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= William L. Uanna =
William Lewis " Bud " Uanna ( May 13 , 1909 – December 22 , 1961 ) was a United States security expert , who gained prominence as a security officer with the Manhattan Project , which built the first atomic bomb during World War II .
Uanna was in charge of security at the project 's facility at Oak Ridge , Tennessee , and later at the 509th Composite Group , which dropped atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki .
After the war , he headed the Atomic Energy Commission ( AEC ) program to provide security clearances to its personnel , and developed the top @-@ secret Q clearance . He later served as chief of physical security at the State Departmen1 .
= = Education and military career = =
William Lewis Uanna was born in Medford , Massachusetts , on May 13 , 1909 , the son of Italian immigrants Anthony Uanna and Theresa née Ferullo . He attended Medford High School , and then Tufts College on an athletic scholarship , where he was a halfback on the college football team , and an intercollegiate wrestling champion , earning a degree in engineering . He soon returned to Tufts and got a M.A. in education .
Uanna worked for private companies as well as the US Army Corps of Engineers . As a civilian with the Corps of Engineers he was involved in the construction of Grenier Army Air Field in New Hampshire and Fort Devens in Massachusetts , where he later served as an Army Counter Intelligence agent during Word War II . Between 1938 and 1942 he attended Suffolk University , graduating with an L.L.B. He then passed the Massachusetts Bar examination and was admitted to practice before the Federal Bar . Between 1949 and 1954 he attended the American University in Washington , D.C.
Enlisting in the U.S. Army on May 28 , 1941 , Uanna was assigned to the Corps of Intelligence Police ( CIP ) , later renamed the Counter Intelligence Corps ( CIC ) . He attended the Officer Candidate School at Fort Belvoir , and in 1942 and was commissioned as a second lieutenant in the Army Corps of Engineers . He was assigned to the CIC as Director of Operations of I Service Command , responsible for five field offices and between 300 and 400 Special Agents , who dealt with subversion , espionage , plant security , sabotage , water front security and personnel investigations .
In February 1943 , Uanna was posted to X Corps , then based at Sherman , Texas , where hewas responsible for setting up the first intelligence units assigned to combat formations in the United States . With 112 officers and 35 agents he conducted investigations and evaluated the loyalty of individuals within X Corps and trained its troops in security procedures . In August 1943 , Uanna became an instructor at the CIC school in Chicago .
= = Manhattan Project security = =
Joining the Manhattan Project in late 1943 , Uanna was initially assigned to the New England area , where he looked after security at 150 organizations , including key contractors Stone & Webster , General Electric , Westinghouse and American Cyanamid , and universities such as Harvard , Brown , Yale and MIT . He was promoted to first lieutenant on July 25 , 1943 , captain on March 25 , 1944 , and ultimately major on June 25 , 1945 . In August 1944 , he was appointed Security Officer for the large town and industrial installation built by the US Government at Oak Ridge , Tennessee , to enrich uranium for an atomic bomb . As such , he oversaw the physical security of the site , and was responsible for the security clearance of over 50 @,@ 000 personnel . He supervised the activities of the town 's police , detectives and welfare bureau and provided security for the transport of fissile materials from Oak Ridge to the weapons laboratory at Los Alamos , New Mexico .
In February 1945 , Uanna assumed command of the 1st Technical Service Detachment , which was attached to the 509th Composite Group , the Army Air Force unit created to deliver the first atomic bomb . He became responsible for the security clearance of its personnel . Uanna arrived with orders from Lieutenant Colonel John Lansdale Jr . , the Manhattan Project 's head of security , and a briefcase containing dossiers on members of the 393d Bomb Squadron , the combat element of the 509th Composite Group . Uanna had particular concerns about Captain Claude Eatherly . The dossier indicated that Eatherly was a gambler , with an " emotional problem " . The commander of the 509th Composite Group , Lieutenant Colonel Paul W. Tibbets Jr . , opted to keep Eatherly , based on his piloting skills . Background checks on the 1st Ordnance Squadron revealed that it had several escaped convicts in its ranks . Uanna surmised that enlisting in the Army under false names was an easy way of escaping detection in wartime . Since skilled technicians were hard to find , Tibbets elected to keep them , threatening to send them to back to prison for any dereliction of duty or security breaches .
Uanna oversaw the movement of the 509th from its training base in Wendover Army Air Field , Utah to Tinian Island in the Western Pacific , travelling by air with the Project Alberta advance party of 34 in a Douglas C @-@ 54 Skymaster " Green Hornet " of the 320th Troop Carrier Squadron . In his book Project Alberta , Harlow Russ , a civilian scientist with Project Alberta who was part of the Fat man bomb assembly team , recounts that during the flight he asked Uanna why all the military people on the plane were armed , and Uanna informed him that while the islands that they were stopping at were held by US forces , they would be flying over or close to other islands that were still occupied by the Japanese . Because of the remote chance that they might be engaged by Japanese aircraft or anti @-@ aircraft guns , they flew over these islands at night .
On Tinian , Uanna was in charge of the physical security of its installations , and supervised the unloading and installation of its stores and equipment . At one point Russ left his shirt on the line over night , and it disappeared . He mentioned this to Uanna " who seemed to know everything " , and he told him that it had most likely been taken by one of the Japanese soldiers holding out in caves and tunnels on Tinian , who made periodic raids in search of food . Uanna thought that one was responsible for an outbreak of diarrhea in the 509th Composite Group . Security around the cookhouse was increased , and the outbreak did not recur .
Uanna also looked after security at other bases that might be used by the 509th in an emergency , such as Iwo Jima . He supervised the loading the loading of the Little Boy bomb into the Enola Gay , and during the bombing of Hiroshima on August 6 , 1945 , he was in charge of a communications center on Iwo Jima that relayed messages back to Tinian . He was thereforefore one of the first people to know that Hiroshima was the target , and that it had been attacked . After the subsequent unconditional surrender of Japan , he accompanied the Manhattan Project team sent to survey the damage , spending four weeks in Nagasaki .
= = Postwar career = =
Uanna returned to the United States in October 1945 , and was discharged from the Army in April 1946 . He returned to Boston , where he was admitted to the bar in 1946 , and practiced law and engineering , but was recalled to active duty in October 1946 to conduct an investigation into reports that servicemen had tried to sell pictures of the atomic bomb to The Baltimore Sun . These turned out to be pictures of the dummy bombs used for drop tests . In 1947 , he was chosen by the newly created Atomic Energy Commission ( AEC ) in Washington , D.C. to head its program to provide security clearances to its personnel , a requirement of the Atomic Energy Act of 1946 . At this time he developed the criteria for the AEC 's Q clearance . He married Bonnie Louise Leonard on August 29 , 1947 . They had a son , Stephen Lee .
In 1948 Uanna became second @-@ in @-@ command of an Armed Forces Special Weapons Project ( AFSWP ) construction program to build storage bases for atomic weapons . As the highest ranking civilian on the project he was responsible for over $ 100 million of works . The Federal Bureau of Investigation ( FBI ) sought to continue the relationship they had developed at the Atomic Energy Commission where internal FBI memos described Uanna as the " main source of confidential information within the AEC . "
From 1949 to 1951 , Uanna worked as an Intelligence Specialist at the newly established Central Intelligence Agency ( CIA ) , where he wrote the Office of Policy Coordination 's ( OPC ) briefing manual . The OPC was the covert action branch of the US intelligence community and at this time was overseen jointly by the State Department and the Department of Defense , rather than by the Director of Central Intelligence .
From 1951 to 1953 , Uanna was the special assistant to the Secretary of Commerce as Chief of the Facilities Protection Board , and was a staff member of the Industrial Evaluations Board . These boards were overseen by the Interdepartmental Committee on Internal Security ( ICIS ) and the National Security Resources Board ( NSRB ) . The NSRB was charged with developing security programs for industry and several were developed jointly with representatives from the power , transportation , explosives , petroleum , and communications industries . Since he was directly responsible to the Secretary of Commerce , after the Republican Administration took office in 1953 , Uanna found himself without a job .
After this , Uanna accepted a temporary assignment at the Department of State as Otto Otepka 's assistant . Otepka was in charge of State 's Evaluations Division . Amidst allegations from Senator Joseph McCarthy about the presence of Communist sympathizers in the Army and State Department , Uanna 's expertise in countering subversion won him the position . Using procedures he had developed at the AEC , Uanna wrote the Evaluators Handbook that would be used by State Department investigators to review the loyalty and " suitability " of employees in accordance with Executive Order 10450 and Executive Order 10501 .
In 1953 the State Department 's physical security was split between foreign and domestic branches . Uanna reorganized these into one group called the Division of Physical Security , consisting of four branches , and took over as its new chief . He then published the Protection of Dignitaries Manual and developed the handbook used at the training school for Marine Security Guards assigned to U. S. embassies , legations and consulates overseas . As Chief of the Division , Uanna was responsible for the security of all State 's personnel and facilities in the United States and abroad . He was responsible for the security for Queen Elizabeth II and Prince Phillip 's visit to the United States in 1957 .
Dulles became ill in late 1958 and was replaced by Christian Herter , after which Uanna was posted overseas to Addis Ababa , Ethiopia , as an administrative officer at the U.S. Embassy . He was also the State Department liaison with the U.S. Department of Defense . He returned to the United States briefly to handle Nikita Khrushchev 's state visit in 1959 .
While on assignment , Uanna died of a heart attack in the office of the Air Attache at the U.S. Embassy in Addis Ababa on December 22 , 1961 . He was buried in Arlington National Cemetery . He was survived by his wife Bonnie née Leonard , who died on October 25 , 1992 , and his son Steven Lee .
= = Film portrayals = =
Uanna was portrayed by James Whitmore in the 1952 motion picture Above and Beyond . Lawrence H. Suid noted that Whitmore 's Uanna " seems to be a fictional character , a cinematic creation who always seems to know the right answers , to do the right thing " . Whitmore wanted to meet Uanna , but was unable to do so . Uanna has also been portrayed by Stephen Macht in the 1980 TV movie Enola Gay : The Men , the Mission , the Atomic Bomb , and Minor Mustain in the 1995 Japanese / Canadian film Hiroshima .
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= 1998 Gator Bowl =
The 1998 Gator Bowl was a post @-@ season American college football bowl game between the Virginia Tech Hokies and the Tar Heels from the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill at Alltel Stadium in Jacksonville , Florida on January 1 , 1998 . The game was the final contest of the 1997 NCAA Division I @-@ A football season for both teams , the 53rd edition of the annual Gator Bowl game , and ended in a 42 @-@ 3 victory for North Carolina .
Virginia Tech was selected to play in the 1998 Gator Bowl as a reward for a 7 – 4 regular season . Facing the unranked Hokies were the No. 7 @-@ ranked North Carolina Tar Heels . The Heels had gone 10 – 1 during the regular season and were ranked seventh in the Associated Press poll heading into the game . North Carolina narrowly missed an at @-@ large selection to a higher @-@ prestige Bowl Alliance postseason game and was playing under new head coach Carl Torbush for the first time . Torbush had taken over for former head coach Mack Brown on December 8 after Brown announced that he was departing to take the position of head coach at Texas .
The game kicked off on January 1 , 1998 at Alltel Stadium in Jacksonville , Florida . From the opening kickoff , North Carolina dominated every aspect of the game . In the first quarter , the Tar Heels scored 16 unanswered points , including a defensive touchdown . North Carolina added six points in the second and third quarters before Tech scored its first points of the game — a 40 @-@ yard field goal by kicker Shayne Graham . The Tar Heels rounded out the game by scoring 14 points in the fourth quarter . The Tar Heels set school records for largest bowl game margin of victory , most points scored in a bowl game , and most touchdown passes in a bowl game . The eventual 42 – 3 loss was Virginia Tech 's largest bowl loss in school history .
Quarterbacks Chris Keldorf and Nick Sorensen were named the most valuable players of their respective teams , and each team saw multiple players selected in the 1998 NFL Draft , which followed the game .
= = Team selection = =
During the 1997 college football season , the Gator Bowl selection committee held contracts with both the Big East and Atlantic Coast Conferences . In exchange for guaranteeing to pay a total of $ 3 @.@ 2 million to the participating teams , the committee held the right to the second pick of bowl @-@ eligible teams from each conference . Each conference 's champion was awarded an automatic spot in a Bowl Alliance game , and it was expected that the Gator Bowl would select each conference 's second @-@ place team unless other circumstances arose .
Prior to the final week of the regular season , it appeared that circumstances might indeed throw that plan into confusion . North Carolina , the ACC 's second @-@ place team , had risen to No. 5 in the USA Today Coaches Poll and No. 7 in the Associated Press college football poll , and was considered to be a candidate for an at @-@ large Bowl Alliance selection . If North Carolina was selected for a higher @-@ tier bowl game , the door would be opened for Notre Dame to play in the 1998 Gator Bowl — a circumstance provided for if neither the first nor second @-@ place ACC team was available to play . In the end , however , ACC runner @-@ up North Carolina was bypassed by Bowl Alliance officials , leaving the team available for the Gator Bowl . Facing the Tar Heels were the Virginia Tech Hokies , second @-@ place finishers in the Big East Conference . Gator Bowl officials considered inviting Big East third @-@ place West Virginia due to its reputation for bringing large numbers of fans to bowl games , but decided against inviting the Mountaineers out of recognition that North Carolina and West Virginia played each other in the 1997 Gator Bowl .
= = = North Carolina = = =
The North Carolina Tar Heels began the 1997 college football season having gone 10 – 2 in 1996 , a year that ended with a 20 – 13 win over West Virginia in the 1997 Gator Bowl . Hopes were high for the Tar Heels heading into the 1997 season , with some writers and fans picking North Carolina to have a chance to compete for the national championship . The Tar Heels bore out those hopes in the first game of the season , beating Big Ten opponent Indiana , 23 – 6 .
North Carolina rose to No. 7 in the national college football polls , and the victory over Indiana was followed the next week by a 28 – 17 win over No. 17 Stanford University . The two season @-@ opening wins were followed by six more in succession . The Tar Heels beat Maryland , 40 – 14 , on September 20 , and Virginia on September 27 by a score of 48 – 20 . Prior to the win against Virginia , North Carolina rose from No. 7 to No. 5 in the polls , and remained at that level after the win . Texas Christian University fell 31 – 10 to the Tar Heels on October 4 , and Wake Forest lost to North Carolina , 30 – 12 , on October 11 . After a week of inactivity , in which the Tar Heels rose to No. 4 , North Carolina defeated in @-@ state rival NC State by a score of 20 – 7 , and after another week and a half , the Tar Heels beat Georgia Tech narrowly , 16 – 13 , in a Thursday night game .
In their ninth game of the season , the Tar Heels lost to No. 2 Florida State , 20 – 3 . The loss was the sole losing effort for the Tar Heels in the 1997 season , and came at the hands of the eventual Atlantic Coast champion Seminoles . During the game , the Tar Heels also lost their then @-@ starting quarterback , Oscar Davenport , to a broken ankle . North Carolina recovered from the loss to win its final two games : 17 – 10 against Clemson , and 50 – 14 over Duke . Despite having only one loss , the Tar Heels were denied a chance to participate in a Bowl Alliance game and instead accepted a bid to the 1998 Gator Bowl .
= = = Virginia Tech = = =
The Virginia Tech Hokies began the 1997 college football season having gone 10 – 2 the previous season , ending with a 41 – 21 loss to Nebraska in the 1996 Orange Bowl . The Hokies began the new season with hopes of repeating the success that saw the team reach consecutive Bowl Alliance games in the previous two seasons , but the loss of much of the starting lineup that led the Hokies in those years left some people 's skeptical about Tech 's chance to reach a third Bowl Alliance game .
In the Hokies ' first three games of the season , however , they answered their critics with wins . A season @-@ opening 59 – 19 win against Rutgers was followed by a 31 – 3 win over Syracuse and a 23 – 13 triumph against Temple . A 50 – 0 shutout win against Arkansas State University saw the Hokies elevated to the No. 14 position in the national college football polls . This , however , was followed by a 24 – 17 loss to Miami ( Ohio ) that dropped the Hokies to No. 23 . Tech rose again to No. 19 with a victory against Boston College . At No. 21 West Virginia , however , the Hokies lost , 30 – 17 .
The loss returned Tech to No. 23 in the polls . A recovery to No. 19 followed victories over the University of Alabama @-@ Birmingham and the University of Miami . In the final two games of the season , however , The Hokies lost to Pittsburgh , 30 – 23 , and Virginia , 34 – 20 . The dual losses dropped Tech out of the polls for the first time since the opening week of the season , and the Hokies prepared for the Gator Bowl after recording a 7 – 4 regular @-@ season record .
= = Pregame buildup = =
Pregame media coverage of the contest focused on North Carolina 's rejection by the Bowl Alliance , the Tar Heels ' new coach , and questions about whether a lightly regarded and unranked Virginia Tech team could compete with a top @-@ five North Carolina squad . This latter fact was reflected in the game 's point spread . On December 9 , shortly after the matchup was announced , spread bettors favored North Carolina to win by 12 points . Several sports commentators , including Lou Holtz and Craig James , said North Carolina deserved a more prestigious bowl game due to its high ranking . " The Alliance has not served its purpose , " Holtz said in an interview . " It 's politics as usual . " The game was the 27th meeting between the two teams , continuing a matchup that first started in 1895 . Despite that early beginning , the two teams hadn 't played each other since 1946 .
Tickets to the game sold quickly at first , but trailed off as the game approached . Virginia Tech sold 5 @,@ 000 tickets in the first three days after the Hokies were selected , but one week later , Tech managed to increase that total to just 8 @,@ 300 . In an effort to spur sales at the school , Virginia Tech athletic director Jim Weaver asked fans to buy tickets even if they did not plan on attending the game . The tickets could then be donated to charity . As an incentive for Gator Bowl officials to select Virginia Tech , the school agreed to sell 18 @,@ 000 tickets — more than the minimum 11 @,@ 500 North Carolina agreed to sell . When a shortfall resulted in Tech selling just 11 @,@ 000 tickets , the school was forced to purchase the remaining 7 @,@ 000 , costing Virginia Tech $ 245 @,@ 000 . At North Carolina , tickets sales were even slower , with about 6 @,@ 000 having been sold through the school two weeks after the matchup was announced . The Gator Bowl ticket office sold approximately 22 @,@ 000 tickets directly to fans in the same timeframe , and Gator Bowl officials predicted a crowd of between 50 @,@ 000 and 55 @,@ 000 people at the game .
Reduced ticket sales were a concern for Gator Bowl officials , who eyed an expiring television contract with NBC following the game . If attendance and viewership of the game 's broadcast were low , it could have a negative effect on negotiations for future contracts with NBC or its rival , CBS .
= = = Brown and Torbush = = =
Following the conclusion of the regular season and prior to North Carolina 's acceptance of the invitation to play in the Gator Bowl , Tar Heels head coach Mack Brown received an offer from the Texas Longhorns to become that school 's head coach . A day and a half after Texas extended the offer , Brown resigned his position as North Carolina 's head coach and accepted the Texas job . He replaced John Mackovic , who was fired three days earlier after finishing the season with a 4 – 7 record .
Immediately after Brown 's resignation , the question of his replacement and who would coach the team during the Gator Bowl arose . Brown offered to stay on to coach the team through the bowl game , but the proposal was met with hostility from some North Carolina players who felt betrayed by the coach 's resignation . School administrators ' first choice to replace Brown was then @-@ Georgia head coach Jim Donnan , who previously characterized the North Carolina head coaching position as his " dream job . " Donnan rejected the administrators ' offer , however , saying that he had a commitment to his then @-@ current players .
Following Donnan 's rejection of the North Carolina offer , several Tar Heel players approached North Carolina athletics director Dick Baddour , demanding that he hire Brown 's defensive coordinator , Carl Torbush , as the team 's new head coach . Torbush and UNC offensive coordinator Greg Davis were considered the two likeliest remaining candidates , but after Davis indicated his intention to follow Brown to Texas , UNC administrators acquiesced to the players ' demand and named Torbush as North Carolina 's new head football coach .
= = = Players ' brawl = = =
On the same day Mack Brown announced his acceptance of the Texas head coaching position , seven North Carolina football players allegedly assaulted a North Carolina student , severely injuring him . All seven were charged with offenses ranging from misdemeanor assault to simple assault . Among the players charged were defensive leader and All @-@ American linebacker Kivuusama Mays and two other starters on North Carolina 's defense . At the time , UNC policy dictated the immediate suspension of any player charged with a felony , and punishment for lesser charges to be decided on a case @-@ by @-@ case basis . After investigating the incident , North Carolina school officials cleared six of the seven accused players to participate in the Gator Bowl with judicial charges still pending . The seventh accused player , backup defensive tackle Ricco McCain , was suspended indefinitely from the team while legal action proceeded .
The North Carolina coaching staff and administration was criticized for allowing the accused players to participate in the game , with at least one critic saying the school only did so in order to better its chances to win the game . Following the game , three of the players — Varian Ballard , Greg Harris and Ricco McCain — were found guilty of simple assault . Two others were found not guilty and charges were dismissed against another . The seventh player , Kivuusama Mays , pleaded no contest to the charge .
= = = North Carolina offense = = =
On the field , North Carolina 's offense was led by quarterback Chris Keldorf . Keldorf was plagued by injuries during his college career , but still managed to set a North Carolina single @-@ game passing record when he threw for 415 yards against Texas Christian University . He replaced original starting quarterback Oscar Davenport , who broke his ankle midway through the regular season . Keldorf finished the season having completed 104 of 181 passes for 1 @,@ 448 yards , 12 touchdowns , and nine interceptions . With Keldorf and Davenport splitting command during the regular season , North Carolina averaged 27 @.@ 8 points and 379 yards per game .
The favorite passing target for Keldorf and Davenport was wide receiver Na Brown , who set a school record by catching 55 passes during the regular season . Overall , North Carolina 's offense averaged 262 passing yards per game during the season .
On the ground , North Carolina 's rushing game was led by running back Johnathan Linton , who finished the season with 1 @,@ 004 yards and 11 touchdowns . He was the 24th player in North Carolina history to rush for more than 1 @,@ 000 yards in a season and against Georgia Tech became the first Tar Heel in school history to rush for more than 100 yards and have more than 100 yards receiving in the same game . In a practice just before the game , however , Linton strained a ligament in his right knee , putting his presence at the game in doubt . Linton 's backup was Mike Geter , who played in 11 games this year and had 55 rushes for 245 yds and 5 receptions for 20yds . Geter was the team 's 2nd Leading Rusher behind Linton North Carolina fullback Deon Dyer , who rushed 25 times for 90 yards during the regular season , was not expected to play in the Gator Bowl due to a fractured fibula suffered in the Tar Heels ' 10th game of the season .
= = = Virginia Tech offense = = =
During the regular season , the Hokies averaged 29 @.@ 3 points per game and scored at least 21 points in 22 consecutive games — a streak dating to the 1995 season . Virginia Tech 's offense was led on the field by quarterback Al Clark , who passed for 1 @,@ 476 yards and 10 touchdowns . He also ran for 344 yards during the regular season . At the beginning of December , however , Clark underwent arthroscopic surgery on his left knee in order to repair damaged cartilage in the joint . Due to the long recovery time involved with the surgery , it was questioned if he would play in the Gator Bowl or if he would be able to play at full strength . Four days prior to the game , Clark 's presence at the game was put even more in doubt when he caught the flu and developed a 102 @-@ degree fever . Clark 's backup , redshirt freshman quarterback Nick Sorensen , completed 11 of his 21 pass attempts during the season for 140 yards and two touchdowns .
Also injured was Virginia Tech wide receiver Ricky Scales . Scales didn 't play for 10 weeks during the regular season because of surgery to an injured tendon . Despite playing in only four games during the season , he finished the regular season as the Hokies ' No. 5 receiver , catching 13 passes for 298 yards . Scales ' injury caused the Hokies to be ranked among the worst in the Big East in receiving yardage , averaging less than 180 yards per game through the air . As the game moved closer , however , Scales recovered from his injury and appeared near full strength .
Virginia Tech 's rushing offense , led by running back Ken Oxendine , led the Big East in rushing yards , averaging 215 @.@ 3 yards per game . Oxendine entered the Gator Bowl as the No. 5 rusher in Virginia Tech history to that point , and accumulated 904 rushing yards and 13 receptions during his final season as a Hokie . Oxendine was supported by fullback Marcus Parker , who ran for 363 yards and four touchdowns during the regular season . Parker also found success in the passing game , becoming Tech 's leading receiver for the season by catching 20 passes for 212 yards . He was the first Virginia Tech runner since 1969 to lead the team in receptions . Backing up Oxendine was running back Lamont Pegues , a transfer student from Clemson who accumulated 85 carries for 391 yards and five touchdowns . All three players were assisted by Virginia Tech 's offensive line , which was led by Gennaro DiNapoli . DiNapoli was named to the All @-@ ACC team , but was predicted to face a tough task in stopping North Carolina 's top @-@ ranked defense .
= = = North Carolina defense = = =
North Carolina 's defense was among the best in the country during the regular season , finishing the year ranked second in total defense ( 209 @.@ 3 yards per game ) and fifth in scoring defense ( 13 points per game ) . The Tar Heels also were ranked second in the country in terms of rushing yards , allowing an average of 77 @.@ 9 rushing yards per game during the regular season . Those statistics were due to the performance of three consensus first @-@ team All @-@ America defenders : defensive end Greg Ellis , linebacker Brian Simmons and cornerback Dré Bly . Ellis had 87 tackles during the season ( 18 for loss ) to lead the team in both categories . Another defender , linebacker Kivuusama Mays , was a third @-@ team All @-@ American . Simmons in particular felt confident enough to guarantee prior to the game that the Tar Heels would win if they held Virginia Tech to 20 points or less . No team had scored more than that total since the 1995 season .
Other North Carolina defensive players also performed well during the season . Defensive tackle Vonnie Holliday was named a first @-@ team All @-@ ACC selection after earning 64 tackles — 13 for loss . Fellow defensive tackle Russell Davis finished just behind Holliday in total tackles with 60 .
The Tar Heels faced a setback on defense when first @-@ team All @-@ ACC defensive back Robert Williams was involved in a car accident that injured his face , neck , and shoulder . Despite requiring more than 20 stitches , however , Williams recovered from his injuries to play in the game .
= = = Virginia Tech defense = = =
The Hokies ' defense , which appeared strong in the first games of the season , faltered in later games , allowing 129 points in its final five games . During the entire season , the Hokies allowed only 185 points . One of the stars of the Virginia Tech defense was defensive tackle Nat Williams , who had a team @-@ best 8 @.@ 5 tackles for loss amid 52 total tackles . Linebacker Steve Tate was the team 's leader in tackles , recording 104 . Former walk @-@ on defensive tackle Kerwin Hairston was fifth on the team in tackles ( 69 ) and tied for third in sacks ( 3 @.@ 5 ) and quarterback hurries ( eight ) . Starting linebacker Cory Bird was predicted to miss the game due to a knee injury .
Virginia Tech 's special teams squad was more highly regarded than its defense . Overall , Virginia Tech was 14th nationally in net punting and 37th in kickoff returns . Punter Jimmy Kibble was the No. 10 player in the country at his position , averaging 45 @.@ 1 yards per kick during the regular season . Because of Virginia Tech 's success at blocking kicks — the Hokies blocked seven during the season — North Carolina made a special effort to prepare for Virginia Tech 's kick blockers on special teams . Virginia Tech placekicker Shayne Graham set Big East single @-@ season records for field goals made ( 19 ) and points scored by kicking ( 92 ) during the season . He was 35 of 36 on extra points and 19 for 23 on field goals , but caught the flu prior to the Gator Bowl .
= = Game summary = =
The 53rd edition of the annual Gator Bowl game kicked off on January 1 , 1998 . An estimated 54 @,@ 116 fans were in attendance at the game , which was held in Jacksonville 's Alltel Stadium , since renamed Jacksonville Municipal Stadium . The game was televised on NBC , and an estimated 5 @.@ 1 million Americans watched the broadcast , giving the game a television rating of 3 @.@ 7 , 12th highest of the 21 bowl games that season . Charlie Jones , Bob Trumpy , John Dockery were the sportscasters of the broadcast . During the week prior to the game , the weather had been cold and rainy , with temperatures in the mid @-@ 40s and more than two inches of rain . At kickoff , the weather was clear , with temperatures near 55 degrees . North Carolina won the ceremonial pre @-@ game coin toss to determine first possession and elected to play defense to begin the game .
= = = First quarter = = =
The game 's opening kickoff was returned to the Virginia Tech 22 @-@ yard line , and the Hokies ran the first play of the game — a pass from quarterback Al Clark to fullback Marcus Parker . The play went for nine yards , but the Hokies needed two runs by running back Ken Oxendine to pick up the remaining yard and the first down . From the Tech 32 @-@ yard line , the Hokies earned one yard on two plays before Clark completed a seven @-@ yard pass to wide receiver Angelo Harrison . Still short of the first down , the Hokies were forced to punt . The ball rolled out of bounds at the North Carolina 19 @-@ yard line , and with 12 : 16 remaining in the first quarter , North Carolina prepared for its first possession of the game .
On the Tar Heels ' first play of the game , running back Jonathan Linton ran up the middle for a three @-@ yard gain . After the gain , Carolina quarterback Chris Keldorf completed a 31 @-@ yard pass to tight end Alge Crumpler for a first down at the Virginia Tech 47 @-@ yard line . Now inside Virginia Tech territory , Linton ran for a five @-@ yard gain , which was followed by a pass from Keldorf to Linton , who gained 26 yards on the play . Following the catch , North Carolina had a first down at the Virginia Tech 16 @-@ yard line . Linton left the field limping slightly , and backup running Mike Geter replaced him , then ran for four yards up the middle . Geter was stopped for no gain on the next play , and a third down pass by Keldorf fell incomplete . North Carolina kicker Josh McGee entered the game to attempt a 29 @-@ yard field goal , which was good . With 9 : 15 remaining in the quarter , North Carolina took a 3 – 0 lead .
North Carolina 's post @-@ score kickoff was returned to the Virginia Tech 25 @-@ yard line , and the Hokies prepared for their second possession of the game . Parker was stopped for no gain on a run attempt , and another attempt on the next play was stopped for a loss of a yard . Facing third down , Clark attempted to scramble for the first down , but was stopped after a gain of six yards . Having gone three and out , the Hokies punted again . The kick was downed at the 36 @-@ yard line , and North Carolina 's offense returned for its second possession of the game . On the first play of the drive , Linton gained two yards on a run up the middle of the field . On the next play , Keldorf completed a 62 @-@ yard pass to Octavus Barnes , who had broken free of the Virginia Tech defense . Barnes sprinted into the end zone for a touchdown , and after the extra point kick , North Carolina led 10 – 0 with 6 : 07 remaining in the quarter .
Following the kickoff by North Carolina and a short return , Virginia Tech took over at its 26 @-@ yard line . On Tech 's first play , Clark completed a seven @-@ yard pass to Williams . Running back Lamont Pegues then was stopped for a one @-@ yard loss , and Clark 's third @-@ down pass attempt fell incomplete . After again going three and out , Tech punted . The kick was returned to the North Carolina 14 @-@ yard line , and the Tar Heels began their third possession of the game . The first play of the drive was a pass from Keldorf to Crumpler , who gained 10 yards and a first down . From the Tar Heels ' 24 @-@ yard line , Linton gained one yard on a short run , then Keldorf threw a 30 @-@ yard pass to wide receiver Na Brown . The play gave the Tar Heels a first down at the Tech 44 @-@ yard line , and Linton gained four yards with a running play on first down . Two incomplete passes later , North Carolina punted for the first time in the game . The ball rolled into the end zone for a touchback , and the Hokies ' offense started at the 20 @-@ yard line with 2 : 49 left in the quarter .
A one @-@ yard rush was followed by a pass to running back Ken Oxendine that lost three yards . Following the negative @-@ yardage play , North Carolina committed a five @-@ yard penalty that gave the Hokies a third down and seven . Despite the extra yardage provided by the penalty , Clark 's pass attempt on third down was incomplete and the Hokies again prepared to punt . During the kick , however , North Carolina defender Quinton Savage broke through the Virginia Tech offensive line and blocked the punt by Jimmy Kibble . Tar Heels ' defender Dre Bly picked up the loose ball and ran into the end zone for North Carolina 's second touchdown of the game . Following the play , North Carolina was penalized 15 yards for excessive celebration and the resulting 35 @-@ yard extra point kick was no good . Despite the missed kick , North Carolina extended its lead to 16 – 0 with 1 : 03 remaining in the first quarter .
Virginia Tech 's kick returner slipped during the subsequent kickoff , and the Hokies ' offense started at its 13 @-@ yard line . Oxendine gained three yards on the first play of the drive , then Clark was sacked for a nine @-@ yard loss . The sack was the final play of the first quarter , and North Carolina had a 16 – 0 lead with three quarters still to be played .
= = = Second quarter = = =
The second quarter began with Virginia Tech in possession of the ball and facing a long third down after a quarterback sack on the final play of the first quarter . On the first play of the quarter , Tech quarterback Al Clark was sacked by Brian Simmons , and this time he fumbled the ball . The loose ball was picked up in the end zone by Carolina defender Greg Ellis for the Tar Heels ' third touchdown of the game . Because North Carolina missed its extra @-@ point kick following its previous touchdown , Tar Heels ' head coach Carl Torbush ordered the team to attempt a two @-@ point conversion in order to gain the missed extra point from the previous play . A pass attempt by Keldorf fell incomplete , but with just seven seconds elapsed in the second quarter , North Carolina led 22 – 0 .
The Tar Heels ' kickoff was returned to the Hokies ' 24 @-@ yard line . Clark scrambled for one yard , then completed a five @-@ yard pass . Facing third down and four , Clark scrambled for a first down at the Tech 38 @-@ yard line . Following the first down , Parker gained two yards on a running play . Clark then completed a 10 @-@ yard pass to Parker , and the Hokies were aided by a 15 @-@ yard personal foul facemask penalty against North Carolina during the play . Following the pass and penalty , Tech entered North Carolina territory for the first time and had a first down at the Tar Heels ' 35 @-@ yard line . On the first play inside Carolina territory , Clark completed a 35 @-@ yard pass to Parker for an apparent touchdown , but the play was negated by a 15 @-@ yard penalty against Virginia Tech . From the 50 @-@ yard line , Pegues ran for four yards and Clark threw two incomplete passes , forcing a punt . The kick was downed at the Carolina 10 @-@ yard line , and the Tar Heels ' offense took over with 10 : 40 remaining before halftime .
