Chessmetrics , is rather sensitive to the length of the periods being compared , and ranks Lasker between fifth and second strongest of all time for peak periods ranging in length from one to twenty years . Its author , the statistician Jeff Sonas , concluded that only Kasparov and Karpov surpassed Lasker 's long @-@ term dominance of the game . By Chessmetrics ' reckoning , Lasker was the number 1 player in 292 different months — a total of over 24 years . His first No. 1 rank was in June 1890 , and his last in December 1926 — a span of 36 ½ years . Chessmetrics also considers him the strongest 67 @-@ year @-@ old in history : in December 1935 , at age 67 years and 0 months , his rating was 2691 ( number 7 in the world ) , well above second @-@ place Viktor Korchnoi 's rating at that age ( 2660 , number 39 in the world , in March 1998 ) .
= = = Influence on chess = = =
Lasker founded no school of players who played in a similar style . Max Euwe , World Champion 1935 – 37 and a prolific writer of chess manuals , who had a lifetime 0 – 3 score against Lasker , said , " It is not possible to learn much from him . One can only stand and wonder . " However , Lasker 's pragmatic , combative approach had a great influence on Soviet players like Mikhail Tal and Viktor Korchnoi .
There are several " Lasker Variations " in the chess openings , including Lasker 's Defense to the Queen 's Gambit , Lasker 's Defense to the Evans Gambit ( which effectively ended the use of this gambit in tournament play until a revival in the 1990s ) , and the Lasker Variation in the McCutcheon Variation of the French Defense .
One of Lasker 's most famous games is Lasker – Bauer , Amsterdam 1889 , in which he sacrificed both bishops in a maneuver later repeated in a number of games . Similar sacrifices had already been played by Cecil Valentine De Vere and John Owen , but these were not in major events and Lasker probably had not seen them .
Lasker was shocked by the poverty in which Wilhelm Steinitz died and did not intend to die in similar circumstances . He became notorious for demanding high fees for playing matches and tournaments , and he argued that players should own the copyright in their games rather than let publishers get all the profits . These demands initially angered editors and other players , but helped to pave the way for the rise of full @-@ time chess professionals who earn most of their living from playing , writing and teaching . Copyright in chess games had been contentious at least as far back as the mid @-@ 1840s , and Steinitz and Lasker vigorously asserted that players should own the copyright and wrote copyright clauses into their match contracts . However , Lasker 's demands that challengers should raise large purses prevented or delayed some eagerly awaited World Championship matches — for example Frank James Marshall challenged him in 1904 to a match for the World Championship but could not raise the stakes demanded by Lasker until 1907 . This problem continued throughout the reign of his successor Capablanca .
Some of the controversial conditions that Lasker insisted on for championship matches led Capablanca to attempt twice ( 1914 and 1922 ) to publish rules for such matches , to which other top players readily agreed .
= = = Work in other fields = = =
Lasker was also a mathematician . In his 1905 article on commutative algebra , Lasker introduced the theory of primary decomposition of ideals , which has influence in the theory of Noetherian rings . Rings having the primary decomposition property are called " Laskerian rings " in his honor .
His attempt to create a general theory of all competitive activities were followed by more consistent efforts from von Neumann on game theory , and his later writings about card games presented a significant issue in the mathematical analysis of card games .
However , his dramatic and philosophical works have never been highly regarded .
= = Friends and relatives = =
Lasker was a good friend of Albert Einstein , who wrote the introduction to the posthumous biography Emanuel Lasker , The Life of a Chess Master from Dr. Jacques Hannak ( 1952 ) . In this preface Einstein express his satisfaction at having met Lasker , writing :
Emanuel Lasker was undoubtedly one of the most interesting people I came to know in my later years . We must be thankful to those who have penned the story of his life for this and succeeding generations . For there are few men who have had a warm interest in all the great human problems and at the same time kept their personality so uniquely independent .
Poetess Else Lasker @-@ Schüler was his sister @-@ in @-@ law . Edward Lasker , born in Kempen ( Kępno ) , Greater Poland ( then Prussia ) , the German @-@ American chess master , engineer , and author , claimed that he was distantly related to Emanuel Lasker . They both played in the great New York 1924 chess tournament .
= = Publications = =
= = = Chess = = =
The London Chess Fortnightly , 1892 – 93
Common Sense in Chess , 1896 ( an abstract of 12 lectures delivered to a London audience in 1895 )
Lasker 's How to Play Chess : An Elementary Text Book for Beginners , Which Teaches Chess By a New , Easy and Comprehensive Method , 1900
Lasker 's Chess Magazine , OCLC 5002324 , 1904 – 07 .
The International Chess Congress , St. Petersburg , 1909 , 1910
Lasker 's Manual of Chess , 1925 , is as famous in chess circles for its philosophical tone as for its content .
Lehrbuch des Schachspiels , 1926 – English version Lasker 's Manual of Chess published in 1927 .
Lasker 's Chess Primer , 1934
= = = Other games = = =
Encyclopedia of Games , 1929 .
Das verständige Kartenspiel ( Sensible Card Play ) , 1929 – English translation published in the same year .
Brettspiele der Völker ( Board Games of the Nations ) , 1931 – includes sections about Go and Lasca .
Das Bridgespiel ( " The Game of Bridge " ) , 1931 .
= = = Mathematics = = =
Lasker , Emanuel ( August 1895 ) . " Metrical Relations of Plane Spaces of n Manifoldness " . Nature 52 ( 1345 ) : 340 – 343 . Bibcode : 1895Natur .. 52R.340L. doi : 10 @.@ 1038 / 052340d0 . Retrieved 2008 @-@ 05 @-@ 31 .
Lasker , Emanuel ( October 1895 ) . " About a certain Class of Curved Lines in Space of n Manifoldness " . Nature 52 ( 1355 ) : 596 – 596 . Bibcode : 1895Natur .. 52 .. 596L. doi : 10 @.@ 1038 / 052596a0 . Retrieved 2008 @-@ 05 @-@ 31 .
Lasker , Emanuel ( 1901 ) . " Über Reihen auf der Convergenzgrenze ( " On Series at Convergence Boundaries " ) " . Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A 196 ( 274 – 286 ) : 431 – 477 . Bibcode : 1901RSPTA.196 .. 431L. doi : 10 @.@ 1098 / rsta.1901.0009. – Lasker 's Ph.D. thesis .
Lasker , E. ( 1905 ) . " Zur Theorie der Moduln und Ideale " . Math . Ann . 60 ( 1 ) : 19 – 116 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1007 / BF01447495 .
= = = Philosophy = = =
Kampf ( Struggle ) , 1906 .
Das Begreifen der Welt ( Comprehending the World ) , 1913 .
Die Philosophie des Unvollendbar ( sic ; The Philosophy of the Unattainable ) , 1918 .
Vom Menschen die Geschichte ( " History of Mankind " ) , 1925 – a play , co @-@ written with his brother Berthold .
The Community of the Future , 1940 .
= = In popular culture = =
= = = Fiction = = =
In Michael Chabon 's alternate history mystery novel , The Yiddish Policemen 's Union , the murdered man , Mendel Shpilman ( born during the 1960s ) , being a chess enthusiast , uses the name " Emanuel Lasker " as an alias . The reference is clearly understood by the protagonist , Detective Meyer Landsman , because he has also studied chess .
= = = Quotations = = =
= = = = By Lasker = = = =
" Lies and hypocrisy do not survive for long on the chessboard . The creative combination lays bare the presumption of a lie , while the merciless fact , culminating in a checkmate , contradicts the hypocrite . "
" Education in Chess has to be an education in independent thinking and judgement . Chess must not be memorized , simply because it is not important enough . ... Memory is too valuable to be stocked with trifles . "
" Pit two players against each other who both have perfect technique , who both avoid weaknesses , and what is left ? – a sorry caricature of chess . "
Although the adage " If you find a good move , look for a better one " is often attributed to Lasker , it actually dates earlier .
= = = = About Lasker = = = =
W. H. K. Pollock : " It is no easy matter to reply correctly to Lasker 's bad moves . "
Viktor Korchnoi : " My chess hero . "
Mikhail Tal : " The greatest of the champions was , of course , Emanuel Lasker . "
= = Notable games = =
" Emanuel Lasker vs Johann Hermann Bauer , Amsterdam 1889 " . ChessGames.com.
Although this was not the earliest known game with a successful two bishops sacrifice , this combination is now known as a " Lasker – Bauer combination " or " Lasker sacrifice " .
" Harry Nelson Pillsbury vs Emanuel Lasker , St Petersburg 1895 " . ChessGames.com.
A brilliant sacrifice in the seventeenth move leads to a victorious attack .
" Wilhelm Steinitz vs Emanuel Lasker , London 1899 " . ChessGames.com.
The old champion and the new one really go for it .
" Frank James Marshall vs Emanuel Lasker , World Championship Match 1907 , game 1 " . ChessGames.com.
Lasker 's attack is insufficient for a quick win , so he trades it in for an endgame in which he quickly ties Marshall in knots .
" Emanuel Lasker vs Carl Schlechter , match 1910 , game 10 " . ChessGames.com.
Not a great game , but the one that saved Emanuel Lasker from losing his world title in 1910 .
" Emanuel Lasker vs Jose Raul Capablanca , St Petersburg 1914 " . ChessGames.com.
Lasker , who needed a win here , surprisingly used a quiet opening , allowing Capablanca to simplify the game early . There has been much debate about whether Lasker 's approach represented subtle psychology or deep positional understanding .
" Max Euwe vs Emanuel Lasker , Zurich 1934 " . ChessGames.com.
66 @-@ year @-@ old Lasker beats a future World Champion , sacrificing his Queen to turn defense into attack .
= = Tournament results = =
The following table gives Lasker 's placings and scores in tournaments . The first " Score " column gives the number of points on the total possible . In the second " Score " column , " + " indicates the number of won games , " − " the number of losses , and " = " the number of draws .
= = Match results = =
Here are Lasker 's results in matches . The first " Score " column gives the number of points on the total possible . In the second " Score " column , " + " indicates the number of won games , " − " the number of losses , and " = " the number of draws .
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= Wildfire ( Silver Dollar City ) =
Wildfire is a steel roller coaster located at Silver Dollar City in Branson , Missouri . The $ 14 million ride was built by Swiss firm Bolliger & Mabillard and opened in 2001 . Wildfire is themed as a flying machine developed by an 1880s Ozark inventor .
Standing 120 feet ( 37 m ) tall and featuring a top speed of 66 miles per hour ( 106 km / h ) , Wildfire is the tallest and second fastest ride at Silver Dollar City . Along its 3 @,@ 073 feet ( 937 m ) of track , Wildfire features five inversions including an Immelmann loop , a vertical loop , a cobra roll and a corkscrew .
= = History = =
In July 2000 , Silver Dollar City announced that they would be adding the Wildfire roller coaster to their park in 2001 . At a cost of $ 14 million , the ride would be the most expensive attraction in the park 's history . At the time of the announcement , construction was already underway on an undeveloped portion of land in the outskirts of the park . All of the ride 's footings were in place with some of the steel supports already erected . Construction was expected to be completed in early January the following year , leaving three months for testing , landscaping and theming . On April 4 , 2001 , Wildfire officially opened to the public .
= = Characteristics = =
The 3 @,@ 073 @-@ foot @-@ long ( 937 m ) Wildfire features five inversions including an Immelmann loop , a vertical loop , a cobra roll , and a corkscrew . The park 's existing terrain ( situated on the Ozark Mountains ) is utilised to allow a 120 @-@ foot @-@ tall ( 37 m ) lift hill to be translated into a first drop stretching 155 feet ( 47 m ) . Riders reach a top speed of 66 miles per hour ( 106 km / h ) on the 2 @-@ minute , 16 @-@ second ride . The track was manufactured by Clermont Steel Fabricators located in Batavia , Ohio . Wildfire operates with two trains ( generally with one train loading / unloading while the other runs the course , each featuring eight cars . Each car seats riders four abreast with ratcheting over @-@ the @-@ shoulder restraints . This configuration allows the ride to achieve a theoretical hourly capacity of 1 @,@ 300 riders per hour .
Wildfire is located in the " Hugo 's Hill Street " district of Silver Dollar City . It is themed around the story of an 1880s Ozark inventor named Dr. Horatio Harris . Harris has an aim to create a powered flying contraption for flight across the Ozark Mountains . Wildfire is the fuel he developed for his flying machine . The ride 's queue and station area are modelled as the laboratory and invention warehouse of Harris . Riders eventually board his Wildfire @-@ powered flying machine , the steel roller coaster . One year after the opening of the roller coaster Silver Dollar City began selling the Wildfire Burger , a hot and spicy hamburger , themed after the ride .
= = Ride experience = =
The train leaves the station , takes a 180 degree right turn and climbs up the chain lift hill to 120 feet ( 37 m ) . At the top , the train turns 90 degrees to the left before negotiating the first drop of 155 feet ( 47 m ) . This is followed by an Immelmann loop , a vertical loop and a cobra roll , the latter of which inverts riders twice . Then the train heads up a banked curve into a corkscrew and a 230 degree turn into the final brake run .
= = Reception = =
Rick Baker , Silver Dollar City 's vice president of corporate development and design , expected the addition of the ride would increase season pass sales by 9 % to 250 @,@ 000 . In 2001 , the park was visited by a total of 2 @.@ 1 million people .
In Amusement Today 's annual Golden Ticket Awards , Wildfire ranked in the top 50 steel roller coasters three times . In 2003 it debuted at position 40 , before dropping to 46 in 2004 and 49 in 2005 . As of 2012 it has not returned to the listing .
In Mitch Hawker 's worldwide Best Roller Coaster Poll , Wildfire entered at position 47 in 2001 , before peaking at 45 in 2005 . It hovered in positions around 60 before dropping to 96 in 2012 . The ride 's ranking in the poll is shown in the table below .
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= William Phips =
Sir William Phips ( or Phipps ; February 2 , 1651 – February 18 , 1695 ) was a shepherd boy born in the Massachusetts Bay Colony , a shipwright , ship 's captain , treasure hunter , a major general , and the first royally appointed governor of the Province of Massachusetts Bay . He is perhaps best remembered for establishing , and later over @-@ ruling and disbanding , the court associated with the infamous Salem Witch Trials .
Of humble origin , uneducated , and fatherless from a young age , he watched over his family 's flock of sheep before apprenticing to a shipbuilder near his home in present @-@ day Maine . He moved to Boston to start a business building ships and soon began to embark on treasure @-@ hunting expeditions to the West Indies . He became famous in London and Boston for recovering a large treasure from a sunken Spanish galleon , a feat that earned him instant wealth and a knighthood .
In 1690 , during King William 's War , Phips was commissioned as a major general the same day he was first allowed to vote . He led a successful military expedition against Port Royal , the capital of Acadia , followed by an unsuccessful attempt to capture Quebec .
Two years later Phips was appointed as governor . He had successfully straddled a middle political position , cultivating a strong connection to the powerful New England minster , Increase Mather , as well as his royalist opposition on the Board of Trade . Phips and Mather returned to the Massachusetts Bay Colony from England at the height of the witchcraft delusion , after numerous executions in Salem . Phips suspended the court proceedings , pardoned several people sentenced to death , and released more than 100 being held in jail before trial . He became enmeshed in related controversies that resulted in his recall to England to answer a variety of charges . Phips died in London at the age of 44 before the charges against him could be heard .
= = Early life = =
Phips was born the son of James and Mary Phips , in a frontier settlement at Nequasset ( present @-@ day Woolwich , Maine ) , near the mouth of the Kennebec River . His father died when the boy was six years old , and his mother married a neighbor and business partner , John White . Although Cotton Mather in his biography of Phips claimed that he was one of 26 children , this number is likely an exaggeration or included many who did not survive infancy . His mother is known to have had six children by Phips , and eight by White . His father was poor but his ancestry was may have descended from country gentry in Nottinghamshire , at least technically . Constantine Phipps seems to have been a cousin of Phips , five years his junior .
According to Mather , Phips was a shepherd until the age of 18 , after which he began a four @-@ year apprenticeship as a ship 's carpenter . He received no formal schooling . Despite a keen intelligence , his literacy skills were likely rudimentary . Robert Calef wrote , " ... it will be generally acknowledged , that not withstanding the meanness of his parentage and education , he attained to be master of a Ship ... " Once Phips achieved wealth and fame , he relied on a personal secretary and scribes for assistance , as was common for many figures of the time .
After his apprenticeship ended in 1673 , Phips traveled to Boston , where he continued to employ his shipmaking and carpentry skills . About a year later he married Mary Spencer Hull , widow to John Hull ( unrelated to Massachusetts mintmaster John Hull ) . Mary 's father , Daniel Spencer , was a merchant and landowner with interests in Maine . Phips may have known Mary from an early age . By all accounts , the couple exhibited " genuine affection " for one another , and there is no evidence Phips was unfaithful during his long absences from home .
Phips established a shipyard on the Sheepscot River at Merrymeeting Bay in Maine in 1675 at the outbreak of King Philips War . The shipyard was successful , turning out a number of small boats and building its first large merchant ship in 1676 . As he was preparing for its maiden voyage in August 1676 , planning to deliver a load of lumber to Boston , a band of Indians descended on the area during the Northeast Coast Campaign ( 1676 ) . Rather than take on his cargo , he took on board as many of the local settlers as he could . Although he was financially ruined ( the Indians destroyed the shipyard and his intended cargo of masts and lumber ) , Phips was considered a hero among the colonists in Boston .
In the early 1680s , Phips began to engage in a favorite colonial pastime of treasure hunting in the Bahamas . As captain of the Resolution , he was seeking treasure from sunken Spanish ships near New Providence . The expedition is not well documented but seems to have been profitable , returning shares worth £ 54 to certain low @-@ level participants . New England mint master John Hull was one of Phips ' investors . Phips earned a widespread reputation for ' continually finding sunken ships.'
= = The Strange Voyage of HMS Rose of Algeree = =
= = = Narborough 's Treasure Hunt = = =
On May 2 , 1683 , the Captain of the frigate HMS Falcon was sailing from England to the West Indies and beckoned the other officers to be present as he broke open his secret instructions . He learned that his mission was to aid in the hunt for a large treasure near Hispaniola . A sloop in convoy , HMS Bonetta ( sometimes Bonito ) , was designated to do most of the searching , but the Falcon would act as aid and protection . These instructions were from Sir John Narborough , a rear admiral and commissioner of the Royal Navy , who also had the ear of King Charles II .
Around this same time , the thirty @-@ two year @-@ old Phips had made his way to England , where he gained an audience with Narborough and Charles II . By any measure , this was a remarkable achievement for a poor New Englander like Phips , but it also seems clear that he must have been at the right place at the right time . His reputation for finding sunken ships may have preceded him , and he seems to have had demonstrable gains to show , as one letter writer mentions his ' late successful returns . ' Perhaps he delivered the King 's portion of these returns to Whitehall in person ? In any case , a reckless plan was concocted , probably by Narborough , whereby this New England native , despite having no background in the English navy , would be assigned as the commander of a 20 @-@ gun frigate , HMS Rose of Algiers for a treasure hunt , but given no other financial backing . He and his crew would be required to pay for all other expenses of the voyage , including food and diving equipment , and give a deposit of £ 100 . Of the treasure they found , 35 % would go to the King , and the rest would be divided among the otherwise unpaid crew .
The plan seemed ill @-@ conceived and suggests that Narborough was obsessed by the possibility of treasure . It is also possible that Phips was being used in a complex way , with the sly intention that HMS Rose would act as a noisy decoy for his more important treasure hunt . Unlike the Falcon and Bonetta , Phips was not sent directly to search near Hispaniola where Narborough ( correctly ) believed a great treasure lay buried . Phips ' instructions were not kept secret but were signed by the entire crew , thereby broadcasting their designs through the harbor and shipyards . On July 13 , 1683 , the articles of agreement ( see image ) were signed by Phips and seven other crew members , in the presence of Narborough and Haddock .
= = = Delivering Randolph , " Evil Genius of New England " = = =
Before Phips could set sail , he had another mission added to the manifest . Edward Randolph " indefatigable foe of Puritans " was serving Boston with a writ of quo warranto against the precious charter of Massachusetts , and searching for a frigate to be the muscle backing him :
" It is essential that a frigate should be on the New England coast at such a time to second the quo warranto and hasten submission ; ... a war vessel be present to awe them . "
Randolph hoped such a display would induce New England to submit to revisions of their charter from the Crown , rather than having it fully revoked . On August 3 , 1683 , Randolph wrote to Sir Leonine Jenkins , " I am now informed that the H.M.S. Rose is already fitted out for the Bahamas with orders to call at Boston for 2 or 3 weeks on the way . " Randolph indicates that time is of the essence and he is willing to travel with Phips or forego the frigate idea and embark on a merchantman . Randolph , along with his brother Bernard , were given passage and cabins on HMS Rose .
= = = As Told by John Knepp = = =
Just before the Rose set sail , things were complicated again when the Crown decided to place a minder on board named John Knepp " to look after the King 's interest " . Knepp seems to have been a purser . In the English Navy , the purser acted as a sort of Company Store , tempting sailors far from shore with whiskey , tobacco and other desirables by offering them credit against their wages , ( collected through the captain ) . It was a lucrative post and required an investment to procure , hence it usually went to young Naval clerks and scions who could afford the capital outlay . It seems like a terrible idea to place a purser on a voyage like that of the Rose , on a shoestring budget , with the men receiving no wages and collectively buying and sharing food together . ( Knepp brought great quantities of fancy cheese and brandy , with predictable results ) . But either way , the purser was dependent on good relations with the captain , yet Knepp seems to have looked down on Phips and decided to be forward in introducing himself to the crew of HMS Rose while Phips was absent in London . The reception was rather less than friendly :
" ... then most of them began to curse the ship and wished she had been afire before they saw her and that they had better have hired a ship of merchants ... "
The crew were a salty bunch to say the least , a " rum lot " as Peter Earle calls them , and this final last @-@ minute bait @-@ and @-@ switch , after the previous addition of Randolph , seems to have nearly put them over the edge . Everything we know about the crew comes from a detailed journal of the trip to Boston was kept by Knepp and he has rightly been called a " hostile observer " but it is more important to note that he was often ignorant of the complex , dual nature of the voyage , as well as basic colonial politics , if not some important elements of human nature . Distant historians must grope for any available source to shed light on events of the past , and so history tends to be swayed heavily by the writers . Phips was never a writer and so much of his story comes from others , with Knepp 's Journal at the top of this pile . Like the rest of us , Knepp does not seem to have understood the role Phips was intended to play , either in support of Randolph , or as a possible decoy and cleanup for the Falcon & Bonetta . In Knepp 's first interaction , he says that he is seeking signatures between the crew and the King though the July 13 agreement ( see image ) would more accurately be portrayed as between Phips and the crew , as the first mate protests . Knepp 's job seemed to be to seek additional signatures from the crew , which is easily done when Phips returns to the ship , with Randolph acting as a witness . Next Knepp complained to Phips about the firing of the ships cannons to set the watch . By the time the ship set sail the next day , Phips and Knepp were distinctly at odds , as Knepp records when asked for a cabin or berth and was told he would have to make do sleeping on a trunk . This was an unfortunate turn of events for both of them , as well as the historian who would prefer to have Knepp at the Captain 's table recording the dinner conversation between Randolph , his brother , and Phips . Class friction surely played a strong role in the conflict between Knepp and Phips . Knepp consistently presents himself as a victim and there are many times he is bullied and badly mistreated , but it also seems that he must have set himself above , and thought of himself as being of a higher class than Phips . The articles of agreement testify to the trust that the king and Narborough placed in Phips , and the crew seemed willing to do as Phips commanded , but Knepp acts as if he is not beholden to Phips . Knepp 's journal is addressed to Narborough ( and Haddock ) and it reads like a sycophant 's strong gambit for a future promotion . He presents Phips as the trope of a tarpaulin captain — every sailor his comrade , questionable literacy level — and so it is probably safe to infer that Knepp was of the gentleman class and likely some years younger than Phips , perhaps in his mid @-@ twenties . Knepp is excellent at taking coordinates and seems trained in piloting , but does not exhibit the a breadth of experience or knowledge of the rigging . Though he records every perceived misstep by Phips , his careful plotting of the journey also shows the great ability Phips possessed as a sailor , crossing the Atlantic in half the time of another ship that they meet , and making first landfall at Cape Ann .
= = = Randolph Arrived at Boston = = =
On October 27 , Increase Mather recorded his one and only diary entry for all of 1683 : " Randolph arrived at Boston . " Phips quickly began to provide a show of force for Randolph by insisting other ship 's strike their colors and firing across their bows if they did not . Knepp claims that Narborough did not condone this , and many historians have followed his lead in treating Phips ' activities in Boston harbor as arrogant showboating , but it seems clear from the letters of Randolph and Blathwayt that Phips was not doing this merely for some explosive fun . Phips cites personal instructions from the King and indeed Charles II was known to have insisted on a salute to his flag . As Phips was creating chaos for the Massachusetts government , he continued to pursue his original intention of gathering diving equipment and divers to take to the Bahamas . Phips later followed the same procedures of requiring ships to strike in the West Indies and with a new crew in Bermuda . Phips lack of experience in the Royal Navy would suggest he likely made mistakes and did not always go about this procedure in the best way . It must have been a strange and uncomfortable chore for someone whose loyalties were with Boston ( in ' 76 the records show initiated the building of a house in Boston ) . Randolph was never one to withhold criticism , but he did not complain of Phips activities in Boston harbor that winter and Randolph even seems to have assisted Phips by searching a ship for him . But choosing a threatening posture showed Randolph 's inability to understand the New England character and it did not produce the effect Randolph intended . The magistrates voted to submit to the crown , but the deputies resisted . Phips and the Rose became a focal point for the resistance , as Knepp dutifully recorded without understanding the subtext : " Phips crew say that they would as soon fire against this town as against Algiers and called us rebels , " is one deposition Knepp records though Knepp seems to believe he is merely recording a barroom brawl . " ... one of the constables in particular told him that he thought Capt. Phips had been a town born child , Captain Phips answering him , ' Let him be what he would , he had been sworn at sixteen years of age to be true to the King and his government . " ( As if in an act of delayed vengeance , HMS Rose would be boarded and de @-@ masted , and its captain John George imprisoned , less than six years later during the Boston Revolution . )
Randolph 's writ of quo warranto required a response from Massachusetts by the end of " Michaelmas term . " Empty @-@ handed , Randolph and his brother boarded a pink bound for England on December 14 . A few days later , Phips began making preparations but was detained by problems with the Boston government and the ongoing search for victuals . In a discussion with Phips , Knepp allows , as a purser , that many of the crew owe him money , and says that he would have them thrown into jail except that it would hinder His Majesties treasure hunt . Phips finally sailed clear of the Boston Harbor on January 19 , 1684 but unfortunately not before some of his rogue @-@ ish crew could cause a small riot in Boston and perpetrate a despicable assault in Hull , according to Knepp . Knepp was not on board , meaning he had effectively deserted according to the Articles , " though I should be almost undone by it " and so it became all the more important for Knepp to show Phips in a bad light .
Two days after Phips left the Boston area , Increase Mather gave a rousing speech to the deputies and freemen advising them not to submit to the crown and to resist the quo warranto . One historian calls this Increase Mather 's " first important entry into politics . " { Mather 's " Remarkable Providences " was distributed this same month , with echoes to the New England government Increase Mather assembles in 1692 . } It had been Phips ' debut into colonial politics too , if clumsily and involuntarily . To what extent he was swayed by the arguments of Randolph as they crossed the Atlantic , it is hard to know , but Phips certainly played the role with bluster , and he seems to have spoken up as a royalist to the Boston government in the meetings he had with Bradstreet and Stoughton , at least as recorded by Knepp . By 1688 , Phips would cross over to Increase Mather 's side and begin to consistently oppose Randolph and the Dominion government he helped to bring about , and with a vehemence that would seem to suggest some degree of shame and dismay for the role he played as captain of HMS Rose in 1683 @-@ 4 .
After leaving Boston , Phips searched the picked over wrecks in the Bahamas with limited success . Too many other treasure hunters had already gone before . When some of his crew became mutinous , he had them put off in Jamaica . On November 18 , 1684 , Phips was in Port Royal , Jamaica the same time as Captain Stanley of the Bonetta . There is no record of their joining forces or sharing information . It seems likely they met up but we don 't know if it was preordained . If Phips was unwittingly being used as a decoy to distract the other treasure hunters away from Stanley , it might have dawned on him at this time . Soon after Phips visited the north coast of Hispaniola and slowly cruised north exploring the banks where Stanley had been diligently searching for over a year . The decisiveness with which Phips later returned and quickly located the treasure suggests that he was able to gather valuable knowledge and begin to formulate a clear plan , though he would have to wait two years to bring it to fruition .
After Phips returned to London in August of 1685 , Samuel Pepys ordered the Navy Board to assess the Rose . Pepys had been out of power when Narborough set the strange plan in motion . In March and May of 1686 , Phips was ordered to attend the Lord Treasurer where it was found that the King was only to receive £ 471 in treasure , though the wear and tear on the Rose was estimated at £ 700 . In this age of piracy and high mortality , Phips making it back to London alive and with the King 's ship still afloat was probably enough for him to pass the test . Already Narborough had a new plan in the works for Captain Phips , though this time it would be a private venture . Narborough 's long infatuation with the Hispaniola treasure had not been diminished by Captain Stanley 's discouragement on the Bonetta . And Knepp 's report on Phips did not disqualify him . Phips had shown that he was serviceable : willing to harass the harbor of his hometown and to compromise between his own interests , and the interests of the crown . This was surely noted at Whitehall , even by the more conservative elements .
= = Striking Silver & Gold = =
With Captain Stanley of the Bonetta expressing disinterest in continuing to search for the Hispaniola treasure , while Captain Phips probably expressed enthusiasm and new confidence , the next logical choice for commander was obvious . Narborough turned to the hard @-@ partying Duke of Albemarle who assembled a group of private investors to fund another expedition . Phips was tasked with finding suitable ships and these came to be the James and Mary , a 22 @-@ gun 200 @-@ ton frigate , and the 45 @-@ ton Henry of London , a sloop commanded by Francis Rogers , Phips ' second mate on the previous voyage ( he had left the Rose in Boston [ 1 ] ) . Phips utilized experience as a sailor and shipwright to select high quality anchors , chains , and cables to hold their ships securely in close proximity to the shoals for months as they tried to fish treasure from it . £ 500 worth of merchandize was taken along to barter for provisions , as well as to provide cover , or a ruse , that they were in Hispaniola merely as merchants , not treasure hunters . The London investors must have felt confident because they paid a total of £ 3 @,@ 210 outfitting the ships for the voyage . Unlike the voyage of the Rose , the crew were to be paid regular wages .
Phips sailed from the Downs on 12 September 1686 , and on 28 November arrived in Hispaniola , Samana Bay , where they spent two weeks restocking their water and provender . The weather was bad , and the search consequently did not get under way for a few more weeks . January 12 , Phips sent out Captain Rogers in the smaller Henry of London along with three Native American divers ( Jonas Abimeleck and John Pasqua , name of other diver not listed ) to search what was then called the Ambrosia Bank ( now the Silver Bank ) . There was a bit more delay from weather but Peter Earle writes , " There is no doubt that he knew exactly where he was going . " January 20 , they spotted cannons from a shipwreck lying on the white sands of the reef . The ship they had found was the Almiranta of the Spanish silver fleet ( later determined to be Nuestra Señora de la Concepción ; the English did not know the name of the ship ) wrecked in 1641 . Over the next two days , the divers were able to bring up 3 @,@ 000 coins and 3 silver bars . They decided to travel back to Phips ' to let him know but this turned out to be a somewhat slow and treacherous trip among the reefs .
After Phips was discreetly informed of their amazing find , he spent the next nine days preparing the ships and gathering enough food to sustain the men over months of bringing up treasure . ( During the controversies that surrounded Phips at the end of his life , his critics like to portray him as hot @-@ headed , ill @-@ bred , and impatient , so it seems worth noting his careful conduct during this life @-@ changing and momentous time . )
Through March and April the divers and ships ' crews worked to recover all manner of treasure : silver coins , silver bullion , doubloons , jewelry , a small amount of gold , and other artifacts . Concerned about the possibility of mutiny , Phips guaranteed to the crew , who had been hired for seaman 's wages , that they would receive shares in the find , even if he had to pay them from his own percentage . He carefully avoided putting in at any ports before anchoring at Gravesend , where he dispatched a courier to London with the news .
The treasure weighed in at over 34 tons , or £ 205 @,@ 536 . Almost a quarter went to Albemarle . Phips , after paying out £ 8 @,@ 000 in crew shares , received £ 11 @,@ 000 . Phips was treated as a hero in London , and the find was the talk of the town . Some economic historians argue that Phips ' find significantly effected history because it led to a major increase in the formation of joint @-@ stock companies , and even played a role in the eventual formation in the Bank of England .
Phips and the crew were rewarded by the investors with medals , and Phips was knighted by James in June . James also rewarded Phips with the post of provost marshal general ( chief sheriff ) of the Dominion of New England , serving under Sir Edmund Andros . In September 1687 Phips returned to the wreck , though he did not command the venture . Admiral Narborough elected to personally lead the expedition , but it was not nearly as successful . The wreck had been discovered by others , and the arrival of the English scattered more than 20 smaller ships . Treasure worth £ 10 @,@ 000 was recovered before Narborough 's death in May 1688 brought the expedition to an end . Phips had by then already left the wreck site in early May , sailing for Boston for what seems to have been his first time home in four and a half years , to take up his new post as provost marshal general .
= = Provost Marshal General = =
Phips arrived back in Boston in the summer of 1688 and was welcomed back as a hero . His wife seemed very happy to see him . He was celebrated in sermons and at the Harvard college commencement he was compared to Jason fetching the Golden Fleece . Andros and Randolph were not so happy to see him and it seems the feeling was mutual . Almost all of New England was unified in their opposition to Andros and Randolph . It is interesting to note here that Phips , despite having been captain of Randolph 's gunship in ' 83 @-@ 4 , does not seem to have carried an association with Randolph in the minds of the people of Massachusetts Bay .
Andros swore Phips into his new post in early July , but his council refused Phips ' demand that the previously named sheriffs be dismissed . If Phips had simply wanted a share in the spoils of the Dominion , he might have stuck around and kept his head down . Instead he stayed home in Boston only six weeks before shipping back to London to join with Increase Mather in opposing the Dominion and seeking to restore the original charter . This seems to be the first mention of Phips in Increase Mather 's diary or correspondence . Motivated by a shared dislike of Andros , Phips and Increase Mather worked together to bring about his downfall . After the Glorious Revolution in late 1688 replaced the Catholic James with the Protestant monarchs William and Mary , Phips and Mather petitioned the new monarchs for restoration of the Massachusetts charter , and successfully convinced the Lords of Trade to delay the transmission of formal instructions about the change of power to Andros . Phips returned to Boston in May 1689 , carrying proclamations from the king and queen , and found Andros and Randolph had already been arrested in a revolt in Boston . Phips served for a time as an overseer guarding Andros and Randolph in the prison at Castle Island .
= = Becoming Free : The Political Baptism of Phips = =
" If Paris were worth a mass to Henry IV , Boston was worth a conversion , in the Puritan sense , to William Phips . "
The turmoil in England and William 's accession to the throne had prompted New France 's Governor to take advantage of the political turmoil in New England , launching a series of Indian raids across the northern frontier in 1689 and early 1690 . When a frontier town in Maine was overrun in early March of 1690 , the French were perceived as instigators and the provisional government of Massachusetts , began casting about for a major general to lead an expedition against the French in Acadia . Phips had not demonstrated military interests as a young man . During King Philip 's War , when many took up arms , Phips built ships and cut lumber . John Knepp 's journal testifies to Phips constitutional disinterest in military discipline . Yet Phips control of the naval gunship , and his subsequent actions , seem to have suggested he was a good candidate to lead a large military expedition . Sewall writes :
Saturday , March 22 . Sir William Phips offers himself to go in person , the Governor [ Bradstreet ] sends for me , and tells me of it , I tell the [ General ] Court ; they send for Sir William who accepts to go , and is appointed to command the forces . Major Townsend relinquishes with thanks . Sir William had been sent to at first ; but some feared he would not go ; others thought his Lady would not consent . Court makes Sir William free and swear him Major General , and several others . Adjourn to Boston , Wednesday , 14 night one o 'clock .
This is Sewall 's entire entry and he has no entry for the next day . It shows that Phips , though knighted , and one of the richest men in the colony , and highly active on the colony 's behalf , was not yet able to vote or serve under the provisional government , as they were following the old charter wherein only church members were free . The court , not the church , made Phips free on this Saturday , according to Sewall . Sewall was religiously devout and active in his church congregation and would not likely have misspoken or deliberately withheld information on this point . Sewall 's diary is generally considered trustworthy and is widely referenced by historians .
Some years later , after Phips death and following a good bit of political upheaval involving Phips and the Mathers , Cotton Mather anonymously wrote a biography of Phips and sent it away to London for publication despite having Boston printing presses at his beck and call . He implausibly cast this scenario as a spontaneous spiritual awakening , including heartfelt testimony , which Cotton Mather claims to faithfully transcribe " without adding so much as one word unto it . " ( Cotton Mather loved puns and inside jokes and this could be interpreted as his sly way of saying Phips wrote not a single word . )
The two events are not mutually exclusive . Cotton Mather places the baptism the next day , March 23 . The general court , where Cotton Mather played an active role , could have made Phips free with the understanding that Cotton Mather would add him to the rolls of the North church . Records of the North church show Phips name added to admissions . ( Curiously , a " B " for " brother " is withheld as prefix to his name , unlike all others . See image . ) Another book , mostly recording infant baptisms , lists Phips as " Admitted and Baptized . " Phip 's wife 's name doesn 't seem to appear in the records at all . The admission and baptism of an adult was generally a somewhat drawn @-@ out process over some weeks . There doesn 't seem to be any surviving record of Phips " coming to the table " to partake in the Lord 's supper , as only church members were invited to do .
The only other reference to a baptism of Phips is not first @-@ hand but a sardonic reference by Blathwayt ( Randolph 's boss in London ) mentioning Phips being made a general the same year he was " publicly christened at Boston . " Expanding the franchise of New England away from the control of the clergy was one of Blathwayt 's obsessions , and his comment probably goes to this point , as well as noting Phips loyalty with New England as opposed to the crown . In short , if something like Cotton Mather 's March 23 church scene happened at all , it should be understood as foremost a political event .
= = Major General = =
= = = Port Royal expedition = = =
In late April , leading a fleet of seven ships and over 700 , Phips sailed from Boston to the Acadian capital , Port Royal . On May 9 he summoned governor Louis @-@ Alexandre des Friches de Meneval to surrender . Meneval , in command of about 70 men and a fort in disrepair , promptly negotiated terms of capitulation . When Phips came ashore the next day , it was discovered that Acadians had been removing valuables , including some that were government property ( and thus were supposed to come under the victor 's control ) .
Phips , whose motives continue to be debated by historians today , claimed this was a violation of the terms of capitulation , and consequently declared the agreement void . He allowed his troops to sack the town and destroy the church , acts that he had promised to prevent in the oral surrender agreement . He had the fortifications destroyed , removing all of their weaponry . Before he left , he convinced a number of Acadians to swear oaths of allegiance to the English crown , appointed a council of locals to administer the town , and then sailed back to Boston , carrying Meneval and his garrison as prisoners of war . Phips received a hero 's welcome and was lavished with praise , although he was criticized in some circles ( and has been vilified in French and Acadian histories ) for allowing the sacking of Port Royal .
= = = Quebec expedition = = =
In the wake of the success , the Massachusetts provisional government agreed to organize an expedition on a larger scale against Quebec , the capital of New France , and gave its command to Phips . Originally intending to coordinate with a simultaneous overland attack on Montreal launched from Albany , New York , the expedition 's departure was delayed in the vain hope that needed munitions would arrive from England . The expedition , counting 34 ships and more than 2 @,@ 000 soldiers , finally sailed on August 20 . It was short on ammunition , had no pilots familiar with the Saint Lawrence River , and carried what would turn out to be inadequate provisions .
Because of contrary winds and the difficulty in navigating the Saint Lawrence , the expedition took eight weeks to reach Quebec . The late arrival ( wintry conditions were already setting in on the river ) and the long voyage meant that it would be impossible to conduct a lengthy siege . Phips sent a message into the citadel demanding its surrender . Governor General Louis de Buade de Frontenac declared that his only response would be from " the mouths of my cannons " . Phips then held a war council , which decided to make a combined land assault and naval bombardment . Both failed . The landing force , 1 @,@ 200 men led by Major John Walley , were unable to cross the well @-@ defended Saint @-@ Charles River , and the naval bombardment failed because the New Englanders ' guns were unable to reach the high battlements of the city , and they furthermore soon ran out of ammunition . The fighting , according to Phips , cost the expedition 30 deaths and one field cannon , as well as numerous wounded ; disease and disaster took an additional toll . Smallpox ravaged the troops , and two transports were lost to accidents ; another 200 men were lost to these causes .
The expedition cost the colony £ 50 @,@ 000 to mount , for which it issued paper currency , a first in the English colonies . Many of the expedition 's participants and creditors were unhappy at being paid this way , and Phips generously purchased some of the depreciated paper with hard currency , incurring financial losses in the process . At this same time , Governor Meneval petitioned for the return of minor valuables ( silverware and other small items ) that Phips had taken . Phips was outraged when the General Council heard Meneval 's case . He returned to England in February 1691 to seek support for another expedition against Quebec .
= = Governor of Massachusetts = =
Soon after returning to England , Phips joined back up with Increase Mather and again supported him in dealing with Whitehall . Increase Mather 's diary says they are together on March 25 , 1691 , and again on March 26 . On March 31 , they are together as Increase Mather writes a response to the Board of Trade . Also at this meeting is Sir Henry Ashurst . These three — Mather the clergyman , flanked by two knights : Sir Phips & Sir Ashurst — would emerge later as the major proponents of the various compromises that brought about a new charter . Not counting Phips , there seem to have been a total of four agents acting on behalf of Massachusetts in seeking to restore the old charter . The two agents holding official commission papers from the Massachusetts council — Cooke and Oakes — were also the least compromising and the least politically deft . The Board of Trade seems to have sought a policy of pushing through a new charter by cleaving the two knights away from these two agents . July 24 , Increase Mather records in his diary that he would " part with my life sooner than [ compromise on charter ] " . Not long after this Increase Mather left London on vacation . August 11 , 1691 , a letter was written from Whitehall to the King William 's secretary : " I must now desire your Lordship to acquaint the King that they are willing to accept their Charter ... and no longer Insist upon the Alterations mentioned ... " This could not have been Cooke and Oakes , as they never wavered in their stance opposing a new charter . Mather 's diary entry one week later ( August 19 ) indicates that he is still either unaware or has not yet accepted this move . On August 20 , the Earl of Nottingham told a committee that he had been with Sir William Phips who informed him that the New England agents " did acquiesce therein [ with the new charter ] . " By August 27 , Increase Mather had decided to participate in the process of shaping this new charter , if reluctantly .
A number of Mather 's requests concerning the new charter were rejected , but William and Mary allowed Mather to nominate the colony 's Lt. Governor and council members . The monarchs appointed Phips as the first royal governor , with Increase Mather 's approval , under a newly issued colonial charter for the Province of Massachusetts Bay . The charter greatly expanded the colony 's bounds , including not just the territories of the Massachusetts Bay Colony , but also those of the Plymouth Colony , islands south of Cape Cod including Martha 's Vineyard and Nantucket , and the present @-@ day territories of Maine , New Brunswick , and Nova Scotia . It also expanded the franchise to be nearly universal ( for males ) .
Phips and Increase Mather were odd @-@ fellows , without much in common , but they had become politically conjoined to the new charter , and it would be their job to sell it to the people of Massachusetts who were expecting their agents to return with nothing less than the old charter restored .
= = The Salem Witch Trials = =
Phips and Increase Mather reached Boston in separate ships on May 14 , 1692 . This was a Saturday afternoon , meaning all activity was to cease at sundown according to the old Puritan laws regarding the sabbath . Unlike his arrival in HMS Rose in 1683 , when Phips showed little regard for the sabbath , on this occasion Phips was highly deferential toward the theocracy . Phips ' elaborate swearing @-@ in ceremony at the meeting house was halted at sundown and delayed until the following Monday . According to one letter writer , Phips presented himself as having no intentions to oppose the ancient laws and customs of Puritan Boston . He promised to rule as a weak governor , according to the tradition of his predecessors . The speech itself had likely been crafted with the care and attention of Increase Mather as they crossed the Atlantic . They seemed to have come to an agreement — you work your side of the street and I 'll work mine — whereby Phips would tend to the frontier while Increase Mather and his slate of cohorts would see to domestic affairs .
Unfortunately , their crossing also coincided with the great swelling of the infamous witchcraft delusion . More than 125 people had been arrested on charges of witchcraft , and were being held in Boston and Salem prisons . On May 27 , a special Court of Oyer and Terminer was created to hear the accumulated cases . Though Phips officially signed the commission , Increase Mather was likely the architect , as such courts were specifically mentioned in the new charter , and no one had spent more time working on the details of the charter than Increase Mather . Increase Mather 's pick for Lieutenant Governor , William Stoughton , a lifelong bachelor , was chosen as chief judge of this new court . There was little then to indicate that Stoughton would proceed with such ruthless conviction . Phips later claimed to have chosen nominations for the court from " persons of the best prudence and figure that could then be pitched upon " and indeed , as Thomas Brattle pointed out , most were well @-@ known and respected merchants from the Boston area .
On June 8 , Stoughton ordered a woman accused of witchcraft to be executed only two days later , though tradition had been to allow at least four days between order and execution . The following Monday the clergy were asked to officially weigh in on the issue . This was likely Phips asking for the opinion of Increase Mather , and his son Cotton , and to put it in writing . The response is called The Return of the Ministers , simultaneously urging caution and speedy prosecution . Most importantly it cautioned against , but did not disallow , or discredit , the admission of spectral evidence ( accusations of a crime committed by one 's " spector " , against which there is no alibi possible ) . The Mathers , father and son , and the other area ministers continued to debate this issue throughout the summer and into the fall , as documented by the minutes of the Cambridge Association . At the end of June , five more women were condemned to die . Phips granted a reprieve to one of these , but was impressed upon " by some Salem gentlemen " to take it back . At this point , Phips seemed to wash his hands of the proceedings , not relishing the idea of gaining the enmity of his own lieutenant governor and the clergymen allied with him , including the fully committed Cotton Mather , and the waffling Increase Mather . There is no record of Phips ever having travelled north to meet any of the " afflicted " , or attend a single Oyer and Terminer trial , or execution . Instead , Phips continued to work on recruiting troops and gathering supplies to build a fort in Maine and he left the province at the end of July , and was gone the entire month of August and much of September , officially handing over all executive powers to Stoughton in his absence beginning August 1 .
French and Indian raids had resumed in the years following Phips ' 1690 expeditions , so he sought to improve the province 's defenses . Pursuant to his instructions from London , in 1692 he oversaw the construction of a stone fort , which was dubbed Fort William Henry , at Pemaquid ( present @-@ day Bristol , Maine ) , where a wooden fort had been destroyed in 1689 . He recruited Major Benjamin Church to lead a 450 @-@ man expedition eventually leading to a tenuous peace agreement with the Abenaki people .
By the time Phips returned from Maine on September 29 , 1692 , twenty persons had been executed and the accusations and arrests continued , including charges against many high @-@ profile individuals , allegedly including Phips ' own wife . At this point Phips finally let it be known that the court of Oyer and Terminer " must fall " . A new court was formed with instructions to entirely disregard spectral evidence . But Stoughton was once again selected by his peers to be chief justice . In late January 1693 , Stoughton ordered eight graves dug in advance of his next round of his execution orders , not realizing that Phips would no longer appeasing him .
All eight were cleared by Phips ' proclamations , leading Stoughton to storm from the court . His replacement on the court was more inclined to mercy for the accused . Beginning in February of 1693 , no more of the accused were condemned to die , and almost all had been released from prison by May .
= = Recall to London = =
Phips ' leadership was dependent on the support of the powerful Mathers , father and son , as well as their pick to be his lieutenant governor . This strange and disparate coalition had been badly fractured by the witchcraft proceedings , and Phips ' resolute and final , if slow , move to shut it down . In a letter written October 20 , 1692 , Cotton Mather expressed anguish over the ending of the " proceedings " and stated his displeasure with his father 's recent call for presumed innocence ( " Cases of Conscience " ) . When Phips stood up to Stoughton , he gained a terrible foe . Furthermore , Joseph Dudley , a Massachusetts native ( and former dominion official alongside Randolph ) was in London , scheming to replace Phips and in early 1693 Stoughton joined forces with him .
The strain of this seems to have gotten to Phips in a way that so many previous seemingly insurmountable challenges had not . In January 1693 , Phips was involved in an embarrassing and unseemly physical altercation with his subordinate captain in the royal navy , Richard Short . Their accusations against each other in letters to Whitehall follow the standard lines of the Tarpaulin vs. Gentleman . Short is called a drunk , corrupt , unwilling to withstand hardships or obey direct orders . His lieutenant captain is accused of cowardice . Phips , as usual , is accused of having only a carpenter 's education , poor manners , disregarding standard procedure ( reminiscent of the journal of Knepp ) . Phips pick for a replacement captain , Dobbins , is accused of the same . Phips is also accused of corruption , which was a standard charge , and a standard problem for colonial leadership at this time , but Phips having traded silver for paper after the fiasco of Quebec , and building his own ship to chase pirates in Maine , seems to take the teeth out of this accusation .
Following the dominion government , in which Andros oversaw all of the colonies , there was a good bit of jealousy , border disputes , and jockeying for position between the new governors of the various colonies , and Phips seems to have done as much to inflame these jealousies as to work past them . Phips expressed outrage at the execution of Leisler and harbored enemies of Fletcher and the New York government that replaced Leisler . Phips ' ongoing struggles with Usher in New Hampshire continued as before . ( In 1695 , following Phips ' death , Bellomont was placed over Fletcher , Usher , and Stoughton , suggesting Whitehall was unimpressed by the bickering of the three provinces , and unswayed by the particular merits of any of their arguments . Bellomont ordered a posthumous pardon of Leisler . )
Keeping up the longstanding tradition of Massachusetts Bay , Phips fought against the office of custom inspectors , arguing that the port of Massachusetts did not see enough enumerated goods to warrant their presence . Instead Phips attempted to re @-@ establish a naval office , with himself acting as head of the admiralty , thereby doling out favors to gain the support of the powerful merchant class . This was part of an old turf battle between the Admiralty and Customs but it lead to an altercation with Randolph 's custom inspector , Jahleel Brenton , which seemed to follow the similar embarrassing and unseemly pattern as his altercation with Captain Short . The two altercations weighed together against Phips . Phips was accused of violating the Navigation Acts , as his predecessor had been . Blathwayt was slowly and steadily working to standardize the flow of tributes from the colonies to the Crown , and if Phips was clogging these pipes he would need to answer for it .
By the spring elections of 1693 , Phips needed new connections to balance against the dangerous enmity of Stoughton . Elisha Cooke was elected and Phips negatived his seat . For a royally appointed governor to exercise such veto power , granted only by the controversial new charter , was a highly unpopular move and could establish a dangerous precedent . Increase Mather had fought unsuccessfully to keep this veto power out of the new charter , but ironically , he seems to have been the architect of this move . A few weeks later , Phips invited both men to dinner , but was unable to broker a truce . Phips was still trying to maintain a bond of loyalty to Increase Mather . By many counts this move against Cooke was considered poor political calculus . The Mathers , father and son , were a house divided , trying to heal itself . The Mathers had lost much credibility and public trust . Phips seemed slow to realize that Increase Mather should no longer be his trusted adviser . A year later , when Elisha Cooke was again elected , Phips allowed it to stand . But by this time , it was probably too little , too late .
On July 31 , 1693 , Phips hosted at his house a meeting of the General Council , including Stoughton and four other O & T judges , and read a letter that had arrived the day before from the queen . The letter supported Phips in his ending of the trials , and stated that ' the greatest moderation and all due circumspection be used .. [ toward those accused of witchcraft ] . " No doubt , Phips wanted the letter read into the official minutes , but by hosting the meeting at his house , one wonders if he was not trying to provoke , especially if his own wife had been among the accused .
On November 30 , 1693 , little over a year after Phips had shut down the Court of Oyer and Terminer , Whitehall heard complaints against Phips regarding Short and Brenton , shepherded to London by Stoughton and Dudley . A recall with the internal date of February 15 , 1694 , summoned Phips back to London to answer the charges . It took months for the letter to reach Boston . On July 4 , 1694 , Phips received the summons to appear before the Lords of Trade . Stoughton , of all people , was ordered to oversee the gathering of evidence for the hearing , a galling reversal of fortunes for Phips . Phips spent much of the summer in Maine , at Pemaquid securing a peace treaty , and overseeing the frontier defenses near his birthplace .
Phips finally sailed for England on November 17 . Increase Mather was asked to go along in support but decided against it , citing the difficulty of the journey , though his diary from the time is full of yearning to return to England . They were still friendly , but it seems their coalition and partnership was in tatters .
As a final stroke , before Phips left he pardoned all those who had been accused of witchcraft . Most had already been reprieved but a pardon ensured they would not be brought to trial in his absence . He sailed from the harbor after sunset on the sabbath , and firing guns from his ship . Samuel Sewall notes the similarity to his " uncomfortable " time of arrival , but the differences are more telling : Phips was no longer sensitive to the customs of the Puritan clergy , he was loudly defying them .
Phips arrived in London in early January , 1695 . Upon his arrival in London , he was arrested on exaggerated charges , levied by Dudley , that he had conspired to withhold customs monies . Phips was bailed out by Sir Henry Ashurst but fell ill with a fever and died on February 18 , 1695 , aged 44 , before his charges were heard . He was buried in London at the Church of St. Mary Woolnoth .
= = Family and legacy = =
William and Mary Phips had no children . They adopted Spencer Bennett , the son of Mary 's sister Rebecca , who formally took the Phips name in 1716 . He went on to serve as lieutenant governor of Massachusetts , including two periods as acting governor .
Phippsburg , Maine is named in his honor .
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= Geert Wilders =
Geert Wilders ( Dutch pronunciation : [ ˈɣeːrt ˈʋɪldərs ] , born 6 September 1963 ) is a Dutch politician and the founder and leader of the Dutch Party for Freedom ( Partij voor de Vrijheid – PVV ) . Wilders is the Parliamentary group leader of his party in the Dutch House of Representatives . In the formation in 2010 of the Rutte cabinet , a minority cabinet of VVD and CDA , he actively participated in the negotiations , resulting in a " support agreement " ( gedoogakkoord ) between the PVV and these parties , but withdrew his support in April 2012 , citing disagreements with the cabinet on proposed budget cuts . Wilders is best known for his criticism of Islam ; his views have made him a controversial figure in the Netherlands and abroad , and since 2004 he receives permanent personal protection by armed bodyguards .
Raised a Roman Catholic , Wilders left the church at his coming of age . His travels to Israel as a young adult , as well as to neighbouring Arab countries , helped form his political views . Wilders worked as a speechwriter for the conservative @-@ liberal People 's Party for Freedom and Democracy ( Volkspartij voor Vrijheid en Democratie – VVD ) , and later served as parliamentary assistant to party leader Frits Bolkestein from 1990 to 1998 . He was elected to the Utrecht city council in 1996 , and later to the House of Representatives . Citing irreconcilable differences over the party 's position on the accession of Turkey to the European Union , he left the VVD in 2004 to form his own party , the Party for Freedom .
Wilders has campaigned to stop what he views as the " Islamisation of the Netherlands " . He has compared the Quran to Mein Kampf and has campaigned to have the book banned in the Netherlands . He advocates ending immigration from Muslim countries , and supports banning the construction of new mosques . Wilders was a speaker at the Facing Jihad Conference held in Jerusalem in 2008 , which discussed the dangers of jihad , and has called for a hard line against what he called the " street terror " exerted by minorities in Dutch cities . His controversial 2008 film about his views on Islam , Fitna , received international attention . He has been described in the media as populist and labeled far @-@ right , although this is disputed by other observers . Wilders , who long refused to align himself with European far @-@ right leaders such as Jean @-@ Marie Le Pen and Jörg Haider and expressed concern of being " linked with the wrong rightist fascist groups " , views himself as a right @-@ wing liberal . More recently , however , Wilders worked together with the French National Front 's Marine Le Pen in a failed attempt to form a parliamentary group in the European Parliament which would also have included Austria 's Freedom Party , Italy 's Northern League , and Belgium 's Flemish Interest . On 18 March 2016 , his trial began on the accusation of inciting " discrimination and hatred " against Moroccans living in the Netherlands .
= = Early life and career = =
Wilders was born in the city of Venlo , in the southeast Netherlands . He is the youngest of four children , and was raised Catholic . He was born to a Dutch father and a mother born in colonial Indonesia , whose ancestors were Dutch Indonesian . His father worked as a manager for the printing and copying manufacturing company Océ , and had remained hidden from the Germans during the Second World War ; an experience so traumatizing that he refused to physically enter Germany even forty years later .
Wilders received his secondary education at the Mavo and Havo middle school and high school in Venlo . Reflecting passions that came to the fore later in his career , Wilders took a course in health insurance at the Stichting Opleiding Sociale Verzekeringen in Amsterdam and earned several law certificates at the Dutch Open University .
Wilders ' goal after he graduated from secondary school was to see the world . Because he did not have enough money to travel to Australia , his preferred destination , he went to Israel instead . For several years he volunteered in a moshav and worked for several firms , becoming in his own words " a true friend of Israel " . With the money he saved , he travelled to the neighbouring Arab countries , and was moved by the lack of democracy in the region . When he returned to the Netherlands , he retained Israeli ideas about counter @-@ terrorism and a " special feeling of solidarity " for the country .
Living in Utrecht , Wilders initially worked in the health insurance industry . His interest in the subject led him into politics as a speech @-@ writer for the Netherlands ' People 's Party for Freedom and Democracy . He started his formal political career as a parliamentary assistant to the party leader Frits Bolkestein , specialising in foreign policy . He held this job from 1990 to 1998 . During this time Geert Wilders travelled extensively , visiting countries all across the Middle East , including Iran , Syria , Jordan , Egypt and Israel . Bolkestein was the first Dutch politician to address the consequences of mass immigration for Dutch society , including a sharp criticism of Muslim immigrants . He set an example for Wilders not only in his ideas but also in his confrontational speaking style . Political analyst Anno Bunnik later described Wilders as a " sorcerer 's apprentice " to Bolkestein .
= = = Personal life = = =
On 10 November 2004 , two suspected attackers were captured after an hour @-@ long siege of a building in The Hague . They were in possession of three grenades and were accused of planning to murder Wilders as well as a fellow MP , Ayaan Hirsi Ali . The suspects were presumed to be members of what the Dutch intelligence agency , the General Intelligence and Security Service , has termed the Hofstadgroep . Since this incident Wilders has been under constant security protection because of frequent threats to his life . In September 2007 , a Dutch woman was sentenced to a one @-@ year prison term for sending more than 100 threatening emails to Wilders . In 2009 , a rapper from Rotterdam was sentenced to 80 hours community service and a two @-@ month suspended jail term for threatening Wilders in a rap song . Wilders was listed as the most threatened politician in the Netherlands in 2008 .