Linton ran for nine yards , then picked up a first down with a five @-@ yard gain on second down . Keldorf completed a 12 @-@ yard pass to Barnes for a first down , Linton ran seven yards to the Carolina 43 @-@ yard line , then gained another first down with a run to the 50 @-@ yard line . From midfield , Keldorf attempted a deep pass on first down , but the ball fell incomplete . On second down , Keldorf completed a four @-@ yard pass to Linton but was sacked on third down by the Virginia Tech defense . The sack forced Carolina to punt for the second time in the game , and the ball rolled out of bounds at the Virginia Tech 11 @-@ yard line .
From that point , Pegues rushed for 13 yards on the first play of the drive , giving the Hokies a first down at their 24 @-@ yard line . Two more rushes by Pegues gained seven yards , then North Carolina committed a five @-@ yard offsides penalty , giving the Hokies a first down at the 36 @-@ yard line . Clark threw an incomplete pass , Pegues was tackled for no gain on a running play , then Tech committed a five @-@ yard delay of game penalty . On third down , Clark was sacked for a loss , and Tech punted . The kick was partially blocked , allowing North Carolina to return the ball to the 45 @-@ yard line of Virginia Tech . The Tar Heels thus began a drive inside Virginia Tech territory with 3 : 33 remaining in the first half .
The first play of the drive was a six @-@ yard run by Linton , and it was followed by an incomplete pass from Keldorf to Crumpler . Crumpler made up for the missed pass on the next play , when he caught a short pass for a first down from Keldorf . Now at the Hokies ' 31 , Linton ran straight ahead for a two @-@ yard gain . Linton 's run was followed by two incomplete passes by Keldorf , but rather than punt , the Tar Heels attempted to try to convert the fourth down . The fourth @-@ down pass fell incomplete , and the Tar Heels turned the ball over on downs at the Tech 30 @-@ yard line . Clark completed a six @-@ yard pass to Parker , then threw an incomplete pass downfield with less than a minute remaining on the clock . On third down , Clark completed a nine @-@ yard pass to Michael Stuewe for a first down . A first @-@ down pass attempt was batted down by the North Carolina defense , but on second down , Clark completed a pass to Stuewe for a first down at the Tar Heels 40 @-@ yard line . After a deep pass went incomplete , Clark was sacked and fumbled the ball for the second time in the first half . The loose ball was picked up by Vonnie Holliday with 13 seconds remaining , and the Tar Heels ' offense returned to the field . North Carolina tried a deep pass in an attempt to get into scoring position before the end of the half , but Keldorf was sacked and the Tar Heels kneeled on the football to end the half with a 22 – 0 lead .
= = = Third quarter = = =
Because Virginia Tech began the first half in possession of the football , North Carolina received the ball to begin the second half . The Hokies ' kickoff was returned to the 39 @-@ yard line , Virginia Tech committed a 15 @-@ yard personal foul penalty , and North Carolina began the first possession of the second half at the Virginia Tech 46 @-@ yard line . The first play of the half was a short run by Linton , and after two incomplete passes by Keldorf , the Tar Heels prepared to punt . Rather than kick , however , North Carolina faked a punt and had punter Brian Schmitz pass the ball to linebacker Brian Simmons , who normally played defense . Simmons gained 28 yards and a first down on the play , which allowed the Tar Heels to continue their drive . Now at the Hokies ' 13 @-@ yard line , North Carolina committed a five @-@ yard delay of game penalty . On the next play , Linton made up the lost yardage , gaining six yards and advancing the ball to the Tech 12 @-@ yard line . The running play was followed by a pass from Keldorf to Linton for an eight @-@ yard gain . Needing one yard to gain a first down , North Carolina was stopped on third down then attempted to convert the fourth down rather than kick a field goal . Keldorf ran the ball straight ahead and gained the needed yardage , gaining a first down at the three @-@ yard line . Two plays later , Linton ran across the goal line and into the end zone for the Tar Heels ' first touchdown of the second half . The extra point kick was partially blocked by the Virginia Tech defense and was no good , but the Tar Heels still extended their lead to 28 – 0 with 9 : 43 remaining in the quarter .
Virginia Tech returned North Carolina 's kickoff to their 22 @-@ yard line , and the Hokies began their first drive of the second half . Quarterbacking the Hokies was backup quarterback Nick Sorensen , who replaced starter Al Clark . On the drive 's first play , running back Ken Oxendine broke free of the North Carolina defense for a 36 @-@ yard gain and a first down at the North Carolina 42 @-@ yard line . Sorensen scrambled for a two @-@ yard gain , then completed a pass to wide receiver Shawn Scales at the 27 @-@ yard line for another first down . A run by Marcus Parker gained one yard , Sorensen was tackled for a two @-@ yard loss , then threw an incomplete pass . Facing fourth down and needing 11 yards , Tech coach Frank Beamer attempted to convert the fourth down rather than punt , and Sorensen scrambled for a first down at the 16 @-@ yard line . From there , Oxendine was stopped for a loss of five yards , Sorensen was sacked for a seven @-@ yard loss , and Sorensen completed a short pass to Parker . Beamer elected not to attempt to convert another fourth down and instead sent kicker Shayne Graham into the game to attempt a 40 @-@ yard field goal . The kick was good , and with 4 : 37 remaining in the quarter , Tech cut North Carolina 's lead to 28 – 3 .
The Hokie kickoff rolled into the end zone for a touchback , and North Carolina started its second drive of the half from its 20 @-@ yard line . The first play of the drive was a three @-@ yard run , and it was followed by a six @-@ yard pass from Keldorf to Linton . Needing a single yard for a first down , the Tar Heels rushed straight ahead and gained two yards and the first down at the 31 @-@ yard line . North Carolina continued to move the ball efficiently : Linton gained two yards on a rushing play , then Keldorf threw a short pass to Linton that gained 37 yards after Linton broke free of the Virginia Tech defense . The play resulted in a first down at the Virginia Tech 31 @-@ yard line . There , however , Keldorf was sacked for a three @-@ yard loss . After the sack , Keldorf completed a 21 @-@ yard pass to Crumpler for a first down at the 13 @-@ yard line . Keldorf then attempted to scramble for a gain , but was stopped for no gain . That play was the final one of the quarter , which ended with North Carolina still in possession of a firm lead , 28 – 3 .
= = = Fourth quarter = = =
The fourth quarter began with North Carolina in possession of the ball and facing a second down and 11 on the Tech 14 @-@ yard line . On the first play of the quarter , Keldorf completed a 14 @-@ yard pass to Barnes for a touchdown . The extra point was good , and the Tar Heels extended their lead to 35 – 3 with 14 : 55 remaining in the game . North Carolina 's kickoff was returned to the Tech 34 @-@ yard line , and the Hokies ' offense began the first full drive of the fourth quarter . Tech 's first play of the drive was a trick reverse to Scales , who gained 29 yards and a first down on the trick play . After an incomplete pass by Sorensen from the Carolina 37 @-@ yard line , Pegues rushed for four yards , then the Hokies were stopped for no gain on third down . Tech attempted to convert the fourth down , but Sorensen 's pass fell incomplete and Virginia Tech turned the ball over on downs with 12 : 39 remaining .
Following the turnover , the Tar Heels had a first down at their 32 @-@ yard line . Linton was stopped for no gain on a rushing play , passed for no gain , then completed a nine @-@ yard pass to Brown . Failing to gain the first down , the Tar Heels punted and the ball was returned to the 30 @-@ yard line . Oxendine gained two yards on a rush up the right side , then Sorensen ran for one yard on the left side of the field . On third down , Sorensen scrambled for a first down before fumbling the football . The loose ball was picked up by Tech lineman Derek Smith , and the Hokies ' drive continued . After a rush for no gain , another running play resulted in a Tech fumble , their second of the drive . Unlike the previous fumble , however , this one was recovered by North Carolina 's Russell Davis , and the Tar Heels offense was put into position for another scoring attempt .
After the turnover , North Carolina had a first down at the Tech 34 @-@ yard line . Keldorf threw an eight @-@ yard pass to Crumpler , North Carolina was stopped for a one @-@ yard loss on a running play , then the Tar Heels earned a first down with a four @-@ yard run by Geter . On first down , Keldorf threw an incomplete pass . Second down resulted in a 15 @-@ yard gain and a first down on a run by Geter along the left side of the field . Now at the Tech eight @-@ yard line , Geter ran straight ahead for a five @-@ yard gain . Geter was stopped for a two @-@ yard loss on the next play , but North Carolina recovered from the loss with a five @-@ yard pass from Keldorf to Carrick for a touchdown . The extra point kick was blocked , but a penalty against Virginia Tech allowed Carolina kicker Josh McGee another chance at the extra point . The second attempt was successful , and the kick gave the Tar Heels a 42 – 3 lead with 5 : 01 remaining in the game .
The Hokies returned North Carolina 's kickoff to the Tech 35 @-@ yard line , and the Hokies began their final possession of the game . Sorensen completed a four @-@ yard pass , then ran for 19 yards and a first down at the North Carolina 42 @-@ yard line . A shovel pass by Sorensen gained three yards , but he lost three yards on the next play and was sacked for a six @-@ yard loss on third down . A fourth @-@ down pass was batted down by the Carolina defense , and the Tar Heels ' offense returned to the field with 2 : 41 remaining in the game .
Backup quarterback Kevin Carty came onto the field for the Tar Heels , and handed the ball to Dominique Williams , who ran the ball twice for one yard . On third down , he broke free of the Virginia Tech defense and gained 20 yards and a first down at the Tech 33 @-@ yard line . Two more rushes gained three yards and ran the remaining time off the game clock . Time expired , and North Carolina won the 1998 Gator Bowl , 42 – 3 .
= = Statistical summary = =
In recognition of their performances during the game , North Carolina quarterback Chris Keldorf was named the most valuable player of the winning team , and Virginia Tech backup quarterback Nick Sorensen was named the most valuable player of the losing team . Keldorf finished the game having completed 12 of his 28 pass attempts for 290 yards . On the opposite side of the ball , Sorensen completed four of eight passes for 24 yards and carried the ball 10 times on the ground for a total of 19 yards . Al Clark , the quarterback whom Sorensen replaced , finished the game having completed nine of 17 pass attempts for 66 yards .
North Carolina 's receivers benefited from Keldorf 's passing proficiency . Octavus Barnes caught three passes for 89 yards and two touchdowns , while Alge Crumpler caught five passes for 77 yards . Virginia Tech 's leading receiver was Parker , who caught four passes for just 32 yards . On the ground , North Carolina 's Linton carried the ball 20 times for 68 yards and a touchdown . He also was the game 's second @-@ leading receiver in terms of yardage , catching six passes for 81 yards . The Tar Heels ' Geter was second on the team in rushing , accumulating 25 yards on seven carries . For Virginia Tech , running back Ken Oxendine led all Hokie rushers with 39 yards on 10 carries .
Barnes ' 62 @-@ yard touchdown reception from Keldorf was the sixth @-@ longest scoring play in Gator Bowl history at the time of the game .
= = Postgame effects = =
Virginia Tech 's loss dropped it to a final 1997 record of 7 – 5 , while North Carolina 's win raised it to a final record of 11 – 1 . The Tar Heels also rose in the final college football polls of the season , finishing in fourth place in the Coaches ' Poll and sixth in the Associated Press media poll . Virginia Tech 's defeat was its worst loss since a 45 – 0 shutout by Tulane in 1983 . Jacksonville businesses and hotels benefited from the influx of out @-@ of @-@ town guests . At least 25 @,@ 000 fans arrived from outside of the Jacksonville area , injecting an estimated $ 30 million extra into the city 's economy . Many fans praised the stadium , facilities , and attractions available for visitors . NBC 's television coverage of the game was not given as high marks , however , and at least one commentator called the broadcast " sloppy " and " routine " .
Though they were concerned by low attendance at the game , Gator Bowl officials were able to renegotiate a sponsorship agreement with Toyota Motor Company after the game 's previous contract expired following the game .
= = = Coaching changes = = =
Though North Carolina head coach Carl Torbush was confirmed in his position prior to the Gator Bowl , several assistant coaching positions were not filled at the school until after the game . On January 11 , Torbush hired then @-@ Texas A & M running backs coach Ken Rucker to fill the new position of special @-@ teams coach . To fill Torbush 's former job as offensive coordinator , he hired Texas A & M offensive coordinator Steve Marshall , who filled the position until 1999 .
= = = NFL Draft = = =
In the weeks following the game , several players from each team announced their intentions to enter the 1998 NFL Draft . North Carolina defender Dre Bly was among a handful of eligible players ( the National Football League requires a player to be at least three years out of high school ) who declined to enter the draft , instead choosing to return to school for another year . North Carolina had seven players taken in the draft , three of whom were selected in the first round : Greg Ellis was taken with the eighth pick , Brian Simmons with the 17th pick , and Vonnie Holliday with the 19th pick . The four remaining selections were Omar Brown ( 103rd overall ) , Kivuusama Mays ( 110th ) , Robert Williams ( 128th ) , and Jonathan Linton ( 131st ) . Virginia Tech had no players taken in the first round during the 1998 draft , but four players were taken in later rounds : Todd Washington ( 104th overall ) , Gennaro DiNapoli ( 109th ) , Ken Oxendine ( 201st ) , and Marcus Parker ( 202nd ) .
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= Don Bradman =
Sir Donald George " Don " Bradman , AC ( 27 August 1908 – 25 February 2001 ) , often referred to as " The Don " , was an Australian cricketer , widely acknowledged as the greatest batsman of all time . Bradman 's career Test batting average of 99 @.@ 94 is often cited as the greatest achievement by any sportsman in any major sport .
The story that the young Bradman practised alone with a cricket stump and a golf ball is part of Australian folklore . Bradman 's meteoric rise from bush cricket to the Australian Test team took just over two years . Before his 22nd birthday , he had set many records for top scoring , some of which still stand , and became Australia 's sporting idol at the height of the Great Depression .
During a 20 @-@ year playing career , Bradman consistently scored at a level that made him , in the words of former Australia captain Bill Woodfull , " worth three batsmen to Australia " . A controversial set of tactics , known as Bodyline , was specifically devised by the England team to curb his scoring . As a captain and administrator , Bradman was committed to attacking , entertaining cricket ; he drew spectators in record numbers . He hated the constant adulation , however , and it affected how he dealt with others . The focus of attention on his individual performances strained relationships with some team @-@ mates , administrators and journalists , who thought him aloof and wary . Following an enforced hiatus due to the Second World War , he made a dramatic comeback , captaining an Australian team known as " The Invincibles " on a record @-@ breaking unbeaten tour of England .
A complex , highly driven man , not given to close personal relationships , Bradman retained a pre @-@ eminent position in the game by acting as an administrator , selector and writer for three decades following his retirement . Even after he became reclusive in his declining years his opinion was highly sought , and his status as a national icon was still recognised — more than 50 years after his retirement as a Test player , in 2001 , Prime Minister John Howard of Australia called him the " greatest living Australian " . Bradman 's image has appeared on postage stamps and coins , and a museum dedicated to his life was opened while he was still living . On the centenary of his birth , 27 August 2008 , the Royal Australian Mint issued a $ 5 commemorative gold coin with Bradman 's image , and on 19 November 2009 , he was inducted into the ICC Cricket Hall of Fame .
= = Early years = =
Donald George Bradman was the youngest son of George and Emily ( née Whatman ) Bradman , and was born on 27 August 1908 at Cootamundra , New South Wales ( NSW ) . He had a brother , Victor , and three sisters — Islet , Lilian and Elizabeth May . One of his great @-@ grandfathers was one of the first Italians to migrate to Australia in 1826 . Bradman 's parents lived in the hamlet of Yeo Yeo , near Stockinbingal . His mother Emily gave birth to him at the Cootamundra home of Granny Scholz , a midwife . That house is now the Bradman Birthplace Museum . Emily had hailed from Mittagong in the NSW Southern Highlands , and in 1911 , when Don Bradman was about two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half years old , his parents decided to relocate to Bowral , close to Mittagong , to be closer to Emily 's family and friends , as life at Yeo Yeo was proving difficult .
Bradman practised batting incessantly during his youth . He invented his own solo cricket game , using a cricket stump for a bat , and a golf ball . A water tank , mounted on a curved brick stand , stood on a paved area behind the family home . When hit into the curved brick facing of the stand , the ball rebounded at high speed and varying angles — and Bradman would attempt to hit it again . This form of practice developed his timing and reactions to a high degree . In more formal cricket , he hit his first century at the age of 12 , with an undefeated 115 playing for Bowral Public School against Mittagong High School .
= = = Bush cricketer = = =
In 1920 – 21 , Bradman acted as scorer for the local Bowral team , captained by his uncle George Whatman . In October 1920 , he filled in when the team was one man short , scoring 37 not out and 29 not out on debut . During the season , Bradman 's father took him to the Sydney Cricket Ground ( SCG ) to watch the fifth Ashes Test match . On that day , Bradman formed an ambition . " I shall never be satisfied " , he told his father , " until I play on this ground " . Bradman left school in 1922 and went to work for a local real estate agent who encouraged his sporting pursuits by giving him time off when necessary . He gave up cricket in favour of tennis for two years , but resumed playing cricket in 1925 – 26 .
Bradman became a regular selection for the Bowral team ; several outstanding performances earned him the attention of the Sydney daily press . Competing on matting @-@ over @-@ concrete pitches , Bowral played other rural towns in the Berrima District competition . Against Wingello , a team that included the future Test bowler Bill O 'Reilly , Bradman made 234 . In the competition final against Moss Vale , which extended over five consecutive Saturdays , Bradman scored 320 not out . During the following Australian winter ( 1926 ) , an ageing Australian team lost The Ashes in England , and a number of Test players retired . The New South Wales Cricket Association began a hunt for new talent . Mindful of Bradman 's big scores for Bowral , the association wrote to him , requesting his attendance at a practice session in Sydney . He was subsequently chosen for the " Country Week " tournaments at both cricket and tennis , to be played during separate weeks . His boss presented him with an ultimatum : he could have only one week away from work , and therefore had to choose between the two sports . He chose cricket . Bradman 's performances during Country Week resulted in an invitation to play grade cricket in Sydney for St George in the 1926 – 27 season . He scored 110 on his debut , making his first century on a turf wicket . On 1 January 1927 , he turned out for the NSW second team . For the remainder of the season , Bradman travelled the 130 kilometres ( 81 mi ) from Bowral to Sydney every Saturday to play for St George .
= = = First @-@ class debut = = =
The next season continued the rapid rise of the " Boy from Bowral " . Selected to replace the unfit Archie Jackson in the NSW team , Bradman made his first @-@ class debut at the Adelaide Oval , aged 19 . He secured the achievement of a hundred on debut , with an innings of 118 featuring what soon became his trademarks — fast footwork , calm confidence and rapid scoring . In the final match of the season , he made his first century at the SCG , against the Sheffield Shield champions Victoria . Despite his potential , Bradman was not chosen for the Australian second team to tour New Zealand .
Bradman decided that his chances for Test selection would be improved by moving to Sydney for the 1928 – 29 season , when England were to tour in defence of the Ashes . Initially , he continued working in real estate , but later took a promotions job with the sporting goods retailer Mick Simmons Ltd . In the first match of the Sheffield Shield season , he scored a century in each innings against Queensland . He followed this with scores of 87 and 132 not out against the England touring team , and was rewarded with selection for the first Test , to be played at Brisbane .
= = Test career = =
Playing in only his tenth first @-@ class match , Bradman , nicknamed " Braddles " by his teammates , found his initial Test a harsh learning experience . Caught on a sticky wicket , Australia were all out for 66 in the second innings and lost by 675 runs ( still a Test record ) . Following scores of 18 and 1 , the selectors dropped Bradman to twelfth man for the Second Test . An injury to Bill Ponsford early in the match required Bradman to field as substitute while England amassed 636 , following their 863 runs in the First Test . RS Whitington wrote , " ... he had scored only nineteen himself and these experiences appear to have provided him with food for thought " . Recalled for the Third Test at the Melbourne Cricket Ground , Bradman scored 79 and 112 to become the youngest player to make a Test century , although the match was still lost . Another loss followed in the Fourth Test . Bradman reached 58 in the second innings and appeared set to guide the team to victory when he was run out . It was to be the only run out of his Test career . The losing margin was just 12 runs .
The improving Australians did manage to win the Fifth and final Test . Bradman top @-@ scored with 123 in the first innings , and was at the wicket in the second innings when his captain Jack Ryder hit the winning runs . Bradman completed the season with 1 @,@ 690 first @-@ class runs , averaging 93 @.@ 88 , and his first multiple century in a Sheffield Shield match , 340 not out against Victoria , set a new ground record for the SCG . Bradman averaged 113 @.@ 28 in 1929 – 30 . In a trial match to select the team that would tour England , he was last man out in the first innings for 124 . As his team followed on , the skipper Bill Woodfull asked Bradman to keep the pads on and open the second innings . By the end of play , he was 205 not out , on his way to 225 . Against Queensland at the SCG , Bradman set a then world record for first @-@ class cricket by scoring 452 not out ; he made his runs in only 415 minutes . Not long after the feat , he recalled :
On 434 ... I had a curious intuition ... I seemed to sense that the ball would be a short @-@ pitched one on the leg @-@ stump , and I could almost feel myself getting ready to make my shot before the ball was delivered . Sure enough , it pitched exactly where I had anticipated , and , hooking it to the square @-@ leg boundary , I established the only record upon which I had set my heart .
Although he was an obvious selection to tour England , Bradman 's unorthodox style raised doubts that he could succeed on the slower English pitches . Percy Fender wrote :
... he will always be in the category of the brilliant , if unsound , ones . Promise there is in Bradman in plenty , though watching him does not inspire one with any confidence that he desires to take the only course which will lead him to a fulfilment of that promise . He makes a mistake , then makes it again and again ; he does not correct it , or look as if he were trying to do so . He seems to live for the exuberance of the moment .
The encomiums were not confined to his batting gifts ; nor did the criticism extend to his character . " Australia has unearthed a champion , " raved former Australian Test great Clem Hill , " self @-@ taught , with natural ability . But most important of all , with his heart in the right place . " Selector Dick Jones weighed in with the observation that it was " good to watch him talking to an old player , listening attentively to everything that is said and then replying with a modest ' thank you ' . "
= = = 1930 tour of England = = =
England were favourites to win the 1930 Ashes series , and if the Australians were to exceed expectations , their young batsmen , Bradman and Jackson , needed to prosper . With his elegant batting technique , Jackson appeared the brighter prospect of the pair . However , Bradman began the tour with 236 at Worcester and went on to score 1 @,@ 000 first @-@ class runs by the end of May , the fifth player ( and first Australian ) to achieve this rare feat . In his first Test appearance in England , Bradman hit 131 in the second innings but England won the match . His batting reached a new level in the Second Test at Lord 's where he scored 254 as Australia won and levelled the series . Later in life , Bradman rated this the best innings of his career as , " practically without exception every ball went where it was intended to go " . Wisden noted his fast footwork and how he hit the ball " all round the wicket with power and accuracy " , as well as faultless concentration in keeping the ball on the ground .
In terms of runs scored , this performance was soon surpassed . In the Third Test , at Leeds , Bradman scored a century before lunch on 11 July , the first day of the Test match to equal the performances of Victor Trumper and Charlie Macartney . In the afternoon , Bradman added another century between lunch and tea , before finishing the day on 309 not out . He remains the only Test player to pass 300 in one day 's play . His eventual score of 334 was a world @-@ record , exceeding the previous mark of 325 by Andy Sandham . Bradman dominated the Australian innings ; the second @-@ highest tally was 77 by Alan Kippax . Businessman Arthur Whitelaw later presented Bradman with a cheque for £ 1 @,@ 000 in appreciation of his achievement . The match ended in anti @-@ climax as poor weather prevented a result , as it also did in the Fourth Test .
In the deciding Test at The Oval , England made 405 . During an innings stretching over three days due to intermittent rain , Bradman made yet another multiple century , this time 232 , which helped give Australia a big lead of 290 runs . In a crucial partnership with Archie Jackson , Bradman battled through a difficult session when England fast bowler Harold Larwood bowled short on a pitch enlivened by the rain . Wisden gave this period of play only a passing mention :
On the Wednesday morning the ball flew about a good deal , both batsmen frequently being hit on the body ... on more than one occasion each player cocked the ball up dangerously but always , as it happened , just wide of the fieldsmen .
A number of English players and commentators noted Bradman 's discomfort in playing the short , rising delivery . The revelation came too late for this particular match , but was to have immense significance in the next Ashes series . Australia won the match by an innings and regained the Ashes . The victory made an impact in Australia . With the economy sliding toward depression and unemployment rapidly rising , the country found solace in sporting triumph . The story of a self @-@ taught 22 @-@ year @-@ old from the bush who set a series of records against the old rival made Bradman a national hero . The statistics Bradman achieved on the tour , and in the Test matches in particular , broke records for the day and some have stood the test of time . In all , Bradman scored 974 runs at an average of 139 @.@ 14 during the Test series , with four centuries , including two double hundreds and a triple . As of 2012 , no @-@ one has matched or exceeded 974 runs or three double centuries in one Test series ; the record of 974 runs exceeds the second @-@ best performance by 69 runs and was achieved in two fewer innings . Bradman 's first @-@ class tally , 2 @,@ 960 runs ( at an average of 98 @.@ 66 with 10 centuries ) , was another enduring record : the most by any overseas batsman on a tour of England .
On the tour , the dynamic nature of Bradman 's batting contrasted sharply with his quiet , solitary off @-@ field demeanour . He was described as aloof from his teammates and he did not offer to buy them a round of drinks , let alone share the money given to him by Whitelaw . Bradman spent a lot of his free time alone , writing , as he had sold the rights to a book . On his return to Australia , Bradman was surprised by the intensity of his reception ; he became a " reluctant hero " . Mick Simmons wanted to cash in on their employee 's newly won fame . They asked Bradman to leave his teammates and attend official receptions they organised in Adelaide , Melbourne , Goulburn , his hometown Bowral and Sydney , where he received a brand new custom @-@ built Chevrolet . At each stop , Bradman received a level of adulation that " embarrassed " him . This focus on individual accomplishment , in a team game , " ... permanently damaged relationships with his contemporaries " . Commenting on Australia 's victory , the team 's vice @-@ captain Vic Richardson said , " ... we could have played any team without Bradman , but we could not have played the blind school without Clarrie Grimmett " . A modest Bradman can be heard in a 1930 recording saying " I have always endeavoured to do my best for the side , and the few centuries that have come my way have been achieved in the hope of winning matches . My one idea when going into bat was to make runs for Australia . "
= = = Reluctant hero = = =
In 1930 – 31 , against the first West Indian side to visit Australia , Bradman 's scoring was more sedate than in England — although he did make 223 in 297 minutes in the Third Test at Brisbane and 152 in 154 minutes in the following Test at Melbourne . However , he scored quickly in a very successful sequence of innings against the South Africans in the Australian summer of 1931 – 32 . For NSW against the tourists , he made 30 , 135 and 219 . In the Test matches , he scored 226 ( 277 minutes ) , 112 ( 155 minutes ) , 2 and 167 ( 183 minutes ) ; his 299 not out in the Fourth Test , at Adelaide , set a new record for the highest score in a Test in Australia . Australia won nine of the ten Tests played over the two series .
At this point , Bradman had played 15 Test matches since the beginning of 1930 , scoring 2 @,@ 227 runs at an average of 131 . He had played 18 innings , scoring 10 centuries , six of which had extended beyond 200 . His overall scoring rate was 42 runs per hour , with 856 ( or 38 @.@ 5 % of his tally ) scored in boundaries . Significantly , he had not hit a six , which typified Bradman 's attitude : if he hit the ball along the ground , then it could not be caught . During this phase of his career , his youth and natural fitness allowed him to adopt a " machine @-@ like " approach to batting . The South African fast bowler Sandy Bell described bowling to him as , " heart @-@ breaking ... with his sort of cynical grin , which rather reminds one of the Sphinx ... he never seems to perspire " .
Between these two seasons , Bradman seriously contemplated playing professional cricket in England with the Lancashire League club Accrington , a move that , according to the rules of the day , would have ended his Test career . A consortium of three Sydney businesses offered an alternative . They devised a two @-@ year contract whereby Bradman wrote for Associated Newspapers , broadcast on Radio 2UE and promoted the menswear retailing chain FJ Palmer and Son . However , the contract increased Bradman 's dependence on his public profile , making it more difficult to maintain the privacy that he ardently desired .
Bradman 's chaotic wedding to Jessie Menzies in April 1932 epitomised these new and unwelcome intrusions into his private life . The church " was under siege all throughout the day ... uninvited guests stood on chairs and pews to get a better view " ; police erected barriers that were broken down and many of those invited could not get a seat . Just weeks later , Bradman joined a private team organised by Arthur Mailey to tour the United States and Canada . He travelled with his wife , and the couple treated the trip as a honeymoon . Playing 51 games in 75 days , Bradman scored 3 @,@ 779 runs at 102 @.@ 1 , with 18 centuries . Although the standard of play was not high , the effects of the amount of cricket Bradman had played in the three previous years , together with the strains of his celebrity status , began to show on his return home .
= = = Bodyline = = =
Within the Marylebone Cricket Club ( MCC ) , which administered English cricket at the time , few voices were more influential than " Plum " Warner 's , who , when considering England 's response to Bradman , wrote that it " must evolve a new type of bowler and develop fresh ideas and strange tactics to curb his almost uncanny skill " . To that end , Warner orchestrated the appointment of Douglas Jardine as England captain in 1931 , as a prelude to Jardine leading the 1932 – 33 tour to Australia , with Warner as team manager . Remembering that Bradman had struggled against bouncers during his 232 at The Oval in 1930 , Jardine decided to combine traditional leg theory with short @-@ pitched bowling to combat Bradman . He settled on the Nottinghamshire fast bowlers Harold Larwood and Bill Voce as the spearheads for his tactics . In support , the England selectors chose another three pacemen for the squad . The unusually high number of fast bowlers caused a lot of comment in both countries and roused Bradman 's own suspicions .
Bradman had other problems to deal with at this time ; among these were bouts of illness from an undiagnosed malaise which had begun during the tour of North America , and that the Australian Board of Control had initially refused permission for him to write a column for the Sydney Sun . Bradman , who had signed a two @-@ year contract with the newspaper , threatened to withdraw from cricket to honour his contract when the board denied him permission to write ; eventually , the paper released Bradman from the contract , in a victory for the board . In three first @-@ class games against England before the Tests , Bradman averaged just 17 @.@ 16 in 6 innings . Jardine decided to give the new tactics a trial in only one game , a fixture against an Australian XI at Melbourne . In this match , Bradman faced the leg theory and later warned local administrators that trouble was brewing if it continued . He withdrew from the First Test at the Sydney Cricket Ground amid rumours that he had suffered a nervous breakdown . Despite his absence , England employed what were already becoming known as the Bodyline tactics against the Australian batsmen and won an ill @-@ tempered match .
The public clamoured for the return of Bradman to defeat Bodyline : " he was the batsman who could conquer this cankerous bowling ... ' Bradmania ' , amounting almost to religious fervour , demanded his return " . Recovered from his indisposition , Bradman returned to the side in Alan Kippax 's position . A world record crowd of 63 @,@ 993 at the MCG saw Bradman come to the crease on the first day of the Second Test with the score at 2 / 67 . A standing ovation ensued that delayed play for several minutes . Bradman anticipated receiving a bouncer as his first ball and , as the bowler delivered , he moved across his stumps to play the hook shot . The ball failed to rise and Bradman dragged it onto his stumps ; the first @-@ ball duck was his first in a Test . The crowd fell into stunned silence as he walked off . However , Australia took a first innings lead in the match , and another record crowd on 2 January 1933 watched Bradman hit a counter @-@ attacking second innings century . His unbeaten 103 ( from 146 balls ) in a team total of 191 helped set England a target of 251 to win . Bill O 'Reilly and Bert Ironmonger bowled Australia to a series @-@ levelling victory amid hopes that Bodyline was beaten .
The Third Test at the Adelaide Oval proved pivotal . There were angry crowd scenes after the Australian captain Bill Woodfull and wicket @-@ keeper Bert Oldfield were hit by bouncers . An apologetic Plum Warner entered the Australian dressing room and was rebuked by Woodfull . Woodfull 's remarks ( that " ... there are two teams out there and only one of them is playing cricket " ) were leaked to the press , and Warner and others attributed this to Fingleton , however for many years ( even after Fingleton 's death ) a bitter war of accusation passed between Fingleton and Bradman as to who was the real source of the leak . In a cable to the MCC , the Australian Board of Control repeated the allegation of poor sportsmanship directed at Warner by Woodfull . With the support of the MCC , England continued with Bodyline despite Australian protests . The tourists won the last three Tests convincingly and regained the Ashes . Bradman caused controversy with his own tactics . Always seeking to score , and with the leg side packed with fielders , he often backed away and hit the ball into the vacant half of the outfield with unorthodox shots reminiscent of tennis or golf . This brought him 396 runs ( at 56 @.@ 57 ) for the series and plaudits for attempting to find a solution to Bodyline , although his series average was just 57 % of his career mean . Jack Fingleton was in no doubt that Bradman 's game altered irrevocably as a consequence of Bodyline , writing :
Bodyline was specially prepared , nurtured for and expended on him and , in consequence , his technique underwent a change quicker than might have been the case with the passage of time . Bodyline plucked something vibrant from his art .
The constant glare of celebrity and the tribulations of the season forced Bradman to reappraise his life outside the game and to seek a career away from his cricketing fame . Harry Hodgetts , a South Australian delegate to the Board of Control , offered Bradman work as a stockbroker if he would relocate to Adelaide and captain South Australia ( SA ) . Unknown to the public , the SA Cricket Association ( SACA ) instigated Hodgetts ' approach and subsidised Bradman 's wage . Although his wife was hesitant about moving , Bradman eventually agreed to the deal in February 1934 .
= = = Declining health and a brush with death = = =
In his farewell season for NSW , Bradman averaged 132 @.@ 44 , his best yet . He was appointed vice @-@ captain for the 1934 tour of England . However , " he was unwell for much of the [ English ] summer , and reports in newspapers hinted that he was suffering from heart trouble " . Although he again started with a double century at Worcester , his famed concentration soon deserted him . Wisden wrote :
... there were many occasions on which he was out to wild strokes . Indeed at one period he created the impression that , to some extent , he had lost control of himself and went in to bat with an almost complete disregard for anything in the shape of a defensive stroke .