Wilders is said to have been " deprived ... of a personal life for his ... hatred of Islam " . He is constantly accompanied by a permanent security detail of about six plainclothes police officers , and does not receive visitors unless they are cleared in advance , thoroughly searched , and escorted at all times . He lives in a state @-@ provided safe house which is outfitted to be bulletproof , is heavily guarded by police , and has a panic room . He is driven from his home to his offices in parliament in an armored police vehicle , and wears a bulletproof vest . His office is located in the most isolated corner of the Dutch Parliament building , and was chosen because potential terrorists can get to it through only one corridor , making it easier for his bodyguards to repel an attack . He is married to Krisztina Wilders ( née Marfai ) , a former diplomat of Hungarian origin , with whom he can only meet about once every week due to security concerns . The restrictions on his life because of this , he said , are " a situation that I wouldn 't wish on my worst enemy " .
In January 2010 , Karen Geurtsen , a Dutch journalist from the magazine HP @-@ De Tijd , revealed a painful breach of security . She spent four months working undercover , posing as an intern , for the PVV party . She claimed that she had had unchecked access to Wilders . " I could have killed him " , were the first words of the article that she published about this operation . According to her , she had " dozens " of opportunities to take his life . In July 2010 , after Wilders complained that his security was inadequate , the Special Security Assignments Brigade , a special unit of Dutch military police , made four attempts to smuggle a firearm into the heavily @-@ guarded offices of Wilders ' Freedom Party , two of which were successful . Following these breaches , security at the offices was increased .
Wilders has acquired nicknames such as " Mozart " and " Captain Peroxide " because of his flamboyant platinum blond hairstyle . Radio Netherlands calls him " the most famous bleach @-@ blond since Marilyn Monroe " .
Wilders is an agnostic , but he has stated that he thinks Dutch Christians " are my allies " and that they fundamentally should want the same thing .
In June 2011 , disclosure of Wilder 's personal finances indicated that Wilders had founded a self @-@ administered company one year earlier without reporting this via the public records of the House of Representatives , which he , as a parliamentarian , should have done .
= = Political career = =
In 1997 , Wilders was elected for the People 's Party for Freedom and Democracy ( VVD ) to the municipal council of Utrecht , the fourth largest city of the Netherlands . He lived in Kanaleneiland , a suburb with cheap social housing and high apartment blocks , which has a relatively high number of immigrants . While a city councilor , Wilders was mugged in his own neighbourhood ; some have speculated that this may have catalysed his political transformation . He was not rewarded for his time on the municipal council of Utrecht , for in the following elections he would score well below the national average in the University city .
A year later , he was elected to the Netherlands ' national parliament , but his first four years in parliament drew little attention . However , his appointment in 2002 as a public spokesman for the VVD led Wilders to become more well known for his outspoken criticism of Islamic extremism . Tensions immediately developed within the party , as Wilders found himself to be to the right of most members , and challenged the party line in his public statements . He was expelled from the VVD parliamentary party , and in September 2004 , Wilders left the VVD , having been a member since 1989 , to form his own political party , Groep Wilders , later renamed the Party for Freedom . The crunch issue with the VVD party line was about his refusal to endorse the party 's position that European Union accession negotiations must be started with Turkey .
The Party for Freedom 's political platform often overlaps those of the assassinated Rotterdam politician Pim Fortuyn and his Pim Fortuyn List . After his death , Fortuyn 's impact remained , as more and more politicians sought to gain political mileage by directly confronting topics such as a ban on immigration that were , from a politically correct point of view , considered unmentionable in the Netherlands until Fortuyn came on the scene and upended the Dutch tradition of consensus politics with an anti @-@ immigration stance . Wilders would position himself to inherit Fortuyn 's constituency . The Party for Freedom called for a € 16 billion tax reduction , a far stricter policy toward recreational drug use , investing more in roads and other infrastructure , building nuclear power plants and including animal rights in the Dutch constitution . In the 2006 Dutch parliamentary election , their first parliamentary election , the Party for Freedom won 9 out of the 150 open seats .
In March 2009 , in a party meeting in Venlo , Wilders said " I want to be prime minister " , believing the PVV will eventually become the Netherlands ' biggest party . " At some point it 's going to happen and then it will be a big honour to fulfil the post of prime minister " .
Polling conducted throughout March 2009 by Maurice de Hond indicated the Party for Freedom was the most popular parliamentary party . The polls predicted that the party would take 21 % of the national vote , winning 32 out of 150 seats in the Dutch parliament . If the polling results were replicated in an election , Wilders would be a major power broker . Under such circumstances , there would also be some likelihood of him becoming Prime Minister of the Netherlands . This has been partially attributed to timely prosecution attempts against him for hate speech and the travel ban imposed on him by the United Kingdom , as well as dissatisfaction with the Dutch government 's response to the global financial crisis of 2008 – 2009 .
On 3 March 2010 , elections for the local councils were held in the municipalities of The Netherlands . The PVV only contested these local elections in the Dutch towns The Hague and Almere , because of a shortage of good candidates . The big gains that were scored indicated that the party and Wilders might dominate the political scene in the run @-@ up to the parliamentary elections scheduled on 9 June 2010 . The PVV won in Almere and came second to the Dutch Labour party in The Hague . In Almere , the PVV won 21 percent of the vote to Labour 's 18 percent , preliminary results showed . In The Hague , the PVV had 8 seats — second to Labour with 10 seats .
On 8 March 2010 , Wilders announced that he would take a seat on the Hague city council , after it became clear he won 13 @,@ 000 preference votes . Earlier he had said he would not take up a seat if he won . In the parliamentary elections on 9 June 2010 , the PVV increased its number of seats from 9 to 24 ( out of 150 ) , getting 15 @.@ 5 % of the vote . This made the PVV the third party in size . With a fragmented parliament , at least three parties were required for an absolute majority . A coalition of VVD and Christian Democratic Appeal ( CDA ) was negotiated with parliamentary support by the PVV . The PVV did not become part of the government formed by VVD and CDA but actively participated in the negotiations and thus policy decisions and – as part of the outcome agreed that they would not support any motion to dismiss ministers concerning topics listed in a so @-@ called " support agreement " – much like the Danish model where the Danish People 's Party plays a similar role . The very fact of the participation of Wilder 's party in these negotiations caused fierce discussions in political circles .
On 21 April 2012 , Wilders withdrew his support from the Rutte cabinet because of new austerity measures that were about to be taken . Commenting on his withdrawal Wilders blamed the " European dictates " pointing to the 3 % rule on budget deficit for European countries although his party had supported these rules earlier on . The cabinet blamed Wilders for what they call his " lack of political will " and " political cowardice " in regards to addressing the economic woes of the Netherlands . Wilders ' withdrawal from the negotiations led to new elections in September . Wilders and the PVV ran on a campaign to have the Netherlands withdraw from the European Union and for a return to the guilder . The PVV won 10 @.@ 1 % of the vote and 15 seats in parliament , a loss of 9 seats .
In the March 2014 local elections , Wilders ' Party for Freedom only took part in two municipalities , The Hague and Almere , and suffered minor losses in both . Nevertheless , international news coverage of the elections was dominated by Wilders after he led his supporters in a provocative chant ( calling for " fewer , fewer ... Moroccans " ) at an election night party rally .
In the May 2014 elections for the European Parliament , the Party for Freedom received 17 @.@ 0 % of the vote and four seats , a slight gain compared to the 13 @.@ 3 % of the vote the party had received in the previous parliamentary elections . In the run @-@ up to and aftermath of those European elections , Wilders worked with the French Front National 's Marine Le Pen to try to form a new parliamentary group in the European Parliament . They first announced their collaboration during a joint press conference in November 2013 , where Wilders vowed that " today is the beginning of the liberation from the European elite , the monster in Brussels " . Wilders visited the Sweden Democrats party and spoke with the Austrian Freedom party 's leader Heinz @-@ Christian Strache to help bring about the alliance , even while rejecting Hungary 's Jobbik and Germany 's NPD because he wanted to exclude " right @-@ wing extremist and racist " parties . Three days after the elections finished , Le Pen and Wilders presented another press conference , this time with Matteo Salvini of Italy 's Northern League , Harald Vilimsky of Austria 's Freedom party and Gerolf Annemans of Belgium 's Flemish Interest party , to promise that the parliamentary group would be formed . Eventually , however , the effort failed because it could only unite parties from six EU member states , one fewer than is required by parliamentary rules . This was in part due to a refusal to include the Greek Golden Dawn or Poland 's Congress of the New Right , and in part because parties like the Danish People 's party and the True Finns refused to join .
In the March 2015 provincial elections , the Party for Freedom received 11 @.@ 7 % of the vote nationally , slipping slightly from the 12 @.@ 4 % of the vote it had gotten in the 2011 provincial elections .
= = Public reception = =
Wilders has become a controversial figure with polarized opinions on him from the world news media . Regarding his reputation in the Netherlands , Wilders stated in 2009 , " Half of Holland loves me and half of Holland hates me . There is no in @-@ between . " In 2005 , the Dutch public expressed mixed reactions to Wilders ' general agenda , with 53 % calling it " implausible " and 47 % more supportive . He has been described as populist , labelled as both " extreme right " and far @-@ right , and defended by others as a mainstream politician with legitimate concerns saying that such labels are shallow smear attempts . Wilders himself rejects the labels and has called such descriptions " scandalous " . He has been accused of building his popularity on fear and resentment and vociferously defended for having the courage to talk openly about the problems unfettered immigration brings with it and the incompatibility of fundamentalist Islam with western values .
On 15 December 2007 , Wilders was declared " Politician of the Year " by NOS @-@ radio , a mainstream Dutch radio station . The parliamentary press praised his ability to dominate political discussion and to attract the debate and to get into publicity with his well @-@ timed one @-@ liners . The editors eventually gave the title to Wilders because he was the only one who scored high amongst both the press and the general public .
In December 2009 , Wilders came in second in two polls in the Netherlands for Politician of the Year . A panel of Dutch television viewers praised him as " the second best " politician this year ( after his outspoken critic Alexander Pechtold ) , while his colleagues in parliament named him " the second worst " ( after Rita Verdonk ) .
Some Muslim critics of Wilders accuse him of using Quranic verses out of context . Because of Wilders ' positions on Islam and calls for discrimination against Dutch citizens of minority ethnic descent , the Dutch – Moroccan rapper Appa , when interviewed about Wilders for a newspaper , said " if someone were to put a bullet in his head , I wouldn 't mind " . Wilders ' views on Islam prompted the Mayor of Rotterdam , Ahmed Aboutaleb , to reprimand him .
Editorials by AlterNet , The Montreal Gazette , The Wall Street Journal , The Guardian , and The New York Times have accused Wilders of hypocrisy given that , in their view , Wilders has called for the ban of the sale of the Quran while simultaneously arguing for his own personal freedom of speech . In a speech during a Dutch parliamentary debate , Wilders elaborated that he calls for the consistent application of Dutch laws restricting any act of expression that incites violence . Ideally , he would prefer to see nearly all such laws abolished . As such , he supports a European @-@ wide constitutional protection of freedom of speech like that which exists in the United States .
Wilders has also been compared to the assassinated fellow critic of Islam and filmmaker Theo van Gogh , but he does not see himself as taking on van Gogh 's mantle . Wilders has stated that he supports the free speech rights of his critics , saying that " An Imam who wants a politician dead is — however reprehensible — allowed to say so " . He has responded to critics ' comments of racism and Islamophobia by stating , " I don 't hate Muslims . I hate their book and their ideology " .
In February 2010 , the trailer of a newly published online satirical video on the website of the Dutch radio station FunX , which targets a young urban audience , spoofed a murder attempt on Wilders .
In July 2010 , the magazine Inspire announced that Wilders , as well as Ayaan Hirsi Ali , Kurt Westergaard and Salman Rushdie , were mentioned on a " death list " of an international Islamist terrorist network .
Shortly before this publication it was revealed in The Hague that Dutch law enforcement officers succeeded twice in smuggling a firearm into the parliament buildings and into the guarded headquarters of Wilders ' party . This check was carried out by the Special Security Assignments Brigade BSB , a special unit of the Dutch Military Police . The test was carried out following a complaint from Wilders about his security being inadequate .
On 11 September 2010 , 2 @,@ 000 people gathered close by the site of a planned Muslim community center near the site of the World Trade Center attacks , on 11 September 2001 , where they were addressed by Wilders who flew from The Netherlands to urge the crowd : " This is where we have ( to ) draw the line . We must never give a free hand to those who want to subjugate us , " Wilders added . " Draw this line so that New York ... will never become New Mecca . "
Wilders was extensively discussed in American diplomatic cables , released by WikiLeaks in December 2010 . In a briefing to President Barack Obama , he was described as " no friend of the US : he opposes Dutch military involvement in Afghanistan ; he believes development assistance is money wasted ; he opposes NATO missions outside ' allied ' territory ; he is against most EU initiatives ; and , most troubling , he foments fear and hatred of immigrants . "
In July 2011 , Anders Behring Breivik , the man who carried out the 2011 Norway attacks , expressed admiration for Geert Wilders and the Party for Freedom . Wilders immediately distanced himself strongly from Breivik .
On 2 October 2011 Radio Netherlands Worldwide reported that a retired Dutch politician of the People 's Party for Freedom and Democracy ( VVD ) Frits Bolkestein , who is sometime called the ' mentor ' of Geert Wilders , " does not share his views " . He reportedly said that " Wilders says things that are just not right and I think he totally exaggerates . " While giving his opinion on burqa ban Mr Bolkestein said that he " disagrees with the recent introduction of a burqa ban , an idea championed by Geert Wilders . " The Netherlands , he said , is the third European country to introduce such a ban after France and Belgium . " A ban makes martyrs of the few burqa wearers there are in the Netherlands " , he said .
In March 2014 and during a meeting for his party on the evening of local elections , he sparked widespread controversy when he asked his attending supporters " Do you want , in this city ( The Hague ) , and in the Netherlands , more or less Moroccans ? " , after which they chanted " Less ! Less ! " . Wilders ' response was " Then we 'll fix it ! " . This action led several PVV representatives to resign , among whom two of the party 's members of Parliament ( Roland van Vliet and Joram van Klaveren ) , the party 's leader in the European Parliament ( Laurence Stassen ) , and a number of its provincial legislators and municipal councillors . Many politicians denounced what happened . In a response , young Moroccans launched a social media campaign called ' Born here ' , in which they posted pictures of themselves alongside their Dutch passports as a sign of challenge .
= = Political views = =
= = = Political principles = = =
Wilders generally considers himself to be a right @-@ wing liberal , with a specific mix of positions independent of the European political spectrum and particular to iconoclastic Dutch society . He has stated that " My allies are not Le Pen or Haider . ... We 'll never join up with the fascists and Mussolinis of Italy . I 'm very afraid of being linked with the wrong rightist fascist groups " , saying instead his drive is issues such as freedom of expression and Dutch iconoclasm . Wilders views British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher as his greatest political role model . People 's Party for Freedom and Democracy figure Frits Bolkestein also heavily influenced his beliefs .
Wilders strongly opposes the Dutch political system in general . He believes that there is a ruling elite of parliamentarians who only care about their own personal careers and disregard the will of the people . He also blames the Dutch system of multi @-@ party coalition governments for a lack of clear and effective policies . In his view , Dutch society advocates rule by consensus and cultural relativism , while he believes that this should change so as to " not tolerate the intolerant " .
On foreign relations , Wilders has largely supported Israel and has criticized countries he perceives as enemies of Israel . Furthermore , he has made some proposals in the Dutch Parliament inspired by Israeli policies . For example , he supports implementing Israel 's administrative detention in the Netherlands , a practice heavily criticized by human rights groups , which he calls " common sense " .
Wilders often mentions Henk and Ingrid in his speeches , fictitious common Dutch subjects who he claims to work for . Henk and Ingrid represent the Average Joe in Dutch political parlance , as the " heart and backbone of Dutch society " . They were compared to Joe the Plumber in Dutch media , although he is a real person . They live in a Vinex neighbourhood , have two school attending children , a median income and both work . They used to vote PvdA but now vote PVV .
Furthermore , Wilders has revived the ancient idea of reuniting Flanders and the Netherlands .
Wilders published the version of his political manifesto called Klare Wijn ( " Clear Wine " ) in March 2006 . The program proposed ten key points to be implemented :
Considerable reduction of taxes and state regulations .
Replacement of the present Article 1 of the Dutch constitution , guaranteeing equality under the law , by a clause stating the cultural dominance of the Christian , Jewish and humanist traditions .
Reduction of the influence of the European Union , which may no longer be expanded with new member states , especially Turkey ; the European Parliament will be abolished . Dutch financial contributions to the European Union should be reduced by billions of euros .
A five @-@ year moratorium on the immigration of non @-@ Western foreigners who intend to stay in the Netherlands . Foreign residents will no longer have the right to vote in municipal elections .
A five @-@ year moratorium on the founding of new mosques and Islamic schools ; a permanent ban on preaching in any language other than Dutch . Foreign imams will not be allowed to preach . Radical mosques will be closed and radical Muslims will be expelled .
Restoration of educational standards , with an emphasis on the educational value of the family .
Introduction of binding referenda and elected mayors , chiefs of police and prime ministers .
Introduction of minimum penalties , and higher maximum penalties ; introduction of administrative detention for terrorist suspects . Street terrorism will be punished by boot camps and denaturalisation and deportation of immigrant offenders .
Restoration of respect and better rewards for teachers , policemen , health care workers and military personnel .
Instead of complicated reorganisation , a more accessible and humane health care system , especially for elderly citizens .
= = = Views on Islam = = =
Wilders is best known for his criticism of Islam , summing up his views by saying , " I don 't hate Muslims , I hate Islam " . Although identifying Islamic extremists as 5 – 15 % of Muslims , he argues that " there is no such thing as ' moderate Islam ' " and that the " Koran also states that Muslims who believe in only part of the Koran are in fact apostates " . He suggests that Muslims should " tear out half of the Koran if they wished to stay in the Netherlands " because it contains " terrible things " and that Muhammad would " ... in these days be hunted down as a terrorist " .
On 8 August 2007 , Wilders opined in an open letter to the Dutch newspaper De Volkskrant that the Koran , which he called a " fascist book " , should be outlawed in the Netherlands , like Adolf Hitler 's Mein Kampf . He has stated that " The book incites hatred and killing and therefore has no place in our legal order " . He has also referred to Mohammed as " the devil " . In September 2009 Wilders proposed to put a tax on Hijab wearing by Muslim women . He suggested women could purchase a license at a cost of € 1000 and that the money raised could be used in projects beneficial to women 's emancipation .
He believes that all Muslim immigration to the Netherlands should be halted and all settled immigrants should be paid to leave . Referring to the increased population of Muslims in the Netherlands , he has said :
Take a walk down the street and see where this is going . You no longer feel like you are living in your own country . There is a battle going on and we have to defend ourselves . Before you know it there will be more mosques than churches !
In a speech before the Dutch Parliament , he stated :
Islam is the Trojan Horse in Europe . If we do not stop Islamification now , Eurabia and Netherabia will just be a matter of time . One century ago , there were approximately 50 Muslims in the Netherlands . Today , there are about 1 million Muslims in this country . Where will it end ? We are heading for the end of European and Dutch civilisation as we know it . Where is our Prime Minister in all this ?
In reply to my questions in the House he said , without batting an eyelid , that there is no question of our country being Islamified . Now , this reply constituted a historical error as soon as it was uttered . Very many Dutch citizens , Madam Speaker , experience the presence of Islam around them . And I can report that they have had enough of burkas , headscarves , the ritual slaughter of animals , so ‑ called honour revenge , blaring minarets , female circumcision , hymen restoration operations , abuse of homosexuals , Turkish and Arabic on the buses and trains as well as on town hall leaflets , halal meat at grocery shops and department stores , Sharia exams , the Finance Minister 's Sharia mortgages , and the enormous overrepresentation of Muslims in the area of crime , including Moroccan street terrorists .
Nonetheless , Wilders has traveled widely in the Arab world and Der Spiegel has stated that Wilders will " wax poetic " over those " magnificent countries " . Wilders has also said that " It 's a real shame that these places are so chaotic . "
Wilders argues that Islam is not a religion , but rather a totalitarian political ideology such as communism and fascism .
After the Dutch parliament turned down his request for an exhibition of cartoons depicting Prophet Muhammad be shown in parliament , Wilders vowed to show cartoons depicting him on television during time reserved for political parties .
On 28 July 2015 , Vienna 's prosecutors ' office launched the probe and lodged calls for criminal proceedings against Geert Wilders for allegedly comparing the Quran to Mein Kampf , after Tarafa Baghajati had accused them of hate speech and denigrating religious teachings .
After the November 2015 Paris attacks , Wilders in an article on The New York Times , argued for a national referendum in Netherlands to decide about the refugee crisis .
= = = Wilders and Israel = = =
Wilders lived in Israel for two years during his youth and has visited the country 40 times in the last 25 years .
Wilders stated about Israel : " I have visited many interesting countries in the Middle East – from Syria to Egypt , from Tunisia to Turkey , from Cyprus to Iran – but nowhere did I have the special feeling of solidarity that I always get when I land at Ben Gurion International Airport . " Dutch public TV channel Nederland 2 's daily news programme Netwerk reported that numerous American supporters of Israel financially supported Wilders ' Party for Freedom ( PVV ) and openly approved of his message towards Islam and Islamic terrorism . Wilders told an audience during the report that " We [ in the West ] are all Israel " . He has also said " Israel is the West 's first line of defence " against what he perceives to be a threat posed by Islam .
Following the Dutch general election , 2010 , in which the PVV was the third biggest party , Wilders said Jordan should be renamed Palestine . The Jordanian government responded saying Wilders ' speech was reminiscent of the Israeli right wing . His speech said " Jordan is Palestine . Changing its name to Palestine will end the conflict in the Middle East and provide the Palestinians with an alternate homeland . " He also said Israel deserves a special status in the Dutch government because it was fighting for " Jerusalem " in its name .
" If Jerusalem falls into the hands of the Muslims , Athens and Rome will be next . Thus , Jerusalem is the main front protecting the West . It is not a conflict over territory but rather an ideological battle , between the mentality of the liberated West and the ideology of Islamic barbarism . There has been an independent Palestinian state since 1946 , and it is the kingdom of Jordan . "
He called on the Dutch government to refer to Jordan as Palestine and move its embassy to Jerusalem .
= = Fitna = =
Fitna is a 2008 short film written and commissioned by Wilders that explores Koranic @-@ inspired motivations for terrorism , Islamic universalism , and Islam in the Netherlands . Its title comes from the Arabic word fitna , which describes " disagreement and division among people " or a " test of faith in times of trial " .
It is the subject of an international controversy and debate on free speech . Despite the legal troubles surrounding the film , Wilders insists that before he released it , he consulted numerous lawyers in the field , who found nothing worth prosecution . Jordan has summoned Wilders to court , with the film deemed to " incite hatred " . Militant Sunni Islamist group Al @-@ Qaeda issued a call to murder Wilders after its release .
In the spring of 2009 , Wilders launched the " Facing Jihad World Tour " , a series of screenings of Fitna to public officials and influential organizations around the globe , starting in Rome . In the United States , Wilders showed the film to the United States Congress on 26 February having been invited by Arizona Republican Senator Jon Kyl . Around 40 people attended the screening . American Muslims protested , but the groups said that they supported his right of free speech while still condemning his opinions . Wilders spoke at the Conservative Political Action Conference on 28 February . He appeared before the National Press Club and the Republican Jewish Coalition that week as well . Similar attempts in Britain led to a travel ban , and legislative blocks have prevented an appearance in Denmark .
= = Call for beheading by Feiz Mohammad = =
In September 2010 , in an internet chat room , Australian Islamic fundamentalist preacher Feiz Mohammad urged his followers to behead Wilders . His rationale was his accusation that Wilders had " denigrat [ ed ] " Islam , and that that anyone who " mocks , laughs or degrades Islam " as Wilders had must be killed " by chopping off his head . " The Dutch newspaper De Telegraaf released an excerpt of the talk , after Dutch intelligence officials received a tip about the threat .
After the 2013 Boston Marathon bombing , Wilders wrote :
I am threatened for the simple reason that I am an Islam critic . But , make no mistake , I am not the only one who is in danger . The Tsarnaev brothers drew inspiration from Feiz Mohammed 's internet rants and decided to kill innocent onlookers at a marathon . Everyone is in danger .
= = = Al @-@ Qaeda hit list = = =
In 2010 Anwar al @-@ Awlaki published a hit list in his Inspire magazine , including Wilders , Ayaan Hirsi Ali and Salman Rushdie along with cartoonists Lars Vilks and three Jyllands @-@ Posten staff members : Kurt Westergaard , Carsten Juste , and Flemming Rose . The list was later expanded to include Stéphane " Charb " Charbonnier , who was murdered in a terror attack on Charlie Hebdo in Paris , along with 11 other people . After the attack , Al @-@ Qaeda called for more killings .
= = = Death wish by Labour politician = = =
One local politician from the Labour Party in the Netherlands wished for the death of Wilders .
= = In the United Kingdom = =
= = = Ban on entering the United Kingdom = = =
Lord Pearson of Rannoch and Baroness Cox , members of the House of Lords ( the upper chamber of the British Parliament ) , invited Wilders to a show of 12 February 2009 viewing of Fitna in the Palace of Westminster . Two days before the showing , Home Secretary Jacqui Smith banned Wilders from entering the United Kingdom , labeling him an " undesirable person " . Entry was denied under EU law , and reportedly supported under regulation 19 of the Immigration ( European Economic Area ) Regulations 2006 , an EU law which allows a member state to refuse entry to individuals if they are regarded as constituting a threat to public policy , security or health . A Home Office spokesperson elaborated that " The Government opposes extremism in all its forms ... and that was the driving force behind tighter rules on exclusions for unacceptable behaviour that the Home Secretary announced in October last year "
Wilders defied the ban and took a British Midland Airways flight from Amsterdam to London Heathrow Airport on 12 February , accompanied by television crews . Upon arrival , he was quickly detained by UK Border Agency officials , and deported on one of the next flights to the Netherlands . He called Prime Minister Gordon Brown " the biggest coward in Europe " and remarked , " Of course I will come back " . Wilders had visited the United Kingdom in December 2008 without any problem . In response to the ban , both Pearson and Cox accused the government of " appeasing " militant Islam .
The International Herald Tribune stated that the ban was broadly condemned in the British news media . The Dutch Foreign Secretary , Maxime Verhagen , called the decision " highly regrettable " and complained to his British counterpart . Dutch Prime Minister Jan Peter Balkenende complained to Gordon Brown about the " disappointing " decision . The Quilliam Foundation , a British think tank , criticised the ban , as did National Secular Society president Terry Sanderson . The Muslim Labour peer Lord Ahmed expressed support for Smith 's ban on Wilders entering the country ; the Ramadhan Foundation and the Muslim Council of Britain also did so , the council labeling Wilders " an open and relentless preacher of hate " .
= = = Ban overturned = = =
After being declared persona non @-@ grata by Jacqui Smith , then the Home Secretary , in February 2009 , Wilders appealed the decision to Britain 's Asylum and Immigration Tribunal . In October 2009 , the tribunal overturned the ban . Wilders subsequently praised the ruling as " a triumph for freedom of speech " and stated that he plans to visit the United Kingdom in the near future .
The ruling was criticized by the British Home Office , which stated that an appeal of the tribunal 's ruling is being considered . A spokesman stated :
" The Government opposes extremism in all its forms . The decision to refuse Wilders admission was taken on the basis that his presence could have inflamed tensions between our communities and have led to inter @-@ faith violence . We still maintain this view . "
= = = Visits to the UK = = =
On 16 October 2009 , Wilders arrived in the United Kingdom and was quickly forced to move his press conference due to protests by about forty members of the organization Islam4UK , an organization that was later shut down under the UK 's Terrorism Act 2000 on 14 January 2010 . Though the Home Office had asserted that his entry into the country would not be blocked , a spokesman said his " statements and behaviour during a visit will inevitably impact on any future decisions to admit him . " His visit to the UK met with protest , but Wilders called it " a victory " in a press conference . On his outspoken views on Islam , he said : " I have a problem with the Islamic ideology , the Islamic culture , because I feel that the more Islam that we get in our societies the less freedom we get . " He opened the press conference with a quote from George Orwell 's preface to Animal Farm : " If liberty means anything at all , it means the right to tell people what they don 't want to hear " . Lord Pearson , who had invited him , said his arrival was
" a celebration of the victory of freedom of speech over those who would prevent it in this country , particularly the Islamists , the violent Jihadists who are on the march across the world and in the UK . "
In January 2010 , Wilders was invited again to show his anti @-@ Quran movie Fitna in the British House of Lords by Lord Pearson UK Independence Party ( UKIP ) , and cross @-@ bencher Baroness Cox . Wilders accepted the invitation and was present for a showing of the movie in the House of Lords on 5 March . In his speech he quoted ominous words from Winston Churchill 's book The River War from 1899 :
" Mohammedanism is a militant and proselytizing faith . No stronger retrograde force exists in the World . It has already spread throughout Central Africa , raising fearless warriors at every step ... the civilization of modern Europe might fall , as fell the civilization of ancient Rome . "
At the ensuing press conferences , he called the Islamic prophet , Muhammad a " barbarian , a mass murderer , and a pedophile " and referred to Islam as a " fascist ideology " which was " violent , dangerous , and retarded " . Wilders also reportedly called Turkish Prime Minister Erdoğan a " total freak " . Dutch Prime Minister Jan @-@ Peter Balkenende called these comments " irresponsible " , and Maxime Verhagen , Dutch caretaker Minister of Foreign Affairs , publicly condemned Wilders 's remarks and behaviour :
" He incites discord among people in a distasteful manner . And in the meantime he damages the interests of the Dutch population and the reputation of the Netherlands in the world . "
Bernard Wientjes , the president of the Dutch employers ' organization Confederation of Netherlands Industry and Employers ( VNO @-@ NCW ) , also accused Wilders of " seriously " damaging Dutch interests abroad . He called it outrageous that Wilders had presented himself in London as " the next Dutch prime minister " and then derided Turkish Prime Minister Erdoğan . Emphasizing that three quarters of the Dutch GDP comes from revenue earned abroad , according to Wientjes , Wilders poses " a serious threat to the Netherlands and the Dutch economy " .
= = In Australia = =
In 2012 Wilders was invited by the Q Society of Australia to visit Australia . In August 2012 he applied for a visa to give two speeches in October 2012 . His staff and police protection officers were granted visas within three days , but Wilders was not . On 2 October 2012 Immigration Minister Chris Bowen , while stating that Wilders ' views were offensive , stated that he would not block the visa application . Bowen stated :
" I have decided not to intervene to deny him a visa because I believe that our democracy is strong enough , our multiculturalism robust enough and our commitment to freedom of speech entrenched enough that our society can withstand the visit of a fringe commentator from the other side of the world " .
On the same day , the Q Society put out a press release criticizing the delays in issuing a visa , saying that Chris Bowen 's announcement was " too little , too late " and announcing that Wilders ' visit would be pushed back to February 2013 as there were still no visa documents available .
= = In Germany = =
In March 2010 , Wilders was told he is " not welcome " in the western German tourist resort of Monschau in the Eifel area , after he spent a weekend there , along with several armed bodyguards . Mayor Margareta Ritter ( CDU ) said she was concerned that his presence tainted her town with the suspicion that it was sympathetic to his views . As a result , Monschau was said to have been unfairly connected with " extremism " in the European press .
" Anyone who pollutes the integration debate in the Netherlands with poisonous right @-@ wing populism as Wilders has , and advocates prohibition of the Koran by a comparison with Hitler 's Mein Kampf , is not welcome in Monschau . I wanted to distinguish Monschau from that . "
Ritter didn 't say whether Wilders was enjoying a short vacation in her town or had been meeting with like @-@ minded people . A demonstration to support Wilders was announced to take place in Berlin on 17 April .
In October 2010 , Wilders supported the founding of the German Freedom Party .
In April 2015 , Wilders held a speech for Pegida in Dresden .
= = Other international initiatives = =
In July 2010 , Wilders announced the International Freedom Alliance , a network of groups and individuals who " are fighting for freedom against Islam " .
Wilders plans IFA branches in the United States , Canada , Britain , France and Germany by late 2010 . " The message , ' stop Islam , defend freedom ' , is a message that 's not only important for the Netherlands but for the whole free Western world " , Wilders stated in an address to reporters at the Dutch Parliament .
On 6 August 2010 , Wilders , who had become a regular guest with American conservatives and libertarians , announced that he would speak at a rally on 11 September in New York to protest the plans for Park51 , a Muslim community center with a prayer space to be built near the World Trade Center site . The rally , to be held on the ten @-@ year anniversary of the 11 September 2001 attacks , was organised by Stop Islamization of America , which was supported by former House speaker Newt Gingrich , who was originally announced as a speaker at the event , but never confirmed his appearance and cancelled a video appearance . According to SIOA 's website world leaders , prominent politicians and 9 / 11 family members would be speaking at the rally , but Wilders was not mentioned by name , though he did attend as he had announced .
In political circles in The Netherlands , the announcement caused widespread irritation about his plan . Christian Democrat senator Hans Hillen remarked that Wilders ' words could endanger Dutch interests . Former NATO General Secretary Jaap de Hoop Scheffer advised Wilders not to make a speech , arguing that the international public does not know who is in the Dutch cabinet and who is in parliament and thus Wilders ' speech could be mistaken as an official statement of the Dutch government . Also Christian Democrat party leader and acting Dutch Minister of Foreign Affairs Maxime Verhagen issued a warning .
Also , the Dutch Foreign Ministry allegedly would have issued guidelines to its embassies on how to react to questions about the role being played by the PVV and Wilders in the formation of a new government . On 10 August 2010 , the website of Dutch daily newspaper NRC Handelsblad published the ministry memo . The ministry itself however had declined " to confirm or deny " the authenticity of these guidelines . One question posed is how Wilders could be taking part in negotiations on forming a government coalition when he has been indicted for inciting hatred and discrimination , and for insulting a group of persons . Other questions covered possible bans on the building of new mosques , on the Quran and on Islamic schools in the Netherlands . The memo stressed that such bans would breach the Dutch constitution .
Wilders spoke on Thursday , 12 May 2011 , at Cornerstone Church in Madison , Tennessee , at the Tennessee Freedom Coalition inaugural Signature Series event .
In May 2015 , Geert Wilders was invited to an art exhibit presented by Stop Islamization of America in Garland , Texas that offered a $ 10 @,@ 000 prize for the best drawing of Muhammad . Towards the end of the event , two gunmen opened fire outside , injuring a police officer before being shot dead by other police officers guarding the center .
= = Trial = =
Several groups and persons in the Netherlands have called for legal action against Wilders , while others defended his right to free speech . On 15 August 2007 , a representative of the Prosecutors ' Office in Amsterdam declared that dozens of reports against Wilders had been filed , and that they were all being considered . Attempts to prosecute Wilders under Dutch anti @-@ hate speech laws in June 2008 failed , with the public prosecutor 's office stating that Wilders ' comments contributed to the debate on Islam in Dutch society and also had been made outside parliament . The office released a statement reading : " That comments are hurtful and offensive for a large number of Muslims does not mean that they are punishable . Freedom of expression fulfils an essential role in public debate in a democratic society . That means that offensive comments can be made in a political debate . "
On 21 January 2009 , a three @-@ judge court ordered prosecutors to try him .
The Middle East Forum established a Legal Defence Fund for Wilders 's defence . The New York Times ran an op @-@ ed criticizing his views and arguing that " for a man who calls for a ban on the Koran to act as the champion of free speech is a bit rich " , concluding , however that the lawsuit against Wilders might not be " a good thing for democracy " , because it made him " look more important than he should be . "
A survey by Angus Reid Global Monitor found that public opinion is deeply split on the prosecution , with 50 % supporting Wilders and 43 % opposed . However , as of 2009 , public support for the Party for Freedom had greatly increased since Wilders ' legal troubles began , with the Party for Freedom virtually tied with the People 's Party for Freedom and Democracy to be the third most popular party . According to Radio Netherlands , " Dutch politicians themselves seem to be keeping quiet on the issue ; they are probably worried that media attention will only serve to make the controversial politician more popular " .
In late October 2010 , the Dutch court approved a request from Geert Wilders to have new judges appointed forcing the court to retry the case . On 7 February 2011 , Wilders returned to the court room in order that his legal team could present evidence from Islamic experts which the court rejected in 2010 , including Mohammed Bouyeri , who murdered film @-@ maker Theo van Gogh , and Dutch academic Hans Jansen .
On 23 June 2011 , Wilders was acquitted of all charges . A Dutch court said that his speech was legitimate political debate , but on the edge . Because both the public prosecutor and the defence requested complete acquittal , the verdict will most likely not be appealed .
= = Awards and recognition = =
Oriana Fallaci Free Speech Award in 2009
Nominated for Sakharov Prize in 2010
Netherlands Politician of the Year 2010
Netherlands Politician of the Year 2013
Netherlands Politician of the Year 2015
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= 1st Armoured Regiment ( Australia ) =
1st Armoured Regiment is an armoured regiment of the Australian Army and is the senior regiment of the Royal Australian Armoured Corps . Formed as a tank unit in the new Australian Regular Army on 7 July 1949 , the regiment subsequently saw service during the Vietnam War operating Centurion tanks . Currently the unit is based in Darwin as part of the 1st Brigade . As part of the Plan Beersheba reorganisation , the unit will become one of three Armoured Cavalry Regiments ( ACRs ) assigned to the Army 's multirole combat brigades in Brisbane , Darwin and Townsville . Each ACR will be equipped with M1A1 tanks , ASLAV light armoured vehicles , and M113 armoured personnel carriers . As a consequence the tanks currently operated by the unit will be split across each of the three ACRs .
= = History = =
= = = Formation = = =
The 1st Armoured Regiment was raised as a regular unit on 7 July 1949 at Puckapunyal in Victoria when the 1st Armoured Car Squadron , which had returned from occupation duties in Japan a few months earlier , was converted to a tank unit . The formation occurred following the renaming of a reserve unit of the Citizens Military Forces ( CMF ) of the same name , which subsequently became the 1st Royal New South Wales Lancers and its battle honours and history perpetuated by this unit , in order to reallocate the name to the tank regiment that was to be established in the new Australian Regular Army . At first only one squadron strong , planning commenced to expand to full strength as soon as possible under the command of Major Cecil Ives . Formal affiliation with the Royal Tank Regiment ( RTR ) was recognised two years later and the regiment adopted their regimental colours of Brown , Red and Green , which date back to the Battle of Cambrai during the First World War in 1917 . These same colours had also been used by the Australian Tank Corps prior to the Second World War .
Initially the new regiment was equipped with Churchill tanks , although this was only a temporary measure until Centurion tanks could be acquired . However , due to the perceived unsuitability of the Churchill and the late arrival of the new platform , the regiment was not deployed as part of Australia 's commitment to the Korean War , although a number of officers served on exchange with British and US formations and the unit provided machine @-@ gunners and signalers to Australian infantry battalions as reinforcements . The first Centurions finally began arriving in June 1952 , with the regiment receiving 39 tanks . With the numbers of regular personnel steadily growing , it was possible to raise Regimental Headquarters , Headquarters Squadron and B Squadron , and the regiment was fully raised by 8 September 1952 under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Stuart Graham .
Meanwhile , in September 1952 another tank squadron was raised . This was known as Nucleus Squadron and , based in Holsworthy , New South Wales , with the purpose of forming the basis of a second tank unit which was to be named the 2nd Armoured Regiment . In 1954 the regiment received it first Ferret MK 1 Scout Car , enabling the raising of Reconnaissance Troop . The following year 1st Armoured Regiment received the Saracen Armoured Personnel Carrier , and it was at this time that the intention to form another tank unit was abandoned , and Nucleus Squadron subsequently returned to the regiment as its third squadron , designated C Squadron .
On 6 February 1956 , the then Governor General , Field Marshal Sir William Slim , presented the regiment with its Guidon at a Regimental Parade held in Puckapunyal . Also in 1956 the regiment was equipped with the Centurion armoured recovery vehicle , allowing the retirement of the Churchill recovery vehicle . Following the expansion of the Royal Australian Armoured Corps ( RAAC ) in 1960 , A Squadron was disbanded , reducing the regiment to two squadrons , and the majority of its personnel formed regular squadrons in the 4th / 19th Prince of Wales ' Light Horse and the 2nd / 14th Light Horse ( Queensland Mounted Infantry ) , which were predominantly CMF formations . These squadrons subsequently became part of the 1st Cavalry Regiment , which was later redesignated the 2nd Cavalry Regiment and in turn provided the nucleus for the newly raised 3rd Cavalry Regiment .
= = = Vietnam War = = =
During 1964 – 65 the regiment provided most of the men for 1 Troop , A Squadron , 4th / 19th Prince of Wales Light Horse , which was subsequently equipped with the new M113A1 Armoured Personnel Carrier and was deployed on active service to South Vietnam in May 1965 . In October 1967 the Australian government announced it would increase the size of the 1st Australian Task Force ( 1 ATF ) at Nui Dat in Phuoc Tuy Province from two to three infantry battalions , while additional supporting arms , including a tank squadron would also be added to the force . As such in February 1968 , C Squadron was sent to Vietnam , with a total strength of 20 Centurion tanks which would work closely with the M113s of the 3rd Cavalry Regiment . However , two of the four tank troops were initially held back until the Centurions had proved themselves capable of operating in the conditions . The tank squadron reached full strength on 5 September 1968 . Meanwhile , in May the regiment had again reached full strength , with A Squadron re @-@ raised in order to meet the ongoing operational commitment .
Over the next four years all three of the regiment 's operational squadrons eventually served in Vietnam , providing invaluable close support to the infantry , particularly during the clearance of Viet Cong bunker systems . Although their value in Vietnam was originally questioned by some , they proved a powerful weapon in both offence and defence , and were responsible for limiting infantry casualties . The Centurions were able to move through the countryside more easily than expected and although they were vulnerable to anti @-@ tank weapons and mines , their firepower and shock action had a decisive effect on the battlefield . In late @-@ May 1968 the tanks played a significant role in the Battle of Coral – Balmoral . Occupying blocking positions in an attempt to thwart an impending communist offensive aimed at influencing the peace @-@ talks , 1ATF deployed two battalions away from its base in Phuoc Tuy , subsequently developing Fire Support Base Coral north @-@ east of Saigon , just east of Lai Khe on 12 May .
Following several regimental @-@ sized assaults on Coral which were successfully repelled by the Australians with heavy casualties on both sides , 1ATF moved to establish Fire Support Base Balmoral on 24 – 25 May , 6 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 7 mi ) north of Coral . The infantry were this time supported by Centurion tanks which had been called forward by road from Nui Dat and had arrived just hours before Balmoral was subjected to a two battalion attack . Following a very accurate rocket and mortar barrage at 03 : 45 hours on 26 May , the base was assaulted by North Vietnamese infantry . The attack was repelled with heavy casualties by the combined firepower of the tanks and infantry . The next day the Australians at Coral assaulted a number of bunkers located just outside the base , with a troop of Centurions supported by infantry destroying the bunkers and their occupants without loss . A second attack , again of regimental strength , was made against Balmoral at 02 : 30 hours on 28 May but was called off after only 30 minutes . The North Vietnamese were soundly defeated — again by the supporting fires of tanks , artillery and mortars — leaving 55 dead and resulted in six prisoners . Australian losses were one killed and six wounded . This performance demonstrated the advantage of using armour in Vietnam , and whereas before the battle some infantry had doubted the usefulness or necessity of the Centurions , after the battle the infantry did not like working without them .
In February 1969 , C Squadron was relieved by B Squadron . On 6 – 7 June , B Squadron was involved in a fierce action during the Battle of Binh Ba , a village 5 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) north of Nui Dat . The attack began on the morning of 6 June when Australian tanks and APCs advanced with infantry from D Company , 5th Battalion , Royal Australian Regiment ( 5 RAR ) towards the village which was being occupied by the Viet Cong and North Vietnamese . As the battle continued , B Company , 5 RAR took up a blocking position to prevent them from escaping . During fierce urban fighting the infantry were forced to clear each house , while the Communist troops occupying the houses fired on them from the windows and doorways before retreating into tunnels as the Australians passed . Each time the infantry were fired on , the tanks would blast a hole in the wall of the building , through which small teams could then enter and clear the structure of any opposition . The fighting continued throughout the afternoon , and resumed the next day before the Australians successfully cleared the village , the bulk of which was destroyed . One Australian was killed and 10 wounded , while communist losses included at least 107 killed , six wounded and eight captured .
In December 1969 B Squadron was re @-@ designated A Squadron , while in December 1970 A Squadron was in turn re @-@ designated C Squadron . By late @-@ 1970 Australia was beginning to reduce its commitment to the war and the size of 1ATF was again reduced from three infantry battalions to two . The tanks , however , continued operations and were involved in heavy fighting at Long Khanh on 6 – 7 June 1971 , as well as numerous smaller actions . The last elements of the regiment were subsequently withdrawn from Vietnam in September 1971 . A total of 58 Centurions had served in Vietnam ; 42 had suffered battle damage , of which six were beyond repair , while two crewmen had been killed in action .
= = = Post @-@ Vietnam to the present = = =
The following years were traumatic for the regiment , and for the Australian Army , with the abolition of National Service after the end of Australian involvement in Vietnam depleting its strength to the point where training was severely restricted until it was reinforced during 1974 . B Squadron was re @-@ designated as the Medium Tank Trials Unit in 1972 and subsequently carried out extensive user and technical trials to evaluate the replacement for the ageing Centurions . In 1977 the Centurion was replaced in service by the Leopard 1 , which had been selected over the American built M60 Patton . On 21 April 1981 , the Colonel @-@ in @-@ Chief of the RAAC , HRH The Prince of Wales , presented the unit with its first Regimental Standard . In 1995 the 1st Armoured Regiment moved from Puckapunyal to Darwin .
On 13 July 2002 , the regiment was presented with its current Standard by the then Governor General , Dr. Peter Hollingworth . On 26 July 2007 , after 31 years of service the Leopard was replaced by 59 M1A1 Abrams AIM , with 41 being delivered to the regiment and the remaining vehicles issued to the School of Armour for use for training purposes . Seven M88A2 Hercules Armoured Recovery Vehicles were also acquired , two being delivered to the regiment . The Leopards never saw operational service , although during the 1999 East Timor crisis the regiment was placed on standby to deploy in the event the conflict escalated , while the regiment was not deployed during Australia 's involvement in the 2003 invasion of Iraq . Members of the unit later deployed to Iraq and Afghanistan as Bushmaster PMV crews , while others have also served in East Timor and the Solomon Islands . During this period the regiment was the only main battle tank unit in the Australian Army and was based at Robertson Barracks , in Darwin . Until 2013 it provided the basis for one of three battlegroups within the mechanised 1st Brigade , which included two mechanised infantry battalions , one cavalry regiment , one tank regiment , and a medium artillery regiment .
However , as part of the Plan Beersheba reorganisation , the unit will become one of three Armoured Cavalry Regiments ( ACRs ) assigned to the Army 's multirole combat brigades in Brisbane , Darwin and Townsville . Each ACR will be equipped with M1A1 tanks , ASLAV light armoured vehicles , and M113 armoured personnel carriers . Under the reforms announced in 2011 and confirmed in the 2013 Defence White Paper , the three Regular Army brigades will be restructured between 2014 and 2017 into three Combat Brigades with a similar structure and capabilities , each consisting of : a Brigade Headquarters , an Armoured Cavalry Regiment , two Standard Infantry Battalions , an Artillery Regiment , a Combat Engineer Regiment , a Combat Service Support Battalion and a Combat Signals Regiment . As a consequence the tanks currently operated by the unit will be split across each of the three ACRs . In 2015 it was reported that the Darwin @-@ based elements of the 1st Armoured Regiment may be transferred to South Australia .
= = Organisation = =
As of 2012 , the regiment was organised as follows :
Headquarters Squadron ;
Two Sabre Squadrons ( A and B ) — each with three tank troops , total of 14 M1A1 Abrams ( two MBTs are attached to Squadron HQ and each troop operates four MBTs ) ;
Technical Support Squadron .
However , the unit is currently in the process of reorganising as an ACR . Each ACR is expected to adopt the following structure : a headquarters , one tank squadron , one cavalry squadron , one armoured personnel carrier squadron , and a combat service support squadron .
= = Battle honours = =
Vietnam War : Coral – Balmoral , Hat Dich , Binh Ba , Vietnam 1965 – 72 .
= = Alliances = =
United Kingdom — Royal Tank Regiment
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= 1905 Tour de France =
The 1905 Tour de France was the third Tour de France , held from 9 to 30 July 1905 , organized by the newspaper L 'Auto . Following the disqualifications after the 1904 Tour de France , there were changes in the rules , the most important one being the general classification not made by time but by points . The race saw the introduction of mountains in the Tour de France , and René Pottier excelled in the first mountain , although he could not finish the race . Due in part to some of the rule changes , the 1905 Tour de France had less cheating and sabotage than in previous years , though they were not completely eliminated . It was won by Louis Trousselier , who also won four of the eleven stages .
= = Changes from the 1904 Tour de France = =
After the 1904 Tour de France , some cyclists were disqualified , most notably the top four cyclists of the original overall classification , Maurice Garin , Lucien Pothier , César Garin and Hippolyte Aucouturier . Maurice Garin was originally banned for two years and Pothier for life , so they were ineligible to start the 1905 Tour de France . Of these four , only Aucouturier ( who had been " warned " and had a " reprimand inflicted " on him ) , started the 1905 Tour . They were disqualified by the Union Vélocipédique Française , based on accusations of cheating when there were no race officials around . In 1904 Tour , it was difficult to observe the cyclists continuously , as significant portions of the race were run overnight , and the long stages made it difficult to have officials everywhere .
Because these disqualifications had almost put an end to the Tour de France , the 1905 event had been changed in important ways , to make the race easier to supervise :
The stages were shortened so that no night riding occurred .
The number of stages increased to 11 stages , almost double from the previous year .
The winner was selected on points , not time .
The first cyclist to cross the finish line received 1 point . Other cyclists received one point more than the cyclist who passed the line directly before him , plus an additional point for every five minutes between them , with a maximum of ten points . In this way , a cyclist could not get more than 11 points more than the cyclist that crossed the finish line just before him .
As an example for this point system , the result for the first seven cyclists in the first stage is in this table :
The other important introduction were the mountains . One of Desgrange 's staffers , Alphonse Steinès , took Desgrange for a trip over the Col Bayard at 1 @,@ 246 metres ( 4 @,@ 088 ft ) and the Ballon d 'Alsace at 1 @,@ 178 metres ( 3 @,@ 865 ft ) , that had an average gradient of 5 @.@ 2 % with 10 % at some places , to convince Desgrange to use these climbs in the route . Desgrange accepted it , saying that Steinès would take the blame if the mountains would be too hard to climb . In the two previous editions , the highest point was the Col de la République at 1 @,@ 145 metres ( 3 @,@ 757 ft ) . In 1905 , Desgrange chose to overlook this , and focused instead on the introduction of the Ballon d 'Alsace , because he saw that he had missed the opportunity for publicity previously .
There were two categories of riders , the coureurs de vitesse and the coureurs sur machines poinçonnées . The riders in the first category were allowed to change bicycles , which could be an advantage in the mountains , where they could use a bicycle with lower gears . The riders in the machines poinçonnées category had to use the same bicycle in the entire race , and to verify this , their bicycles were marked .
= = Participants = =
Before the race started , 78 riders had signed up for the race . Eighteen of those did not start the race , so the Tour began with 60 riders , including former winner Henri Cornet and future winners René Pottier and Lucien Petit @-@ Breton . The riders were not grouped in teams , but most of them rode with an individual sponsor . Two of the cyclists — Catteau and Lootens — were Belgian , all other cyclists were French . Leading up to the start of the Tour , Wattelier , Trousselier , Pottier and Augereau were all considered the most likely contenders to win the event .
= = Race details = =
Despite the rule changes , there were still protesters among the spectators ; in the first stage all riders except Jean @-@ Baptiste Dortignacq punctured due to 125 kg of nails spread along the road . The first stage was won by Louis Trousselier . Trousselier was serving the army , and had requested his commander leave for the Tour de France ; this was allowed for 24 hours . After he won the first stage and led the classification , his leave was extended until the end of the Tour . From 60 starting cyclists , only 15 cyclists reached the finish line within the time limit ; 15 more reached the finish after the limit and the rest took the train . The Tour organizer Desgrange wanted to stop the race , but was persuaded by the cyclists not to do so , and allowed all cyclists to continue with 75 points .
In the second stage , the first major climb , the Ballon d ’ Alsace , made its debut . Four riders were the fastest climbers : Trousselier , René Pottier , Cornet and Aucouturier . Of those four , Trousselier and Aucouturier were the first to be dropped , and Cornet had to drop in the final kilometers . The top was therefore reached first by René Pottier , without dismounting , at an average speed of 20 km / h . Cornet , who reached the top second , had to wait 20 minutes for his bicycle with higher gear , because his support car had broken down . Later Aucouturier caught Pottier , and dropped him , and won the stage . Pottier became second in the stage and led the classification . Seven cyclists did not reach the finish in time , but they were again allowed to start the next stage .
In the third stage , Pottier had to abandon due to tendinitis . The lead was back with Trousselier , who also won the stage .
In the fourth stage , the Côte de Laffrey and the Col Bayard were climbed , the second and third mountains of the Tour de France . Julien Maitron reached both tops first , but Aucouturier won the stage . Trousselier finished in second place , still leading the overall classification , although with the same number of points as Aucouturier .
In the fifth stage , Trousselier won , and because Aucouturier finished in twelfth place , Trousselier had a big lead in the general classification . After the fifth stage , Aucouturier could no longer challenge Trousselier for the lead .
In the seventh stage to Bordeaux , Trousselier punctured after only a few kilometers . The rest of the cyclists quickly sped away from him , and Trousselier had to follow them alone for 200 km . A few kilometers before Bordeaux , Trousselier caught up with the rest , and even managed to win the sprint . Louis Trousselier kept his lead until the end of the race , winning five stages . Trousselier was accused of bad sportsmanship : he reportedly smashed the inkstands of a control post to prevent his opponents from signing . Unlike the 1904 Tour de France , no stage winners , nor anyone from the top ten of the general classification , were disqualified .
= = Results = =
= = = Stage results = = =
In the first and last stage , the cyclists were allowed to use pacers . All the 11 stages were won by only three cyclists :
= = = General classification = = =
The cyclists officially were not grouped in teams ; some cyclists had the same sponsor , even though they were not allowed to work together .
= = = Other classifications = = =
Pautrat was the winner of the coureurs sur machines poinçonnées category , having used the same bicycle through the whole event .
The organising newspaper L 'Auto named René Pottier the meilleur grimpeur . This unofficial title is the precursor to the mountains classification .
= = Aftermath = =
The tour organizers liked the effect of the points system , and it remained active until the 1912 Tour de France , after which it was reverted to the time system . In 1953 , for the 50 @-@ years anniversary of the Tour de France , the points system was reintroduced as the points classification , and the winner was given a green jersey . This points classification has been active ever since .
The introduction of mountains in the Tour de France had also been successful . After the introduction of the Vosges in the 1905 Tour de France , in 1906 the Massif Central were climbed , followed by the Pyrenees in 1910 and the Alps in 1911 .
The winner Trousselier received 6950 Francs for his victory . The night after he won , he drank and gambled with friends , and lost all the money . In later years , Trousselier would not win a Tour de France again , but he still won eight more stages and finished on the podium in the next year . The unofficial mountain champion of the 1905 Tour de France , Pottier , would be more successful in the next year , when he won the overall classification and five stages .
For L 'Auto , the newspaper that organized the Tour de France , the race was a success ; the circulation had increased to 100 @,@ 000 .
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= Géza , Grand Prince of the Hungarians =
Géza ( c . 940 – 997 ) , also Gejza , was Grand Prince of the Hungarians from the early 970s . He was the son of Grand Prince Taksony and his Oriental — Khazar , Pecheneg or Volga Bulgarian — wife . He married Sarolt , a daughter of an Orthodox Hungarian chieftain . After ascending the throne , Géza made peace with the Holy Roman Empire . Within Hungary , he consolidated his authority with extreme cruelty , according to the unanimous narration of nearly contemporaneous sources . He was the first Hungarian monarch to support Christian missionaries from Western Europe . Although he was baptised ( his baptismal name was Stephen ) , his Christian faith remained shallow and continued to perform acts of pagan worship . He was succeeded by his son , Stephen who was crowned the first King of Hungary in 1000 or 1001 .
= = Early life = =
Géza was the elder son of Taksony , Grand Prince of the Hungarians . His mother was his father 's wife " from the land of the Cumans " , according to the anonymous author of the Gesta Hungarorum . This anachronistic reference to the Cumans suggests that she was of Khazar , Pecheneg or Volga Bulgarian origin . The Byzantine Emperor Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus , who listed the descendants of Grand Prince Árpád around 950 , did not mention Géza . Even so , Gyula Kristó wrote that Géza was born around 940 and the emperor ignored him because of his youth . The genuine form of his name was either " Gyeücsa " or " Gyeusa " , which is possibly a diminutive form of the Turkic title yabgu . Géza 's father arranged his marriage with Sarolt — a daughter of a Hungarian chieftain called Gyula , who ruled Transylvania independently of the grand prince and had converted to Christianity in Constantinople . Sarolt seems to have also adhered to Orthodox Christianity , according to Bruno of Querfurt 's remark on her " languid and muddled Christianity " .
= = Reign = =
Géza succeeded his father around 972 . He adopted a centralizing policy , which gave rise to his fame as a merciless ruler . The longer version of his son 's Life even states that Géza 's hands were " defiled with blood " . Pál Engel wrote that Géza carried out a " large @-@ scale purge " against his relatives , which explains the lack of references to other members of the Árpád dynasty from around 972 . Koppány , who continued to rule the southern parts of Transdanubia , is the only exception to this dearth of references . A marriage alliance between the German and Byzantine dynasties brought about a rapproachement between the two powers neighboring Hungary in 972 . Géza decided to make peace with the Holy Roman Empire . First , a monk named Bruno sent by Otto I , Holy Roman Emperor arrived in Hungary around 972 . Hungarian " legates " were present at a conference held by the emperor in Quedlinburg in 973 .
Geyza , who was strict and cruel , acting in a domineering way , as it were , with his own people , but compassionate and generous with strangers , especially with Christians , although [ he was ] still entangled in the rite of paganism . At the approach of the light of spiritual grace , he began to discuss peace attentively with all the neighboring provinces ... Moreover , he laid down a rule that the favor of hospitality and security be shown to all Christians wishing to enter to his domains . He gave clerics and monks leave to enter his presence ; he offered them a willing hearing , and delighted them in the germination of the seed of true faith sown in the garden of his heart .
A record on one Bishop Prunwart in the Abbey of Saint Gall mentions his success in baptising many Hungarians , including their " king " . The nearly contemporaneous Thietmar of Merseburg confirms that the conversion to Christianity of the pagan Hungarians started under Géza , who became the first Christian ruler of Hungary . His baptismal name was Stephen . However , Géza continued to observe pagan cults , which proves that his conversion to Christianity was never complete . Kristó and other historians have said that the first Roman Catholic diocese in Hungary , with its seat in Veszprém , was set up in Géza 's reign , but their view has not been unanimously accepted . A charter issued during his son 's reign states that Géza was the founder of the Benedictine Pannonhalma Archabbey .
[ Géza ] was very cruel and killed many people because of his quick temper . When he became a Christian , however , he turned his rage against his reluctant subjects , in order to strengthen this faith . Thus , glowing with zeal for God , he washed away his old crimes . He sacrificed both to the omnipotent God and to various false gods . When reproached by his priest for doing so , however , he maintained that the practice had brought him both wealth and great power .
Taking advantage of internal conflicts which emerged in the Holy Roman Empire after Emperor Otto I 's death , Géza invaded Bavaria and took the fortress of Melk in 983 . In 991 , the Bavarians launched a counter @-@ attack which forced Géza to withdraw Hungarian forces from the territories east of the Vienna Woods . Furthermore , he renounced the lands east of the river Leitha in his peace treaty of 996 with Henry IV of Bavaria . Géza also arranged the marriage of his son and heir Stephen to Henry IV 's sister Giselle . Even before this marriage alliance , Géza convoked the Hungarian leaders to an assembly and forced them to take an oath confirming his son 's right to succeed him .