At one stage , Bradman went 13 first @-@ class innings without a century , the longest such spell of his career , prompting suggestions that Bodyline had eroded his confidence and altered his technique . After three Tests , the series was one – one and Bradman had scored 133 runs in five innings . The Australians travelled to Sheffield and played a warm up game before the Fourth Test . Bradman started slowly and then , " ... the old Bradman [ was ] back with us , in the twinkling of an eye , almost " . He went on to make 140 , with the last 90 runs coming in just 45 minutes . On the opening day of the Fourth Test at Headingley ( Leeds ) , England were out for 200 , but Australia slumped to 3 / 39 , losing the third wicket from the last ball of the day . Listed to bat at number five , Bradman would start his innings the next day .
That evening , Bradman declined an invitation to dinner from Neville Cardus , telling the journalist that he wanted an early night because the team needed him to make a double century the next day . Cardus pointed out that his previous innings on the ground was 334 , and the law of averages was against another such score . Bradman told Cardus , " I don 't believe in the law of averages " . In the event , Bradman batted all of the second day and into the third , putting on a then world record partnership of 388 with Bill Ponsford . When he was finally out for 304 ( 473 balls , 43 fours and 2 sixes ) , Australia had a lead of 350 runs , but rain prevented them from forcing a victory . The effort of the lengthy innings stretched Bradman 's reserves of energy , and he did not play again until the Fifth Test at The Oval , the match that would decide the Ashes .
In the first innings at The Oval , Bradman and Ponsford recorded an even more massive partnership , this time 451 runs . It had taken them less than a month to break the record they had set at Headingley ; this new world record was to last 57 years . Bradman 's share of the stand was 244 from 271 balls , and the Australian total of 701 set up victory by 562 runs . For the fourth time in five series , the Ashes changed hands . England would not recover them again until after Bradman 's retirement .
Seemingly restored to full health , Bradman blazed two centuries in the last two games of the tour . However , when he returned to London to prepare for the trip home , he experienced severe abdominal pain . It took a doctor more than 24 hours to diagnose acute appendicitis and a surgeon operated immediately . Bradman lost a lot of blood during the four @-@ hour procedure and peritonitis set in . Penicillin and sulphonamides were still experimental treatments at this time ; peritonitis was usually a fatal condition . On 25 September , the hospital issued a statement that Bradman was struggling for his life and that blood donors were needed urgently .
" The effect of the announcement was little short of spectacular " . The hospital could not deal with the number of donors , and closed its switchboard in the face of the avalanche of telephone calls generated by the news . Journalists were asked by their editors to prepare obituaries . Teammate Bill O 'Reilly took a call from King George V 's secretary asking that the King be kept informed of the situation . Jessie Bradman started the month @-@ long journey to London as soon as she received the news . En route , she heard a rumour that her husband had died . A telephone call clarified the situation and by the time she reached London , Bradman had begun a slow recovery . He followed medical advice to convalesce , taking several months to return to Australia and missing the 1934 – 35 Australian season .
= = = Internal politics and the Test captaincy = = =
There was off @-@ field intrigue in Australian cricket during the antipodean winter of 1935 . Australia , scheduled to make a tour of South Africa at the end of the year , needed to replace the retired Bill Woodfull as captain . The Board of Control wanted Bradman to lead the team , yet , on 8 August , the board announced Bradman 's withdrawal from the team due to a lack of fitness . Surprisingly , in the light of this announcement , Bradman led the South Australian team in a full programme of matches that season .
The captaincy was given to Vic Richardson , Bradman 's predecessor as South Australian captain . Cricket author Chris Harte 's analysis of the situation is that a prior ( unspecified ) commercial agreement forced Bradman to remain in Australia . Harte attributed an ulterior motive to his relocation : the off @-@ field behaviour of Richardson and other South Australian players had displeased the South Australia Cricket Association ( SACA ) , which was looking for new leadership . To help improve discipline , Bradman became a committeeman of the SACA , and a selector of the South Australian and Australian teams . He took his adopted state to its first Sheffield Shield title for 10 years , Bradman weighing in with personal contributions of 233 against Queensland and 357 against Victoria . He finished the season with 369 ( in 233 minutes ) , a South Australian record , made against Tasmania . The bowler who dismissed him , Reginald Townley , would later become leader of the Tasmanian Liberal Party .
Australia defeated South Africa 4 – 0 and senior players such as Bill O 'Reilly were pointed in their comments about the enjoyment of playing under Richardson 's captaincy . A group of players who were openly hostile toward Bradman formed during the tour . For some , the prospect of playing under Bradman was daunting , as was the knowledge that he would additionally be sitting in judgement of their abilities in his role as a selector .
To start the new season , the Test side played a " Rest of Australia " team , captained by Bradman , at Sydney in early October 1936 . The Test XI suffered a big defeat , due to Bradman 's 212 and a haul of 12 wickets taken by leg @-@ spinner Frank Ward . Bradman let the members of the Test team know that despite their recent success , the team still required improvement . Shortly afterwards , Bradman 's first child was born on 28 October , but died the next day . He took time out of cricket for two weeks and on his return made 192 in three hours against Victoria in the last match before the beginning of the Ashes series .
The Test selectors made five changes to the team who had played in the previous Test match . Significantly , Australia 's most successful bowler Clarrie Grimmett was replaced by Ward , one of four players making their debut . Bradman 's role in Grimmett 's omission from the team was controversial and it became a theme that dogged Bradman as Grimmett continued to be prolific in domestic cricket while his successors were ineffective — he was regarded as having finished the veteran bowler 's Test career in a political purge .
Australia fell to successive defeats in the opening two Tests , Bradman making two ducks in his four innings , and it seemed that the captaincy was affecting his form . The selectors made another four changes to the team for the Third Test at Melbourne .
Bradman won the toss on New Year 's Day 1937 , but again failed with the bat , scoring just 13 . The Australians could not take advantage of a pitch that favoured batting , and finished the day at 6 / 181 . On the second day , rain dramatically altered the course of the game . With the sun drying the pitch ( in those days , covers could not be used during matches ) Bradman declared to get England in to bat while the pitch was " sticky " ; England also declared to get Australia back in , conceding a lead of 124 . Bradman countered by reversing his batting order to protect his run @-@ makers while conditions improved . The ploy worked and Bradman went in at number seven . In an innings spread over three days , he battled influenza while scoring 270 off 375 balls , sharing a record partnership of 346 with Jack Fingleton , and Australia went on to victory . In 2001 , Wisden rated this performance as the best Test match innings of all time .
The next Test , at the Adelaide Oval , was fairly even until Bradman played another patient second innings , making 212 from 395 balls . Australia levelled the series when the erratic left @-@ arm spinner " Chuck " Fleetwood @-@ Smith bowled Australia to victory . In the series @-@ deciding Fifth Test , Bradman returned to a more aggressive style in top @-@ scoring with 169 ( off 191 balls ) in Australia 's 604 and Australia won by an innings . Australia 's achievement of winning a Test series after outright losses in the first two matches has never been repeated in Test cricket .
= = = End of an era = = =
During the 1938 tour of England , Bradman played the most consistent cricket of his career . He needed to score heavily as England had a strengthened batting line @-@ up , while the Australian bowling was over @-@ reliant on O 'Reilly . Grimmett was overlooked , but Jack Fingleton made the team , so the clique of anti @-@ Bradman players remained . Playing 26 innings on tour , Bradman recorded 13 centuries ( a new Australian record ) and again made 1 @,@ 000 first @-@ class runs before the end of May , becoming the only player to do so twice . In scoring 2 @,@ 429 runs , Bradman achieved the highest average ever recorded in an English season : 115 @.@ 66 .
In the First Test , England amassed a big first innings score and looked likely to win , but Stan McCabe made 232 for Australia , a performance Bradman rated as the best he had ever seen . With Australia forced to follow @-@ on , Bradman fought hard to ensure McCabe 's effort was not in vain , and he secured the draw with 144 not out . It was the slowest Test hundred of his career and he played a similar innings of 102 not out in the next Test as Australia struggled to another draw . Rain completely washed out the Third Test at Manchester .
Australia 's opportunity came at Headingley , a Test described by Bradman as the best he ever played in . England batted first and made 223 . During the Australian innings , Bradman backed himself by opting to bat on in poor light conditions , reasoning that Australia could score more runs in bad light on a good wicket than on a rain affected wicket in good light , when he had the option to go off . He scored 103 out of a total of 242 and the gamble paid off , as it meant there was sufficient time to push for victory when an England collapse left them a target of only 107 to win . Australia slumped to 4 / 61 , with Bradman out for 16 . An approaching storm threatened to wash the game out , but the poor weather held off and Australia managed to secure the win , a victory that retained the Ashes . For the only time in his life , the tension of the occasion got to Bradman and he could not watch the closing stages of play , a reflection of the pressure that he felt all tour : he described the captaincy as " exhausting " and said he " found it difficult to keep going " .
The euphoria of securing the Ashes preceded Australia 's heaviest defeat . At The Oval , England amassed a world record of 7 / 903 and their opening batsman Len Hutton scored an individual world record , by making 364 . In an attempt to relieve the burden on his bowlers , Bradman took a rare turn at bowling . During his third over , he fractured his ankle and teammates carried him from the ground . With Bradman injured and Fingleton unable to bat because of a leg muscle strain , Australia were thrashed by an innings and 579 runs , which remains the largest margin in Test cricket history . Unfit to complete the tour , Bradman left the team in the hands of vice @-@ captain Stan McCabe . At this point , Bradman felt that the burden of captaincy would prevent him from touring England again , although he did not make his doubts public .
Despite the pressure of captaincy , Bradman 's batting form remained supreme . An experienced , mature player now commonly called " The Don " had replaced the blitzing style of his early days as the " Boy from Bowral " . In 1938 – 39 , he led South Australia to the Sheffield Shield and made a century in six consecutive innings to equal CB Fry 's world record . Bradman totalled 21 first @-@ class centuries in 34 innings , from the beginning of the 1938 tour of England ( including preliminary games in Australia ) until early 1939 .
The next season , Bradman made an abortive bid to join the Victoria state side . The Melbourne Cricket Club advertised the position of club secretary and he was led to believe that if he applied , he would get the job . The position , which had been held by Hugh Trumble until his death in August 1938 , was one of the most prestigious jobs in Australian cricket . The annual salary of £ 1 @,@ 000 would make Bradman financially secure while allowing him to retain a connection with the game . On 18 January 1939 , the club 's committee , on the casting vote of the chairman , chose former Test batsman Vernon Ransford over Bradman .
The 1939 – 40 season was Bradman 's most productive ever for SA : 1 @,@ 448 runs at an average of 144 @.@ 8 . He made three double centuries , including 251 not out against NSW , the innings that he rated the best he ever played in the Sheffield Shield , as he tamed Bill O 'Reilly at the height of his form . However , it was the end of an era . The outbreak of World War Two led to the indefinite postponement of all cricket tours , and the suspension of the Sheffield Shield competition .
= = = Troubled war years = = =
Bradman joined the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) on 28 June 1940 and was passed fit for air crew duty . The RAAF had more recruits than it could equip and train and Bradman spent four months in Adelaide before the Governor @-@ General of Australia , Lord Gowrie , persuaded Bradman to transfer to the army , a move that was criticised as a safer option for him . Given the rank of Lieutenant , he was posted to the Army School of Physical Training at Frankston , Victoria , to act as a divisional supervisor of physical training . The exertion of the job aggravated his chronic muscular problems , diagnosed as fibrositis . Surprisingly , in light of his batting prowess , a routine army test revealed that Bradman had poor eyesight .
Invalided out of service in June 1941 , Bradman spent months recuperating , unable even to shave himself or comb his hair due to the extent of the muscular pain he suffered . He resumed stockbroking during 1942 . In his biography of Bradman , Charles Williams expounded the theory that the physical problems were psychosomatic , induced by stress and possibly depression ; Bradman read the book 's manuscript and did not disagree . Had any cricket been played at this time , he would not have been available . Although he found some relief in 1945 when referred to the Melbourne masseur Ern Saunders , Bradman permanently lost the feeling in the thumb and index finger of his ( dominant ) right hand .
In June 1945 , Bradman faced a financial crisis when the firm of Harry Hodgetts collapsed due to fraud and embezzlement . Bradman moved quickly to set up his own business , utilising Hodgetts ' client list and his old office in Grenfell Street , Adelaide . The fallout led to a prison term for Hodgetts , and left a stigma attached to Bradman 's name in the city 's business community for many years .
However , the SA Cricket Association had no hesitation in appointing Bradman as their delegate to the Board of Control in place of Hodgetts . Now working alongside some of the men he had battled in the 1930s , Bradman quickly became a leading light in the administration of the game . With the resumption of international cricket , he was once more appointed a Test selector , and played a major role in planning for post @-@ war cricket .
= = = " The ghost of a once great cricketer " = = =
In 1945 – 46 , Bradman suffered regular bouts of fibrositis while coming to terms with increased administrative duties and the establishment of his business . He played for South Australia in two matches to help with the re @-@ establishment of first @-@ class cricket and later described his batting as " painstaking " . Batting against the Australian Services cricket team , Bradman scored 112 in less than two hours , yet Dick Whitington ( playing for the Services ) wrote , " I have seen today the ghost of a once great cricketer " . Bradman declined a tour of New Zealand and spent the winter of 1946 wondering whether he had played his last match . " With the English team due to arrive for the 1946 – 47 Ashes series , the media and the public were anxious to know if Bradman would lead Australia . " His doctor recommended against a return to the game . Encouraged by his wife , Bradman agreed to play in lead @-@ up fixtures to the Test series . After hitting two centuries , Bradman made himself available for the First Test at The Gabba .
Controversy emerged on the first day of the First Test at Brisbane . After compiling an uneasy 28 runs , Bradman hit a ball to the gully fieldsman , Jack Ikin . " An appeal for a catch was denied in the umpire 's contentious ruling that it was a bump ball " . At the end of the over , England captain Wally Hammond spoke with Bradman and criticised him for not " walking " ; " from then on the series was a cricketing war just when most people desired peace " , Whitington wrote . Bradman regained his finest pre @-@ war form in making 187 , followed by 234 during the Second Test at Sydney ( Sid Barnes also scored 234 during the innings , many in a still standing 405 run 5th Wicket partnership with Bradman . Barnes later recalled that he purposely got out on 234 because " it wouldn 't be right for someone to make more runs than Bradman " ) . Australia won both matches by an innings . Jack Fingleton speculated that had the decision at Brisbane gone against him , Bradman would have retired , such were his fitness problems . In the remainder of the series , Bradman made three half @-@ centuries in six innings , but was unable to make another century ; nevertheless , his team won handsomely , 3 – 0 . He was the leading batsman on either side , with an average of 97 @.@ 14 . Nearly 850 @,@ 000 spectators watched the Tests , which helped lift public spirits after the war .
= = = Century of centuries and " The Invincibles " = = =
India made its first tour of Australia in the 1947 – 48 season . On 15 November , Bradman made 172 against them for an Australian XI at Sydney , his 100th first @-@ class century . The first non @-@ Englishman to achieve the milestone , Bradman remains the only Australian to have done so . In five Tests , he scored 715 runs ( at 178 @.@ 75 average ) . His last double century ( 201 ) came at Adelaide , and he scored a century in each innings of the Melbourne Test . On the eve of the Fifth Test , he announced that the match would be his last in Australia , although he would tour England as a farewell .
Australia had assembled one of the great teams of cricket history . Bradman made it known that he wanted to go through the tour unbeaten , a feat never before accomplished . English spectators were drawn to the matches knowing that it would be their last opportunity to see Bradman in action . RC Robertson @-@ Glasgow observed of Bradman that :
Next to Mr. Winston Churchill , he was the most celebrated man in England during the summer of 1948 . His appearances throughout the country were like one continuous farewell matinée . At last his batting showed human fallibility . Often , especially at the start of the innings , he played where the ball wasn 't , and spectators rubbed their eyes .
Despite his waning powers , Bradman compiled 11 centuries on the tour , amassing 2 @,@ 428 runs ( average 89 @.@ 92 ) . His highest score of the tour ( 187 ) came against Essex , when Australia compiled a world record of 721 runs in a day . In the Tests , he scored a century at Nottingham , but the performance most like his pre @-@ war exploits came in the Fourth Test at Leeds . England declared on the last morning of the game , setting Australia a world record 404 runs to win in only 345 minutes on a heavily worn wicket . In partnership with Arthur Morris ( 182 ) , Bradman reeled off 173 not out and the match was won with 15 minutes to spare . The journalist Ray Robinson called the victory " the ' finest ever ' in its conquest of seemingly insuperable odds " .
In the final Test at The Oval , Bradman walked out to bat in Australia 's first innings . He received a standing ovation from the crowd and three cheers from the opposition . His Test batting average stood at 101 @.@ 39 . Facing the wrist @-@ spin of Eric Hollies , Bradman pushed forward to the second ball that he faced , was deceived by a googly , and bowled between bat and pad for a duck . An England batting collapse resulted in an innings defeat , denying Bradman the opportunity to bat again and so his career average finished at 99 @.@ 94 ; if he had scored just four runs in his last innings , it would have been 100 . A story developed over the years that claimed Bradman missed the ball because of tears in his eyes , a claim Bradman denied for the rest of his life .
The Australian team won the Ashes 4 – 0 , completed the tour unbeaten , and entered history as " The Invincibles " . Just as Bradman 's legend grew , rather than diminished , over the years , so too has the reputation of the 1948 team . For Bradman , it was the most personally fulfilling period of his playing days , as the divisiveness of the 1930s had passed . He wrote :
Knowing the personnel , I was confident that here at last was the great opportunity which I had longed for . A team of cricketers whose respect and loyalty were unquestioned , who would regard me in a fatherly sense and listen to my advice , follow my guidance and not question my handling of affairs ... there are no longer any fears that they will query the wisdom of what you do . The result is a sense of freedom to give full reign to your own creative ability and personal judgment .
With Bradman now retired from professional cricket , RC Robertson @-@ Glasgow wrote of the English reaction " ... a miracle has been removed from among us . So must ancient Italy have felt when she heard of the death of Hannibal " .
= = After cricket = =
After his return to Australia , Bradman played in his own Testimonial match at Melbourne , scoring his 117th and last century , and receiving £ 9 @,@ 342 in proceeds . In the 1949 New Year Honours , he was appointed Knight Bachelor for his services to the game , becoming the only Australian cricketer ever to be knighted . He commented that he " would have preferred to remain just Mister " . The following year he published a memoir , Farewell to Cricket . Bradman accepted offers from the Daily Mail to travel with , and write about , the 1953 and 1956 Australian teams in England . The Art of Cricket , his final book published in 1958 , is an instructional manual .
Bradman retired from his stockbroking business in June 1954 , depending on the " comfortable " income earned as a board member of 16 publicly listed companies . His highest profile affiliation was with Argo Investments Limited , where he was chairman for a number of years . Charles Williams commented that , " [ b ] usiness was excluded on medical grounds , [ so ] the only sensible alternative was a career in the administration of the game which he loved and to which he had given most of his active life " .
Bradman was honoured at a number of cricket grounds , notably when his portrait was hung in the Long Room at Lord 's ; until Shane Warne 's portrait was added in 2005 , Bradman was one of just three Australians to be honoured in this way . Bradman inaugurated a " Bradman Stand " at the Sydney Cricket Ground in January 1974 ; the Adelaide Oval also opened a Bradman Stand in 1990 , which housed new and much needed media facilities , as well as bar facilities and the South Australian Cricket Museum ( the Adelaide Oval 's Bradman Stand was demolished in early 2013 as the oval undergoes extensive re @-@ development ) . Later in 1974 , he attended a Lord 's Taverners function in London where he experienced heart problems , which forced him to limit his public appearances to select occasions only . With his wife , Bradman returned to Bowral in 1976 , where the new cricket ground was named in his honour . He gave the keynote speech at the historic Centenary Test at Melbourne in 1977 .
On 16 June 1979 , the Australian government awarded Bradman the nation 's second @-@ highest civilian honour at that time , Companion of the Order of Australia ( AC ) , " in recognition of service to the sport of cricket and cricket administration " . In 1980 , he resigned from the ACB , to lead a more secluded life .
= = = Administrative career = = =
In addition to acting as one of South Australia 's delegates to the Board of Control from 1945 to 1980 , Bradman was a committee member of the SACA between 1935 and 1986 . It is estimated that he attended 1 @,@ 713 SACA meetings during this half century of service . Aside from two years in the early 1950s , he filled a selector 's berth for the Test team between 1936 and 1971 .
Cricket saw an increase in defensive play during the 1950s . As a selector , Bradman favoured attacking , positive cricketers who entertained the paying public . He formed an alliance with Australian captain Richie Benaud , seeking more attractive play , with some success . He served two high @-@ profile periods as chairman of the board of Control , in 1960 – 63 and 1969 – 72 . During the first , he dealt with the growing prevalence of illegal bowling actions in the game , a problem that he adjudged " the most complex I have known in cricket , because it is not a matter of fact but of opinion " . The major controversy of his second stint was a proposed tour of Australia by South Africa in 1971 – 72 . On Bradman 's recommendation , the series was cancelled . Cricket journalist Michael Coward said of Bradman as an administrator :
Bradman was more than a cricket player nonpareil . He was ... an astute and progressive administrator ; an expansive thinker , philosopher and writer on the game . Indeed , in some respects , he was as powerful , persuasive and influential a figure off the ground as he was on it .
In the late 1970s , Bradman played an important role during the World Series Cricket schism as a member of a special Australian Cricket Board committee formed to handle the crisis . He was criticised for not airing an opinion , but he dealt with World Series Cricket far more pragmatically than other administrators . Richie Benaud described Bradman as " a brilliant administrator and businessman " , warning that he was not to be underestimated . As Australian captain , Ian Chappell fought with Bradman over the issue of player remuneration in the early 1970s and has suggested that Bradman was parsimonious :
I ... thought to myself , ' Ian , did you just ask Bradman to fill your wallet with money ? ' Bradman 's harangue confirmed my suspicions that the players were going to have a hard time extracting more money from the ACB .
= = = Later years and death = = =
After his wife 's death in 1997 , Bradman suffered " a discernible and not unexpected wilting of spirit " . The next year , on his 90th birthday , he hosted a meeting with his two favourite modern players , Shane Warne and Sachin Tendulkar , but he was not seen in his familiar place at the Adelaide Oval again . Hospitalised with pneumonia in December 2000 , he returned home in the New Year and died there on 25 February 2001 , aged 92 .
A memorial service to mark Bradman 's life was held on 25 March 2001 at St Peter 's Anglican Cathedral , Adelaide . The service was attended by a host of former and current Test cricketers , as well as Australia 's then prime minister , John Howard , leader of the opposition Kim Beazley and former prime minister Bob Hawke . Eulogies were given by Richie Benaud and Governor @-@ General Sir William Deane . The service was broadcast live on ABC Television to a viewing audience of 1 @.@ 45 million . A private service for family and friends was earlier held at the Centennial Park Cemetery in the suburb of Pasadena , with many people lining both Greenhill and Goodwood Roads to pay their respects as his funeral motorcade passed by .
= = = Legacy = = =
Cricket writer David Frith summed up the paradox of the continuing fascination with Bradman :
As the years passed , with no lessening of his reclusiveness , so his public stature continued to grow , until the sense of reverence and unquestioning worship left many of his contemporaries scratching their heads in wondering admiration .
As early as 1939 , Bradman had a Royal Navy ship named after him . Built as a fishing trawler in 1936 , the HMS Bradman was taken over by the Admiralty in 1939 , but was sunk by German aircraft the following year .
In the 1963 edition of Wisden Cricketers ' Almanack , Bradman was selected by Neville Cardus as one the Six Giants of the Wisden Century . This was a special commemorative selection requested by Wisden for its 100th edition . The other five players chosen were : Sydney Barnes , W. G. Grace , Jack Hobbs , Tom Richardson and Victor Trumper .
On 10 December 1985 , Bradman was the first of 120 inaugural inductees into the Sport Australia Hall of Fame . He spoke of his philosophy for considering the stature of athletes :
When considering the stature of an athlete or for that matter any person , I set great store in certain qualities which I believe to be essential in addition to skill . They are that the person conducts his or her life with dignity , with integrity , courage , and perhaps most of all , with modesty . These virtues are totally compatible with pride , ambition , and competitiveness .
Although modest about his own abilities and generous in his praise of other cricketers , Bradman was fully aware of the talents he possessed as a player ; there is some evidence that he sought to influence his legacy . During the 1980s and 1990s , Bradman carefully selected the people to whom he gave interviews , assisting Michael Page , Roland Perry and Charles Williams , who all produced biographical works about him . Bradman also agreed to an extensive interview for ABC radio , broadcast as Bradman : The Don Declares in eight 55 @-@ minute episodes during 1988 .
The most significant of these legacy projects was the Bradman Museum , opened in 1989 at the Bradman Oval in Bowral . This organisation was reformed in 1993 as a non @-@ profit charitable Trust , called the Bradman Foundation . In 2010 , it was expanded and rebranded as the International Cricket Hall of Fame .
When the Australian Cricket Hall of Fame was created in Melbourne in 1996 , Bradman was made one of its 10 inaugural members . In 2000 , Bradman was selected by cricket experts as one of five Wisden Cricketers of the Century . Each of the 100 members of the panel were able to select five cricketers : all 100 voted for Bradman .
Bradman 's life and achievements were recognised in Australia with two notable issues . Three years before he died , he became the first living Australian to be featured on an Australian postage stamp . After his death , the Australian Government produced a 20 @-@ cent coin to commemorate his life .
= = Family life = =
Bradman first met Jessie Martha Menzies in 1920 when she boarded with the Bradman family , to be closer to school in Bowral . The couple married at St Paul 's Anglican Church at Burwood , Sydney on 30 April 1932 . During their 65 @-@ year marriage , Jessie was " shrewd , reliable , selfless , and above all , uncomplicated ... she was the perfect foil to his concentrated , and occasionally mercurial character " . Bradman paid tribute to his wife numerous times , once saying succinctly , " I would never have achieved what I achieved without Jessie " .
The Bradmans lived in the same modest , suburban house in Holden Street , Kensington Park in Adelaide for all but the first three years of their married life . They experienced personal tragedy in raising their children : their first @-@ born son died as an infant in 1936 , their second son , John ( born in 1939 ) contracted polio , and their daughter , Shirley , born in 1941 , had cerebral palsy from birth . His family name proved a burden for John Bradman ; he legally changed his last name to Bradsen in 1972 . Although claims were made that he became estranged from his father , it was more a matter of " the pair inhabit [ ing ] different worlds " . After the cricketer 's death , a collection of personal letters written by Bradman to his close friend Rohan Rivett between 1953 and 1977 was released and gave researchers new insights into Bradman 's family life , including the strain between father and son .
Bradman 's reclusiveness in later life is partly attributable to the ongoing health problems of his wife , particularly following the open @-@ heart surgery Jessie underwent in her 60s . Lady Bradman died in 1997 , aged 88 , from cancer . This had a dispiriting effect on Bradman , but the relationship with his son improved , to the extent that John resolved to change his name back to Bradman . Since his father 's death , John Bradman has become the spokesperson for the family and has been involved in defending the Bradman legacy in a number of disputes . The relationship between Bradman and his wider family is less clear , although nine months after Bradman 's death , his nephew Paul Bradman criticised him as a " snob " and a " loner " who forgot his connections in Bowral and who failed to attend the funerals of Paul 's mother and father .
= = Style = =
Bradman 's early development was shaped by the high bounce of the ball on matting @-@ over @-@ concrete pitches . He favoured " horizontal @-@ bat " shots ( such as the hook , pull and cut ) to deal with the bounce and devised a unique grip on the bat handle that would accommodate these strokes without compromising his ability to defend . Employing a side @-@ on stance at the wicket , Bradman kept perfectly still as the bowler ran in . His backswing had a " crooked " look that troubled his early critics , but he resisted entreaties to change . His backswing kept his hands in close to the body , leaving him perfectly balanced and able to change his stroke mid @-@ swing , if need be . Another telling factor was the decisiveness of Bradman 's footwork . He " used the crease " by either coming metres down the wicket to drive , or playing so far back that his feet ended up level with the stumps when playing the cut , hook or pull .
Bradman 's game evolved with experience . He temporarily adapted his technique during the Bodyline series , deliberately moving around the crease in an attempt to score from the short @-@ pitched deliveries . At his peak , in the mid @-@ 1930s , he had the ability to switch between a defensive and attacking approach as the occasion demanded . After the Second World War , he adjusted to bat within the limitations set by his age , becoming a steady " accumulator " of runs . However , Bradman never truly mastered batting on sticky wickets . Wisden commented , " [ i ] f there really is a blemish on his amazing record it is ... the absence of a significant innings on one of those ' sticky dogs ' of old " .
= = In popular culture = =
Bradman 's name has become an archetypal name for outstanding excellence , both within cricket and in the wider world . The term Bradmanesque has been coined and is used both within and without cricketing circles . Steve Waugh described Sri Lankan Muttiah Muralitharan as " the Don Bradman of bowling " , while John Howard , former Prime Minister of Australia , was called " the Don Bradman of politics " by his Liberal Party colleague Joe Hockey . T. H. White describes Sir Lancelot as " being the greatest knight King Arthur had . He was a sort of Bradman , top of the battling averages . " .
Bradman has been the subject of more biographies than any other Australian , apart from the outlaw Ned Kelly . Bradman himself wrote four books : Don Bradman 's Book – The Story of My Cricketing Life with Hints on Batting , Bowling and Fielding ( 1930 ) , My Cricketing Life ( 1938 ) , Farewell to Cricket ( 1950 ) and The Art of Cricket ( 1958 ) . The story of the Bodyline series was retold in a 1984 television mini @-@ series .
Bradman is immortalised in three popular songs from different eras , " Our Don Bradman " ( 1930s , by Jack O 'Hagan ) , " Bradman " ( 1980s , by Paul Kelly ) , and " Sir Don " , ( a tribute by John Williamson performed at Bradman 's memorial service ) . Bradman recorded several songs accompanying himself and others on piano in the early 1930s , including " Every Day Is A Rainbow Day For Me " . In 2000 , the Australian Government made it illegal for the names of corporations to suggest a link to " Sir Donald Bradman " , if such a link does not in fact exist . Other entities with similar protection are the Australian and foreign governments , Saint Mary MacKillop , the British Royal Family and the Returned and Services League of Australia .
= = Statistical summary = =
= = = Test match performance = = =
= = = First @-@ class performance = = =
= = = Test records = = =
Bradman still holds the following significant records for Test match cricket :
Highest career batting average ( minimum 20 innings ) : 99 @.@ 94
Highest series batting average ( 4 or more Test series ) : 201 @.@ 50 ( 1931 – 32 ) and second highest 178 @.@ 75 ( 1947 – 48 )
Highest ratio of centuries per innings played : 36 @.@ 25 % ( 29 centuries from 80 innings )
Highest ratio of double centuries per innings played : 15 @.@ 0 % ( 12 double centuries from 80 innings )
Highest 5th wicket partnership : 405 ( with Sid Barnes , 1946 – 47 )
Highest score by a number 7 batsman : 270 ( 1936 – 37 )
Most runs against one opponent : 5 @,@ 028 ( v England )
Most runs in one series : 974 ( 1930 )
Most times of scoring a century in a single session of play : 6 ( 1 pre lunch , 2 lunch @-@ tea , 3 tea @-@ stumps )
Most runs in one day 's play : 309 ( 1930 )
Most double centuries : 12
Most double centuries in a series : 3 ( 1930 )
Most triple centuries : 2 ( equal with Chris Gayle , Brian Lara and Virender Sehwag )
Most consecutive matches in which he made a century : 6 ( the last three Tests in 1936 – 37 , and the first three Tests in 1938 )
Fewest matches required to reach 1000 ( 7 matches ) , 2000 ( 15 matches ) , 3000 ( 23 matches ) , 4000 ( 31 matches ) , 5000 ( 36 matches ) and 6000 ( 45 matches ) Test runs .
Fewest innings required to reach 2000 ( 22 innings ) , 3000 ( 33 innings ) , 4000 ( 48 innings ) , 5000 ( 56 innings ) and 6000 ( 68 innings ) Test runs .
= = = Cricket context = = =
Bradman 's Test batting average of 99 @.@ 94 has become one of cricket 's most famous , iconic statistics . No other player who has played more than 20 Test match innings has finished with a Test average of more than 61 . Bradman scored centuries at a rate better than one every three innings — in 80 Test innings , Bradman scored 29 centuries . Only 11 players have since surpassed his total , all at a much slower rate : the next fastest player to reach 29 centuries , Sachin Tendulkar , required nearly twice as long ( 148 innings ) to do so .
In addition , Bradman converted 41 % of his centuries into double centuries : his total of 12 Test double hundreds — comprising 15 % of his innings — remains the most achieved by any Test batsman and was accumulated faster than any other total .
For comparison , the next highest totals of Test double hundreds are Kumar Sangakkara 's 11 in 223 innings ( 4 @.@ 9 % ) , Brian Lara 's 9 in 232 innings ( 3 @.@ 9 % ) , and Wally Hammond 's 7 in 140 innings ( 5 % ) ; the next highest rate of scoring Test double centuries was achieved by Vinod Kambli , whose 21 innings included 2 double centuries ( 9 @.@ 5 % ) .
= = = World sport context = = =
Wisden hailed Bradman as , " the greatest phenomenon in the history of cricket , indeed in the history of all ball games " . Statistician Charles Davis analysed the statistics for several prominent sportsmen by comparing the number of standard deviations that they stand above the mean for their sport . The top performers in his selected sports are :
The statistics show that " no other athlete dominates an international sport to the extent that Bradman does cricket " . In order to post a similarly dominant career statistic as Bradman , a baseball batter would need a career batting average of .392 , while a basketball player would need to score an average of 43 @.@ 0 points per game . The respective records are .366 and 30 @.@ 1 .
When Bradman died , Time allocated a space in its " Milestones " column for an obituary :
... Australian icon considered by many to be the pre @-@ eminent sportsman of all time ... One of Australia 's most beloved heroes , he was revered abroad as well . When Nelson Mandela was released after 27 years in prison , his first question to an Australian visitor was , " Is Sir Donald Bradman still alive ? "
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= Contracts ( Rights of Third Parties ) Act 1999 =
The Contracts ( Rights of Third Parties ) Act 1999 ( c 31 ) is an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom that significantly reformed the common law Doctrine of Privity and " thereby [ removed ] one of the most universally disliked and criticised blots on the legal landscape " . The second rule of the Doctrine of Privity , that a third party could not enforce a contract for which he had not provided consideration , had been widely criticised by lawyers , academics and members of the judiciary . Proposals for reform via an Act of Parliament were first made in 1937 by the Law Revision Committee in their Sixth Interim Report . No further action was taken by the government until the 1990s , when the Law Commission proposed a new draft bill in 1991 , and presented their final report in 1996 . The bill was introduced to the House of Lords in December 1998 , and moved to the House of Commons on 14 June 1999 . It received the Royal Assent on 11 November 1999 , coming into force immediately as the Contracts ( Rights of Third Parties ) Act 1999 .
The Act allows third parties to enforce terms of contracts that benefit them in some way , or which the contract allows them to enforce . It also grants them access to a range of remedies if the terms are breached . The Act also limits the ways in which a contract can be changed without the permission of an involved third party . At the same time , it provides protection for the promisor and promisee in situations where there is a dispute with the third party , and allows parties to a contract to specifically exclude the protection afforded by the Act if they want to limit the involvement of third parties .
= = Background = =
The historical doctrine of privity consisted of two rules – the first was that a third party may not have obligations imposed by the terms of a contract , and second was that a third party may not enforce a contract for which he has not provided consideration . The first rule was not contested , while the second was described as " one of the most universally disliked and criticised blots on the legal landscape " . Originally , the second rule was not held to be valid . In the 17th century , a third party was allowed to enforce terms of a contract that benefited him , as shown in Provender v Wood [ 1627 ] Hetley 30 , where the judgement stated that " the party to whom the benefit of a promise accrews , may bring his action . " The first reversal of this law in Bourne v Mason [ 1669 ] 1 Vent . , where the Court of King 's Bench found that a third party had no rights to enforce a contract that benefited him . This ruling was quickly reversed , and decisions immediately after used the original rule .
Over the next 200 years , different judges provided different decisions as to whether or not a third party could enforce a contract that benefited them . The dispute ended in 1861 with Tweddle v Atkinson [ 1861 ] 121 ER 762 , which confirmed that a third party could not enforce a contract that benefited him . This decision was affirmed by the House of Lords in Dunlop Pneumatic Tyre v Selfridge and Co Ltd [ 1915 ] AC 847 in 1915 , where Lord Haldane stated that only a person who was party to a contract could sue on it . This version of the doctrine is commonly known as the original or basic doctrine .
= = = Criticism of the original doctrine = = =
The second rule of privity , that a third party cannot claim benefits from a contract , was widely criticised by academics , members of the judiciary and legal professionals . One problem was that the rule made no exceptions for cases where it was obviously intended for the third party to claim a benefit , such as in Beswick v Beswick , where an uncle gave his nephew a business , on the condition that the nephew would pay the uncle a certain amount per week , and in the event of the uncle 's death , give a similar amount to his widow .
A second argument used to undermine the doctrine of privity was to point out the large number of exceptions to the rule created by Acts of Parliament , which seemed to indicate that Parliament itself had an issue with the doctrine . Critics also argued that with the large number of inconsistencies and exceptions with the doctrine of privity , it was " bad " law , as it provided no reliable rule ; the way that the law works in theory is hugely different from how it is enforced in the courts . The doctrine is also not found in many other legal systems , such as that of the United States .
The doctrine came under criticism from many academics and judges , including Lord Scarman , Lord Denning , Lord Reid and Arthur Linton Corbin , and Stephen Guest wrote that " [ I ] t is said that it serves only to defeat the legitimate expectations of the third party , that it undermines the social interest of the community in the security of bargains and it is commercially inconvenient " .
= = Formation = =
The first proposal to reform the doctrine of privity was made in 1937 ; the Law Revision Committee in their Sixth Interim Report , proposed an Act of Parliament that would allow third parties to enforce terms of a contract that specified that they were allowed . The report was not acted on – as late as 1986 the assumption was that Parliament would not act , and any reform would come from judicial sources ( particularly the House of Lords ) . In 1991 @.@ the Law Commission published Consultation Paper No. 121 " Privity of Contract : Contracts for the Benefit of Third Parties " , which proposed a similar change , and , in July 1996 , the final report ( No. 242 ) , along with a draft bill , were published . The proposed changes were supported by the legal profession and academics alike . The bill was introduced to the House of Lords on 3 December 1998 , and , during its second reading , was jokingly offered to Lord Denning as a birthday present due to his fight to overturn the doctrine of privity . It was moved to the House of Commons on 14 June , and it received the Royal Assent on 11 November 1999 .
= = Provisions = =
= = = Section 1 : Right of third party to enforce contractual term = = =
Section 1 of the Act overrides the old common law rule that a third party could not enforce the terms of a contract , as established in Dunlop Pneumatic Tyre Co Ltd v Selfridge & Co Ltd , and also the rule that a third party could not act against the promisor , established in Tweddle v Atkinson . It allows a third party to enforce terms of a contract in one of two situations : firstly if the third party is specifically mentioned in the contract as someone authorised to do so , and secondly if the contract " purports to confer a benefit " on him .
An exception to the second rule involves contracts that include language barring third parties from applying the rule . Another exception applies to contracts between solicitors and their clients to write wills , something governed by White v Jones [ 1995 ] 2 AC 207 . After the Act was first published , Guenter Treitel argued that in a situation where the promisor felt that the second rule had been wrongly applied by a statement in the contract , the onus would be on him to prove it . In Nisshin Shipping Co Ltd v Cleaves & Co Ltd [ 2003 ] EWHC 2602 , the High Court supported Treitel 's reasoning .
The second situation , that a third party can enforce terms that " purport to confer a benefit on him " , has been described by Meryll Dean as too broad , and one view put forward in the parliamentary debates was that it was " un @-@ workable " in situations such as complex construction contracts involving dozens of sub @-@ contractors with chains of contracts among them . This argument , and a proposal to exempt the construction industry from the Act , was rejected by both the Law Commission and Parliament . The phrase " purport to confer a benefit " was originally found in the 1937 Law Commission paper , and was used in the New Zealand Contracts ( Privity ) Act 1982 before it was adopted for the English Act .
The third party must be identified by name or as a member of a particular group , and does not need to exist when the contract was made . This can cause problems , however – if , for example , a party ( party A ) enters a contract to have another party ( party B ) construct a building , and A later sells the building to C who finds that it has structural problems , C has no cause of action against B because he was not named in the original contract .
If a third party chooses to enforce the terms of a contract , he can do so against the promisor and has the right to any remedy that would be available if he was party to the contract , such as specific performance . An exception to this is the ability to terminate the contract and have it rendered void , since the Law Commission believed that " the third party should not be entitled to terminate the contract for breach as this may be contrary to the promisee 's wishes or interests " .
Although the topic is not discussed in the Law Commission 's report or the bill itself , it is generally considered that the third party has no rights against the promisee , regardless of his rights against the promisor . Andrew Burrows , who prepared the Law Commission 's report , said that the third party does not acquire rights against the promisee , something Guenter Treitel has also suggested . A different stance is taken in Scots law , where a promisee has a duty to the third party to ensure performance of the contract .
= = = Section 2 : Variation and rescission of contract = = =
Section 2 of the Act governs changes to and rescission of contracts . It prevents parties to a contract rescinding it or altering it to remove or modify the terms that affect the third party if the third party has told the promisor that he " assents " to the term , or that he has relied on the contract ( and the promisor knows this , or could be expected to have known this ) . This is only the default position ; the Act allows parties to insert clauses into the contract which allow them to rescind or alter the contract without the consent of the third party if they so choose . The courts can ignore the consent of the third party and allow the promisor and promisee to change the contract if the third party is mentally incapable , unfindable or if it is impossible to tell if the third party has truly consented . At the same time the courts may add conditions to that decision , such as requiring the promisor or promisee to pay the third party compensation .
Assenting is considered complete when the third party " communicates " his assent to the promisor , which can be done in a variety of ways , including by post . The contract may specify the communication method ( s ) , and if it does , any other method is not valid .
The third party does not have to have suffered a detriment from his " reliance " ; it is enough that he has simply relied on the contract . It must be the third party who relied on the term , rather than another party closely related to the third party . If the third party relies on the terms of the contract , which are then breached , he can not only claim damages for any loss he suffered from relying on the contract but also for " standard " damages , such as loss of profit .
= = = Section 3 : Defences available to promisor = = =
Section 3 covers the defences available to the promisor if the third party brings an action against him . In a dispute between the promisor and the third party over a term , the promisor can rely on any defence he would have if the dispute was with the promisee , as long as the defence is applicable to the term under dispute . The Law Commission directly rejected the suggestion that the promisor should have every defence in a dispute with a third party that he would have in a dispute with the promisee ( regardless of whether or not it could be applied to the disputed term ) . Part III is directly modelled on the similar section of the New Zealand Contracts ( Privity ) Act 1982 .
The Act allows the promisor to list additional defences that can be used against the third party in the contract , which can be used to get around the Law Commission 's decision not to give the promisor equal defences against both the third party and promisee by simply listing those additional defences the promisor would like access to .
The Act takes a different attitude for the defences available to the third party in counterclaims , with the Law Commission saying that to apply the same rules would be " misleading and unnecessarily complex " . This is because the counterclaim may be more valuable than the original claim , which would impose an obligation on the third party to pay the promisor money , something not appropriate under the doctrine of privity which prohibits the placing of a burden or obligation on a third party . Again , the parties to the contract can insert a clause overriding this .
= = = Section 4 : Enforcement of contract by promisee = = =
Section 4 preserves the right of the promisee to enforce any term of the contract . This allows the promisee to sue for any losses to themselves , but not for losses of the third party .
= = = Section 5 : Protection of promisor from double liability = = =
Section 5 helps protect the promisor from double liability ( having to pay two sets of damages for the same breach , one to the third party and one to the promisee ) if the promisor breaches the contract . It does so in a very limited way , though – the promisor is only protected if he has first paid damages to the promisee , and the third party 's claim comes after that . In addition the Act only limits damages paid in this situation , it does not eliminate them . If the promisee brings an action against the promisor and wins , any damages paid to the third party in a subsequent action must take the previous damages paid to the promisee into account .
If the third party brings an action , and the promisee does so afterwards then the promisee cannot claim any damages . This is because the Law Commission felt that if the third party claimed compensation for the breach , the promisee would have no interest in the dispute any more . This fails to take into account situations where the promisee has suffered personal loss from the breach of contract . If the promisee brings an action first then the third party is prohibited from doing so , unless the promisee 's action fails , in which case the third party is free to pursue his own claim .
= = = Section 6 : Exceptions = = =
Section 6 creates exceptions to the scope of the Act . While the Act applies to standard contracts and contracts made by deeds , it does not apply to contracts made as a part of negotiable instruments , bills of exchange or promissory notes , or contracts governed by the Companies Act 1985 , such as articles of association . The Act also excludes contracts for the transport of goods across national lines , as these fall under international trade laws , and terms in an employment contract which allow a third party to sue an employee . These were excluded for one of two reasons – either the position of third parties in those types of contract are too well established to be changed easily , or there are reasons of public policy that make it a bad idea to allow the involvement of third parties , such as contracts of employment .
= = = Section 7 : Supplementary provisions relating to third party = = =
Section 7 includes supplementary provisions relating to the rights of third parties . In particular it prevents third parties from using the definition of " third party " in this Act when applying any other Act of Parliament , and excludes the section of the Unfair Contract Terms Act 1977 that covers negligence from applying to actions against a third party . At the same time , Section 7 ( 1 ) ensures that any exceptions to the rule of privity which existed prior to the 1999 Act remain valid .
= = = Section 8 : Arbitration provisions = = =
The Act allows the insertion of arbitration clauses , which require the parties to submit to specific arbitration procedures in the event of disputes . The Law Commission initially excluded arbitration clauses from the Act , but later amended their draft bill so as to allow third parties to take advantage of arbitration proceedings . The provisions on arbitration clauses were not received well during the bill 's passage through Parliament , and were described as " very messy " , " a labyrinth " and " a mire " . The Commission initially proposed that jurisdiction clauses be specifically excluded from the Act . During the bill 's passage through Parliament , however , this exclusion disappeared , and the Act 's explanatory notes assume that the Act covers jurisdiction clauses .
= = = Section 9 : Northern Ireland = = =
Section 9 takes into account the differences between English and Northern Irish law , and modifies how the Act should be interpreted in Northern Ireland . Particularly it replaces the use of " Companies Act 1985 " in Part VI with the Northern Irish equivalent , the Companies ( Northern Ireland ) Order 1986 . Part IX also repeals sections 5 and 6 of the Law Reform ( Husband and Wife ) ( Northern Ireland ) Act 1964 .
= = Scope and implementation = =
The Act applies in England and Wales and Northern Ireland , but not Scotland , which has its own rules on privity and the rights of third parties . The Act came into law on 11 November 1999 when it received the Royal Assent , but the full provisions of the Act did not come into force until May 2000 . The act made clear that contracts negotiated during a six @-@ month " twilight period " after the act 's passage fell under its provisions if they included language saying that they had been made under the terms of the act .
The Act had various consequences – as well as allowing third parties to enforce terms it also made a number of exceptions to the basic rule unnecessary , such as claiming on behalf of another party as seen in Jackson v Horizon Holidays Ltd [ 1975 ] 1 WLR 1468 . It did not repeal or abolish these exceptions , however , and this allows the courts to accept cases based on the old common law exceptions as well as the 1999 Act . The Act specifically allows parties to exempt the provisions of the Act from contracts , allowing them a way out if they so choose .
The reaction from the judiciary , legal profession and academia was largely supportive of the Act ; the doctrine of privity had long been thought unfair . The act has been criticised somewhat by the construction industry for its refusal to make an exception for complex construction contracts , and for the vagueness of the term " purports to confer a benefit " . It is generally accepted , however , that it would be unfair to make an exception for a particular industry , and case law has clarified the meaning of " purports to confer a benefit " . Nonetheless , the construction industry continues to prefer collateral warranties , not least so that all parties can ' hold a piece of paper ' as clear evidence of their intent , but also because of the failure under the standard form contracts to insist on liability insurance for the parties and the rather conservative nature of the construction industry .
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= Chemical Bank =
Chemical Bank was a bank with headquarters in New York City from 1824 until 1996 . The bank operated as the primary subsidiary of the Chemical Banking Corporation , a bank holding company established in 1988 . At the end of 1995 , Chemical was the third largest bank in the U.S. with approximately $ 182 @.@ 9 billion in assets .
Beginning in 1920 but accelerating in the 1980s and 1990s , Chemical was a leading consolidator of the banking industry in the United States , acquiring Chase Manhattan Bank , Manufacturers Hanover , Texas Commerce Bank and Corn Exchange Bank among others . Following Chemical 's acquisition of Chase , the bank adopted the venerable Chase brand . What had been Chemical Bank is now a foundational component of what today is JPMorgan Chase .
Chemical Bank was headquartered in New York City with more than 39 @,@ 000 employees globally as of the end of 1995 .
= = Overview of the company = =
Chemical Bank was the principal operating subsidiary of the Chemical Banking Corporation , a bank holding company . As of the end of 1995 , prior to its merger with the Chase Manhattan Bank , Chemical was the third largest bank in the United States in terms of total assets with $ 182 @.@ 9 billion of assets . The Chemical Banking Corporation was the fifth largest bank holding company in terms of total assets .
Of Chemical 's $ 182 @.@ 9 billion of total assets , the bank held approximately $ 82 @.@ 1 billion of loans , representing a balance between mortgage loans and other consumer loans as well as commercial loans in the U.S. and internationally . Among Chemical 's largest international exposure was to Japan , Germany and the United Kingdom . The other assets on the bank 's balance sheet included cash as well as various debt and equity securities .
Chemical reported record net income of $ 1 @.@ 8 billion for 1995 . Chemical 's level of capital at the end of 1995 remained strong , with capital adequacy ratios well in excess of regulatory requirements . The Corporation 's Tier 1 and Total Capital ratios were 8 @.@ 5 % and 12 @.@ 1 % , respectively .
Chemical was one of the leading banks in the U.S. , active both in corporate banking as well as retail banking . Within retail banking , Chemical provided personal and commercial checking accounts , savings and time deposit accounts , personal loans , consumer financing and mortgage banking as well as trust and estate administration .
Chemical 's corporate banking business provided a wide variety business loans , leasing , real estate financing , money transfer and cash management among other services . Chemical was among the leading bank lenders to small and medium @-@ sized businesses . Chemical also had a significant presence in investment banking as well as underwriting corporate debt and equity securities .
= = = Lines of business = = =
Prior to its merger with Chase , Chemical was structured into two operating segments : the Global Bank and Consumer & Relationship Banking .
Global Bank The Global Bank serviced the bank 's large corporate clients was made up of a traditional investment banking division , known as Global Banking & Investment Banking as well as a sales and trading division , known as Global Markets . Global Banking & Investment Banking performed advisory services such as mergers and acquisitions and restructuring as well as capital raising functions , such as leveraged loan syndication , high yield financing and other debt and equity underwriting . The bank 's private equity and venture capital functions were also housed in this division . Global Markets was primarily focused on sales and trading activities , foreign exchange dealing ; derivatives trading and structuring , risk management and other market related functions . In 1995 , Chemicals Global Bank revenue was roughly balanced between investment banking and markets activities
Consumer & Relationship Banking . Consumer and Relationship Banking was made up of a number of businesses including consumer banking , commercial banking ; credit cards ; mortgage banking ( and other consumer finance , i.e. – home equity loans , student loans ) as well as a number of smaller businesses . Chemical maintained a leading market share position in providing financial services to middle market companies nationally and small businesses in the New York metropolitan area . This division also included a small private banking business , although Chemical was not a leading player in this market .
= = = Offices = = =
The bank opened its first offices at 216 Broadway in Downtown New York in 1824 at the corner of Ann Street . In 1848 the bank agreed to sell its building to its neighbor Barnum 's American Museum ( the building collapsed during Barnum 's subsequent remodeling ) and in 1850 the bank moved into its newly constructed headquarters at 270 Broadway . Chemical bought additional land adjacent its 270 Broadway building in 1879 and 1887 but its offices remained modest through the start of the 20th century .
In 1907 the bank constructed a new headquarters on the original and adjacent properties at 270 Broadway . In 1921 , Chemical acquired a 13 @-@ Story building belonging to the Shoe & Leather Bank on Broadway , next door to and surrounded by its existing properties . Despite expanding its 1907 headquarters over the years , by the mid @-@ 1920s Chemical was in need of additional space to accommodate its growth and reflect its increasing profile .
In 1926 , the bank made plans to move again , this time constructing a new six story location at 165 Broadway , on the corner of Broadway and Cortlandt Street , closer to the Financial District . Chemical moved into its new headquarters in 1928 , after completion of the building , and the bank 's headquarters would remain at that location for more than five decades .
Under Chairman Donald Platten , Chemical 's headquarters was to move to 277 Park Avenue in 1979 . The bank moved across Park Avenue in 1991 to occupy the former headquarters of Manufacturers Hanover Corporation at 270 Park Avenue , which is still the headquarters of Chemical 's successor , JPMorgan Chase . However , JPMorgan Chase returned to 277 Park Avenue in 2000 , following the departure of its previous tenant , Donaldson Lufkin & Jenrette . In 2008 , following JPMorgan 's acquisition of Bear Stearns , the bank relocated its investment banking groups from Chemical 's old headquarters to 383 Madison Avenue .
= = History = =
= = = Founding and early history = = =
The company was founded in 1823 as the New York Chemical Manufacturing Company by Balthazar P. Melick together with the original directors of the company , John C. Morrison , Mark Spenser , Gerardus Post , James Jenkins , William A. Seely and William Stebbins . Additionally , Joseph Sampson , although not a director was among the largest of the original shareholders of the bank . The founders used the manufacturing company , which produced chemicals such as blue vitriol , alum , nitric acid , camphor and saltpeter , as well as medicines , paints , and dyes as a means to securing a bank charter from the New York State legislature . During the 1820s , prospective bankers found that they were more likely to be able to successfully secure a charter if the bank were part of a larger business . The following year , in April 1824 , the company successfully amended its charter to allow Chemical to begin its banking practice . As a result , Chemical Bank was originally a division of the New York Chemical Manufacturing Company . Balthazar Melick was named the first president of the bank , which catered to merchants in New York City .
John Mason became a shareholder of the bank in 1826 and would serve as Chemical 's second president . Mason , who would later be referred to as " the father of the Chemical Bank , " and was one of the richest merchants of his day in New York , succeeded Baltus Melick in 1831 . Mason was responsible for establishing the highly conservative business culture of the young bank that would persist for nearly 90 years . For its first twenty @-@ five years , the bank paid no dividends , nor did it pay interest on its customers ' deposits . Mason was also responsible for leading Chemical through the Panic of 1837 . When a speculative bubble collapsed on May 10 , 1837 , banks suspended payment of gold and silver . Although twenty years later , Chemical would stand alone and continue to make payments in specie , in this crisis the bank followed others in suspending payments . Chemical was one of the earliest to resume payments in specie .
Mason died on September 26 , 1839 , but his legacy of conservatism was taken on by his successors . Isaac Jones and later his cousin John Quentin Jones would lead Chemical , both serving as president , across the next forty years through 1878 . Both Isaac and John Jones had close connections to John Mason , particularly Isaac who married one of John Mason 's three daughters . The Mason and Jones families would maintain effective control of Chemical for much of its first five decades . John Q. Jones was succeeded in 1878 by George G. Williams , who had joined the bank in 1842 and served as cashier of the bank from 1855 onward . In that position , Williams was also inculcated in Chemical 's conservative style of banking . Williams would serve as president from 1878 through 1903 .
In 1844 , when New York Chemical Manufacturing Company 's original charter expired , the chemical company was liquidated and was reincorporated as a bank only , becoming the Chemical Bank of New York in 1844 . Among the bank 's first directors under its new charter were Cornelius Roosevelt , John D. Wolfe , Isaac Platt and Bradish Johnson , as well as the bank 's president John Q. Jones . The company sold all remaining inventories from the chemical division as well as real estate holdings by 1851 .
Two years later , in 1853 , Chemical became a charter member of the New York Clearing House , the first and largest bank clearing house in the U.S. Two Chemical presidents would also serve as head of the clearing house , with John Q. Jones serving from 1865 – 1871 and George G. Williams serving in 1886 and from 1893 – 1894 .
During the Panic of 1857 , Chemical Bank earned the nickname " Old Bullion " by taking a stand that it would continue to redeem its bank notes in specie throughout the crisis . The panic , which had hit banks and caused a number of failures , led banks across the country to suspend specie payments and turn to issuing paper promissory notes . Chemical 's decision was highly unpopular among its fellow banks and led to the bank 's temporary suspension from the New York Clearing House , of which Chemical was a charter member . While hundreds of banks closed , including 18 banks in New York in a single day , Chemical developed a reputation for stability . This reputation proved extremely important in Chemical 's growth during subsequent recessions during the 1860s . Chemical frequently used the refrain " Good as gold then , good as gold today " in advertisements from the 1860s well into the 20th century .
Chemical received its national charter as the Chemical National Bank of New York in 1865 , at the urging of the secretary of the treasury . This allowed Chemical to issue government @-@ backed national bank notes , the forerunner to paper money . By the early 1870s , Chemical had accumulated deposits in excess of $ 6 million .
A contemporary perspective of Chemical from 1893 described the bank as follows :
The Chemical National Bank is a famous corporation . Its stock commands a greater price in proportion to its par value than any other bank stock . It has the greatest surplus and undivided profits , with a single exception , of any bank in the country . It has the largest amount of individual deposits . It pays the largest percentage of dividends on its par value of any corporation of any kind ... The shares of the bank based on $ 100 par value have sold as high as $ 4 @,@ 980 each .
= = = 1900 – 1946 = = =
By the first decade of the 20th century , Chemical had one of the strongest reputations in banking but as a business was in decline , losing accounts each year . Unlike many of its peers , Chemical had been reluctant to expand into securities and other businesses and had not paid interest on bank accounts . Both practices , considered to be highly conservative , had allowed Chemical to develop a large capital reserve but were not attracting customers . William H. Porter , a prominent banker of the era , was named president of the bank in 1903 after the death of the previous president George G. Williams . Porter would leave Chemical seven years later to become a partner at J.P. Morgan & Co. in 1910 and was succeeded by Joseph B. Martindale , who was named president in 1911 .
In 1917 , Chemical named a new president of the bank , Herbert Twitchell , after the death of Joseph B. Martindale . It was uncovered , just months after Martindale 's death , that the former Chemical president had stolen as much as $ 300 @,@ 000 from the account of Ellen D. Hunt , a niece of Wilson G. Hunt .
Twitchell initiated a major turnaround of Chemical , setting up a trust business and reversing Chemical 's policy of not paying interest on cash accounts . These steps along with other initiatives , resulted in an increase in deposits from $ 35 million to $ 81 million by 1920 . In 1920 , Twitchell was succeeded by Percy H. Johnston and remained with the bank as chairman of the board . Johnston would hold the presidency of the bank through 1946 at which time the bank had grown to become the seventh largest in the U.S.
In 1920 , Chemical completed its first major acquisition , merging with Citizens National Bank . The acquisition of Citizens National , a small New York commercial bank , increased Chemical 's assets to more than $ 200 million with more than $ 140 million of deposits . In 1923 Chemical established its first branch and by the end of the 1920s had opened a dozen branches in Manhattan and Brooklyn as well as a branch in London , its first international presence .
In 1929 , Chemical reincorporated as a state bank in New York as Chemical Bank & Trust Company and merged with the United States Mortgage & Trust Company , headquartered on the Madison Avenue and 74th Street . During the Depression @-@ era of the 1930s , Chemical 's deposits grew by more than 40 % and in 1941 , the bank reached $ 1 billion of assets . During this period , Chemical also established Chemical National Company a securities underwriting business .
= = = 1947 – 1979 = = =
In 1947 , after the retirement of Percy Johnston , Harold Holmes Helm was named the new president of Chemical and would serve first as president and later as chairman of the bank for the next 18 years until his retirement in 1965 . Under Helm , Chemical completed a series of large mergers in the late 1940s and early 1950s that again made the bank among the largest in the U.S. In 1947 , Chemical merged with Continental Bank and Trust Company . Then in 1954 , Chemical would merge with the Corn Exchange Bank and only five years later merge again with the New York Trust Company .
Chemical completed its largest acquisition to that point , in 1954 , merging with the Corn Exchange Bank to become the Chemical Corn Exchange Bank . Founded in 1853 , the Corn Exchange Bank was based in New York City , but had built a network of branches in other states through the acquisition of community banks . The merger with the Corn Exchange Bank added 98 additional branches to Chemical 's system largely in the New York City and $ 774 million in deposits .
In 1959 , the bank , now known as Chemical Corn Exchange Bank , merged with New York Trust Company , effectively doubling the size of the company . New York Trust Company , which had a large trust and wholesale @-@ banking business , specialized in servicing large industrial accounts . At the time of the merger , Chemical Corn was the fourth largest bank in New York and New York Trust was the ninth largest bank and the merger created the third largest bank in New York , and the fourth largest in the U.S. with $ 3 @.@ 8 billion of assets . Following the merger , the bank dropped the usage of the " corn exchange " from the corporate name to become the Chemical Bank New York Trust Company .
In 1968 , Chemical reorganized itself as a bank holding company which allowed for more rapid expansion . Throughout the early 1960s Chemical had begun to expand into New York 's suburbs , opening branches on Long Island and in Westchester County . However , by the late 1960s and early 1970s , Chemical was focused on building its international business . In these years , Chemical opened new offices in Frankfurt , Germany ( 1969 ) , Zurich , Switzerland ( 1971 ) , Brussels , Belgium ( 1971 ) , Paris , France ( 1971 ) and Tokyo , Japan ( 1972 ) .
In 1975 , Chemical acquired Security National Bank , which had a branch network on Long Island .
= = = 1980s = = =
Chemical continued pursuing acquisitions , throughout the 1980s notably its acquisitions of Texas Commerce Bank ( 1986 ) and Horizon Bancorp ( 1986 ) as well as its attempted takeover of Florida National Bank ( 1982 ) .
Chemical and Florida National Bank agreed , in 1982 , to enter into a merger , after laws preventing interstate banking were lifted , giving Chemical an option to acquire the business . In February , 1982 , Southeast Banking Corporation ( SBC ) , which had been rebuffed in its attempted to acquire Florida National sued to obtain an injunction against the Chemical merger . In early 1983 , Southeast Banking Corporation dropped its takeover attempt and agreed to exchange their Florida National shares for 24 FNB branch offices and other consideration . Following the deal with SBC , Florida National was cleared to merge with Chemical , however interstate banking acquisitions were still prohibited by Federal law and required state legislative approval . With the 1990 deadline running out for its option to buy Florida National and no sign of state legislative approval , Chemical Bank sold their 4 @.@ 9 % interest to First Union Corporation for $ 115 million .
Chemical completed its largest transaction of the 1980s in December 1986 , when the bank agreed to acquire Texas Commerce Bank . The $ 1 @.@ 1 billion transaction represented the largest interstate banking merger in U.S. history to that time . Texas Commerce , which was officially acquired in May 1987 , was one of the largest bank holding companies in the Southwestern U.S. , with a strong presence in corporate banking for small and medium @-@ sized businesses . Chemical did not seek Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation backing for its acquisition of Texas Commerce although other large Texas banks , First RepublicBank Corporation ( Acquired by NationsBank ) and MCorp Bank ( acquired by Bank One ) , received over $ 5 billion of support . Ultimately Chemical contributed $ 300 million to shore Texas Commerce as it continued to suffer losses .
Also in 1986 , Chemical agreed to a merger with New Jersey @-@ based Horizon Bancorp , although the merger was not completed until 1989 , due again to interstate banking rules .
The bank 's holding company , which had been the Chemical New York Corporation was renamed the Chemical Banking Corporation in 1988 following its series of out of state mergers and acquisitions , including Texas Commerce Bank and Horizon Bancorp .
It was during this period , in the 1980s and early 1990s , that Chemical emerged as one of the leaders in the financing of leveraged buyout transactions . By the late 1980s , Chemical developed its reputation for financing buyouts , building a syndicated leveraged finance business and related advisory businesses under the auspices of pioneering investment banker , Jimmy Lee . It was not until 1993 that Chemical would permission to underwrite corporate bonds , however within a few years , Chemical ( and later Chase ) became a major underwriter of below @-@ investment @-@ grade debt under Lee . Additionally , in 1984 , Chemical launched Chemical Venture Partners to invest in private equity transactions alongside various financial sponsors .
= = = 1990s = = =
In July 1991 , Chemical announced that it would acquire Manufacturers Hanover Corporation in a $ 135 billion merger transaction . At the time of the merger , Chemical and Manufacturers Hanover were the sixth and ninth largest banks , respectively , by assets . The transaction , when it closed at the end of 1991 , made the combined bank , which retained the Chemical name , the second largest bank in the U.S. , behind Citicorp both in terms of assets and customers ( approximately 1 @.@ 2 million household accounts in 1991 ) . Chemical adopted Manufacturers Hanover 's logo design and moved into its headquarters at 270 Park Avenue in New York . In corporate banking , Manufacturers Hanover was better established with larger , blue @-@ chip companies , whereas Chemical had been stronger with small- and medium @-@ sized businesses .
Nationally , the combined Chemical Bank became one of the largest lenders to U.S. companies and was arguably the leader in loan syndication globally . Additionally , Chemical took a leading role providing foreign exchange , interest rate and currency swaps , corporate finance services , cash management , corporate and institutional trust , trade services and funds transfer . Chemical operated one of the nation 's largest bank credit card franchises and was a major originator and servicer of home mortgages .
In 1996 , Chemical acquired Chase Manhattan Corporation in a merger valued at $ 10 billion to create the largest financial institution in the United States . Although Chemical was the acquiring company and the nominal survivor , the merged bank adopted the Chase name , which was considered to be better known , particularly internationally . Chase , which at its height had been the largest bank in the U.S. , had fallen to sixth , while Chemical was the third largest bank at the time of the merger . The merger resulted in the reduction of more than 12 @,@ 000 jobs between the two banks and merger related expenses of approximately $ 1 @.@ 9 billion .
The bank continued to operate under the Chase brand until its acquisition of J.P. Morgan & Co. in December 2000 to form JPMorgan Chase & Co . Throughout all of these acquisitions , Chemical 's original management team , led by Walter V. Shipley , remained in charge of the bank . When the combined bank purchased J.P. Morgan & Co . , William B. Harrison , Jr . , who had been a longtime Chemical executive , was named CEO of the combined firm . Additionally , many of Chemical 's businesses remained intact through the various mergers . Chemical 's private equity group for example , was renamed multiple times , ultimately becoming JP Morgan Partners before completing a spin @-@ out from the bank , as CCMP Capital , after the bank 's 2004 merger with Bank One . Additionally , JPMorgan Chase retains Chemical 's pre @-@ 1996 stock price history , as well as Chemical 's old headquarters at 270 Park Avenue .
= = = Acquisition history = = =
= = = Electronic banking = = =
Chemical was among the pioneers of electronic online banking . On September 2 , 1969 , Chemical installed the first automated teller machine ( ATM ) at its branch in Rockville Centre , New York . The first ATMs were designed to dispense a fixed amount of cash when a user inserted a specially coded card . A Chemical Bank advertisement boasted " On Sept . 2 our bank will open at 9 : 00 and never close again . " Chemical 's ATM , initially known as a Docuteller , was designed by Donald Wetzel and his company Docutel . Chemical executives were initially hesitant about the electronic banking transition given the high cost of the early machines . Additionally , executives were concerned that customers would resist having machines handling their money .
In 1982 , Chemical initiated the first personal computer based banking system when it launched a pilot electronic banking program called Pronto . Chemical had spent $ 20 million to develop the software for Pronto . The system , which worked with the ATARI console , began in New York and served 200 Chemical Bank customers . Pronto was an extension of other electronic banking services offered by Chemical that included a corporate cash @-@ management system and its growing ATM network and was one of the largest early forays by a bank into home computer based banking . However , a year after launching Pronto only 21 @,@ 000 of Chemical 's 1 @.@ 15 million customers were using the system , in large part due to the high monthly subscription costs that Chemical charged customers to use it . By 1985 , it was clear that Pronto , which was heavily promoted by Chemical , was growing much slower than anticipated .
In 1985 , Chemical and BankAmerica , another pioneer in electronic banking , entered into a joint venture with AT & T Corporation and Time Inc . , known as Covidea , to market banking and discount stock @-@ brokerage services to computer @-@ equipped households . By combining resources and sharing costs , the four firms hope to reduce the risk of large and protracted losses . Eventually Chemical discontinued its efforts in 1989 at a loss of nearly $ 30 million .