= = Family = =
Sarolt gave birth to at least three of Géza 's children ; Stephen , who succeeded his father on the throne , and two unnamed daughters . Sarolt survived Géza , which suggests that she was also the mother of Géza 's daughters . Based on the Polish @-@ Hungarian Chronicle , Szabolcs de Vajay wrote that the daughters ' mother was Géza 's alleged second wife Adelaide ( Adleta ) of Poland , but this has not been widely accepted . The following family tree presents Géza 's ancestry and his offspring .
* Whether Menumorut is an actual or an invented person is debated by modern scholars . * * A Khazar , Pecheneg or Volga Bulgarian lady . * * * Samuel Aba might have been Géza 's grandson instead of his son @-@ in @-@ law . * * * * The Aba family descending from them still flourished in the 14th century .
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= Mycena purpureofusca =
Mycena purpureofusca , commonly known as the purple edge bonnet , is a species of agaric fungus in the family Mycenaceae . First described by Charles Horton Peck in 1885 , the species is found in Europe and North America , where it grows on the decaying wood and debris of conifers , including cones . Fruit bodies have conical to bell @-@ shaped purple caps up to 2 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 in ) set atop slender stipes up to 10 cm ( 4 in ) long . The mushroom is named for the characteristic dark greyish @-@ purple color of its gill edges . In the field , M. purpureofusca mushrooms can usually be distinguished from similar species by characteristics such as the dark purple gill edges , the deep purple cap center , and its cartilagineous consistency . The fungus contains a laccase enzyme that has been investigated scientifically for its potential to detoxify recalcitrant industrial dyes used in textile dyeing and printing processes .
= = Taxonomy = =
The species was first described as Agaricus purpureofuscus by American mycologist Charles Horton Peck in 1885 . The type collection was made in Caroga , New York , from a moss @-@ covered trunk of spruce . Pier Andrea Saccardo transferred it to Mycena in 1887 , giving it the name by which it is currently known . William Alphonso Murrill moved it to Prunulus in 1916 , but this genus has since been subsumed in Mycena . In 1879 , Petter Karsten described a collection made in Scandinavia as Mycena atromarginata var. fuscopurpurea , but Rudolph Arnold Maas Geesteranus later placed this in synonymy with M. purpureofusca . Another synonym , according to Maas Geesteranus , is Mycena sulcata , described by Josef Velenovský in 1920 from Czechoslovakia .
Alexander H. Smith classified the species in section Calodontes , subsection Ciliatae of Mycena in his 1947 monograph on North American Mycena . Rolf Singer put it in the section Rubromarginata in his 1986 The Agaricales in Modern Taxonomy , a group characterized by having distinct red marginate gills . The specific epithet purpureofuscus combines the Latin words purpur ( purple ) and fusco ( dark or dusky ) . It is commonly known as the " purple edge bonnet " .
= = Description = =
The cap is conical to bell @-@ shaped , flattening in age , and reaches a diameter of 0 @.@ 5 – 2 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 2 – 1 @.@ 0 in ) . The cap margin is usually bent inwards initially . The cap surface is initially covered with tiny white hairs , but later becomes smooth . It is slightly hygrophanous , and when moist , is slightly translucent , so that the outline of the gills underneath are apparent . Its color is dark purple in the center , fading to pale lilac at the margins ; older specimens are purplish @-@ gray . The flesh is thin and pliant , with a texture similar to cartilage . It is initially purplish @-@ gray , becoming pale lilac to white in age . The odor and taste of the flesh are not distinctive . The narrow gills have an ascending attachment to the stipe and are narrowly adnate . They are somewhat closely spaced , with pallid to grayish face color and dark grayish purple edges that are sometimes fringed . The tubular stipe measures 3 – 10 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 – 3 @.@ 9 in ) long by 1 – 2 mm thick . It is tough and cartilaginous , and its base it covered with white hairs . Overall , its color is that of the cap or paler , and often paler near the top . The edibility of the mushroom is unknown .
Spores are broadly ellipsoid in shape , amyloid , and have dimensions of either 8 – 10 by 6 – 7 µm or 10 – 14 by 6 @.@ 7 – 8 @.@ 5 µm depending on whether they originated from four @-@ or two @-@ spored basidia ( spore @-@ bearing cells ) , respectively . There are abundant cheilocystidia on the gill edges . They measure 30 – 50 by 7 – 12 µm , and are fusoid @-@ ventricose , with tips that are broadly rounded . They are filled with a purplish sap and have granular contents . The cap tissue comprises a well @-@ differentiated cuticle , a distinct hypoderm , and a filamentous tramal body . Clamp connections in the hyphae are rare or absent .
= = = Similar species = = =
Field characteristics that help to distinguish Mycena purpureofusca from similar species include the dark purple gill edges , the deep purple cap center , and its cartilagineous consistency . M. californiensis ( formerly M. elegantula ) is similar , but has gill edges colored rosy to vinaceous @-@ brown , and its cap is browner than that of M. purpureofusca . It has an orange to orange @-@ brown cap , a stipe the exudes red juice when injured , and grows in lead litter under oaks . Mitchel and Smith noted that there was considerable intergradation between the two species . The bioluminescent fungus M. lux @-@ coeli is another allied species , but it has smaller spores ( 8 @.@ 5 – 12 by 6 @.@ 5 – 9 µm ) and its cystidia are more lobed . Another similar " bleeding " Mycena is M. haematopus , which usually grows in clusters on rotting wood . In his original protologue , Peck mentioned that he considered the species closely related to M. rubromarginata , but could be distinguished by its darker color and " non @-@ hygrophanous striate pileus . " Microscopically , M. rubromarginata differs from M. purpureofusca in having abundant clamp connections and narrow necks on the cheilocystidia .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
The fruit bodies of Mycena purpureofusca grow singly or in clusters on the decaying wood of conifers , particularly spruce , pine , and Douglas @-@ fir . It is commonly found on decaying pine cones . In a European study , the fungus was found growing on logs in a state of decay where the wood was mostly hard , with most of the bark left , to wood that had decayed to the point that it was mostly soft throughout .
In North America , the fungus has been recorded in North Carolina , Tennessee , New York , Michigan , Montana , Idaho , Washington , Oregon , California , Virginia , and South Dakota . In Canada , it has been found in Ontario . Smith noted that collections from Michigan are likely to be found on old hemlock knots lying in the soil , where it usually fruits singly ; it tends to grow in clusters on logs and stumps . In Europe , it has been recorded from Britain , Scotland , the Czech Republic , Poland , Germany , and Turkey . In the UK , the fungus is commonly found in Caledonian pine woods , and it is considered an indicator species for that habitat type .
= = Research = =
Mycena purpureofusca has been investigated for its potential to decolorize industrial dyes . These dyes , used in textile dyeing and printing processes , are difficult to degrade due to their highly structured organic compounds and pose a major environmental threat . The fungus mycelium produces high levels of laccase , an oxidoreductase enzyme . Laccases are widely used in biotechnology and industry due to their ability to break down various recalcitrant compounds . M. purpureofusca laccase efficiently breaks down Remazol Brilliant Blue R , an industrially important dye that is frequently used as a starting material in the production of polymeric dyes . A Chinese group purified the enzyme and described its biochemical characteristics in a 2013 publication .
Strobilurin A has been isolated from the fruit bodies . Strobilurins have fungicidal activities and well known for their broad fungicidal spectrum , low toxicity against mammalian cells , and environmentally benign characteristics .
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= 1995 North Indian Ocean cyclone season =
The 1995 North Indian Ocean cyclone season was below @-@ average and was primarily confined to the autumn months , with the exception of three short @-@ lived deep depressions in May . There were eight depressions in the basin , which is Indian Ocean north of the equator . The basin is subdivided between the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea on the east and west coasts of India , respectively . Storms were tracked by the India Meteorological Department ( IMD ) , which is the basin 's Regional Specialized Meteorological Center , as well as the American @-@ based Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) on an unofficial basis .
Tropical activity was largely affected by the monsoon trough , which spawned the three deep depressions in May , as well as the two strongest cyclones in November . The first storm of the season formed on May 5 in the Bay of Bengal , the same location as two additional depressions later in the month . Collectively , the three systems killed 146 people , mostly related to the third system which produced a deadly storm surge in Bangladesh . After two weak depressions in September , the season 's lone Arabian Sea storm developed on October 12 , and remained largely away from land . The final two storms of the season were the most notable . On November 10 , a cyclone struck southeastern India , killing 173 people in India and Bangladesh . Its remnants produced a rare snowstorm in eastern Nepal that caused landslides and avalanches , killing 63 . The last storm of the season was also the most powerful , causing 172 deaths when it struck southeastern Bangladesh .
= = Season summary = =
The India Meteorological Department ( IMD ) in New Delhi – the official Regional Specialized Meteorological Center for the northern Indian Ocean as recognized by the World Meteorological Organization – issued warnings for tropical cyclones developing in the region , using satellite imagery and surface data to assess and predict storms . The agency also utilized a tropical cyclone forecast model that used climatology and a storm 's persistence to forecast future movement . Warnings and advisories were broadcast throughout India by telegraph and news media . The basin 's activity is sub @-@ divided between the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal on opposite coasts of India , and is generally split before and after the monsoon season . Storms were also tracked on an unofficial basis by the American @-@ based Joint Typhoon Warning Center .
The JTWC only tracked the longer @-@ lived and stronger cyclonic storms , which all formed after September ; by their assessment , this was the fifth such occurrence since 1975 where all storms developed in the autumn . Throughout the year , tropical systems generally lasted longer than in 1994 . The systems that affected land generally struck Andhra Pradesh and eastward through Bangladesh . The three cyclonic storms was less than the average of 5 @.@ 4 , and the two severe cyclonic storms was slightly below the average of 2 @.@ 5 . In addition to the storms tracked by the IMD , a monsoon depression struck northern Oman in late July , producing heavy rainfall that totaled 300 mm ( 12 in ) on Jebel Shams mountain . The system later affected the remainder of the Arabian Peninsula .
= = Storms = =
= = = May deep depressions = = =
During two weeks in the middle of May , a series of three deep depressions developed in unusual succession in the western Bay of Bengal .
Originating from the monsoon trough , a low pressure area formed just north of Sri Lanka on May 5 . By 21 : 00 UTC that night , the system organized into a depression while moving west @-@ northwestward toward India . It developed a central dense overcast of deep convection , prompting the IMD to upgrade it to a 55 km / h ( 35 mph ) deep depression . Still associated with the monsoon , the system had several small circulations and gale force winds . At 11 : 00 UTC on May 6 , the system moved ashore Tamil Nadu near Cuddalore , and by the next day degenerated into a remnant low . The second deep depression formed on May 8 about 120 km ( 75 mi ) southeast of the Andhra Pradesh coastline , north of the previous system . It moved to the northeast , intensifying into a 55 km / h ( 35 mph ) deep depression on May 9 . At 17 : 00 UTC that day , the system struck Andhra Pradesh near Tuni as it progressed northward , degenerating into a remnant low on May 10 . The third deep depression was also the longest lasting . It formed on May 14 off the coast of Odisha , northeast of the previous system . Moving parallel to the coast , it also intensified into a 55 km / h ( 35 mph ) deep depression on May 15 . Early the next day , the system made landfall on Sagar Island in West Bengal state , and weakened while progressing northeastward into Bangladesh . On May 18 , the depression was downgraded to a remnant low over Assam state .
The series of storms helped end a drought in eastern India by bringing heavy monsoonal rainfall . The first system brought heavy rainfall to Tamil Nadu and neighboring Andhra Pradesh , while the second storm mainly dropped rainfall in the latter state . The third system brought precipitation to Odisha , West Bengal , and Bangladesh ; Bhubaneswar in Odisha reported 567 mm ( 22 @.@ 3 in ) of rainfall over six days . The rains resulted in flooding and damages to crops , while wrecking dozens of homes . Collectively , the storms killed 86 people in India .
In Bangladesh , the third storm produced a 3 m ( 10 ft ) storm surge and heavy rainfall , reaching 147 mm ( 5 @.@ 8 in ) over 24 hours in Chittagong . About 100 @,@ 000 people evacuated their houses to storm shelters due to the floods , while another 100 @,@ 000 were stranded in their homes due to floods . Many embankment dams were damaged , furthering flooding . On Hatia Island , the storm wrecked over 5 @,@ 000 homes and 10 @,@ 000 ha ( 25 @,@ 000 acres ) of crops , with salt and shrimp farms in the region also destroyed . A 1 @.@ 8 m ( 6 ft ) storm tide flooded dozens of villages around Cox 's Bazar , destroying about 1 @,@ 000 houses . Two bridges were destroyed , severing traffic between Cox 's Bazar and Chittagong . In the latter city , 20 @,@ 125 houses were damaged or destroyed . Over 60 @,@ 000 people were left homeless in the country , and there were 60 deaths related to the storm . However , the rains also helped end a damaging five @-@ month drought in the country . The government provided wheat and cash to affected residents to help cope with the disaster . After the storm moved through the area , most freshwater ponds were intruded by saltwater , furthering damage to crops and causing a shortage of drinking water . About 50 @,@ 000 people became ill after drinking contaminated water , killing around 400 people due to a diarrhea outbreak .
= = = Depression BOB 04 ( 01B ) = = =
On September 9 , a tropical depression formed in the South China Sea in the west Pacific basin . Two days later , the system struck Vietnam and progressed westward through Indochina . The remnants entered the Bay of Bengal around September 13 , accompanied by increasing convection . Moving to the west @-@ northwest , the system resembled a monsoon depression at times , although the thunderstorms gradually became more concentrated . On September 16 , the system developed into a depression , and on the same day the JTWC classified it as Tropical Cyclone 01B . As the system approached the Indian coastline , it developed good outflow , and was intensifying quickly . The JTWC estimated peak 1 minute winds of 85 km / h ( 50 mph ) at 18 : 00 UTC on September 16 . However , the IMD never assessed winds beyond 45 km / h ( 30 mph ) . Around 01 : 00 UTC on September 17 , the depression moved ashore India near Balasore , Odisha . That night , the system degenerated into a remnant low over Bihar , although the remnants persisted until September 20 , when they dissipated near Delhi . The depression brought heavy rainfall over Odisha and Bihar .
= = = Depression BOB 05 = = =
Later in September , another depression formed on September 26 in the northwestern Bay of Bengal . Moving northwestward , it quickly moved ashore near Balasore , Odisha , failing to intensify beyond winds of 85 km / h ( 50 mph ) . A ridge turned the system to the northeast , and the depression dissipated on September 28 over West Bengal . The depression brought heavy rainfall to Odisha , Bihar , and West Bengal , peaking at 570 mm ( 22 in ) in Malda district in West Bengal .
= = = Cyclonic Storm ARB 01 ( 02A ) = = =
A low pressure area accompanied by a well @-@ defined circulation persisted over central India on October 11 . By the following day , the system emerged into the Arabian Sea , whereupon its convection organized west of a sheared circulation . On October 12 , the system organized into a depression , classified Tropical Cyclone 02A by the JTWC . Steered by a ridge , it moved to the west @-@ northwest and gradually intensified . The IMD upgraded it to a cyclonic storm on October 14 , estimating peak 3 minute winds of 85 km / h ( 50 mph ) . The JTWC assessed slightly higher 1 minute winds of 95 km / h ( 60 mph ) . Increased wind shear stripped away the convection , causing the storm to weaken . By October 17 , the system deteriorated into a depression and began drifting to the southwest , having moved between two ridges . Later that day , the system degenerated into a remnant low , which the JTWC tracked for an additional day until dissipation east of the Somalia coastline .
= = = Very Severe Cyclonic Storm BOB 06 ( 03B ) = = =
The storm originated from the monsoon trough on November 7 in the Bay of Bengal , east of India . Moving northwestward , the system gradually intensified while moving toward land , eventually developing an eye in the middle of the convection . Reaching peak 3 minute winds of 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) , the IMD classified the system as a very severe cyclonic storm , in line with the 130 km / h ( 80 mph ) wind estimate from the JTWC . On November 9 , the cyclone made landfall near the border of Andhra Pradesh and Orissa . Atypical for most November storms , the system continued to the north and dissipated over Nepal on November 11 .
In India , the cyclone 's strong winds were accompanied by heavy rainfall and a storm surge of 1 @.@ 5 m ( 4 @.@ 9 ft ) that inundated the coastline several hundred feet inland . Power lines , crops , and houses were damaged , and many boats were damaged , causing several nautical fatalities . The cyclone killed 128 people and caused US $ 46 @.@ 3 million in damage . In neighboring Bangladesh , high waves killed 45 people after sinking or sweeping away four ships . The cyclone later spawned a rare November snowstorm across eastern Nepal , with depths reaching 2 @,@ 000 mm ( 79 in ) . The snowfall occurred without warning amid the busy mountain trekking season , and there were several avalanches and landslides across the country . One such incident killed 24 people at a lodge near Gokyo , and there were 63 deaths related to the cyclone in the country . The Nepal government launched the largest search and rescue mission in the country 's history , rescuing 450 people , some of whom trapped for days in the snow .
= = = Extremely Severe Cyclonic Storm BOB 07 ( 04B ) = = =
An area of convection blossomed near northern Sumatra on November 18 , associated with the monsoon . Aided by the same westerly wind burst that assisted Cyclone Daryl in the southern hemisphere , the disturbance gradually organized and persisted while moving west @-@ northwestward through the Bay of Bengal . Late on November 21 , the system developed into a depression , which the JTWC classified as Tropical Cyclone 04B . Steady intensification ensued ; by November 23 , the JTWC upgraded the cyclone to the equivalent of a minimal hurricane , and the IMD steadily upgraded the storm to increasing categories . The storm turned to the north and northeast around a ridge , accelerating toward land . At 06 : 00 UTC on November 24 , the JTWC estimated peak 1 minute winds of 195 km / h ( 120 mph ) . Shortly thereafter , the IMD estimated peak 3 minute winds of 190 km / h ( 115 mph ) , making the system an extremely severe cyclonic storm . By that time , the system had a well @-@ defined eye in the center of deep convection . Due to increasing wind shear , the storm weakened and made landfall over southeastern Bangladesh with winds of around 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) , south of Cox 's Bazaar around 09 : 00 UTC on November 25 . A few hours later , the system degenerated into a remnant low over northern Myanmar .
Along the coast of Bangladesh , Cox 's Bazaar reported winds of 93 km / h ( 58 mph ) . The storm brought heavy rainfall and produced high waves that flooded offshore islands with a 0 @.@ 91 to 1 @.@ 22 m ( 3 to 4 ft ) storm surge . Most residents of the offshore islands were evacuated ahead of the storm , totaling 300 @,@ 000 evacuees . About 10 @,@ 000 huts were destroyed , mostly made of mud and straw , while crops in the region were damaged . The storm 's winds cut power lines and communication links in the hardest hit areas . Initially , about 500 fishermen were missing after the storm 's passage ; most were rescued or swam ashore , but over 100 people were killed when 10 boats were lost . The International Disaster Database listed 172 fatalities associated with the storm . In neighboring Myanmar , the cyclone destroyed most of the rice crop in Rakhine State just before the harvest , forcing many Rohingya farmers to borrow money to compensate for lost income .
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= El Mundo Gira =
" El Mundo Gira " is the eleventh episode of the fourth season of the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It premiered on the Fox network in the United States on January 12 , 1997 . It was written by John Shiban and directed by Tucker Gates . The episode is a " Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week " story , unconnected to the series ' wider mythology . " El Mundo Gira " received a Nielsen rating of 13 @.@ 3 and was viewed by 22 @.@ 37 million people in its initial broadcast , and received mixed to negative reviews from television critics .
The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) , who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . Mulder is a believer in the paranormal , and the skeptical Scully has been assigned to debunk his work . In this episode , strange and deadly rain in a migrant workers camp sends Mulder and Scully on the trail of a mythical beast — El Chupacabra . What they discover is a bizarre fungal growth affecting illegal immigrants .
Shiban was inspired to write " El Mundo Gira " after noticing the long lines of migrant workers he would often see at his job when working as a computer programmer in the Los Angeles area . He combined it with an idea he had about a contagious fungus . Series creator Chris Carter was attracted to the soap opera @-@ like aspects of the episode , and the title of the episode means " The World Turns " in Spanish . The migrant camp used in the episode was built from scratch in a waste ground near Boundary Bay Airport in Vancouver . This site was later used again in the episode " Tempus Fugit " .
= = Plot = =
Agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) investigate the death of Maria Dorantes , an illegal immigrant from Mexico living in the San Joaquin Valley near Fresno , California who was found dead , with her face partially eaten away , after yellow rain fell from the sky . Maria was the object of the love of two brothers , Eladio ( Raymond Cruz ) and Soledad Buente ; Soledad blames his brother for her death . The migrants believe that the so @-@ called " Chupacabra " was responsible for her death , despite the fact that none of the circumstances of the death resemble anything close to reports of the Chupacabra . Mulder , assisted on the case by Mexican @-@ American INS agent Conrad Lozano , is able to track down and interrogate Eladio , who frightens the other migrants . Meanwhile , Scully discovers that Maria was killed by a fungal growth known as Aspergillus .
Eladio escapes as he is being deported , killing a truck driver in the process . A clinical exam on the driver shows his death was caused by a rapid growth of Trichophyton — the Athlete 's foot fungus . Scully brings samples of the fatal fungi to a mycologist who discovers that their abnormally rapid growth was caused by an unidentifiable enzyme . This revelation leads Scully to suspect Eladio of being an unwitting carrier of the enzyme , necessitating his immediate capture . Eladio , seeking to return to Mexico , meets with his cousin Gabrielle to ask for money . He works with a construction foreman for the day to make the money . Soledad comes after him , seeking to kill him , but finds the foreman dead . Eladio escapes in the foreman 's truck and heads to the grocery store where Gabrielle works , spreading the fungal growth . The agents later confront Soledad at the supermarket , discovering another dead victim of the fungus .
Eladio returns to see Gabrielle , but by now has grown deformed from the fungus . Gabrielle , afraid of him , gives him her money and lies to the agents about his location when they come to see her . In actuality , Eladio has returned to the camp where Maria died , where Lozano tries to spur Soledad on in killing his brother . Soledad finds he can 't do it , and Lozano struggles with him , being accidentally killed when the gun goes off . Soledad becomes a carrier of the fungal growth himself and flees with Eladio towards Mexico .
= = Production = =
Writer John Shiban was inspired to write the episode after noticing the long lines of migrant workers he would often see at his job when working as a computer programmer in the Los Angeles area . He combined it with an idea he had about a contagious fungus . Shiban originally intended to have the fungal infection spread by a schoolkid , but later changed it to a trucker in the second draft . In the finalized script , it was changed to Eladio once the storylines were combined . Executive producer and series creator Chris Carter was attracted to the soap opera @-@ like aspects of the episode , and the title of the episode means " The World Turns " in Spanish , a reference to the popular American television soap opera As the World Turns . The Chupacabra is a Latin American folk myth that Shiban originally heard about in an article in the The Los Angeles Times about a year prior . To research the episode , Shiban spent time observing the processing of illegal aliens at an INS facility in San Pedro , California . The usage of fake names by the detained immigrants in the episode was inspired by his experiences at the facility . Lozano was portrayed by popular Panamanian salsa singer and actor Ruben Blades . Chris Carter had been looking to use him in an episode for a while . The actors who portrayed Eladio and Gabrielle were a couple at the time .
The migrant camp used in the episode was built from scratch in a waste ground near Boundary Bay Airport in Vancouver . This site was later used again in the episode " Tempus Fugit " . It snowed the night before filming occurred , requiring the production crew to use hot water and blow dryers to melt it . Originally , composer Mark Snow created a score that was deemed too " serious " by Carter ; thus , Snow was forced to replace his entire score with a new one .
= = Reception = =
" El Mundo Gira " was originally broadcast in the United States on the Fox network on January 12 , 1997 ( 1997 @-@ 01 @-@ 12 ) , and was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on BBC One on November 19 , 1997 . This episode earned a Nielsen rating of 13 @.@ 3 , with a 19 share , meaning that roughly 13 @.@ 3 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 19 percent of households watching television , were tuned in to the episode . It was viewed by 22 @.@ 37 million viewers .
The episode received mixed to negative reviews from critics . Zack Handlen of The A.V. Club reviewed the episode positively , rating it a B. He considered the episode " entertaining to watch " with " nifty direction from Tucker Gates " , despite being formulaic and with the same problems he found in the previous episode penned by John Shiban , season three 's " Teso Dos Bichos " . Handlen had much praise for the second half , which he noted was filled with dark humor , and featured a " bizarre ending " . John Keegan from Critical Myth gave the episode a largely negative review and awarded it a 2 out of 10 . He wrote , " Overall , this episode is a disastrous combination of political commentary and stereotypical “ Mexican soap opera ” caricatures . Mulder and Scully have nothing to do with the resolution of the episode , and in fact , the writers fail to provide that resolution . There are some good character moments , but they are too far and few between . " Author Keith Topping criticized the episode in his book X @-@ Treme Possibilities , calling it an " awful episode with a heavy @-@ handed , clod @-@ hopping attempt at social comment that hardly sits well with the themes on display in the rest of the episode . " He called it the worst episode of the fourth season . Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated the episode one star out of five and wrote that it was " trying very hard to be clever " . Despite this the two explained that " if cleverness were only about intent , then we could all be geniuses " . Shearman and Pearson derided the episode 's use of social criticism , referring to it as " rubbish [ because it ] only works if it isn 't underlined each time it 's made . " Furthermore , the two criticized the story 's " Mexican soap opera " style , noting that it drowned out the themes in " unengaging melodrama " . Paula Vitaris from Cinefantastique gave the episode a largely negative review and awarded it one star out of four . She wrote that " ' El Mundo Gira ' is so overloaded with ideas that it falls over and can 't get up " .
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= Hatt @-@ i humayun =
Hatt @-@ i humayun ( Ottoman Turkish : خط همايون , Turkish : hatt @-@ ı hümayun or hatt @-@ ı hümâyûn ) , also known as hatt @-@ i sharif ( hatt @-@ ı şerîf ) , is the diplomatics term for a document or handwritten note of an official nature composed by an Ottoman sultan . The terms come from hatt ( Arabic : handwriting , command ) , hümayun ( imperial ) and şerif ( lofty , noble ) . These notes were commonly written by the Sultan personally , although they could also be transcribed by a palace scribe . They were written usually in response to , and directly on , a document submitted to the sultan by the grand vizier or another officer of the Ottoman government . Thus , they could be approvals or denials of a letter of petition , acknowledgements of a report , grants of permission for a request , an annotation to a decree , or other government documents . Hatt @-@ ı hümayuns could be composed from scratch , rather than as a response to an existing document . After the Tanzimat reform ( 1856 ) , aimed to modernize the Ottoman Empire , hatt @-@ ı hümayuns of the routine kind were supplanted by the practice of irâde @-@ i seniyye , in which the Sultan 's spoken response was recorded on the document by his scribe .
There are nearly 100 @,@ 000 hatt @-@ ı hümayuns in the Ottoman archives in Istanbul . Among the more famous are the Edict ( hatt @-@ ı şerîf ) of Gülhane of 1839 and the Imperial Reform Edict ( hatt @-@ ı hümayun ) of 1856 . For this last one , the Turkish term Tanzimat Fermanı is more accurate . This decree , which started the so @-@ called Tanzimat reforms , is so called because it carries a handwritten order by the sultan to the grand vizier to execute his command .
The term " hatt @-@ ı hümayun " can sometimes also be used in a literal sense , meaning a document handwritten by an Ottoman Sultan .
= = Types of hatt @-@ ı hümayun = =
The hatt @-@ ı hümayun would usually be written to the grand vizier ( Sadrazam ) , or in his absence , to his replacement ( the ka 'immakâm ) , or to another senior official such as the grand admiral ( Kapudan @-@ i Derya ) or the governor @-@ general ( Beylerbey ) of Rumeli . There were three types of hatt @-@ ı hümayuns :
those addressed to a government post
those " on the white "
those on a document
= = = Hatt @-@ ı hümayun to a government post = = =
Routine decrees ( ferman ) or titles of privilege ( berat ) were written by a scribe , but those written to certain officials and those that were particularly important were preceded by the Sultan 's handwritten note beside his seal ( tughra ) . The tughra and the notation might be surrounded by a decorated frame . The note would emphasize a particular part of his edict , urging or ordering it to be followed without fault . These were called Hatt @-@ ı Hümayunla Müveşşeh Ferman ( ferman decorated with a hatt @-@ ı hümayun ) or Unvanına Hatt @-@ ı Hümayun ( hatt @-@ ı hümayun to the title ) . The note might use a clichéd phrase like " to be done as required " ( mûcebince amel oluna ) or " my command is to carried out as required and no one is to interfere with its execution " ( emrim mûcebince amel oluna , kimseye müdahale etmeyeler ) . Some edicts to the title would start with a note from the Sultan praising the person ( s ) to whom the edict was addressed , in order to encourage or honor him . Rarely , there might be a threat such as " if you want to keep your head , carry out this order as required " ( Başın gerek ise mûcebiyle amel oluna ) .
= = = Hatt @-@ ı hümayun on the white = = =
" Hatt @-@ ı hümayun on the white " ( beyaz üzerine hatt @-@ ı hümâyun ) were documents originating with the sultan ( ex officio ) rather than a notation on an existing document . They were so called because the edict was written on a blank ( i.e. white ) page . They could be documents such as a command , an edict , an appointment letter or a letter to a foreign ruler .
There also exist hatt @-@ ı hümayuns expressing the sultan 's opinions or even his feelings on certain matters . For example , after the successful defense of Mosul against the forces of Nadir Shah , in 1743 , Sultan Mahmud I sent a hatt @-@ ı hümayun to the governor Haj Husayn Pasha , which praised in verse the heroic exploits of the governor and the warriors of Mosul .
= = = Hatt @-@ ı hümayun on a document = = =
In normal bureaucratic procedure , a document would be submitted by the grand vizier , or his deputy the kaymakam ( Kâ 'immakâm Paşa ) , who would summarize a situation for the Sultan , and request the Sultan 's will on the matter . Such documents were called telhis ( summary ) until the 19th century and takrir ( suggestion ) later on . The Sultan 's handwritten response ( his command or decision ) were called hatt @-@ ı hümâyûn on telhis or hatt @-@ ı hümâyûn on takrir . Other types of documents submitted to the Sultan were petitions ( arzuhâl ) , sworn transcriptions of oral petitions ( mahzar ) , reports from a higher to a lower office ( şukka ) , religious reports by Qadis to higher offices ( ilâm ) and record books ( tahrirat ) . These would be called hatt @-@ ı hümâyûn on arz , hatt @-@ ı hümâyûn on mahzar , etc. depending on the type of the document . The Sultan responded not only to documents submitted to him by his viziers but also to petitions ( arzuhâl ) submitted to him by his subjects following the Friday prayer . Thus , hatt @-@ ı hümayuns on documents were analogous to Papal rescripts and rescripts used in other imperial regimes .
When the sultan contacted the public for Friday prayer or other occasions , people would hand in petitions addressed to him . These were later discussed and decided upon by the council of viziers . They would prepare a summary of all petitions and the action decided upon for each one . The sultan would write on the same sheet " I have been informed " ( manzurum olmuştur ) multiple times , followed by the item number to which he is referring . When palace bureaucracy was reorganized after the Tanzimat reforms , the Sultan 's decision came to be written directly by the Chief Scribe at the bottom of the summary document , and this one writing applied to all decisions .
= = Practices = =
When a petition or memo requiring the Sultan 's decision was to be submitted to him , the grand vizier usually prepared an executive summary ( telhis ) as an attachment . In some cases , rather than prepare a separate summary document , the grand vizier or his deputy would write his summary and views diagonally , on the top or bottom margins of documents coming from lower functionaries ( see an example in the first figure above ) . Such annotations on a written document were called derkenar . Sometimes the grand vizier would append a separate cover page on top of a proposal coming from a lower @-@ level functionary like the Treasurer ( Defterdar ) or the Minister of Defence ( Serasker ) , introducing it as , for example , " this is the proposal of the Defterdar " . In such cases , the Sultan would write his hatt @-@ ı hümayun on the cover page . In other cases , the grand vizier would summarize the matter directly in the margin of the document submitted by the lower functionary and the Sultan would write on the same page as well . Sometimes the Sultan would write his decision on a fresh piece of paper attached to the submitted document .
In most cases hatt @-@ ı humayuns were written by the Sultan himself although there exist some that were penned by the chief scribe or another functionary . Important hatt @-@ ı humayuns on the white were sometimes drafted by the head of diplomatic correspondence ( Reis @-@ ül Kuttab ) or the Secretary of Navy ( Kapudan Paşa ) . In some cases , there were notations as to who prepared the draft of the document that was then re @-@ written by the Sultan .
Hatt @-@ ı hümayuns usually were not dated , although some , concerning withdrawal of money from the treasury , did carry dates . Most late @-@ period hatt @-@ ı hümayuns and irades had dates . Abdulhamid I was especially inclined to date his hatt @-@ ı hümayuns . His grand vizier Koca Yusuf Pasha , later suggested this practice of dating hatt @-@ ı hümayuns to Abdulhamid 's successor Selim III so that he could follow up whether his orders were carried out . However , this suggestion was not adopted . Abdulhamid II used signatures toward the latter parts of his reign .
= = Language = =
The language of hatt @-@ ı hümayuns on documents generally was a form of Turkish understandable ( orally ) even today and has changed little over the centuries . Many documents or annotations were short comments such as " I gave " ( verdim ) , " be it given " ( verilsin ) , " will not happen " ( olmaz ) , " be it written " ( yazılsın ) , " is clear / is clear to me " ( malûm oldu / malûmum olmuştur ) , " provide it " ( tedârük edesin ) , " it has come to my sight " ( manzûrum oldu / manzûrum olmuştur ) , " be it answered " ( cevap verile ) , " record it " ( mukayyet olasın ) , " be it supplied " ( tedârik görülsün ) , " be they without need " ( " berhûrdâr olsunlar " ) .
Some Sultans would write longer comments , starting with " It has become my knowledge " ( Malûmum oldu ) , and continue with an introduction on the topic , then give their opinion such as " this report 's / petition 's / record 's / etc. appearance and meaning has become my imperial knowledge " ( " ... işbu takrîrin / telhîsin / şukkanın / kaimenin manzûr ve me 'azi ma 'lûm @-@ ı hümayûnum olmuşdur " ) . Some common phrases in hatt @-@ ı hümayuns are " according to this report ... " ( işbu telhisin mûcebince ) , " the matter is clear " ( cümlesi malumdur ) , " I permit " ( izin verdim ) , " I give , according to the provided facts " ( vech @-@ i meşruh üzere verdim ) .
Hatt @-@ ı hümayuns to the position often had clichéd expressions such as " To be done as required " ( Mûcebince amel oluna ) or " To be done as required , not to be contravened " ( Mûcebince amel ve hilâfından hazer oluna ) .
Hatt @-@ ı hümayuns on the white were more elaborate and some may have been drafted by a scribe before being penned by the Sultan . They often started by addressing the recipient . The Sultan would refer to his grand vizier as " My Vizier " , or if his grand vizier was away at war , would refer to his deputy as " Ka 'immakâm Paşa " . Those written to other officials would often start with an expression like " You who are my Vizier of Rumeli , Mehmed Pasha " ( " Sen ki Rumili vezîrim Mehmed Paşa 'sın " ) . The head of religious affairs ( Şeyhülislam ) or the Sultan 's personal tutor would be addressed simply and respectfully . In cases where the hatt @-@ ı hümayun was to be delivered ceremoniously , with an imperial sword and a cloak , as in an appointment to a high rank , there would be a flowery salutation such as " after I have honored you with my glorious greeting you should know that ... " ( seni selâm @-@ ı şâhanemle teşrif eylediğimden sonra malumun ola ki ... ) . Correspondence to a military commander could have a lengthy and ornate salutation or just address him by his title . A note without an address was meant for the grand vizier or his deputy .
= = History = =
The earliest known hatt @-@ ı hümayun is the one sent by Sultan Murad I to Evrenos Bey in 1386 , commending the commander for his conquests and giving him advice on how to administer people . Until the reign of Murad III , Viziers used to present matters orally to the Sultans , who would then give their consent or denial , also orally . While hatt @-@ ı hümayuns were very rare prior to this , they proliferated afterward , especially during the reigns of Sultans such as Abdülhamid I , Selim III and Mahmud II , who wanted to increase their control and be informed of everything .
The content of hatt @-@ ı hümayuns tends to reflect the power struggle that existed between the Sultan and his council of viziers ( the Divan ) . The process of using the hatt @-@ ı hümayun to authorize the actions of the grand vizier came into existence in the reign of Murad III . This led to a loss of authority and independence in the grand vizier while other palace people such as the Master of the Harem ( Harem Ağası ) or concubines ( cariye ) who had greater access to the Sultan gained in influence . By giving detailed instructions or advice , the Sultans reduced the role of the grand viziers to be just a supervisor to the execution of his commands . This situation appears to have created some backlash , as during most of the 17th century there were attempts to return to grand viziers ' prestige and the power of " supreme proxy " ( vekil @-@ i mutlak ) and over time hatt @-@ ı hümayuns returned to their former simplicity . However , in the eighteenth century , Selim III became concerned by the over @-@ centralization of the bureaucracy and its general inefficacy . He created consulting bodies ( meclis @-@ i meşveret ) to share some of the authority with him and the grand vizier . He would give detailed answers on hatt @-@ ı hümayuns to questions asked of him and would make inquiries as to whether his decisions were followed . The hatt @-@ ı hümayun became Selim III 's tool to ensure rapid and precise execution of his decisions .
During the reign of Mahmud II , in the early 1830s , the practice of writing on the memoranda of the grand vizier was replaced by the Chief Scribe of the Imperial Office ( Mâbeyn @-@ i Hümâyun Başkatibi ) recording the Sultan 's decision . After the Tanzimat , the government bureaucracy was streamlined . For most routine communications , the imperial scribe ( Serkâtib @-@ i şehriyârî ) began to record the spoken will ( irâde ) of the Sultan and thus the irâde ( also called irâde @-@ i seniyye , i.e. , " supreme will " , or irâde @-@ i şâhâne , i.e. , " glorious will " ) replaced the hatt @-@ ı hümayun . The use of hatt @-@ ı hümayuns on the white between the Sultan and the grand vizier continued on for matters of great importance such as high level appointments or promotions . Infrequently , the grand vizier and the Sultan wrote to each other directly as well .
The large number of documents that required the Sultan 's decision through either a hatt @-@ ı hümayun or an irade @-@ i senniye is considered to be an indication of how centralized the Ottoman government was . Abdülhamid I has written himself in one of his hatt @-@ ı hümayuns " I have no time that my pen leaves my hand , with God 's resolve it does not . "
The early hatt @-@ ı hümayuns were written in the calligraphic styles of tâlik , tâlik kırması ( a variant of tâlik ) , nesih and riq ’ a . After Mahmud II , they were only written in riq ’ a . Ahmed III and Mahmud II were skilled penmen and their hatt @-@ ı hümayuns are notable for their long and elaborate annotations on official documents . In contrast , Sultans who accessed the throne at an early age , such as Murad V and Mehmed IV display poor spelling and calligraphy .
= = Archival = =
Hatt @-@ ı hümayuns sent to the grand vizier were handled and recorded at the Âmedi Kalemi , the secretariat of the grand vizier . The Âmedi Kalemi organized and recorded all correspondence between the grand vizier and the Sultan , as well as any correspondence with foreign rulers and with Ottoman ambassadors . Other hatt @-@ ı hümayuns , not addressed to the grand vizier , were stored in other document stores ( called fon in the terminology of current Turkish archivists ) .
= = = Cut @-@ out hatt @-@ ı hümayuns = = =
During the creation of the State Archives in the nineteenth century , documents were organized according to their importance . Hatt @-@ ı hümayuns on the white were considered the most important , along with those on international relations , border transactions and internal regulations . Documents of secondary importance were routinely placed in trunks and stored in cellars in need of repair . Presumably as a sign of respect toward the Sultan , hatt @-@ ı hümayuns on documents ( petitions , reports , etc . ) were cut out and stored together with the hatt @-@ ı hümayuns on the white , while the rest of the documents were stored elsewhere . These cut @-@ out hatt @-@ ı hümayuns were not cross @-@ referenced with the documents to which they referred and were only annotated by the palace office using general terms and an approximate date . Because Sultans were not in the habit of dating their hatt @-@ ı hümayuns until the late period of the empire , in most cases the documents associated with them are not known . Conversely , the decisions on many a memorandum , petition , or request submitted to the Sultan are unknown . The separation of hatt @-@ ı hümayuns from their documents is considered a great loss of information for researchers . The Ottoman Archives in Istanbul has a special section of " cut @-@ out hatt @-@ ı hümayuns " .
= = = Catalogs = = =
Today all known hatt @-@ ı hümayuns have been recorded in a computerized database in the Ottoman Archives of the Turkish Prime Minister ( Başbakanlık Osmanlı Arşivleri , or BOA in short ) in Istanbul , and they number 95 @,@ 134 . Most hatt @-@ ı hümayuns are stored at the BOA and in the Topkapı Museum Archive . The BOA contains 58 @,@ 000 hatt @-@ ı hümayuns .
Because the hatt @-@ ı hümayuns were originally not organized systematically , historians in the nineteenth and early twentieth century created several catalogs of hatt @-@ ı hümayuns based on different organizing principles . These historic catalogs are still in use by historians at the BOA :
Hatt @-@ ı Hümâyûn Tasnifi is the catalog of the hatt @-@ ı hümayuns belonging to the Âmedi Kalemi . It consists of 31 volumes listing 62 @,@ 312 documents , with their short summaries . This catalog lists documents from 1730 to 1839 but covers primarily those from the reigns of Selim III and Mahmud II within this period .
Ali Emiri Tasnifi is a chronological catalog of 181 @,@ 239 documents organized according to the periods of sovereignty of Sultans , from the foundation of the Ottoman state to the Abdülmecid period . Along with hatt @-@ ı hümayuns , this catalog includes documents on foreign relations .
İbnülemin Tasnifi is a catalog created by a committee led by historian İbnülemin Mahmud Kemal . It covers the period of 1290 @-@ 1873 . Along with 329 hatt @-@ ı hümayuns , it lists documents of various other types relating to palace correspondence , private correspondence , appointments , land grants ( timar and zeamet ) , and charitable endowments ( vakıf ) .
Muallim Cevdet Tasnifi catalogs 216 @,@ 572 documents in 34 volumes , organized by topics that include local governments , provincial administration , vakıf and internal security .
= = The Hatt @-@ ı Hümâyun of 1856 = =
Although there exist thousands of hatt @-@ ı hümayuns , the Imperial Reform Edict ( or Islâhat Fermânı ) of 1856 is well enough known that most history texts refer to it simply as " Hatt @-@ i Hümayun " . This decree from Sultan Abdülmecid I promised equality in education , government appointments , and administration of justice to all , regardless of creed . In Düstur , the Ottoman code of laws , the text of this ferman is introduced as " a copy of the supreme ferman written to the grand vizier , perfected by decoration above with a hatt @-@ ı hümayun . " So , technically this edict was a hatt @-@ ı hümayun to the rank .
The Reform Decree of 1856 is sometimes referred to by another name , " The Rescript of Reform " . Here , the word ' rescript ' is used to sense of " edict , decree " , not " reply to a query or other document . "
The Hatt @-@ ı Hümayun of 1856 was an extension of another important edict of reform , the Hatt @-@ i Sharif of Gülhane of 1839 , and part of the Tanzimat reforms . That document is also generally referred to as " The Hatt @-@ i Sharif " , although there are many other hatt @-@ i sharifs , a term that is synonymous with hatt @-@ ı hümayun .
= = The Sultan 's script = =
The term hatt @-@ ı hümayun is occasionally used in the literal sense of the handwriting of the Sultan . For example , the imperial poet Nef 'i has written a masnavi of 22 couplets describing the calligraphy of Sultan Murad IV , called Der @-@ Vasf @-@ ı Hatt @-@ ı Humayun @-@ ı Sultan Murad Han . The whole poem is a compliment to the writings of the Sultan .
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= The Time of Our Lives ( EP ) =
The Time of Our Lives is the first extended play ( EP ) by American recording artist Miley Cyrus . The EP was released on August 28 , 2009 by Hollywood Records , initially as a United States ' Walmart exclusive . With alterations in artwork and track listing , an international edition was issued October 16 , 2009 . The Time of Our Lives was conceived as a release to accompany Cyrus ' newly launched apparel line with Max Azria . The tracks on the EP were primarily composed by John Shanks and Dr. Luke , who also produced their respective cuts . Cyrus co @-@ wrote one out of seven songs on The Time of Our Lives ; one is a cover and another is a live rendition . Musically , the uptempo tracks on the record are in the pop rock and dance @-@ pop genres while ballads are largely soft rock . Lyrically , it explores the themes of romantic relationships , among other subjects .
The Time of Our Lives received generally positive reactions from critics , with some reviews suggesting that the EP was an effective step into adulthood for Cyrus . Some reviews were critical of the ballads which appear on the record , however . The EP was a commercial success , charting within the top ten in nine countries . In the United States , The Time of Our Lives peaked at number two on the Billboard 200 and was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) . Moreover , the EP had success internationally , peaking at number three in Greece , number five in Austria , and number six in Spain .
Two singles were released from The Time of Our Lives . The lead single , " Party in the U.S.A. " , became Cyrus ' best @-@ selling effort up to that point , peaking at number two in the Billboard Hot 100 . It also became one of the best @-@ selling singles in the United States and Hollywood Records ' best- and fastest @-@ selling single . The second and final single released from the EP was " When I Look at You " . It was used to promote the 2010 film The Last Song , which Cyrus starred in . Unable to match " Party in the U.S.A. " ' s success , the single appeared in the top twenty of charts in Australia and the United States . Cyrus performed songs from The Time of Our Lives live numerous times . Her performance at the 2009 Teen Choice Awards caused a media uproar because of its sexuality . She embarked on her first world tour , the Wonder World Tour , to promote the EP in late 2009 .
= = Background = =
In order to support Cyrus ' then newly launched , joint apparel line with Max Azria , sold exclusively by Walmart stores , an EP was chosen for release . " I feel it goes perfect for that kind of look " , she commented . For Cyrus , The Time of Our Lives was a transitional EP and a method of re @-@ introducing herself to new audiences . Speaking about the EP 's sound , she said , " I kind of kept it in the lines of what I usually do , which is kind of a pop rock sound — I don ’ t even like using the word ' rock , ' because I feel like it ’ s an honor to be put in that title . This is kind of my transition . The next record , I definitely want to be able to step it up a bit . " Cyrus originally planned for her succeeding album to be edgier and more predominant in rock music . She said that , after completing promotion for The Time of Our Lives , she wanted to " step out and maybe take a break " for some time in order to compose music that inspires her . Cyrus ' next album , Can 't Be Tamed was released approximately ten months later , on June 18 , 2010 .
At first , The Time of Our Lives was exclusively released through the American retail company Walmart , available in American stores and at Walmart.com. The album was originally planned for release on August 31 , 2009 , but because of a confusion at various stores , the album was released three days prior than intended . Several months afterwards , an international edition was released in numerous countries , beginning with the United Kingdom on October 16 , 2009 . With the addition of " The Climb " from Hannah Montana : The Movie , released earlier in 2009 , the edition also featured new cover artwork , with photography by Annie Leibovitz . On January 5 , 2010 , the EP became available for purchasing on other digital retailers in the United States .
= = Development = =
Cyrus recorded a cover version of " Kicking and Screaming " , written by John Shanks and Kara DioGuardi , and originally recorded by Ashlee Simpson for her 2005 album I Am Me . " Party in the U.S.A. " was written by Dr. Luke , Claude Kelly , and Jessica Cornish . The song was not originally meant for Cyrus to perform , but , once it reached Cyrus , the writing team reworked the lyrics , intending to write an accompanying theme for the clothing line . In order to please audiences , Dr. Luke , Kelly , and Cornish fixated on composing a fun , upbeat song that narrated reflections of Cyrus ' personality . To write his contributions to the song , Kelly said he tried to mimic Cyrus ' songwriting : " It ’ s the same song from a different point of view , you just have to find that unique perspective . " Cyrus was pleased with the song and selected it partially due to the need for tracks to appear on The Time of Our Lives . " When I Look at You " , written by Shanks and Hillary Lindsey , was initially to be included on Cyrus ' succeeding album ; it was eventually chosen to promote the 2010 film The Last Song after Cyrus recognized that it fit the film 's concept well . According to Cyrus , when she sings " When I Look at You " , she thinks of family and love . " It 's kind of what this movie is all about " , she said . The title track , " The Time of Our Lives " , was composed by Dr. Luke , Kelly , Kesha Sebert ( known as Ke $ ha ) , and Pebe Sebert . Kesha co @-@ wrote her contributions to " The Time of Our Lives " with the ideal of constructing a party anthem for young audiences , based on her first impression of Cyrus ' personality ; comedic and likable .
" Obsessed " was written by Roger Lavoie . Because the EP 's production personnel did not understand it , the song was at first denied of inclusion . However , once " Obsessed " reached Cyrus , she continually insisted the track be included on the EP because she felt related to it . Cyrus described the song as depicting the emotions one feels when one cannot stop thinking of a person and believed it related to numerous fans having their first love . " It 's a really romantic song " , she concluded . " Before the Storm " , originally released on the Jonas Brothers ' fourth studio album Lines , Vines and Trying Times ( 2009 ) , is included on The Time of Our Lives as a live rendition . The song was written by Nick Jonas , Joe Jonas , Kevin Jonas , and Cyrus . At first , the song was solely written by the Jonas Brothers for their third studio album A Little Bit Longer ( 2008 ) , but did not make the final cut . Nick and Cyrus later reworked the song 's lyrics to fit their past romance using a grand piano .
= = Composition = =
" Kicking and Screaming " is the most prominent representation of rock music on The Time of Our Lives . The track features instrumentation that relies on glam electric guitar riffing and ragged , gutsy vocals , which , at several points , feature a gravelly element . It results in an uptempo electronic rock number . Lyrically , " Kicking and Screaming " is a merciless message to an ex @-@ boyfriend . " Party in the U.S.A. " mixes R & B and pop music elements while having instrumentation that includes a " clash between feathery jazz guitar chords and a booming synth bassline serving as a hook " . Cyrus ' vocals display an undertone of alternative country twang and features belter refrains . The lyrics for " Party in the U.S.A. " discuss Cyrus ' relocation from Nashville , Tennessee to Hollywood , California . The refrains mainly speak of how her favorite songs make her feel more confident . " When I Look at You " is a power ballad that transitions in instrumentation , from piano to electric guitar . Throughout the song , Cyrus keeps a hushed tone , but starts to belt soon before the arrival of the second verse . Lyrically , it speaks of a dream lover . " The Time of Our Lives " is a bouncy , dance @-@ pop song characterized by 1980s synths and a fizzy sound caused by a bubblegum pop background . Cyrus ' processed vocals display a prominent use of auto @-@ tune ; influences derive from new wave music . The song 's lyrics talk about not worrying so much about the future and simply focusing on the present and having a good time together . " Talk Is Cheap " is a pop @-@ punk , garage rock song with disco influences and a number of hooks . " Talk Is Cheap " features lyrics that speak of being extremely irritated after encountering predicaments at a club and others smoking cigarettes . " Obsessed " is a power ballad with soft rock characteristics and husky vocals . " Obsessed " ' s lyrics deal with teenage lust . " Before the Storm " is a country pop ballad about a melancholic romantic breakup .
= = Singles = =
" Party in the U.S.A. " was released on August 11 , 2009 as the lead single from The Time of Our Lives through digital distribution . It received praise from critics for its musical composition , reflecting aspects of R & B and catchy effect . " Party in the U.S.A. " was also a commercial success for Cyrus ; it charted within the top ten of eight countries . In the United States , the song peaked at number two , becoming Cyrus ' best @-@ charting single up to that point and the sixth best selling digital single of 2009 . It was also deemed Hollywood Records ' fastest and best @-@ selling single to date . The single was certified triple platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) and quadruple platinum by the Canadian Recording Industry Association ( CRIA ) . A music video for " Party in the U.S.A. " , directed by Chris Applebaum , was set mainly at a drive @-@ in theater and pays tribute to the film Grease ( 1978 ) and Cyrus 's parents ' courting days .
" When I Look at You " was released to promote the film The Last Song , which Cyrus ' starred in and became the EP 's second and last single . " When I Look at You " received average to mixed critical reception , ranging from " inevitable hit single " to " inferior ballad " , and was unable to duplicate the commercial success of " Party in the U.S.A. " Its highest international peak was achieved in the United States , where it reached number sixteen , followed by Australia , where it peaked at number eighteen . The song 's accompanying music video was directed by Adam Shankman . It features Cyrus playing a grand piano in several settings , including a beach and forest .
= = Promotion = =
Cyrus ' first live performance of " Party in the U.S.A. " was at the Teen Choice Awards held on August 10 , 2009 . Clothed in a tank top that revealed a portion of her bra , black hot pants , and leather boots , Cyrus and her backup dancers appeared from a trailer . Midway through the performance , Cyrus danced atop an ice cream cart with a pole ( which was suggested to be a dance pole by numerous critics ) for approximately forty seconds . The performance was met with a media uproar , with some critics suggesting that her dancing was too suggestive and sexual for a teen @-@ oriented event , which caused The Walt Disney Company to issue a statement distancing themselves from the performance . Other critics came to Cyrus ' defense , stating that viewers should have fixated on her accomplishments that night , winning six awards , rather than the sexuality of the performance . In continuation , Cyrus promoted the EP on The Today Show and VH1 Divas in the United States . In December , Cyrus undertook promotion in the United Kingdom at 95 @.@ 8 Capital FM 's Jingle Bell Ball , the Royal Variety Performance — the annual gala for the British Royal Family — and various other venues .
" The Time of Our Lives " was released for airplay , exclusively on Radio Disney , in order to promote the EP . " The Time of Our Lives " peaked at number twenty @-@ three on the Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles Chart ( Billboard Hot 100 – 123 ) and at number fifty @-@ one on the Canadian Hot 100 . Cyrus embarked on her second concert tour , the Wonder World Tour , to promote The Time of Our Lives and her second studio album Brekaout ( 2008 ) . The tour was Cyrus 's first to not have her costumed as Hannah Montana , and was announced in June 2009 , with dates revealed for American venues . Dates for venues in the United Kingdom were later announced . In to order to avoid the extensive scalping that occurred during her previous tour , all tickets were sold exclusively through paperless ticket delivery , which required audiences to bring identification to gain entry into the concert . The tour expanded from September to December 2009 .
= = Critical reception = =
The Time of Our Lives received generally positive reviews , earning a collective score of 63 out of 100 on Metacritic . Bill Lamb of About.com said , " Cyrus is developing one of the more distinctive vocal instruments in current pop music , and her songs are turning slowly to reflective adult concerns . Consistent growth and improvement is the key here , and looks likely to turn Miley Cyrus into a long @-@ term pop star . " Lamb did , however , state that the ballads on The Time of Our Lives were throwaways . Heather Phares of Allmusic thought otherwise , saying that the EP 's highlights came when Cyrus " lets her inner rock chick and ballad @-@ singing diva come to the fore . " Phares stated that " If Breakout began to establish Miley Cyrus as a singing star in her own right , free of Hannah Montana baggage , then this Walmart Exclusive EP is another confident step in that direction . " Phares concluded that the EP was a good representation of Cyrus 's vocal growth and presumed that her vocal abilities would enhance further as she grew into an adult . Mikeal Wood of Entertainment Weekly graded The Time of Lives a B + because of its execution of various musical styles and genres .
Nick Levin of Digital Spy reviewed The Time of Our Lives , saying that , although not offering much original material , it did provide evidence that Cyrus could successfully dump her Disney Channel @-@ affiliated image . He said that each of " the six genuinely new songs " are worth listening to , resulting in a worthwhile EP release . Michael Hann of The Guardian felt that Cyrus managed to project a very wholesome image of herself but argued that she did not succeed in convincing adult audiences there was anything else to her : " She has her name on plenty of inventive , imaginative and precisely calibrated examples of modern chart pop , songs that would have been noticed beyond her audience of young girls had they come from a more credible source " . Jessica Holland of British newspaper The Observer wrote a favorable review of the EP , noting : " Still not yet 17 , Miley doesn 't need to worry about slipping yet . " Jaime Gill of Yahoo ! Music described the uptempo numbers on the EP as " brilliantly feisty skate pop " but described the record 's ballads as tedious . Gill concluded that , if Cyrus were to take her music more seriously , instead of releasing albums in between various other projects , she might make a great pop album and stated that " As it is , The Time Of Our Lives is a great pop EP drowning in a sea of bilge . "
= = Commercial performance = =
On the week ending September 12 , 2009 , The Time of Our Lives entered the Billboard 200 at number three , selling a total of 62 @,@ 000 copies and becoming Cyrus 's eighth release to chart within the top ten . The EP peaked at number two in the following week due to a 154 percent increase in sales ( 153 @,@ 000 copies sold ) . Spending another consecutive week at its peak , The Time of Our Lives continued to sell strongly throughout the remainder of 2009 . On the week ending December 12 , 2009 , the EP experienced a sudden increase sales , rising from number twenty @-@ nine to number seven with sales of 150 @,@ 000 copies . The Time of Our Lives was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for shipments of over one million copies . It debuted and peaked at number nine on the Canadian Albums Chart on the week ending January 30 , 2010 .
On the week ending November 11 , 2009 , the EP debuted and peaked at number eleven on the Australian Albums Chart . It later dropped to number thirteen and ascended and descended until its last week on the chart on May 18 , 2010 . The Time of Our Lives was certified gold by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) for shipments exceeding 35 @,@ 000 copies . The Time of Our Lives entered the New Zealand Singles Chart at its peak of number nine . In the following week the EP dropped to number eleven , where it stayed for two consecutive weeks . It was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand ( RIANZ ) for shipments exceeding 7 @,@ 500 copies . On the fourth week ending of January 2010 , The Time of Our Lives debuted at number ten on the Japanese Albums Chart , selling an estimated 15 @,@ 000 copies . In its second week on the chart , the EP descended to number nineteen .
On the week ending November 26 , 2009 , the EP debuted and peaked at number seventeen on the UK Albums Chart . The Time of Our Lives was certified gold by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) for shipments of 100 @,@ 000 copies . In Ireland , it peaked at number nine and was certified platinum by the Irish Recorded Music Association ( IRMA ) for shipments exceeding 15 @,@ 000 copies . In mainland Europe , The Time of Our Lives peaked at number thirty @-@ three on the European Top 100 Albums Chart , number five on the Austrian Albums Chart , number nine on the German Albums Chart , and number three on the Greek Albums Chart . On the week ending November 1 , 2009 , it debuted and peaked at number six in Spain , where it was also certified platinum by the Productores de Música de España ( PROMUSICAE ) for shipments of more than 60 @,@ 000 copies . Elsewhere in Europe , the EP reached the top twenty of charts in the Czech Republic and Portugal .
= = Track listing = =
Notes
^ a signifies a vocal producer
^ b signifies a live producer
^ c signifies an additional producer
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
As listed in the liner notes .
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= Black Eye ( album ) =
Black Eye is the only full @-@ length studio album by the English punk rock band Fluffy , released on September 17 , 1996 by The Enclave . It was recorded at Metropolis Studios in London and produced by punk rock veteran Bill Price , who had recorded albums by Sex Pistols and The Clash . The album was recorded live in the studio and the music was not arranged by the producer in order to achieve a rough , live sound . The record contains loud punk songs that explore social issues such as sex and abuse .