= = Notable employees and executives = =
= = = Executives and directors = = =
William B. Harrison , Jr . , later CEO of JPMorgan Chase
James B. Lee , Jr . , investment banker and senior executive at JPMorgan Chase , notable for his role in the development of the leveraged finance markets in the U.S.
Robert I. Lipp , partner of Brysam Global Partners , a private equity firm , and former member of the board of JPMorgan Chase
John McGillicuddy , former chairman and CEO of Manufacturers Hanover
John Mason , early shareholder and second president of Chemical Bank
Balthazar P. Melick , founder and first president of Chemical Bank
John L. Notter , international financier and developer , former director
Cornelius Roosevelt , original director of Chemical Bank of New York when it was rechartered in 1844
Emlen Roosevelt , cousin of Theodore Roosevelt and president of Roosevelt & Son
James A. Roosevelt , uncle of Theodore Roosevelt and founder of Roosevelt & Son
Walter V. Shipley , former Chairman and CEO of Chemical and later Chase Manhattan Bank and Chairman of JPMorgan Chase
= = = Other former employees = = =
Henry B. R. Brown , the originator of the world 's first money market fund
Granger K. Costikyan , founder of Costikyan Freres
Alan H. Fishman , the last CEO of Washington Mutual before the bank was seized in 2008
Ford M. Fraker , former ambassador to Saudi Arabia
Abraham George , businessman , academic , and philanthropist and founder of The George Foundation
Espen Gaarder Haug , author , quantitative trader and arbitrageur specializing in options and other derivatives
Kathryn V. Marinello , former President and CEO of Ceridian Corporation
Darla Moore , partner of Rainwater , Inc. and wife of Richard Rainwater
Nancy Naples , director of Amtrak
Peggy Post , an American author and consultant on etiquette
Pat Toomey , United States Senator from Pennsylvania
Kathleen Waldron , an American author , financial executive and educator
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= Arrest and assassination of Ngo Dinh Diem =
The arrest and assassination of Ngô Đình Diệm , the president of South Vietnam , marked the culmination of a successful CIA @-@ backed coup d 'état led by General Dương Văn Minh in November 1963 . On 2 November 1963 , Diệm and his adviser , his younger brother Ngô Đình Nhu , were arrested after the Army of the Republic of Vietnam ( ARVN ) had been successful in a bloody overnight siege on Gia Long Palace in Saigon . The coup was the culmination of nine years of autocratic and nepotistic family rule in South Vietnam . Discontent with the Diệm regime had been simmering below the surface , and exploded with mass Buddhist protests against long @-@ standing religious discrimination after the government shooting of protesters who defied a ban on the flying of the Buddhist flag .
When rebel forces entered the palace , the Ngô brothers were not present , having escaped before to a loyalist shelter in Cholon . The brothers had kept in communication with the rebels through a direct link from the shelter to the palace , and misled them into believing that they were still in the palace . The Ngô brothers soon agreed to surrender and were promised safe exile ; after being arrested , they were instead executed in the back of an armoured personnel carrier by ARVN officers on the journey back to military headquarters at Tân Sơn Nhứt Air Base . While no formal inquiry was conducted , the responsibility for the deaths of the Ngô brothers is commonly placed on Minh 's bodyguard , Captain Nguyễn Văn Nhung , and on Major Dương Hiếu Nghĩa , both of whom guarded the brothers during the trip . Minh 's army colleagues and U.S. officials in Saigon agreed that Minh ordered the executions . They postulated various motives , including that the brothers had embarrassed Minh by fleeing the Gia Long Palace , and that the brothers were killed to prevent a later political comeback . The generals initially attempted to cover up the execution by suggesting that the brothers had committed suicide , but this was contradicted when photos of the Ngôs ' corpses surfaced in the media .
= = Background = =
Diệm 's political career began in July 1954 , when he was appointed the Prime Minister of the State of Vietnam by former Emperor Bảo Đại , who was Head of State . At the time , Vietnam had been partitioned at the Geneva Conference after the defeat of the French Union forces at the Battle of Dien Bien Phu , with the State of Vietnam ruling the country south of the 17th parallel . The partition was intended to be temporary , with national elections scheduled for 1956 to create a government of a reunified nation . In the meantime , Diệm and Bảo Đại were locked in a power struggle . Bảo Đại disliked Diệm but selected him in the hope that he would attract American aid . The issue was brought to a head when Diệm scheduled a referendum for October 1955 on whether South Vietnam should become a republic . Diệm won the rigged referendum and proclaimed himself the President of the newly created Republic of Vietnam .
Diệm refused to hold the reunification elections , on the basis that the State of Vietnam was not a signatory to the Geneva Accords . He then proceeded to strengthen his autocratic and nepotistic rule over the country . A constitution was written by a rubber stamp legislature which gave Diệm the power to create laws by decree and arbitrarily give himself emergency powers . Dissidents , both communist and nationalist , were jailed and executed in the thousands , and elections were routinely rigged . Opposition candidates were threatened with being charged for conspiring with the Viet Cong , which carried the death penalty , and in many areas , large numbers of ARVN troops were sent to stuff ballot boxes .
Diệm kept the control of the nation firmly within the hands of his brothers and their in @-@ laws , and promotions in the ARVN were given on the basis of religion and loyalty rather than merit . Two unsuccessful attempts had been made to depose Diệm ; in 1960 , a paratroop revolt was quashed after Diệm stalled negotiations to buy time for loyalists to put down the coup attempt , while a 1962 palace bombing by two air force pilots failed to kill him . South Vietnam 's Buddhist majority had long been discontented with Diệm 's strong favoritism towards Catholics . Public servants and army officers had long been promoted on the basis of religious preference , and government contracts , U.S. economic assistance , business favors and tax concessions were preferentially given to Catholics . The Roman Catholic Church was the largest landowner in the country , and its holdings were exempt from land reform . In the countryside , Catholics were de facto exempt from performing corvée labour . Discontent with Diệm and Nhu exploded into mass protest during the summer of 1963 when nine Buddhists died at the hand of Diệm 's army and police on Vesak , the birthday of Gautama Buddha .
In May 1963 , a law against the flying of religious flags was selectively invoked ; the Buddhist flag was banned from display on Vesak while the Vatican flag was displayed to celebrate the anniversary of the consecration of Archbishop Pierre Martin Ngô Đình Thục , Diệm 's elder brother . The Buddhists defied the ban and a protest was ended when government forces opened fire . With Diệm remaining intransigent in the face of escalating Buddhist demands for religious equality , sections of society began calling for his removal from power . The key turning point came shortly after midnight on 21 August , when Nhu 's Special Forces raided and vandalised Buddhist pagodas across the country , arresting thousands of monks and causing a death toll estimated to be in the hundreds . Numerous coup plans had been explored by the army before , but the plotters intensified their activities with increased confidence after the administration of U.S. President John F. Kennedy authorised the U.S. embassy to explore the possibility of a leadership change .
= = Surrender and debate = =
At 13 : 30 on 1 November , Generals Dương Văn Minh and Trần Văn Đôn , respectively the Presidential Military Adviser and Army Chief of Staff , led a coup against Diệm , assisted by mutinous ARVN officers . The rebels had carefully devised plans to neutralise loyalist officers to prevent them from saving Diệm . Unknown to Diệm , General Đính , the supposed loyalist who commanded the ARVN III Corps that surrounded the Saigon area , had allied himself with the plotters of the coup . The second of Diệm 's most trusted loyalist generals was Huỳnh Văn Cao , who commanded the IV Corps in the Mekong Delta . Diệm and Nhu were aware of the coup plan , and Nhu responded by planning a counter @-@ coup , which he called Operation Bravo . This plan involved Đính and Colonel Tung , the loyalist commander of the Special Forces , staging a phony rebellion before their forces crushed the " uprising " to reaffirm the power of the Ngô family . Unaware that Đính was plotting against him , Nhu allowed Đính to organise troops as he saw fit , and Đính transferred the command of the Seventh Division from Cao 's IV Corps to his own III Corps . This allowed Colonel Nguyễn Hữu Có , Đính 's deputy , to take command of the 7th Division based at Mỹ Tho . The transfer allowed the rebels to completely encircle the capital and denied Cao the opportunity of storming Saigon and protecting Diệm , as he had done during the previous coup attempt in 1960 . Minh and Đôn had invited senior Saigon based officers to a meeting at Tân Sơn Nhứt Air Base , headquarters of the Joint General Staff ( JGS ) , on the pretext of routine business . Instead , they announced that a coup was underway , with only a few , including Tung , refusing to join . Tung was later forced at gunpoint to order his loyalist Special Forces to surrender . The coup went smoothly as the rebels quickly captured all key installations in Saigon and sealed incoming roads to prevent loyalist forces from entering . This left only the Presidential Guard to defend Gia Long Palace . The rebels attacked government and loyalist army buildings but delayed the attack on the palace , hoping that Diệm would resign and accept the offer of safe passage and exile . Diệm refused , vowing to reassert his control . After sunset , the 7th Division of Colonel Nguyễn Văn Thiệu , who later became the nation 's president , led an assault on Gia Long Palace and it fell by daybreak .
In the early morning of 2 November , Diệm agreed to surrender . The ARVN officers had intended to exile Diệm and Nhu , having promised the Ngô brothers safe passage out of the country . At 06 : 00 , just before dawn , the officers held a meeting at JGS headquarters to discuss the fate of the Ngô brothers . According to Lucien Conein , the U.S. Army officer and CIA operative who was the American liaison with the coup , most of the officers , including Minh , wanted Diệm to have an " honorable retirement " from office , followed by exile . Not all of the senior officers attended the meeting , with having already left to make arrangements for the arrival of Diệm and Nhu at JGS headquarters . General Lê , a former police chief under Diệm in the mid @-@ 1950s , strongly lobbied for Diệm 's execution . There was no formal vote taken at the meeting , and Lê attracted only minority support . One general was reported to have said " To kill weeds , you must pull them up at the roots " . Conein reported that the generals had never indicated that assassination was in their minds , since an orderly transition of power was a high priority in achieving their ultimate aim of gaining international recognition .
Minh and Đôn asked Conein to secure an American aircraft to take the brothers out of the country . Two days earlier , U.S. Ambassador to Vietnam , Henry Cabot Lodge Jr . , had alerted Washington that such a request was likely and recommended Saigon as the departure point . This request put the Kennedy administration in a difficult position , as the provision of an airplane would publicly tie it to the coup . When Conein telephoned David Smith , the acting chief of the Saigon CIA station , there was a ten @-@ minute delay . The U.S. government would not allow the aircraft to land in any country , unless that state was willing to grant asylum to Diệm . The United States did not want Diệm and Nhu to form a government in exile and wanted them far away from Vietnam . Assistant Secretary of State Roger Hilsman had written in August that " under no circumstances should the Nhus be permitted to remain in Southeast Asia in close proximity to Vietnam because of the plots they will mount to try to regain power . If the generals decide to exile Diệm , he should also be sent outside Southeast Asia . " He further went on to anticipate what he termed a " Götterdämmerung in the palace " .
We should encourage the coup group to fight the battle to the end and destroy the palace if necessary to gain victory . Unconditional surrender should be the terms for the Ngô family since it will otherwise seek to outmaneuver both the coups forces and the U.S. If the family is taken alive , the Nhus should be banished to France or any other country willing to receive them . Diệm should be treated as the generals wish .
After surrendering , Diệm called Lodge by telephone for the last time . Lodge did not report the conversation to Washington , so it was widely assumed that the pair last spoke on the previous afternoon when the coup was just starting . However , after Lodge died in 1985 , his aide , Colonel Mike Dunn said that Lodge and Diệm spoke for the last time around 07 : 00 on 2 November moments after Diệm surrendered . When Diệm called , Lodge " put [ him ] on hold " and then walked away . Upon his return , the ambassador offered Diệm and Nhu asylum , but would not arrange for transportation to the Philippines until the next day . This contradicted his earlier offer of asylum the previous day when he implored Diệm to not resist the coup . Dunn offered to personally go to the brothers ' hideout to escort him so that the generals could not kill him , but Lodge refused , saying , " We just can 't get that involved . " Dunn said , " I was really astonished that we didn 't do more for them . " Having refused to help the brothers to leave the country safely , Lodge later said after they had been shot , " What would we have done with them if they had lived ? Every Colonel Blimp in the world would have made use of them . "
Dunn also claimed that Lodge put Diệm on hold in order to inform Conein where the Ngô brothers were so the generals could capture them . When confronted about Dunn 's claim by a historian , Conein denied the account . It was also revealed that Conein had phoned the embassy early on the same morning to inquire about the generals ' request for a plane to transport Diệm and Nhu out of Saigon . One of Lodge 's staff told Conein that the plane would have to go directly to the faraway asylum @-@ offering country , so that the brothers could not disembark at a nearby stopover country and stay there to foment a counter @-@ coup . Conein was told that the nearest plane that was capable of such a long range flight was in Guam , and it would take 24 hours to make the necessary arrangements . Minh was astounded and told Conein that the generals could not hold Diệm for that period . Conein did not suspect a deliberate delay by the American embassy . In contrast , a U.S. Senate investigative commission in the early 1970s raised a provocative thought : " One wonders what became of the U.S. military aircraft that had been dispatched to stand by for Lodge 's departure , scheduled for the previous day . " The historian Mark Moyar suspected that Lodge could have flown Diệm to Clark Air Force Base in the Philippines , which was under American jurisdiction , before taking him to the final destination . Moyar speculated that " when Lodge had offered the jet the day before , he had done it to induce Diệm to give up at a time when the outcome of the insurrection was very much in doubt . Now that the coup clearly had succeeded , Lodge no longer needed to offer such an incentive . "
= = Intended arrest at Gia Long Palace = =
In the meantime , Minh left the JGS headquarters and traveled to Gia Long Palace in a sedan with his aide and bodyguard , Captain Nguyễn Văn Nhung . Minh had also dispatched a M @-@ 113 armored personnel carrier and four jeeps to Gia Long to transport Diệm and Nhu back to JGS headquarters . While Minh was on the way to supervise the takeover of the palace , Generals Đôn , Trần Thiện Khiêm and Lê Văn Kim prepared the army headquarters for Diệm 's arrival and the ceremonial handover of power to the junta . Diệm 's pictures were taken down and his statue was covered up . A large table covered with green felt was brought in with the intention of seating Diệm for the handover to Minh and Vice President Nguyễn Ngọc Thơ , who was to become the civilian Prime Minister during a nationally televised event witnessed by international media . Diệm and Nhu would then " ask " the generals to be granted exile and asylum in a foreign country , which would be granted . The brothers were then to be held in a secure place at JGS headquarters while awaiting deportation . Minh arrived at the palace at 08 : 00 in full military ceremonial uniform to supervise the arrest of Diệm and Nhu for the surrender ceremony .
= = Diệm 's escape = =
Minh instead arrived to find that the brothers were not in the palace . In anticipation of a coup , they had ordered the construction of three separate tunnels leading from Gia Long to remote areas outside the palace . Around 20 : 00 on the night of the coup , with only the Presidential Guard to defend them against mutinous infantry and armor units , Diệm and Nhu hurriedly packed American banknotes into a briefcase . They escaped through one of the tunnels with two loyalists : Air Force Lieutenant Ðỗ Thơ , Diệm 's aide @-@ de @-@ camp , who happened to be a nephew of Colonel Đỗ Mậu , the director of military security and a participant in the coup plot , and Xuân Vy , head of Nhu 's Republican Youth . After the coup , General Paul Harkins , the head of the U.S. presence in Vietnam , inspected the tunnel and noted that it " was so far down that I didn 't want to go down to walk up the thing " . The brothers emerged in a wooded area in a park near the Cercle Sportif , the city 's upper class sporting club , where they were picked up by a waiting Land Rover . Ellen Hammer disputes the tunnel escape , asserting that the Ngo brothers simply walked out of the building , which was not yet under siege . Hammer asserts that they walked past the tennis courts and left the palace grounds through a small gate at Le Thanh Ton Street and entered the car . The loyalists traveled through narrow back streets in order to evade rebel checkpoints and changed vehicles to a black Citroën sedan . After leaving the palace , Nhu was reported to have suggested to Diệm that the brothers split up , arguing that this would enhance their chances of survival . Nhu proposed that one of them travel to the Mekong Delta to join Cao 's IV Corps , while the other would travel to the II Corps of General Nguyễn Khánh in the Central Highlands . Nhu felt the rebel generals would not dare to kill one of them while the other was free , in case the surviving brother were to regain power . According to one account , Diệm was reported to have turned down Nhu , reasoning that " You cannot leave alone . They hate you too much ; they will kill you . Stay with me and I will protect you . " Another story holds that Diệm said " We have always been together during these last years . How could we separate during these last years ? How could we separate in this critical hour ? " Nhu agreed to remain with his brother .
The loyalists reached the home of Ma Tuyen in the Chinese business district of Cholon . Ma Tuyen was a Chinese merchant and friend who was reported to be Nhu 's main contact with the Chinese syndicates which controlled the opium trade . The brothers sought asylum from the embassy of the Republic of China , but were turned down and stayed in Ma Tuyen 's house as they appealed to ARVN loyalists and attempted to negotiate with the coup leaders . Nhu 's secret agents had fitted the home with a direct phone line to the palace , so the insurgent generals believed that the brothers were still besieged inside Gia Long . Neither the rebels nor the loyalist Presidential Guard had any idea that at 21 : 00 they were about to fight for an empty building . Minh was reported to be mortified when he realised that Diệm and Nhu had escaped during the night .
= = Arrest in Cholon = =
After Minh had ordered the rebels to search the areas known to have been frequented by the Ngo family , Colonel Phạm Ngọc Thảo was informed by a captured Presidential Guard officer that the brothers had escaped through the tunnels to a refuge in Cholon . Thảo was told by Khiêm , his superior , to locate Diệm and prevent him from being killed . When Thảo arrived at Ma Tuyen 's house , he phoned his superiors . Diệm and Nhu overheard him and Thơ drove them to the nearby Catholic church of St. Francis Xavier , which they had frequented over the years . Lieutenant Thơ died a few months later in a plane crash , but his diary was not found until 1970 . Thơ recorded Diệm 's words as they left the house of Ma Tuyen as being " I don 't know whether I will live or die and I don 't care , but tell Nguyễn Khánh that I have great affection for him and he should avenge me " . Soon after the early morning mass was celebrated for All Souls ' Day ( the Catholic day of the dead ) and after the congregation had left the building , the Ngô brothers walked through the shady courtyard and into the church wearing dark grey suits . It was speculated that they were recognised by an informant as they walked through the yard . Inside the church , the brothers prayed and received Communion .
A few minutes later , just after 10 : 00 , an armoured personnel carrier and two jeeps entered the narrow alcove housing the church building . Lieutenant Thơ , who had earlier urged Diệm to surrender , saying that he was sure that his uncle Đỗ Mậu , along with Đính and Khiêm , would guarantee their safety , wrote in his diary later " I consider myself responsible for having led them to their death " .
= = Convoy to JGS headquarters = =
The convoy was led by General Mai Hữu Xuân and consisted of Colonels Nguyễn Văn Quan and Dương Ngọc Lắm . Quan was the deputy of Minh and Lắm was the Commander of Diệm 's Civil Guard . Lắm had joined the coup once a rebel victory seemed assured . Two further officers made up the convoy : Major Dương Hiếu Nghĩa and Captain Nguyễn Văn Nhung . Nhung was Minh 's bodyguard .
Diệm requested that the convoy stop at the palace so that he could gather personal items before being exiled . Xuân turned him down , clinically stating that his orders were to take Diệm and Nhu directly to headquarters . Nhu expressed disgust that they were to be transported in an APC , asking , " You use such a vehicle to drive the president ? " Lắm assured them that the armour was for their own protection . Xuân said that it was selected to protect them from " extremists " . Xuân ordered the brothers ' hands be tied behind their backs before shoving them into the carrier . One officer asked to shoot Nhu , but Xuân turned him down .
= = Assassination = =
After the arrest , Nhung and Nghĩa sat with the brothers in the APC , and the convoy departed for Tân Sơn Nhứt . Before the convoy had departed for the church , Minh was reported to have gestured to Nhung with two fingers . This was taken to be an order to kill both brothers . The convoy stopped at a railroad crossing on the return trip , where by all accounts the brothers were assassinated . An investigation by Đôn determined that Nghĩa had shot the brothers at point @-@ blank range with a semi @-@ automatic firearm and that Nhung sprayed them with bullets before repeatedly stabbing the bodies with a knife .
Nghĩa gave his account of what occurred during the journey back to the military headquarters : " As we rode back to the Joint General Staff headquarters , Diệm sat silently , but Nhu and the captain [ Nhung ] began to insult each other . I don 't know who started it . The name @-@ calling grew passionate . The captain had hated Nhu before . Now he was charged with emotion . " Nghĩa said that when the convoy reached a train crossing , " [ Nhung ] lunged at Nhu with a bayonet and stabbed him again and again , maybe fifteen or twenty times . Still in a rage , he turned to Diệm , took out his revolver and shot him in the head . Then he looked back at Nhu , who was lying on the floor , twitching . He put a bullet into his head too . Neither Diệm nor Nhu ever defended themselves . Their hands were tied . "
= = Attempted cover @-@ up = =
When the corpses arrived at JGS headquarters , the generals were shocked . Although they despised and had no sympathy for Nhu , they still respected Diệm . One general broke down and wept while Minh 's assistant , Colonel Nguyễn Văn Quan collapsed on a table . General Đính , the military commander of the III Corps which controlled Saigon , later declared , " I couldn 't sleep that night " . Đôn maintained that the generals were " truly grievous " over the deaths , maintaining that they were sincere in their intentions to give Diệm a safe exile . Đôn charged Nhu with convincing Diệm to reject the offer . Lodge later concluded , " Once again , brother Nhu proves to be the evil genius in Diệm 's life . "
= = = ARVN reaction = = =
Đôn ordered another general to tell reporters that the Ngô brothers had died in an accident . He went to confront Minh in his office .
Đôn : Why are they dead ?
Minh : And what does it matter that they are dead ?
At this time , Xuân walked into Minh 's office through the open door , unaware of Đôn 's presence . Xuân snapped to attention and stated , " Mission accomplished . " Shortly after midnight on 2 November 1963 in Washington , D.C. the CIA sent word to the White House that Diệm and Nhu were dead , allegedly by suicide . Vietnam Radio had announced their deaths by poison , and that they had committed suicide while prisoners in an APC transporting them to Tân Sơn Nhứt . Unclear and contradictory stories abounded . General Paul Harkins reported that the suicides had occurred either by gunshot or by a grenade wrestled from the belt of an ARVN officer who was standing guard . Minh tried to explain the discrepancy , saying " Due to an inadvertence , there was a gun inside the vehicle . It was with this gun that they committed suicide . "
= = = U.S. reaction = = =
Kennedy learned of the deaths on the following morning when National Security Council staffer Michael Forrestal rushed into the cabinet room with a telegram reporting the Ngô brothers ' alleged suicides . According to General Maxwell Taylor , " Kennedy leaped to his feet and rushed from the room with a look of shock and dismay on his face which I had never seen before . " Kennedy had planned that Ngô Đình Diệm would be safely exiled and Arthur M. Schlesinger , Jr. recalled that the U.S. President was " somber and shaken " . Kennedy later penned a memo , lamenting that the assassination was " particularly abhorrent " and blaming himself for approving Cable 243 , which had authorised Lodge to explore coup options in the wake of Nhu 's attacks on the Buddhist pagodas . Forrestal said that " It shook him personally ... bothered him as a moral and religious matter . It shook his confidence , I think , in the kind of advice he was getting about South Vietnam . " When Kennedy was consoled by a friend who told him he need not feel sorry for the Ngô brothers on the grounds of despotism , Kennedy replied " No . They were in a difficult position . They did the best they could for their country . "
Kennedy 's reaction did not draw sympathy from his entire administration . Some believed that he should not have supported the coup and that as coups were uncontrollable , assassination was always a possibility . Kennedy was skeptical about the story and suspected that a double assassination had taken place . He reasoned the devoutly Catholic Ngô brothers would not have taken their own lives , but Roger Hilsman rationalised the possibility of suicide by asserting that Diệm and Nhu would have interpreted the coup as Armageddon . U.S. officials soon became aware of the true reasons for the deaths of Diệm and Nhu . Lucien Conein had left the rebel headquarters as the generals were preparing to bring in the Ngô brothers for the press conference which announced the handover of power . Upon returning to his residence , Conein received a phone call from Saigon 's CIA station that ordered him to report to the embassy . The embassy informed Conein that Kennedy had instructed him to find Diệm . Conein returned to Tân Sơn Nhứt at around 10 : 30 . The following conversation was reported :
Conein : Where were Diem and Nhu ?
Minh : They committed suicide . They were in the Catholic Church at Cholon , and they committed suicide .
C : Look , you 're a Buddhist , I 'm a Catholic . If they committed suicide at that church and the priest holds mass tonight , that story won 't hold water . Where are they ?
M : Their bodies are behind General Staff Headquarters . Do you want to see them ?
C : No .
M : Why not ?
C : Well , if by chance one of a million of the people believe you that they committed suicide in church and I see that they have not committed suicide and I know differently , then if it ever leaks out , I am in trouble .
Conein knew that if he saw the execution wounds , he would not be able to deny that Diem and Nhu had been assassinated . Conein refused to see the proof , realising that having such knowledge would compromise his cover and his safety . He returned to the embassy and submitted his report to Washington . The CIA in Saigon later secured a set of photos of the brothers that left no doubt that they had been executed . The photos were taken at about 10 : 00 , 2 November , showing the dead brothers covered in blood on the floor of an APC . They were dressed in the robes of Roman Catholic priests with their hands tied behind their backs . Their faces were bloodied and bruised and they had been repeatedly stabbed . The images appeared to be genuine , discrediting the generals ' claims that the brothers had committed suicide . The pictures were distributed around the world , having been sold to media outlets in Saigon . The caption below a picture published in Time read " ' Suicide ' with no hands . "
= = Media reaction = =
After the deaths , the military junta asserted that the Ngô brothers had committed suicide . On 6 November , Information Minister Trần Tự Oai declared at a news conference that Diệm and Nhu had died through " accidental suicide " after a firearm discharged when Nhu had tried to seize it from the arresting officer . This drew immediate skepticism from David Halberstam of the New York Times , who won a Pulitzer Prize for his Vietnam reporting . Halberstam wrote to the US Department of State that " extremely reliable private military sources " had confirmed that the brothers were ordered to be executed upon their return to military headquarters . Neil Sheehan of UPI reported a similar account based on what he described as " highly reliable sources " . Father Leger of Saint Francis Xavier Catholic Church asserted that the Ngô brothers were kneeling inside the building when soldiers burst in , took them outside and into the APC . Lodge had been informed by " an unimpeachable source " that both brothers were shot in the nape of the neck and that Diệm 's body bore the signs of a beating .
= = Impact and aftermath = =
Once the news of the cause of death of the Ngo brothers began to become public , the United States became concerned at their association with the new junta and their actions during the coup . U.S. Secretary of State Dean Rusk directed Lodge to question Minh about the killings . Lodge cabled back , initially backing the false story disseminated by the generals , saying that their story was plausible because of the supposedly loaded pistol being left on the floor of the vehicle . Rusk was worried about the public relations implications the bloody photographs of the brothers would generate . Lodge showed no alarm in public , congratulating Đôn on the " masterful performance " of the coup and promising diplomatic recognition . Đôn 's assertion that the assassinations were unplanned proved sufficient for Lodge , who told the State Department that " I am sure assassination was not at their direction . " Minh and Đôn reiterated their position in a meeting with Conein and Lodge on the following day . Several members of the Kennedy administration were appalled by the killings . The Assistant Secretary of State for Far Eastern Affairs W. Averell Harriman declared that " it was a great shock to everybody that they were killed . " He postulated that it was an accident and speculated that Nhu may have caused it by insulting the officers who were supervising him . Embassy official Rufus Phillips , who was the U.S. advisor to Nhu 's Strategic Hamlet Program , said that " I wanted to sit down and cry " , citing the killings as a key factor in the future leadership troubles which beset South Vietnam .
According to historian Howard Jones , the fact " that the killings failed to make the brothers into martyrs constituted a vivid testimonial to the depth of popular hatred they had aroused . " The assassinations caused a split within the coup leadership , turning the initial harmony among the generals into discord , and further abroad repulsed American and world opinion , exploding the myth that this new regime would constitute a distinct improvement over their predecessors , and ultimately convinced Washington that even though the leaders ' names had changed in Saigon , the situation remained the same . The criticism of the killings further caused the officers to distrust and battle one another for positions in the new government . Đôn expressed his abhorrence at the assassinations by caustically remarking that he had organised the armoured car in an effort to protect Diệm and Nhu . Khanh claimed that the only condition he had put on joining the conspiracy was that Diem would not be killed . According to Jones , " when decisions regarding postcoup affairs took priority , resentment over the killings meshed with the visceral competition over government posts to disassemble the new regime before it fully took form . "
= = Culpability debate = =
The responsibility for the assassinations was generally placed on Minh . Conein asserted that " I have it on very good authority of very many people , that Big Minh gave the order " , as did William Colby , the director of the CIA 's Far Eastern division . Đôn was equally emphatic , saying " I can state without equivocation that this was done by General Dương Văn Minh and by him alone . " Lodge thought that Xuân was also partly culpable asserting that " Diệm and Nhu had been assassinated , if not by Xuân personally , at least at his direction . "
Minh placed the blame on Thiệu , after the latter became President , for the assassinations . In 1971 , Minh claimed that Thiệu was responsible for the deaths by hesitating and delaying the attack by his Fifth Division on Gia Long Palace . Đôn was reported to have pressured Thieu during the night , asking him on the phone " Why are you so slow in doing it ? Do you need more troops ? If you do , ask Đính to send more troops – and do it quickly because after taking the palace you will be made a general . " Thiệu stridently denied responsibility and issued a statement which Minh did not publicly rebut : " Dương Văn Minh has to assume entire responsibility for the death of Ngô Đình Diệm . "
During the presidency of Richard Nixon , a U.S. government investigation was initiated into American involvement in the assassinations . Nixon was a political foe of Kennedy , having narrowly lost to him in the 1960 Presidential election . Nixon ordered an investigation under E. Howard Hunt into the murders , convinced Kennedy must have secretly ordered the killings but the inquiry was unable to find any such secret order .
= = Motivation = =
Conein asserted that Minh 's humiliation by Diệm and Nhu was a major motivation for ordering their executions . Conein reasoned that Diệm and Nhu were doomed once they escaped from Gia Long Palace , instead of surrendering there and accepting the offer of safe exile . Having successfully stormed the palace , Minh had presumed that the brothers would be inside , and arrived at the presidential residence in full ceremonial military uniform " with a sedan and everything else . " Conein described Minh as a " very proud man " who had lost face at turning up at the palace for his moment of glory , only to find an empty building . More than a decade after the coup , Conein claimed Diệm and Nhu would not have been killed if they had been in the palace , because there were too many people present .
One Vietnamese Diệm loyalist asked friends in the CIA why an assassination had taken place , reasoning that if Diem was deemed to be inefficient , his deposal would suffice . The CIA employees responded that " They had to kill him . Otherwise his supporters would gradually rally and organise and there would be civil war . " Some months after the event , Minh was reported to have privately told an American that " We had no alternative . They had to be killed . Diệm could not be allowed to live because he was too much respected among simple , gullible people in the countryside , especially the Catholics and the refugees . We had to kill Nhu because he was so widely feared – and he had created organizations that were arms of his personal power . "
Trần Văn Hương , a civilian opposition politician who was jailed in 1960 for signing the Caravelle Manifesto that criticised Diệm , and later briefly served as Prime Minister , gave a scathing analysis of the generals ' action . He stated that " The top generals who decided to murder Diệm and his brother were scared to death . The generals knew very well that having no talent , no moral virtues , no political support whatsoever , they could not prevent a spectacular comeback of the president and Mr. Nhu if they were alive . "
= = Burials of Diệm and Nhu = =
At around 16 : 00 on 2 November , the bodies of Diệm and Nhu were identified by the wife of former Cabinet minister Trần Trùng Dung . The corpses were taken to St. Paul 's Catholic Hospital , where a French doctor made a formal statement of death without conducting an autopsy . The original death certificate did not describe Diệm as Head of State but as " Chief of Province " , a post he had held four decades earlier under the French colonial administration . Nhu was described as " Chief of Library Service " , a post which he held in the 1940s . This was interpreted as a Vietnamese way of expressing contempt for the two despised leaders . Their place of burial was never disclosed by the junta and rumours regarding it persist to the current day . The speculated burial places include a military prison , a local cemetery , the grounds of the JGS headquarters at Tan Son Nhut and there are reports of cremation as well . Nobody was ever prosecuted for the killings .
= = Memorial services = =
The government did not approve a public memorial service for the deaths of Diệm and Nhu until 1968 . In 1971 , several thousand mourners gathered at Diệm 's purported gravesite . Catholic prayers were given in Latin . Banners proclaimed Diệm as a saviour of the south , with some mourners having walked into Saigon from villages outside the capital carrying portraits of Diệm . Madame Thiệu , the First Lady , was seen weeping at a requiem mass at Saigon 's basilica . Several cabinet members were also at the grave and a eulogy was given by a general of the ARVN . According to the eulogy , Diệm died because he had resisted the domination of foreigners and their plans to bring great numbers of troops to Vietnam and widen a war which would have destroyed the country . Thiệu sponsored the services , and it was widely seen as a means of associating himself with Diệm 's personal characteristics . Diệm frequently refused to follow American advice and was known for his personal integrity , in contrast to Thieu , who was infamous for corruption and regarded as being too close to the Americans . However , Thiệu 's attempts to associate himself with Diệm 's relative independence from United States influence was not successful . According to General Maxwell Taylor , Chairman of the U.S. Joint Chiefs of Staff , " there was the memory of Diệm to haunt those of us who were aware of the circumstances of his downfall . By our complicity , we Americans were responsible for the plight in which the South Vietnamese found themselves " .