To promote the album , the band embarked on a major tour in Europe and both coasts of the United States , including a performance at CBGB in New York City . The songs " Husband " and " Nothing " reached number 58 and number 52 respectively on the UK Singles Chart . Upon release , Black Eye received mixed to positive reviews from music critics . Most journalists praised the album 's unrelenting mood , but some criticised the vagueness of the lyrics .
= = Background and recording = =
Black Eye is the only full @-@ length album by the English punk rock band Fluffy . The band formed in London in late 1994 by singer and guitarist Amanda Rootes , guitarist Bridget Jones , bassist Helen Storer , and drummer Angie Adams . Unsatisfied with the Britpop invasion at the time , the band sought to recapture the punk rock phenomenon . According to Rootes , " We want to infiltrate and conquer the masses . It 's like , Americans think English music 's shit – ' cause it is . We want [ England ] to gain a little respect that we haven 't had for a while . " The band also felt more comfortable in North America than in the UK because the British press " can 't handle the concept of a sexually frank all @-@ girl band " ; the name of the band comes from a lesbian novel titled Fluffy Butch , which Rootes thought was funny .
After turning down a number of record labels , the band signed to The Enclave , a record label run by A & R executive Tom Zutaut , who had previously signed Guns N ' Roses to Geffen . Rootes felt that Zutaut was " great . Very American , very cool , very into his artists . " Black Eye was recorded at Metropolis Studios in London and produced by punk rock veteran Bill Price , who had recorded albums by Sex Pistols and The Clash . The album was recorded live in the studio and the music was not arranged by the producer in order to achieve a rough , live sound . According to Rootes , Price " just recorded us live while we were playing . We did things like putting different guitar tracks on top and stuff like that . I did vocals at different times . But we really wanted to get a live sound . " The drums were recorded in a stone room using a basic kit that was modeled after a Ringo Starr reissue model , which resulted in a slightly distorted sound . The album was mastered by George Marino at Sterling Sound in New York City .
= = Music and lyrics = =
Musically , Black Eye was described by Carrie Borzillo of Billboard as " pure hardcore punk delivered with a raunchy , abrasive vocal assault from [ Rootes ] . " Aaron Axelsen , music director at modern rock KITS , opined that the band is " a real indie , edgy version of Elastica , but not Britpop . They fit into that Hole , L7 , Tuscadero , Veruca Salt , edgy thing . " The band , however , felt " insulted " when journalists compared them to Elastica because they think the sound of Elastica is too " clean " . As Rootes recalls , " I admit every time me and Bridged cleaned our house we put Elastica on " . Despite this , she considers Elastica , along with the Sex Pistols and the Buzzcocks , as the only UK bands among her favorites . The band cited the Sex Pistols , the New York Dolls , and The Stooges as their musical influences . They also preferred the Sex Pistols over the Clash . According to Rootes , " The Sex Pistols are political in a great teenage fuck @-@ you way . The Clash are political in a mature way , like they 've done politics in A @-@ levels . "
The lyrics of Black Eye deal with sexual and abuse topics : " Nothing you will likely hear on the radio " , Rootes explained . The song " Hypersonic " , named after the best @-@ selling vibrator in England , celebrates the joys of vibrator use . The title track , " Black Eye " , is about domestic violence . Rootes remarked : " When I was frowing up , my dad was really violent . I knew it was something I had to write a song about – to get it out of my system . " The song inspired the album cover , which depicts a cat holding a mouse in its jaw . Rootes explained that the mouse 's black eye represents a moment of serenity before it dies . Similarly , the song " Scream " deals with rape issues , while " Dirty Old Bird " is about spousal abuse . The track " Technicolour Yawn " is about the unpleasant effect of a hangover , " Psychofudge " is about drug usage , and " Cheap " deals with one 's loss of virginity and the subsequent feel of becoming " sort of cheap and common . "
Not all the songs from the album explore social issues . The songs " I Wanna Be Your Lush " and " Too Famous " use satire to criticise the superior attitudes of male musicians , while " Husband " disapproves " gruff and pushy " boyfriends . The band also clarified that they have nothing against men . As Rootes notes , " Men are great ! We love them ! We 're talking about dickhead men , not all men . " The band considered themselves more of a pro @-@ girl band than a feminist band . Rootes told Select : " So many girls are afraid to be girls . Apart from Courtney Love , who 's really feminine and uses her sexuality and is a strong woman . I don 't think women should dress like boys . That 's what 's great about PJ Harvey . She was boyish and now she 's gone really glam . She looks amazing and she 's become an icon : a real woman . "
= = Promotion and release = =
Black Eye is the first full @-@ length released by The Enclave . To promote the launch of the album , the record label , who had been working with the band since December 1995 , released several singles for " Husband " , " Psychofudge " , " Cheap " , and " Hypersonic " prior to the album release . The Enclave also released an EP consisting of five live songs recorded at New York 's CBGB on May 15 , 1996 and released on July 9 , 1996 to further awareness of the band . Prominent music critic Robert Christgau described the sound of the EP as " as pure punk as the ' 90s get . " Zutaut also admitted that the band 's punk attitude " may scare radio and MTV a little bit " , but he believed that their melodic music and lyrical statements " would pave the way for its success . "
The band embarked on a major tour in both coasts of the United States in April , May , and September 1996 . In Europe , the band also toured in Ireland with Foo Fighters , appeared at major summer festivals , and played with the Sex Pistols , Iggy Pop , and the Buzzcocks at Finsbury Park in London in June 23 , 1996 . The album was released on September 17 , 1996 in the US and September 30 , 1996 in the UK . The songs " Husband " and " Nothing " reached number 58 and number 52 respectively on the UK Singles Chart . A music video was made for " Black Eye " under the direction of Floria Sigismondi .
= = Critical reception = =
Upon release , Black Eye received mixed to positive reviews from music critics . Tom Sinclair , writing for Entertainment Weekly , stated that the album " barrels forward with such high @-@ spirited hookiness that it 's possible to forgive the shameless pandering of lyrics like ' I wanna be your kitten / Caress my fur . ' " In a very positive review , prominent music critic Robert Christgau felt that most of the songs " live up to the underlining " and considered the album to be the best punk debut since the ones by the Ramones , Sex Pistols , The Clash , and Wire . AllMusic reviewer Tom Demalon praised the loud guitar playing of both Rootes and Jones and opined that " the lack of dynamic diversity makes Black Eye somewhat of a one @-@ trick pony , but it 's a trick that makes the album 's strongest tracks a joy . "
Nick Duerden of Q magazine remarked that Black Eye " sounds like a cross between The Stooges and Courtney Love . And despite boasting the musical dexterity of Status Quo , it 's a short , sharp shock that dispatches its venom with a tireless guile . " Similarly , critic Roy Wilkinson of Select compared some songs favourably to The Stooges and early @-@ Siouxsie and the Banshees . However , he noted that the band " [ seems ] intent on falling short of PJ [ Harvey ] ' s black @-@ bordered presence . When was the last time you heard the Yeovil delta blues sound enlivened by such Carry On Riffing @-@ isms as ' I 've rocketed to Uranus ' ( ' Nothing ' ) and ' When the kids scream , there is a racket / You 've got a magnificent packet ' ( ' Too Famous ' ) ? "
In a negative review , Darren Gawle of Drop @-@ D magazine criticised the lyrics for their vague observations about obvious truths , stating : " The only shocking thing about Black Eye lies in a band trying to pass themselves off as Riot Grrls when in fact they pack as much ' Grrr ' as a slightly vexed Yorkshire Terrier . " In contrast , Colin Weston of Drowned in Sound commented : " The thing about Fluffy , is they aren 't the most lyrically challenging of bands , but their music more then [ sic ] makes up for it , and what they DO say , you understand immediately ... not messing about with ' Deep and meaningful ' lyrics , these girls have got something to say , and say it the only way they know how ... in your face ! ! ! " Although Black Eye was not ranked in the Top 40 of The Village Voice 's Pazz & Jop critics ' poll for 1996 , Christgau placed it at number 3 in his own " Dean 's List " .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written and composed by Fluffy .
= = Personnel = =
Credits are adapted from the album 's liner notes .
Fluffy
Amanda Rootes – vocals , guitar
Bridget Jones – guitar
Helen Storer – bass
Angie Adams – drums
Technical personnel
Bill Price – engineer , mixing , producer
George Marino – mastering
John Coding – design
Phil Hope – management
Elaine Constantine – photography
Jake Walters – photography
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= 2011 LSU vs. Alabama football game =
The 2011 LSU vs. Alabama football game was a regular @-@ season college football game between the unbeaten LSU Tigers ( ranked No. 1 in the nation ) , and the unbeaten Alabama Crimson Tide ( ranked No. 2 in the nation ) on November 5 , 2011 , at Bryant – Denny Stadium in Tuscaloosa , Alabama . Coined a " Game of the Century , " this was the first time two Southeastern Conference ( SEC ) football teams came into a regular season matchup undefeated and ranked No. 1 and No. 2 in the nation . In a game dominated by defense and special teams , LSU won in overtime 9 – 6 . LSU kicker Drew Alleman made all 3 of his field goals , while Alabama kickers Jeremy Shelley and Cade Foster made only 2 out of their 6 attempts , proving to be decisive in the game .
LSU and Alabama first met on the field in 1895 , and have met annually since 1964 . When former LSU head coach Nick Saban was hired in the same capacity at Alabama , their annual contest became , arguably , an even more heated rivalry than before . At the start of the 2011 season , Alabama was ranked No. 2 and LSU was ranked No. 4 in all of the major college polls , and prior to their annual meeting , each team defeated all eight of their opponents , and LSU moved into the No. 1 spot after a victory over West Virginia . Statistically , the game matched two of the top defenses in both the SEC and all of college football .
Alabama received the ball to begin the game . After a scoreless first quarter in which Alabama missed two field goals , both teams scored field goals in the second ; Alabama also had another attempt blocked early in the second quarter , that left the score tied 3 – 3 at halftime . Alabama took a 6 – 3 lead in the third , but LSU tied the game at 6 – 6 in the fourth quarter to send the game into overtime . In the overtime period , Alabama missed a 52 @-@ yard field goal . LSU then connected on a 25 @-@ yard field goal to win the game 9 – 6 .
In the weeks after the game , both teams defeated their remaining opponents , and LSU captured the SEC Championship , after they defeated Georgia 42 – 10 . On December 4 , 2011 , the final Bowl Championship Series standings were released with LSU ranked No. 1 and Alabama ranked No. 2 to set up a rematch in the 2012 BCS National Championship Game . In the rematch , Alabama defeated LSU 21 – 0 and captured the 2011 national championship .
= = Pre @-@ game buildup = =
LSU and Alabama first met on the field in 1895 and continuously since 1964 . Prior to their 2011 game , Alabama held an overall lead in the all @-@ time series with 45 wins to only 24 for LSU and five ties . Historically , LSU 's main rival was Tulane and Alabama 's were both Auburn and Tennessee . However , when former LSU head coach Nick Saban was hired in the same capacity at Alabama in 2007 season , the Alabama – LSU game became a major rivalry game for each school .
At the beginning of the 2011 season , both teams were ranked in the top five . After Alabama 's victory over Arkansas and LSU 's over West Virginia on September 24 , their November 5 game was viewed by many in the national media as a playoff with the winner advancing to the 2012 BCS National Championship Game . After the week ten polls were released , the game officially became the first college football , regular season No. 1 vs. No. 2 matchup since the 2006 Michigan vs. Ohio State football game , and the first all @-@ time regular season No. 1 vs. No. 2 matchup between SEC conference foes . Due to the No. 1 vs. No. 2 rankings against conference rivals and the hype that led up to the matchup , the game was referred to as the " Game of the Century . "
= = = LSU = = =
In the preseason polls , LSU opened the 2011 season as the No. 4 team in both the AP and Coaches ' Polls . In week one , the Tigers met the No. 3 Oregon Ducks in the Cowboys Classic . Against the highly regarded Oregon running attack , the LSU defense held the Ducks to less than 100 yards rushing and won the game 40 – 27 . With their win , they moved up to No. 2 and No. 3 in the AP and Coaches ' Polls . After they held the Northwestern State Demons of the Football Championship Subdivision to minus 4 yards rushing at Baton Rouge , LSU faced ranked opponents on the road in consecutive weeks against the Mississippi State Bulldogs and the West Virginia Mountaineers . Against the No. 25 Bulldogs , the Tigers only managed to score a single touchdown , but behind a third strong defensive performance won 19 – 6 .
In their third game of the season against a ranked opponent , LSU played their first @-@ ever game against the No. 16 Mountaineers at Morgantown . Although West Virginia was able to outgain the Tigers in total offense 533 to 366 yards , four Mountaineer turnovers resulted in a 47 – 21 LSU victory . As a result of this win , combined with the other two over ranked opponents , LSU was selected the No. 1 team by the AP following week 5 . The Tigers returned home to defeat the Kentucky Wildcats 35 – 7 in Jordan Jefferson 's return from suspension , and then defeated the No. 17 Florida Gators 41 – 11 , also in Death Valley . After their 38 – 7 victory over the Tennessee Volunteers at Neyland Stadium , the Tigers were selected as the No. 1 team in both the AP and Coaches ' Polls for the first time of the season after the Oklahoma Sooners were upset by Texas Tech Red Raiders . The next week , LSU defeated the No. 19 Auburn Tigers 45 – 10 at home and entered their bye week undefeated and ranked No. 1 for their game against No. 2 Alabama in Tuscaloosa .
Prior to the game against Alabama , LSU 's defense was ranked near the top of all major defensive categories nationally . They ranked fourth in total defense ( 251 @.@ 38 yards per game ) , third in scoring ( 11 @.@ 5 points per game ) and rushing defense ( 76 @.@ 63 yards per game ) and tenth in passing defense ( 174 @.@ 75 yards per game ) . In the SEC , the Tigers ranked second in total , scoring and rushing defense and fourth in passing defense . Nationally on offense , LSU ranked twelfth in scoring offense ( 39 @.@ 25 points per game ) , 31st in rushing offense ( 189 yards per game ) , 81st in total offense ( 372 @.@ 13 yards per game ) and 99th in passing offense ( 183 @.@ 13 yards per game ) . In the SEC , they ranked second in scoring offense , fourth in rushing offense , sixth in total offense and eighth in passing offense .
= = = Alabama = = =
In the preseason polls , Alabama opened the 2011 season as the No. 2 ranked team in both the AP and Coaches ' Polls . After they defeated the Kent State Golden Flashes 48 – 7 in the season opener , Alabama dropped to No. 3 in the AP Poll as a result of LSU 's victory over Oregon . In Week 2 , the Crimson Tide traveled to Beaver Stadium for the first time since 1989 to play the Penn State Nittany Lions . They defeated the No. 23 Nittany Lions 27 – 11 , and returned to Tuscaloosa for a pair of home games against the North Texas Mean Green and the Arkansas Razorbacks . Against North Texas , the Alabama defense was dominant and secured the first shutout for the Crimson Tide defense since the 2009 season with their 41 – 0 victory . The following week , Alabama opened conference play with a 38 – 14 victory over No. 14 Arkansas and then defeated the No. 12 Florida Gators 38 – 10 to extend their record to 5 – 0 . After their victory over Florida , the Crimson Tide regained their No. 2 ranking in the AP Poll .
Alabama then returned home for their homecoming game against the Vanderbilt Commodores . For the second time of the season , the Alabama defense had a shutout in the 34 – 0 Crimson Tide victory . After a 52 – 7 win over the Ole Miss Rebels at Vaught – Hemingway Stadium , Alabama returned for their annual Third Saturday in October contest against the Tennessee Volunteers . The Crimson Tide defeated Tennessee for the fifth consecutive season with their 37 – 6 victory and entered their bye week undefeated and ranked No. 2 for their game against No. 1 LSU in Tuscaloosa .
Prior to the game against LSU , Alabama 's defense was ranked at or near the top of all major defensive categories nationally . Both nationally and in the SEC , they ranked first in total ( 180 @.@ 5 yards per game ) , scoring ( 6 @.@ 88 points per game ) and rushing defense ( 44 @.@ 88 yards per game ) . The Crimson Tide also nationally ranked second , and first in the SEC , in pass defense ( 135 @.@ 63 yards per game ) . Nationally on offense , Alabama ranked eleventh in scoring offense ( 39 @.@ 38 points per game ) , fourteenth in rushing offense ( 229 @.@ 25 yards per game ) , 23rd in total offense ( 457 @.@ 63 yards per game ) and 63rd in passing offense ( 228 @.@ 38 yards per game ) . In the SEC , they ranked first in total , scoring and rushing offense and fourth in passing offense .
= = Game summary = =
Originally to air on CBS with a start time of 2 : 30 p.m. CST , CBS reassigned the game for primetime television at 7 : 00 p.m. CST as part of a trade announced October 23 . The deal with CBS involved swapping games to other networks and gave future scheduling considerations for the 2012 season to ESPN . This was the case as CBS used their allotted SEC primetime slot for the Alabama – Florida game earlier in the season .
The 2011 edition of the Alabama – LSU football rivalry kicked off at 7 : 14 p.m. CST on November 5 , 2011 , before a crowd of 101 @,@ 821 people at Bryant – Denny Stadium , in Tuscaloosa , Alabama . The game was broadcast nationally in prime time on CBS and Verne Lundquist provided the play @-@ by @-@ play commentary , Gary Danielson provided the color commentary and Tracy Wolfson served as the sideline reporter . An estimated 20 million people watched the game 's television broadcast on CBS , and the broadcast earned a television rating of 11 @.@ 5 , the highest rating for a non @-@ bowl , college football telecast on CBS since 1989 .
= = = First quarter = = =
After winning the coin toss , Alabama elected to receive the ball to open the first half . Marquis Maze fielded the James Hairston kickoff and returned it to the Alabama 30 @-@ yard line where the offense began its first series . Alabama opened with a pair of gains by Trent Richardson on an 18 @-@ yard run and on a 22 @-@ yard pass reception from A. J. McCarron to reach the LSU 30 @-@ yard line . However , the drive stalled on the next three plays , and on fourth down Cade Foster missed a 44 @-@ yard field goal wide right and the game remained tied at zero . The Tigers began their first offensive series with Jarrett Lee at quarterback from their own 27 @-@ yard line . After LSU gained a pair of first downs on runs by Spencer Ware and short passes from Lee , the drive faltered , and Brad Wing punted the ball out @-@ of @-@ bounds at the Alabama five .
Alabama started their second drive with a short gain and an incompletion , and then McCarron then threw a 19 @-@ yard pass to Maze for a first down . The Crimson Tide gained another pair of first downs with a Maze reception and three runs each from Richardson and Eddie Lacy before the drive stalled at the LSU 33 . Again Foster missed a field goal , this time from 50 @-@ yards , and the game remained tied at zero . On the next LSU possession , Ware had a short gain and Lee completed a short pass to Russell Shepard before he threw an interception to Robert Lester at the Alabama 47 @-@ yard line . The Crimson Tide then began their third offensive series with a 19 @-@ yard completion from McCarron to Darius Hanks before the end of the first quarter .
= = = Second quarter = = =
After a ten @-@ yard gain by Richardson to start the quarter , Alabama lost a total of seven yards on consecutive plays and a McCarron incompletion on third down set up a third long field goal attempt . This time the 49 @-@ yard attempt from Jeremy Shelley was blocked by Bennie Logan and recovered by Eric Reid who returned it to the Alabama 48 . On this LSU possession , Jordan Jefferson took over as the Tigers ' quarterback , and LSU gained a first down on a six @-@ yard Michael Ford run and a pair of short runs by Ware . However , the drive stalled again and Wing was forced to punt for LSU .
Alabama started from their own four , and Lacy had a short gain before Richardson had four consecutive runs to move the ball to the 39 @-@ yard line . The next play was Alabama 's longest play from scrimmage in the game when McCarron threw a 39 @-@ yard pass to Richardson and brought the ball to the LSU 19 @-@ yard line . However , for the fourth time in four offensive possessions , the LSU defense held Alabama to a field goal attempt . This time , the 34 @-@ yard Jeremy Shelley kick was good and the Crimson Tide took a 3 – 0 lead . Once the received the kickoff , LSU began their fourth offensive possession from their own 24 . The Tigers opened their drive with runs of 14 and nine yards from Ford , followed by short runs from Ware , Jefferson and Ford again to bring the ball to the Alabama 36 . After a five yard substitution penalty , Jefferson completed a 34 @-@ yard pass to Russell Shepard to give the Tigers a first and goal from the Alabama eight . After a four @-@ yard rush by Ford and a Jefferson incompletion , Dre Kirkpatrick was called for holding that resulted in a first and goal from the Alabama two @-@ yard line . Jefferson then threw another incompletion followed with a run for no gain by Ford . LSU then called a time @-@ out with two seconds left in the half to set up a field goal attempt , and Alabama followed with a second time @-@ out in an attempt to ice the kicker . Drew Alleman then kicked a 19 @-@ yard field goal as time expired to tie the game at 3 – 3 at halftime .
= = = Third quarter = = =
LSU received the ball to start the second half and started their fifth offensive drive from their own 18 . After they gained a first down on a short pass on a pair of runs , the Alabama defense stopped the Tigers on their next series to force a punt . Alabama then started from their own 48 , but were only able to muster a three and out . This resulted in their first punt of the night from Cody Mandell . With Lee back at quarterback for LSU , he threw his second interception , this time to Mark Barron , to give Alabama possession at the LSU 35 . Again the LSU defense held the Alabama offense in check to set up another long field goal attempt . This time Foster connected on a 46 @-@ yard field goal to give the Crimson Tide a 6 – 3 lead . On the next drive , LSU was able to gain a pair of first downs primarily with only runs by Jefferson and Ford , but again were forced to punt . Alabama started this drive from their own 11 , and was able to gain a pair of first downs on McCarron passes before he threw an interception to Morris Claiborne that was returned to the Alabama 15 . The quarter ended two plays later after a pair of LSU runs resulted in no gain .
= = = Fourth quarter = = =
After a two @-@ yard Jefferson run to open the fourth quarter , Alleman kicked a 30 @-@ yard field goal to tie the game at 6 – 6 . Alabama began the next series with a two @-@ yard Richardson reception followed by a two @-@ yard run before McCarron connected with Maze for a first down on an 18 @-@ yard reception . Richardson then had a three @-@ yard run and a 24 @-@ yard run to give the Crimson Tide a first down at the LSU 28 . On the next play , Maze threw an interception on a trick play to Reid at the LSU one @-@ yard line to give the Tigers possession . After Alabama held LSU to a three @-@ and @-@ out , Wing had a 73 @-@ yard punt to give Alabama possession at their own 18 . Alabama and LSU then traded punts on the next three offensive possessions to send the game into overtime tied 6 – 6 .
= = = Overtime = = =
In the overtime period , Alabama was on offense first . McCarron opened their drive with a pair of incompletions to Richardson . After a five @-@ yard substitution penalty and a five @-@ yard quarterback sack by Sam Montgomery , Foster missed a 52 @-@ yard field goal . On LSU 's possession , Ware had a three @-@ yard rush and then Ford had a 15 @-@ yard run to give the Tigers a first down from the Alabama seven . After a pair of runs that netted a loss of one yard , on third down Alleman kicked a 25 @-@ yard field goal to give LSU the 9 – 6 victory .
= = = Scoring summary = = =
= = Statistical summary = =
In a game noted for dominant defense performances for both teams , offensively , both Alabama and LSU had similar statistics . The Crimson Tide compiled 295 yards of total offense as compared to LSU 's 239 yards . Alabama quarterback AJ McCarron completed 16 of 28 passes for 199 passing yards . His top receiver in the game was Trent Richardson who had 80 yards on 5 receptions , followed by Marquis Maze with 61 yards on 6 receptions .
Jarrett Lee entered the game as the Tigers ' starting quarterback . However after he threw a pair of interceptions , Lee was replaced by Jordan Jefferson for the remainder of the game . In the game , Lee completed 3 of 7 passes for 24 yards and Jefferson completed 6 of 10 passes for 67 yards . The Tigers top receiver in the game was Russell Shepard who had 39 yards on 2 receptions .
In terms of rushing offense , LSU outgained Alabama 148 to 96 yards , led by Michael Ford who ran for 72 rushing yards . The Crimson Tide was led on the ground by Richardson , who carried the ball 23 times for 89 yards . LSU , was led by Ford 's 72 rushing yards , and also saw Jefferson rush for 43 yards on 11 carries and Spencer Ware pick up 29 yards on 16 carries .
Defensively , Nico Johnson led Alabama with eleven total tackles in the game , followed by DeQuan Menzie with eight . Mark Barron and Robert Lester each had one interception and Courtney Upshaw accounted for the Crimson Tide 's only quarterback sack of the game . For LSU , Ryan Baker led the Tigers with eight total tackles in the game , followed by both Eric Reid and Sam Montgomery who each had six . Reid and Morris Claiborne each had one interception and Montgomery accounted for both of LSU 's quarterback sacks .
= = Aftermath = =
= = = LSU = = =
With the victory , LSU remained atop all three polls at No. 1 . They also took a one game lead in the SEC Western Division standings over Alabama , and ultimately secured a place in the 2011 SEC Championship Game . The Tigers went on to finish the regular season 12 – 0 with victories over Western Kentucky , Ole Miss and Arkansas . In the SEC Championship , LSU rallied from an early double @-@ digit deficit to defeat Georgia and won the conference championship , retained their unanimous No. 1 ranking and secured a place in the BCS National Championship Game .
Statistically , LSU 's defense was still ranked near the top of all major defensive categories nationally after the game against Alabama . They moved up to second in both scoring ( 10 @.@ 89 points per game ) and rushing defense ( 78 @.@ 78 yards per game ) , third in total defense ( 256 @.@ 22 yards per game ) and ninth in passing defense ( 177 @.@ 44 yards per game ) . The Tigers remained ranked second in total , scoring and rushing defense and fourth in passing defense within the conference . On offense the Tigers dropped to 20th in scoring offense ( 35 @.@ 89 points per game ) , 38th in rushing offense ( 184 @.@ 44 yards per game ) , 87th in total offense ( 357 @.@ 33 yards per game ) and 102nd in passing offense ( 172 @.@ 89 yards per game ) . In conference , they remained second in scoring offense , sixth in total offense , eighth in passing offense , but dropped to fifth in rushing offense .
= = = Alabama = = =
With the loss , Alabama dropped to No. 4 in both the AP and Coaches ' Polls and to No. 3 in the BCS standings . The Crimson Tide went on to finish the regular season 11 – 1 with victories over Mississippi State , Georgia Southern and Auburn . During these final weeks , a series of upsets occurred that allowed Alabama to remain in contention for the final No. 2 ranking , and thus to qualify for the BCS National Championship Game . Alabama secured a place in the BCS National Championship Game after they completed the regular season ranked No. 2 with a BCS score of .942 , slightly ahead of Oklahoma State with a BCS score of .933 . The .09 difference between the teams was the closest final BCS ranking between No. 2 and No. 3 ranked teams since the current BCS formula was instituted in 2004 .
Statistically , Alabama 's defense was ranked at the top of all major defensive categories nationally after the game against LSU . They still ranked first in total ( 187 @.@ 00 yards per game ) , scoring ( 7 @.@ 11 points per game ) and rushing defense ( 56 @.@ 33 yards per game ) , and moved up to first in pass defense ( 130 @.@ 67 yards per game ) . Alabama remained the conference leader in all four major categories as well . On offense the Crimson Tide dropped to 23rd in scoring offense ( 35 @.@ 67 points per game ) , 21st in rushing offense ( 214 @.@ 44 yards per game ) , 30th in total offense ( 439 @.@ 56 yards per game ) and 68th in passing offense ( 225 @.@ 11 yards per game ) . In conference , Alabama remained first in rushing and fourth in passing offense , but dropped to second in total and third in scoring offense .
= = = Rematch = = =
On December 4 , 2011 , the final Bowl Championship Series standings were unveiled with LSU ranked first , followed by Alabama , to set up a rematch between the two teams in the 2012 BCS National Championship Game . In the weeks that led up to the game , the notion of a split national championship became a major storyline . This was the case as the AP Poll is not tied to the Bowl Championship Series and some AP voters expressed they might vote LSU national champions even if they lost as they defeated Alabama in their regular season game . However , after Alabama shut out LSU 21 – 0 in the BCS National Championship Game , the AP voted them national champions to give the Crimson Tide the consensus national championship and thus avoid a split title with LSU .
= = = Players drafted in the NFL = = =
Within the next four years , 45 players that participated in this game were taken into the NFL Draft . This represents the highest number of players taken in a regular season game and represents the second highest number of players taken into the NFL Draft from both of the teams that participated , second only to the 2003 Fiesta Bowl which produced 52 future draft picks . The final pick came with the 253rd selection on the 2015 NFL Draft , which saw the New England Patriots take Xzavier Dickson , three selections before the final " Mr. Irrelevant " pick . The following table lists all of the participants from the 2011 LSU vs. Alabama game that were later drafted by an NFL team :
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= Raid at Cabanatuan =
The Raid at Cabanatuan , also known as The Great Raid , was a rescue of Allied prisoners of war ( POWs ) and civilians from a Japanese camp near Cabanatuan City , in the Philippines . On January 30 , 1945 , during World War II , United States Army Rangers , Alamo Scouts , and Filipino guerrillas liberated more than 500 from the POW camp .
After the surrender of tens of thousands of American troops during the Battle of Bataan , many were sent to the Cabanatuan prison camp following the Bataan Death March . The Japanese transferred most of the prisoners to other areas , leaving just over 500 American and other Allied POWs and civilians in the prison . Facing brutal conditions including disease , torture , and malnourishment , the prisoners feared they would all be executed by their captors before the arrival of General Douglas MacArthur and his American forces returning to Luzon . In late January 1945 , a plan was developed by Sixth Army leaders and Filipino guerrillas to send a small force to rescue the prisoners . A group of over a hundred Rangers and Scouts and several hundred guerrillas traveled 30 miles ( 48 km ) behind Japanese lines to reach the camp .
In a nighttime raid , under the cover of darkness and a distraction by a P @-@ 61 Black Widow , the group surprised the Japanese forces in and around the camp . Hundreds of Japanese troops were killed in the 30 @-@ minute coordinated attack ; the Americans suffered minimal casualties . The Rangers , Scouts , and guerrillas escorted the POWs back to American lines . The rescue allowed the prisoners to tell of the death march and prison camp atrocities , which sparked a new rush of resolve for the war against Japan . The rescuers were awarded commendations by MacArthur , and were also recognized by President Franklin D. Roosevelt . A memorial now sits on the site of the former camp , and the events of the raid have been depicted in several films .
= = Background = =
After the United States was attacked at Pearl Harbor on December 7 , 1941 by Japanese forces , it entered World War II to join the Allied forces in their fight against the Axis powers . American forces led by General Douglas MacArthur , already stationed in the Philippines as a deterrent against a Japanese invasion of the islands , were attacked by the Japanese hours after Pearl Harbor . On March 12 , 1942 , General MacArthur and a few select officers , on the orders of President Franklin D. Roosevelt , left the American forces , promising to return with reinforcements . The 72 @,@ 000 soldiers of the United States Army Forces in the Far East ( USAFFE ) , fighting with outdated weapons , lacking supplies , and stricken with disease and malnourishment , eventually surrendered to the Japanese on April 9 , 1942 .
The Japanese had initially planned for only 10 @,@ 000 – 25 @,@ 000 American and Filipino prisoners of war ( POWs ) . Although they had organized two hospitals , ample food , and guards for this estimate , they were overwhelmed with over 72 @,@ 000 prisoners . By the end of the 60 @-@ mile ( 97 @-@ km ) march , only 52 @,@ 000 prisoners ( approximately 9 @,@ 200 American and 42 @,@ 800 Filipino ) reached Camp O 'Donnell , with an estimated 20 @,@ 000 having died from illness , hunger , torture , or murder . Later with the closure of Camp O 'Donnell most of the imprisoned soldiers were transferred to the Cabanatuan prison camp to join the POWs from the Battle of Corregidor .
In 1944 , when the United States landed on the Philippines to recapture it , orders had been sent out by the Japanese high command to kill the POWs in order to avoid them being rescued by liberating forces . One method of the execution was to round the prisoners up in one location , pour gasoline over them , and then burn them alive . After hearing the accounts of the survivors from the massacre at the Puerto Princesa Prison Camp , the liberating forces feared that the safety of the POWs being held in the country was in jeopardy , and decided to launch a series of rescue operations to save the surviving POWs on the islands .
= = POW camp = =
The Cabanatuan prison camp was named after the nearby city of 50 @,@ 000 people ( locals also called it Camp Pangatian , after a small nearby village ) . The camp had first been used as an American Department of Agriculture station and then a training camp for the Filipino army . When the Japanese invaded the Philippines , they used the camp to house American POWs . It was one of three camps in the Cabanatuan area and was designated for holding sick detainees . Occupying more than 25 acres ( 0 @.@ 10 km2 ) , the rectangular @-@ shaped camp was 800 yards ( 730 m ) deep by 600 yards ( 550 m ) across , divided by a road that ran through its center . One side of the camp housed Japanese guards , while the other included bamboo barracks for the prisoners as well as a section for a hospital . Nicknamed the " Zero Ward " , the hospital housed the sickliest prisoners as they waited to die from diseases such as dysentery and malaria . Eight @-@ foot ( 2 @.@ 4 @-@ m ) high barbed wire fences surrounded the camp , in addition to multiple pillbox bunkers and four @-@ story guard towers .
At its peak , the camp held 8 @,@ 000 American soldiers ( along with a small number of soldiers and civilians from other nations including the United Kingdom , Norway , and the Netherlands ) , making it the largest POW camp in the Philippines . This number dropped significantly as able @-@ bodied soldiers were shipped to other areas in the Philippines , Japan , Japanese @-@ occupied Taiwan , and Manchukuo to work in slave labor camps . As Japan had not yet ratified the Geneva Convention , the POWs were transported out of the camp and forced to work in factories to build Japanese weaponry , unload ships , and repair airfields .
The imprisoned soldiers received two meals a day of steamed rice , occasionally accompanied by fruit , soup , or meat . To supplement their diet , prisoners were able to smuggle food and supplies hidden in their underwear into the camp during Japanese @-@ approved trips to Cabanatuan . To prevent extra food , jewelry , diaries , and other valuables from being confiscated , items were hidden in clothing , latrines , or were buried before scheduled inspections . Prisoners collected food using a variety of methods including stealing , bribing guards , planting gardens , and killing animals which entered the camp such as mice , snakes , ducks , and stray dogs . The Filipino underground collected thousands of quinine tablets to smuggle into the camp to treat malaria , saving hundreds of lives . When the Japanese had an American radio technician fix their radios , he would steal parts , allowing the prisoners to have several radios to listen to newscasts of the war efforts outside the camp . One group of Corregidor prisoners , before first entering the camp , had each hidden a piece of a radio under their clothing , to later be reassembled into a working device . The radios were able to pick up a San Francisco @-@ based radio station , allowing the POWs to hear about the status of war outside the gates of the prison . A smuggled camera was used to document the camp 's living conditions . Prisoners also constructed weapons and smuggled ammunition into the camp for the possibility of securing a handgun .
Multiple escape attempts were made throughout the history of the prison camp , but the majority ended in failure . In one attempt , four soldiers were recaptured by the Japanese . The guards forced all prisoners to watch as the four soldiers were beaten , forced to dig their own graves and then executed . Shortly thereafter , the guards put up signs declaring that if other escape attempts were made , ten prisoners would be executed for every escapee . Prisoners ' living quarters were then divided into groups of ten , which motivated the POWs to keep a close eye on others to prevent them from making escape attempts .
The Japanese permitted the POWs to build septic systems and irrigation ditches throughout the prisoner side of the camp . An onsite commissary was available to sell items such as bananas , eggs , coffee , notebooks , and cigarettes . Recreational activities allowed for baseball , horseshoes , and ping pong matches . In addition , a 3 @,@ 000 @-@ book library was allowed ( much of which was provided by the Red Cross ) , and films were shown occasionally . A bulldog was kept by the prisoners , and served as a mascot for the camp . Each year around Christmas , the Japanese guards gave permission for the Red Cross to donate a small box to each of the prisoners , containing items such as corned beef , instant coffee , and tobacco . Prisoners were also able to send postcards to relatives , although they were censored by the guards .
As American forces continued to approach Luzon , the Japanese Imperial High Command ordered that all able @-@ bodied POWs be transported to Japan . From the Cabanatuan camp , over 1 @,@ 600 soldiers were removed in October 1944 , leaving over 500 sick , weak , or disabled POWs . On January 6 , 1945 , all of the guards withdrew from the Cabanatuan camp , leaving the POWs alone . The guards had previously told prisoner leaders that they should not attempt to escape , or else they would be killed . When the guards left , the prisoners heeded the threat , fearing that the Japanese were waiting near the camp and would use the attempted escape as an excuse to execute them all . Instead , the prisoners went to the guards ' side of the camp and ransacked the Japanese buildings for supplies and large amounts of food . Prisoners were alone for several weeks , except when retreating Japanese forces would periodically stay in the camp . The soldiers mainly ignored the POWs , except to ask for food . Although aware of the consequences , the prisoners sent a small group outside the prison 's gates to bring in two carabaos to slaughter . The meat from the animals , along with the food secured from the Japanese side of the camp , helped many of the POWs to regain their strength , weight , and stamina . In mid @-@ January , a large group of Japanese troops entered the camp and returned the prisoners to their side of the camp . The prisoners , fueled by rumors , speculated that they would soon be executed by the Japanese .
= = Planning and preparation = =
On October 20 , 1944 , General Douglas MacArthur 's forces landed on Leyte , paving the way for the liberation of the Philippines . Several months later , as the Americans consolidated their forces to prepare for the main invasion of Luzon , nearly 150 Americans were executed by their Japanese captors on December 14 , 1944 at the Puerto Princesa Prison Camp on the island of Palawan . These Americans were herded into air @-@ raid shelters , sealed in , doused with gasoline , and burned alive . One of the survivors , PFC Eugene Nielsen , recounted his tale to U.S. Army Intelligence on January 7 , 1945 . Two days later , MacArthur 's forces landed on Luzon and began a rapid advance towards the capital , Manila .
Major Bob Lapham , the American USAFFE senior guerrilla chief , and another guerrilla leader , Juan Pajota , had considered freeing the prisoners within the camp , but feared logistical issues with hiding and caring for the prisoners . An earlier plan had been proposed by Lieutenant Colonel Bernard Anderson , leader of the guerrillas near the camp . He suggested that the guerrillas would secure the prisoners , escort them 50 miles ( 80 km ) to Debut Bay , and transport them using 30 submarines . The plan was denied approval as MacArthur feared the Japanese would catch up with the fleeing prisoners and kill them all . In addition , the Navy did not have the required submarines , especially with MacArthur 's upcoming invasion of Luzon .
On January 26 , 1945 , Lapham traveled from his location near the prison camp to Sixth Army headquarters , 30 miles ( 48 km ) away . He proposed to Lieutenant General Walter Krueger 's intelligence chief Colonel Horton White that a rescue attempt be made to liberate the estimated 500 POWs at the Cabanatuan prison camp before the Japanese possibly killed them all . Lapham estimated Japanese forces to include 100 – 300 soldiers within the camp , 1 @,@ 000 across the Cabu River northeast of the camp , and possibly around 5 @,@ 000 within Cabanatuan City . Pictures of the camp were also available , as planes had taken surveillance images as recently as January 19 . White estimated that the I Corps would not reach Cabanatuan City until January 31 or February 1 , and that if any rescue attempt were to be made , it would have to be on January 29 . White reported the details to Krueger , who gave the order for the rescue attempt .
White gathered Lt. Col. Henry Mucci , leader of the 6th Ranger Battalion , and three lieutenants from the Alamo Scouts — the special reconnaissance unit attached to his Sixth Army — for a briefing on the mission to raid Cabanatuan and rescue the POWs . The group developed a plan to rescue the prisoners . Fourteen Scouts , made up of two teams , would leave 24 hours ahead of the main force , to survey the camp . The main force would consist of 90 Rangers from C Company and 30 from F Company who would march 30 miles behind Japanese lines , surround the camp , kill the guards , and rescue and escort the prisoners back to American lines . The Americans would join up with 80 Filipino guerrillas , who would serve as guides and help in the rescue attempt . The initial plan was to attack the camp at 17 : 30 PST ( UTC + 8 ) on January 29 .
On the evening of January 27 , the Rangers studied air reconnaissance photos and listened to guerrilla intelligence on the prison camp . The two five @-@ man teams of Alamo Scouts , led by 1st Lts . William Nellist and Thomas Rounsaville , left Guimba at 19 : 00 and infiltrated behind enemy lines for the long trek to attempt a reconnaissance of the prison camp . Each Scout was armed with a .45 pistol , three hand grenades , a rifle or M1 carbine , a knife , and extra ammunition . The next morning , the Scouts linked up with several Filipino guerrilla units at the village of Platero , 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) north of the camp .
The Rangers were armed with assorted Thompson submachine guns , BARs , M1 Garand rifles , pistols , grenades , knives , extra ammunition , as well as a few bazookas . Four combat photographers from a unit of the 832nd Signal Service Battalion volunteered to accompany the Scouts and Rangers to record the rescue after Mucci suggested the idea of documenting the raid . Each photographer was armed with a pistol . Despite Geneva Convention restrictions on armed medical personnel , surgeon Captain Jimmy Fisher and his medics each carried pistols and carbines . To maintain a link between the raiding group and Army Command , a radio outpost was established outside of Guimba . The force had two radios , but their use was only approved in asking for aircraft support if they ran into large Japanese forces or if there were last @-@ minute changes to the raid ( as well as calling off friendly fire by American aircraft ) .
= = Behind enemy lines = =
Shortly after 05 : 00 on January 28 , Mucci and a reinforced company of 121 Rangers under Capt. Robert Prince drove 60 miles ( 97 km ) to Guimba , before slipping through Japanese lines at just after 14 : 00 . Guided by Filipino guerrillas , the Rangers hiked through open grasslands to avoid enemy patrols . In villages along the Rangers ' route , other guerrillas assisted in muzzling dogs and putting chickens in cages to prevent the Japanese from hearing the traveling group . At one point , the Rangers narrowly avoided a Japanese tank on the national highway by following a ravine that ran under the road .
The group reached Balincarin , a barrio 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) north of the camp , the following morning . Mucci linked up with Scouts Nellist and Rounsaville to go over the camp reconnaissance from the previous night . The Scouts revealed that the terrain around the camp was flat , which would leave the force exposed before the raid . Mucci also met with USAFFE guerrilla Captain Juan Pajota and his 200 men , whose intimate knowledge of enemy activity , the locals , and the terrain proved crucial . Upon learning that Mucci wanted to push through with the attack that evening , Pajota resisted , insisting that it would be suicide . He revealed that the guerrillas had been watching an estimated 1 @,@ 000 Japanese soldiers camped out across the Cabu River just a few hundred yards from the prison . Pajota also confirmed reports that as many as 7 @,@ 000 enemy troops were deployed around Cabanatuan City located several miles away . With the invading American forces from the southwest , a Japanese division was withdrawing to the north on a road close to the camp . He recommended waiting for the division to pass so that the force would face minimal opposition . After consolidating information from Pajota and the Alamo Scouts about heavy enemy activity in the camp area , Mucci agreed to postpone the raid for 24 hours , and alerted the Sixth Army Headquarters to the development by radio . He directed the Scouts to return to the camp and gain additional intelligence , especially on the strength of the guards and the exact location of the captive soldiers . The Rangers withdrew to Platero , a barrio ( suburb ) 2 @.@ 5 miles ( 4 @.@ 0 km ) south of Balincarin .
= = Strategy = =
At 11 : 30 on January 30 , Alamo Scouts Lt. Bill Nellist and Pvt. Rufo Vaquilar , disguised as locals , managed to gain access to an abandoned shack 300 yards ( 270 m ) from the camp . Avoiding detection by the Japanese guards , they observed the camp from the shack and prepared a detailed report on the camp 's major features , including the main gate , Japanese troop strength , the location of telephone wires , and the best attack routes . Shortly thereafter they were joined by three other Scouts , whom Nellist tasked to deliver the report to Mucci . Nellist and Vaquilar remained in the shack until the start of the raid .
Mucci had already given Nellist 's January 29 afternoon report and forwarded it to Prince , whom he entrusted to determine how to get the Rangers in and out of the compound quickly , and with as few casualties as possible . Prince developed a plan , which was then modified in light of the new report from the abandoned shack reconnaissance received at 14 : 30 . He proposed that the Rangers would be split into two groups : about 90 Rangers of C Company , led by Prince , would attack the main camp and escort the prisoners out , while 30 Rangers of a platoon from F Company , commanded by Lt. John Murphy , would signal the start of the attack by firing into various Japanese positions at the rear of the camp at 19 : 30 . Prince predicted that the raid would be accomplished in 30 minutes or less . Once Prince had ensured that all of the POWs were safely out of the camp , he would fire a red flare , indicating that all troops should fall back to a meetup at Pampanga River 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) north of the camp where 150 guerrillas would be ready with carabao @-@ pulled carts to transport the POWs . This group would help to load the POWs and escort them back to American lines .
One of Prince 's primary concerns was the flatness of the countryside . The Japanese had kept the terrain clear of vegetation to ensure that approaching guerrilla attacks could be seen as well as to spot prisoner escapes . Prince knew his Rangers would have to crawl through a long , open field on their bellies , right under the eyes of the Japanese guards . There would only be just over an hour of full darkness , as the sun set below the horizon and the moon rose . This would still present the possibility of the Japanese guards noticing their movement , especially with a nearly full moon . If the Rangers were discovered , the only planned response was for everyone to immediately stand up and rush the camp . The Rangers were unaware that the Japanese did not have any searchlights that could be used to illuminate the perimeter . Pajota suggested that to distract the guards , a United States Army Air Forces ( USAAF ) airplane should buzz the camp to divert the guards ' eyes to the sky . Mucci agreed with the idea and a radio request was sent to command to ask for a plane to fly over the camp while the men made their way across the field . In preparation for possible injuries or wounds received during the encounter with the Japanese , the battalion surgeon , Cpt . Jimmy Fisher , developed a makeshift hospital in the Platero schoolhouse .
By dawn on January 30 , the road in front of the camp was clear of traveling Japanese troops . Mucci made plans to protect the POWs once they were freed from the camp . Two groups of guerrillas of the Luzon Guerrilla Armed Forces , one under Pajota and another under Capt. Eduardo Joson , would be sent in opposite directions to hold the main road near the camp . Pajota and 200 guerrillas were to set up a roadblock next to the wooden bridge over the Cabu River . This setup , northeast of the prisoner camp , would be the first line of defense against the Japanese forces camped across the river , which would be within earshot of the assault on the camp . Joson and his 75 guerrillas , along with a Ranger bazooka team , would set up a roadblock 800 yards ( 730 m ) southwest of the prisoner camp to stop any Japanese forces that would arrive from Cabanatuan . Both groups would each place 25 land mines in front of their positions , and one guerrilla from each group was given a bazooka to destroy any armored vehicles . After the POWs and the remainder of the attacking force had reached the Pampanga River meeting point , Prince would fire a second flare to indicate to the ambush sites to pull back ( gradually , if they faced opposition ) and head to Plateros .
As the POWs had no knowledge of the upcoming assault , they went through their normal routine that night . The previous day , two Filipino boys had thrown rocks into the prisoner side of the camp with notes attached , " Be ready to go out . " Assuming that the boys were pulling a prank , the POWs disregarded the notes . The POWs were becoming more wary of the Japanese guards , believing that anytime in the next few days they could be massacred for any reason . They figured that the Japanese would not want them to be rescued by advancing American forces , regain their strength , and return to fight the Japanese again . In addition , the Japanese could kill the prisoners to prevent them from telling of the atrocities of the Bataan Death March or the conditions in the camp . With the limited Japanese guard , a small group of prisoners had already decided that they would make an escape attempt at about 20 : 00 .
= = Prisoner rescue = =
At 17 : 00 , a few hours after Mucci approved Prince 's plan , the Rangers departed from Platero . White cloths were tied around their left arms to prevent " friendly fire " casualties . They crossed the Pampanga River and then , at 17 : 45 , Prince and Murphy 's men parted ways to surround the camp . Pajota , Joson , and their guerrilla forces each headed to their ambush sites . The Rangers under Prince made their way to the main gate and stopped about 700 yards ( 640 m ) from the camp to wait for nightfall and the aircraft distraction .
Meanwhile , a P @-@ 61 Black Widow from the 547th Night Fighter Squadron had taken off at 18 : 00 , piloted by Capt. Kenneth Schrieber and 1st Lt. Bonnie Rucks . About 45 minutes before the attack , Schrieber cut the power to the left engine at 1 @,@ 500 feet ( 460 m ) over the camp . He restarted it , creating a loud backfire , and repeated the procedure twice more , losing altitude to 200 feet ( 61 m ) . Pretending that his plane was crippled , Schrieber headed toward low hills , clearing them by a mere 30 feet ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) . To the Japanese observers , it seemed the plane had crashed and they watched , waiting for a fiery explosion . Schrieber repeated this several times while also performing various aerobatic maneuvers . The ruse continued for twenty minutes , creating a diversion for the Rangers inching their way toward the camp on their bellies . Prince later commended the pilots ' actions : " The idea of an aerial decoy was a little unusual and honestly , I didn 't think it would work , not in a million years . But the pilot 's maneuvers were so skillful and deceptive that the diversion was complete . I don 't know where we would have been without it . " As the plane buzzed the camp , Lt. Carlos Tombo and his guerrillas along with a small number of Rangers cut the camp 's telephone lines to prevent communication with the large force stationed in Cabanatuan .
At 19 : 40 , the whole prison compound erupted into small arms fire after Murphy and his men fired on the guard towers and barracks . Within the first fifteen seconds , all of the camp 's guard towers and pillboxes were targeted and destroyed . Sgt. Ted Richardson rushed to shoot a padlock off of the main gate using his .45 pistol . The Rangers at the main gate maneuvered to bring the guard barracks and officer quarters under fire , while the ones at the rear eliminated the enemy near the prisoners ' huts and then proceeded with the evacuation . A bazooka team from F Company ran up the main road to a tin shack which the Scouts had told Mucci held tanks . Although Japanese soldiers attempted to escape with two trucks , the team was able to destroy the trucks and then the shack .
At the beginning of the gunfire , many of the prisoners thought that it was the Japanese beginning to massacre them . One prisoner stated that the attack sounded like " whistling slugs , Roman candles , and flaming meteors sailing over our heads . " Prisoners immediately hid in their shacks , latrines , and irrigation ditches . When the Rangers yelled to the POWs to come out and be rescued , many of the POWs feared that it was the Japanese attempting to trick them into being killed . Also , a substantial number resisted because the Rangers ' weapons and uniforms looked nothing like those of a few years earlier ; for example , the Rangers wore caps , earlier soldiers had M1917 Helmets and incidentally , the Japanese also wore caps . The Rangers were challenged by the POWs and asked who they were and where they were from . Rangers sometimes had to resort to physical force to remove the detainees , throwing or kicking them out . Some of the POWs weighed so little due to illness and malnourishment that several Rangers carried two men on their backs . Once out of the barracks , they were told by the Rangers to proceed to the main , or front gate . Prisoners were disoriented because the " main gate " meant the entrance to the American side of the camp . POWs collided with each other in the confusion but were eventually led out by the Rangers .
A lone Japanese soldier was able to fire off three mortar rounds toward the main gate . Although members of F Company quickly located the soldier and killed him , several Rangers , Scouts , and POWs were wounded in the attack . Battalion surgeon Capt. James Fisher was mortally injured in the stomach and was carried to the nearby village of Balincari . Scout Alfred Alfonso had a shrapnel wound to his abdomen . Scout Lt. Tom Rounsaville and Ranger Pvt. 1st Class Jack Peters were also wounded by the barrage .
A few seconds after Pajota and his men heard Murphy fire the first shot , they fired on the alerted Japanese contingent situated across the Cabu River . Pajota had earlier sent a demolitions expert to set charges on the unguarded bridge to go off at 19 : 45 . The bomb detonated at the designated time , and although it did not destroy the bridge , it formed a large hole over which tanks and other vehicles could not pass . Waves of Japanese troops rushed the bridge , but the V @-@ shaped choke point created by the Filipino guerrillas repulsed each attack . One guerrilla , who had been trained to use the bazooka only a few hours earlier by the Rangers , destroyed or disabled four tanks that were hiding behind a clump of trees . A group of Japanese soldiers made an effort to flank the ambush position by crossing the river away from the bridge , but the guerrillas spotted and eliminated them .
At 20 : 15 , the camp was secured from the Japanese and Prince fired his flare to signal the end of the assault . No gunfire had occurred for the last fifteen minutes . However , as the Rangers headed towards the meetup , Cpl. Roy Sweezy was shot twice by friendly fire , and later died . The Rangers and the weary , frail , and disease @-@ ridden POWs made their way to the appointed Pampanga River rendezvous , where a caravan of 26 carabao carts waited to transport them to Plateros , driven by local villagers organized by Pajota . At 20 : 40 , once Prince determined that everyone had crossed the Pampanga River , he fired his second flare to indicate to Pajota and Joson 's men to withdraw . The Scouts stayed behind at the meetup to survey the area for enemy retaliatory movements . Meanwhile , Pajota 's men continued to resist the attacking enemy until they could finally withdraw at 22 : 00 , when the Japanese forces stopped charging the bridge . Joson and his men met no opposition , and they returned to help escort the POWs .
Although the combat photographers were able to shoot images of the trek to and from the camp , they were unable to use their cameras during the night @-@ time raid , as the flashes would indicate their positions to the Japanese . One of the photographers reflected on the nighttime hindrance : " We felt like an eager soldier who had carried his rifle for long distances into one of the war 's most crucial battles , then never got a chance to fire it . " The Signal Corps photographers instead assisted with escorting the POWs out of the camp .
= = Trek to American lines = =
By 22 : 00 , the Rangers and ex @-@ POWs arrived at Plateros , where they rested for half an hour . A radio message was sent and received by Sixth Army at 23 : 00 that the mission had been a success , and that they were returning with the rescued prisoners to American lines . After a headcount , it was discovered that POW Edwin Rose , a deaf British soldier , was missing . Mucci dictated that none of the Rangers could be spared to search for him , so he sent several guerrillas to do so in the morning . It was later learned that Rose had fallen asleep in the latrine before the attack . Rose woke early the next morning , and realized the other prisoners were gone and that he was left behind . Nevertheless , he took the time to shave and put on his best clothes that he had been saving for the day he would be rescued . He walked out of the prison camp , thinking that he would soon be found and led to freedom . Sure enough , Rose was found by passing guerrillas . Arrangements were made for a tank destroyer unit to pick him up and transport him to a hospital .
In a makeshift hospital at Plateros , Scout Alfonso and Ranger Fisher were quickly put into surgery . The shrapnel was removed from Alfonso 's abdomen , and he was expected to recover if returned to American lines . Fisher 's shrapnel was also removed , but with limited supplies and widespread damage to both his stomach and intestines , it was decided more extensive surgery would need to be completed in an American hospital . Mucci ordered that an airstrip be built in a field next to Plateros so that a plane could airlift him to American lines . Some Scouts and freed prisoners stayed behind to construct the airstrip .
As the group left Plateros at 22 : 30 to trek back towards American lines , Pajota and his guerrillas continually sought out local villagers to provide additional carabao carts to transport the weakened prisoners . The majority of the prisoners had little or no clothing and shoes , and it became increasingly difficult for them to walk . When the group reached Balincarin , they had accumulated nearly 50 carts . Despite the convenience of using the carts , the carabao traveled at a sluggish pace , only 2 miles per hour ( 3 @.@ 2 km / h ) , which greatly reduced the speed of the return trip . By the time the group reached American lines , 106 carts were being used .
In addition to the tired former prisoners and civilians , the majority of the Rangers had only slept for five to six hours over the past three days . The soldiers frequently had hallucinations or fell asleep as they marched . Benzedrine was distributed by the medics to keep the Rangers active during the long march . One Ranger commented on the effect of the drug : " It felt like your eyes were popped open . You couldn 't have closed them if you wanted to . One pill was all I ever took — it was all I ever needed . "
P @-@ 61 Black Widows again helped the group by patrolling the path they took on its way back to American lines . At 21 : 00 , one of the aircraft destroyed five Japanese trucks and a tank located on a road 14 miles ( 23 km ) from Plateros that the group would later travel on . The group was also met by circling P @-@ 51 Mustangs that guarded them as they neared American lines . The freed prisoner George Steiner stated that they were " jubilant over the appearance of our airplanes , and the sound of their strafing was music to our ears " .
During one leg of the return trip , the men were stopped by the Hukbalahap , Filipino Communist guerrillas who hated both the Americans and the Japanese . They were also rivals to Pajota 's men . One of Pajota 's lieutenants conferred with the Hukbalahap and returned to tell Mucci that they were not allowed to pass through the village . Angered by the message , Mucci sent the lieutenant back to insist that pursuing Japanese forces would be coming . The lieutenant came back and told Mucci that only Americans could pass , and Pajota 's men had to stay . Both the Rangers and guerrillas were finally allowed through after an agitated Mucci told the lieutenant that he would call in an artillery barrage and level the whole village . In fact , Mucci 's radio was not working at that point .
At 08 : 00 on January 31 , Mucci 's radioman was able to finally contact Sixth Army headquarters . Mucci was directed to go to Talavera , a town captured by the Sixth Army 11 miles ( 18 km ) from Mucci 's current position . At Talavera , the freed soldiers and civilians boarded trucks and ambulances for the last leg of their journey home . The POWs were deloused , and given hot showers and new clothes . At the POW hospital , one of the Rangers was reunited with his rescued father , who had been assumed killed in combat three years earlier . The Scouts and the remaining POWs who had stayed behind to get James Fisher onto a plane also encountered resistance by the Hukbalahap . After threatening the communist band , the Scouts and POWs were granted safe passage and reached Talavera on February 1 .
A few days after the raid , Sixth Army troops inspected the camp . They collected a large number of death certificates and cemetery layouts , as well as diaries , poems , and sketchbooks . The American soldiers also paid 5 pesos to each of the carabao cart drivers who had helped to evacuate the POWs .
= = Outcome and historical significance = =
The raid was considered successful — 489 POWs were liberated , along with 33 civilians . The total included 492 Americans , 23 British ( including Edwin Rose ) , three Dutch , two Norwegians , one Canadian , and one Filipino . The rescue , along with the liberation of Camp O 'Donnell the same day , allowed the prisoners to tell of the Bataan and Corregidor atrocities , which sparked a new wave of resolve for the war against Japan . Prince gave a great deal of credit for the success of the raid to others : " Any success we had was due not only to our efforts but to the Alamo Scouts and Air Force . The pilots ( Capt. Kenneth R. Schrieber and Lt. Bonnie B. Rucks ) of the plane that flew so low over the camp were incredibly brave men . " Some of the Rangers and Scouts went on bond drive tours around the United States and also met with President Franklin D. Roosevelt . In 1948 , the United States Congress created legislation which provided $ 1 ( $ 9 @.@ 85 today ) for each day the POWs had been held in a prisoner camp , including Cabanatuan . Two years later , Congress again approved an additional $ 1 @.@ 50 per day ( a combined total of $ 24 @.@ 59 today ) .
Estimates of the Japanese soldiers killed during the assault ranged from 530 to 1 @,@ 000 . The estimates include the 73 guards and approximately 150 traveling Japanese who stayed in the camp that night , as well as those killed by Pajota 's men attempting to cross the Cabu River . Several Americans died during and after the raid . A prisoner weakened by illness died of a heart attack as a Ranger carried him from the barracks to the main gate . The Ranger later recalled , " The excitement had been too much for him , I guess . It was really sad . He was only a hundred feet from the freedom he had not known for nearly three years . " Another prisoner died of illness just as the group had reached Talavera . Although Mucci had ordered that an airstrip be built in a field next to Plateros so that a plane could evacuate Fisher to get medical attention , it was never dispatched , and he died the next day . His last words were " Good luck on the way out . " The other Ranger killed during the raid was Sweezy , who was struck in the back by two rounds from friendly fire . Both Fisher and Sweezy are buried at Manila National Cemetery . Twenty of Pajota 's guerrillas were injured , as were two Scouts and two Rangers .
The American prisoners were quickly returned to the United States , most by plane . Those who were still sick or weakened remained at American hospitals to continue to recuperate . On February 11 , 1945 , 280 POWs left Leyte aboard the transport USS General A.E. Anderson bound for San Francisco via Hollandia , New Guinea . In an effort to counter the improved American morale , Japanese propaganda radio announcers broadcast to American soldiers that submarines , ships , and planes were hunting the General Anderson . The threats proved to be a bluff , and the ship safely arrived in San Francisco Bay on March 8 , 1945 .
News of the rescue was released to the public on February 2 . The feat was celebrated by MacArthur 's soldiers , Allied correspondents , and the American public , as the raid had touched an emotional chord among Americans concerned about the fate of the defenders of Bataan and Corregidor . Family members of the POWs were contacted by telegram to inform them of the rescue . News of the raid was broadcast on numerous radio outlets and newspaper front pages . The Rangers and POWs were interviewed to describe the conditions of the camp , as well as the events of the raid . The enthusiasm over the raid was later overshadowed by other Pacific events , including the Battle for Iwo Jima and the dropping of the atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki . The raid was soon followed by additional successful raids , such as the raid of Santo Tomas Civilian Internment Camp on February 3 , raid of Bilibid Prison on February 4 , and the raid at Los Baños on February 23 .
A Sixth Army report indicated that the raid demonstrated " ... what patrols can accomplish in enemy territory by following the basic principles of scouting and patrolling , ' sneaking and peeping , ' [ the ] use of concealment , reconnaissance of routes from photographs and maps prior to the actual operation , ... and the coordination of all arms in the accomplishment of a mission . " MacArthur spoke about his reaction to the raid : " No incident of the campaign in the Pacific has given me such satisfaction as the release of the POWs at Cabanatuan . The mission was brilliantly successful . " He presented awards to the soldiers who participated in the raid on March 3 , 1945 . Although Mucci was nominated for the Medal of Honor , he and Prince both received Distinguished Service Crosses . Mucci was promoted to colonel and was given command of the 1st Regiment of the 6th Infantry Division . All other American officers and selected enlisted received Silver Stars . The remaining American enlisted men and the Filipino guerrilla officers were awarded Bronze Stars . Nellist , Rounsaville , and the other twelve Scouts received Presidential Unit Citations .
In late 1945 , the bodies of the American troops who died at the camp were exhumed , and the men moved to other cemeteries . Land was donated in the late 1990s by the Filipino government to create a memorial . The site of the Cabanatuan camp is now a park that includes a memorial wall listing the 2 @,@ 656 American prisoners who died there . The memorial was financed by former American POWs and veterans , and is maintained by the American Battle Monuments Commission . A joint resolution by Congress and President Ronald Reagan designated April 12 , 1982 as " American Salute to Cabanatuan Prisoner of War Memorial Day " . In Cabanatuan City , a hospital is named for guerrilla leader Eduardo Joson .
= = Depictions in film = =
Several films have focused on the raid , while also including archival footage of the POWs . Edward Dmytryk 's 1945 film Back to Bataan , starring John Wayne , opens by retelling the story of the raid on the Cabanatuan POW camp @-@ with real life film of the POW survivors . Based on the books The Great Raid on Cabanatuan and Ghost Soldiers , the 2005 John Dahl film The Great Raid focused on the raid intertwined with a love story . Prince served as a consultant on the film , and believed it depicted the raid accurately . Marty Katz conveyed his interest in producing the film : " This [ rescue ] was a massive operation that had very little chance of success . It 's like a Hollywood movie — it couldn 't really happen , but it did . That was why we were attracted to the material . "
= = Cabanatuan memorial images = =
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= Cherry Valley massacre =
The Cherry Valley massacre was an attack by British and Iroquois forces on a fort and the village of Cherry Valley in eastern New York on November 11 , 1778 , during the American Revolutionary War . It has been described as one of the most horrific frontier massacres of the war . A mixed force of Loyalists , British soldiers , Seneca and Mohawks descended on Cherry Valley , whose defenders , despite warnings , were unprepared for the attack . During the raid , the Seneca in particular targeted non @-@ combatants , and reports state that 30 such individuals were slain , in addition to a number of armed defenders .
The raiders were under the overall command of Walter Butler , who exercised little authority over the Indians on the expedition . Historian Barbara Graymont describes Butler 's command of the expedition as " criminally incompetent " . The Seneca were angered by accusations that they had committed atrocities at the Battle of Wyoming , and the colonists ' recent destruction of their forward bases of operation at Unadilla , Onaquaga , and Tioga . Butler 's authority with the Indians was undermined by his poor treatment of Joseph Brant , the leader of the Mohawks . Butler repeatedly maintained , against accusations that he permitted the atrocities to take place , that he was powerless to restrain the Seneca .
During the campaigns of 1778 , Brant achieved an undeserved reputation for brutality . He was not present at Wyoming , although many thought he was , and actively sought to minimize the atrocities that took place at Cherry Valley . The massacre contributed to calls for reprisals , leading to the 1779 Sullivan Expedition which drove the Iroquois out of western New York .
= = Background = =
With the failure of British General John Burgoyne 's campaign to the Hudson after the Battles of Saratoga in October 1777 , the American Revolutionary War in upstate New York became a frontier war . The Mohawk Valley was especially targeted for its fertile soil and large supply of crops farmers were supplying Patriot troops . British leaders in the Province of Quebec supported Loyalist and Native American partisan fighters with supplies and armaments . During the winter of 1777 – 78 , Joseph Brant and other British @-@ allied Indians developed plans to attack frontier settlements in New York and Pennsylvania . In February 1778 Brant established a base of operations at Onaquaga ( present @-@ day Windsor , New York ) . He recruited a mix of Iroquois and Loyalists estimated to number between two and three hundred by the time he began his campaign in May . One of his objectives was to acquire provisions for his forces and those of John Butler , who was planning operations in the Susquehanna River valley .
Brant began his campaign in late May with a raid on Cobleskill , and raided other frontier communities throughout the summer . The local militia and Continental Army units defending the area were ineffective against the raiders , who typically escaped from the scene of a raid before defenders arrived in force . After Brant and some of Butler 's Rangers attacked German Flatts in September , the Americans organized a punitive expedition that destroyed the villages of Unadilla and Onaquaga in early October .
While Brant was active in the Mohawk valley , Butler descended with a large mixed force and raided the Wyoming Valley of northern Pennsylvania in early July . This action complicated affairs , for the Senecas in Butler 's force were accused of massacring noncombatants , and a number of Patriot militia violated their parole not long afterward , participating in a reprisal expedition against Tioga . The lurid propaganda associated with the accusations against the Seneca in particular angered them , as did the destruction of Unadilla , Onaquaga , and Tioga . The Wyoming Valley attack , even though Brant was not present , fueled among his opponents the view of him as a particularly brutal opponent .
Brant then joined forces with Captain Walter Butler ( the son of John Butler ) , leading two companies of Butler 's Rangers commanded by Captains John McDonell and William Caldwell for an attack on the major Schoharie Creek settlement of Cherry Valley . Butler 's forces also included 300 Senecas , probably led by either Cornplanter or Sayenqueraghta , and 50 British Army soldiers from the 8th Regiment of Foot . As the force moved toward Cherry Valley , Butler and Brant quarreled over Brant 's recruitment of Loyalists . Butler was unhappy at Brant 's successes in this sphere , and threatened to withhold provisions from Brant 's Loyalist volunteers . Ninety of them ended up leaving the expedition , and Brant himself was on the verge of doing so when his Indian supporters convinced him to stay . The dispute did not sit well with the Indian forces , and may have undermined Butler 's tenuous authority over them .
= = Massacre = =
Cherry Valley had a palisaded fort ( constructed after Brant 's raid on Cobleskill ) that surrounded the village meeting house . It was garrisoned by 300 soldiers of the 7th Massachusetts Regiment of the Continental Army commanded by Colonel Ichabod Alden . Alden and his command staff were alerted by November 8 through Oneida spies that the Butler – Brant force was moving against Cherry Valley . However , he failed to take elementary precautions , continuing to occupy a headquarters ( the house of a settler named Wells ) some 400 yards ( 370 m ) from the fort .
Butler 's force arrived near Cherry Valley late on November 10 , and established a cold camp to avoid detection . Reconnaissance of the town identified the weaknesses of Alden 's arrangements , and the raiders decided to send one force against Alden 's headquarters and another against the fort . Butler extracted promises from the Indians in the party that they would not harm noncombatants in a council held that night .
The attack began early on the morning of November 11 . Some overeager Indians spoiled the surprise by firing on settlers cutting wood nearby . One of them escaped , raising the alarm . Little Beard led some of the Senecas to surround the Wells house , while the main body surrounded the fort . The attackers killed at least sixteen officers and troops of the quarters guards , including Alden , who was cut down while he was running from the Wells house to the fort . Most accounts say Alden was within reach of the gates , only to stop and try to shoot his pursuer , who may have been Joseph Brant . His wet pistol repeatedly misfired and he was killed by a thrown tomahawk hitting him in the forehead . Lt. Col. William Stacy , second in command , also quartered at the Wells house , was taken prisoner . Stacy 's son Benjamin and cousin Rufus Stacy ran through a hail of bullets to reach the fort from the house ; Stacy 's brother @-@ in @-@ law Gideon Day was killed . Those attacking the Wells house eventually gained entry , leading to hand @-@ to @-@ hand combat inside . After killing most of the soldiers stationed there , the Senecas slaughtered the entire Wells household , twelve in all .
The raiders ' attack on the fort was unsuccessful — lacking heavy weapons , they were unable to make any significant impressions on its stockade walls . The fort was then guarded by the Loyalists while the Indians rampaged through the rest of the settlement . Not a single house was left standing , and the Senecas , seeking revenge , were reported to have slaughtered anyone they encountered . Butler and Brant attempted to restrain their actions but were unsuccessful . Brant in particular was dismayed to learn that a number of families who were well known to him and whom he had counted as friends had borne the brunt of the Seneca rampage , including the Wells , Campbell , Dunlop , and Clyde families .
Lt. William McKendry , a quartermaster in Colonel Alden 's regiment , described the attack in his journal :
Immediately came on 442 Indians from the Five Nations , 200 Tories under the command of one Col. Butler and Capt. Brant ; attacked headquarters ; killed Col. Alden ; took Col. Stacy prisoner ; attacked Fort Alden ; after three hours retreated without success of taking the fort .
McKendry identified the fatalities of the massacre as Colonel Alden , thirteen other soldiers , and thirty civilian inhabitants . Most of the slain soldiers had been at the Wells house .
Accounts surrounding the capture of Lt. Col. Stacy report that he was about to be killed , but Brant intervened . " [ Brant ] saved the life of Lieut . Col Stacy , who [ ... ] was made prisoner when Col. Alden was killed . It is said Stacy was a freemason , and as such made an appeal to Brant , and was spared . "
= = Aftermath = =
The next morning Butler sent Brant and some rangers back into the village to complete its destruction . The raiders took 70 captives , many of them women and children . About 40 of these Butler managed to have released , but the rest were distributed among their captors ' villages until they were exchanged . Lt. Col. Stacy was taken to Fort Niagara as a prisoner of the British .
A Mohawk chief , in justifying the action at Cherry Valley , wrote to an American officer that " you Burned our Houses , which makes us and our Brothers , the Seneca Indians angrey , so that we destroyed , men , women and Children at Chervalle . " The Seneca " declared they would no more be falsely accused , or fight the Enemy twice " ( the latter being an indication that they would refuse quarter in the future ) . Butler reported that " notwithstanding my utmost Precaution and Endeavours to save the Women and Children , I could not prevent some of them falling unhappy Victims to the Fury of the Savages , " but also that he spent most of his time guarding the fort during the raid . Quebec 's Governor Frederick Haldimand was so upset at Butler 's inability to control his forces that he refused to see him , writing " such indiscriminate vengeance taken even upon the treacherous and cruel enemy they are engaged against is useless and disreputable to themselves , as it is contrary to the dispositions and maxims of the King whose cause they are fighting . " Butler continued to insist in later writings that he was not at fault for the events of the day .
The violent frontier war of 1778 brought calls for the Continental Army to take action . Cherry Valley , along with the accusations of murder of non @-@ combatants at Wyoming , helped pave the way for the launch of the 1779 Sullivan Expedition , commissioned by commander @-@ in @-@ chief Major General George Washington and led by Major General John Sullivan . The expedition destroyed over 40 Iroquois villages in their homelands of central and western New York and drove the women and children into refugee camps at Fort Niagara . It failed , however , to stop the frontier war , which continued with renewed severity in 1780 .
= = Legacy = =
A monument was dedicated at Cherry Valley on August 15 , 1878 , at the centennial anniversary of the massacre . Former New York Governor Horatio Seymour delivered a dedication address at the monument to an audience of about 10 @,@ 000 persons , saying :
I am here today not only to show reverence for those dead patriots , but to offer my respects and heartfelt gratitude to the living descendants of those illustrious persons of the early settlements , who have erected this memorial stone . It is to be hoped that their example will be copied ; that the report of these commemorative exercises will move others to like acts of pious duty . Let every son of this soil uncover reverently as this monument is unveiled , and do reverence to their sturdy patriotism , made strong by their grand faith , their trials , and their sufferings , and show that the blood of innocent children , of wives , of sisters , of mothers , and of brave men , was not shed in vain . Let us show the world that 100 years have added to the value of that noble sacrifice . Thus we shall leave this sacred spot better men and women , with a higher and nobler purpose of life than that which animated us when we entered this domain of the dead .
Years after the massacre , Benjamin Stacy 's home village of New Salem , Massachusetts celebrated the annual Old Home Day holiday with a Benjamin Stacy footrace , honoring his escape at Cherry Valley .
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= Ohio State Route 716 =
State Route 716 ( SR 716 ) is a state highway in the western part of the U.S. state of Ohio . Its southern terminus is at SR 705 in the village of Osgood in northeastern Darke County . The northern terminus of SR 716 is at SR 274 in the village of Chickasaw in southeastern Mercer County . For its entire length , SR 716 runs parallel to , and approximately four miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) to the east of , U.S. Route 127 .
The highway was assigned in 1937 on a routing from SR 705 in Osgood to an unnumbered highway in Franklin Township . The route was truncated to its current northern terminus in 1973 . SR 716 has remained intact ever since .
= = Route description = =
SR 716 begins at an intersection with SR 705 in the Darke County village of Osgood . The highway heads northward through downtown Osgood and then into the rural regions , which includes spontaneous residential homes and fields . Not far after Osgood , SR 716 intersects with Township Road 7 ( Darke @-@ Mercer County Line Road ) , which runs along the county line . The highway crosses the line into Mercer County and continues northward through rural areas . There is an intersection with a local road , Indian Trail Road , soon after .
The highway remains mainly unchanged for a little while until it nears the Marion Township village of Maria Stein . It then passes Marion Local High School . In Maria Stein , it intersects SR 119 . Through Maria Stein , the highway is more urbanized , with more homes and commercial buildings surrounding the highway . However , this is only for a short time , as SR 716 leaves Maria Stein after the intersection with SR 119 . The route continues northward for a short distance into Chickasaw , where it terminates at SR 274 .
= = History = =
SR 716 was established in 1937 . Its original path consisted of its entire current routing , SR 274 between Chickasaw and one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) west of Chickasaw in Marion Township , Mercer County , and a currently unnumbered road from Marion Township to one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) east of Montezuma in Franklin Township .
In 1973 , SR 716 was scaled back on the north end to its current northern terminus at SR 274 in Chickasaw . The road went westward at the intersection with SR 274 , and went on a short concurrency before turning off for the north . It continued to its then northern terminus . The former stretch of SR 716 from Chickasaw to Marion Township was re @-@ numbered as SR 274 , and the stretch from Marion Township to Franklin Township was deleted from the state highway system .
= = Major intersections = =
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= Battle of Bosworth Field =
The Battle of Bosworth Field ( or Battle of Bosworth ) was the last significant battle of the Wars of the Roses , the civil war between the Houses of Lancaster and York that raged across England in the latter half of the 15th century . Fought on 22 August 1485 , the battle was won by the Lancastrians . Their leader Henry Tudor , Earl of Richmond , by his victory became the first English monarch of the Tudor dynasty . His opponent , Richard III , the last king of the House of York , was killed in the battle . Historians consider Bosworth Field to mark the end of the Plantagenet dynasty , making it a defining moment of English and Welsh history .
Richard 's reign began in 1483 . At the request of his brother Edward IV , Richard was acting as Lord Protector for his son Edward V. Richard had Parliament declare Edward V illegitimate and ineligible for the throne , and Richard took it for himself . Richard lost popularity when the boy and his younger brother disappeared after Richard incarcerated them in the Tower of London , and Richard 's support was further eroded by the popular belief that he was implicated in the death of his wife . Across the English Channel in Brittany , Henry Tudor , a descendant of the greatly diminished House of Lancaster , seized on Richard 's difficulties so that he could challenge Richard 's claim to the throne . Henry 's first attempt to invade England was frustrated by a storm in 1483 , but at his second attempt he arrived unopposed on 7 August 1485 on the southwest coast of Wales . Marching inland , Henry gathered support as he made for London . Richard mustered his troops and intercepted Henry 's army south of Market Bosworth in Leicestershire . Thomas , Lord Stanley , and Sir William Stanley brought a force to the battlefield , but held back while they decided which side it would be more advantageous to support .
Richard divided his army , which outnumbered Henry 's , into three groups ( or " battles " ) . One was assigned to the Duke of Norfolk and another to the Earl of Northumberland . Henry kept most of his force together and placed it under the command of the experienced Earl of Oxford . Richard 's vanguard , commanded by Norfolk , attacked but struggled against Oxford 's men , and some of Norfolk 's troops fled the field . Northumberland took no action when signalled to assist his king , so Richard gambled everything on a charge across the battlefield to kill Henry and end the fight . Seeing the king 's knights separated from his army , the Stanleys intervened ; Sir William led his men to Henry 's aid , surrounding and killing Richard . After the battle , Henry was crowned king below an oak tree in nearby Stoke Golding , now a residential garden .
Henry hired chroniclers to portray his reign favourably ; the Battle of Bosworth was popularised to represent the Tudor dynasty as the start of a new age . From the 15th to 18th centuries the battle was glamorised as a victory of good over evil . The climax of William Shakespeare 's play Richard III provides a focal point for critics in later film adaptations . The exact site of the battle is disputed because of the lack of conclusive data , and memorials have been erected at different locations . In 1974 , the Bosworth Battlefield Heritage Centre was built on a site that has since been challenged by several scholars and historians . In October 2009 , a team of researchers , who had performed geological surveys and archaeological digs in the area from 2003 , suggested a location two miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) southwest of Ambion Hill .
= = Background = =
During the 15th century , civil war raged across England as the Houses of York and Lancaster fought each other for the English throne . In 1471 , the Yorkists defeated their rivals in the battles of Barnet and Tewkesbury . The Lancastrian King Henry VI and his only son , Edward of Lancaster , died in the aftermath of the Battle of Tewkesbury . Their deaths left the House of Lancaster with no direct claimants to the throne . The Yorkist king , Edward IV , was in complete control of England . He attainted those who refused to submit to his rule , such as Jasper Tudor and his nephew Henry , naming them traitors and confiscating their lands . The Tudors tried to flee to France but strong winds forced them to land in Brittany , then a semi @-@ independent duchy , where they were taken into the custody of Duke Francis II . Henry 's mother , Lady Margaret Beaufort , was a great @-@ granddaughter of John of Gaunt , uncle of King Richard II and father of King Henry IV . The Beauforts were originally bastards , but Henry IV legitimised them on the condition that their descendants were not eligible to inherit the throne . Henry Tudor , the only remaining Lancastrian noble with a trace of the royal bloodline , had a weak claim to the throne , and Edward regarded him as " a nobody " . The Duke of Brittany , however , viewed Henry as a valuable tool to bargain for England 's aid in conflicts with France and kept the Tudors under his protection .
Edward IV died twelve years after Tewkesbury on 9 April 1483 . His twelve @-@ year @-@ old elder son succeeded him as King Edward V ; the younger son , nine @-@ year @-@ old Richard of Shrewsbury , was next in line to the throne . Edward V was too young to rule and a Royal Council was established to rule the country until the king 's coming of age . The royal court was worried when they learned that the Woodvilles , relatives of Edward IV 's widow Elizabeth , were plotting to seize control of the council . Having offended many in their quest for wealth and power , the Woodville family was not popular . To frustrate the Woodvilles ' ambitions , Lord Hastings and other members of the council turned to the new king 's uncle — Richard , Duke of Gloucester , brother of Edward IV . The courtiers urged Gloucester to assume the role of Protector quickly , as had been previously requested by his now dead brother . On 29 April , Gloucester , accompanied by a contingent of guards and Henry Stafford , 2nd Duke of Buckingham , took Edward V into custody and arrested several prominent members of the Woodville family . After bringing the young king to London , Gloucester had two of the Woodvilles ( Anthony Woodville , 2nd Earl Rivers and Richard Grey ) executed , without trial , on charges of treason .
On 13 June , Gloucester accused Hastings of plotting with the Woodvilles and had him beheaded . Nine days later , Gloucester convinced Parliament to declare the marriage between Edward IV and Elizabeth illegal , rendering their children illegitimate and disqualifying them from the throne . With his brother 's children out of the way , he was next in the line of succession and was proclaimed King Richard III on 26 June . The timing and extrajudicial nature of the deeds done to obtain the throne for Richard won him no popularity , and rumours that spoke ill of the new king spread throughout England . After they were declared bastards , the two princes were confined in the Tower of London and never seen in public again .
Discontent with Richard 's actions manifested itself in the summer after he took control of the country , as a conspiracy emerged to displace him from the throne . The rebels were mostly loyalists to Edward IV , who saw Richard as a usurper . Their plans were co @-@ ordinated by a Lancastrian , Henry 's mother Lady Margaret , who was promoting her son as a candidate for the throne . The highest @-@ ranking conspirator was Buckingham . No chronicles tell of the duke 's motive in joining the plot , although historian Charles Ross proposes that Buckingham was trying to distance himself from a king who was becoming increasingly unpopular with the people . Michael Jones and Malcolm Underwood suggest that Margaret deceived Buckingham into thinking the rebels supported him to be king .
The plan was to stage uprisings within a short time in southern and western England , overwhelming Richard 's forces . Buckingham would support the rebels by invading from Wales , while Henry came in by sea . Bad timing and weather wrecked the plot . An uprising in Kent started 10 days prematurely , alerting Richard to muster the royal army and take steps to put down the insurrections . Richard 's spies informed him of Buckingham 's activities , and the king 's men captured and destroyed the bridges across the River Severn . When Buckingham and his army reached the river , they found it swollen and impossible to cross because of a violent storm that broke on 15 October . Buckingham was trapped and had no safe place to retreat ; his Welsh enemies seized his home castle after he had set forth with his army . The duke abandoned his plans and fled to Wem , where he was betrayed by his servant and arrested by Richard 's men . On 2 November 1483 , he was executed . Henry had attempted a landing on 10 October ( or 19 October ) , but his fleet was scattered by a storm . He reached the coast of England ( at either Plymouth or Poole ) , and a group of soldiers hailed him to come ashore . They were , in truth , Richard 's men , prepared to capture Henry once he set foot on English soil . Henry was not deceived and returned to Brittany , abandoning the invasion . Without Buckingham or Henry , the rebellion was easily crushed by Richard .
The survivors of the failed uprisings fled to Brittany , where they openly supported Henry 's claim to the throne . At Christmas , Henry Tudor swore an oath to marry Edward IV 's daughter , Elizabeth of York , to unite the warring houses of York and Lancaster . Henry 's rising prominence made him a great threat to Richard , and the Yorkist king made several overtures to the Duke of Brittany to surrender the young Lancastrian . Francis refused , holding out for the possibility of better terms from Richard . In mid @-@ 1484 , Francis was incapacitated by illness and while recuperating , his treasurer , Pierre Landais , took over the reins of government . Landais reached an agreement with Richard to send back Henry and his uncle in exchange for military and financial aid . John Morton , a bishop of Flanders , learned of the scheme and warned the Tudors , who fled to France . The French court allowed them to stay ; the Tudors were useful pawns to ensure that Richard 's England did not interfere with French plans to annexe Brittany . On 16 March 1485 , Richard 's queen , Anne Neville , died , and rumours spread across the country that she was murdered to pave the way for Richard to marry his niece , Elizabeth . The gossip alienated Richard from some of his northern supporters , and upset Henry across the English Channel . The loss of Elizabeth 's hand in marriage could unravel the alliance between Henry 's supporters who were Lancastrians and those who were loyalists to Edward IV . Anxious to secure his bride , Henry assembled approximately 2 @,@ 000 men and set sail from France on 1 August .
= = Factions = =
By the 15th century , English chivalric ideas of selfless service to the king had been corrupted . Armed forces were mostly raised through musters in individual estates ; every able @-@ bodied man had to respond to his lord 's call to arms , and each noble had exclusive authority over his militia . Although a king could raise personal militia from his lands , he could only muster a significantly large army through the support of his nobles . Richard , like his predecessors , had to win over these men by granting gifts and maintaining cordial relationships . Powerful nobles could demand greater incentives to remain on the liege 's side or else they might turn against him . Three groups , each with its own agenda , stood on Bosworth Field : Richard III and his Yorkist army ; his challenger , Henry Tudor , who championed the Lancastrian cause ; and the fence @-@ sitting Stanleys .
= = = Yorkist = = =
Small and slender , Richard III did not have the robust physique associated with many of his Plantagenet predecessors . However , he enjoyed very rough sports and activities that were considered manly . His performances on the battlefield impressed his brother greatly , and he became Edward 's right @-@ hand man . During the 1480s , Richard defended the northern borders of England . In 1482 , Edward charged him to lead an army into Scotland with the aim of replacing King James III with the Duke of Albany . Richard 's army broke through the Scottish defences and occupied the capital , Edinburgh , but Albany decided to give up his claim to the throne in return for the post of Lieutenant General of Scotland . As well as obtaining a guarantee that the Scottish government would concede territories and diplomatic benefits to the English crown , Richard 's campaign retook the town of Berwick @-@ upon @-@ Tweed , which the Scots had conquered in 1460 . Edward was not satisfied by these gains , which , according to Ross , could have been greater if Richard had been resolute enough to capitalise on the situation while in control of Edinburgh . In her analysis of Richard 's character , Christine Carpenter sees him as a soldier who was more used to taking orders than giving them . However , he was not averse to displaying his militaristic streak ; on ascending the throne he made known his desire to lead a crusade against " not only the Turks , but all [ his ] foes " .
Richard 's most loyal subject was John Howard , 1st Duke of Norfolk . The duke had served Richard 's brother for many years and had been one of Edward IV 's closer confidants . He was a military veteran , having fought in the Battle of Towton in 1461 and served as Hastings ' deputy at Calais in 1471 . Ross speculates that he may have borne a grudge against Edward for depriving him of a fortune . Norfolk was due to inherit a share of the wealthy Mowbray estate on the death of eight @-@ year @-@ old Anne de Mowbray , the last of her family . However , Edward convinced Parliament to circumvent the law of inheritance and transfer the estate to his younger son , who was married to Anne . Consequently , Howard supported Richard III in deposing Edward 's sons , for which he received the dukedom of Norfolk and his original share of the Mowbray estate .
Henry Percy , 4th Earl of Northumberland , also supported Richard 's seizure of the throne of England . The Percys were loyal Lancastrians , but Edward IV eventually won the earl 's allegiance . Northumberland had been captured and imprisoned by the Yorkists in 1461 , losing his titles and estates ; however , Edward released him eight years later and restored his earldom . From that time , Northumberland served the Yorkist crown , helping to defend northern England and maintain its peace . Initially the earl had issues with Richard III as Edward groomed his brother to be the leading power of the north . Northumberland was mollified when he was promised he would be the Warden of the East March , a position that was formerly hereditary for the Percys . He served under Richard during the 1482 invasion of Scotland , and the allure of being in a position to dominate the north of England if Richard went south to assume the crown was his likely motivation for supporting Richard 's bid for kingship . However , after becoming king , Richard began moulding his nephew , John de la Pole , 1st Earl of Lincoln , to manage the north , passing over Northumberland for the position . According to Carpenter , although the earl was amply compensated , he despaired of any possibility of advancement under Richard .
= = = Lancastrian = = =
Henry Tudor was unfamiliar with the arts of war and a stranger to the land he was trying to conquer . He spent the first fourteen years of his life in Wales and the next fourteen in Brittany and France . Slender but strong and decisive , Henry lacked a penchant for battle and was not much of a warrior ; chroniclers such as Polydore Vergil and ambassadors like Pedro de Ayala found him more interested in commerce and finance . Having not fought in any battles , Henry recruited several experienced veterans on whom he could rely for military advice and the command of his armies . John de Vere , 13th Earl of Oxford , was Henry 's principal military commander . He was adept in the arts of war . At the Battle of Barnet , he commanded the Lancastrian right wing and routed the division opposing him . However , as a result of confusion over identities , Oxford 's group came under friendly fire from the Lancastrian main force and retreated from the field . The earl fled abroad and continued his fight against the Yorkists , raiding shipping and eventually capturing the island fort of St Michael 's Mount in 1473 . He surrendered after receiving no aid or reinforcement , but in 1484 escaped from prison and joined Henry 's court in France , bringing along his erstwhile gaoler Sir James Blount . Oxford 's presence raised morale in Henry 's camp and troubled Richard III .
= = = Stanleys = = =
In the early stages of the Wars of the Roses , the Stanleys of Cheshire had been predominantly Lancastrians . Sir William Stanley , however , was a staunch Yorkist supporter , fighting in the Battle of Blore Heath in 1459 and helping Hastings to put down uprisings against Edward IV in 1471 . When Richard took the crown , Sir William showed no inclination to turn against the new king , refraining from joining Buckingham 's rebellion , for which he was amply rewarded . Sir William 's elder brother , Thomas Stanley , 2nd Baron Stanley , was not as steadfast . By 1485 , he had served three kings , namely Henry VI , Edward IV , and Richard III . Lord Stanley 's skilled political manoeuvrings — vacillating between opposing sides until it was clear who would be the winner — gained him high positions ; he was Henry 's chamberlain and Edward 's steward . His non @-@ committal stance , until the crucial point of a battle , earned him the loyalty of his men , who felt he would not needlessly send them to their deaths .
Even though Lord Stanley had served as Edward IV 's steward , his relations with the king 's brother , the eventual Richard III , were not cordial . The two had conflicts that erupted into violence around March 1470 . Furthermore , having taken Lady Margaret as his second wife in June 1472 , Stanley was Henry Tudor 's stepfather , a relationship which did nothing to win him Richard 's favour . Despite these differences , Stanley did not join Buckingham 's revolt in 1483 . When Richard executed those conspirators who had been unable to flee England , he spared Lady Margaret . However , he declared her titles forfeit and transferred her estates to Stanley 's name , to be held in trust for the Yorkist crown . Richard 's act of mercy was calculated to reconcile him with Stanley , but it may have been to no avail — Carpenter has identified a further cause of friction in Richard 's intention to reopen an old land dispute that involved Thomas Stanley and the Harrington family . Edward IV had ruled the case in favour of Stanley in 1473 , but Richard planned to overturn his brother 's ruling and give the wealthy estate to the Harringtons . Immediately before the Battle of Bosworth , being wary of Stanley , Richard took his son , Lord Strange , as hostage to discourage him from joining Henry .
= = Crossing the Channel and through Wales = =
The attacking force consisted of around 500 exiled Welsh and Englishmen . The history of one " John Major " ( published in 1521 ) said Charles VIII of France had granted Henry 5 @,@ 000 men of whom 1 @,@ 000 were Scots , headed by Sir Alexander Bruce . No mention of Scottish soldiers was made by subsequent English historians . After the battle , Bruce was given an annuity of £ 20 by Henry for his " faithful services " . How many Frenchmen actually sailed is unknown , but the historian Chris Skidmore estimates over half of Henry 's armed fleet . The Crowland Chronicler also recorded that Henry 's troops were " as much French as English " . Many of these French mercenaries were from the garrison of Phillipe de Crevecoeur , Lord of Esquerdes . Commynes recorded that these included " some 3 @,@ 000 of the most unruly men in Normandy " . This is partly the reason why they were taken up the coast of Wales , under Henry 's stern command , keeping them well apart from the Welsh soldiers under Rhys ' command .
Henry 's crossing of the English Channel in 1485 was without incident . Thirty ships sailed from Harfleur on 1 August and , with fair winds behind them , landed in his native Wales , at Mill Bay ( near Dale ) on the north side of Milford Haven on 7 August , easily capturing nearby Dale Castle . His long awaited arrival had been hailed by contemporary Welsh bards such as Dafydd Ddu and Gruffydd ap Dafydd as the true prince and " the youth of Brittany defeating the Saxons " in order to bring their country back to glory . Mill Bay had been chosen as it was completely hidden from view and there was no resistance by the cohort of Richard 's men stationed at Dale where Henry and his men spent the first night .
In the morning they marched to Haverfordwest , the county town of Pembrokeshire , 12 miles away and were received " with the utmost goodwill of all " . Here , the Welshman Arnold Butler ( who had met Henry in Brittany ) announced that " the whole of Pembrokeshire was prepared to serve him " . Butler 's closest friend was Rhys ap Thomas . That afternoon , Henry and his troops headed north towards Cardigan and pitched camp " at the fifth milestone towards Cardigan " where they were joined by Gruffydd Rede with a band of soldiers and John Morgan of Tredegar . The following day , 9 August , they passed through Bwlch @-@ y @-@ gwynt and over the Preseli mountains and to Fagwyr Llwyd south of Cilgwyn .
Richard 's lieutenant in South Wales , Sir Walter Herbert , failed to move against Henry , and two of his officers , Richard Griffith and Evan Morgan , deserted to Henry with their men .
However , the most important defector to Henry in this early stage of the campaign was probably Rhys ap Thomas , who was the leading figure in West Wales . Richard had appointed Rhys Lieutenant in West Wales for his refusal to join Buckingham 's rebellion , asking that he surrender his son Gruffydd ap Rhys ap Thomas as surety , although by some accounts Rhys had managed to evade this condition . However , Henry successfully courted Rhys , offering the lieutenancy of all Wales in exchange for his fealty . Henry marched via Aberystwyth while Rhys followed a more southerly route , recruiting 2 @,@ 000 Welshmen en route to swell Henry 's army when they reunited at Cefn Digoll , Welshpool , thus ensuring that the majority of Henry 's army in the ensuing battle would be Welsh . By 15 or 16 August , Henry and his men had crossed the English border , making for the town of Shrewsbury .
= = Shrewsbury : the gateway to England = =
Since 22 June 1485 Richard had been aware of Henry 's impending invasion , and had ordered his lords to maintain a high level of readiness . News of Henry 's landing reached Richard on 11 August , but it took three to four days for his messengers to notify his lords of their king 's mobilisation . On 16 August , the Yorkist army started to gather ; Norfolk set off for Leicester , the assembly point , that night . The city of York , a traditional stronghold of Richard 's family , asked the king for instructions , and receiving a reply three days later sent 80 men to join the king . Simultaneously Northumberland , whose northern territory was the most distant from the capital , had gathered his men and ridden to Leicester .
Although London was his goal , Henry did not move directly towards the city . After resting in Shrewsbury , his forces went eastwards and picked up Sir Gilbert Talbot and other English allies , including deserters from Richard 's forces . Although its size had increased substantially since the landing , Henry 's army was not yet large enough to contend with the numbers Richard could muster . Henry 's pace through Staffordshire was slow , delaying the confrontation with Richard so that he could gather more recruits to his cause . Henry had been communicating on friendly terms with the Stanleys for some time before setting foot in England , and the Stanleys had mobilised their forces on hearing of Henry 's landing . They ranged themselves ahead of Henry 's march through the English countryside , meeting twice in secret with Henry as he moved through Staffordshire . At the second of these , at Atherstone in Warwickshire , they conferred " in what sort to arraign battle with King Richard , whom they heard to be not far off " . On 21 August , the Stanleys were making camp on the slopes of a hill north of Dadlington , while Henry encamped his army at White Moors to the northwest of their camp .
On 20 August , Richard reached Leicester , joining Norfolk . Northumberland arrived the following day . The royal army proceeded westwards to intercept Henry 's march on London . Passing Sutton Cheney , Richard moved his army towards Ambion Hill — which he thought would be of tactical value — and made camp on it . Richard 's sleep was not peaceful and , according to the Croyland Chronicle , in the morning his face was " more livid and ghastly than usual " .
= = Engagement = =
The Yorkist army , numbering about 10 @,@ 000 men , deployed on the hilltop along the ridgeline from west to east . Norfolk 's group ( or " battle " in the parlance of the time ) of spearmen stood on the right flank , protecting the cannon and about 1 @,@ 200 archers . Richard 's group , comprising 3 @,@ 000 infantry , formed the centre . Northumberland 's men guarded the left flank ; he had approximately 4 @,@ 000 men , many of them mounted . Standing on the hilltop , Richard had a wide , unobstructed view of the area . He could see the Stanleys and their 6 @,@ 000 men holding positions on and around Dadlington Hill , while to the southwest was Henry 's army .
Henry had very few Englishmen — fewer than a thousand — in his army . Between three and five hundred of them were exiles who had fled from Richard 's rule , and the remainder were Talbot 's men and recent deserters from Richard 's army . Historian John Mackie believes that 1 @,@ 800 French mercenaries , led by Philibert de Chandée , formed the core of Henry 's army . John Mair , writing thirty @-@ five years after the battle , claimed that this force contained a significant Scottish component , and this claim is accepted by some modern writers , but Mackie reasons that the French would not have released their elite Scottish knights and archers , and concludes that there were probably few Scottish troops in the army , although he accepts the presence of captains like Bernard Stewart , Lord of Aubigny . In total , Henry 's army was around 5 @,@ 000 strong , a substantial portion of which was made up by the recruits picked up in Wales . Rhys ap Thomas 's Welsh force was described as being large enough to have " annihilated " the rest of Henry 's force .
In their interpretations of the vague mentions of the battle in the old text , historians placed areas near the foot of Ambion Hill as likely regions where the two armies clashed , and thought up possible scenarios of the engagement . In their recreations of the battle , Henry started by moving his army towards Ambion Hill where Richard and his men stood . As Henry 's army advanced past the marsh at the southwestern foot of the hill , Richard sent a message to Stanley , threatening to execute his son , Lord Strange , if Stanley did not join the attack on Henry immediately . Stanley replied that he had other sons . Incensed , Richard gave the order to behead Strange but his officers temporised , saying that battle was imminent , and it would be more convenient to carry out the execution afterwards . Henry had also sent messengers to Stanley asking him to declare his allegiance . The reply was evasive — the Stanleys would " naturally " come , after Henry had given orders to his army and arranged them for battle . Henry had no choice but to confront Richard 's forces alone .
Well aware of his own military inexperience , Henry handed command of his army to Oxford and retired to the rear with his bodyguards . Oxford , seeing the vast line of Richard 's army strung along the ridgeline , decided to keep his men together instead of splitting them into the traditional three battles : vanguard , centre , and rearguard . He ordered the troops to stray no further than 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) from their banners , fearing that they would become enveloped . Individual groups clumped together , forming a single large mass flanked by horsemen on the wings .
The Lancastrians were harassed by Richard 's cannon as they manoeuvred around the marsh , seeking firmer ground . Once Oxford and his men were clear of the marsh , Norfolk 's battle and several contingents of Richard 's group , under the command of Sir Robert Brackenbury , started to advance . Hails of arrows showered both sides as they closed . Oxford 's men proved the steadier in the ensuing hand @-@ to @-@ hand combat ; they held their ground and several of Norfolk 's men fled the field . Recognising that his force was at a disadvantage , Richard signalled for Northumberland to assist but Northumberland 's group showed no signs of movement . Historians , such as Horrox and Pugh , believe Northumberland chose not to aid his king for personal reasons . Ross doubts the aspersions cast on Northumberland 's loyalty , suggesting instead that Ambion Hill 's narrow ridge hindered him from joining the battle . The earl would have had to either go through his allies or execute a wide flanking move — near impossible to perform given the standard of drill at the time — to engage Oxford 's men .
At this juncture Richard saw Henry at some distance behind his main force . Seeing this , Richard decided to end the fight quickly by killing the enemy commander . He led a charge of mounted men around the melee and tore into Henry 's group ; several accounts state that Richard 's force numbered 800 – 1000 knights , but Ross says it was more likely that Richard was accompanied only by his household men and closest friends . Richard killed Henry 's standard @-@ bearer Sir William Brandon in the initial charge and unhorsed burly John Cheyne , Edward IV 's former standard @-@ bearer , with a blow to the head from his broken lance . French mercenaries in Henry 's retinue related how the attack had caught them off guard and that Henry sought protection by dismounting and concealing himself among them to present less of a target . Henry made no attempt to engage in combat himself .
Oxford had left a small reserve of Pike @-@ equipped men with Henry . They slowed the pace of Richard 's mounted charge and bought Tudor some critical time . The remainder of Henry 's bodyguards surrounded their master and succeeded in keeping him away from the Yorkist king . On seeing Richard embroiled with Henry 's men and separated from his main force , William Stanley made his move . He led his men into the fight at Henry 's side . Outnumbered , Richard 's group was surrounded and gradually pressed back . Richard 's force was driven several hundred yards away from Tudor , near to the edge of a marsh . The king 's horse lost its footing and toppled into it . Richard gathered himself and rallied his dwindling followers , supposedly refusing to retreat : " God forbid that I retreat one step . I will either win the battle as a king , or die as one . " In the fighting Richard 's banner man — Sir Percival Thirlwall — lost his legs but held the Yorkist banner aloft until he was killed .
Polydore Vergil , Henry Tudor 's official historian , recorded that " King Richard , alone , was killed fighting manfully in the thickest press of his enemies " . Richard had come within a sword 's length of Henry Tudor before being surrounded by Sir William Stanley 's men and killed . The Burgundian chronicler Jean Molinet says that a Welshman struck the death @-@ blow with a halberd while Richard 's horse was stuck in the marshy ground . It was said that the blows were so violent that the king 's helmet was driven into his skull . The contemporary Welsh poet Guto 'r Glyn implies the leading Welsh Lancastrian Rhys ap Thomas , or one of his men , killed the king , writing that he " killed the boar , shaved his head " . The identification in 2013 of King Richard 's body shows that the skeleton had 10 wounds , eight of them to the head , clearly inflicted in battle and suggesting he had lost his helmet . The skull showed that a blade had hacked away part of the rear of the skull .
Richard 's forces disintegrated as news of his death spread . Northumberland and his men fled north on seeing the king 's fate , and Norfolk was killed .
= = Post @-@ battle = =
After the battle , Richard 's circlet was found and brought to Henry , who was crowned king at the top of Crown Hill , near the village of Stoke Golding . According to Vergil , Henry 's official historian , Lord Stanley found the circlet . Historian Stanley Chrimes and Professor Sydney Anglo dismiss the legend of the crown 's finding in a hawthorn bush ; none of the contemporary sources reported such an event . Ross , however , does not ignore the legend . He argues that the hawthorn bush would not be part of Henry 's coat of arms if it did not have a strong relationship to his ascendance . In Vergil 's chronicle , 100 of Henry 's men , compared to 1 @,@ 000 of Richard 's , died in this battle — a ratio Chrimes believes to be an exaggeration . The bodies of the fallen were brought to St James Church at Dadlington for burial . However , Henry denied any immediate rest for Richard ; instead the last Yorkist king 's corpse was stripped naked and strapped across a horse . His body was brought to Leicester and openly exhibited to prove that he was dead . Early accounts suggest that this was in the major Lancastrian collegiate foundation , the Church of the Annunciation of Our Lady of the Newarke . After two days , the corpse was interred in a plain unmarked tomb , within the church of the Greyfriars . The location of Richard 's tomb was long uncertain , as the church was demolished following its dissolution in 1538 .
On 12 September 2012 archaeologists announced the discovery of a battle @-@ damaged skeleton suspected to be Richard 's in the remains of his burial church in Leicester . On 4 February 2013 , it was announced that DNA testing had conclusively identified ( " beyond reasonable doubt " ) the remains as those of Richard . On Thursday 26 March 2015 , these remains were ceremonially buried in Leicester Cathedral . On the following day the new royal tomb of Richard III was unveiled .
Henry dismissed the mercenaries in his force , retaining only a small core of local soldiers to form the " Yeomen of his Garde " , and proceeded to establish his rule of England . Parliament reversed his attainder and recorded Richard 's kingship as illegal , although the Yorkist king 's reign remained officially in the annals of England history . The proclamation of Edward IV 's children as illegitimate was also reversed , restoring Elizabeth 's status to a royal princess . The marriage of Elizabeth , the heiress to the House of York , to Henry , the master of the House of Lancaster , marked the end of the feud between the two houses and the start of the Tudor dynasty . The royal matrimony , however , was delayed until Henry was crowned king and had established his claim on the throne firmly enough to preclude that of Elizabeth and her kin . Henry further convinced Parliament to backdate his reign to the day before the battle , retrospectively enabling those who fought against him at Bosworth Field to be declared traitors . Northumberland , who had remained inactive during the battle , was imprisoned but later released and reinstated to pacify the north in Henry 's name . The purge of those who fought for Richard occupied Henry 's first two years of rule , although later he proved prepared to accept those who submitted to him regardless of their former allegiances .
Of his supporters , Henry rewarded the Stanleys the most generously . Aside from making William his chamberlain , he bestowed the earldom of Derby upon Lord Stanley along with grants and offices in other estates . Henry rewarded Oxford by restoring to him the lands and titles confiscated by the Yorkists and appointing him as Constable of the Tower and admiral of England , Ireland , and Aquitaine . For his kin , Henry created Jasper Tudor the Duke of Bedford . He returned to his mother the lands and grants stripped from her by Richard , and proved to be a filial son , granting her a place of honour in the palace and faithfully attending to her throughout his reign . Parliament 's declaration of Margaret as femme sole effectively empowered her ; she no longer needed to manage her estates through Stanley . Elton points out that despite his initial largesse , Henry 's supporters at Bosworth would only enjoy his special favour for the short term ; in later years , he would instead promote those who best served his interests .
Like the kings before him , Henry faced dissenters . The first open revolt occurred two years after Bosworth Field ; Lambert Simnel claimed to be Edward Plantagenet , 17th Earl of Warwick , who was Edward IV 's nephew . The Earl of Lincoln backed him for the throne and led rebel forces in the name of the House of York . The rebel army fended off several attacks by Northumberland 's forces , before engaging Henry 's army at the Battle of Stoke Field on 16 June 1487 . Oxford and Bedford led Henry 's men , including several former supporters of Richard III . Henry won this battle easily , but other malcontents and conspiracies would follow . A rebellion in 1489 started with Northumberland 's murder ; military historian Michael C. C. Adams says that the author of a note , which was left next to Northumberland 's body , blamed the earl for Richard 's death .
= = Legacy and historical significance = =
Contemporary accounts of the Battle of Bosworth can be found in four main sources , one of which is the English Croyland Chronicle , written by a senior Yorkist chronicler who relied on second @-@ hand information from nobles and soldiers . The other accounts were written by foreigners — Vergil , Jean Molinet , and Diego de Valera . Whereas Molinet was sympathetic to Richard , Vergil was in Henry 's service and drew information from the king and his subjects to portray them in a good light . Diego de Valera , whose information Ross regards as unreliable , compiled his work from letters of Spanish merchants . However , other historians have used Valera 's work to deduce possibly valuable insights not readily evident in other sources . Ross finds the poem , The Ballad of Bosworth Field , a useful source to ascertain certain details of the battle . The multitude of different accounts , mostly based on second- or third @-@ hand information , has proved an obstacle to historians as they try to reconstruct the battle . Their common complaint is that , except for its outcome , very few details of the battle are found in the chronicles . According to historian Michael Hicks , the Battle of Bosworth is one of the worst @-@ recorded clashes of the Wars of the Roses .
= = = Historical depictions and interpretations = = =
Henry tried to present his victory as a new beginning for the country ; he hired chroniclers to portray his reign as a " modern age " with its dawn in 1485 . Hicks states that the works of Vergil and the blind historian Bernard André , promoted by subsequent Tudor administrations , became the authoritative sources for writers for the next four hundred years . As such , Tudor literature paints a flattering picture of Henry 's reign , depicting the Battle of Bosworth as the final clash of the civil war and downplaying the subsequent uprisings . For England the Middle Ages ended in 1485 , and English Heritage claims that other than William the Conqueror 's successful invasion of 1066 , no other year holds more significance in English history . By portraying Richard as a hunchbacked tyrant who usurped the throne by killing his nephews , the Tudor historians attached a sense of myth to the battle : it became an epic clash between good and evil with a satisfying moral outcome . According to Reader Colin Burrow , André was so overwhelmed by the historic significance of the battle that he represented it with a blank page in his Henry VII ( 1502 ) . For Professor Peter Saccio , the battle was indeed a unique clash in the annals of English history , because " the victory was determined , not by those who fought , but by those who delayed fighting until they were sure of being on the winning side . "
Historians such as Adams and Horrox believe that Richard lost the battle not for any mythic reasons , but because of morale and loyalty problems in his army . Most of the common soldiers found it difficult to fight for a liege whom they distrusted , and some lords believed that their situation might improve if Richard was dethroned . According to Adams , against such duplicities Richard 's desperate charge was the only knightly behaviour on the field . As fellow historian Michael Bennet puts it , the attack was " the swan @-@ song of [ mediaeval ] English chivalry " . Adams believes this view was shared at the time by the printer William Caxton , who enjoyed sponsorship from Edward IV and Richard III . Nine days after the battle , Caxton published Thomas Malory 's story about chivalry and death by betrayal — Le Morte d 'Arthur — seemingly as a response to the circumstances of Richard 's death .
Elton does not believe Bosworth Field has any true significance , pointing out that the 20th @-@ century English public largely ignored the battle until its quincentennial celebration . In his view , the dearth of specific information about the battle — no @-@ one even knows exactly where it took place — demonstrates its insignificance to English society . Elton considers the battle as just one part of Henry 's struggles to establish his reign , underscoring his point by noting that the young king had to spend ten more years pacifying factions and rebellions to secure his throne .
Mackie asserts that , in hindsight , Bosworth Field is notable as the decisive battle that established a dynasty which would rule unchallenged over England for more than a hundred years . Mackie notes that contemporary historians of that time , wary of the three royal successions during the long Wars of the Roses , considered Bosworth Field just another in a lengthy series of such battles . It was through the works and efforts of Francis Bacon and his successors that the public started to believe the battle had decided their futures by bringing about " the fall of a tyrant " .
= = = Shakespearian dramatisation = = =
William Shakespeare gives prominence to the Battle of Bosworth in his play , Richard III . It is the " one big battle " ; no other fighting scene distracts the audience from this action , represented by a one @-@ on @-@ one sword fight between Henry Tudor and Richard III . Shakespeare uses their duel to bring a climactic end to the play and the Wars of the Roses ; he also uses it to champion morality , portraying the " unequivocal triumph of good over evil " . Richard , the villainous lead character , has been built up in the battles of Shakespeare 's earlier play , Henry VI , Part 3 , as a " formidable swordsman and a courageous military leader " — in contrast to the dastardly means by which he becomes king in Richard III . Although the Battle of Bosworth has only five sentences to direct it , three scenes and more than four hundred lines precede the action , developing the background and motivations for the characters in anticipation of the battle .
Shakespeare 's account of the battle was mostly based on chroniclers Edward Hall 's and Raphael Holinshed 's dramatic versions of history , which were sourced from Vergil 's chronicle . However , Shakespeare 's attitude towards Richard was shaped by scholar Thomas More , whose writings displayed extreme bias against the Yorkist king . The result of these influences is a script that vilifies the king , and Shakespeare had few qualms about departing from history to incite drama . Margaret of Anjou died in 1482 , but Shakespeare had her speak to Richard 's mother before the battle to foreshadow Richard 's fate and fulfill the prophecy she had given in Henry VI . Shakespeare exaggerated the cause of Richard 's restless night before the battle , imagining it as a haunting by the ghosts of those whom the king had murdered , including Buckingham . Richard is portrayed as suffering a pang of conscience , but as he speaks he regains his confidence and asserts that he will be evil , if such needed to retain his crown .
The fight between the two armies is simulated by rowdy noises made off @-@ stage ( alarums or alarms ) while actors walk on @-@ stage , deliver their lines , and exit . To build anticipation for the duel , Shakespeare requests more alarums after Richard 's councillor , William Catesby , announces that the king is " [ enacting ] more wonders than a man " . Richard punctuates his entrance with the classic line , " A horse , a horse ! My kingdom for a horse ! " He refuses to withdraw , continuing to seek to slay Henry 's doubles until he has killed his nemesis . There is no documentary evidence that Henry had five decoys at Bosworth Field ; the idea was Shakespeare 's invention . He drew inspiration from Henry IV 's use of them at the Battle of Shrewsbury ( 1403 ) to amplify the perception of Richard 's courage on the battlefield . Similarly , the single combat between Henry and Richard is Shakespeare 's creation . The True Tragedy of Richard III , a play earlier than Shakespeare 's , has no signs of staging such an encounter : its stage directions give not a hint of visible combat .
Despite the dramatic licences taken , Shakespeare 's version of the Battle of Bosworth was the model of the event for English textbooks for many years during the 18th and 19th centuries . This glamorised version of history , promulgated in books and paintings and played out on stages across the country , perturbed humorist Gilbert Abbott à Beckett . He voiced his criticism in the form of a poem , equating the romantic view of the battle to watching a " fifth @-@ rate production of Richard III " : shabbily costumed actors fight the Battle of Bosworth on @-@ stage while those with lesser roles lounge at the back , showing no interest in the proceedings .
In Laurence Olivier 's 1955 film adaptation of Richard III , the Battle of Bosworth is represented not by a single duel but a general melee that became the film 's most recognised scene and a regular screening at Bosworth Battlefield Heritage Centre . The film depicts the clash between the Yorkist and Lancastrian armies on an open field , focusing on individual characters amidst the savagery of hand @-@ to @-@ hand fighting , and received accolades for the realism portrayed . One reviewer for The Manchester Guardian newspaper , however , was not impressed , finding the number of combatants too sparse for the wide plains and a lack of subtlety in Richard 's death scene . The means by which Richard is shown to prepare his army for the battle also earned acclaim . As Richard speaks to his men and draws his plans in the sand using his sword , his units appear on @-@ screen , arraying themselves according to the lines that Richard had drawn . Intimately woven together , the combination of pictorial and narrative elements effectively turns Richard into a storyteller , who acts out the plot he has constructed . Shakespearian critic Herbert Coursen extends that imagery : Richard sets himself up as a creator of men , but dies amongst the savagery of his creations . Coursen finds the depiction a contrast to that of Henry V and his " band of brothers " .
The adaptation of the setting for Richard III to a 1930s fascist England in Ian McKellen 's 1995 film , however , did not sit well with historians . Adams posits that the original Shakespearian setting for Richard 's fate at Bosworth teaches the moral of facing one 's fate , no matter how unjust it is , " nobly and with dignity " . By overshadowing the dramatic teaching with special effects , McKellen 's film reduces its version of the battle to a pyrotechnic spectacle about the death of a one @-@ dimensional villain . Coursen agrees that , in this version , the battle and Richard 's end are trite and underwhelming .
= = Battlefield location = =
Officially the site of the battle is deemed by Leicestershire County Council to be in the vicinity of the town of Market Bosworth . The council engaged historian Daniel Williams to research the battle , and in 1974 his findings were used to build the Bosworth Battlefield Heritage Centre and the presentation it houses . Williams 's interpretation , however , has since been questioned . Sparked by the battle 's quincentenary celebration in 1985 , a dispute among historians has led many to suspect the accuracy of Williams 's theory . In particular , geological surveys conducted from 2003 to 2009 by the Battlefields Trust , a charitable organisation that protects and studies old English battlefields , show that the southern and eastern flanks of Ambion Hill were solid ground in the 15th century , contrary to Williams 's claim that it was a large area of marshland . Landscape archaeologist Glenn Foard , leader of the survey , said the collected soil samples and finds of medieval military equipment suggest that the battle took place two miles ( 3 km ) southwest of Ambion Hill ( 52 ° 34 ′ 41 ″ N 1 ° 26 ′ 02 ″ W ) , contrary to the popular belief that it was fought near the foot of the hill .
= = = Historians ' theories = = =
The Historic Buildings and Monuments Commission for England ( popularly referred to as " English Heritage " ) argues that the battle was named after Market Bosworth because the town was the nearest significant settlement to the battlefield in the 15th century . As explored by Professor Philip Morgan , a battle might initially not be named specifically at all . As time passes , writers of administrative and historical records find it necessary to identify a notable battle , ascribing it a name that is usually toponymical in nature and sourced from combatants or observers . This official name becomes accepted by society and future generations without question . Early records associated the Battle of Bosworth with " Brownehethe " , " bellum Miravallenses " , " Sandeford " and " Dadlyngton field " . The earliest record , a municipal memorandum of 23 August 1485 from York , locates the battle " on the field of Redemore " . This is corroborated by a 1485 – 86 letter that mentions " Redesmore " as its site . According to historian Peter Foss , records did not associate the battle with " Bosworth " until 1510 .
Foss is named by English Heritage as the principal advocate for " Redemore " as the battle site . He suggests the name is derived from " Hreod Mor " , an Anglo @-@ Saxon phrase that means " reedy marshland " . Basing his opinion on 13th- and 16th @-@ century church records , he believes " Redemore " was an area of wetland that lay between Ambion Hill and the village of Dadlington , and was close to the Fenn Lanes , a Roman road running east to west across the region . Foard believes this road to be the most probable route that both armies took to reach the battlefield . Williams dismisses the notion of " Redmore " as a specific location , saying that the term refers to a large area of reddish soil ; Foss argues that Williams 's sources are local stories and flawed interpretations of records . Moreover , he proposes that Williams was influenced by William Hutton 's 1788 The Battle of Bosworth @-@ Field , which Foss blames for introducing the notion that the battle was fought west of Ambion Hill on the north side of the River Sence . Hutton , as Foss suggests , misinterpreted a passage from his source , Raphael Holinshed 's 1577 Chronicle . Holinshed wrote , " King Richard pitched his field on a hill called Anne Beame , refreshed his soldiers and took his rest . " Foss believes that Hutton mistook " field " to mean " field of battle " , thus creating the idea that the fight took place on Anne Beame ( Ambion ) Hill . To " [ pitch ] his field " , as Foss clarifies , was a period expression for setting up a camp .
Foss brings further evidence for his " Redemore " theory by quoting Edward Hall 's 1550 Chronicle . Hall stated that Richard 's army stepped onto a plain after breaking camp the next day . Furthermore , historian William Burton , author of Description of Leicestershire ( 1622 ) , wrote that the battle was " fought in a large , flat , plaine , and spacious ground , three miles [ 5 km ] distant from [ Bosworth ] , between the Towne of Shenton , Sutton [ Cheney ] , Dadlington and Stoke [ Golding ] " . In Foss 's opinion both sources are describing an area of flat ground north of Dadlington .