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= Ujjal Dosanjh =
Ujjal Dev Singh Dosanjh ( Punjabi : ਉੱਜਲ ਦੇਵ ਸਿੰਘ ਦੁਸਾਂਝ ) PC QC , ( / ˈuːdʒəl doʊˈsɑːndʒ / ; born September 9 , 1947 ) is a Canadian lawyer and politician . He served as 33rd Premier of British Columbia from 2000 to 2001 and as a Liberal Party of Canada Member of Parliament from 2004 to 2011 including a period as Minister of Health from 2004 until 2006 when the party lost government . As a member of the Official Opposition from January 2006 until 2011 , Dosanjh variously has been the critic of National Defence , Public Safety , and Foreign Affairs , as well as sitting on Standing Committee on National Defence , the Committee on Public Safety and National Security , the Committee on Foreign Affairs and International Development , and the Committee on the Canadian Mission in Afghanistan , and the Committee on Justice and Human Rights . Dosanjh was one of four Visible Minorities to serve in Paul Martin 's Ministry .
Prior to being involved in federal politics , he spent ten years in provincial politics . He was elected in the Vancouver @-@ Kensington riding in 1991 as a member of the British Columbia New Democratic Party ( BC NDP ) and re @-@ elected there in 1996 . He served as the Attorney General of British Columbia from August 1995 to February 2000 . When the leader of his party resigned in 1999 , Dosanjh put himself forward as a candidate and won the leadership vote . With the win he became Canada 's first Indo @-@ Canadian provincial leader . He served as the 33rd Premier of British Columbia until June 2001 when he lost the province 's general election .
Born in a village in the Jalandhar district of Punjab , India , Dosanjh emigrated to the United Kingdom at the age of 17 before moving to Canada almost four years later . He worked numerous manual labour jobs and attended university , studying political science . He earned his law degree at the University of British Columbia and opened his own law firm . He has been a vocal opponent of violence and extremism .
= = Personal life = =
Ujjal Dosanjh was born in Dosanjh Kalan , a village in Jalandhar district , Punjab , India , in 1947 . After moving to another village , he lived with his grandfather , Moola Singh Bains , who had established a primary school . Dosanjh gained an early interest in politics from listening to debates between his father , a follower of Jawaharlal Nehru and the populist Indian National Congress , and his grandfather , a former Indian freedom fighter and socialist . Dosanjh wanted to pursue an education in political science , but his father wanted him to be a doctor . So in 1964 , at the age of 17 , Dosanjh left India for the United Kingdom where he could pursue his own interests . In London he learned English and worked as an assistant editor for a Punjabi @-@ language newspaper . He emigrated to Canada three and a half years later , arriving in British Columbia on May 12 , 1968 , to live with his aunt. majoring in political science . He went on to earn a law degree from the University of British Columbia Faculty of Law in 1976 and was called to the bar the following year . During this time he taught English as a second language courses at Vancouver Community College and worked as an assistant editor of a local Punjabi newspaper . He established his own law practice in 1979 , specializing in family and personal injury law . His involvement with community organizations included founding the Farm Workers ’ Legal Information Service ( later Canadian Farm Workers ' Union ) , serving on the board of directors for BC Civil Liberties Association and the Vancouver Multicultural Society , and the Labour Advocacy Research Association , as well as volunteer work with MOSAIC Immigrant Services Centre , and the South Vancouver Neighbourhood House .
A prominent moderate Sikh in Vancouver , Dosanjh spoke out against violence by Sikh extremists who advocated Khalistani independence from India . As a result of these views , in February 1985 he was attacked in the parking lot of his law office by an assailant wielding an iron bar . Dosanjh , 37 at the time , suffered a broken hand and received 80 stitches in his head .
He was targeted again , on 26 December 1999 , while he was a member of the Legislative Assembly of British Columbia , when his constituency office was broken into and a Molotov cocktail left burning on a table .
Dosanjh and his wife Raminder have three sons . In April 2000 , his middle son , Aseem , was charged with assaulting an Ontario police officer during a bar brawl , but was found not guilty . Dosanjh has travelled back to India several times , on official state business and for personal reasons , since emigrating . In January 2003 , he was awarded the Pravasi Bharatiya Samman ( Expatriate Indian Honour ) from Indian Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee in New Delhi . The award recognises individual excellence in various fields for persons of Indian origin across the world .
In 2014 , author Doug Welbanks published a biography , Unbreakable : The Ujjal Dosanjh story .
= = Provincial politics = =
Dosanjh ran as the British Columbia New Democratic Party candidate in the Vancouver South riding in the 1979 and 1983 provincial elections . He lost both times to the BC Social Credit Party candidates . He ran in the 1991 provincial election in the Vancouver @-@ Kensington riding where he won as his party came to power . He would be re @-@ elected in that same riding in the 1996 provincial election . He spent his first few years as a Member of the Legislative Assembly as a backbencher . In 1993 , he chaired the Select Standing Committee on Parliamentary Reform , Ethical Conduct , Standing Orders and Private Bills . He served two years as caucus chair for his party until April 10 , 1995 , when Premier Mike Harcourt dismissed Robin Blencoe from his cabinet and replaced him with Dosanjh as Minister of Government Services and Minister Responsible for Sports . A month later , in a small cabinet shuffle upon the resignation of Moe Sihota , Harcourt added Minister Responsible for Multiculturalism and Human Rights to Dosanjh 's portfolio . In another cabinet shuffle , as Sihota was re @-@ instated into the cabinet in August , Dosanjh 's portfolio was changed to Minister Responsible for Multiculturalism , Human Rights and Immigration and he was appointed Attorney General .
As Attorney General , Dosanjh oversaw the resolution of the Gustafsen Lake Standoff involving the Secwepemc Nation , set up a database for registering violent offenders , established a hate crime division in the Royal Canadian Mounted Police , and lobbied for more police officers , probation officers , and judiciary . At the same time his office drew criticism for reducing legal aid and closing courthouses . As the Minister Responsible for Multiculturalism , Human Rights and Immigration he successfully lobbied for laws giving same @-@ sex couples the equal rights and responsibilities for child support , custody and access . In early 1999 , a special prosecutor under the RCMP opened an investigation into possible influence peddling by Premier Glen Clark concerning casino licensing . On March 4 , after the Royal Canadian Mounted Police ( RCMP ) raided the Premier 's house , they briefed Attorney General Dosanjh , whose office had to assist , and placed him under a gag order . The order was lifted on August 13 , he informed Clark , and called a press conference , after which Clark resigned as Premier . Dosanjh 's actions were variously criticized for not informing his party caucus and not going public sooner , and applauded for avoiding perceptions of conflict of interest despite his power to intervene .
The leadership convention to replace Clark was set for February 20 , 2000 . Dosanjh was among the front runners , along with Corky Evans , Gordon Wilson , and Joy MacPhail who all had served at various cabinet posts . Clark , Wilson and fellow MLA Moe Sihota campaigned specifically against Dosanjh . MacPhail dropped out and endorsed Dosanjh followed by Wilson dropping out and endorsing Evans . Dosanjh was successful and became Premier on February 24 , 2000 , Canada 's first Indo @-@ Canadian provincial leader .
As Premier for two and a half sessions of the 36th Parliament , between February 24 , 2000 and June 5 , 2001 , Dosanjh gave priority to issues of health care , education , and balanced budgets . A boost in government revenue from rapidly expanding oil and gas development , led Dosanjh to direct the Finance Minister to draft balanced budget legislation . With the previous year 's budget unexpectedly in surplus and increased revenue expected to continue , Dosanjh was able to keep the provincial budget in surplus while increasing spending by 8 % in the 2001 budget year . The increased spending was mostly directed to renovations of hospital , public schools and higher education institutions , as well as building cancer treatment centers , lowering post @-@ secondary tuition fees , and creating significantly more new spaces in the province 's apprenticeship program and post @-@ secondary institutions . Dosanjh became the first provincial leader to march in a gay pride parade and the provincial government adopted the Definition of Spouse Amendment Act which extended equal rights to same @-@ sex couples . With Dosanjh as Premier the Legislative Assembly adopted the Tobacco Damages and Health Care Recovery Act which permitted lawsuits against tobacco organizations to re @-@ coup associated health care expenses , the Sex Offender Registry Act , and the Protection of Public Participation Act which prevented lawsuits against citizens who participated in public processes .
However , the BC NDP were deeply unpopular within the province , reaching a low at 15 % support in opinion polls at the time of Glen Clark 's resignation as Premier in August 1999 . With Dosanjh as leader , support had risen to 21 % by August 2000 . Dosanjh was consistently ranked higher personal popularity over opposition leader Gordon Campbell until the run @-@ up to the May 16 , 2001 , provincial election . Dosanjh and the BC NDP knew they would not be reelected , so they concentrated their campaign to a few ridings in the Lower Mainland which were still considered competitive . Their campaign focused on the expanding economy , issues of health care and education , and Dosanjh 's personal popularity over Campbell . Dosanjh conceded defeat a week before the election , but requested voters consider making the NDP a strong opposition party . After the vote , on May 16 , Dosanjh lost his seat in Vancouver @-@ Kensington along with all but two members of his Cabinet in the second @-@ worst defeat of a sitting provincial government in Canada . The BC Liberals won all 77 other seats .
= = Federal politics = =
Following the election loss Dosanjh returned to practicing law and let his party membership lapse . There had been speculation dating back to October 2002 that Dosanjh was interested in joining the Liberal Party of Canada . New Democratic Party leader Jack Layton approached Dosanjh in 2003 to see if he was interested in running as a federal candidate but Dosanjh refused . In March 2004 , with a federal election expected in the spring or summer , Prime Minister Paul Martin approached Dosanjh to be a candidate for the Liberal Party of Canada . Dosanjh agreed and Martin appointed him to Vancouver South over two other nomination candidates while announcing Dosanjh as part of a team of BC star candidates along with economist David Emerson , union leader Dave Haggard , community activist Shirley Chan and Liberal party organizer Bill Cunningham . The advertising of Dosanjh emphasized the party 's socially progressive aspect . In the June election Dosanjh won his riding with 44 @.@ 5 % of the vote .
= = = 38th Canadian Parliament = = =
In the 38th Canadian Parliament Dosanjh was appointed Minister of Health in the federal Cabinet . As Health Minister , Dosanjh strongly supported Canada 's existing single @-@ tier , publicly funded health @-@ care system . Dosanjh introduced legislation to make cigarettes fire safe , new regulations to further limit lead content in children 's jewelry , and supported an NDP motion to ban trans fats . He advocated that Canada ratify the World Health Organization Framework Convention on Tobacco Control , which they did in November 2004 . Dosanjh funded a program to revise the Canada food guide to more include more multicultural foods and another program to integrate foreign @-@ trained medical professionals into the health @-@ care system . Supported by a unanimous vote in the House of Commons , the government agreed to compensate the 6 @,@ 000 Canadians infected with hepatitis C from tainted blood transfusion . Along with Prime Minister Martin , a 10 @-@ year , $ 41 billion funding plan was negotiated with the provinces to deliver health care – with $ 5 @.@ 5 billion to specifically address wait times that had been an election issue during the 2004 federal election – but they rejected Premiers ' demands for a national program to purchase pharmaceuticals in bulk . As the Minister of Health , Dosanjh introduced Bill C @-@ 12 An Act to prevent the introduction and spread of communicable diseases which updated the 1985 Quarantine Act ; it was given royal assent in May 2005 .
In May 2005 , opposition MP Gurmant Grewal accused Dosanjh and the Prime Minister 's Chief of Staff , Tim Murphy , of attempting to bribe him with an ambassadorship and a senate seat for his wife , Nina Grewal , if he would cross the floor or abstain from a crucial upcoming vote . Grewal released tapes he secretly recorded of the conversation between Dosanjh , Grewal , and Murphy . Dosanjh claimed innocence and accused Grewal of altering the tapes to imply wrongdoing and the Prime Minister dismissed calls to remove Dosanjh from cabinet . Audio analysis concluded that the tapes were altered and the Royal Canadian Mounted Police did not pursue any criminal investigations . Nevertheless , fellow MP John Reynolds filed a complaint with the Law Society of British Columbia accusing Dosanjh of violating the Criminal Code and the society 's Professional Conduct Handbook . The Law Society reviewed the affair and concluded that Grewal had attempted to elicit rewards for his compliance but cleared Dosanjh and Murphy of misconduct charges .
= = = 39th Canadian Parliament = = =
In the January 2006 federal election , Dosanjh decisively won his riding against Tarlok Sablok , the Indo @-@ Canadian Conservative candidate , and the community activist and NDP candidate Bev Meslo . With the Liberal party forming the Official Opposition , Dosanjh became the critic for National Defence and sat on the Standing Committee on National Defence and the Standing Committee on Foreign Affairs and International Development . In the December 2006 Liberal leadership race he supported Bob Rae , a fellow former @-@ NDP premier . When Rae was eliminated on the final ballot , Dosanjh supported Stéphane Dion . With Dion as the new leader , Dosanjh remained on the two committees but his critic responsibility was moved to Foreign Affairs . Dosanjh suffered a mild heart attack on the morning of February 13 , 2007 , outside the House of Commons . He was attended by fellow MP Carolyn Bennett , who is also a doctor , and he was rushed to hospital where a successful operation to remove a blood clot near his heart was performed . In the second session of the 39th Parliament , from October 2007 to September 2008 , Dosanjh sat on the Standing Committee on Public Safety and National Security and the Special Committee on the Canadian Mission in Afghanistan , and his critic responsibility was moved Public Safety .
= = = 40th Canadian Parliament = = =
The next election was called for October 2008 . Dosanjh faced sociologist Wai Young running for the Conservatives , health worker Ann Chambers running for the NDP , and an IT consultant , Csaba Gulyas for the Green Party . Dosanjh won by 33 votes over Young , both receiving 38 @.@ 4 % of the vote . A recount confirmed Dosanjh 's victory but only by a margin of 22 votes . The Conservative Party requested a second , judicial recount , which again confirmed Dosanjh as the victor . In the 40th Canadian Parliament , with his party once again forming the official opposition , Dosanjh was appointed the National Defence critic for the first parliamentary session which was short @-@ lived . During the 2008 – 09 Canadian parliamentary dispute he defended the proposed coalition government as a reaction to inappropriate leadership on economic issues by the existing government . When Dion resigned as party leader , Dosanjh considered but did not run for leadership citing his inability to speak French and again supported Rae 's bid . In October 2009 , Michael Ignatieff appointed Dosanjh as the Liberals ' critic for National Defence .
When the 40th Parliament re @-@ convened for its 2nd session Dosanjh continued as the National Defence critic and served on the Standing Committee on National Defence , as well as the Standing Committee on Justice and Human Rights , and the Special Committee on the Canadian Mission in Afghanistan . In the 3rd session of the 40th Parliament Dosanjh continued with the Standing Committee on National Defence and the Special Committee on the Canadian Mission in Afghanistan , but also sat with the Standing Committee on Health . In September 2010 he was reassigned to being the critic on health for the Liberal Party . Dosanjh introduced private member bill C @-@ 467 An Act to amend the Citizenship Act ( children born abroad ) in the 2nd session , and re @-@ introduced it in the 3rd session where it received 2nd reading in September 2010 , which would grant natural citizenship to children born to , or adopted by , Canadian citizens working for the federal government ( including members of the Canadian Forces ) . The bill was meant to repeal portions of the April 2009 amendments to the Citizenship Act which repatriated Lost Canadians but also removed the ability of Canadians to pass their citizenship onto their children if the children are born outside of the country .
Dosanjh was defeated in the 2011 federal election which saw the Liberal Party reduced to third place in the House of Commons .
= = Vaisakhi Parade controversy = =
On April 16 , 2010 , the day prior to the annual Vaisakhi Parade held in Surrey , B.C. , one of the parade organizers issued a statement indicating should Dosanjh and BC Liberal backbencher Dave Hayer choose to attend the parade , their safety could not be guaranteed . This was due in part to comments that Dosanjh had made after the parade in 2007 , suggesting a police investigation into reports of a parade float that had a picture of Talwinder Singh Parmar on it , the alleged mastermind behind the bombing of Air India Flight 182 . Dosanjh also expressed concerns over some attendees wearing International Sikh Youth Federation T @-@ shirts , a terrorist organization that is banned in India , Britain , the United States , and Canada .
At least two complaints were made to RCMP about the comments by one of the parade organizers , Inderjit Singh Bains , on Sher @-@ E @-@ Punjab radio . During part of the show hosted by Gurvinder Dhaliwal , Bains spoke about the importance of honouring the Sikh faith and some logistics of the Surrey , B.C. , parade that draws tens of thousands of people .
" Everybody 's invited except those who 've been excluded , " he said of the event that would include security for some participants . " Everyone ( is invited ) except ... two people – Ujjal Dosanjh and Dave Hayer , " he said . " We 've never invited them . If they come they should bring their own security . "
Premier Gordon Campbell called for an apology . None was forthcoming and all three declined to attend the parade .
On April 23 , 2010 , the RCMP launched an investigation into threats made against Dosanjh on a Facebook site , titled “ Ujjal Dosanjh is a Sikh Traitor . ” Canada 's Parliamentarians condemned any death threats against Dosanjh .
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= Black Light Attack ! =
" Black Light Attack ! " is the tenth episode of the fourth season of the American television comedy series 30 Rock , and the 68th overall episode of the series . The episode was written by Steve Hely and directed by series producer Don Scardino . It originally aired on the National Broadcasting Company ( NBC ) in the United States on January 14 , 2010 . Guest stars in this episode include Dr. Sanjay Gupta and Cheyenne Jackson .
In the episode , TGS with Tracy Jordan head writer Liz Lemon ( Tina Fey ) and new cast member Danny Baker ( Jackson ) further their relationship , while their boss Jack Donaghy ( Alec Baldwin ) becomes jealous and plans to break them apart . Meanwhile , movie star Tracy Jordan ( Tracy Morgan ) recruits TGS writer Sue Laroche @-@ Van der Hout ( Sue Galloway ) into his entourage , and Jenna Maroney ( Jane Krakowski ) auditions for a role on Gossip Girl . This episode was Jackson 's third appearance as Danny .
" Black Light Attack ! " received generally mixed reception from television critics . According to the Nielsen ratings system , it was watched by 5 @.@ 014 million households during its original broadcast , and received a 2 @.@ 3 rating / 6 share among viewers in the 18 – 49 demographic . Its rating constituted a 30 percent drop from the December 2009 episode " Secret Santa " . For her performance in this episode , Jane Krakowski received a Primetime Emmy Award nomination in the category for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series .
= = Plot = =
During the TGS afterparty , new cast member Danny Baker ( Cheyenne Jackson ) admits to his boss , Jack Donaghy ( Alec Baldwin ) , that he has been having an office romance but will not disclose the woman 's name . While in attendance at a New York Knicks game , Jack asks more about the woman Danny is seeing and Danny reveals details , such as she has never let a man see her feet . This results in Jack 's realization that the woman is the show 's head writer , Liz Lemon ( Tina Fey ) , and he is displeased .
Meanwhile , actress Jenna Maroney ( Jane Krakowski ) auditions for a role she believes is for a college freshman on Gossip Girl . At the audition , Jenna learns that she is actually booked to audition for the role of the college freshman 's mother . She panics , believing that this is a sign that she is no longer young , and in an attempt to reclaim her youth , begins acting young which causes the TGS writing staff to mock her . At the same time , movie star Tracy Jordan ( Tracy Morgan ) decides to add a woman to his entourage as a learning experience when he and his wife , Angie ( Sherri Shepherd ) , have a daughter . He brings in the French @-@ Dutch TGS writer Sue Laroche @-@ Van der Hout ( Sue Galloway ) . Tracy later loses his temper with a crew member , thinking that he made a suggestive comment about Sue , causing NBC page Kenneth Parcell ( Jack McBrayer ) to tell Tracy that he has become paternal towards Sue . Soon after , Sue begins rebelling against him , as Tracy treats her as a child .
During the TGS after party , Danny 's body paint — after performing as a robot — had not washed off and could be seen under the black lights at the party . As he knows about Danny and Liz 's relationship , Jack later uses a black light on Liz to reveal body paint all over her — transferred from Danny — revealing to her that he knows about their relationship . Jack tells Liz to end the relationship , but she hesitates . Eventually , she tries to break if off with Danny , but when she sees him wearing a CHiPs costume , she changes her mind . Jack confronts Liz on the whereabouts of Danny , as Danny had skipped lunch with him , only for Jack to see Danny 's CHiPs badge in her office . He orders her to end the relationship immediately , but Liz refuses , believing Jack is jealous . Simultaneously , Liz urges Jenna to come clean about her real age to the TGS staff , but Jenna balks at the idea . Liz tells Jenna if she tells everyone her real age , she will reveal her " friend Tom ... Tom Selleck " her mustache , to which Jenna agrees . Later , Liz walks by the staff with the mustache in her face . Jenna thanks Liz for this , and as a result , Jenna accepts the role of the mother on Gossip Girl .
Knowing that Liz will not break off with Danny , Jack tells Danny he knows about the two . He lies to Danny by telling him he cares for Liz , hoping that Danny will end it with Liz , which he does . After Sue returns from a night of partying , Tracy tells her that all he wanted to do was to be a father figure to her . Liz enters Tracy 's dressing room — with the mustache intact — to take Sue back to the writers ' room , as Liz had been looking for her . At the end , Tracy wonders if he can go through his experience with Sue if he has a daughter , to which Kenneth says he thinks he can .
= = Production = =
" Black Light Attack ! " was written by Steve Hely and directed by series producer Don Scardino . This was Hely 's first writing credit and Scardino 's twenty @-@ third episode directed . It originally aired in the United States on January 14 , 2010 , on NBC as the tenth episode of the show 's fourth season and the 68th overall episode of the series .
" Black Light Attack ! " was filmed on November 9 and November 13 , 2009 . In the scene in which Jenna plays the dying mother on Gossip Girl , the scenery is that used for the Waldorf residence in Gossip Girl . The two series are shot next to each other at Silvercup Studios in Queens , New York . In September 2008 , it was reported that actresses Blake Lively and Leighton Meester , who star on Gossip Girl , were set to guest star on 30 Rock , but the appearances fell through .
Dr. Sanjay Gupta guest starred as himself in " Black Light Attack ! " ; Liz is at home and watches Dr. Gupta on CNN as he expounds about the rise in female libido before menopause , referred to as the " Dirty 30s " . This was actor Cheyenne Jackson 's third appearance as Danny on 30 Rock . He made his debut in the November 12 , 2009 , episode " The Problem Solvers " , and would later guest star on " Secret Santa " . Series ' creator , executive producer and lead actress Tina Fey had seen Jackson in the Broadway musicals Xanadu and Damn Yankees , the latter that starred Jane Krakowski , who plays Jenna on the show . According to Jackson in a November 2009 interview , Fey set up a meeting to interest him in a role on the program . In an interview with the Los Angeles Times , it was revealed that it was Krakowski who brought Jackson to the attention of the 30 Rock producers . While at the Knicks game , Danny reveals details to Jack , about the woman he is seeing , such as " She never takes off her shoes ... Even though the reason is she 's never let a man see her feet " , which is a real life trait of Fey 's and her character .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast , " Black Light Attack ! " was watched by 5 @.@ 014 million households , according to the Nielsen ratings system . It received a 2 @.@ 3 rating / 6 share among viewers in the 18 – 49 demographic , that is 2 @.@ 3 percent of all people in that group , and 6 percent of all people from that group watching television at the time , watched the episode . This was a decrease from the previous episode , " Klaus and Greta " , that aired the same day of the week , which was watched by 5 @.@ 122 million American viewers . The episode 's rating constituted a 30 percent drop from the December 10 , 2009 , airing of the 30 Rock episode , " Secret Santa " , to a season low 2 @.@ 3 rating . Nonetheless , " Black Light Attack ! " was the third most viewed episode on the NBC network that week . Jane Krakowski received a Primetime Emmy Award nomination for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series at the 62nd Primetime Emmy Awards for her work in this episode , but lost it to actress Jane Lynch .
The episode received generally mixed reviews . IGN contributor Robert Canning felt that the episode " didn 't have the same comedic appeal " as " Klaus and Greta " , but did say there were " some funny moments to be sure " , but overall the episode lacked . He commented that the main plot had its faults , but that the weak link in the story was Cheyenne Jackson 's Danny . He wrote that the Sue character had been great in the past , but that her " expanded role " in this episode was less successful . In conclusion , Canning gave the episode a 7 @.@ 5 out of 10 rating . The A.V. Club ’ s Todd VanDerWerff wrote that " Black Light Attack ! " was " dead in spots . I mean , I laughed out loud a number of times , but not nearly as much " . He noted he liked Liz and Jack battling over Danny , but " something about it never landed in the way it should have " , and opined that the show did not know what to do with Jackson . Overall , he gave the episode a B rating . Sean Gandert for Paste felt that the Liz , Jack , and Danny plot was less interesting " and in general pretty meh . " He noted that " Black Light Attack ! " was " a big let @-@ down " after the airing of " Klaus and Greta " . Leonard Pierce for The A.V. Club called the episode uneven .
Time contributor James Poniewozik wrote that " Black Light Attack ! " presented the balance 30 Rock " has reached with Liz Lemon 's character , allowing her to be simultaneously nerdy / awkward ... and strong ... Throw in a steady stream of solid throwaway jokes ... and you had a worthy toofer . " Nick Catucci for New York magazine enjoyed the episode , particularly Jenna 's line " Would a mother be going on a sex tour of Vietnam ? " , after telling Liz about her booked role as a mother on Gossip Girl , as a " classic Jenna line , more absurd than hilarious " , and that the character 's rendition of " Forever Young " was a highlight . Television columnist Alan Sepinwall of The Star @-@ Ledger opined that this episode " made the best use yet of Cheyenne Jackson 's Danny " , and that he for once enjoyed " Jenna 's narcissism and self @-@ delusion " subplot , and her " late attempt " to seem young . Bob Sassone of AOL 's TV Squad enjoyed " Black Light Attack ! " , though , his only complain was that 30 Rock did not focus more on the fictional show TGS , and said he would " like to get back to more of that . " Entertainment Weekly ’ s Margaret Lyons remarked that this episode and " Klaus and Greta " were terrific , and what stood out from both airings " was how much serialized plot [ s ] these two eps covered ... For a show that 's usually so episodic , it was an interesting — totally successful — change of pace . "
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= Battle of San Lorenzo =
The Battle of San Lorenzo was fought on February 3 , 1813 in San Lorenzo , Argentina , then part of the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata . A Spanish Royalist force under the command of Antonio Zabala was defeated by the Regiment of Mounted Grenadiers , under the command of José de San Martín . This battle was the baptism of fire for this military unit , and for San Martín in the Spanish American wars of independence .
Montevideo , a royalist stronghold during the Argentine War of Independence , was under siege by José Gervasio Artigas . Those in the city raided population centres along the nearby rivers for supplies . José de San Martín , who shortly before had arrived in Buenos Aires and formed the regiment , followed the royalist ships to San Lorenzo . The area around San Lorenzo formed a large empty plain , so the regiment hid inside the San Carlos convent during the night and San Martín studied the battlefield and the enemy ships from the tower . The battle started at dawn , when the grenadiers made a surprise pincer movement to trap the enemy forces . One column was led by San Martín , and the other by Justo Germán Bermúdez . San Martín fell from his horse , and was nearly killed , but Juan Bautista Cabral and Juan Bautista Baigorria intervened and saved him . The royalists were defeated , but continued to raid villages for some more time afterwards .
This battle was the only one that San Martín fought on the modern territory of Argentina . The city of San Lorenzo keeps historic memorials of the battle and it is referenced in the San Lorenzo march .
= = Prelude = =
Although Buenos Aires had suffered a difficult period in its war for independence , its prospects were improving by 1812 . Even though the defeats of Manuel Belgrano during the Paraguay campaign and Juan José Castelli in the first Upper Peru campaign had generated a political crisis , Belgrano 's victory at Tucuman had given new fresh hope to the revolution , which would be strengthened shortly afterwards with the victory at the Battle of Salta . Montevideo , capital of the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata since the May Revolution , was under siege by both an army from Buenos Aires led by José Rondeau and an Uruguayan one led by José Gervasio Artigas . The city , however , maintained its naval supremacy over Buenos Aires and their ships raided the coasts of the Paraná and Uruguay rivers to gather supplies , despite the siege . Montevideo organized a navy to destroy the gun batteries at Rosario and Diamante , two population centers along the Parana , but were prevented from doing so as Buenos Aires dismantled them knowing that they could not defend them .
The Royalist expeditionary navy that would raid San Lorenzo comprised eleven ships of varying sizes , two hundred and fifty soldiers and fifty sailors . They moved into the Paraná through its tributary , the Paraná Guazú River , slowed down by headwinds . The Second Triumvirate promoted José de San Martín to colonel and instructed him to follow them with the Regiment of Mounted Grenadiers and stop the raids . San Martín was influenced by Napoleonic warfare and trained the regiment with the most recent military techniques used in the Napoleonic Wars .
San Martín moved the regiment from Retiro to Rosario , nearing the river at San Pedro and San Nicolás . He was following the Spanish ships and moved at night to avoid detection . San Martín had one hundred and twenty men for this action , reinforced at Rosario by a militia of seventy men under the command of Celedonio Escalada . Those reinforcements included twenty two rifleman , thirty cavalry , a small cannon and men armed with knives . Escalada had made other actions against the royalists before this battle . San Martín discovered that the royalists intended to pillage the San Carlos Convent and pressed the march to arrive there first . A hundred royalists landed on San Lorenzo , but the only food available to them was some chickens and watermelons . Aware of the risk of pillage , the population had removed the cattle from the area before the royalists arrived . Escalada arrived in San Lorenzo before the bulk of the patriot army , but the dust trail from the path to Rosario revealed their presence . Escalada attacked them but their ship had a longer range than his cannon , keeping him at bay . He was forced to retire when he found a Paraguayan prisoner who had escaped from the ship . The Paraguayan disclosed the size of the royalist army and their plan of attacking the convent with a larger force , suspecting that the local money was kept in it . They did not attack the convent right away , requiring time to prepare the two field cannons . Escalada returned with San Martin and relayed the news . The march from Retiro to the convent took only five days , thanks to the cadet Ángel Pacheco . Pacheco moved ahead of the regiment and prepared horses in advance at the relay positions . The whole army arrived on scene during the night of 2 February and hid inside the convent . They entered through the rear door and were not allowed to light fires or speak during the night . San Martín studied the enemy and the battlefield from the convent 's tower , using a monocular .
= = Battlefield = =
The battle was fought at the location of the modern city of San Lorenzo , Santa Fe which is next to the Paraná River , at the point of its widest flow . The west bank of the river was tall and steep , forming a natural obstacle , and ships could only land troops and materials on that side of the river using man @-@ made paths cut into the side . The battlefield was near one of these paths , shaped like a ladder , after which the terrain was a big plain with scattered bushes . The San Carlos Convent , the main nearby building , was a short distance away from the river .
The location was not an easy place to defend without artillery , as the plains made surprise attacks difficult . Except for the convent itself , the terrain did not offer any natural barriers that the patriots could exploit . Nevertheless , the flat terrain was ideal for cavalry manoeuvres , and the distance between the church and the west gully gave enough room for a cavalry charge . The royalists , on the other hand , could support their troops with their ships from the river . Without a supporting navy , or local batteries , San Martín had no means to attack the ships . Although the small path allowed them passage to the ships , it could force the royalist forces to bottleneck during a retreat while the long range guns of the ships protected them . San Martín studied the battlefield and readied the plan for the operation during the night , when the grenadiers were hidden inside the convent .
= = Battle = =
The grenadiers left the convent at dawn , preparing their formations behind the convent . San Martín returned to the tower to watch the enemy who disembarked at sunrise , 5 : 30 in the morning . He mounted his horse , gave a short harangue to the troops , and headed to battle . His strategy was to divide his cavalry forces into two columns , of nearly sixty horsemen each , and make a surprise pincer movement to trap the enemy forces . The cavalry would not use their guns , relying instead on saber and spear attacks . The right @-@ hand column was headed by Justo German Bermúdez , and the left @-@ hand one by San Martín . The royalists marched in two columns with the two cannons , a deployed flag and military drummers . The clarion of the regiment of mounted grenadiers sounded for the first time , marking the beginning of the battle .
San Martín 's column was the first one to reach the enemy . The two cannons and the cannon fire from the ships defended the royalists , but they were quickly outmanoeuvred by the saber attacks and , unable to form a square , had to retreat . The advantage of surprise and the speed of the cavalry charge allowed the regiment to defeat the larger royalist army who had almost double the amount of soldiers . When Bermúdez and his column joined the battle the royalists were not able to stand their ground and were routed , retreating in disarray under covering fire from the ships . Bermudez led the attack at this point as San Martín had fallen from his horse .
San Martín did not mention Escalada in his first battle report , leading initial historians to infer that they stayed within the convent during the battle . However it is currently considered that they took part in the battle , as suggested by the royalist battle report and a later report from San Martin which clarifies that only twelve grenadiers stayed in the convent .
The combat took around fifteen minutes and left forty royalists dead and many injured , including Zabala . Fourteen patriot grenadiers died in the combat and two more would die afterwards due to combat injuries . Manuel Díaz Vélez fell from his horse in the gully , was mortally injured and captured by the royalists . Bermúdez was shot in the patella and died a few days later . Hipólito Bouchard captured the Spanish flag after killing the standard bearer .
= = = Cabral 's intervention = = =
Despite the victory , the remaining royalist forces could not be pursued as the column led by Justo Bermúdez had moved further than calculated for . This delayed the meeting with San Martín 's column whose horse was killed by enemy fire , leaving with his leg trapped under the corpse of the animal . These factors led to the columns not meeting up and allowed many royalists to escape . A royalist , probably Zabala himself , attempted to kill San Martín while he was trapped under his dead horse where he suffered a saber injury to his face , and a bullet wound to his arm . Juan Bautista Cabral and Juan Bautista Baigorria intervened and saved San Martín 's life . Cabral was mortally wounded during the rescue and San Martín reported that after Cabral was hit he said " I die happy , we have defeated the enemy " . The exact moment this was said is unclear as the word " after " could have meant immediately after ; during the ongoing battle ; or some hours later during Cabral 's agonising decline . San Martín wrote the battle report under a nearby tree . Fray Herminio Gaitán considers that Cabral 's last words would have been in the Guaraní language , his first language , and that as San Martín also spoke Guaraní he would have translated them for the battle report .
Juan Bautista Cabral is commonly known as " Sergeant Cabral " , but he was a private at the time of the battle . San Martín 's report mentions him as " the grenadier Juan B. Cabral " , and historians like Bartolomé Mitre , Herminio Gaitán , Gerardo Bra or Norberto Galasso support the idea . Mitre considers that Cabral was promoted posthumously , but there are no documents confirming that .
= = Aftermath = =
Even though the battle of San Lorenzo is acknowledged in Argentine historiography as an important battle for Argentine independence , it had little military influence in the conflict . Much of the recognition the battle generated is because San Martín fought in it , as the size of the forces involved and the length of the clash would normally mean it was considered a military engagement rather than a real battle and it did not influence the development of the Argentine War of Independence . This victory did nothing to prevent further raids from royalist ships as there were new raids at Tigre on August 18 , 1813 and yet another one at San Fernando on August 22 . William Brown ended the royalist naval supremacy the following year .
San Martín did not take hostages or ask for ransoms , but rather he instructed his people to avoid further conflicts and to try to restore peaceful relations with the royalists . Zabala requested assistance for his wounded soldiers , which San Martín provided and he invited Zabala to share a large breakfast , which he accepted . San Martín was aware that the new enlightened ideas at stake in the Napoleonic Wars influenced many of the Spanish military , and expected to convince Zabala that absolutism was a bad cause to defend . He succeeded , as Zabala joined the patriot forces under San Martín 's command during his administration in Mendoza .
José Gervasio Artigas , leader of the popular resistance at the Banda Oriental , sent an agent to San Lorenzo to congratulate San Martín for his victory . San Martín also met with John Parish Robertson , who informed Britain about the battle .
= = Legacy = =
There are many Argentine memorials and places named after the battle , including three cities in Greater Rosario : Puerto General San Martín , Capitán Bermúdez and Granadero Baigorria are named after José de San Martín , Justo Germán Bermúdez and Juan Bautista Baigorria respectively , all of whom were involved in the battle . The Sargento Cabral Department at the Chaco Province is named after Juan Bautista Cabral , even though he was not a sergeant as described . The most popular homage to the battle is the name of the football club San Lorenzo de Almagro , named after both the battle and Saint Lawrence .
The city of San Lorenzo preserves the site of the battle and a dedicated historic complex . The San Carlos Convent is still a working convent , but has turned part of its buildings into a museum . It has retained San Martín 's cell , the room used for medical treatment of the injured soldiers , urns of the dead soldiers and other related items to the " March of San Lorenzo " as well as the history of the convent . The mayor of San Lorenzo , made an agreement with the Argentine Armed Forces in 2008 that the Regiment of Mounted Grenadiers would have a permanent presence at the site .
The battlefield is known as the " Field of Glory " , and it was turned into a park on May 20 , 1913 , by president Roque Sáenz Peña . There is a monument with two symbolic wings of victory , an eternal flame and nine memorials for the 16 patriot soldiers who died in the battle . The memorials are for the nine origins of those soldiers : the Argentine provinces of Corrientes , Santiago del Estero , La Rioja , Córdoba , San Luis and Buenos Aires , as well as Chile , France and Uruguay . Although Uruguay did not exist at the time of the battle , the Banda Oriental province is considered a predecessor of modern Uruguay .
The pine tree ( Pinus pinea ) where San Martin wrote the battle report is known as the " Historic Pine " , and has an estimated age of more than two hundred years . The convent , the battlefield and the Historic Pine were declared National Historic Monuments of Argentina on October 2 , 1940 by law 12 @.@ 648 . The Historic Pine was declared a " Historic Tree " in 1946 by decree 3 @.@ 038 .
= = = Songs = = =
The battle of San Lorenzo is the theme of the San Lorenzo march . The military march was composed in February 1901 by Cayetano Alberto Silva following a proposal from Representative Celestino Pera . It was first officially played on October 30 , 1902 at the inauguration of the monument to General San Martín in Rosario . The lyrics were written by professor Carlos Benielli in 1908 . The march became famous in other countries and , according to the Argentine British Community Council , it has been considered in Europe to be one of the five best military marches ever written . The military bands of Uruguay , Brazil and Poland , amongst others , include it in their musical repertory .
The battle of San Lorenzo was also mentioned as an Argentine victory in the first Argentine National Anthem , along with the battles of San José , Suipacha , Las Piedras , Salta and Tucumán . There is also a brief reference to the battle in the march Mi bandera ( " My flag " ) , which is about the flag of Argentina . However , this march includes a historic inaccuracy . It says " Here is the flag that one day triumphantly rose in the middle of the battle and , full of pride and gallantry , went immortally to San Lorenzo " . This is incorrect as the current flag of Argentina was not widely used until 1814 or 1815 . The Battle of Salta was the only conflict of the Argentine War of Independence fought in current Argentine territory under the modern flag of Argentina . The San Martín National Institute states , by oral tradition , that the grenadiers of San Lorenzo did not use any flag for the operation .
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= Ronnie Lee Gardner =
Ronnie Lee Gardner ( January 16 , 1961 – June 18 , 2010 ) was an American criminal who received the death penalty for murder in 1985 , and was executed by a firing squad by the state of Utah in 2010 . Gardner 's case spent nearly 25 years in the court system , prompting the Utah House of Representatives to introduce legislation to limit the number of appeals in capital cases .
In October 1984 , Gardner killed Melvyn John Otterstrom during a robbery in Salt Lake City . While being moved in April 1985 to a court hearing for the homicide , he fatally shot attorney Michael Burdell in an unsuccessful escape attempt . Convicted of two counts of murder , Gardner was sentenced to life imprisonment for the first count and received the death penalty for the second . The state adopted more stringent security measures as a result of the incident at the courthouse . While held at Utah State Prison , Gardner was charged with another capital crime for stabbing an inmate in 1994 . However , that charge was thrown out by the Utah Supreme Court because the victim survived .
In a series of appeals , defense attorneys presented mitigating evidence of the troubled upbringing of Gardner , who had spent nearly his entire adult life in incarceration . His request for commutation of his death sentence was denied in 2010 after the families of his victims testified against him . Gardner 's legal team took the case all the way to the U.S. Supreme Court , which declined to intervene .
The execution of Gardner at Utah State Prison became the focus of media attention in June 2010 , because it was the first to be carried out by firing squad in the United States in 14 years . Gardner stated that he sought this method of execution because of his Mormon background . On the day before his execution , The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter @-@ day Saints released a statement clarifying its position on the issue of blood atonement of individuals . The case also attracted debate over capital punishment and whether Gardner had been destined for a life of violence since his difficult childhood .
= = Personal background = =
Ronnie Lee Gardner was born in Salt Lake City , Utah , and was the youngest of Dan and Ruth Gardner 's seven children . Dan was a heavy drinker who left the household to start another family while Ronnie was a toddler ; Dan and Ruth divorced when Ronnie was 18 months old . Six months later , Ronnie was found malnourished and wandering the streets alone in a diaper . Child welfare workers filed a " failure to care " petition and took him into custody , though later returned him to his mother . Gardner 's relationship with his father was tumultuous ; Dan did not believe he was Gardner 's biological father and frequently told his son of his belief . According to Gardner , he was raised by an older sister , and was sexually abused by his siblings . Sometimes he and his sister Bonnie would run away and seek refuge in a " hobo camp . " By the age of 10 , Gardner was addicted to drugs and permitted access to alcohol . He and his brother Randy were arrested for stealing cowboy boots and taken into juvenile detention . Gardner recalled with distress that his father Dan came to take his brother Randy home and left him behind .
= = = Early institutionalization = = =
Gardner 's mother married Bill Lucas , who had been incarcerated in Wyoming in 1968 . The Gardner @-@ Lucas family eventually had nine children . Gardner admired Lucas , who used his stepsons as lookouts while burglarizing homes . By his early teens , Gardner had been held in detention at a series of institutions , including an involuntary commitment at Utah State Hospital in Provo . Gardner was small as a boy , and described that he had to fight to defend himself and earn respect . As Gardner admitted , " I was a nasty little bugger . "
While held at Utah State Industrial School in Ogden , Gardner was visited by Jack Statt , a man who was living with his brother Randy . According to Gardner , Statt met Randy at a bus stop and paid him $ 25 for oral sex . When released from the school in 1975 , Gardner stayed with Statt . Although social workers noted the men in the household were dressed like women , Statt officially became a foster parent to Gardner and his brother . Gardner said that Statt performed sex acts on them and explained , " I thought life like that was normal . " Gardner stated in a psychological evaluation that he worked as a prostitute while living with Statt , who psychologists say fit the pedophile profile . Gardner said his time in foster care was the most stable period of his life — " Jack was a good man , and he tried to help us out . "
While Gardner intermittently continued to go to the industrial school , he met Debra Bischoff at a Salt Lake City apartment complex where his mother lived . Bischoff described him as : " Very caring . He never put me in the rough situations he was in throughout his life . He sheltered me from that stuff . " Gardner had a daughter in May 1977 and a son in February 1980 with Bischoff , but was convicted of robbery and sent to Utah State Prison in the same month his son was born . Gardner successfully escaped the prison 's maximum security unit on April 19 , 1981 , and was shot in the neck while attempting to kill a man who he believed had raped Bischoff . In February 1983 , he was identified as a ringleader in a disturbance in which inmates barricaded a cell block and started fires .
On August 6 , 1984 , Gardner escaped from custody at the University of Utah Hospital after faking an illness by vomiting . He attacked transportation officer Don Leavitt and forced him to unlock his shackles by telling him : " I guess you know if that doctor comes back , I 'll have to kill you both . " In the course of the escape , Gardner struck Leavitt so hard that he needed wires to reconstruct his face . Gardner forced a medical student named Mike Lynch to take him from the premises on a motorcycle while pointing a gun into his back . On August 11 , a letter carrier found Leavitt 's firearm in a mailbox with a note from Gardner that said , " Here 's the gun and wallet taken from the guard at the hospital . I don 't want to hurt no one else . I just want to be free . "
= = Murders = =
During the night of October 9 , 1984 , Gardner robbed the Cheers Tavern in Salt Lake City . While under the influence of cocaine , he shot bartender Melvyn John Otterstrom in the face , killing him . Otterstrom 's cousin Craig Watson stated that the robbery " gained less than $ 100 . " Family members said Gardner attended Otterstrom 's funeral and pretended to be a childhood friend . Following a tip , police apprehended Gardner three weeks later at the home of his cousin . Gardner said that the shooting occurred because Otterstrom put up a fight , but investigators did not find any evidence to support this claim . Gardner was held in custody in lieu of $ 1 @.@ 5 million bail . His getaway driver was identified as Darcy Perry McCoy , who testified against him .
During trial proceedings for the Otterstrom murder on April 2 , 1985 , Gardner attempted to escape from custody with a revolver smuggled into the Metropolitan Hall of Justice at Salt Lake City . Jim Kleine of the Salt Lake City Fire Department believed that the gun was passed to Gardner as he was being escorted into the courthouse from the underground parking lot . Gardner was immediately shot in the chest by guard Luther Hensley . Gardner then wounded unarmed bailiff George " Nick " Kirk in the abdomen . After running to the courtroom archives , Gardner confronted attorneys Robert Macri and Michael Burdell . According to Macri , after Gardner pointed the gun at him , he changed aim to Burdell , who had been doing pro bono work for his church . Burdell yelled , " Oh , my God , " when Gardner shot him in the eye . Gardner made his way outside the building , where he was surrounded by dozens of police officers . Gardner threw the gun away , dropped and yelled : " Don ’ t shoot , I don ’ t have a gun . "
Gardner was taken to the University of Utah Health Services Center where he was listed in serious condition , but recovered . Burdell died about 45 minutes later while in surgery at Holy Cross Hospital . Kirk survived surgery and was listed in critical condition at LDS Hospital . During a search of the courthouse , a bag of men 's clothing was found in the basement under a women 's restroom sink . Prosecutor Bob Stott believed Gardner 's gun had been taped to a water fountain on the first floor . Darcy Perry McCoy was found unarmed and was arrested about a mile away . Her sister , Carma Jolley Hainsworth , was sentenced to eight years in prison for delivering the clothes and messages in preparation for the escape attempt , but the identity of the person who provided Gardner with the firearm was not known at the time . State corrections director William Vickrey cleared the actions of the prison guards who escorted Gardner , but Salt Lake County Sheriff N.D. " Pete " Hayward said that the guard who shot Gardner should have kept shooting until Gardner was dead . A review found that the guards were inhibited from shooting because Gardner had been using a hostage as a human shield . Sheriff Hayward said the escape attempt " appeared to be well @-@ planned " and blamed the security breach on the layout of the Metropolitan Hall of Justice , which allowed unrestricted access to areas where prisoners were transported .
Otterstrom , a mountain climber and veteran of the 19th Special Forces Group of the Utah National Guard , was survived by his wife Kathy and his five @-@ year @-@ old son , Jason . Burdell – a Vietnam veteran , former engineer , and member of the Summum Church – was survived by his girlfriend , Donna Nu , who would go on to advocate against Gardner 's execution .
= = Sentencing and incarceration = =
Gardner was diagnosed with antisocial personality disorder . In June 1985 , Gardner pleaded guilty to the murder of Otterstrom and received a sentence of life imprisonment without the possibility of parole . At one point , Gardner threatened to disrupt subsequent court hearings because he was upset over being required to wear a leg brace that would lock if he attempted to escape again . He was advised by guards that it would be to his benefit to behave in front of prospective jurors . District Judge Jay E. Banks instructed the jury , on October 22 , 1985 , that they had the option of a verdict for the lesser offense of manslaughter if they found Gardner to be under mental or emotional duress when he shot Burdell . The jurors deliberated less than three hours and found Gardner guilty of capital murder . Ultimately sentenced to death , Gardner selected execution by firing squad over lethal injection . Legislators in Utah had eliminated the firing squad as a method of execution in 2004 , but convicts who were sentenced before that date , such as Gardner , could still select that option . Since 1976 , only two other people have been executed by firing squad in the United States , both in Utah : Gary Gilmore and John Albert Taylor . In contrast to Taylor , who said he chose the firing squad to embarrass the state , Gardner 's attorney said that his client did not want to attract attention and simply preferred to die this way .
I 'd prefer to die of old age , your honor , but if that ain 't possible , I 'll take the firing squad .
Gardner 's incarceration as Utah 's then @-@ youngest inmate on death row was not uneventful . A hearing was held on February 19 , 1987 , in which Gardner and other inmates claimed " unconstitutional confinement " in unsanitary conditions with poor food . On October 28 , 1987 , Gardner broke a glass partition in a prison visiting area and had sex with a woman who was meeting him , while other inmates cheered and barricaded the doors . According to state prison spokesperson Juan Benavidez , though Gardner had " knocked out the lights " , an officer who was in the control room " could still see what was going on . " Gardner claimed breaking the glass was an accident . In 1993 , Utah state representative Dan Tuttle introduced what he called " the Ronnie Lee Gardner bill " in which he proposed that law enforcement officers be permitted to shoot inmates attempting to escape , whether they are " armed or not . "
On September 25 , 1994 , Gardner got drunk from consuming alcohol , which he fermented in his own prison cell sink , and stabbed inmate Richard " Fats " Thomas with a shiv fashioned from a pair of sunglasses . Thomas suffered nine puncture wounds to his face , mouth , arm and chest that were life @-@ threatening , but made a full recovery . Though Thomas had survived the stabbing , Gardner was charged with another capital crime under a 1974 Utah law reserved for prison attacks by first @-@ degree felony inmates . There was no precedent in the United States for a death penalty that was carried out for such a crime . The constitutionality of the law was challenged , with defense lawyers calling it " stale and anachronistic , " and the charge against Gardner was thrown out by the Utah Supreme Court because the victim did not die .
In February 1996 , Gardner threatened to sue to force the state of Utah to execute him by firing squad . He had told a judge in a 1991 hearing that he was motivated by his children to seek lethal injection , but later changed his mind as they became older . He said that he preferred the firing squad because of his " Mormon heritage . " Gardner also felt that lawmakers were trying to eliminate the firing squad , in opposition to popular opinion in Utah , because of concern over the state 's image in the upcoming 2002 Winter Olympics .
I like the firing squad . It 's so much easier ... and there 's no mistakes .
In 1998 , the old Metropolitan Hall of Justice was vacated and replaced by the multimillion @-@ dollar Scott M. Matheson Courthouse . Gardner 's deadly escape attempt in 1985 was blamed on the open access and light security of the previous building and greatly influenced the tighter security measures adopted by Salt Lake City 's new courthouse . Former prosecutor Kent Morgan stated , " Absolutely Gardner changed that . " On March 3 , 2001 , the Metropolitan Hall of Justice was demolished .
= = = Defense motions = = =
In 2007 , U.S. federal judge Tena Campbell rejected Gardner 's appeal that his attorneys were inadequate because they were unable to prove that he did not mean to kill his victim . The United States Court of Appeals for the Tenth Circuit rejected motions for appeal by his defense on March 8 , 2010 . Gardner attempted to give up the process at least three times , but his attorneys convinced him to continue appealing each time . State court Judge Robin Reese signed an execution warrant on April 23 ordering the state to carry out the death sentence .
At Gardner 's commutation hearing on June 10 , 2010 , lawyers and medical experts in his defense argued whether meningitis contracted at the age of 4 had damaged his brain . Gardner had also huffed gas and glue with his siblings , and played with mercury stolen from gas meters by his stepfather to sell . Three of the jurors that sentenced Gardner to death signed an affidavit that they would have recommended life without parole , an option that was not available in Utah until 1992 . Gardner claimed that he was a changed man who counseled other inmates and was interested in starting an organic farm project for youths on 160 acres ( 65 ha ) in Box Elder County , Utah . Gardner 's attorney presented a letter his client wrote to Oprah Winfrey requesting funds for the project . Gardner also argued that it was not justifiable to execute him after so much time had passed since the crime .
I can do a lot of good . First of all , I 'm a good example . There 's no better example in this state of what not to do .
Assistant state attorney general Tom Brunker argued against clemency , stating : " Mr. Gardner was sentenced to death and earned that death penalty because of his unflagging history of violent crime . " The family of the late George " Nick " Kirk recounted how his being shot by Gardner affected their lives and ultimately shortened Kirk 's life . Kirk 's daughter Barb Webb said , " He 's done a lot of horrific things in his past and I think , given the chance , he would do them all again . " Jason Otterstrom , whose father Melvyn was murdered by Gardner , struggled to describe the impact upon his family . After listening to the testimony from the families of the victims , the Utah Board of Pardons and Parole declined Gardner 's commutation request , stating that the jury 's verdict and sentence were " not inappropriate . " The board members cited his violent record during incarceration and questioned his effort to reform as being " too little , too late . " Gardner revealed at the hearing that it was Darcy Perry McCoy who provided him the gun with which he murdered Michael Burdell . Deputy Salt Lake County attorney Bob Stott said that McCoy would not be prosecuted because Gardner , the only witness , was going to be executed .
I feel really sorry for him ; I do feel sorry . But he made that choice .
The Utah Supreme Court upheld lower court rulings on June 14 , 2010 , exhausting Gardner 's appeals within the state . The U.S. Supreme Court turned down final appeals on June 17 , though a court order indicated that dissenting Justices Stephen Breyer and John Paul Stevens would have granted a stay of execution . Utah governor Gary Herbert also declined to intervene because Gardner had " a full and fair opportunity " in court . State attorney general Mark Shurtleff announced on Twitter that he signed off on the execution : " I just gave the go ahead to Corrections Director to proceed with Gardner 's execution . "
= = = Death penalty debate = = =
Opponents of capital punishment gathered at the Utah State Capitol to hold a rally during the final appeals . The protest was attended by Gardner 's family , and was organized by Utahans for Alternatives to the Death Penalty . The protest also included the support of Brian King of the Utah House of Representatives , who pledged to urge the legislature to reconsider the use of the capital punishment . The family of murder victim Michael Burdell had also appealed on Gardner 's behalf , stating that Burdell was a pacifist who would have opposed the death penalty .
News media arrived from around the world and raised the issue of blood atonement because of Gardner 's citation of his Mormon roots in selecting the firing squad . Some followers of Mormonism were taught that murder is so heinous that the blood of the offender must be spilled to pay for their sins . On the day before Gardner 's execution , The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter @-@ day Saints released the following statement :
In the mid @-@ 19th century , when rhetorical , emotional oratory was common , some church members and leaders used strong language that included notions of people making restitution for their sins by giving up their own lives .
However , so @-@ called " blood atonement , " by which individuals would be required to shed their own blood to pay for their sins , is not a doctrine of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter @-@ day Saints . We believe in and teach the infinite and all @-@ encompassing atonement of Jesus Christ , which makes forgiveness of sin and salvation possible for all people .
Other denominations voiced their opposition to the use of capital punishment . Reverend David Henry of the First Baptist Church of Salt Lake City said , " Violence breeds violence ... . It doesn 't work . It 's ineffective , and it 's brutalizing all of us . " Cardinal Keith O 'Brien of the Roman Catholic Church later used Gardner 's cases to describe the " culture of vengeance " in the United States .
According to polls , support for capital punishment had been steadily declining since the 1990s , but the majority of people in Utah still supported the death penalty in the period leading up to Gardner 's scheduled execution . In 2010 , Kay McIff of the Utah House of Representatives sponsored legislation to require condemned inmates to raise all appeal arguments in their first post @-@ conviction petition , noting that Gardner 's multiple appeals kept his case lingering on death row for nearly 25 years . The bill , HB202 , passed the Utah House by a margin of 67 @-@ to @-@ 5 on February 1 , 2011 , and unanimously passed the Utah State Senate on February 17 . If the legislation is signed into law by the governor , subsequent appeals would require the introduction of new evidence to first be submitted before a judge to determine whether it would affect the case .
= = Execution = =
The Utah Department of Corrections provided Gardner 's attorney , Andrew Parnes , with documentation about executions by firing squad and lethal injection . The records included the Utah execution team 's training and expertise . Parnes relayed the information to Gardner after agreeing not to disclose it to anyone else .
On June 15 , 2010 , Gardner ate a last meal of steak , lobster tail , apple pie , vanilla ice cream and 7 @-@ Up , before beginning a 48 @-@ hour fast while watching The Lord of the Rings film trilogy and reading Divine Justice . According to his lawyers , the fast was motivated by " spiritual reasons . " Gardner was visited by an LDS bishop and his family before his execution . Gardner walked voluntarily to his place of execution . When asked if he had any last words , he responded , " I do not , no . "
Gardner was executed on June 18 , 2010 , at 12 : 15 am Mountain Daylight Time by a firing squad at Utah State Prison in Draper . He was placed in restraints on a black metal chair with a hood covering his head . Sandbags were arranged around him to absorb ricochets . The firing squad was made up of five anonymous volunteers who were certified police officers . The officers stood about 25 feet ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) from Gardner , aiming at a white target positioned over his heart . One of their .30 @-@ caliber Winchester rifles was selected at random and loaded with a non @-@ lethal wax bullet so that they would not know with certainty who fired the fatal shots . According to the Utah Department of Corrections , the squad used a countdown cadence beginning with five and simultaneously firing right before two . His dark blue jumpsuit made it difficult to see the blood from his wounds . A medical examiner removed Gardner 's hood to reveal his lifeless face . After verifying Gardner 's lack of pulse at the neck and pupillary light reflex , the medical examiner pronounced him dead at 12 : 17 am . He was the first person to be executed by firing squad in the United States since the execution of John Albert Taylor 14 years earlier . A commemorative coin was commissioned for prison staff who participated in the execution . Gardner 's friends and family gathered outside the prison at a candlelight vigil while playing " Free Bird " by Lynyrd Skynyrd . They did not witness his execution , per his request . Some wore shirts with his prisoner number 14873 . His body was cremated and released to his daughter to be taken back to Idaho with family members .
Ultimately , his children and grandchildren got their chance to express their love for him . I 'm not sure Ronnie had a lot of love in his life . At least in the end there , he got that .
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= Ringo Starr =
Richard Starkey , MBE ( born 7 July 1940 ) , known professionally as Ringo Starr , is an English musician , singer , songwriter and actor who gained worldwide fame as the drummer for the Beatles . He occasionally sang lead vocals , usually for one song on an album , including " With a Little Help from My Friends " , " Yellow Submarine " and their cover of " Act Naturally " . He also wrote the Beatles ' songs " Don 't Pass Me By " and " Octopus 's Garden " , and is credited as a co @-@ writer of others , including " What Goes On " and " Flying " .
Starr was twice afflicted by life @-@ threatening illnesses during childhood , and as a result of prolonged hospitalisations fell behind in school . In 1955 , he entered the workforce and briefly held a position with British Rail before securing an apprenticeship at a Liverpool equipment manufacturer . Soon afterwards , he became interested in the UK skiffle craze , developing a fervent admiration for the genre . In 1957 , he cofounded his first band , the Eddie Clayton Skiffle Group , which earned several prestigious local bookings before the fad succumbed to American rock and roll by early 1958 .
When the Beatles formed in 1960 , Starr was a member of another Liverpool group , Rory Storm and the Hurricanes . After achieving moderate success with that band in the UK and Hamburg , he quit the Hurricanes and joined the Beatles in August 1962 , replacing Pete Best . Starr played key roles in the Beatles ' films and appeared in numerous others . After the band 's break @-@ up in 1970 , he released several successful singles including the US number four hit " It Don 't Come Easy " , and number ones " Photograph " and " You 're Sixteen " . In 1972 , he released his most successful UK single , " Back Off Boogaloo " , which peaked at number two . He achieved commercial and critical success with his 1973 album Ringo , which was a top ten release in both the UK and the US . He has been featured in a number of documentaries and hosted television shows . He also narrated the first two series of the children 's television programme Thomas & Friends and portrayed " Mr Conductor " during the first season of the PBS children 's television series Shining Time Station . Since 1989 , he has toured with twelve variations of Ringo Starr & His All @-@ Starr Band .
Starr 's creative contribution to music has received praise from drummers such as Phil Collins , who described him as " a great musician " , and Steve Smith , who commented : " Before Ringo , drum stars were measured by their soloing ability and virtuosity . Ringo 's popularity brought forth a new paradigm ... we started to see the drummer as an equal participant in the compositional aspect ... His parts are so signature to the songs that you can listen to a Ringo drum part without the rest of the music and still identify the song . " He was inducted into the Modern Drummer Hall of Fame in 1998 . In 2011 , Rolling Stone readers named Starr the fifth @-@ greatest drummer of all time . Starr , who was previously inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame as a Beatle in 1988 , was inducted for his solo career in 2015 , making him one of 21 performers inducted more than once .
= = 1940 – 56 : Early life = =
Richard Starkey was born on 7 July 1940 , at 9 Madryn Street , in Dingle , Liverpool . He is the only child of confectioners Elsie ( née Gleave ) and Richard Starkey . Elsie enjoyed singing and dancing , a hobby that she shared with her husband , an avid fan of swing . Prior to the birth of their son , whom they nicknamed " Ritchie " , the couple had spent much of their free time on the local ballroom circuit , but soon after his birth their regular outings ended . Elsie adopted an overprotective approach to raising her son that bordered on fixation . Subsequently , " Big Ritchie " , as Starkey 's father became known , lost interest in his family , choosing instead to spend long hours drinking and dancing in pubs , sometimes for several consecutive days .
In 1944 , in an effort to reduce their housing costs , his family moved to another neighbourhood in the Dingle , 10 Admiral Grove ; soon afterwards , his parents separated , and they divorced within the year . Starkey later stated that he has " no real memories " of his father , who made little effort to bond with him , visiting as few as three times thereafter . Elsie found it difficult to survive on her ex @-@ husband 's support payments of thirty shillings a week , so she took on several menial jobs cleaning houses before securing a position as a local barmaid , an occupation that she held for twelve years .
At age six Starkey developed appendicitis . Following a routine appendectomy he contracted peritonitis , causing him to fall into a coma that lasted for days . His recovery spanned twelve months , which he spent away from his family at Liverpool 's Myrtle Street children 's hospital . Upon his discharge in May 1948 , his mother allowed him to stay home , causing him to miss school . At age eight , he remained illiterate , with a poor grasp of mathematics . His lack of education contributed to a feeling of alienation at school , which resulted in him regularly playing truant at Sefton Park . After several years of twice @-@ weekly tutoring from his surrogate sister and neighbour , Marie Maguire Crawford , Starkey had nearly caught up to his peers academically , but in 1953 , he contracted tuberculosis and was admitted to a sanatorium , where he remained for two years . During his stay the medical staff made an effort to stimulate motor activity and relieve boredom by encouraging their patients to join the hospital band , leading to his first exposure to a percussion instrument : a makeshift mallet made from a cotton bobbin that he used to strike the cabinets next to his bed . Soon afterwards , he grew increasingly interested in drumming , receiving a copy of the Alyn Ainsworth song " Bedtime for Drums " as a convalescence gift from Crawford . Starkey commented : " I was in the hospital band ... That 's where I really started playing . I never wanted anything else from there on ... My grandparents gave me a mandolin and a banjo , but I didn 't want them . My grandfather gave me a harmonica ... we had a piano – nothing . Only the drums . "
Starkey attended St Silas , a Church of England primary school near his house where his classmates nicknamed him " Lazarus " , and later Dingle Vale Secondary modern school , where he showed an aptitude for art and drama , as well as practical subjects including mechanics . As a result of the prolonged hospitalisations , he fell behind his peers scholastically and was ineligible for the 11 @-@ plus qualifying examination required for attendance at a grammar school . On 17 April 1953 , Starkey 's mother married Harry Graves , an ex @-@ Londoner who had moved to Liverpool following the failure of his first marriage . Graves , an impassioned fan of big band music and their vocalists , introduced Starkey to recordings by Dinah Shore , Sarah Vaughan and Billy Daniels . Graves stated that he and " Ritchie " never had an unpleasant exchange between them ; Starkey later commented : " He was great ... I learned gentleness from Harry . " After the extended hospital stay following Starkey 's recovery from tuberculosis , he did not return to school , preferring instead to stay at home and listen to music while playing along by beating biscuit tins with sticks .
Beatles biographer Bob Spitz described Starkey 's upbringing as " a Dickensian chronicle of misfortune " . Houses in the area were " poorly ventilated , postage @-@ stamp @-@ sized ... patched together by crumbling plaster walls , with a rear door that opened onto an outhouse . " Crawford commented : " Like all of the families who lived in the Dingle , he was part of an ongoing struggle to survive . " The children who lived there spent much of their time at Princes Park , escaping the soot @-@ filled air of their coal @-@ fuelled neighbourhood . Adding to their difficult circumstances , violent crime was an almost constant concern for people living in one of the oldest and poorest inner @-@ city districts in Liverpool . Starkey later commented : " You kept your head down , your eyes open , and you didn 't get in anybody 's way . "
After his return home from the sanatorium in late 1955 , Starkey entered the workforce but was lacking in motivation and discipline ; his initial attempts at gainful employment proved unsuccessful . In an effort to secure himself some warm clothes , he briefly held a railway worker 's job , which came with an employer @-@ issued suit . He was supplied with a hat but no uniform and , unable to pass the physical examination , he was laid off and granted unemployment benefits . He then found work as a waiter serving drinks on a day boat that travelled from Liverpool to North Wales , but his fear of conscription into military service led him to quit the job , not wanting to give the Royal Navy the impression that he was suitable for seafaring work . In mid @-@ 1956 , Graves secured Starkey a position as an apprentice machinist at a Liverpool equipment manufacturer . While working at the facility Starkey befriended Roy Trafford , and the two bonded over their shared interest in music . Trafford introduced Starkey to skiffle , and he quickly became a fervent admirer .
= = 1957 – 61 : First bands = =
Soon after Trafford piqued Starkey 's interest in skiffle , the two began rehearsing songs in the manufacturing plant 's cellar during their lunch breaks . Trafford recalled : " I played a guitar , and [ Ritchie ] just made a noise on a box ... Sometimes , he just slapped a biscuit tin with some keys , or banged on the backs of chairs . " The pair were joined by Starkey 's neighbour and co @-@ worker , the guitarist Eddie Miles , forming the Eddie Miles Band , later renamed Eddie Clayton and the Clayton Squares after a Liverpool landmark . The band performed popular skiffle songs such as " Rock Island Line " and " Walking Cane " , with Starkey raking a thimble across a washboard , creating primitive , driving rhythms . Starkey enjoyed dancing as his parents had years earlier , and he and Trafford briefly took dance lessons at two schools . Though the lessons were short @-@ lived , they provided Starkey and Trafford with an introduction that allowed them to dance competently while enjoying nights out on the town .
On Christmas Day 1957 , Graves gave Starkey a second @-@ hand drum kit consisting of a snare drum , bass drum and a makeshift cymbal fashioned from an old rubbish bin lid . Although basic and crude , the kit facilitated his progression as a musician while increasing the commercial potential of the Eddie Clayton band , who went on to book several prestigious local gigs before the skiffle craze faded in early 1958 as American rock and roll became popular in the UK .
In November 1959 , Starkey joined Al Caldwell 's Texans , a skiffle group who were looking for someone with a proper drum kit so that the group could transition from one of Liverpool 's best @-@ known skiffle acts to a full @-@ fledged rock and roll band . They had begun playing local clubs as the Raging Texans , then Jet Storm and the Raging Texans before settling on Rory Storm and the Hurricanes soon before recruiting Starkey . About this time he adopted the stage name Ringo Starr ; derived from the rings he wore and also because it implied a country and western influence . His drum solos were billed as Starr Time .
By early 1960 the Hurricanes had become one of Liverpool 's leading bands . In May , they were offered a three @-@ month residency at a Butlins holiday camp in Wales . Although initially reluctant to accept the residency and end his five @-@ year machinist apprenticeship that he had begun four years earlier , Starr eventually agreed to the arrangement . The Butlins gig led to other opportunities for the band , including an unpleasant tour of US Air Force bases in France about which Starr commented : " The French don 't like the British ; at least I didn 't like them . " The Hurricanes became so successful that when initially offered a highly coveted residency in Hamburg , they turned it down because of their prior commitment with Butlins . They eventually accepted , joining the Beatles at Bruno Koschmider 's Kaiserkeller on 1 October 1960 , where Starr first met the band . Storm 's Hurricanes were given top @-@ billing over the Beatles , who also received less pay . Starr performed with the Beatles during a few stand @-@ in engagements while in Hamburg . On 15 October 1960 , he drummed with John Lennon , Paul McCartney and George Harrison , recording with them for the first time while backing Hurricanes singer Lu Walters on the George Gershwin aria " Summertime " . During Starr 's first stay in Hamburg he also met Tony Sheridan , who valued his drumming abilities to the point of asking Starr to leave the Hurricanes and join his band .