= = = Physical site = = =
English Heritage , responsible for managing England 's historic sites , used both theories to designate the site for Bosworth Field . Without preference for either theory , they constructed a single continuous battlefield boundary that encompasses the locations proposed by both Williams and Foss . The region has experienced extensive changes over the years , starting after the battle . Holinshed stated in his chronicle that he found firm ground where he expected the marsh to be , and Burton confirmed that by the end of the 16th century , areas of the battlefield were enclosed and had been improved to make them agriculturally productive . Trees were planted on the south side of Ambion Hill , forming Ambion Wood . In the 18th and 19th centuries , the Ashby Canal carved through the land west and south @-@ west of Ambion Hill . Winding alongside the canal at a distance , the Ashby and Nuneaton Joint Railway crossed the area on an embankment . The changes to the landscape were so extensive that when Hutton revisited the region in 1807 after an earlier 1788 visit , he could not readily find his way around .
Bosworth Battlefield Heritage Centre was built on Ambion Hill , near Richard 's Well . According to legend , Richard III drank from one of the several springs in the region on the day of the battle . In 1788 , a local pointed out one of the springs to Hutton as the one mentioned in the legend . A stone structure was later built over the location . The inscription on the well reads :
" Near this spot , on August 22nd 1485 , at the age of 32 , King Richard III fell fighting gallantly in defence of his realm & his crown against the usurper Henry Tudor .
The Cairn was erected by Dr. Samuel Parr in 1813 to mark the well from which the king is said to have drunk during the battle .
It is maintained by the Fellowship of the White Boar . "
Northwest of Ambion Hill , just across the northern tributary of the Sence , a flag and memorial stone mark Richard 's Field . Erected in 1973 , the site was selected on the basis of Williams 's theory . St James 's Church at Dadlington is the only structure in the area that is reliably associated with the Battle of Bosworth ; the bodies of those killed in the battle were buried there .
In 2010 , a small silver badge depicting a boar was found in the area at a site one mile to the southwest . Experts believed this could indicate the actual site of the battle , since this badge depicts Richard III 's personal emblem . Discussions were held about providing access to this site as well .
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= Marguerite Louise d 'Orléans =
Marguerite Louise d 'Orléans ( 28 July 1645 – 17 September 1721 ) was Grand Duchess of Tuscany , as the wife of Grand Duke Cosimo III de ' Medici . Deprived of her lover , Charles V of Lorraine , and yearning for France , Marguerite Louise despised her husband and his family , whom she often quarrelled with and falsely suspected of attempting to poison her . Marguerite Louise reconciled with the Medici on more than one occasion , however , only to promptly resume hostilities .
Having become Grand Duke of Tuscany upon his father 's death , in 1670 , Cosimo III , under the sway of his mother , Vittoria della Rovere , refused to grant Marguerite Louise entry to the Consulta ( Privy Council ) . Thus without political influence , Marguerite Louise oversaw the education of her eldest son , Grand Prince Ferdinando . Two more children followed : Anna Maria Luisa , Electress Palatine , and Gian Gastone , the last Medici Grand Duke of Tuscany .
In June 1675 , having signed a contract with Cosimo III the previous December stipulating an 80 @,@ 000 livres pension , Marguerite Louise was allowed to return to France , on the condition she reside in the Abbaye Saint Pierre de Montmartre , near Paris . A daughter of Gaston de France , Duke of Orléans , Marguerite Louise was obliged to surrender her rights as Princess of France in Cosimo 's contract . Although the contract , too , banned her from leaving the convent , Marguerite Louise often went to her cousin Louis XIV 's court at Versailles , where she gambled for high stakes . She was at the centre of many scandals at the convent , including an attempt to burn it down , which greatly irritated her husband , who , despite the separation , took great interest in Marguerite Louise 's life . While still technically married , Marguerite Louise had several affairs .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life : 1645 @-@ 1661 = = =
Marguerite Louise , the eldest child of Gaston of France , Duke of Orléans , and of his second wife , Marguerite of Lorraine , was born on 18 July 1645 . Born at the Château de Blois , she was the oldest of five children born to Gaston by his second wife . Her other sisters included Élisabeth Marguerite , future Duchess of Guise and the Duchess of Savoy .
Marguerite Louise received a rudimentary education at her father 's court at Blois , where he retreated to after his failed insurrection against his nephew Louis XIV of France , the Fronde . Marguerite Louise enjoyed a close relationship with her half @-@ sister , Anne Marie Louise , Duchess of Montpensier , La Grande Mademoiselle , who took her and her friends to the theatre and royal balls ; Marguerite Louise reciprocated her sister 's affection , attending daily Anne Marie Louise 's salon and seeking her guidance in court matters . Madame de Choisy , Marguerite Louise believed , poorly advised her mother in matters of court and ruined her marriage negotiations with Charles Emmanuel II , Duke of Savoy . Therefore , when another proposal came , this time from Cosimo de ' Medici , Grand Prince of Tuscany , in 1658 , Marguerite Louise asked her half @-@ sister to ensure its fulfilment . Her own younger sister Françoise Madeleine d 'Orléans married Charles Emmanuel II in 1663 .
Initially overjoyed at the prospect of marrying , Marguerite Louise 's ebullience faded to dismay when she discovered her half @-@ sister no longer favoured the Tuscan match , as she did before . After this rebut , Marguerite Louise 's behaviour became erratic : she shocked the court by going out unaccompanied , a grievous offence in contemporary French society , with her cousin Prince Charles of Lorraine , who soon became her lover . Her marriage by proxy , on 19 April 1661 , did nothing to change her attitude , much to Louis XIV 's ministers ' discontentment ; on the day she was supposed to meet diplomats offering their congratulations on the wedding , she attempted to abscond and go hunting , only to be stopped by the Duchess of Montpensier .
= = Life in Tuscany : 1661 @-@ 1670 = =
= = = Grand Princess of Tuscany = = =
Mattias de ' Medici , the incumbent Grand Duke 's brother , brought Marguerite Louise to Tuscany in a fleet comprising nine galleys , three Tuscan , three on loan from the Republic of Genoa and another three from the Papal States . She arrived in Tuscany on 12 June , disembarking at Livorno , and , to much pageantry , made her formal entry to Florence on 20 June . Their wedding , the most lavish spectacle Florence had hitherto seen , was composed of a retinue of over three @-@ hundred carriages . As a wedding gift , Grand Duke Ferdinando , the bridegroom 's father , presented her with a pearl the " size of a small pigeon 's egg " .
Marguerite Louise and Cosimo greeted each other with indifference , and , according to Sophia , Electress of Hanover , they only slept together once a week . Marguerite Louise , two days after their marriage , demanded possession of the Tuscan crown jewels from Cosimo , who replied that he did not have the authority to give them . The jewels that she did manage to get from Cosimo she tried to smuggle out of Tuscany , only to be stopped by the Grand Duke . Marguerite Louise 's indifference , after this incident , turned to hatred , compounded by her love for Charles of Lorraine , from whom she was forced to part at Marseilles . On one occasion , she threatened to break a bottle over Cosimo 's head if he did not leave her chamber . Her hatred of Cosimo , however , did not get in the way of children : Grand Prince Ferdinando in 1663 , Anna Maria Luisa in 1667 and Gian Gastone in 1671 . Cosimo 's family , too , were the victims of Marguerite Louise 's caprices : she argued with the Grand Duchess Vittoria over precedence , Grand Duke Ferdinando over her profligacy . Marguerite Louise 's spending habits not only made her unpopular with the Grand Duke , but with the Florentines , who were tired of her lax etiquette , two grooms frequented her chamber at all hours .
= = = Entreaties to Louis XIV = = =
Following Charles of Lorraine 's brief visit to Florence , during which he was entertained by the Grand Ducal family in Palazzo Pitti , the Grand Ducal palace , the tone of Marguerite Louise 's letters to Charles compelled the Grand Duke and Cosimo to spy on her . In response , she begged Louis XIV to intervene , but he stealthily declined . Both Marguerite Louise and the Grand Duke sent entreaties to Louis XIV following the dismissal of Marguerite Louise 's French staff , the former complaining of her maltreatment , the latter asking for Marguerite Louise 's behaviour to be curbed .
To placate both the Grand Duke and Marguerite Louise , he sent the comte de Saint Mesme . Marguerite Louise wanted to return to France , and Mesme sympathised with this , as did much of the French court , so he left without finding a solution to the heir 's domestic disharmony , incensing both Ferdinando and Louis XIV . Now , she humiliated Cosimo at every chance she got : she insisted on employing French cooks only as she feared the Medici were out to poison her and branded Cosimo " a poor groom " in front of the Papal nuncio .
After several more attempts at French conciliation failed , in September 1664 Marguerite Louise left her apartment in Palazzo Pitti , refusing to return ; therefore , Cosimo moved her into Villa di Lappeggi. where she was watched by forty soldiers , and six courtiers , appointed by Cosimo , had to follow her everywhere because it was feared she would abscond . The next year , she changed tack , and reconciled with the Grand Ducal family . The delicate rapprochement that existed between Marguerite Louise and the rest of the family collapsed after Anna Maria Luisa 's birth , in 1667 , when she caught smallpox .
= = Grand Duchess of Tuscany : 1670 @-@ 1721 = =
In May 1670 , with the death of Grand Duke Ferdinando II , Marguerite Louise became Grand Duchess of Tuscany . The old tradition of admitting the Grand Duke 's mother to the Consulta , or Privy Council , was reinstituted at Cosimo III 's accession . Loathing Marguerite Louise for her treatment of Cosimo and herself , Vittoria della Rovere , Cosimo III 's mother , ensured that Marguerite Louise was excluded from politics , leaving her with nothing else to do but supervise her son the Grand Prince Ferdinando 's education . The Grand Duchess , furious at her exclusion , fought with Vittoria over precedence and demanded entry to the Consulta . Cosimo III sided with his mother . By early 1671 , fighting between Marguerite Louise and Vittoria became so heated that a contemporary remarked that " the Pitti Palace has become the devil 's own abode , and from morn till midnight only the noise of wrangling and abuse could be heard " .
= = = Return to France = = =
At the start of 1672 , Marguerite Louise wrote to Louis XIV , begging him for medical assistance as she believed she had breast cancer . Louis XIV sent Alliot le Vieux , Anne of Austria 's personal physician , to tend to her . Alliot , unlike Mesme , did not completely comply with Marguerite Louise 's plot to be sent to France , under the guise of illness , pronouncing that the tumour was " nonwise malignant " , though he did recommend thermal waters . Frustrated with the failure of her plan , Marguerite Louise began flirting with a cook in her household , tickling him and having pillow fights , to upset Cosimo .
To restore domestic harmony , Cosimo III sent for Madame du Deffand , Marguerite Louise 's childhood governess who had tried , but failed , to help the Grand Duke before . However , because of a string of deaths in the Orléans family , she arrived late , in December 1672 . By then , Marguerite Louise was in the depths of despair , and asked to be allowed visit Villa Poggio a Caiano , a Medici villa , ostensibly for worship at a nearby shrine . Once there , she refused to return , which resulted in a two @-@ year stand off between herself and the Grand Duke , for he would not consent to her return to France , a return she begged for in her parting letter to him . Madame du Deffand 's mission having failed , Louis XIV made one final attempt to reconcile the Grand Ducal couple , to no avail . Therefore , all attempts at conciliation having failed , Cosimo capitulated to Marguerite Louise , in a contract signed on 26 December 1674 : Marguerite Louise , provided for with a pension of 80 @,@ 000 livres , was allowed to leave for France , but she had to confine herself to the Saint Pierre Abbey of Montmartre and surrender her rights as a Royal Princess of France . Overjoyed , the Grand Duchess departed for France laden down with the fixtures and furniture of Villa Poggio a Caiano , for , in her own words , she had no intention " of setting forth without her proper wages " .
= = = Montmartre = = =
News of Marguerite Louise 's departure from Livorno on the 12 July 1675 was greeted with " a great displeasure " by the Florentines . The nobility , too , sympathised with her , falsely believing Cosimo was to blame for driving Marguerite Louise from Tuscany . Marguerite Louise , initially , patronised charitable works at Montmartre and bore herself with " an air of piety " , but soon reverted to her profligate ways , wearing heavy rouge and bright yellow periwigs , and embarking on an affair with the Count of Lovigny , and later with two members of the Luxembourg regiment . Louis XIV , ignoring the 1674 contract 's article banning Marguerite Louise from stepping foot outside the convent , allowed the Grand Duchess to court , where she gambled for high stakes .
Because of her " shabby " retinue and short visits , Marguerite Louise garnered the reputation of a Bohemian among the courtiers of Versailles , and , therefore , was compelled to allow " those of insignificant birth " into her circle . The Tuscan envoy , Gondi , issued frequent protests to the French court of Marguerite Louise 's behaviour , to no avail . Eventually , the Abbess of Montmartre , Françoise Renée de Lorraine , ( 1621 – 1682 ) , when quizzed by the King about Marguerite Louise 's latest affair with a groom , interceded , saying , " A conspiracy of silence is the sole antidote to the depravity and excesses of [ Marguerite Louise ] " ; this explains Marguerite Louise 's absence from memoirs of the time .
Back in Florence , Cosimo III had the Tuscan envoy report on Marguerite Louise 's every movement , which he closely scrutinised . If he deemed a particular action of hers to be offensive , he wrote to Louis XIV , demanding an explanation . Initially sympathetic with Cosimo , Louis XIV , tiring of his endless stream of protests , said , " Since Cosimo had consented to the retirement of his wife to France , he had virtually relinquished all right to interfere in her conduct " . That Cosimo III ceased meddling in the affairs of his wife was the result of Louis XIV 's rebut . Marguerite Louise was informed of Cosimo III 's ensuing illness by her eldest son , Grand Prince Ferdinando , who espoused his mother 's cause and corresponded with her . Marguerite Louise , confident of her husband 's imminent death , told the French court that " at the first notice of her detested husband 's demise , she would fly to Florence to banish all hypocrites and hypocrisy and establish a new government " . This , however , was not to be , and Cosimo III actually outlived her two years .
In 1688 , saturated in debt , Marguerite Louise wrote to Cosimo , begging for 20 @,@ 000 crowns . When Cosimo was not initially forthcoming , she switched her focus to her son the Grand Prince , in the hope he would help her , but he feigned he could not , for fear of upsetting his father . Eventually , Cosimo paid off her debts , and her financial security was assured when she inherited a large sum of money from a relative in 1696 .
While Marguerite Louise 's behaviour — at its worst when she threatened to burn down the convent — was tolerated by the previous Abbess of Montmartre , the new Abbess , Madame d 'Harcourt , frequently complained of her to the Grand Duke and the King . In retaliation , Marguerite Louise threatened to kill her with a hatchet and a pistol , and formed a clique against her . Therefore , in line with her wishes , Cosimo III consented to Marguerite Louise 's departure for a new convent , Saint @-@ Mandé , on the condition she only leave with the King Louis XIV 's explicit permission and be attended to by a chamberlain of his choice . Since she would not assent to these prerequisites , the payment of her pension was suspended , only to be resumed when Louis XIV compelled her to yield .
= = = Saint @-@ Mandé = = =
At Saint @-@ Mandé , Marguerite Louise underwent a transformation : she no longer cared for " excesses " , and busied herself with reforming the convent , which she called a " spiritual brothel " ; the absentee mother superior , who wore men 's clothing , was sent away , non @-@ conformist nuns were removed and it is because of these deeds her behaviour no longer proved a bone of contention with Florence . Marguerite Louise 's health began to decline in 1712 , with an attack of apoplexy , which left her with a paralysed left arm and foaming mouth . She soon recovered , only to suffer another attack the next year ; the death of the only one of her three children she cared for , Grand Prince Ferdinando , contributed to the second attack of apoplexy , which briefly paralysed her eyes and made speech difficult . The Regent of France , Philippe d 'Orléans , allowed Marguerite Louise to buy a house in Paris , 15 Place des Vosges , where she spent her final years . She corresponded with the Regent 's mother , Elizabeth Charlotte of the Palatinate , and gave assiduously to charity . Marguerite Louise d 'Orléans , Princess of France and Grand Duchess of Tuscany , died in September 1721 , and was buried in Picpus Cemetery , in Paris .
= = Issue = =
Cosimo III and Marguerite Louise had three children :
Ferdinando de ' Medici , Grand Prince of Tuscany ( b.1663 d.1713 ) married Violante Beatrice of Bavaria , no issue ;
Anna Maria Luisa de ' Medici , Electress Palatine ( b.1667 d.1743 ) married Johann Wilhelm , Elector Palatine , no issue ;
Gian Gastone de ' Medici , Grand Duke of Tuscany ( b.1671 d.1737 ) married Anna Maria Franziska of Saxe @-@ Lauenburg , no issue .
= = Ancestors = =
= = Titles , styles , honours and arms = =
= = = Titles and styles = = =
28 July 1645 – 12 June 1661 Her Royal Highness Mademoiselle d 'Orléans
12 June 1661 – 23 May 1670 Her Royal Highness The Grand Princess of Tuscany
23 May 1670 – 17 September 1721 Her Royal Highness The Grand Duchess of Tuscany
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= Charles Redheffer =
Charles Redheffer was an American inventor who claimed to have invented a perpetual motion machine . First appearing in Philadelphia , Redheffer exhibited his machine to the public , charging high prices for viewing . When he applied to the government for more money , a group of inspectors were sent to examine the machine . It was discovered the machine was actually powered by a device Redheffer claimed was powered by the machine .
Redheffer moved to New York City and set up a similar scam after rebuilding his machine . However , an engineer detected that it was a fake when he visited an exhibition by listening to its unsteady motions . He discovered that the machine was operated by a man using a crank in a room on the floor above . Redheffer returned to Philadelphia . He later claimed to have created another machine , but refused to demonstrate it to anyone . He managed to get a patent for his machine in 1820 , but after this his fate is unknown .
= = Personal life = =
Little has been recorded about Redheffer 's life , other than his connection to the hoax . According to one source , he was from Germantown in Philadelphia , but most sources simply state that he appeared in Philadelphia with his machine . Redheffer disappeared from public view after the discovery of the fraud , and his fate is unknown .
= = Appearance in Philadelphia = =
Charles Redheffer and his machine became well known in Philadelphia in 1812 . Redheffer claimed he had invented a perpetual motion machine and exhibited it in a house near the Schuylkill River in the outskirts of the city . He charged an admission fee of $ 5 ( some sources claim $ 1 ) for men to view it ; depending on the source , women were admitted free or at a charge of $ 1 . The machine caused a sensation , and Redheffer lobbied for funds to build a larger version .
On January 21 , 1813 , eight city commissioners visited Redheffer to inspect the machine . They had to do so through a barred window , as Redheffer was concerned anyone going near the machine might damage it . One of the inspectors , Nathan Sellers , was accompanied by his son Coleman , who noticed something odd about the gears . The machine itself was said to be powering a separate device through a series of gears and weights . Coleman noticed that the cogs were worn on the wrong side and suggested that the device was in fact powering the machine .
The elder Sellers was convinced the machine was a hoax . To validate his suspicions , he hired local engineer Isaiah Lukens to build a similar machine , using a hidden clockwork motor as a power source . They then arranged a demonstration of the machine to Redheffer , who was immediately convinced and offered to buy it . Meanwhile , Redheffer 's machine appeared in the Philadelphia Gazette . Civil engineer Charles Gobort offered to bet sums of money ranging from $ 6 @,@ 000 to $ 10 @,@ 000 that the machine was genuine , and that Redheffer had discovered perpetual motion .
= = Move to New York City = =
His ruse revealed , Redheffer immediately departed for New York City where he was still unknown . He changed his machine somewhat so that it could not be detected as easily , and he exhibited it as he had done in Philadelphia .
When mechanical engineer Robert Fulton went to see the machine , he noticed that the machine was unsteady as if someone would have powered it manually and irregularly with a crank . Fulton also detected that the sound was uneven , uncharacteristic of a machine 's motions . He announced the machine was a fraud , and challenged Redheffer exclaiming he would expose the secret power source , otherwise he would pay for all the damage he would cause . Redheffer agreed , so Fulton removed some boards from the wall alongside the machine and exposed a catgut cord that led to the upper floor . Upstairs he found an old man who was turning a hand @-@ crank with one hand and eating bread with the other . Spectators realized they had been duped and destroyed the machine ; Redheffer fled the city .
= = Later appearances = =
Redheffer appears to have constructed another machine in 1816 , which he stated his intention to demonstrate to a group of men including the mayor and chief justice of Philadelphia . However , despite several meetings , Redheffer refused to demonstrate the machine to them .
On July 11 , 1820 , the U.S. Patent Office granted a patent to Charles Redheffer ( or Charles Redheiffer ) for a device listed as " machinery for the purpose of gaining power " . ( Unfortunately , all patents up to 1836 were lost in the 1836 U.S. Patent Office fire . If recovered , it would be X @-@ Patent X3,215 . )
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= Question Time British National Party controversy =
The Question Time British National Party controversy occurred in the autumn of 2009 , due to an invitation by the British Broadcasting Corporation ( BBC ) to Nick Griffin , leader of the far @-@ right British National Party ( BNP ) , to be a panelist on Question Time , one of its flagship television programmes on current affairs .
The decision to have the BNP represented on the programme for the first time sparked public and political debate in the United Kingdom . At the heart of the matter was the BBC 's public broadcasting mandate , requiring it to give equal prominence to political parties above a given level of electoral representation . Mark Thompson , Director @-@ General of the BBC , defended the BBC 's decision to invite Griffin , stating , " the BNP has demonstrated a level of support that would normally lead to an occasional invitation to join the panel on Question Time . It is for that reason – not for some misguided desire to be controversial , but for that reason alone – that the invitation has been extended . "
A late appeal was made to the BBC Trust , the BBC 's governing body , by the Secretary of State for Wales Peter Hain , to have the appearance blocked , which ultimately failed . Griffin appeared on the edition which aired on 22 October 2009 . As the programme was due to go on air , public protests took place at BBC Television Centre in London . The pre @-@ recorded programme featured Griffin alongside the Secretary of State for Justice Jack Straw , the Conservative peer and Shadow Minister for Community Cohesion Sayeeda Warsi , Baroness Warsi , the Liberal Democrats ' Home Affairs spokesperson Chris Huhne , and the writer / playwright Bonnie Greer . The edition was watched by over 8 million people – over half the total audience share – and more than double the previous record high for Question Time .
= = Background = =
Question Time is the flagship BBC Television political panel show , which began in 1979 . The weekly show , hosted by David Dimbleby since 1994 , takes place at locations around the country . Questions from a local audience are directed to a panel of invited guests , usually consisting of British politicians , alongside other public figures . The topics for debate during the programme are loosely defined by " set @-@ piece " questions from pre @-@ selected audience members . For each topic , the question is answered by each panel member in turn , followed by supplementary questions on the topic , time permitting . The show is pre @-@ recorded a few hours before being broadcast , and it is stressed by Dimbleby as the programme starts , that the panellists have no previous knowledge of the content of the questions .
The British National Party ( BNP ) is a far right minority party in Britain founded by John Tyndall in 1982 . The leader of the party at the time was Nick Griffin , elected as one of the eight MEPs in the North West England constituency , although he has since resigned . At the time of the programme , the BNP won 943 @,@ 598 votes and two seats in the UK 's 2009 European Parliament elections in June , when a total of 72 seats were contested . The BNP polled 6 @.@ 26 % of the national vote of 15 @,@ 625 @,@ 823 ( from an electorate of 45 @,@ 315 @,@ 669 ) , making it the sixth ranked party , behind the Conservatives ( 27 @.@ 7 % ) , United Kingdom Independence Party ( 16 @.@ 5 % ) , Labour ( 15 @.@ 7 % ) , Liberal Democrats ( 13 @.@ 7 % ) and the Green Party ( 8 @.@ 6 % ) . The result represented a 1 @.@ 3 percentage point increase on its previous performance . Since then , support for the party has declined significantly , allegedly due " to internal splits and the rise of Ukip " .
At the time of the programme the BNP held one seat on the London Assembly and council seats in four London boroughs ; it was the second party in the London Borough of Barking and Dagenham .
= = BBC policy = =
= = = Coverage of the BNP = = =
Griffin had already appeared on other BBC shows , including The Andrew Marr Show on BBC One and The World at One on BBC Radio 4 . No BNP representative had ever appeared on Question Time before , but following the European election performance , this stance was reviewed . The possibility of an appearance on Question Time by Nick Griffin was publicly announced by the BBC in early September . That month , James Macintyre of the New Statesman who was a former Question Time producer , said that Mentorn , the independent production company responsible for Question Time , had been proposing an appearance by Griffin over the previous two years . The Independent gave credit to the BBC for resisting " the naïve showbiz instincts " of executives at Mentorn , who may have wanted " what Peter Hain calls a ' beanfest ' for reasons well removed from the BBC 's charter obligations . "
On 21 October , the day before the broadcast , the BBC Director @-@ General , Mark Thompson , wrote an article for The Guardian entitled ' Keeping Nick Griffin off air is a job for parliament , not the BBC ' . He said that those arguing for the BNP to be excluded from the programme were making the case for censorship , which was a matter for the government and not the BBC . He explained the BBC 's decision :
Question Time is an opportunity for the British public to put questions to politicians of every ideological hue . Politicians from the UK 's biggest parties appear most frequently , but from time to time representatives of parties with many fewer supporters – from the Scottish Socialists and Respect to the Green party – also take their seats on the stage . Question Time is the most prominent programme of its kind on British television , and we carefully study the support gained in elections by each of the parties , large and small , before deciding who to invite and how frequently they should appear . It is a straightforward matter of fact that , with some 6 % of the vote and the election of two MEPs in this spring 's European elections – and with some success in local elections as well – the BNP has demonstrated a level of support that would normally lead to an occasional invitation to join the panel on Question Time . It is for that reason – not for some misguided desire to be controversial , but for that reason alone – that the invitation has been extended .
The BBC Deputy Director General , Mark Byford , also defended the decision on the day of the programme , saying : " [ The BNP ] should have the right to be heard , be challenged , and for the public who take part in Question Time and the viewers to make up their own minds about the views of the BNP . It 's not for the BBC to censor and say they can 't be on " . The BBC 's chief political adviser , Ric Bailey , stated after the failed appeal that the BBC " would have been breaking its charter if it had not treated the BNP with impartiality ... We absolutely stand by that judgement , even though there 's obviously been a lot of controversy about it " . A senior BBC presenter , John Humphrys , said the decision was " absolutely right " . He said : " Why should we be afraid of what they have to say ? Free speech is the issue here , and the BBC 's obligations . " However , broadcasting unions said some of its members would protest at the invitation .
= = = Appeal to the BBC Trust = = =
A late attempt to stop the programme came from the Labour Secretary of State for Wales , Peter Hain , who accused the BBC of being " apologists " for the BNP and making " one of the biggest mistakes in its proud history " . After failing to persuade the BBC Director General Mark Thompson to stop the appearance , Hain appealed to the BBC Trust . The BNP 's constitution restricting membership of the party to " indigenous Caucasian " people , namely " indigenous British ethnic groups " including the " Anglo @-@ Saxon folk community " and the " Celtic Scottish folk community " was declared illegal on 15 October 2009 under the Race Relations Act , after a challenge by the Equality and Human Rights Commission , and Hain argued that the appearance might be illegal in light of the ruling .
On the night of Tuesday 20 October , the Trust announced it was forming an emergency committee , comprising three trustees chaired by Richard Tait , to examine the appeals . Late on 21 October , the day before the programme was due to be made , the Trust cleared Griffin to appear on the show . It also ruled that , given the pre @-@ recorded nature of the show , many of the concerns were hypothetical and premature . The Trust declined further comment , in case of an appeal of the decision after the show :
We have concluded that the decision as to whether it is appropriate in all the circumstances for the BBC to allow the BNP to participate on Question Time is a question of editorial judgement , which the charter and framework agreement reserve for the Director @-@ General .
We have written to the Director @-@ General asking him to engage personally to ensure that the broadcast programme complies with the general law , the BBC 's editorial guidelines and all other regulatory requirements .
The committee is aware of the debate and public controversy on this issue and that this is a matter of considerable importance to many licence fee payers .
= = Opinions prior to broadcast = =
= = = Nick Griffin = = =
In an e @-@ mail to BNP supporters , Griffin said " Never before have we had the chance to present our patriotic , common sense solutions to Britain ’ s nightmare situation to the public at large in such prominent fashion ... I am relishing this opportunity , and I know that ... the ordinary members , supporters and voters of the BNP will be in the studio with me as I take on the corrupt , treacherous swine destroying our beautiful island nation . ” He also stated in a letter on the BNP website : " I will , no doubt , be interrupted , shouted down , slandered , put on the spot , and subjected to a scrutiny that would be a thousand times more intense than anything directed at other panellists . It will , in other words , be political blood sport . But I am relishing this opportunity . "
Griffin told The Times : " I thank the political class and their allies for being so stupid . " He went on to say that his invitation on the programme " clearly gives us a whole new level of public recognition . " Griffin said of his fellow Question Time panellists before the show that Bonnie Greer was " the joker in the pack ... [ who ] ... knows how to look after herself and may be more of a handful than the others " , that Menzies Campbell " would have been more daunting " than Chris Huhne , that Jack Straw is " a very effective advocate " . He said that the appearance of Baroness Warsi for the Conservatives was a typical " tokenist " stunt . In the run @-@ up to the programme , the BNP website displayed a prominent countdown to Question Time .
= = = UK parliamentary parties = = =
The policy of the Labour Party never to share a platform with the BNP was changed following the BBC 's invitation to Griffin . Labour said that future appearances were to be on a " case by case " basis . On 27 September 2009 , the Secretary of State for Justice , Jack Straw , announced he would appear on the programme , following the announcement that the Conservatives and Liberal Democrats would take part in any edition of Question Time that included the BNP . Straw said he would be delighted to make the argument for people against the BNP :
Wherever we have had BNP problems in my area and when we have fought them hard , we 've pulled back and won the seats back .
Speaking on the Question Time episode the week before the expected appearance by Griffin , the Home Secretary Alan Johnson condemned the decision of the BBC :
There isn 't a constitutional obligation to appear on Question Time . That gives [ the BNP ] a legitimacy they do not deserve . These people believe in the things that the fascists believed in the Second World War , they believe in what the National Front believe in . They believe in the purity of the Aryan race . It is a foul and despicable party .
The Prime Minister and Labour leader , Gordon Brown , said he would not interfere with the BBC 's decision . He said : " asked about their racist and bigoted views that are damaging to good community relations , it will be a good opportunity to expose what they are about . " When pressed on the reversal of Labour 's ' No Platform ' policy , Brown said " The issue is : should we have someone there ? Jack Straw is a very experienced person who has had to deal with the BNP and their awful politics over a period of time . "
The Conservative leader , David Cameron , was uncomfortable with the BBC decision , which reminded him of an invitation to Gerry Adams to speak at the Oxford Union during the 1980s when he was at Oxford . He said : " It makes me uneasy . I don 't think the BBC should have done it . "
The Conservative panel member , Baroness Warsi , a British Muslim from Dewsbury , West Yorkshire – a town which Janice Turner of The Times reported as having the biggest BNP vote in Britain – stated " I want to ask Nick Griffin what about me isn 't British " . The Liberal Democrat panel member Chris Huhne decided in consultation with his party leader Nick Clegg that , given the BBC 's decision to invite Griffin , he had no choice but to attend . He said that " Thursday night 's excitement would not have been called off just because the Liberal Democrats decided not to participate . "
On the day of the programme , the former Labour Mayor of London , Ken Livingstone , said that the BBC would " bear moral responsibility " for any rise in racist attacks in Britain . The Labour MP Diane Abbott , the first black woman to be elected to Parliament , believed that the appearance of Griffin would signal the BNP was part of the political mainstream in the same way that her appearance on Question Time in 1987 had signalled black people 's acceptance as part of the mainstream . She said : " It 's not a programme that 's going to scrutinise his views , it 's not that sort of programme , it 's politics as entertainment " . Andy Slaughter , a Labour MP whose constituency includes the BBC Television Centre , arrived to support the protests , scathingly attacking the BBC 's " smugness " , saying that local people on the estates were " utterly affronted " .
Ten MPs signed an early day motion tabled by the Labour MP Mike Gapes which called the BBC decision " profoundly wrong " and noted that " no previous BBC Director General made such a judgement and that neither Martin Webster , who polled 16 percent of the vote in the West Bromwich by @-@ election in 1973 , John Tyndall , Colin Jordan or Oswald Mosley were treated in the same way " .
= = = Other = = =
The decision by the BBC to invite Griffin on to Question Time caused widespread controversy . In an editorial on 15 October 2009 , The Guardian said : " The BNP is no normal party – yet by inviting it on to Question Time , the BBC runs the risk of normalising it " . It also stated that it would give the BNP " its best @-@ ever platform for its poisonous politics " .
Jim Shields , associate professor in French Studies at Warwick University , stated that the appearance would be " a real milestone " in Griffin 's acceptability . He said that the far @-@ right leader Jean @-@ Marie Le Pen 's appearance on a similar programme in France saw support for his Front national party " double overnight " . Professor Ted Cantle , commissioned by the Government to investigate the 2001 Oldham riots , urged a " more sophisticated approach " using reasoned arguments , to defeat the far right .
The anti @-@ fascist magazine Searchlight said that entry level for inclusion on BBC programmes should be " election to the national parliament " . Muhammad Abdul Bari , the Secretary General of the Muslim Council of Britain , said " We regret the BBC 's decision . There is a general fear that allowing the BNP to air its toxic views will increase Islamophobia and give the BNP the aura of respectability needed to spread its message of hate " .
On 21 October , Iain Martin wrote in a The Wall Street Journal blog that the appearance on Question Time signalled that the mainstream political parties in Britain had " badly let down their fellow Britons ... by setting narrow terms for the national debate which exclude the concerns of millions of voters and force them out on to the fringes " . Similarly , the issue of Griffin 's upcoming appearance was the headline story on BBC Two 's Newsnight the previous evening . It was dealt with in a segment on social decline in Britain and the perceived failings of the major parties .
On the morning of the programme , the leading article in The Times said that the BBC were right to invite Griffin , but that the issue of his appearance should not be allowed to dominate the programme , and that the panel and its chairman should be " well briefed on Mr Griffin ’ s many unsavoury comments on topics such as immigration " . Richard Preston , blogging for The Daily Telegraph , compared the importance of Griffin 's appearance with past infrequent Question Time panellists such as comedians Eddie Izzard , Norman Pace and Jim Davidson , while also expressing confidence that the hour @-@ long show and David Dimbleby would provide enough scrutiny to expose Griffin if he was a ' lightweight ' or a ' bluffer ' ; he suggested that " Britain truly does have problems " if a trio of mainstream politicians did not manage to take him apart .
= = Broadcast = =
= = = Panel = = =
The panel for the 22 October edition of Question Time consisted of :
Bonnie Greer , writer , historian and playwright
Nick Griffin , British National Party MEP for North West England and BNP Leader
Chris Huhne , then Liberal Democrat MP for Eastleigh and the Home Affairs spokesperson
Jack Straw , Labour MP for Blackburn and the then United Kingdom Justice Secretary
Baroness Warsi , Conservative Life Peer and the then Shadow Minister for Community Cohesion and Social Action
= = = Recording = = =
Question Time was held in BBC Television Centre in London , for the first time in four years , to enable the police to keep order for Griffin 's appearance . The audience was expected by The Times to number 200 people and to comprise a broad spectrum of political views , including BNP supporters and left @-@ wing groups . The recording of the edition of 22 October was brought forward two hours from the usual 8 @.@ 30 pm start time to allow for any disruption , before being broadcast later the same night .
Filming started shortly before 7 @.@ 00 pm , and ended at around 8 @.@ 30 pm ; Griffin left the building 10 minutes later . Audience members inside the studios used their mobile phones to relay live information about the recording 's progress . James Lyons , political correspondent for the Daily Mirror , wrote that the mood in the studio turned from anger to mockery of Griffin .
A full audience attended the making of the programme and there were no protests in the studio . One audience member suggested that a " half dozen " BNP members in the studio shouted encouragement to Griffin . The show was broadcast on BBC One at 10 @.@ 35 pm ( BST ) and at 11 @.@ 05 pm on BBC One Wales .
= = = Protests = = =
Demonstrations were planned to take place during the show . A protest rally by Unite Against Fascism ( UAF ) had been held in London on the night of Tuesday 20 October , and sixteen coachloads of UAF protesters were expected on the day . Amid concern over the safety of residents , Hammersmith and Fulham council asked for clarification of the BBC 's security arrangements , and pushed for an alternative location . Although the protest organisers UAF rejected suggestions that the protests would be violent , security was stepped up at BBC Television Centre . Simon Darby of the BNP stated there would be no counter @-@ demonstration . Griffin expressed fears over his safety for his arrival and departure . Extra officers of the Metropolitan Police were drafted in to maintain order outside the studios , while the BBC recruited an extra 60 security guards for inside the studio .
By mid @-@ afternoon of the day of the programme , protesters had begun gathering outside Television Centre and there were also protesters outside regional BBC offices . By 4 @.@ 30 pm ( BST ) police estimated there were 500 chanting protesters ; around 25 people who reached the main entrance of Television Centre after breaking through a cordon were expelled . They were part of a group of about 40 people that had made a dash for an iron gate that had been left open . After this breach , stand @-@ by officers reinforced the police cordon and protesters moved to block Wood Lane , hoping to prevent Griffin entering the studios . Griffin arrived at 5 @.@ 17 pm unnoticed and entered on foot through a rear entrance on Frithville Road . It was reported that around 600 people had turned up to protest against Griffin .
Due to the various protests , Television Centre and other BBC buildings around the country were ' locked down ' until the protesters had dispersed . People arriving for recordings of other shows at Television Centre , such as Friday Night with Jonathan Ross , were turned away . Six people were arrested during the protests , reportedly for " offences including violent disorder , causing actual bodily harm , assault of a police officer and a person wanted on warrant " ; three police officers were slightly injured . Martin Smith , a UAF national officer and , at the time , the Socialist Workers Party National Secretary , was later found guilty of assaulting the police officer at South Western Magistrates ' Court , London , on 7 September 2010 . He was sentenced to a 12 @-@ month community order , with 80 hours ' unpaid work , and was fined £ 450 pending an appeal .
= = = Questions = = =
Five debate topics were initiated from audience questions during the programme : the BNP 's campaign symbols , Islam , immigration policy , Jan Moir and finally , the show itself .
The first three topic starting questions were as follows ( with notes detailing the approximate time into the broadcast the question occurred , the first panellist directed to respond to it by the moderator , and any background information to the question ) :
Given that the Second World War was fuelled by the need to disarm oppressive and racist regimes , is it fair that the BNP has hijacked Churchill as its own ? ( 1 minute in , Jack Straw ) This question references the BNP 's use of images of Winston Churchill , the British Prime Minister during World War II , in its recent European election campaign .
Why is Islam a " wicked and vicious " faith ? ( 21 , Nick Griffin ) Directed to Nick Griffin , the question was in reference to a quotation attributed to him .
Can the recent success of the BNP be explained by the misguided immigration policy of the government ? ( 27 , Jack Straw ) Jack Straw refused to answer this question .
Should the Daily Mail have published the Jan Moir article on Stephen Gately ? ( 50 , Bonnie Greer ) Referencing a recent newspaper article written by Daily Mail columnist Jan Moir about the recent death of the former Boyzone bandmember Stephen Gately , which sparked record complaints to the Press Complaints Commission .
Might this programme be viewed as an early Christmas present for the BNP ? ( 58 , Chris Huhne ) In reference to the prior comments of Peter Hain after the ruling of the BBC Trust that the programme could go ahead would represent " an early Christmas present " for the BNP .
= = = Viewing figures = = =
The previous record audience for Question Time was set during its 14 May 2009 edition in the wake of the MPs ' expenses scandal , when 3 @.@ 8 million watched. and The Guardian had estimated the broadcast might attract ' 3 million or so ' viewers . The programme was watched by over 8 million people , the highest in the 30 @-@ year history of Question Time , and nearly triple the programme 's normal audience of two to three million .
In terms of share of audience , the broadcast represented over 50 % of the total audience share on the night , surpassing the previous record of 30 % achieved on the same 14 May 2009 show . The Griffin edition squeezed the audience of Newsnight ( BBC Two ) to 300 @,@ 000 viewers compared to its normal 700 @,@ 000 to 1 million , while a repeat showing of Piers Morgan 's Life Stories on ITV1 attracted 700 @,@ 000 viewers , a 5 % share . The Times noted that audience figures for the show led the BBC 's weekly total , ahead of Strictly Come Dancing on Saturday night .
= = Reception = =
= = = Public comments = = =
While both the BBC and its independent regulator Ofcom had expected a ' barrage ' of complaints over the programme , Ofcom reported having received a " small number of complaints " about the programme by the following day , understood to be fewer than 100 . By noon on Friday 23 October , the BBC had received 416 calls , 243 complaining of bias against Griffin , 114 complaining about Griffin being allowed to appear , and 59 in support of the BBC . The main complaints were reported to be that the programme had overly focused on the BNP , becoming the ' Nick Griffin show ' . Ofcom was considering whether a formal investigation was warranted under the broadcast code section on harm and offence . After one week , Ofcom had received 290 complaints .
= = = Panel view = = =
Straw described Nick Griffin as a " fantasising conspiracy theorist with some very unpleasant views and no moral compass . But now that he has been exposed for what he is it is time to move on . " Warsi said Griffin was " ... very much exposed for the man that he is . When he was questioned on his views his face of extremism was exposed . He was given an opportunity to explain some of his policies and he couldn 't " . Huhne said , " This is a person who comes from a fascist background ; anyone who watches the programme will see exactly what he stands for . " Greer said Griffin had been " totally trounced " on the show , and that sitting next to Griffin had been " probably the weirdest and most creepy experience of my life " . Nevertheless , Griffin perceived that he had " struck up a rapport " with Greer , who treated him differently from the other panellists . ( Greer avoided looking in Griffin 's direction throughout , and indeed turned her back on him pointedly , and for the remainder of the programme , after he said that the Ku Klux Klan chapter leaders with whom he had been seen had been ' non @-@ violent ' - a remark greeted with laughter from the audience ) Speaking to the Associated Press , Griffin stated that his appearance had secured the BNP 's place on the national stage , and while not revolutionary , was like gaining a kind of " boy scout 's badge " . He was relatively pleased with having " been able to land a few punches of my own " . Later , Griffin declared : " Millions of people are angry about the way I was treated . " Describing the experience as a " lynch mob " , he complained how the choice of London had made it hostile territory for him , and had prevented him from speaking on current events such as the postal strikes .
= = = BNP view = = =
On 23 October , the day after the broadcast , Griffin announced he would be lodging a formal complaint over the programme , over its focus on BNP issues rather than topical subjects . Griffin stated , " There is not much support for me there [ in London ] , because the place is dominated by ethnic minorities . There is an ethnic minority that supports me : the English . But there 's not many of them left . " A spokesman for the BNP said that London was too " multicultural " to be fair to it and that a location like the northwest of England would have been more favourable . The BNP were also going to file a Freedom of Information Request to the BBC to determine the decision @-@ making process behind hosting the programme in London , and in allowing the debate to focus on the BNP , arguing that criticism of the BNP had dominated the whole programme .
Griffin dismissed criticism of his performance , saying " people who have always been against the BNP will say that I couldn 't answer some things . " He was of the opinion that he had been shown " extraordinary hostility " by the main political parties , but that he was happy having done his best . Griffin said : " I can see that millions of people who don 't usually watch Question Time will remember what I 've said and think that 's how they feel and I 'm perfectly happy with that . " He also said he expected the BNP would appear on Question Time again . The BNP legal officer , Lee Barnes , described Griffin 's performance as " failing to press the attack " , and the Evening Standard reported a possible challenge to Griffin 's leadership from a faction within the BNP , linked to Chris Jackson , which was dissatisfied with his performance , but rated this chance of success as low .
The BNP also claimed that it had received thousands of pounds in donations , and that 3 @,@ 000 people had expressed an interest on their website in joining the party once their recruitment freeze was lifted . This would represent nearly a 30 % increase in membership according to the party website .
While campaigning on 28 October for the forthcoming Glasgow North East by @-@ election on 22 November , Griffin was asked why he had laughed on Question Time . He replied : " I had thought that David Dimbleby would have the professional self @-@ respect to at least make a show of being fair . I was laughing at the fact that I was wrong " , adding , " All that was exposed was the pure , vicious bigotry of the British ruling elite . "
= = = Other reactions and analyses = = =
The programme was headline news in several of the early Friday paper editions of the British press , from the tabloids to the broadsheets . Tabloid headlines included " Bigot at Bay " ( Daily Mail ) and " When Auntie Met Nazi " ( The Sun : " Auntie " being a nickname for the BBC ) , while broadsheets featured examples such as " Hostile reception for Griffin " ( The Times ) and " Griffin 's baptism of fire at the BBC " ( The Independent ) .
Immediately after the show , The Independent said Griffin had " choked " on the oxygen of publicity given him by the BBC . The Times described Griffin as having been " caught in TV 's glare " , subjected to a " hostile hour @-@ long grilling " . The Guardian , however , was of the opinion that , while Griffin was jeered and attacked and " often looked just plain shifty " , he made no major gaffes and would thus think of it as a success . After rating the panel 's performance as " flawed " , and after some questions on the night went unanswered or were avoided by Griffin , it concluded that it " was the audience that came out best from the evening " . The fact that four out of the five question topics on the night were BNP @-@ related was criticised by some who believed it would allow Griffin to claim ' victimisation ' . However , according to The Times , the BBC was ' delighted ' with the strategy , which was to ensure it could not be accused of giving Griffin an " easy ride " .
The Welsh Secretary , Peter Hain , who had appealed to the BBC Trust to have Griffin 's appearance prevented , continued to denounce the decision . David Lammy , one of Britain 's first black ministers , feared that people would face violence as a result of the programme . The former Home Secretary , David Blunkett , attacked the way in which BBC News at Six engaged in " deliberate promotion of their own publicity @-@ seeking decision " , opining that " the only people who have benefited from this row are the BNP and the BBC 's Question Time ratings " . The Conservative Mayor of London , Boris Johnson , responded to Griffin 's complaints about the location by defending London 's diversity , urging residents to " reject their narrow , extremist and offensive views at every opportunity " . Anshel Pfeffer , commenting for the Israeli newspaper Haaretz , noted the relative silence of UK Jewish groups over the BNP appearance , and praised the BBC 's decision to give the BNP a voice , stating : " The BBC is right to have Griffin and other racists on its most respectable shows ; it is wrong to apologise . By doing so it is simply fulfilling its democratic and journalistic duties . " Pfeffer compared and contrasted this with Israeli freedom @-@ of @-@ speech laws , and questioned whether Hitler could have risen to power in modern times given the media 's scrutiny of democratic politicians .
The Guardian selected a spontaneous joke about the South Pole made by an audience member , Khush Klare , as the " undoubted highlight " , having raised the loudest cheer from the audience . Klare , the son of Indian parents who migrated to Britain in the 1960s , had suggested collecting money for Griffin to be deported to the South Pole , as " it 's a colourless landscape that will suit you fine " . Klare said that while he did not think so at first , in retrospect he thought that Question Time was the right platform for Griffin .
Analysing the broadcast footage , The Times determined that the cameras spent " nearly 25 minutes " of the hour @-@ long programme of the screen time either on Griffin or a " two @-@ shot " with him and another panellist , equating to 38 % . The Daily Mail alleged that the BBC " stage @-@ managed " the programme , highlighting a crib @-@ sheet handed out to the audience members ; The Guardian 's ' Media Monkey ' blog observed that such a sheet is routinely given to the audience , and also accused The Mail of using a ' doctored ' crib @-@ sheet .
The first opinion poll taken after Nick Griffin 's appearance , conducted hours after the programme by YouGov for The Daily Telegraph , indicated that voter support for the BNP had increased by 1 % , from 2 % to 3 % , in the previous month , and that 22 % of voters were now " seriously considering " voting BNP in a future local , general or European election — broken down into " definitely " , 4 % ; " probably " , 3 % ; and " possible " , 15 % . The bookmaker , William Hill , changed its odds on the BNP winning a Westminster seat in the 2010 General Election from 10 @-@ 1 to 7 @-@ 2 after the programme . The BNP received 1 @.@ 9 % of the vote in the election and did not win a seat .
In an interview in the News of the World , the former Archbishop of Canterbury , George Carey , spoke out against Griffin 's claims that he was representing " Christian Britain " and called on Christians to " stand shoulder to shoulder " in rejecting the British National Party . The Prime Minister , Gordon Brown , did not watch the programme : his office explained that he " very rarely watches Question Time " through lack of time .
The programme received attention around the world , including from North America , Asia , the Middle East , Australia , Turkey , Russia , and South America .
The media later reported that the cost of policing the appearance had been £ 143 @,@ 000 .
= = = BBC view = = =
The BBC was subjected to criticism from some of its own staff , as Radio 4 broadcaster Sue MacGregor said that the show " gave the impression of attack dogs against Nick Griffin " , and another presenter called it a " bear pit " . In defence of criticism of the format and focus of the programme , the Deputy Director General Mark Byford stated that " the agenda of the programme was set by the audience 's own questions " . Byford also said of the comments that " clearly Mr Griffin and the BNP were the subject of intense questioning , but all the panellists were given the opportunity to respond and to have their voices heard " . Sir Christopher Bland , the former chairman of the BBC 's board of governors , said , however , that had the BBC not changed the format , the corporation would probably have been accused of leniency .
On 23 October , the BBC said it was " too early " to confirm how much more airtime would be given to the BNP in the future ; The Times reported on 24 October that the BBC had " no plans " to have Griffin on Question Time before the next general election .
On 28 October , Mark Thompson stated before the House of Lords communications committee that future BNP appearances on Question Time would " probably be no more than once a year and could be less " , based on the party continuing the same levels of support . Thompson denied suggestions that the invitation was made to boost viewing figures .
No BNP representative has appeared on the show since the 22 October 2009 broadcast .
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= Chitty Chitty Death Bang =
" Chitty Chitty Death Bang " is the third episode of the first season of the animated comedy series Family Guy . The episode follows Peter after he tries to make amends for his son , Stewie 's , first birthday party when he loses their reservation at a popular kids ' restaurant known as Cheesie Charlie 's . Meanwhile , Meg becomes friends with an excitable girl named Jennifer , who leads her to join a death cult , in an attempt to fit in .
The episode was written by Danny Smith and directed by Dominic Polcino , both firsts in the Family Guy series . It was rated TV @-@ 14 . The episode featured guest performances by Butch Hartman , Waylon Jennings , Rachael MacFarlane and John O 'Hurley , along with several recurring voice actors for the series . Much of the episode features a cutaway style of humor that is typically used in Family Guy , many of which feature cultural references including the Incredible Hulk , The Dukes of Hazzard , Three Little Pigs , and Couplehood . The title " Chitty Chitty Death Bang " was derived from 1930s and 1940s radio programs , particularly the radio thriller anthology Suspense , which featured several elements pertaining to death and murder .
The episode has received praise from television critic Ahsan Haque for its storyline and use of cultural references .
= = Plot = =
Lois has booked Cheesie Charlie 's for Stewie 's upcoming first birthday party and sends Peter , along with Chris , to drop off the deposit check at the restaurant . However , once they arrive , they seek the opportunity to play with all the machines , causing Peter to lose his watch in a claw machine . A little boy wins his watch , which causes Peter to become angry and tries to force the watch off the child . Cheesie Charlie himself sees this and asks Peter to leave . But once Peter shows the deposit check , Cheesie Charlie immediately apologizes and exclaims how they are very excited to host Stewie 's birthday party . Peter , angered by how he was treated , states that they won 't be celebrating Stewie 's party there , which causes a crowd of people to circle around Cheesie Charlie shouting for the reservation . Peter , realizing what he has just done , immediately returns home with a poorly crafted lie in an attempt to evade Lois ' aggravation which involves him saying that they are Nazis who torture , kill and kidnap people . He pretends that he 's already planned an extravagant party at home so that Lois doesn 't have do any work .
Meanwhile , Stewie misinterprets the meaning of his birthday and assumes that the same mysterious " Man in White " who delivered him as an infant will be returning to force Stewie back into Lois ' womb from which he escaped just one year ago . Meg cries all the way home to Peter from cheerleading practice , and has been having trouble fitting in at school . Later , she discovers a new friend named Jennifer . Meanwhile , Stewie makes it all the way to the airport looking for tickets but then is stopped by a member of staff . The man then gives Stewie some advice saying that running from your problems never solves anything . Stewie then reflects on this , deciding to finally face " The Man in White " . But before he leaves , he wishes the man luck before freezing him in carbonite . Peter tries desperately , but ultimately unsuccessfully , to put together a party in time for Stewie 's birthday . He finally reroutes a circus into the Griffins ' backyard , saving the day - that is , until he reveals to Lois that he gave Meg permission to go to a party at her friend 's house . Lois , who wanted the whole family together for Stewie 's party , is upset with Peter for letting Meg go . What Peter and Lois don 't realize is that Meg 's " party " is actually a cult meeting where all the members are about to commit group suicide .
Peter goes to retrieve Meg from her " party " , oblivious to the fact that he is sparing her life in the process . The Cult Leader chases after them while wearing his ceremonial white robe and is mistaken by Stewie as " The Man in White " . Stewie does away with him and , feeling victorious , joins the others to enjoy his party .
= = Production = =
" Chitty Chitty Death Bang " was written by Danny Smith and directed by Dominic Polcino , both their first episodes in the Family Guy series . Staff writers included voice actor Mike Henry and Andrew Gormley , while Ricky Blitt , Chris Sheridan as executive story editors , and Neil Goldman and Garrett Donovan acted as the story editors . To help Polcino direct the episode were supervising directors Peter Shin and Roy Allen Smith .
In addition to the regular cast , guest stars included actor and comedian Patrick Bristow , animator , executive producer , animation director , storyboard artist and producer Butch Hartman ( who played Mr. Weed , Peter 's boss , and various other characters ) , writer Gary Janetti who played the Demon and Riff ) , actor John O 'Hurley ( who played the Cult Leader ) , and Waylon Jennings ( who played himself ) . Recurring cast members included Mike Henry who played Cleveland Brown and Lori Alan who played Dianne Simons . This is the first episode Seth MacFarlane 's sister , Rachael MacFarlane guest starred in the episode as the voice of Jennifer . In future episodes she would become a recurring voice actor for the series . Rachel has noted that she was asked by Seth to lend her voice for the show , but she did have to audition for the role .
As with the remaining first four episodes of the season , the title of the episode , " Chitty Chitty Death Bang " , was derived from 1930s and 1940s radio programs , particularly the radio thriller anthology " Suspense " , which featured several elements pertaining to death and murder . This convention was later dropped following the fourth episode of the season , " A Hero Sits Next Door " . due to individual episodes becoming difficult to identify and distinguish .
= = Cultural references = =
When Peter explains to Lois why he canceled the party at Cheesie Charlie 's , he said he had been kidnapped by them and that they are Nazis . He explains to Lois that he escaped by turning into the Incredible Hulk .
The place where Lois had planned Stewie 's birthday party is called Cheesie Charlie 's , which is a reference to the food chain Chuck E. Cheese 's .
When Stewie recalls how he was conceived he tells the story of which he was in a sperm ships and gets in to a fight with other sperm ships is a reference to fights in the Star Wars trilogy .
Peter loses his Dukes of Hazzard watch .
When Peter is looking for pigs for a petting zoo he takes down a house of straw and a house made of sticks , this is a reference to the fairy tale Three Little Pigs .
Peter is also struck in the head by a paintcan on a string , a reference to the film Home Alone .
Items added to the suicide cult punch mix by Jennifer include cyanide , arsenic , rat poison , and the book Couplehood by Paul Reiser .
The episode title is a reference to the 1968 musical film , Chitty Chitty Bang Bang .
= = Reception = =
A 2008 review of the episode written by Ahsan Haque of IGN was generally positive ; Haque stated that while it he did not believe " Chitty Chitty Death Bang " was an " instant classic , " it has " plenty of memorable moments " and " a nicely crafted storyline . " Haque went on to praise Peter 's attempt to " convince [ Lois ] that the people are Cheesie Charlie 's are Nazi devils who kidnapped him and that he only manages to escape because he was able to turn into the Incredible Hulk , " as well as Stewie 's role in the episode , calling it " extremely clever . " Haque concluded his review by rating the episode an 8 @.@ 4 / 10 . David Williams from the DVD Movie Guide , " said that " this episode saying that the episodes of the first season did a marvelous job of introducing the characters of the series to the viewers .
In his review of " Chitty Chitty Death Bang " the TV Critic called the writing in the episode wittier than in previous ones . He found the Stewie storyline very enjoyable , and also commented positively on the moral of the story . He criticized the Meg storyline as he did not find mass suicide funny ; he also commented that Peter felt a lot like Homer from The Simpsons . In his final comments he said it had some odd moments but it was a fun story .
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= Beurre Maître d 'Hôtel =
Beurre Maître d 'Hôtel , also referred to as Maître d 'Hôtel butter , is a type of compound butter ( French : " Beurre composé " ) of French origin , prepared with butter , parsley , lemon juice , salt and pepper . It is a savory butter that is used on meats such as steak ( including the chateaubriand sauce for chateaubriand steak ) , fish , vegetables and other foods . It may be used in place of a sauce , and can significantly enhance a dish 's flavor . Some variations with a sweet flavor exist . It is usually served cold as sliced disks on foods , and is sometimes served as a side condiment .
= = Etymology = =
The name of Beurre Maître d 'Hôtel is derived from the manner in which it was commonly prepared from scratch by a restaurant 's maître d 'hôtel at diners ' tables . It is also referred to as Maître d 'Hôtel butter .
= = Preparation = =
Beurre Maître d 'Hôtel is a savory butter prepared by mixing softened butter with very finely minced parsley , lemon juice , salt and pepper . A ratio of around 1 @.@ 5 tablespoons of parsley to two ounces of butter may be used . Additional ingredients may include shallot and Worcestershire sauce . Vinegar is sometimes used , although its inclusion is rare . Cayenne pepper has also been used . After mixing , it is typically rolled in parchment paper or plastic wrap and chilled to harden .
= = Uses = =
Beurre Maître d 'Hôtel is usually served cold as sliced disks atop various foods , and sometimes as a side condiment . It is used on grilled meats such as steak and fish , and also on eggs , vegetables , potatoes and breads . Some variations exist , including a few sweet versions that include sugar , which may be used on dishes such as pancakes . When used as a topping , it is typically added just before the dish is served . It has also been served melted atop dishes , whereby it is placed atop foods during the last few minutes of cooking . It may be used in the place of a sauce , and a small amount can significantly add to a dish 's overall flavor .
= = = In Chateaubriand sauce = = =
Beurre Maître d 'Hôtel is used as an ingredient in Chateaubriand sauce , which is sometimes used in the preparation of Chateaubriand steak . The butter is used in the last stage of the sauce 's preparation , whereby after the sauce is strained , it is finished with Beurre Maître d 'Hôtel . Chopped tarragon may also be added to the sauce during this last preparation stage .
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= Marceline the Vampire Queen =
Marceline the Vampire Queen is a character in the American animated television series Adventure Time created by Pendleton Ward . She is voiced by Olivia Olson in most appearances , by Ava Acres as a child and by Cloris Leachman as an old woman . Marceline is a fun @-@ loving 1 @,@ 000 @-@ year @-@ old trickster vampire queen . The name " Marceline " is based on the middle name of a childhood friend of Ward 's , Marie . The artistic design for Marceline was created by Ward , with small changes and additions added by Phil Rynda , former lead @-@ character designer and prop designer for Adventure Time . Unlike a traditional vampire , Marceline does not need to drink blood to survive ; rather , she eats the color red . Marceline is a musician who plays an electric bass that she made from her family 's heirloom battle @-@ axe .
The character makes her debut in the first season episode " Evicted ! " and functions as an antagonist , forcing Finn and Jake from their home . However , as the series progresses , Marceline becomes a close friend to Finn and Jake . Information regarding her early life remains sparse as of 2015 ; however , her demon @-@ father Hunson Abadeer ( voiced by Olivia 's real @-@ life father , Martin Olson ) has appeared in several episodes . In addition , Marceline was the focus of a miniseries entitled Stakes , which aired during the show 's seventh season .
Marceline has been critically acclaimed and is popular with fans of Adventure Time . Ward himself has stated that Marceline is his favorite character in the series because he does not know everything about her history and backstory , which he noted adds a mysterious element to her character . Despite the positivity , the episodes " What Was Missing " and " Sky Witch " became somewhat controversial because of an implied past relationship between Princess Bubblegum and Marceline .
= = Creation and design = =
Marceline is one of the major characters in Adventure Time . Although she did not appear in the series ' pilot , the groundwork for her design and character were present in the series pitch book , penned by series creator Pendleton Ward . Marceline 's name is based on the name of a childhood friend of Ward 's , Marie , whose middle name is Marceline . Ward described Marie as someone who likes the horror movie Psycho and wears dark clothing . Ward purposely set out to make Marceline 's character complex , as he explained that " with the female characters it ’ s easy to either write them as clichés or write them as the extreme opposite of those clichés [ … ] I just try to make them have faults and strengths just like Finn and Jake have . "
Marceline is voiced by Olivia Olson . Olivia 's father Martin Olson was an acquaintance of Ward , and Olivia was encouraged to audition for Adventure Time after Ward told her father that he wanted " her as a voice " on his show . She had originally auditioned for the role of Princess Bubblegum . After her initial audition , she was asked to read for the role of Marceline , and was " definitely impressed by the character " after seeing design drawings . Martin Olson later noted that Olivia 's audition was a " sham " to please the network executives because Ward had already wanted her to be a voice on the show . In order to get into character , Olson often dresses in a manner similar to Marceline when she records her lines ; she explained , " I always find ... that on the days that I go in to record Marceline , I ’ ll dress like her , in a weird way ... I ’ ll throw on some rock n ’ roll boots , maybe some red lipstick , and just go in there . " Olson also is the character 's singing voice . According to storyboard artist Cole Sanchez , composers Casey James Basichis and Tim Kiefer produce the bass music that the character performs in the series . Many of the songs written for Marceline were uploaded onto the internet by the writers as well as the production company . For instance , Rob Sugar — the father of former storyboard artist Rebecca Sugar — often uploaded demos of songs written for Marceline by Rebecca . Furthermore , Frederator also posted demos , as well as a full version of the popular " Fry Song " , sung by Marceline in the episode " It Came from the Nightosphere " , on its official blog . In flashback sequences , younger Marceline is voiced by Ava Acres . In the fifth season episodes " Finn the Human " and " Jake the Dog " , an older , alternate universe version of the character is voiced by Cloris Leachman . Martin Olson also provides the voice for Marceline 's demonic father Hunson Abadeer . Olivia Olson later noted that the opportunity to voice act with her father was " pretty cool ” .
The design for Marceline was created by Ward , with small changes and additions added by Phil Rynda , former lead character and prop designer for Adventure Time . Visually , Marceline has long , dark hair . She rarely walks on the ground , generally preferring to float when she travels , moves , and sleeps . Marceline , unlike many of the other characters , wears varying outfits in most of her appearances . According to Ward , her clothing changes from episode to episode because " girls own more than one outfit " . Olson was impressed by her character 's fashion design stating , " she has really cool style [ … ] I love what they come up with [ in ] every episode . " Olson explained that when she goes in to record the voices for each episode , she is " totally surprised " by the costuming for Marceline . While she says her lines , she is able to view the animatics for the episode and sometimes has to stop to admire the unique designs . Marceline 's physical size and shape slightly changes depending on who is drawing her . Rynda later called this " one of the coolest parts " about the character 's animation due to the fact that " every artist leaves a little bit of their own taste and sensibilities in what they draw . "
= = Appearances = =
Roughly a thousand years prior to the events of the series , Marceline was born to a demon lord named Hunson Abadeer ( voiced by Martin Olson ) and a human woman ( voiced by Rebecca Sugar ) . Abadeer is the ruler of the Nightosphere — a Hell @-@ like demon dimension — and subsists on the souls of sentient beings . For some reason , Marceline was left abandoned on Earth in events immediately following the Mushroom War , a mysterious war that ravaged the earth one thousand years prior to events of the series . During this time , Simon Petrikov — the name of the Ice King before he was overcome by the evil power of his crown — found Marceline in the ruins of a city and gave her a stuffed animal named Hambo to cheer her up . The two developed a caring relationship , although the crown took a toll on Simon 's mental health , forcing him to leave Marceline alone . During this period in her life , she was reunited with her father , only to be disgusted by his cold and heartless ways . Although she attempted to tolerate his evil and selfish antics , she eventually severed all ties with Abadeer after she discovered him eating fries that she had made for herself . In the following years , Marceline roamed the land of Ooo and eventually befriended a tribe of humans . She became their guardian and ally , and she helped them kill vampires , who had taken over much of the land . Marceline soon discovered that , upon killing a vampire , she was able to acquire their unique abilities . However , when she tried to fight the Vampire King himself , she was bitten . Although she eventually managed to slay him , she was turned in the process . At some point , she began a romantic relationship with a magician named Ash . The two would move into the Tree Fort , but their relationship would come to an end . Presumably , around this time , Marceline befriended Princess Bubblegum ; the two would often avoid official royal meetings and explore the Candy Kingdom 's elaborate rock candy mining complex . Eventually , however , Bubblegum pushed Marceline away , leaving an animosity between the two that lasted for a while .
In the series ' present , Marceline eventually comes into contact with Finn and Jake in the episode " Evicted ! " , when she forces them from their home . In the episode " Henchman " , Marceline tricks Finn into becoming her accomplice , but Finn soon discovers that she is not evil , but rather fond of mischief and pranks , and the two develop a friendship . In the second season premiere " It Came From the Nightosphere " , Abadeer is accidentally summoned to Ooo by Finn . While Abadeer ravages the land , Finn discovers that there is animosity between Marceline and her father . Finn manages to distract Abadeer by playing a recording of Marceline 's " Fry Song " , which leads to a brief moment of reconciliation between the two before Finn sends him back to the Nightosphere . In the third season episode " Memory of a Memory " , Ash attempts to rekindle his former relationship with Marceline via trickery . Disguised as Marceline 's " spirit animal " , he tricks Finn and Jake into believing that Marceline has fallen asleep due to a sleep spell that has been self @-@ inflicted . Following Ash 's advice , the two enter into Marceline 's mind to retrieve the " memory core " in an attempt to wake her up . Along the way , they encounter various memories of her as a child in the aftermath of the Mushroom War . However , the duo soon learn that it was an elaborate trick by Ash ; Finn and Jake actually removed Marceline 's memory of their break @-@ up . In the end , Finn is able to convince Marceline , and she promptly attacks her chauvinistic ex @-@ boyfriend . In " What Was Missing " , past animosity between Marceline and Princess Bubblegum is explored when Finn , Jake , Princess Bubblegum , BMO , and Marceline form a band in order to defeat the Door Lord and recover what was stolen from them .
In " Daddy 's Little Monster " , Marceline 's dad returns and gives her an amulet that causes her to become the demonic and evil overlord of the Nightosphere . After an ordeal , Finn saves Marceline from the amulet . Marceline admits that all she wants is for her father to understand her . When Finn wishes for an alternate reality in which the Lich never existed during the events of the fifth season premiere " Finn the Human " , a universe is created in which the Mushroom War was prevented by Simon Petrikov and Marceline never became a vampire . She appears in the episode as an extremely frail and aged half @-@ demon , who was killed when a " mutagenic bomb " that was frozen in ice by Simon Petrikov detonates . Jake manages to undo this reality with his wish and sets everything back to the way it was . In " Sky Witch " , Marceline enlists the help of Princess Bubblegum , and the two are able to track down Maja , the titular Sky Witch . It is revealed that Ash sold Hambo to Maja . Only when Bubblegum trades her beloved rock shirt — which was given to her by Marceline — is Hambo able to be reunited with Marceline . After the events of " Sky Witch " , Bubblegum and Marceline are on much friendlier ground , and their friendship is completely reaffirmed in the seventh season episode " Varmints " . In " Betty " , Marceline sacrifices Hambo so that Ice King — who lost his powers and became Simon Petrikov again — can open a portal into time so that Simon can reconcile with his estranged fiancee Betty .
The miniseries Stakes , which aired during the show ’ s seventh season , documents the reemergence of five of Marceline ’ s most powerful vampiric foes : the Fool ( voiced by Ron Funches ) , the Empress Eyes ( voiced by Rebecca Romijn ) , the Hierophant ( voiced by Paul Williams ) , the Moon ( voiced by Beau Billingslea ) , and the Vampire King himself ( voiced by Billy Brown ) . The quintet remerge after Bubblegum tries to extract Marceline ’ s vampiric essence , in an attempt to return Marceline to her normal half @-@ demon state . The reappearance of these vampires forces Marceline , Bubblegum , Finn , Jake , and Peppermint Butler ( voiced by Steve Little ) to stake them one @-@ by @-@ one , although the Vampire King is neutralized through a scientific process that removes the vampiric essence from his body .
= = = Other = = =
The gender @-@ swapped version of Marceline — named Marshall Lee — appeared in the third season episode " Fionna and Cake " . This version of the character only had a small cameo and no lines . It was later revealed that another Fionna and Cake episode was in the works for season five , and that the plot would largely revolve around Marshall Lee . The episode — titled " Bad Little Boy " — aired on February 18 , 2013 . In the episode , the princesses that are captured by the Ice King are tired of his poorly written Fionna and Cake fan fiction stories , so Marceline stops by the Ice Kingdom to show him how to properly do it ; she tells a tale involving her gender @-@ swapped character , Marshall Lee . The character was voiced by comedian and musician Donald Glover .
A six issue spin @-@ off comic miniseries titled Marceline and the Scream Queens , written by Meredith Gran of Octopus Pie , debuted in July 2012 . The series featured Marceline and Princess Bubblegum forming a band and touring around Ooo . The series is published by Boom ! Studios under its kid @-@ oriented imprint KaBoom , which also publishes the rest of the Adventure Time series . Other contributors to the series include Faith Erin Hicks , and Liz Prince . KaBoom has also published Seeing Red by Kate Leth , and Marceline Gone Adrift by Gran .
Marceline is also featured in the iOS game Adventure Time : Rock Bandits . In the context of the game , the Ice King kidnaps Marceline 's fans at a concert so that they will be his fans instead . Finn and Jake must then free the captured citizens . Marceline is set to appear as a playable character in the toys @-@ to @-@ life video game Lego Dimensions , distributed via a " fun pack " containing a Marceline Lego minifigure and a constructable " Lunatic Amp " accessory .
= = Characteristics = =
= = = Personality and traits = = =
In the context of the series , Marceline is a half @-@ demon and half @-@ human vampire , and the eponymous Vampire Queen , after having killed the previous Vampire King . Although she is at least 1 @,@ 000 years old , she was designed to appear in the form of an 18- to 21 @-@ year @-@ old . In her first role , Marceline functions as the antagonist of the story , forcing Finn and Jake from their home . However , as the series progressed , she became a close friend to the two . Ward has stated that she is not a villain . Marceline 's wandering of the Land of Ooo has made her into a fearless daredevil . Her fondness for mischief and fun has turned her into a trickster . Although appearing hostile at first , Finn soon realizes that she is " a radical dame who likes to play games " .
Marceline does not need to drink blood to survive . Rather , she only needs to eat the color red out of objects . She can eat various shades of red , including " low @-@ grade " shades such as pink . Since she is only satiated by the color , blood is only appealing to her because it is red . However , Ward has noted that she " drinks blood sometimes " . When Marceline is deprived of red , she enters into a " feral " state , and will instinctively try to kill others and drink their blood . Like traditional Western vampires , she is vulnerable to sunlight and is capable of turning into a bat of varying size . Marceline also possesses several powers , such as levitation , invisibility , and the ability to shape @-@ shift into various paranormal creatures , and self @-@ healing ; she gained these powers after absorbing the essence of five powerful vampires , as documented in Stakes . Marceline is also a survivor of the Mushroom War . Hints of her past are sprinkled through the series ; in " Memory of a Memory " a trip into Marceline 's mind shows her as a child wandering around the outskirts of a destroyed city , and " I Remember You " features her meeting Simon Petrikov in a ruined city .
She was very emotionally attached to her teddy bear Hambo , which was given to her by a still @-@ human Simon Petrikov , as revealed in the episode " I Remember You " . In " Memory of a Memory " , after Ash sold the teddy bear to a witch , Marceline was furious and broke up with him . In the episode " Sky Witch " , Marceline enlists Princess Bubblegum 's help , and they retrieve the bear , but in " Betty " , she sacrifices the bear in order to allow Simon the chance to communicate with his fiancée . Although she is very independent , her detachment often makes her feel alone , as seen in " Marceline 's Closet " ; while Jake and Finn are hiding in her closet , she expresses most of her feeling via the writings of her 500 @-@ year @-@ old diary . Throughout the series , Marceline is seen playing music ; in several official sources , she is described as " a wild rocker girl " . Several times throughout the series , she jams with Finn and Jake , and various others depending on the circumstances . She is usually shown playing her axe bass , which was formerly her family 's heirloom battle axe . According to Ward , she is ambidextrous , which explains her ability to play bass with both hands . She often finds it easier to express her feelings through music , as seen with songs like the " Fry Song " , about her father , and " I 'm Just Your Problem " , about her relationship with Princess Bubblegum .
= = = Relationships = = =
Marceline has a close relationship with Finn and Jake . Marceline and Finn have many things in common with one another ; in the episodes " Evicted " and " Henchman " it is stated that the reason Marceline befriended Finn is because he simply enjoys being himself . Although she has kissed Finn platonically on the cheek twice , Ward has noted that there is no romantic subtext between the two . On the other hand , Marceline and Jake share a more complex relationship . In her initial appearances , she derived pleasure from scaring Jake , who was terrified " of her vampire bite " . Jake , in turn , felt that she was evil and had managed to take over Finn 's mind . Due to this , Jake attempted to kill her several times , to no avail . However , after the events of " Henchman " , Jake seems to have forgotten his fear of her ; in " Memory of a Memory " , he even refers to her as a " friend " in one of her memories .
Marceline shares a rocky relationship with Princess Bubblegum . Initially , in the series bible , the two were described as " friendly rivals " competing for Finn 's attention . However , as the show has gone on , their relationship has been fleshed out and changed . Marceline was the first person to address Bubblegum by her first name — Bonnibel — which occurred in the episode " Go With Me " . Their connections are explored further in the season three episode " What Was Missing " . In the episode , Marceline 's song " I 'm Just Your Problem " and the dialogue between her and Bubblegum implied that there may have had some sort of relationship in the past , although the exact details surrounding the nature of the relationship were not explained . This later caused an internet controversy over Marceline 's sexual orientation . However , after the events of " What Was Missing " , Marceline and Bubblegum 's relationship seems to have gotten better , as the two spend quality time together in " Sky Witch " and " Stakes " .
Marceline and her father , Hunson Abadeer , have trouble accepting one another . Initially , Marceline feels that her father does not care for her , and expresses her feelings through the before @-@ mentioned " Fry Song " . Although they admit to loving each other , Abadeer constantly pressures Marceline to follow in the family business and take over ruling the Nightosphere , a prospective job Marceline does not want . Marceline and the Ice King also have a complicated relationship . In the episode " I Remember You " , it is revealed that the Ice King — then , the human man named Simon Petrikov — discovered her crying in the ruins of a city destroyed by the Mushroom Wars . It was Simon who gave little Marceline Hambo and attempted to watch over her . This kind gesture made the Ice King a long @-@ time close friend to Marceline . However , as the crown 's power increased , Simon began to forget more and more about his relationship with Marceline , until he had all but forgotten their friendship . Former storyboard artist and current supervising director for the series Adam Muto explained that Marceline and the Ice King 's history was not part of the series ' initial plan , but something that " evolved from [ the show 's ] original course and it will likely continue to evolve in the future . "
= = Reception = =
Marceline has attracted positive critical attention . Oliver Sava of The A.V. Club praised that the fact that she is one " of this show ’ s most tragic characters " . He later wrote that her addition " was a major turning point for the series , introducing a hip , adventure @-@ loving female to the cast who can hold her own against Finn and Jake and also has a strong connection to Ooo ’ s past . " Furthermore , he noted that " she ’ s been at the center of some of the show ’ s most emotional episodes " , and " beyond her dramatic value , Marceline tends to just make every episode better " because " her writers clearly enjoy writing scenes for her " . Susana Polo of The Mary Sue referred to the character as " one of the radder characters " in the series . Cam Shea of IGN named Marceline 's introduction in " Evicted ! " as the fourth best moment in the series ' first season . He wrote that " sure , in this episode she evicts Finn and Jake from their home ... but hey , this is the first time we meet her and she 's awesome . " He later wrote that " Marceline = best " . io9 writer Charlies Jane Anders wrote that Marceline 's — as well as the Ice King 's — appearance in " I Remember You " was " one of the most intense things I 've seen in ages . " She praised Marceline 's development from a " pretty one @-@ note villain " to a type of person that " we sort of knew " . CartoonNetwork.co.uk named her " Character of the Week " on January 24 , 2012 . The Guardian called Marceline the best character in Adventure Time in a DVD review of the series , noting in particular that " she 's … responsible for some of the show 's best songs . "
The production crew of Adventure Time are also pleased with the character . Ward has stated several times that Marceline is his favorite character because he does not " know everything about her character yet " , which he finds " mysterious [ and ] cool " . Rynda claimed that Marceline was probably his favorite character in the series because " she 's just really fun to draw . " Marceline is also particularly popular with the Adventure Time fan base , and after the release of " Evicted ! " her popularity grew enormously . Ward later noted that he felt " good about that . It 's nice " . The character 's popularity has been recognized by the company that owns Adventure Time . In fact , the official press release for the Adventure Time : Marceline and the Scream Queens companion comic book referred to the character as a " fan @-@ favorite " .
Marceline 's popularity has transcended into other mediums of popular culture ; American singer Willow dedicated two tracks of her debut album Ardipithecus to the character , which were eponymously named after her .
= = = Relationship controversy = = =
The episode " What Was Missing " became controversial because of an allegedly implied past relationship between Marceline and Princess Bubblegum . The controversy largely began after an accompanying " Mathematical " recap — a studio @-@ endorsed behind the scenes video series implied that there were lesbian relations between Princess Bubblegum and Marceline and that the writing staff actively seeks input from fans . This incident was addressed by the show 's producer , Fred Seibert , who said that " in trying to get the show ’ s audience involved we got wrapped up by both fan conjecture and spicy fanart and went a little too far . " Soon after , the video recap and the entire channel was pulled off of YouTube , although " What Was Missing " still airs during reruns . Seibert 's decision to remove the video also proved controversial ; Bitch magazine later wrote an article about how the episode " handled female desire — female queer desire at that — in a subtle but complex way " , but that the removal of the recap and the studio 's perceived treatment of the controversy was detrimental towards the acceptance of queer romance in children 's television . Ward later addressed the issue and gave a more neutral view ; he said that , because there were " so many extreme positions taken on it all over the Internet " , he did not " really want to comment on it [ because ] it was a big hullaballoo . "
In August 2014 , Olson told a crowd of fans gathered at a Barnes & Noble book signing from The Adventure Time Encyclopedia , that , according to Ward , Marceline and Princess Bubblegum had dated in the past , but that because the series airs in some areas where homosexual relationships are illegal , the show has not been able to officially make clear the relationship in the series itself .
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= Red @-@ tailed black cockatoo =
The red @-@ tailed black cockatoo ( Calyptorhynchus banksii ) also known as Banksian- or Banks ' black cockatoo , is a large black cockatoo native to Australia . Adult males have a characteristic pair of bright red panels on the tail that gives the species its name . It is more common in the drier parts of the continent . Five subspecies are recognised , differing most significantly in beak size . Although the more northerly subspecies are widespread , the two southern subspecies , the forest red @-@ tailed black cockatoo and the south @-@ eastern red @-@ tailed black cockatoo are under threat .
The species is usually found in eucalyptus woodlands , or along water courses . In the more northerly parts of the country , these cockatoos are commonly seen in large flocks . They are seed eaters and cavity nesters , and as such depend on trees with fairly large diameters , generally Eucalyptus . Populations in southeastern Australia are threatened by deforestation and other habitat alterations . Of the black cockatoos , the red @-@ tailed is the most adaptable to aviculture , although black cockatoos are much rarer and much more expensive in aviculture outside Australia .
= = Taxonomy and naming = =
The species complex was first described by the ornithologist John Latham in 1790 as Psittacus banksii , commemorating English botanist Sir Joseph Banks . The red @-@ tailed black cockatoo also has the distinction of being the first bird from Eastern Australia illustrated by a European , as a female , presumably collected at Endeavour River in north Queensland , was sketched by Banks ' draughtsman Sydney Parkinson in 1770 . Narrowly predating Latham , English naturalist George Shaw described Psittacus magnificus from a specimen collected somewhere in the Port Jackson ( now Sydney ) region . For many years , the species was referred to as Calyptorhynchus magnificus , proposed by Gregory Mathews in 1927 as Shaw 's name had predated Latham 's 1790 description . For several decades , Mathews ' proposal was accepted by many authorities , although it was unclear whether the original Port Jackson reference had actually referred to the red @-@ tailed black or , more likely , the glossy black cockatoo . In 1994 , an application to conserve Calyptorhynchus banksii as the scientific name was accepted by the ICZN . The red @-@ tailed black cockatoo is the type species of the genus Calyptorhynchus , the name of which is derived from the Greek calypto- / καλυπτο- " hidden " and rhynchus / ρυγχος " beak " . The change was first made by Anselme Gaëtan Desmarest in 1826 .
In 1827 , Jennings proposed the name Psittacus niger for the bird . The binomial combination had already been used by Carl Linnaeus for the lesser vasa parrot in 1758 , and by Johann Friedrich Gmelin for the palm cockatoo in 1788 ; it was thus invalid even though both other species were already known by different names at the time . Alternate common names include Banks ' black cockatoo , Banksian black cockatoo , or simply black cockatoo . Indigenous people of the central Cape York Peninsula have several names for the bird : ( minha ) pachang in Pakanh ; ( inh - ) inhulg in Uw Oykangand ; and ( inh - ) anhulg in Uw Olkola . ( The bracketed prefix ( inh- or minha ) is a qualifier meaning ' meat ' or ' animal ' . ) Ngarnarrh or KarnamarrTo are terms used by the Gunwinggu of Arnhem Land . In Central Australia , southwest of Alice Springs , the Pitjantjatjara term for the subspecies C. b. samueli is iranti . Karrak is a Noongar term derived from the call for the southwestern race C. b. naso . In the language of the Bungandidj of south @-@ eastern South Australia and western Victoria this bird was called treen .
= = = Classification = = =
The red @-@ tailed black cockatoo 's closest relative is the glossy black cockatoo ; the two species form the subgenus Calyptorhynchus within the genus of the same name . They are distinguished from the other black cockatoos of the subgenus Zanda by their significant sexual dimorphism and calls of the juveniles ; one a squeaking begging call , the other a vocalization when swallowing food .
A 1999 mtDNA phylogenetic study of cockatoos utilizing among others , the red @-@ tailed black cockatoo supported the hypotheses that cockatoos originated in Australia before the Paleogene and Neogene periods ( 66 mya , marking the end of the Mesozoic , to 2 @.@ 6 mya ) and that the genus Cacatua diversified in two separate radiations to the islands of Indonesia , New Guinea , and the South Pacific . It concluded that the first extant cockatoo to diverge from the ancestral cockatoos was the palm cockatoo , followed by a subclade containing the black cockatoos .
A 2008 mitochondrial and nuclear DNA phylogenetic study of the parrots , cockatoos and related taxa by utilizing among others the yellow @-@ tailed black cockatoo , provides confirmatory evidence for a Gondwanaland origin of the ancestral parrots in the Cretaceous period , and an Australasia divergence of the ancestral cockatoos from the parrots in either late Cretaceous ( 66 mya ) or Paleogene ( 45 mya ) periods depending on baseline assumptions .
Five subspecies are recognised ; they differ mainly in the size and shape of the beak , the overall bird size and female colouration :
C. b. banksii is found in Queensland and , rarely , in far northern New South Wales ; it is the largest subspecies by overall body size and has a moderate @-@ sized bill . It merges with subspecies macrorhynchus around the Gulf of Carpentaria . It has disappeared from much of its former range in northern New South Wales and southeast Queensland .
C. b. graptogyne , ( Endangered ) known as the south @-@ eastern red @-@ tailed black cockatoo , is found in southwestern Victoria and southeastern South Australia in an area bordered by Mount Gambier to the west , Portland to the south , Horsham to the northeast and Bordertown to the north . The smallest of the five subspecies , it was only recognised as distinct in the 1980s . It is predominantly dependent on stands of Eucalyptus baxteri ( brown stringybark ) , Eucalyptus camaldulensis ( river redgum ) and Allocasuarina luehmannii ( buloke ) for feeding and nesting . These tree species have been all threatened by land clearing and most remaining are on private land ; possibly only 500 – 1000 individuals remain . The subspecies and its habitat are the subject of a national recovery plan . In 2007 local landowners are being reimbursed for assisting in regenerating suitable habitat .
C. b. macrorhynchus , given the name great @-@ billed cockatoo by Mathews , is found across northern Australia . Although thought to be widespread and abundant , this subspecies has been little studied . It is also large and has a large beak , as its subspecific name implies . Females lack red colouration in their tails .
C. b. naso ( Near Threatened ) is known as the forest red @-@ tailed black cockatoo and is found in the southwest corner of Western Australia between Perth and Albany . This form has a larger bill , and favours marri ( Corymbia ( formerly Eucalyptus ) calophylla ) , jarrah ( E. marginata ) and karri ( E. diversicolor ) .
C. b. samueli exists in four scattered populations : in central coastal Western Australia from the Pilbara south to the northern Wheatbelt in the vicinity of Northam , and inland river courses in Central Australia , southwestern Queensland and the upper Darling River system in Western New South Wales . Birds of this subspecies are generally smaller with smaller bills than the nominate banksii .
= = Description = =
Red @-@ tailed black cockatoos are around 60 centimetres ( 24 in ) in length and sexually dimorphic . The male 's plumage is all black with a prominent black crest made up of elongated feathers from the forehead and crown . The bill is dark grey . The tail is also black with two lateral bright red panels . Females are black with yellow @-@ orange stripes in the tail and chest , and yellow grading to red spots on the cheeks and wings . The bill is pale and horn @-@ coloured . The underparts are barred with fine yellow over a black base . Male birds weigh between 670 and 920 grams ( 1 @.@ 5 – 2 lb ) , while females weigh slightly less at 615 – 870 grams ( 1 @.@ 25 – 1 @.@ 75 lb ) . In common with other cockatoos and parrots , red @-@ tailed black cockatoos have zygodactyl feet , two toes facing forward and two backward , that allow them to grasp objects with one foot while standing on the other , for feeding and manipulation . Black cockatoos are almost exclusively left @-@ footed ( along with nearly all other cockatoos and most parrots ) .
Juvenile red @-@ tailed black cockatoos resemble females until puberty , which occurs around four years of age , but have paler yellow barred underparts . As the birds reach maturity , males gradually replace their yellow tail feathers with red ones ; the complete process takes around four years .
As with other cockatoos , the red @-@ tailed black cockatoo can be very long @-@ lived in captivity ; in 1938 , ornithologist Neville Cayley reported one over fifty years old at Taronga Zoo . Another bird residing at London and Rotterdam Zoos was 45 years and 5 months of age when it died in 1979 .
Several calls of red @-@ tailed black cockatoos have been recorded . The bird 's contact call is a rolling metallic krur @-@ rr or kree , which may carry long distances and is always given while flying ; its alarm call is sharp . Displaying males vocalize a sequence of soft growling followed by a repetitive kred @-@ kred @-@ kred @-@ kred .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The red @-@ tailed black cockatoo principally occurs across the drier parts of Australia . It is widespread and abundant in a broad band across the northern half of the country , where it has been considered an agricultural pest , with more isolated distribution in the south . It is found in a wide variety of habitats , from shrublands and grasslands through eucalypt , sheoak and Acacia woodlands , to dense tropical rainforests . The bird is dependent on large , old eucalypts for nesting hollows , although the specific gums used vary in different parts of the country .
Cockatoos are not wholly migratory , but they do exhibit regular seasonal movements in different parts of Australia . In the northern parts of the Northern Territory , they largely leave areas of high humidity in the summer wet season . In other parts of the country cockatoo seasonal movements tend to follow food sources , a pattern recorded in Northern Queensland , and New South Wales . In southwest Western Australia , both extant subspecies appear to have a north @-@ south pattern ; northwards after breeding in the case of subspecies naso , while movements by subspecies samueli in the wheatbelt can be irregular and unrelated to the seasons .
= = Behaviour = =
Red @-@ tailed black cockatoos are diurnal , raucous and noisy , and are often seen flying high overhead in small flocks , sometimes mixed with other cockatoos . Flocks of up to 500 birds are generally only seen in the north or when the birds are concentrated at some food source . Otherwise , they are generally rather shy of humans . In northern and central Australia , birds may feed on the ground , while the two southern subspecies , graptogyne and naso , are almost exclusively arboreal . They tend to fly rather slowly with intermittent deep flapping wingbeats , markedly different from the shallow wingbeats of the similar glossy black cockatoo . They also often fly at considerable height .
= = = Diet = = =
Although red @-@ tailed black cockatoos feed on a wide variety of native and introduced grains , the mainstay of their diet is eucalyptus seeds . There is a specific relationship between the species and larger @-@ fruited species of gums . These vary across Australia but include the marri in Southwest Western Australia , Darwin woolybutt E. miniata across the north of the country , E. baxteri in Victoria and the bloodwood species Corymbia polycarpa and C. intermedia in Queensland . Cockatoos bite off branchlets with clusters of seed capsules , then hold them with their feet while chewing and harvesting seeds before littering the ground with debris . Among other seeds and nuts consumed are those of Acacia , Allocasuarina , Banksia , Grevillea and Hakea , as well as berries , fruits and various insects . Cockatoos have adapted to eating some introduced plants such as the doublegee ( Emex australis ) . There is some evidence of consumption of wild radish ( Raphanus raphanistrum ) , wild turnip ( Brassica tournefortii ) and melon ( Citrullus or Cucumis ) . Red @-@ tailed black cockatoos have been implicated as agricultural pests of peanut and other crops at Lakeland Downs in Far North Queensland . Here the cockatoos , in flocks of up to several hundred birds , have learned to sever the peanut plants above ground level before pulling the peanuts out of the ground by their stems and shelling them . They also damage electrical cables on pivot irrigators .
= = = Breeding = = =
The male red @-@ tailed black cockatoo courts by puffing up crest and cheek feathers , and hiding the beak ; it then sings and struts , ending in a jump and a flash of red tail feathers toward the female who will most often reply by defensively biting him . Breeding generally takes place from May to September except in the case of the South @-@ eastern subspecies , which nests during summer ( December to February ) . Pairs of the subspecies samueli in the Wheatbelt region of Western Australia may produce two broods , while those of South @-@ eastern subspecies only produce one . Nesting takes place in large vertical tree hollows of tall trees . Isolated trees are generally chosen , so birds can fly to and from them relatively unhindered . The same tree may be used for many years . Hollows can be 1 to 2 metres ( 3 – 7 ft ) deep and 0 @.@ 25 – 0 @.@ 5 metres ( 10 – 20 in ) wide , with a base of woodchips . A clutch consists of 1 to 2 white , lustreless eggs , although the second chick is in most cases neglected and perishes in infancy .
= = Conservation status = =
The red @-@ tailed black cockatoo is protected under the Australian Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Amendment ( Wildlife Protection ) Act 2001 . These birds are listed internationally under Appendix II of CITES , which allows international trade in live wild @-@ caught and captive @-@ bred specimens , if such exports are not detrimental to wild populations . However , the current Australian restrictions on commercial exports from Australia are not imposed by CITES . C. b. graptogyne is also specifically listed as endangered on the Australian Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 .
Status of the red @-@ tailed black cockatoo as a species , and as a subspecies , also varies from state to state within Australia . For example :
The south @-@ eastern red @-@ tailed black cockatoo subspecies C. b. graptogyne is listed as endangered on Schedule 7 of the National Parks and Wildlife Act 1972 of South Australia. and is the smallest of the species . Though a June , 2012 count of approximately 1500 individuals is a notable increase from the 2007 count of just 1000 , it remains in danger of extinction .
C. b. graptogyne is also listed as threatened on the Victorian Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act ( 1988 ) . Under this Act , an Action Statement for the recovery and future management of this species has been prepared . However , it should also be noted that the red @-@ tailed black cockatoo is listed under this Act under its previous Latin name , Calyptorhynchus magnificus . On the 2007 advisory list of threatened vertebrate fauna in Victoria , this subspecies is listed as endangered .
The red @-@ tailed black cockatoo is listed as vulnerable on the NSW Threatened Species Conservation Act ( 1995 )
Like many Australian cockatoos and parrots , the red @-@ tailed black cockatoo is threatened by the thriving illegal trade in bird smuggling . High demand and high transit mortality mean that many more birds are taken from the wild than actually sold .
In 1997 , the Northern Territory Government 's Department of Natural Resources , Environment and The Arts ( now defunct ) proposed a plan for management of the trade in eggs and nestlings of C. b. macrorhynchus . To date the plan has not been implemented . The Australian Senate inquiry into the Commercial Utilisation of Australian Native Wildlife concluded in early 1998 that routine capture and commercial use of adult wild birds should be prohibited .
= = Aviculture = =
In the late 1990s , red @-@ tailed black cockatoos fetched prices of $ 1750 in Australia and $ 8900 ( ~ US $ 6000 ) overseas . Hand @-@ raised birds can be bought for anywhere between $ 15 @,@ 000 to $ 40 @,@ 000 in the United States , where they are seldom seen in aviculture . Hand @-@ reared birds are able to learn a few words and can be quite affectionate , although males may become imprinted and unlikely to breed . The red @-@ tailed black cockatoo is the most commonly seen of the black cockatoos in captivity , and can be hardy and long @-@ lived if given plenty of space . Until now , most birds in captivity have been of subspecies C. b. banksii and C. b. samueli . Birds were often previously bred without much attention to subspecies of origin . However , with an increase in interest in conservation , more aviculturists are concerned about maintaining the integrity of the separate subspecies in cultivation , and so avoid crossbreeding .
The birds breed easily in captivity and can lay eggs every 3 weeks between February and November . Once the female has one egg in her nest , she will not lay another . An egg takes about 30 days to hatch . The eyes of the young open around 3 weeks and the yellow down will show black pin feathers at about 6 weeks . The best time for hand raising is at about 10 weeks when their black feathers are in place but the tail feathers are still short . Young birds fledge after about 4 months and both sexes have the colouring of their mother . Mature male birds will become aggressive to young male birds at puberty ( 4 years ) ; they must be separated if caged .
The large and powerful bills of these birds can quickly and easily open a Brazil nut ( normally requiring crushing in a vise or pounding with a hammer ) , shearing it as neatly as a laser.They can also demolish a whole coconut with husk in 3 days
Captive breeding guidelines may be found in Husbandry Guidelines for the Red @-@ tailed Black Cockatoo ( Bennett , 2008 ) .
= = Cultural depictions = =
A red @-@ tailed black cockatoo , named Karak , was the official mascot of the 2006 Commonwealth Games held in Melbourne . Promotion coincided with an implementation of initiatives to ensure the survival of the South @-@ eastern subspecies graptogyne , as well as increased environmental awareness at the games .
A traditional story from western Arnhem Land tells of Black Cockatoo and her husband Crow , who are Bird @-@ people , sprouting black feathers after becoming afflicted with a sickness from across the sea to the north . In fear of being buried underground , they transform into birds and fly high in the sky .
In the folklore of the Tiwi people , the red @-@ tailed black cockatoo is said to accompany the dead to heaven .
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= Daicon III and IV Opening Animations =
The Daicon III and IV Opening Animations are two short , anime , 8 mm films that were produced for the 1981 Daicon III and 1983 Daicon IV Nihon SF Taikai conventions . They were produced by a group of amateur animators known as Daicon Film , who would later go on to form the animation studio Gainax . The films are known for their unusually high production values for amateur works and for including numerous references to otaku culture , as well as its appropriation of the song " Twilight " ( 1981 ) by English rock band Electric Light Orchestra .
Daicon III was made by Hideaki Anno , Hiroyuki Yamaga and Takami Akai and Daicon IV credits twelve people , including Yamada as the director and Anno and Akai as animation supervisors . Despite the questionable legal status of the works , the production of Daicon III resulted in debts that were repaid by selling video tapes and 8mm reels of the production ; of which the profits went to the production of Daicon IV . In 2001 , the anime magazine Animage ranked the Daicon animations as the 35th of the " Top 100 " anime of all time .
= = Summary = =
= = = Daicon III Opening Animation = = =
The Jet VTOL ship from Ultraman 's Science Patrol descends out of the sky toward Earth , as a school girl , carrying her randoseru , observes from behind a tree . The Science Patrol offer the girl a cup of water and ask her to deliver it to " DAICON " . The girl salutes and races away , but she quickly experiences trouble as Punk Dragon blocks her path . He summons a mecha from Starship Troopers , and it and the girl begin battling . The girl tosses the mecha aside and Gomora rises from the earth . Using a booster concealed in her backpack , the girl flies up into the sky and evades Gomora 's blast , with the mecha flying after her . They continue their battle in mid @-@ air . A blow from the mecha sends the girl falling , imperiling her cup of water . At the last moment , she has a vision of the Science Patrol and regains consciousness . She snatches the cup before it crashes to the ground . Resuming her battle with the mecha , she catches one of its missiles and hurls it back at the mecha , causing a huge explosion . The destroyed mecha launches a rocket , summoning Godzilla with the Ideon symbol . With King Ghidorah and Gamera chasing her , the girl flies through the air with her jet @-@ propelled backpack . A Star Destroyer , a TIE fighter , and Martian fighting machines from the film The War of the Worlds ( 1953 ) cross the background . Reaching into her backpack , the girl pulls out a bamboo ruler , which magically becomes a lightsaber . After slicing an Alien Baltan in half , the girl launches a number of miniature missiles from her backpack . Hit by one of the missiles , a Maser Tank from the Godzilla series catches fire . The Atragon breaks in two as the Yamato , the USS Enterprise , an X @-@ wing fighter and Daimajin explode in complete chaos . The girl pours her cup of water on a shriveled daikon buried in the ground . As the daikon absorbs the water , it turns into the spaceship Daicon . Bathed in light , and now wearing a naval uniform , the girl boards the ship , where the film 's producers , Toshio Okada and Yasuhiro Takeda , sit at the controls . As the landing gear retracts , Daicon departs for the far reaches of the universe .
= = = Daicon IV Opening Animation = = =
The Daicon IV Opening Animation begins with an abridged , 90 @-@ second retelling of the Daicon III Opening Animation set to music by Kitarō . After this , " Prologue " by Electric Light Orchestra is heard , while the lyrics appear against a starfield and an outline of the spaceship Daicon passes in the background . The film proper begins as " Prologue " segues into " Twilight " , the song which follows it on the album Time .
The girl from the previous animation is now an adult , wearing a bunny costume . She fights off a multitude of sci @-@ fi monsters and mobile suits then jumps into a throng of Metron Seijin and tosses them aside . She is then in a lightsaber duel with Darth Vader , with Stormtroopers sitting in the background and the Death Star enshrined in one corner . From atop a cliff , a xenomorph with artificial legs , wielding the Discovery One , knocks the girl down with an energy burst and the Dynaman robot attempts to crush her . The girl lifts the Dynaman robot off her with superhuman strength and smashes it against a cliff . The Stormbringer suddenly appears in the sky , and the girl jumps on it , riding it like a surfboard . A few scenes unconnected to the main plot are shown , such as Yoda as Yū Ida given a Japanese comedy routine with various characters in the audience . The girl is still riding the Stormbringer when she runs into a formation of Ultrahawk 1 's . Then the Yamato , the Arcadia attached to the transformed SDF @-@ 1 Macross appear , along with an exploding VF @-@ 1 Valkyrie variable fighter from Macross armed with a Gundam @-@ style beam saber . An air battle unfolds in an otaku coffee shop . The girl is then seen in a world filled with American comic superheroes . A host of machines and characters ( from The Lord of the Rings , Conan , Narnia , Pern , and others ) fly past her into space , including a Klingon battle cruiser , the moon ship from H. G. Wells ' First Men in the Moon , the Millennium Falcon , Lord Jaxom and the Thunderbirds . Once back on land , the girl jumps off the Stormbringer and it splits into seven parts , which fly though the sky spewing smoke in seven colors . A sequence of famous spaceships crashing into each other is shown . Then , suddenly , " what could only be described as an atomic bomb " explodes over an unpopulated city , leaving behind a flurry of sakura petals . Successive upheavals of the Earth give birth to new worlds . As a beam launched by the Daicon traverses the sky , lush greenery sprouts and grows . The camera then pans over a massive crowd of fictional characters , the sun rises , the camera zooms out to the solar system , and the film ends with an image of the Daicon logo .
= = Production = =
Originally , the productions were intended to be shot in 16 mm film , but both were shot in 8 mm film instead and were completed only the morning before their debut . In order to pay off the debts of the productions , video copies of the animation were sold . Eng declares this as the first example of original video animation ( OVA ) predating Dallos . Kazutaka Miyatake of Studio Nue originally designed the mecha that appears in the Daicon III clip chasing the little girl for a Japanese edition of the military science fiction novel Starship Troopers novel in the early eighties .
= = = Daicon III = = =
Only three people were involved in the production of Daicon III , Hideaki Anno , Hiroyuki Yamaga and Takami Akai . Takeda , who was a part of the group , explains in Notenki Memoirs that Anno knew how to make anime , but he never worked with animation cels . They were referred to Animepolis Pero , an anime hobby store chain , but they found that the cost of the cels were too expensive , so a single cel was purchased and taken to a vinyl manufacturer in east Osaka , where they purchased a roll for 2000 yen . After cutting and preparing the vinyl cels , they discovered that the painted cels would stick together when stacked and dry paint would peel off the cels . To keep costs low , they made their own tap to punch holes in the B5 animation paper used in the production .
The work was carried out in an empty room of Okada 's house where their business was also operated . While other people were present , the work was shared and Anno , Akai and Yamaga worked full @-@ time on the production , the direction was not professional , but Takeada attributed Okada as the producer , with Yamaga directing , Akai doing character animation and Anno as the mecha animator . Takeada also said other individuals were involved and were used to trace cels or paint cels as needed , but still credits Yamaga , Akai and Anno with the production itself . Filming was done by a camera on a tripod and frames were called out by Anno because the production lacked timing sheets .
Osamu Tezuka did not see the opening film at Daicon III , but was shown the film by Akai and Yamaga later that night . After watching the film , Tezuka remarked " Well , there certainly were a lot of characters in the film . ... [ T ] here were also some that weren 't in the film " . Akai and Yamaga later realized the omission of Tezuka 's characters ; they were subsequently used in the Daicon IV animation . According to Toshio Okada , the theme of water in the opening represented " opportunity " and Lawrence Eng , an otaku researcher , describes the theme as , " ... making the best use of one 's opportunities while fighting against those who would seek to steal such opportunity away . "
= = = Daicon IV = = =
The production facility for Daicon IV was in a dedicated studio in a building called the Hosei Kaikan that was owned by a textile union . Takeda defined it as a literal anime sweatshop , the building was shutdown at 9 : 00 pm and a majority of the staff would be locked inside and working through the night without air conditioning . The Daicon IV film officially credits a production crew of twelve people . Hiroyuki Yamaga directed the production of Daicon IV with Hideaki Anno and Takami Akai as animation directors . Toru Saegusa did the artwork and the animations were done with Yoshiyuki Sadamoto , Mahiro Maeda , Norifumi Kiyozumi ; additional animation was provided by Ichiro Itano , Toshihiro Hirano , Narumi Kakinouchi , Sadami Morikawa , Kazutaka Miyatake . Originally , Daicon IV was supposed to be fifteen minutes long , but the difficult production resulted in the cut time .
= = Reception and release = =
The Daicon III film was reported on in Animec magazine which resulted in requests for the film to be released publicly . In order to pay off the debts from producing the film , the decision was made to sell 8mm reels of the film and videos . Additional original artwork and the storyboards were included in the release . The sale paid the debts and the profit would be used to produce Daicon IV .
Due to copyright problems an official release of the animations has proven impossible . For the American release of the film , the rights to use of the Playboy bunny costume was denied and the rights to Electric Light Orchestra 's music was consequently not sought . However , a laserdisc featuring Daicon III & IV Opening Animation was unofficially released in Japan as bonus material to a ¥ 16 @,@ 000 art book of the animations . This laserdisc is considered rare and highly valuable among collectors , easily fetching prices over a thousand dollars on online auctions .
= = Legacy = =
Since its release the animations have been referenced several times in Japanese media productions , especially those focused on otaku culture . Clips and characters from the animations appear in the 1991 Gainax OVA Otaku no Video . The opening sequence of the Train Man Japanese TV drama series from 2005 was inspired by and uses the Electric Light Orchestra theme and the lead character from the Daicon IV film . In episode 5 of Gainax 's FLCL , titled " Brittle Bullet " , Haruko , wearing a red bunny suit , flies in on a bass guitar and yells " Daicon V ! " before attacking a giant robot with a slingshot .
At Fanimecon , Yamaga said , " [ The openings are ] a source of pride and something you want to strangle . " Akai who wants to produce better films stated , " I don 't want to see them for a long time . Just thinking about them sends shivers down my spine . " Lawrence Eng stated that without the Daicon animations , Gainax might never have existed . In 2001 , the anime magazine Animage ranked the Daicon animations as the 35th of the " Top 100 " anime of all time .
= = = Daicon 33 = = =
Gainax revealed the details of a new campaign to celebrate Daicon Film 's 33rd anniversary . The new project is named " DAICON FILM 33 " and was announced on January 8 , 2014 . The basis of the project is a " revival of DAICON FILM " and includes the release of several goods inspired by the original films from the eighties .
The project 's official site has started accepting pre @-@ orders for the first lineup of memorial goods . A new illustration of the " Daicon Bunny Girl " has been drawn by Takami Akai , the original character designer of the opening animation films and one of the founders of Gainax . The art is now also displayed on the top page of Gainax 's official site .
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= Andrew Sledd =
Andrew Warren Sledd ( November 7 , 1870 – March 16 , 1939 ) was an American theologian , university professor and university president . A native of Virginia , he was the son of a prominent Methodist minister , and was himself ordained as a minister after earning his bachelor 's degree and master 's degree . He later earned a second master 's degree and his doctorate .
After teaching for several years , Sledd was chosen to be the last president of the University of Florida at Lake City , from 1904 to 1905 , and the first president of the modern University of Florida ( first known as the " University of the State of Florida " ) , from 1905 to 1909 . He was also president of Southern University from 1910 to 1914 , and later became a professor and an influential biblical scholar at Emory University 's Candler School of Theology from 1914 to 1939 .
Sledd first gained national recognition after he wrote a 1902 magazine article advocating better legal and social treatment of African @-@ Americans . He is also prominently remembered for his role in founding the modern University of Florida , his scholarly analysis of biblical texts as literature , his call for an end to racial violence , and his influence on a generation of Methodist seminary students , scholars and ministers .
= = Early life and education = =
Sledd was born November 7 , 1870 , in Lynchburg , Virginia , the son of a Methodist Episcopal minister , Robert Newton Sledd , and his wife , Frances Carey Greene Sledd . The elder Sledd was an influential minister within the Virginia Methodist Conference , and at various times while Andrew was growing up , his father held prominent pastorates of large Methodist congregations in four different Virginia cities — Danville , Norfolk , Petersburg and Richmond . Andrew received his early education in the Petersburg school of W. Gordon McCabe , a former Confederate captain and veteran of the U.S. Civil War .
In 1888 , Sledd entered Methodist @-@ affiliated Randolph – Macon College in Ashland , Virginia . While at Randolph – Macon , he was a member of Phi Delta Theta Fraternity ( Virginia Gamma chapter ) ; he was also the college 's outstanding student @-@ athlete and was particularly known as the college baseball team 's first baseman and star hitter . Sledd left the college without finishing his undergraduate degree requirements , first accepting a position as a teacher in Durant , Mississippi , and then as the principal of a high school in Arkadelphia , Arkansas . After teaching in Arkansas for two years , he returned to Randolph – Macon and completed his Bachelor of Arts and Master of Arts degrees in 1894 . Sledd graduated in mathematics , was recognized for completing the best work in the mathematics and Greek departments during his senior year , and was honored as a member of Phi Beta Kappa .
Sledd taught at the Randolph @-@ Macon Academy in Front Royal , Virginia , from 1894 to 1895 , before returning to graduate school . He earned a second master of arts degree in Greek from Harvard University in Cambridge , Massachusetts , in 1896 , and completed one year 's additional graduate work toward a doctoral degree . While he was at Harvard , he played for the Harvard Crimson baseball team , and he is remembered as one of Harvard 's greatest athletes of the era ; he was offered a professional baseball contract but turned it down . Several years later , during a break in his teaching career , Sledd completed his doctorate .
= = Scholar and educator = =
= = = Emory College and the " Sledd Affair " = = =
After completing his graduate studies at Harvard , Sledd briefly served as a Latin instructor at Vanderbilt University in Nashville , Tennessee . He was ordained as a Methodist minister and licensed to preach in 1898 . At the suggestion of his father , he contacted Methodist minister Warren Akin Candler , who was the president of Emory College in Oxford , Georgia , a prominent leader of the Georgia Methodist Conference , and a few months from being elevated as a Methodist bishop . Candler was impressed with the character and academic credentials of the young scholar , and assisted him in becoming a professor of Latin language and literature at Emory College , a position Sledd held from 1898 to 1902 . While living in the Candler family home , Sledd fell in love with the bishop 's only daughter , Annie Florence Candler , and he married her on March 22 , 1899 ; his father conducted the wedding ceremony .
Later in 1899 , while traveling by train between Atlanta and Covington , Georgia , Sledd witnessed the aftermath of the lynching of an African @-@ American man named Sam Hose . The idealistic young minister was outraged . In reaction , he wrote an essay entitled " The Negro : Another View , " which was published as an article in the July 1902 issue of The Atlantic Monthly . In the article , Sledd denounced the lynchings of black men in the South in graphic terms : " lynching is not ' justice , ' however rude ; it is a wild and diabolic carnival of blood . " While he flatly asserted that the " negro race " was not the equal of the " white race , " he nevertheless demanded equal justice for blacks and whites alike , writing " There is nothing in a white skin or a black to nullify the essential rights of man as man . " Even though Sledd 's essay condoned the continued racial segregation of white and black Southerners as a necessary social expedient , a public firestorm ensued in Georgia over Sledd 's criticism of the South 's treatment of its black citizens , with the controversy stoked by the vitriolic letters and editorial attacks of agrarian populist Rebecca Felton in the Atlanta Constitution newspaper . As the controversy grew , the Atlanta Journal and Atlanta News quickly joined the anti @-@ Sledd chorus . When a majority of the members of Emory 's board of trustees threatened to withdraw their support of the college because of the negative publicity , the newly installed college president , James E. Dickey , demanded Sledd 's resignation from the faculty , and Sledd resigned on August 9 , 1902 . The Sledd Affair subsequently attracted attention throughout the United States as a matter of academic freedom and freedom of speech .
After resigning from the Emory College faculty , Sledd entered the graduate school of Yale University in New Haven , Connecticut , where he began work in the advanced classics doctoral program , specializing in Latin . Sledd received $ 1 @,@ 000 in severance pay from Emory pursuant to an agreement with Dickey and unanimously approved by the Emory faculty , and his father @-@ in @-@ law contributed $ 900 to help cover his tuition and living expenses while he attended Yale . He received a scholarship from the university , and earned his doctor of philosophy degree in Latin from Yale in 1903 , after only nine months . Stanford University and Syracuse University offered him professorships in Latin ; Antioch College offered him its presidency . Sledd declined all offers from Northern and Western institutions , and was determined to return to his native South .
= = = University of Florida at Lake City = = =
After completing his doctorate , Sledd obtained an appointment as a professor of Greek at Methodist @-@ affiliated Southern University ( now known as Birmingham – Southern College ) in Greensboro , Alabama . Several months later , on July 6 , 1904 , he was unanimously selected to be the president of the University of Florida at Lake City by its board of trustees . At the time of his appointment , the University of Florida at Lake City was experiencing a controversy of its own : its administration and faculty were hopelessly fractured by personality conflicts and its unpopular president 's failed attempts at improving the small school 's instruction and academic standing . The university 's board of trustees had removed the ineffectual president , and dismissed seven members of its small faculty . The university , such as it was , had been known as " Florida Agricultural College " until 1903 . When Sledd arrived in Lake City , it was a school with a new name , a faculty fractured by contentious personalities , an unknown number of returning students and an uncertain future . Sledd required all previous faculty members to re @-@ apply if they desired to keep their jobs , hired replacement instructors , most of whom had earned doctoral degrees in their respective fields ( in contrast to the previous faculty ) , and set about devising rigorous academic standards for the school 's new students . Although the university was a designated land @-@ grant college under the federal government 's Morrill Act , it received insufficient annual financial assistance from the state government , and its finances remained tenuous .
= = = University of the State of Florida = = =
Sledd and members of the faculty were actively involved in urging Florida 's state government to combine the state 's several small institutions of higher education . The university consolidation movement gained the political backing of newly elected Florida Governor Napoleon B. Broward , and , in 1905 , the Florida Legislature passed the Buckman Act , which abolished the hodge @-@ podge of state @-@ supported colleges and consolidated their assets and programs into a new comprehensive university and land @-@ grant college for white men , and a liberal arts college and normal school for white women . The Act mandated the merger of four separate institutions , including the existing University of Florida at Lake City , into the consolidated men 's university — the new University of the State of Florida . By a vote of six to four , the new Board of Control charged with the governance of the consolidated institutions , selected Gainesville as the location for the new men 's state university .
Sledd had not anticipated that the Lake City campus would be abandoned , and had assumed that it would be selected as the location of the newly consolidated men 's university , placing him in a strong position to become the first president of the new institution . The selection of Gainesville for the campus of the new men 's university put Sledd 's future as its first president in question . The University of Florida in Lake City was just one of the four existing institutions that were to be merged to form the new university , and there were other possible candidates for the presidency . Albert A. Murphree , president of Florida State College in Tallahassee , was the favorite of several prominent members of the legislature . But Sledd had Governor Broward 's backing , and the Board of Control ultimately selected him to be the first president on June 7 , 1905 ; Sledd 's appointment was for a single year , but renewable on an annual basis , as was typical in the university 's early years when the Board of Control appointed or re @-@ appointed the presidents of the state 's public colleges for each academic year . Murphree remained the president of the newly consolidated women 's college in Tallahassee until 1909 .
Sledd nominated all of the original faculty members , a majority of whom he had previously selected to be professors at the University of Florida at Lake City . The new University of the State of Florida operated in Lake City during the first academic year of its existence ( 1905 – 06 ) , while the buildings of the new Gainesville campus were being erected . Sledd managed the move of the school 's assets from Lake City to Gainesville during the late summer of 1906 , and participated in the official dedication of the campus on September 27 , 1906 . When registration for classes was held in Gainesville on September 24 , 1906 , there were 102 students and fewer than a dozen faculty members . Sledd received a $ 2 @,@ 250 annual salary in his first year as the head of the new state university , and , together with his wife and their young children , moved into the still incomplete Buckman Hall dormitory on the Gainesville campus .
Sledd played a key role in the formation and ultimate success of the new university , but his time as its president was a relatively short four years . His political backing ended with the retirement of Governor Broward , and the inauguration of the new governor , Albert Gilchrist , in January 1909 . The Florida Board of Education , which then consisted of the governor and the state 's elected cabinet members , oversaw the Board of Control and made no secret of its desire to remove Sledd , in part because members of the Board of Education believed Sledd 's admissions standards were too high and that the university was not growing quickly enough . Nevertheless , the Board of Control continued to back Sledd , and its members threatened to resign in protest . Seeking to avoid an unwinnable political controversy , Sledd resigned , and the Board of Control replaced him with Albert Murphree , the political favorite of several legislative leaders and the Board of Education .
= = = Methodist ministry and Southern University = = =
Following Sledd 's resignation , he and his family returned to Atlanta and stayed in the home of his wife 's parents . Within a few weeks , he was appointed minister of the First Methodist Church in Jacksonville , Florida , a position he held for the remainder of 1909 and the first half of 1910 . Sledd was subsequently invited to return to Southern University as its president , serving from 1910 to 1914 . While president of Southern University , he implemented a new pre @-@ college preparatory school and a four @-@ year course of Bible study , and focused his personal efforts on restoring the school 's finances and improving the quality of its instruction .
= = = Candler School of Theology = = =
In the fall of 1914 , Sledd resigned the presidency of Southern University and returned to Emory College , by then renamed Emory University and relocated to its new main campus in northeast Atlanta , as the first Professor of Greek and New Testament Literature at the Candler School of Theology , the newly established seminary of the Methodist Episcopal Church , South . Sledd became well known as a professor of Greek , Latin and New Testament studies at Candler , and was the author of several scholarly books on New Testament subjects , including Saint Mark 's Life of Jesus ( 1927 ) , The Bibles of the Churches ( 1930 ) and His Witnesses : A Study of the Book of Acts ( 1935 ) . He was selected to be a member of the American Standard Bible Committee , which was preparing a new American Standard Version of the Bible . He continued to advocate internal Methodist reform and an end to racial violence , and his teaching inspired a generation of his Candler theology students to act as change agents within the Methodist Episcopal Church , South . Many of his former students became Methodist ministers who returned to their congregations and annual conferences to work for better treatment of African @-@ Americans , helping the Southern Methodist church to evolve from a mainstay of theological and racial intransigence to an agent for social change and doctrinal reform .
Sledd 's interest in education was not limited to the higher education of colleges and universities . While holding his Candler professorship , he served as a member of the Board of Public Instruction of DeKalb County , Georgia , and volunteered to serve as the board 's treasurer .
Sledd and his wife Annie also suffered a personal tragedy during his time as a Candler professor , when their first @-@ born son and his namesake , Andrew Sledd , Jr . , died after an extended illness in 1919 . Andrew , Jr . , was 16 years old , and had graduated from Decatur High School only weeks earlier .
= = Death and legacy = =
Sledd became a recognized New Testament scholar and a significant voice of educational , social and ecclesiastical reform within the Methodist Episcopal Church , South . For nearly twenty @-@ five years , he remained a professor at Emory University 's Candler School of Theology , until his death from a heart attack on March 16 , 1939 . Following Sledd 's funeral , his body was buried in the Decatur Cemetery .
In his 1960 History of Methodism in Alabama and West Florida , Marion Elias Lazenby remembered Sledd as " one of the [ Methodist ] Church 's most scholarly and reverent teachers . " Immediately after his death , Sledd was widely eulogized in Methodist churches across the country , and numerous obituaries appeared in regional and national newspapers across the country . The Atlanta Constitution , whose editorials had vilified Sledd in 1902 , paid tribute to him in its obituary as a " nationally known Bible authority " ; no mention was made of the " Sledd Affair . "
Sledd 's advocacy of social change and an evolving understanding of biblical texts came at a high personal price . Given his chosen career of minister and professor , he never accumulated much personal wealth . Sledd died deep in debt , having lost the family home to foreclosure after the salaries of Candler professors were cut when financial support of the school fell during the 1930s . His creditors obtained a deficiency judgment for the unpaid portion of his debt after the foreclosure , and , following his death , forced the sale of some of his furniture and parts of his personal library in partial satisfaction of his remaining debts .
The faculty of the University of Florida awarded Sledd the university 's first honorary degree , a doctor of divinity , at the spring 1909 commencement ceremonies . In 1933 , John J. Tigert , the university 's third president , invited Professor Sledd to be the university 's baccalaureate speaker . After his death , the university honored him again , renaming one of its early residence halls , Sledd Hall , in 1939 . The small state university , which Sledd had been instrumental in creating and organizing , is now one of the ten largest single @-@ campus universities in the United States , with a total enrollment of nearly 50 @,@ 000 undergraduate , graduate and professional students .
Sledd and his wife Annie had nine children . Eight of their children graduated from Emory , seven with Phi Beta Kappa honors , a fact newsworthy enough to be picked up by the Associated Press wire service when youngest daughter Antoinette graduated from Emory the year following Sledd 's death . Two of their sons followed in their father 's footsteps , earned doctorates and became university professors : James H. Sledd became a Rhodes Scholar and noted professor of English literature at the University of Chicago and the University of Texas ; Marvin B. Sledd was a professor of mathematics at Georgia Tech .
In 2002 , after almost a century of ignoring its role in the " Sledd Affair , " Emory University sponsored a presentation entitled " Professing Justice : A Symposium on the Civil Rights Legacy of Professor Andrew Sledd . " In holding the inter @-@ disciplinary symposium , Emory University acted to " right a wrong committed a century ago by revisiting the ' Sledd affair ' and reflecting on its meaning for Emory today . "
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= Darkwatch =
Darkwatch : Curse of the West is a 2005 first @-@ person shooter video game for the PlayStation 2 and Xbox . It was developed by High Moon Studios ( formerly Sammy Studios ) and published by Capcom in the United States and by Ubisoft in Europe and Australia .
The game mixes western , horror and steampunk genres , telling the story of Jericho Cross , an outlaw gunfighter in the late 19th @-@ century American Frontier who has been turned into a vampire and then forcibly recruited by the titular monster @-@ hunting secret organization to fight against supernatural forces . The gameplay system of Darkwatch is reminiscent of Halo : Combat Evolved .
Darkwatch was met with a generally positive critical reception , acclaimed in particular for its relatively unique Weird West setting and artistic merits . The game was accompanied by an extensive promotional campaign and was planned to be the first installment of a new media franchise , but its sequel got canceled in 2007 and the film adaptation remains in development hell .
= = Gameplay = =
Darkwatch features a reputation system that affects player 's abilities in addition to the player character Jericho 's starting , neutral vampiric powers of " Blood Shield " ( a regenerating force field similar to the energy shield from Halo ) , " Vampire Jump " ( a double jump that can be aborted at any moment ) and " Blood Vision " ( a system of heat vision highlighting enemies and objects that also acts as a zoom ) . Through the game , Jericho is met with multiple choices of a good or evil variety , allowing the player to select morality awarding Jericho new powers , called " Brands " , based on the choices he made . This system was compared to the one used in the role @-@ playing video game Star Wars : KOTOR . The good path powers are " Silver Bullet " ( making the player 's weapons cause more damage ) , " Fear " ( confusing minor enemies ) , " Mystic Armor " ( an extra shield system ) and " Vindicator " ( bolts of lightning destroying all nearby enemies ) . The evil powers are " Blood Frenzy " ( granting an immunity to damage and extremely powerful melee attacks ) , " Turn " ( turning undead enemies into allies ) , " Black Shroud " ( stealing life force from nearby enemies ) and " Soul Stealer " ( destroying nearby enemies and stealing their souls ) . The powers can be activated for a limited time when the HUD 's blood bar , which is fueled through collecting souls of the slain enemies , is completely full . Jericho 's health is also restored through collecting the souls .
During the daylight hours , Jericho 's powers are gone , so he has to fight as a normal human , using a wide variety of weaponry , from a Darkwatch 's standard @-@ issue 24 @-@ shot Redeemer handgun to a crossbow firing explosive arrows and a rocket launcher , as well as melee combat . In some missions , Jericho can drive a Gatling gun @-@ equipped Coyote Steamwagon vehicle ; using it or a horse changes perspective to the third @-@ person view . During horse @-@ riding rail shooter sequences , Jericho is granted unlimited ammunition and high attack speed , at the cost of only being able to use the Redeemer .
= = = Multiplayer = = =
The Xbox version has competitive multiplayer for up to 16 players online , although system link is not possible . The PlayStation 2 version does not offer any online connectivity and competitive multiplayer is limited to two players ( or four players while using an optional multitap device ) via split screen gameplay . In multiplayer matches , the players can pick up the " Silver Bullet " , " Mystic Armor and " Blood Frenzy " powers as floating power @-@ ups that activate immediately . The game 's story mode is also available for split screen cooperative gameplay on the PlayStation 2 , a feature absent from the Xbox version . In the co @-@ op mode , both players play as a rank @-@ and @-@ file Darkwatch Regulators but cutscenes designed for the single @-@ player mode and featuring Jericho as the main character are left unchanged , causing a number of glaring continuity errors .
= = Plot = =
= = = Story = = =
The game 's story ( narrated by Peter Jason ) follows the exploits of a wanted outlaw named Jericho Cross and his employment in an ancient vampire @-@ hunting order known as the Darkwatch ( hence the game 's title ) . After unwittingly releasing the Darkwatch 's greatest enemy , a vampire lord named Lazarus Malkoth , Jericho is conscripted into the Darkwatch as an elite operative . Jericho , however , is slowly turning into a vampire himself , as a result of being bitten by Lazarus . The game outlines either Jericho 's struggle for humanity or his descent into darkness , depending on the player 's actions .
The game begins in the Arizona Territory in 1876 with Jericho attempting to rob a Darkwatch train that is transporting the captured Lazarus Malkoth to the Darkwatch Citadel , a frequently mentioned and often visited location in the game . His actions inadvertently release Lazarus into the West . In a seeming bit of mercy , Lazarus bites Jericho and gives him the curse of the vampire , causing him to slowly turn into one . The game continues with the introduction of Darkwatch agent Cassidy Sharp as well as the appearance of Shadow , Jericho 's undead horse whom he fed on and turned in a frenzy after being bitten by Lazarus .
As the game progresses , Jericho finally makes his way to the Darkwatch Citadel , where he meets General Clay Cartwright , the current leader of the order . Cartwright puts him through Torture Maze , the Darkwatch initiation exercise which was designed as a test for Darkwatch Regulators , but Jericho gets a special version specially designed by Cartwright to kill him . When Jericho passes the test anyway , he begins to do missions for the Darkwatch . Missions include tasks ranging from fixing some of the damage he has caused to acquiring Darkwatch equipment , such as the Darklight Prism , a stone that allows vampires within its vicinity to both use their powers and walk in sunlight . On some of his missions Jericho is accompanied by other Darkwatch forces including his new partner , a sultry and vicious temptress named Tala . Eventually , during their night of passion , Tala lures him to bite her and inherits some portion of his power , transforming herself into a half @-@ vampire creature similar to him . She then betrays the Darkwatch from within , allowing hordes of the undead to invade its headquarters .
A final showdown ensues with Lazarus , in which Jericho arises victorious , and a choice is given for him to side with either Cassidy or Tala . Either Jericho rids the West of the Curse of Lazarus , or he becomes the Curse ; the player 's choice determines how the game ends . If the character were to choose the good option , then the final fight will be against the vampiric Tala ; if the player chooses to take Lazarus ' curse for himself , then he must fight the ghost of Cassidy . The bad ending shows the now @-@ monstrous Jericho killing Tala and riding into the night , while the good ending shows Cassidy 's soul being released .
= = = Characters = = =
Jericho Cross ( voiced by Christopher Corey Smith ) : The protagonist of the game , a jaded American Civil War deserter and drifter who became a gunslinger and train robber . During his " one last job " , he releases Lazarus Malkoth from his prison in a failed attempt to steal the contents . While dueling with Lazarus , Jericho gets bitten and infected by the vampire curse . His already deadly skills are enhanced by his vampire powers that afford him superhuman strength , increased endurance , enhanced agility , and heightened senses , in the form of the bioluminescent red orb that regenerated from his empty eye socket . Shadow is Jericho 's demonic horse that appears at his beckon . According to the developers , they created " deep psychological profiles of every character in the game " with " hope that Jericho 's character arc — as this desperate lone wolf that 's robbing trains with a subconscious death wish — makes a believable transition into this half @-@ vampire hybrid gunslinger and will ultimately envelop the player in his destiny : which is a guy that can be either a hero or a terror . Basically , we just want people to care about this character and what happens to him — and I can 't think of a first @-@ person shooter that 's really made us do that yet . "
Cassidy Sharp ( voiced by Jennifer Hale ) : The game 's first female protagonist . Cassidy is the agent who attempts to stop Jericho on the train in the game 's opening sequence . After the explosion of Lazarus ' prison , she joins Jericho but is soon murdered by Lazarus . Cassidy returns as a good ghost and befriends Jericho , aiding him in his mission to stop Lazarus ( a role similar to this of Cortana in the Halo series ) . As a little girl , Cassidy was orphaned in a vampire attack and then raised as a ward of the Darkwatch . Eventually , she became the most serious and dangerous agent in the organisation , yet really she is also deeply insecure about herself . If fought as the final boss , she turns into an angel .
Tala ( meaning " Stalking Wolf " ) ( voiced by Rose McGowan ) : The game 's second female protagonist . Tala is a Native American shaman and a power @-@ hungry Darkwatch agent . When she was young , Tala lost her seer mother and became an outcast from her own tribe , fearful of her mediumship abilities . Her father was then killed by a band of fur traders and she herself was kidnapped and abused by them , until her captors were killed by vampires . Tala was then herself rescued by the Darkwatch troops , who turned her into one of their own . However , her experiences made her extremely bitter , and she began pursuing ever more power at any cost , secretly desiring to get revenge upon the world for the death of her parents . Despite her ruthlessness , Tala quickly rose through the Darkwatch ranks due to her fearless battle efficiency . The developers described her as not evil but " just ambitious " . Tala is the only character who uses kicks in the game , due to the artists deciding that " some of the combat moves the actress performed fit the character so well that we changed the combat system she 's using . " If fought as the final boss , she turns into a demon . According to GameSpy , Tala is " without question , the more difficult boss to battle . "
Lazarus Malkoth ( voiced by Keith Szarabajka ) : A Roman who first founded the Darkwatch society in 66 AD in order to battle the dark forces responsible for the decline of the Roman Empire . He eventually got possessed by a demon and himself became a powerful vampire and turned on the organization he founded , raising an undead army to aid him in his task . The Darkwatch then pursued Lazarus across Europe and later America . During the game 's development , the villain 's name was Scourge .
Clay Cartwright ( voiced by Michael Bell ) : The brutal and scheming field commander of the Darkwatch . An American Civil War veteran in the rank of brigadier general , Cartwight snipes Jericho and enslaves him , forcing him to participate in a series of trials before inducting him into the organization .
= = Development = =
= = = Concept = = =
The development of the game began in the summer of 2002 , when Sammy Studios ' first internal development team , informally called " Team 1 " , decided to " bring a refreshing theme to a genre riddled with the stereotypical sci @-@ fi , fantasy , and military themes , " an idea soon approved by the Sammy Corporation president Hajime Satomi . The original game concept was not very dark and the vampires " felt more like a cartoon property " . In the early derivatives of the project , the game " looked more like something from Pixar " and its protagonist was supposed to be Chaz Bartlett , a " vaguely bumbling sort of comic relief character " , described as an " Eastern dude who was a card cheat " similar to Bret Maverick .
The game 's lead designer and writer Paul O 'Connor said that the original ' high concept ' for Darkwatch was " Blade meets Men in Black in the Old West , " but " in the two years that the property has been in development , it has grown in other directions and taken on a life of its own . The game is quite a bit darker than Blade , and we ’ ve completely lost the tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek feeling of Men in Black . " He added it " leans toward the Army of Darkness side of things , though without the slapstick , " and " with the accessibility of Raiders of the Lost Ark . " The turning point for setting a much darker and mature tone was the final iteration of Jericho 's character design . Tala was originally intended to also be a player character , but the studio 's marketing department " didn ’ t think that would fly . "
= = = Production = = =
The game was developed for the PlayStation 2 and Xbox side @-@ by @-@ side , with a PC version initially described as " possible " . Creative director Emmanuel Valdez said that " for the longest time we were debating whether or not to bring it out for GameCube , " before deciding " there 's just not a lot there in the GameCube market right now . " There were also plans to port the game for the PlayStation Portable . The game engine for Darkwatch features middleware engines RenderWare , Havok and Quazal , while Autodesk MotionBuilder was used to create character animation and motion capture .
The game was " intentionally designed as a cross between Halo and Silverado . " O 'Connor said Halo was " of course " an inspiration , comparing Darkwatch to the horror aspects of Halo , and senior designer Brent Disbrow said he expected it to " stand on par with games like Halo 2 . " Other video game inspirations recounted by O 'Connor and Valdez included Half @-@ Life , Medal of Honor , Metroid Prime and TimeSplitters . Lead level designer Matt Tieger said that a creation of one of the game 's bosses was " inspired by all the fun " that he had while playing the Metal Slug 2D shooter series with its " crazy bosses " . O 'Connor said the game 's reputation system was inspired by the contrast between the Old West figures such as Billy the Kid and the likes of Wyatt Earp , who " both were feared gunslingers , but one was a psychopathic killer and the other was a good guy / lawman . "
The developers licensed Ennio Morricone 's main theme from the film The Good , The Bad , and The Ugly which was remixed to fit the horror feel of the game . The remaining music on the soundtrack is completely original , co @-@ composed by Mike Reagan , a veteran film and game music composer , and Asdru Sierra , frontman for the Latin Grammy @-@ winning indie band Ozomatli , who said : " Our goal is to help connect the audience with a conflicted character , one who alternates between moments of providence and misguidance , and accomplish that with a musical score of cinematic proportions . " The game 's title sequence animation was created by Kyle Cooper using a collage of computer graphics images and live @-@ action footage .
Darkwatch was officially unveiled on January 12 , 2004 , its announcement accompanied by a showing of its playable multiplayer deathmatch mode , and was originally slated for a Q4 2004 release . At one point , the game remained in limbo for several months until May 2005 , when High Moon Studios , by then a fully independent development company , found a publisher in Capcom .
= = Release = =
Darkwatch , described as High Moon 's " flagship property " , was released by Capcom in North America on August 16 , 2005 , and by Ubisoft in Europe on October 7 , 2005 . Ubisoft distributed the game in Australia as well .
= = = Promotion = = =
In 2004 , Sammy launched darkwatch.org , an official fan community website allowing fans to win points for prizes through completing various challenges while promoting the game . An interactive game demo of Darkwatch was shown at E3 2005 inside a custom @-@ build Gothic architecture @-@ inspired theatre dubbed " desecrated church " . A trailer for the game , created by Brain Zoo Studios , was nominated for the Golden Trailer Awards and won two Aurora Awards in the categories " Best of Show : Use of Animation " and " Best of Show : Entertainment " .
In August 2005 , Capcom launched a major marketing campaign to support the upcoming release . This included an extensive marketing program in the U.S. television networks , print advertisements in several leading video game and men 's magazines , radio promotions broadcasts on alternative rock stations in major markets , and pre @-@ order and point of sale purchase campaigns . A Darkwatch music video to Good Charlotte 's song " Predictable " was also featured in MTV2 's Video Mods .
A major part of the game 's promotional campaign was based on using the sex appeal of its female characters . In October 2004 , a picture of Tala " wearing only a feather in her hair " was featured in a spread of the first special edition of Playboy that spotlighted provocative video game characters , also accompanying the article " Gaming Grows Up " . Several more naked pictures of her and Cassidy appeared in Playboy 's " Girls of Gaming " series in October 2005 and again in December 2007 . A few censored topless sketches of Tala were posted alongside a fake interview in an exclusive online gallery by IGN and a pinup picture was featured in IGN 's Hotlist magazine in June 2006 . She was also featured in exclusive pictures on the cover and the pinup poster of play issue # 44 in 2005 and in the 2007 calendar The Art of Heavy Metal .
= = Other media = =
= = = Soundtrack and book = = =
The Art of Darkwatch , a 176 @-@ page art book for the game , was published in August 2005 by Design Studio Press . Darkwatch Original Game Music Score , a 30 @-@ track original soundtrack , was released in November 2006 by Sierra Entertainment .
= = = Comic = = =
A comic titled " Innocence " , published in the July 2005 issue of Heavy Metal , serves as an immediate prequel and expanded introduction to the game . Set in the Nebraska Territory , the story follows them as former partners reuniting for a mission to capture the tomb of Lazarus , an ancient vampire lord and Darkwatch 's original founder . Along the way , they release Jericho when they raid a jail . " Cass " does not hide her current dislike of Tala , but Tala kills Cassidy 's father @-@ turned @-@ vampire , saving her life . The comic was written by the game 's designers Ulm and O 'Connor and illustrated by Philip Tan and Brian Haberlin . The issue 's award @-@ winning cover art was created by Aaron Habibipour and Sergio Paez .
= = Reception = =
Upon its release , Darkwatch received generally favorable reviews from most gaming media . According to review aggregation site GameTab , the PlayStation 2 version scored an averaged rating of 82 % from the gaming press with the Xbox version scoring 85 % . It also won several art direction and visual design awards , including five Davey Awards and a Telly Award .
= = = Reviews = = =
The game received the score of 7 @.@ 9 ( " Good " ) from both Bob Colayco of GameSpot ( " If you 're looking for an intense shooter experience , Darkwatch will not disappoint " ) and Jeremy Dunham of IGN ( " Cowboys , vampires , and sexy dead girls are fun in parties , but not so much alone " ) . According to the review by Cheat Code Central , " just about every aspect of Darkwatch is cool . The environments are cool , the weapons are cool , the characters are cool and while the gameplay is not unique it 's definitely one of the best first @-@ person shooters on the Xbox and PS2 . The controls alone are worth the price of admission . " John Scalzo of Gaming Target wrote that " for anyone looking for something a little different out of their FPS experience , Darkwatch is that game . " The reviewer in GamePro wrote that Darkwatch " mixes its Western Roots with gothic horror and steampunk aesthetics , and the results are uniquely engaging , " adding that if some the game 's " cooler " concepts " had been explored further , lengthening the game in the process , Darkwatch could 've rivaled the best of the genre . " Official Xbox Magazine called it " a solid and robust blaster that 's tons of fun . Helped no end by the excellent Blood Powers and top multiplayer . "
Several reviews praised the game 's setting . GameSpy 's David Chapman called it " a truly remarkable experience . And , while the game itself may not have broken any new ground , the world it introduces more than makes up for that . It will leave gamers hungry for more . " According to Game Informer , " in terms of gameplay quality , this may be another middle @-@ of @-@ the @-@ road shooter , but the unique premise sets it aside from everything else out there . " Greg Bemis of G4TV wrote that the biggest draw in Darkwatch is the " different enough " setting that " does fall back on tired video game clichés from time to time like big @-@ breasted , leather @-@ clad babes who speak in aggressive sexually suggestive double entendres , but it ’ s nice to see something--anything--that ’ s a little off the beaten path . " GameShark 's Will Jayson Hill wrote that " about the sharpest criticism that can be leveled at Darkwatch is that it really adds nothing original in the gameplay department . Aside from its extremely well executed western / horror environment , Darkwatch is a pretty generic FPS game with a weaker multiplayer mode . " On the other hand , some reviews thought that the gameplay was actually the strongest part of the game . Official UK PlayStation 2 Magazine stated Darkwatch " has a few neat ideas but wins us over by doing solid shooting well . Fast @-@ paced with cool guns , what 's not to like ? " GameZone 's Mike David wrote that only a " weak plot pacing and that feeling that something is missing " kept it from being given a score of 9 / 10 .
However , some of the reviews were more negative . PALGN 's Jeremy Jastrzab opined that " Darkwatch gives vampires , undead , cowboys and plenty of bullets to fire . But that 's about it . Otherwise , Darkwatch is a fairly standard affair that 's worth a rental . " According to Official U.S. PlayStation Magazine , " Darkwatch doesn 't amount to much more than your run @-@ of @-@ the mill first @-@ person shooter . " Eurogamer 's Martin Coxall called it " a generic and quickly tiresome shooter , with a contrived premise which , unfortunately , does nothing to elevate it . "
= = = Other reception = = =
The game 's characters , especially Tala , recevived some of the most notable reception . The voice @-@ acting of Rose McGowan in particular was critically acclaimed by numerous gaming outlets . Featured her in the GameDaily gallery Outrageous Boobs , Tala was a runner @-@ up in ActionTrip 's 2007 lists of Top 10 Video Game Chicks , both by staff and by readers ' choice . She was ranked as the 14th " hottest woman " in video games by Complex in 2012 and as the fourth by in Index.hr 2013 . GamesRadar included her in the 2008 list of top seven Native American stereotypes , chosen to represent " the sex object " stereotype , but nevertheless stated that the portrayal of " an empowered female who ’ s not afraid to be sexy and go after what she wants " is " a vast improvement over the appalling depiction of Indian women in Custer 's Revenge . " Michael Sheyahshe , author of Native Americans in Comic Books , listed " the continued objectification of the Indigenous female character , Tala , in Darkwatch " among " cultural ‘ ouchies ’ in video games " . She was also discussed in the book Sex in Video Games by Brenda Brathwaite and in Fantasy Women by Amanda Greenslade . Jericho Cross was included among the top five vampires in games by Laurie @-@ Anne Vazquez of 2D @-@ X in 2012 , and on the 2013 list of ten most notable vampire characters in video games by Kotaku 's Gergo Vas , who wrote that " the weird western @-@ steampunk hybrid style , mixed with classic vampire lore made this character ( and the game ! ) really exciting . "
According to a retrospective article by GamesRadar in 2009 , " while it didn ’ t innovate much in the gameplay department , Darkwatch was a solid shooter with proficient controls . Its real strength was its unique horror / western setting and bizarre selection of gothy undead characters and enemies . " In 2010 , GamesRadar 's Mikel Raparaz ranked Darkwatch as sixth on the list of the top seven weirdest westerns , commenting that " the gothy trappings overlay a pretty awesome , Halo @-@ inspired shooter . " In a 2012 article about the history of steampunk video games , Mike Mahardy of Game Informer wrote that " although not a widely known shooter , Darkwatch garnered a cult following with its unique story and unusual setting . " That same year , Robert Workman of Comic Book Resources called Darkwatch " in particular [ ... ] a fantastic effort , a first @-@ person shooter with beautiful , spooky atmosphere and excellent gameplay . " In 2013 , Metro included it among the " games that didn ’ t get the love they deserved . " Mark L. Bussler of Classic Game Room said in a retro video review that among many shooters on the PlayStation 2 , " few are as fun as this " , adding that Darkwatch should be " in your collection " alongside Red Faction and TimeSplitters . FEARNET included it among their five favorite vampire games in 2014 .
= = Legacy = =
= = = Cancelled sequel = = =
Darkwatch was supposed to be first of a series of games that would be set in different time periods , including Ancient Rome , the Crusades era and World War II . O 'Connor said they wanted " to tell not only the story of Jericho Cross but of the Darkwatch as an organization , from its origins in Roman times to its ultimate fate in Earth ’ s future . " Darkwatch 2 was in development by High Moon Studios for the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 between 2005 and 2007 , and its technical demo gameplay footage ( based on the original game ) was shown at the Game Developers Conference 2006 . After the game was canceled , the studio abandoned further attempts to create their own IP and instead concentrated on developing licensed games , such as Transformers and Deadpool .
In 2009 , GamesRadar ranked Darkwatch as the 22nd top " game with untapped franchise potential " , adding that a sequel could have improved the original game 's supernatural powers and its " anemic " multiplayer mode and " make it shine " . Classic Game Room 's Mark Bussler expressed regret that so many bad games did receive sequels , while Darkwatch did not .
= = = Film project = = =
In 2006 , it was reported that Roger Avary , who wrote the script for the film adaptation of the Silent Hill video game series , " recently was asked to work on the Darkwatch movie script based on the Capcom vampire Western game of which he is a fan , but his schedule interfered . " In 2011 , it was reported that Glen Morgan and James Wong , the writers / directors / producers behind The X @-@ Files and the Final Destination film series , " have developed a pitch based on the game 's plot and action sequences , and are currently writing a screenplay . " Morgan and Wong 's involvement with the project has been first reported already in 2004 .
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= Mount Tehama =
Mount Tehama ( also called Brokeoff Volcano or Brokeoff Mountain ) is an eroded andesitic stratovolcano in the Cascade Volcanic Arc and the Cascade Range in Northern California . Part of the Lassen volcanic center , its highest remaining remnant , Brokeoff Mountain , is itself the second highest peak in Lassen Volcanic National Park and connects to the park 's highest point , Lassen Peak . Located on the border of Tehama County and Shasta County , Tehama 's peak is the highest point in the former . The hikers that summit this mountain each year are treated to " exceptional " views of Lassen Peak , the Central Valley of California , and many of the park 's other features . On clear days , Mount Shasta can also be seen in the distance .
Tehama started life some 600 @,@ 000 years ago . At its peak activity , it reached approximately 3 @,@ 350 meters ( 11 @,@ 000 ft ) high , with a basal diameter of approximately 12 kilometers . Volcanic activity then declined 400 @,@ 000 years ago , with other volcanic lava domes forming at the edges of Mount Tehama later on , the largest and best known of which is Lassen Peak . A combination of continued hydrothermal activity and erosion , particularly by glaciers during ice ages , removed the central cone of the volcano , leaving a large caldera , the northern edge of which can still be seen .
Other remnants of Mount Tehama include Mount Conard , Pilot Pinnacle , Mount Diller , and Diamond Peak .
= = History = =
The area near Lassen Peak became a haven for new settlers throughout the 1800s . Wagon trains followed winding trails on the Nobles Emigrant Trail which cut through the Lassen Peak vicinity near Sacramento Valley . One of the main landmarks along this trail was a volcano . Called Lassen Peak after Peter Lassen , a prominent blacksmith and guide who escorted California settlers , the volcano and the area around it were given merit for their gripping volcanic phenomena , which included lava beds and extinct volcanic cones . In May 1907 , Lassen Peak was declared a National Monument by President Theodore Roosevelt to protect the area for " future generations to study and enjoy " . Roosevelt had been told that the area was actually extinct in terms of eruptive activity . Despite assurance from Native Americans in the area that the mountain was indeed active , settlers continued to think that Lassen Peak was extinct and " dead " and so continued to settle nearby . The natives continued to declare that " one day the mountain would blow itself to pieces " . In May 1914 , almost exactly seven years later , the volcano began a large explosive eruption sequence . More than a hundred eruptions of varying size took place over the next seven years , attracting national interest and the designation of national park in 1916 .
= = Geography and geology = =
The state of California is located on the Pacific Ring of Fire , an area of highly active tectonic activity that includes seismicity and volcanism . Tehama and the other volcanoes near Lassen Peak were produced by subduction of the oceanic Pacific Plate under the North American Plate .
Mount Tehama originated in the Lassen volcanic complex , an area of active volcanism for more than three million years . It formed during a period of eruptive activity approximately 600 @,@ 000 years ago on a series of faults ; the largest of these eruptions was about 50 times as powerful as the 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens . During the Pleistocene , constantly renewed lava of andesite flowed from the caldera of the volcano , eventually becoming " interbedded " and heightening the mountain . By the time it reached its peak size , the volcano was immense , measuring at its base between 11 miles ( 18 km ) and 15 miles ( 24 km ) wide and more than 11 @,@ 000 feet ( 3 @,@ 353 m ) tall . Activity at Tehama lasted for approximately 200 @,@ 000 years . Eruptions varied from ejection of pyroclastic material to andesitic lava flows built of olivine and other minerals .
Soon after the formation of Tehama , other , smaller volcanoes began to form . Shield volcanoes like Raker Peak , Red Mountain , Prospect Peak , and Mount Harkness appeared . At this point , the Pleistocene was coming to an end . One additional and final vent formed on the northeastern flank of the volcano , erupting glassy dacitic flows . Over time , the volcano became dilapidated from extensive erosion and " hydrothermal activity " , and collapsed . Prior leaking of dacite dried , forming smaller landforms like Mount Conard and Diamond Peak . The result of this huge collapse was a caldera 2 miles ( 3 km ) in diameter . Later activity built more than thirty other cones known as the Lassen Domes . Today the most active volcano in the area is Lassen Peak . Other smaller craters younger than 50 @,@ 000 years are also active .
Tehama 's remains sit under Mount Lassen in Shasta County , California . Sulphur Works , an area known for its sharp , putrid scent , is thought to be the center of the old caldera . It is located by Diamond Point , the conduit for magmas in Tehama .
After Tehama disappeared , local volcanism became more silicic , moving to Lassen Peak 's northern flank . The last 400 @,@ 000 years have seen at least three known flows , parts of which are still on Raker Peak and Mount Conard . A subsequent explosive eruption ejected 12 cubic miles ( 50 km3 ) of material and created a large crater , which was soon covered by lava . Twelve lava domes were built throughout the area and the next period of eruptive activity began . Spanning 50 @,@ 000 years it ejected 3 @.@ 5 cubic miles ( 15 km3 ) to 6 cubic miles ( 25 km3 ) of material and was followed by a third period . At least twelve periods of activity have taken place since Tehama formed , consisting of activity including pyroclastic flows , pasty lavas , and additional lava domes . Among the vents built by this activity include Lassen Peak .
= = Flora and fauna = =
Near the trailhead at lower elevations , alder thickets are present , as well as incense cedar , red firs , and western white pine . At higher elevations , groups of mountain hemlock and lupines prevail . Eagles and hawks can be frequently noted on high crags , and squirrels and pika live about the mountain .
= = Recreation = =
Hiking is especially popular on the mountain during summer . The mountain trail lasts between four and six hours , spans 7 @.@ 4 miles ( 12 km ) , and offers " exceptional " views of Mount Diller , Lassen Peak , Chaos Crags , and Mount Conard .
Due to the characteristically intermittent eruptions of active volcanoes such as Lassen Peak , there is some threat from the volcanoes of the LVNP . Dacitic explosive eruptions have taken place within the last 50 @,@ 000 years at Lassen Peak , Chaos Crags , and Sunflower Flat , and effusive eruptions of basalt have occurred at Tumble Buttes , Hat Mountain , and Prospect Peak . Pyroclastic flows and lahars could easily occur near glaciated areas and in river valleys like Hat Creek Valley . In addition to the volcanic hazards that could possibly occur , one volcano did erupt in the 20th century in LVNP : ( Lassen Peak ) . Lassen 's eruptions ( 1914 @-@ 21 , though most activity occurred between 1914 @-@ 17 ) were very small compared to the 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens .
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= Hel ( being ) =
In Norse mythology , Hel is a being who presides over a realm of the same name , where she receives a portion of the dead . Hel is attested in the Poetic Edda , compiled in the 13th century from earlier traditional sources , and the Prose Edda , written in the 13th century by Snorri Sturluson . In addition , she is mentioned in poems recorded in Heimskringla and Egils saga that date from the 9th and 10th centuries , respectively . An episode in the Latin work Gesta Danorum , written in the 12th century by Saxo Grammaticus , is generally considered to refer to Hel , and Hel may appear on various Migration Period bracteates .
In the Poetic Edda , Prose Edda , and Heimskringla , Hel is referred to as a daughter of Loki , and to " go to Hel " is to die . In the Prose Edda book Gylfaginning , Hel is described as having been appointed by the god Odin as ruler of a realm of the same name , located in Niflheim . In the same source , her appearance is described as half blue and half flesh @-@ coloured and further as having a gloomy , downcast appearance . The Prose Edda details that Hel rules over vast mansions with many servants in her underworld realm and plays a key role in the attempted resurrection of the god Baldr .
Scholarly theories have been proposed about Hel 's potential connections to figures appearing in the 11th @-@ century Old English Gospel of Nicodemus and Old Norse Bartholomeus saga postola , that she may have been considered a goddess with potential Indo @-@ European parallels in Bhavani , Kali , and Mahakali or that Hel may have become a being only as a late personification of the location of the same name .
= = Attestations = =
= = = Poetic Edda = = =
The Poetic Edda , compiled in the 13th century from earlier traditional sources , features various poems that mention Hel . In the Poetic Edda poem Völuspá , Hel 's realm is referred to as the " Halls of Hel . " In stanza 31 of Grímnismál , Hel is listed as living beneath one of three roots growing from the world tree Yggdrasil . In Fáfnismál , the hero Sigurd stands before the mortally wounded body of the dragon Fáfnir , and states that Fáfnir lies in pieces , where " Hel can take " him . In Atlamál , the phrases " Hel has half of us " and " sent off to Hel " are used in reference to death , though it could be a reference to the location and not the being , if not both . In stanza 4 of Baldrs draumar , Odin rides towards the " high hall of Hel . "
Hel may also be alluded to in Hamðismál . Death is periphrased as " joy of the troll @-@ woman " ( or " ogress " ) and ostensibly it is Hel being referred to as the troll @-@ woman or the ogre ( flagð ) , although it may otherwise be some unspecified dís . The Poetic Edda also mentions that travelers to Hel must pass by her guardian hound Garmr .
= = = Prose Edda = = =
Hel is referenced in the Prose Edda , written in the 13th century by Snorri Sturluson . In chapter 34 of the book Gylfaginning , Hel is listed by High as one of the three children of Loki and Angrboða ; the wolf Fenrir , the serpent Jörmungandr , and Hel . High continues that , once the gods found that these three children are being brought up in the land of Jötunheimr , and when the gods " traced prophecies that from these siblings great mischief and disaster would arise for them " then the gods expected a lot of trouble from the three children , partially due to the nature of the mother of the children , yet worse so due to the nature of their father .
High says that Odin sent the gods to gather the children and bring them to him . Upon their arrival , Odin threw Jörmungandr into " that deep sea that lies round all lands , " Odin threw Hel into Niflheim , and bestowed upon her authority over nine worlds , in that she must " administer board and lodging to those sent to her , and that is those who die of sickness or old age . " High details that in this realm Hel has " great Mansions " with extremely high walls and immense gates , a hall called Éljúðnir , a dish called " Hunger , " a knife called " Famine , " the servant Ganglati ( Old Norse " lazy walker " ) , the serving @-@ maid Ganglöt ( also " lazy walker " ) , the entrance threshold " Stumbling @-@ block , " the bed " Sick @-@ bed , " and the curtains " Gleaming @-@ bale . " High describes Hel as " half black and half flesh @-@ coloured , " adding that this makes her easily recognizable , and furthermore that Hel is " rather downcast and fierce @-@ looking . "
In chapter 49 , High describes the events surrounding the death of the god Baldr . The goddess Frigg asks who among the Æsir will earn " all her love and favour " by riding to Hel , the location , to try to find Baldr , and offer Hel herself a ransom . The god Hermóðr volunteers and sets off upon the eight @-@ legged horse Sleipnir to Hel . Hermóðr arrives in Hel 's hall , finds his brother Baldr there , and stays the night . The next morning , Hermóðr begs Hel to allow Baldr to ride home with him , and tells her about the great weeping the Æsir have done upon Baldr 's death . Hel says the love people have for Baldr that Hermóðr has claimed must be tested , stating :
" If all things in the world , alive or dead , weep for him , then he will be allowed to return to the Æsir . If anyone speaks against him or refuses to cry , then he will remain with Hel . "
Later in the chapter , after the female jötunn Þökk refuses to weep for the dead Baldr , she responds in verse , ending with " let Hel hold what she has . " In chapter 51 , High describes the events of Ragnarök , and details that when Loki arrives at the field Vígríðr " all of Hel 's people " will arrive with him .
In chapter 5 of the Prose Edda book Skáldskaparmál , Hel is mentioned in a kenning for Baldr ( " Hel 's companion " ) . In chapter 16 , " Hel 's [ ... ] relative or father " is given as a kenning for Loki . In chapter 50 , Hel is referenced ( " to join the company of the quite monstrous wolf 's sister " ) in the skaldic poem Ragnarsdrápa .
= = = Heimskringla = = =
In the Heimskringla book Ynglinga saga , written in the 13th century by Snorri Sturluson , Hel is referred to , though never by name . In chapter 17 , the king Dyggvi dies of sickness . A poem from the 9th century Ynglingatal that forms the basis of Ynglinga saga is then quoted that describes Hel 's taking of Dyggvi :
I doubt not
but Dyggvi 's corpse
Hel does hold
to whore with him ;
for Ulf 's sib
a scion of kings
by right should
caress in death :
to love lured
Loki 's sister
Yngvi 's heir
o 'er all Sweden .
In chapter 45 , a section from Ynglingatal is given which refers to Hel as " howes ' -warder " ( meaning " guardian of the graves " ) and as taking King Halfdan Hvitbeinn from life . In chapter 46 , King Eystein Halfdansson dies by being knocked overboard by a sail yard . A section from Ynglingatal follows , describing that Eystein " fared to " Hel ( referred to as " Býleistr 's @-@ brother 's @-@ daughter " ) . In chapter 47 , the deceased Eystein 's son King Halfdan dies of an illness , and the excerpt provided in the chapter describes his fate thereafter , a portion of which references Hel :
Loki 's child
from life summoned
to her thing
the third liege @-@ lord ,
when Halfdan
of Holtar farm
left the life
allotted to him .
In a stanza from Ynglingatal recorded in chapter 72 of the Heimskringla book Saga of Harald Sigurdsson , " given to Hel " is again used as a phrase to referring to death .
= = = Egils saga = = =
The Icelanders ' saga Egils saga contains the poem Sonatorrek . The saga attributes the poem to 10th century skald Egill Skallagrímsson , and writes that it was composed by Egill after the death of his son Gunnar . The final stanza of the poem contains a mention of Hel , though not by name :
Now my course is tough :
Death , close sister
of Odin 's enemy
stands on the ness :
with resolution
and without remorse
I will gladly
await my own .
= = = Gesta Danorum = = =
In the account of Baldr 's death in Saxo Grammaticus ' early 13th century work Gesta Danorum , the dying Baldr has a dream visitation from Proserpina ( here translated as " the goddess of death " ) :
The following night the goddess of death appeared to him in a dream standing at his side , and declared that in three days time she would clasp him in her arms . It was no idle vision , for after three days the acute pain of his injury brought his end .
Scholars have assumed that Saxo used Proserpina as a goddess equivalent to the Norse Hel .
= = Archaeological record = =
It has been suggested that several Migration Period imitation medallions and bracteates feature depictions of Hel . In particular the bracteates IK 14 and IK 124 depict a rider traveling down a slope and coming upon a female being holding a scepter or a staff . The downward slope may indicate that the rider is traveling towards the realm of the dead and the woman with the scepter may be a female ruler of that realm , corresponding to Hel .
Some B @-@ class bracteates showing three godly figures have been interpreted as depicting Baldr 's death , the best known of these is the Fakse bracteate . Two of the figures are understood to be Baldr and Odin while both Loki and Hel have been proposed as candidates for the third figure . If it is Hel she is presumably greeting the dying Baldr as he comes to her realm .
= = Theories = =
= = = Seo Hell = = =
The Old English Gospel of Nicodemus , preserved in two manuscripts from the 11th century , contains a female figure referred to as Seo hell who engages in flyting with Satan and tells him to leave her dwelling ( Old English ut of mynre onwununge ) . Regarding Seo Hell in the Old English Gospel of Nicodemus , Michael Bell states that " her vivid personification in a dramatically excellent scene suggests that her gender is more than grammatical , and invites comparison with the Old Norse underworld goddess Hel and the Frau Holle of German folklore , to say nothing of underworld goddesses in other cultures " yet adds that " the possibility that these genders are merely grammatical is strengthened by the fact that an Old Norse version of Nicodemus , possibly translated under English influence , personifies Hell in the neuter ( Old Norse þat helviti ) . "
= = = Bartholomeus saga postola = = =
The Old Norse Bartholomeus saga postola , an account of the life of Saint Bartholomew dating from the 13th century , mentions a " Queen Hel . " In the story , a devil is hiding within a pagan idol , and bound by Bartholomew 's spiritual powers to acknowledge himself and confess , the devil refers to Jesus as the one which " made war on Hel our queen " ( Old Norse heriaði a Hel drottning vara ) . " Queen Hel " is not mentioned elsewhere in the saga .
Michael Bell says that while Hel " might at first appear to be identical with the well @-@ known pagan goddess of the Norse underworld " as described in chapter 34 of Gylfaginning , " in the combined light of the Old English and Old Norse versions of Nicodemus she casts quite a different a shadow , " and that in Bartholomeus saga postola " she is clearly the queen of the Christian , not pagan , underworld . "
= = = Origins and development = = =
Jacob Grimm theorized that Hel ( whom he refers to here as Halja , the theorized Proto @-@ Germanic form of the term ) is essentially an " image of a greedy , unrestoring , female deity " and that " the higher we are allowed to penetrate into our antiquities , the less hellish and more godlike may Halja appear . Of this we have a particularly strong guarantee in her affinity to the Indian Bhavani , who travels about and bathes like Nerthus and Holda , but is likewise called Kali or Mahakali , the great black goddess . In the underworld she is supposed to sit in judgment on souls . This office , the similar name and the black hue [ ... ] make her exceedingly like Halja . And Halja is one of the oldest and commonest conceptions of our heathenism . "
Grimm theorizes that the Helhest , a three legged @-@ horse that roams the countryside " as a harbinger of plague and pestilence " in Danish folklore , was originally the steed of the goddess Hel , and that on this steed Hel roamed the land " picking up the dead that were her due . " In addition , Grimm says that a wagon was once ascribed to Hel , with which Hel made journeys . Grimm says that Hel is an example of a " half @-@ goddess ; " " one who cannot be shown to be either wife or daughter of a god , and who stands in a dependent relation to higher divinities " and that " half @-@ goddesses " stand higher than " half @-@ gods " in Germanic mythology .
Hilda Ellis Davidson ( 1948 ) states that Hel " as a goddess " in surviving sources seems to belong to a genre of literary personification , that the word hel is generally " used simply to signify death or the grave , " and that the word often appears as the equivalent to the English ' death , ' which Davidson states " naturally lends itself to personification by poets . " Davidson explains that " whether this personification has originally been based on a belief in a goddess of death called Hel is another question , " but that she does not believe that the surviving sources give any reason to believe so . Davidson adds that , on the other hand , various other examples of " certain supernatural women " connected with death are to be found in sources for Norse mythology , that they " seem to have been closely connected with the world of death , and were pictured as welcoming dead warriors , " and that the depiction of Hel " as a goddess " in Gylfaginning " might well owe something to these . "
In a later work ( 1998 ) , Davidson states that the description of Hel found in chapter 33 of Gylfaginning " hardly suggests a goddess . " Davidson adds that " yet this is not the impression given in the account of Hermod 's ride to Hel later in Gylfaginning ( 49 ) " and points out that here Hel " [ speaks ] with authority as ruler of the underworld " and that from her realm " gifts are sent back to Frigg and Fulla by Balder 's wife Nanna as from a friendly kingdom . " Davidson posits that Snorri may have " earlier turned the goddess of death into an allegorical figure , just as he made Hel , the underworld of shades , a place ' where wicked men go , ' like the Christian Hell ( Gylfaginning 3 ) . " Davidson continues that :
" On the other hand , a goddess of death who represents the horrors of slaughter and decay is something well known elsewhere ; the figure of Kali in India is an outstanding example . Like Snorri 's Hel , she is terrifying to in appearance , black or dark in colour , usually naked , adorned with severed heads or arms or the corpses of children , her lips smeared with blood . She haunts the battlefield or cremation ground and squats on corpses . Yet for all this she is ' the recipient of ardent devotion from countless devotees who approach her as their mother ' [ ... ] .
Davidson further compares to early attestations of the Irish goddesses Badb ( Davidson points to the description of Badb from The Destruction of Da Choca 's Hostel where Badb is wearing a dusky mantle , has a large mouth , is dark in color , and has gray hair falling over her shoulders , or , alternatively , " as a red figure on the edge of the ford , washing the chariot of a king doomed to die " ) and The Morrígan . Davidson concludes that , in these examples , " here we have the fierce destructive side of death , with a strong emphasis on its physical horrors , so perhaps we should not assume that the gruesome figure of Hel is wholly Snorri 's literary invention . "
John Lindow states that most details about Hel , as a figure , are not found outside of Snorri 's writing in Gylfaginning , and says that when older skaldic poetry " says that people are ' in ' rather than ' with ' Hel , we are clearly dealing with a place rather than a person , and this is assumed to be the older conception , " that the noun and place Hel likely originally simply meant " grave , " and that " the personification came later . " Rudolf Simek theorizes that the figure of Hel is " probably a very late personification of the underworld Hel , " and says that " the first scriptures using the goddess Hel are found at the end of the 10th and in the 11th centuries . " Simek states that the allegorical description of Hel 's house in Gylfaginning " clearly stands in the Christian tradition , " and that " on the whole nothing speaks in favour of there being a belief in Hel in pre @-@ Christian times . " However , Simek also cites Hel as possibly appearing as one of three figures appearing together on Migration Period B @-@ bracteates .
= = Modern influences = =
In the Fate of the Norns table @-@ top role @-@ playing @-@ game , Hel is a major character in the afterlife meta @-@ plot .
Hel appears in the MOBA Smite ( video game ) as a mage .
In the webcomic The Order of the Stick , Hel is an antagonist who seeks to destroy the world as part of an elaborate plot to become more powerful than the rest of her pantheon .
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= Wilfrid Kent Hughes =
Sir Wilfrid Selwyn Kent Hughes KBE , MVO , MC ( 12 June 1895 – 31 July 1970 ) was an Australian soldier , Olympian and Olympic Games organiser , author and federal and state government minister .
Kent Hughes was born in Melbourne to an upper middle @-@ class family . He was set to attend the University of Oxford on a Rhodes Scholarship when he enlisted in the army on the outbreak of World War I. After his discharge from the army , Kent Hughes attended Oxford and represented Australia in athletics as a hurdler at the 1920 Summer Olympics in Antwerp . Upon the completion of his degree at Oxford , Kent Hughes returned to Australia , seeking a career in politics . Elected to the Victorian state parliament in 1927 , Kent Hughes sat with the conservative Nationalist Party of Australia , rising to the position of Deputy Premier of Victoria . Kent Hughes proved to be a controversial figure in politics , and was never afraid to publicly espouse his personal beliefs , such as an admiration for fascism , of which he had a poor understanding .
Kent Hughes re @-@ enlisted in the army at the outbreak of World War II and , while stationed in Singapore , was captured by the Japanese . He spent four years as a prisoner of war before his liberation by the Red Army in 1945 . Kent Hughes returned to Victorian state politics until switching to federal politics in 1949 .
He was appointed a Minister in the federal government led by Robert Menzies but complained his responsibilities were trifling . More interesting to him was the chairmanship of the 1956 Summer Olympics Organising Committee , where he showed he was willing to break longstanding Olympic conventions in order to modernise the Games . His role in the organisation of the Melbourne Olympics has led sporting historians to refer to Kent Hughes as " one of the most important figures in Olympic History " . Following the Olympics Kent Hughes was dropped from his ministerial posts and spent the remainder of his time in parliament on the backbenches , gaining a reputation as the most ardent anticommunist in parliament . He died aged 75 in 1970 , still a member of federal parliament .
= = History = =
= = = Early life = = =
The second child of seven of English orthopaedic surgeon and publisher Wilfred Kent Hughes and his wife Clementina ( née Rankin ) , Kent Hughes was born in East Melbourne and educated at Trinity Grammar and Melbourne Grammar . He was accepted at Christ Church , Oxford as a Rhodes Scholar in 1914 ( although he did not commence study at Oxford until 1919 due to his war service ) . The family name was Hughes , and young Wilfrid was usually called Bill or Billy . Later , to avoid confusion with fellow politician Billy Hughes , he adopted one of his middle names , Kent , as part of his surname . It is not known why he spelled his given name " Wilfrid " while his father spelled it " Wilfred . "
A number of Kent Hughes 's relatives also gained national recognition in their chosen fields . Uncle Canon Ernest Hughes was an influential member of the Church of England in Australia and leading Australian rules footballer with St Kilda and Essendon and uncle Frederic Hughes was a Brigadier @-@ General , mayor of St Kilda and Aide @-@ de @-@ camp to the Governor @-@ General , the Earl of Dudley . Aunt Eva Hughes OBE founded the Australian Women 's National League , the then largest body of organised women in the country , while his sisters Dr Ellen Kent Hughes MBE was a leading paediatrician and community activist and Gwendoline Kent Lloyd , who Wilfrid referred to as " the family Communist " , was a renowned proponent of Indigenous rights .
= = = World War I = = =
Kent Hughes enlisted in the Australian Imperial Force as a private on 8 August 1914 . He served in the 3rd Light Horse Brigade at Gallipoli , where he was wounded , then Sinai , Palestine and Syria . Kent Hughes , who reached the rank of major , was mentioned in despatches four times , received the Military Cross in 1917 for his " marked ability and energy in the performance of his duties " , and appointed Deputy Adjutant and Quartermaster General of the Australian Mounted Division . Upon his return to Australia in 1918 he published a volume of memoirs , Modern Crusaders , about his exploits in the Light Horse Brigade .
= = = University and 1920 Olympics = = =
At war 's end , Kent Hughes entered Christ Church , Oxford as a Rhodes Scholar , gaining a Bachelor of Arts with Honours in Modern History . He also captained the Oxford ski team and showed a proficiency for athletics , such that Kent Hughes was chosen to represent Australia in the 110 and 400 metre hurdles at the 1920 Summer Olympics . He finished fourth in his heat of the 110 metre hurdles and failed to progress but won his 400 @-@ metre heat before finishing fifth in the semi final . Kent Hughes did not return to England empty handed , as he later admitted to souveniring an official Olympic flag from the Olympic stadium .
In 1921 , Kent Hughes was part of the Oxford Ski Team visit to Europe , during which he became the first Australian to ski competitively overseas .
Following his graduation from Oxford , Kent Hughes married Edith Kerr , a wealthy American heiress to a thread manufacturing empire , on 3 February 1923 in Montclair , New Jersey and returned to Melbourne to work as a director in his father 's publishing company Ramsay Publishing Pty Ltd while sizing up a career in politics .
= = Political life = =
In 1926 Kent Hughes unsuccessfully sought Nationalist Party of Australia preselection for the newly created seat of Kew in the Victorian Legislative Assembly before winning the seat as an Independent candidate at the 1927 election , after which he joined the Nationalists . Kent Hughes soon found himself opposed to the conservative establishment and what he considered the mediocrity of Victorian politics . He openly referred to a number of his fellow Nationalists as " boneheads " and opposition Australian Labor Party members as " uncouth , semi @-@ educated ill @-@ mannered narrow @-@ minded boors " . Kent Hughes , along with his close friend and ally Robert Menzies , founded the Young Nationalists Organisation in 1929 , which became an influential force in conservative politics in Victoria .
When the Nationalists came into power in December 1928 , Kent Hughes was appointed Cabinet Secretary and Government Whip but resigned his positions in July 1929 , ostensibly in protest over a government subsidy to a freezing works company but more likely in reaction to the ongoing boneheadedness of his fellow parliamentarians .
Following the formation of the United Australia Party ( UAP ) in place of the Nationalists in 1931 , Kent Hughes served in several portfolios , including Railways , Labour , Transport and Sustenance . It was as Minister for Sustenance , a portfolio designed to deal with the poverty of the Great Depression , that he became known as the " Minister for Starvation " . Kent Hughes drafted legislation that became the Unemployment Relief ( Administration ) Bill , which when enacted in January 1933 , forced the unemployed to work for the dole and denied any form of financial assistance to women . Kent Hughes 's bill has been described as the harshest piece of legislation in Australia directed towards the unemployed during the Depression .
In January 1933 Kent Hughes became embroiled in cricket 's Bodyline affair . A friend of English captain Douglas Jardine from their Oxford days , Kent Hughes publicly defended Jardine 's tactics of sustained short pitched bowling against the Australian batsmen , arguing that Australia used similar tactics against England during the 1921 Ashes tour . He also criticised the protests of Australian cricket 's governing body , the Australian Cricket Board of Control towards Jardine , stating they were " boorish , bitter ( and ) insulting " .
While he was attacking the Cricket Board of Control , Kent Hughes was simultaneously organising the Australian tour of the Duke of Gloucester , and for his efforts was appointed a Member of the Royal Victorian Order in 1934 . In 1938 he was manager of the Australian team at the Empire Games held in Sydney .
= = = " Why I Have Become a Fascist " = = =
During the late 1920s and 1930s Kent Hughes developed a strong sympathy for fascism , encouraged in part by his uncle Ernest , who visited Italy in 1926 and published an enthusiastic report on Mussolini 's Italy in a local newspaper on his return . Kent Hughes was also impressed by Sir Oswald Mosley 's proposal for a British parliament consisting of business and national interests and headed by a powerful executive government . In 1933 he published a series of articles in the Melbourne Herald , titled " Why I Have Become a Fascist . " In one article he wrote that fascism " endeavours to avoid the egotistical attitude of laissez faire and the inertia of socialism . " Kent Hughes saw it as " a half @-@ way house between the two systems . " In fascist countries , he said , " industrial peace and security have been found to be worth the price of sacrificing some of the individual liberty previously enjoyed . " In what he called " British communities , " however , he expected that fascism would " be garbed not in the dictatorial black shirt , but in the more sedate style of the British Parliamentary representative . "
Kent Hughes was unique among prominent Australians in publicly identifying as a fascist , although he never joined a fascist organisation or acted overtly in a way that could be described as fascist and there is no evidence to suggest he was an anti @-@ semite . His biographer Frederick Howard maintains that Kent Hughes did not know much about fascism and used the word mainly for its shock value . " Kent Hughes does not seem to have paid enough attention to the difference between theory and practice in Mussolini 's Italy , " he observes .
Kent Hughes 's public support of fascism failed to damage his political career , as he was elected Victorian Deputy Leader of the UAP in 1935 , serving until his enlistment in the army in 1939 .
= = = World War II = = =
In 1939 , without resigning from Parliament , Kent Hughes rejoined the Army , becoming a colonel in the 8th Division . He served in the Malaya campaign of 1942 , where he was again mentioned in despatches . Kent Hughes was taken prisoner by the Japanese in Singapore and was kept in the Changi Prisoner Of War camp , where he was beaten and half @-@ starved . In 1943 he was shipped as a slave labourer to Taiwan . In October 1944 he was shipped to Japan and on to Korea , and then sent by rail to Mukden in Manchuria , where prisoners of war were put to work in arms factories . In August 1945 Kent Hughes was liberated by the invading Red Army and returned to Australia with an amoebic complaint that would continue to bother him . While imprisoned , Kent Hughes secretly wrote what became Slaves of the Samurai , a colourful account of his wartime experiences , published in 1946 . He also took up the case of Australian General Gordon Bennett , who was accused of cowardice and desertion after leaving Singapore without authorisation shortly before the city surrendered to the Japanese . Kent Hughes appeared before the Royal Commission into Bennett 's case , and argued that Bennett was correct to avoid being taken prisoner and return to Australia to continue the fight .
Appointed an Officer of the Order of the British Empire in 1947 for his wartime service , Kent Hughes was very popular with the ex @-@ service community , appearing in the ANZAC Day march in April each year on horseback , in his World War I uniform , and campaigning for improved benefits for ex @-@ servicemen , particularly ex @-@ prisoners of war .
= = = Post @-@ war politics = = =
Kent Hughes returned to politics and followed most of the UAP into the newly created Liberal Party . He served as Deputy Premier , Minister for Transport and Minister for Public Instruction from 1947 to 1949 , as well as Chief Secretary and Minister for Electrical Undertakings in 1948 .
In 1949 , Kent Hughes decided to transfer to federal politics . The bulk of his state electorate was within the comfortably safe Liberal federal seat of Kooyong , but that was held by his old colleague Menzies , now the federal leader of the Liberal Party . Instead , Kent Hughes opted to stand in Chisholm , a newly created seat in south @-@ east Melbourne that was just as safe as Kooyong . Duly elected , he was appointed Minister for the Interior and Minister for Works and Housing ( Minister for Works from June 1952 ) under Menzies . Kent Hughes complained that he was left in charge of only trifling issues .
= = = 1956 Olympics = = =
Following the successful bid by Melbourne to host the 1956 Summer Olympics , problems had beset the organising of the Games to the extent that International Olympic Committee President Avery Brundage threatened to award the Games to another city . In response , the Melbourne Organising Committee approached Kent Hughes in 1951 to be its chairman , believing his public stature , Olympian background and experience in administration would be great assets .
Kent Hughes took to the Chairman role with gusto , although his relationship with Brundage was never cordial . During a visit to Melbourne in 1955 to inspect the preparations , Brundage was less than impressed with the progress achieved under Kent Hughes 's chairmanship and condemned Kent Hughes 's apparent lack of concern at the looming deadline for the Games . Not one to take criticism lightly , Kent Hughes was quoted as saying that he had enough to worry about without having " Chicago blow @-@ ins come out here and blow their tops over nothing in particular and annoy everyone in general . "
Kent Hughes broke Olympic tradition in two significant ways . He decided to charge for television and newsreel footage of the Games where previously footage was provided free of charge . Secondly , following a suggestion from John Ian Wing , a 17 @-@ year @-@ old apprentice carpenter from Melbourne , Kent Hughes instigated the now familiar closing ceremony tradition of the athletes of different nations parading together , instead of with their national teams , as a symbol of world unity . Kent Hughes 's plan to charge for television and newsreel footage of the Games was strongly opposed in many circles , including the media , who believed that the Games were news and as such should be free , while Australian government authorities thought that providing free television coverage of the Games would lead to greater tourism opportunities . Brundage made no public comment on television rights for the Games but grasped the financial possibilities of charging for rights , devising a television rights fees policy following the Games , whereby television stations were forced to negotiate for televised rights for all future Games . This policy is believed to have netted the IOC over $ 12 billion since its inception at the 1960 Summer Olympics .
In recognition of his work successfully organising the Games Kent Hughes was made a Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire in 1957 . An award presented by the Victorian Olympic Council to the athlete it considers to have given the most outstanding performance at a Games is named in his honour and Kent Hughes 's significance to the modern Olympic movement is such that it has been suggested that an oil portrait of Kent Hughes be commissioned and placed in the Olympic Museum in Lausanne .
= = = Political decline = = =
Menzies dropped Kent Hughes from cabinet in 1956 , ostensibly because Menzies opposed some of his housing plans for Canberra . However , it was more likely due to Kent Hughes 's continued public comments on foreign affairs and defence matters , in which he took an independent line favouring a policy even more anti @-@ Communist than that of Menzies , higher defence spending and the reintroduction of conscription . Widely renowned as the parliamentary figure most knowledgeable in Asian affairs , Kent Hughes was a leading member of the " Taiwan lobby " in the Liberal Party , which sought to maintain the recognition of Taiwan as the official representative of China , and met several times with Chiang Kai @-@ shek . Following the unexpected death of Prime Minister Harold Holt in 1967 , Kent Hughes was one of a number of Liberal politicians who expressed support for Country Party leader ( and acting Prime Minister ) John McEwen remaining Prime Minister ahead of any of his fellow Liberal Party parliamentarians . As it turned out , Liberal Party member John Gorton was selected as the new Liberal Parliamentary leader and Prime Minister .
He remained very popular in his electorate , and served in Parliament until his death in 1970 . Survived by his wife and three daughters , Kent Hughes was accorded a State Funeral . The Times obituary highlighted his war service and Olympian status , referring to him as " one of the more colourful Australian parliamentarians " while sidestepping his earlier flirtation with fascism .
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