= = 1962 – 70 : The Beatles = =
Starr quit Rory Storm and the Hurricanes in January 1962 and briefly joined Sheridan in Hamburg before returning to the Hurricanes for a third season at Butlins . On 14 August , Lennon asked Starr to join the Beatles ; he accepted . On 16 August , Beatles manager Brian Epstein fired their drummer , Pete Best , who recalled : " He said ' I 've got some bad news for you . The boys want you out and Ringo in . ' He said [ Beatles producer ] George Martin wasn 't too pleased with my playing [ and ] the boys thought I didn 't fit in . " Starr first performed as a member of the band on 18 August 1962 , at a horticultural society dance at Port Sunlight . After his appearance at the Cavern Club the following day , Best fans , upset by his firing , held vigils outside his house and at the club shouting " Pete forever ! Ringo never ! " Harrison received a black eye from one of the upset fans , and Epstein , whose car tyres they had flattened in anger , temporarily hired a bodyguard to ensure his safety .
Starr 's first recording session as a member of the Beatles took place on 4 September 1962 . He stated that Martin had thought that he " was crazy and couldn 't play ... because I was trying to play the percussion and the drums at the same time , we were just a four piece band " . For their second recording session with Starr , which took place on 11 September 1962 , Martin replaced him with session drummer Andy White while recording takes for what would be the two sides of the Beatles ' first single , " Love Me Do " , backed with " P.S. I Love You " . Starr played tambourine on " Love Me Do " and maracas on " P.S. I Love You " . Concerned about his status in the Beatles , he thought : " That 's the end , they 're doing a Pete Best on me . " Martin later clarified : " I simply didn 't know what Ringo was like and I wasn 't prepared to take any risks . "
By November 1962 Starr had been accepted by Beatles fans , who were now calling for him to sing songs . Soon afterwards , he began receiving an amount of fan mail equal to that of the others , which helped to secure his position within the band . Starr considered himself fortunate to be on the same " wavelength " as the other Beatles : " I had to be , or I wouldn 't have lasted . I had to join them as people [ sic ] as well as [ as ] a drummer . " He was given a small percentage of Lennon and McCartney 's publishing company , Northern Songs , but he derived his primary income during this period from a one @-@ quarter share of Beatles Ltd , a corporation financed by the band 's net concert earnings . He commented on the nature of his lifestyle after having achieved success with the Beatles : " I lived in nightclubs for three years . It used to be a non @-@ stop party . " Like his father Starr became well known for his late @-@ night dancing and he received considerable praise for his skills .
During 1963 , the Beatles enjoyed increasing popularity in Britain . In January , their second single , " Please Please Me " , followed " Love Me Do " into the UK charts and a successful television appearance on Thank Your Lucky Stars earned them favourable reviews , leading to a boost in sales and radio play . By the end of the year , the phenomenon known as Beatlemania had spread throughout the country , and by February 1964 the Beatles had become an international success , performing on The Ed Sullivan Show to a record 73 million viewers . Starr commented : " In the states I know I went over well . It knocked me out to see and hear the kids waving for me . I 'd made it as a personality ... Our appeal ... is that we 're ordinary lads . " He was a source of inspiration for several songs written at the time , including Penny Valentine 's " I Want to Kiss Ringo Goodbye " and Rolf Harris 's " Ringo for President " . In 1964 , " I love Ringo " lapel pins outsold all other Beatles merchandising . During live performances , the Beatles continued the Starr Time routine that had been popular among his fans : Lennon would place a microphone in front of Starr 's kit in preparation for his spotlight moment and audiences would erupt in screams . When the Beatles made their film debut in A Hard Day 's Night , Starr garnered much praise from critics , who considered both his delivery of deadpan one @-@ liners and his non @-@ speaking scenes highlights of the movie . The extended non @-@ speaking sequences had to be arranged by director Richard Lester because of Starr 's lack of sleep the previous night , Starr commented : " Because I 'd been drinking all night I was incapable of saying a line . " Epstein attributed Starr 's acclaim to " the little man 's quaintness " . After the release of the Beatles ' second feature film , Help ! ( 1965 ) , Starr won a Melody Maker poll against his fellow Beatles for his performance as the central character in the film .
During an interview with Playboy in 1964 , Lennon explained that Starr had filled in with the Beatles when Best was ill ; Starr replied : " [ Best ] took little pills to make him ill " . Soon after Starr made the comment , a provoked Best filed a libel suit against him that lasted for four years before the court reached an undisclosed settlement in Best 's favour . In June , the Beatles were scheduled to tour Denmark , the Netherlands , Asia , Australia and New Zealand , but Starr became ill the day before the start of the tour . Stricken with a high @-@ grade fever , pharyngitis and tonsillitis , he was admitted to a local hospital where he briefly stayed followed by several days of recuperation at home . During this time , Starr was temporarily replaced for five concert dates by 24 @-@ year @-@ old session drummer Jimmie Nicol . Starr was discharged from the hospital , and he rejoined the band in Melbourne on 15 June . He later admitted that he feared he would be permanently replaced during his illness . In August , when the Beatles were introduced to Bob Dylan , Starr was the first to try a cannabis cigarette offered to the band by Dylan , whereas Lennon , McCartney and Harrison were hesitant .
On 11 February 1965 , Starr married Maureen Cox , whom he had first met in 1962 . By this time the stress and pressure that went along with Beatlemania had reached a peak for him . He received a telephoned death threat before a show in Montreal , and resorted to positioning his cymbals vertically in an attempt to provide protection from would @-@ be assassins . The constant pressure of the Beatles ' fame affected their live performances ; Starr commented : " We were turning into such bad musicians ... there was no groove to it . " He was also feeling increasingly isolated from the musical activities of his bandmates , who were moving past the traditional boundaries of rock music into territory that often did not require his accompaniment ; during recording sessions he spent countless hours playing cards with their road manager Neil Aspinall and roadie Mal Evans while the other Beatles perfected tracks without him . In a letter published in Melody Maker , a fan asked the Beatles to let Starr sing more ; he replied : " [ I am ] quite happy with my one little track on each album " .
In August 1966 , the Beatles released Revolver , their seventh UK LP . The album included the song " Yellow Submarine " , which was the only British number one single with Starr as the lead singer . Later that month and owing to the increasing pressures of touring , the Beatles gave their final concert , a 30 @-@ minute performance at San Francisco 's Candlestick Park . Starr commented : " We gave up touring at the right time . Four years of Beatlemania were enough for anyone . " By December , he had moved into an upscale estate on three acres in Saint George 's Hill called Sunny Heights . Although he had equipped the house with many luxury items , including numerous televisions , light machines , film projectors and stereo equipment , a billiard table , go @-@ kart track and a bar named the Flying Cow , he did not include a drum kit , he explained : " When we don 't record , I don 't play " .
For the Beatles ' seminal 1967 album , Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band , Starr sang lead vocals on the Lennon – McCartney composition " With a Little Help from My Friends " . Although the Beatles had enjoyed widespread commercial and critical success with Sgt. Pepper , the long hours they spent recording the LP contributed to Starr 's increased feeling of alienation within the band , he commented : " [ It ] wasn 't our best album . That was the peak for everyone else , but for me it was a bit like being a session musician ... They more or less direct me in the style I can play . " His inability to compose new material led to his input being minimised during recording sessions ; he often found himself relegated to adding minor percussion effects to songs by McCartney , Lennon and Harrison . During his down @-@ time Starr worked on his guitar playing ; he commented : " I jump into chords that no one seems to get into . Most of the stuff I write is twelve @-@ bar " .
Epstein 's death in August 1967 left the Beatles without management ; Starr remarked : " [ It was ] a strange time for us , when it 's someone who 've relied on in the business , where we never got involved . " Soon afterwards , the band began an ill @-@ fated film project , Magical Mystery Tour . Starr 's growing interest in photography at the time led to his billing as the movie 's Director of Photography , and his participation in the film 's editing was matched only by McCartney .
In February 1968 , Starr became the first Beatle to sing during another artist 's show without the other three present . He sang the Buck Owens hit " Act Naturally " , and performed a duet with Cilla Black , " Do You Like Me Just a Little Bit ? " on her BBC One television programme , Cilla . Later that year Apple Records released The Beatles , commonly known as the " White Album " . Creative inspiration for the double LP came in part from the band 's recent interactions with the Maharishi Mahesh Yogi . While attending an intermediate course at his ashram in Rishikesh , India , they enjoyed one of their most prolific writing periods , composing most of the album 's songs there . Despite leaving after 10 days , Starr completed his first recorded Beatles song , " Don 't Pass Me By " , while in India . During the recording of the White Album , relations within the band became openly divisive . As the sessions progressed , their collective group dynamic began to decay ; at times only one or two Beatles were involved in the recording for a track . Starr had grown weary of McCartney 's increasingly overbearing approach and Lennon 's passive @-@ aggressive behaviour , which was exacerbated by Starr 's resentment of Yoko Ono 's near @-@ constant presence . After one particularly difficult session during which McCartney had harshly criticised his drumming , Starr quit the band for two weeks , taking a holiday with his family in Sardinia on a boat loaned by Peter Sellers . During a lunch break the chef served octopus , which Starr refused to eat . A subsequent conversation with the ship 's captain regarding the behaviours of the animal served as the inspiration for his Abbey Road composition , " Octopus 's Garden " , which Starr wrote on guitar during the trip . He returned to the studio two weeks later , to find that Harrison had covered his drum kit in flowers as a welcome @-@ back gesture .
Despite a temporary return to congenial relations during the completion of the White Album , production of the Beatles ' fourth feature film , Let It Be , and its accompanying LP , strained the already tenuous cohesion within the band . On 20 August 1969 , the Beatles gathered for the final time at Abbey Road Studios for a mixing session for " I Want You " . Following a business meeting on 20 September , Lennon told the others that he had quit the Beatles .
= = Solo career = =
= = = 1970s = = =
On 10 April 1970 , McCartney publicly announced that he had quit the Beatles . Shortly before this , he and Starr fell out due to McCartney 's refusal to cede the release date of his eponymous solo album to allow for Starr 's debut , Sentimental Journey , and the Beatles ' Let It Be . Starr 's album – composed of renditions of pre @-@ rock standards that included musical arrangements by Quincy Jones , Maurice Gibb , George Martin and McCartney – peaked at number seven in the UK and number 22 in the US . Starr followed Sentimental Journey with the country @-@ inspired Beaucoups of Blues , engineered by Scotty Moore and featuring renowned Nashville session musician Pete Drake . Despite receiving some favourable reviews , the album failed to meet with commercial success . Starr subsequently combined his musical activities with developing a career as a film actor .
Starr played drums on Lennon 's John Lennon / Plastic Ono Band ( 1970 ) , Ono 's Yoko Ono / Plastic Ono Band ( 1970 ) , and on Harrison 's albums All Things Must Pass ( 1970 ) , Living in the Material World ( 1973 ) and Dark Horse ( 1974 ) . In 1971 , Starr participated in the Concert for Bangladesh , organised by Harrison , and with him co @-@ wrote the hit single " It Don 't Come Easy " , which reached number four in both the US and the UK . The following year he released his most successful UK hit , " Back Off Boogaloo " ( again produced and co @-@ written by Harrison ) , which peaked at number two ( US number nine ) . Having become friends with the English singer Marc Bolan , Starr made his directorial debut with the 1972 T. Rex documentary Born to Boogie .
In 1973 , Starr earned two number one hits in the US : " Photograph " , a UK number eight hit that he co @-@ wrote with Harrison , and " You 're Sixteen " , written by the Sherman Brothers . Starr 's third million @-@ selling single , " You 're Sixteen " was released in the UK in February 1974 where it peaked at number four in the charts . Both songs appeared on Starr 's debut rock album , Ringo , which was produced by Richard Perry and featured writing and musical contributions from Lennon and McCartney , as well as Harrison . A commercial and critical success , the LP also included " Oh My My " , a US number five . The album reached number seven in the UK and number two in the US . Author Peter Doggett describes Ringo as a template for Starr 's solo career , saying that , as a musician first rather than a songwriter , " he would rely on his friends and his charm , and if both were on tap , then the results were usually appealing . "
Goodnight Vienna followed in 1974 and was also successful , reaching number eight in the US and number 30 in the UK . Featuring musical contributions from Lennon , Elton John and Harry Nilsson , the album included a cover of the Platters ' " Only You ( And You Alone ) " , which peaked at number six in the US and number 28 in the UK , and Hoyt Axton 's " No No Song " , which was a US number three and Starr 's seventh consecutive top @-@ ten hit . The John @-@ written " Snookeroo " failed to chart in the UK , however , when issued there as the second single from the album . During this period Starr became romantically involved with Lynsey de Paul . He played tambourine on a song she wrote and produced for Vera Lynn , " Don 't You Remember When " , and he inspired another De Paul song , " If I Don 't Get You the Next One Will " , which she described as being about revenge after he missed a dinner appointment with her because he was asleep in his office .
Starr founded the record label Ring O 'Records in 1975 . The company signed eleven artists and released fifteen singles and five albums between 1975 and 1978 , including works by David Hentschel , Graham Bonnet and Rab Noakes . The commercial impact of Starr 's own career diminished over the same period , however , although he continued to record and remained a familiar celebrity presence . Speaking in 2001 , he attributed this downward turn to his " [ not ] taking enough interest " in music , saying of himself and friends such as Nilsson and Keith Moon : " We weren 't musicians dabbling in drugs and alcohol ; now we were junkies dabbling in music . " Starr and Moon were members of a drinking club , The Hollywood Vampires .
In November 1976 Starr appeared as a guest at the Band 's farewell concert , featured in the 1978 Martin Scorsese documentary The Last Waltz . Also in 1976 , Starr issued Ringo 's Rotogravure , the first release under his new contract with Atlantic Records for the North American market and Polydor for all other territories . The album was produced by Arif Mardin and featured compositions by Lennon , McCartney and Harrison . Starr promoted the release heavily , yet Rotogravure and its accompanying singles failed to chart in the UK . In America , the LP produced two minor hits , " A Dose of Rock ' n ' Roll " ( number 26 ) and a cover of " Hey ! Baby " ( number 74 ) , and achieved moderate sales , reaching a chart position of 28 . Its disappointing performance inspired Atlantic to revamp Starr 's formula ; the result was a curious blend of disco and 1970s pop , titled Ringo the 4th ( 1977 ) . The album was a commercial disaster , failing to chart in the UK and peaking at number 162 in the US . In 1978 Starr released Bad Boy , which reached a disappointing number 129 in the US and again failed to place on the UK albums chart .
= = = 1980s = = =
Following Lennon 's murder in December 1980 , Harrison modified the lyrics of a song he had originally written for Starr , " All Those Years Ago " , as a tribute to their former bandmate . Released as a Harrison single in 1981 , the track , which included Starr 's drum part and overdubbed backing vocals by Paul and Linda McCartney , peaked at number two in the US charts and number 13 in the UK . Later that year , Starr released Stop and Smell the Roses , featuring songs produced by Nilsson , McCartney , Harrison , Ronnie Wood and Stephen Stills . The album 's lead single , the Harrison @-@ composed " Wrack My Brain " , reached number 38 in the US charts , but failed to chart in the UK . Lennon had offered a pair of songs for inclusion on the album – " Nobody Told Me " and " Life Begins at 40 " – but following his death , Starr did not feel comfortable recording them . Soon after the murder , Starr and his girlfriend Barbara Bach flew to New York City to be with Lennon 's widow Yoko Ono .
Following Stop and Smell the Roses , Starr 's recording projects were beset with problems . After completing Old Wave in 1982 with producer Joe Walsh , he was unable to find a record company willing to release the album in the UK or the US . In 1987 he abandoned sessions in Memphis for a planned country album , produced by Chips Moman , after which Moman was blocked by a court injunction from issuing the recordings . Starr nevertheless maintained a high public profile through his narration over 1984 – 86 of the popular children 's series Thomas & Friends , a Britt Allcroft production based on the books by the Reverend W. Awdry . For a single season in 1989 , Starr also portrayed the character Mr. Conductor in the programme 's American spin @-@ off , Shining Time Station .
In 1985 , Starr performed with his son Zak as part of Artists United Against Apartheid on the recording " Sun City " , and , with Harrison and Eric Clapton , was among the special guests on Carl Perkins ' TV special Blue Suede Shoes : A Rockabilly Session . In 1987 he played drums on Harrison 's Beatles pastiche " When We Was Fab " and also appeared in Godley & Creme 's innovative video clip for the song . The same year , Starr joined Harrison , Clapton , Jeff Lynne and Elton John in a performance at London 's Wembley Arena for the Prince 's Trust charity . In January 1988 , he attended the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame ceremony in New York , with Harrison and Ono ( the latter representing Lennon ) , to accept the Beatles ' induction into the Hall of Fame .
During October and November 1988 , Starr and Bach attended a detox clinic in Tucson , Arizona , each receiving a six @-@ week treatment for alcoholism . He later commented on his longstanding addiction : " Years I 've lost , absolute years … I 've no idea what happened . I lived in a blackout . " Having embraced sobriety , Starr focused on re @-@ establishing his career by making a return to touring . On 23 July 1989 , Ringo Starr & His All @-@ Starr Band gave their first performance to an audience of ten thousand in Dallas , Texas . Setting a pattern that would continue over the following decades , the band consisted of Starr and an assortment of musicians who had been successful in their own right with popular songs at different times . The concerts interchanged Starr 's singing , including selections of his Beatles and solo songs , with performances of each of the other artists ' well @-@ known material , the latter incorporating either Starr or another musician as drummer .
= = = 1990s = = =
The first All @-@ Starr excursion led to the release of Ringo Starr and His All @-@ Starr Band ( 1990 ) , a compilation of live performances from the 1989 tour . Also in 1990 , Starr recorded a version of the song " I Call Your Name " for a television special marking the 10th anniversary of John Lennon 's death and the 50th anniversary of Lennon 's birth . The track , produced by Lynne , features a supergroup composed of Lynne , Tom Petty , Joe Walsh and Jim Keltner .
The following year , Starr made a cameo appearance on The Simpsons episode " Brush with Greatness " and contributed an original song , " You Never Know " , to the soundtrack of the John Hughes film Curly Sue . In 1992 , Starr released his first studio album in nine years , Time Takes Time , which was produced by Phil Ramone , Don Was , Lynne and Peter Asher and featured guest appearances by various stars including Brian Wilson and Harry Nilsson . The album failed to achieve commercial success , although the single " Weight of the World " peaked at number 74 in the UK , marking Starr 's first appearance on the singles chart there since " Only You " in 1974 .
In 1994 , Starr began a collaboration with the surviving former Beatles for the Beatles Anthology project . They recorded two new Beatles songs built around solo vocal and piano tapes recorded by Lennon and gave lengthy interviews about the Beatles ' career . Released in December 1995 , " Free as a Bird " was the first new Beatles single since 1970 . In March 1996 , they released a second single , " Real Love " . The temporary reunion ended when Harrison refused to participate in the completion of a third song . Starr then played drums on McCartney 's 1997 album Flaming Pie . Among the tracks to which he contributed , " Little Willow " was a song McCartney wrote about Starr 's ex @-@ wife Maureen , who died in 1994 , while " Really Love You " was the first official release ever credited to McCartney – Starkey .
In 1998 , Starr released two albums on the Mercury label . The studio album Vertical Man marked the beginning of a nine @-@ year partnership with Mark Hudson , who produced the album and , with his band the Roundheads , formed the core of the backing group on the recordings . In addition , many famous guests joined on various tracks , including Martin , Petty , McCartney and , in his final appearance on a Starr album , Harrison . Most of the songs were written by Starr and the band . Joe Walsh and the Roundheads joined Starr for his appearance on VH1 Storytellers , which was released as an album under the same name . During the show , he performed greatest hits and new songs and told anecdotes relating to them . Starr 's final release for Mercury was the 1999 Christmas @-@ themed I Wanna Be Santa Claus . The album was a commercial failure , although the record company chose not to issue it in Britain .
= = = 2000s = = =
Starr was inducted into the Percussive Arts Society Hall of Fame in 2002 , joining an elite group including Buddy Rich , William F. Ludwig , Sr. , and William F. Ludwig , Jr . On 29 November 2002 ( the first anniversary of Harrison 's death ) , he performed " Photograph " and a cover of Carl Perkins ' " Honey Don 't " at the Concert for George held in the Royal Albert Hall , London . Early the following year , Starr released the album Ringo Rama , which contained a song he co @-@ wrote as a tribute to Harrison , " Never Without You " . Also in 2003 , Starr formed Pumkinhead Records with All @-@ Starr Band member Mark Hudson . The label was not prolific , but their first signing was Liam Lynch , who produced a 2003 LP entitled Fake Songs .
Starr served as an honorary Santa Tracker and voice @-@ over personality in 2003 and 2004 during the London stop in Father Christmas 's annual Christmas Eve journey , as depicted in the annual NORAD tracks Santa program . According to NORAD officials , he was " a Starr in the east " who helped guide North American Aerospace Defense Command 's Santa @-@ tracking tradition .
Starr 's 2005 release Choose Love eschewed the star @-@ guests approach of his last two studio albums but failed to chart in the UK or the US . That same year , Liverpool 's City Council announced plans to demolish Starr 's birthplace , 9 Madryn Street , stating that it had " no historical significance " . The LCC later announced that the building would be taken apart brick by brick and preserved .
Starr released the album Liverpool 8 in January 2008 , coinciding with the start of Liverpool 's year as the European Capital of Culture . Hudson was the initial producer of the recordings , but after a falling out with Starr , he was replaced by David A. Stewart . Starr performed the title track at the opening ceremony for Liverpool 's appointment , but thereafter attracted controversy over his seemingly unflattering comments about his city of birth . Later that year , he was the object of further criticism in the press for posting a video on his website in which he harangued fans and autograph hunters for sending him items to sign .
In April 2009 , Starr reunited with McCartney at the David Lynch Foundation 's " Change Begins Within " benefit concert , held at New York 's Radio City Music Hall . Having played his own set beforehand , Starr joined McCartney for the finale and performed " With a Little Help from My Friends " , among other songs . Starr also appeared on @-@ stage during Microsoft 's June 2009 E3 press conference with Yoko Ono , McCartney and Olivia Harrison to promote The Beatles : Rock Band video game . In November 2009 , Starr once again performed the voice of Thomas the Tank Engine for " The Official BBC Children in Need Medley " .
= = = 2010s = = =
In 2010 Starr self @-@ produced and released his fifteenth studio album , Y Not , which included the track " Walk with You " and featured a vocal contribution from McCartney . Later that year , he appeared during Hope for Haiti Now : A Global Benefit for Earthquake Relief as a celebrity phone operator . On 7 July 2010 , Starr celebrated his 70th birthday at Radio City Music Hall with another All @-@ Starr Band concert , topped with friends and family joining him on stage including Ono , his son Zak , and McCartney .
Starr recorded a cover of Buddy Holly 's " Think It Over " for the 2011 tribute album Listen to Me : Buddy Holly . In January 2012 , he released the album Ringo 2012 . Later that year , Starr announced that his All @-@ Starr Band would tour the Pacific Rim during 2013 with select dates in New Zealand , Australia and Japan ; it was his first performance in Japan since 1996 , and his debut in both New Zealand and Australia .
In January 2014 , Starr joined McCartney for a special performance at the 56th Annual Grammy Awards in Los Angeles , where they performed the song " Queenie Eye " . That summer Starr toured Canada and the US with an updated version of the Twelfth All @-@ Starr Band , featuring multi @-@ instrumentalist Warren Ham instead of saxophonist Mark Rivera . In July , Starr became involved in " # peacerocks " , an anti @-@ violence campaign started by fashion designer John Varvatos , in conjunction with the David Lynch Foundation . In September 2014 , Starr won at the GQ Men of the Year Awards for his humanitarian work with the David Lynch Foundation .
In January 2015 Starr tweeted the title of his new 11 @-@ track studio album , Postcards from Paradise . The album came just weeks in advance of Starr 's induction into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame , and was released on 31 March 2015 to mixed to positive reviews .
Later that month , Ringo and his band announced an upcoming summer tour of the US . Full production will begin in June in Syracuse .
= = Musicianship = =
= = = Influences = = =
During his youth , Starr had been a devoted fan of skiffle and blues music , but by the time he joined the Texans in 1958 , he had developed a preference for rock and roll . He was also influenced by country artists , including Hank Williams , Buck Owens and Hank Snow , and jazz drummers such as Chico Hamilton and Yusef Lateef , whose compositional style inspired Starr 's fluid and energetic drum fills and grooves . While reflecting on Buddy Rich , Starr commented : " He does things with one hand that I can 't do with nine , but that 's technique . Everyone I talk to says ' What about Buddy Rich ? ' Well , what about him ? Because he doesn 't turn me on . " He stated that he " was never really into drummers " , but identified Cozy Cole 's 1958 cover of Benny Goodman 's " Topsy Part Two " as " the one drum record " he bought .
Starr 's first musical hero was Gene Autry , about whom he commented : " I remember getting shivers up my back when he sang , ' South of the Border ' " . By the early 1960s he had become an ardent fan of Lee Dorsey . In November 1964 , Starr told Melody Maker : " Our music is second @-@ hand versions of negro music ... Ninety per cent of the music I like is coloured . "
= = = Drums = = =
The overall effect of Starr 's drumming for the Beatles has received high praise from notable drummers . Starr commented : " I 'm no good on the technical things ... I 'm your basic offbeat drummer with funny fills ... because I 'm really left @-@ handed playing a right @-@ handed kit . I can 't roll around the drums because of that . " Beatles producer George Martin stated : " Ringo hit good and hard and used the tom @-@ tom well , even though he couldn 't do a roll to save his life " , although Martin later added , " He 's got tremendous feel . He always helped us to hit the right tempo for a song , and gave it that support – that rock @-@ solid back @-@ beat – that made the recording of all the Beatles ' songs that much easier . " Starr commented : " I 've always believed that the drummer is not there to interpret the song " ; comparing his drumming to painting , he stated : " I am the foundation , and then I put a bit of glow here and there ... If there 's a gap , I want to be good enough to fill it . "
In 2011 , readers of Rolling Stone magazine voted Starr as the fifth @-@ greatest drummer of all time . Journalist Robyn Flans , writing for the Percussive Arts Society , stated : " I cannot count the number of drummers who have told me that Ringo inspired their passion for drums " . Drummer Steve Smith commented on Starr 's musical contribution :
Before Ringo , drum stars were measured by their soloing ability and virtuosity . Ringo 's popularity brought forth a new paradigm in how the public saw drummers . We started to see the drummer as an equal participant in the compositional aspect . One of Ringo 's great qualities was that he composed unique , stylistic drum parts for the Beatles ' songs . His parts are so signature to the songs that you can listen to a Ringo drum part without the rest of the music and still identify the song .
Starr has said that his favourite drummer is Jim Keltner , with whom he first played at the Concert for Bangladesh in August 1971 . The pair subsequently played together as a double @-@ drumming team on some of Harrison 's recordings during the 1970s , on Ringo and other albums by Starr , and on the early All @-@ Starr Band tours . For Ringo 's Rotogravure in 1976 , Starr coined a term to describe their percussive combination , crediting himself as " Thunder " and Keltner as " Lightnin ' " .
Starr influenced Phil Collins , the drummer for Genesis , who said : " I think he 's vastly underrated , Ringo . The drum fills on ' A Day in the Life ' are very , very complex things . You could take a great drummer from today and say , ' I want it like that ' , and they really wouldn 't know what to do . " In September 1980 , Lennon told Rolling Stone :
Ringo was a star in his own right in Liverpool before we even met . Ringo was a professional drummer who sang and performed and was in one of the top groups in Britain , but especially in Liverpool . So Ringo 's talent would have come out one way or the other ... whatever that spark is in Ringo , we all know it but can 't put our finger on it . Whether it 's acting , drumming , or singing , I don 't know . There 's something in him that is projectable and he would have surfaced as an individual ... Ringo is a damn good drummer .
In his extensive survey of the Beatles ' recording sessions , historian Mark Lewisohn confirmed that Starr was both proficient and remarkably reliable and consistent . According to Lewisohn , there were fewer than a dozen occasions in the Beatles ' eight @-@ year recording career where session breakdowns were caused by Starr making a mistake , while the vast majority of takes were stopped owing to mistakes by the other three Beatles . Starr is considered to have influenced various modern drumming techniques , such as the matched grip , tuning the drums lower , and using muffling devices on tonal rings , as well as placing the drums on high risers for visibility as part of the band . According to Ken Micallef and Donnie Marshall , co @-@ authors of Classic Rock Drummers : " Ringo 's fat tom sounds and delicate cymbal work were imitated by thousands of drummers . "
= = = Vocals = = =
Starr sang lead vocals for a song on most of the Beatles ' studio albums as part of an attempt to establish a vocal personality for each band member . In many cases , Lennon or McCartney wrote the lyrics and melody especially for him , as they did for " Yellow Submarine " from Revolver and " With a Little Help from My Friends " on Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band . These melodies were tailored to Starr 's limited baritone vocal range . Because of his distinctive voice , Starr rarely performed backing vocals during his time with the Beatles , but they can be heard on songs such as " Maxwell 's Silver Hammer " and " Carry That Weight " . He is also the lead vocalist on his compositions " Don 't Pass Me By " and " Octopus 's Garden " . In addition , he sang lead on " I Wanna Be Your Man " , " Boys " , " Matchbox " , " Honey Don 't " , " Act Naturally " , " Good Night " and " What Goes On " .
= = = Songwriting = = =
Starr 's idiosyncratic turns of phrase , or Ringoisms as they became known , such as a hard day 's night and tomorrow never knows , were used as song titles by the Beatles , particularly by Lennon . McCartney commented : " Ringo would do these little malapropisms , he would say things slightly wrong , like people do , but his were always wonderful , very lyrical ... they were sort of magic " . As well as inspiring his bandmates ' creativity in this way , Starr occasionally contributed lyrics to unfinished Lennon – McCartney songs , such as the line " darning his socks in the night when there 's nobody there " from " Eleanor Rigby " .
Starr is credited as the sole composer of two Beatles songs : " Octopus 's Garden " and " Don 't Pass Me By " . Starr is credited as a co @-@ writer of " What Goes On " , " Flying " and " Dig It " . On material issued after the break @-@ up , Starr received a writing credit for " Taking a Trip to Carolina " and received joint songwriting credits with the other three Beatles for " 12 @-@ Bar Original " , " Los Paranoias " , " Christmas Time ( Is Here Again ) " , " Suzy Parker " , heard in the Let It Be film , and " Jessie 's Dream " from the Magical Mystery Tour film .
= = Personal life = =
When Starr married Maureen Cox in 1965 , Beatles manager Brian Epstein served as best man , with Starr 's stepfather Harry Graves and fellow Beatle George Harrison as witnesses . Soon afterwards , the couple 's matrimony became the subject of a US novelty song , " Treat Him Tender , Maureen " , by the Chicklettes . Starr and Maureen had three children together : Zak ( born 13 September 1965 ) , Jason ( born 19 August 1967 ) and Lee ( born 11 November 1970 ) . In 1971 , Starr purchased Lennon 's former home , Tittenhurst Park at Sunninghill in Berkshire and moved his family there . Following Starr 's repeated infidelities , the couple divorced in 1975 . Maureen died from leukaemia at age 48 in 1994 .
In 1980 , while on the set of the film Caveman , Starr met actress Barbara Bach ; they were married on 27 April 1981 . In 1985 , he was the first of the Beatles to become a grandfather upon the birth of Zak 's daughter , Tatia Jayne Starkey . Zak Starkey is also a drummer , and during his father 's regular absences , he spent time with The Who 's Keith Moon . Zak has performed with his father during some All @-@ Starr Band tours . In total , Ringo Starr has seven grandchildren – one from Zak , three from Jason and three from Lee .
Starr and Bach split their time between homes in Cranleigh , Surrey ; Los Angeles ; and Monte Carlo . In the Sunday Times Rich List 2011 , Starr was listed at number 56 in the UK with an estimated personal wealth of £ 150 million . In 2012 , Starr was estimated to be the wealthiest drummer in the world . In 2014 Starr announced that his 200 @-@ acre Surrey estate at Rydinghurst , with its Grade II @-@ listed Jacobean house , was for sale . However , he retains a property in the London district of Chelsea off King 's Road , and he and Bach continue to divide their time between London and Los Angeles .
In December 2015 , Starr and Bach auctioned some of their personal and professional items to the public via Julien 's Auctions in Los Angeles . Highlights of the collection included Starr 's first Ludwig Black Oyster Pearl drum kit ; instruments gifted to him by Harrison , Lennon and Marc Bolan ; and a first @-@ pressing copy of the Beatles ' White Album numbered " 0000001 " . The auction raised over $ 9 million , a portion of which was set aside for the Lotus Foundation , a charity founded by Starr and Bach .
= = Awards and honours = =
During the 1965 Birthday Honours for Queen Elizabeth II , Starr and the other Beatles were appointed Members of the Order of the British Empire ( MBE ) ; they received their insignia from the Queen at an investiture at Buckingham Palace on 26 October . He and the other Beatles were cumulatively nominated for a BAFTA Award for Best Newcomer for their performances in the 1964 film A Hard Day 's Night . In 1971 , the Beatles received an Academy Award for Best Original Song Score for the film Let It Be . The minor planet 4150 Starr , discovered on 31 August 1984 by Brian A. Skiff at the Anderson Mesa Station of the Lowell Observatory , was named in Starr 's honour . Starr was nominated for a 1989 Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Performer in a Children 's Series for his role as Mr. Conductor in the television series Shining Time Station .
In 2015 , twenty @-@ three years after he was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame as one of the Beatles , Starr became the last Beatle to be inducted for their solo career . During the 50th Grammy Awards , Starr , George Martin and his son Giles accepted the Best Compilation Soundtrack award for Love . On 9 November 2008 , Starr accepted a Diamond Award on behalf of the Beatles during the 2008 World Music Awards ceremony in Monaco . On 8 February 2010 , he was honoured with the 2,401st star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame by the Hollywood Chamber of Commerce . It is located at 1750 North Vine Street , in front of the Capitol Records building , as are the stars for Lennon , McCartney and Harrison .
= = Film career = =
Starr has received praise from critics and movie industry professionals regarding his acting ; director and producer Walter Shenson called him " a superb actor , an absolute natural " . By the mid @-@ 1960s , Starr had become a connoisseur of film . In addition to his roles in A Hard Day 's Night ( 1964 ) , Help ! ( 1965 ) , Magical Mystery Tour ( 1967 ) , and Let It Be ( 1970 ) , Starr also acted in Candy ( 1968 ) , The Magic Christian ( 1969 ) , Blindman ( 1971 ) , Son of Dracula ( 1974 ) and Caveman ( 1981 ) . In 1971 , he starred as Larry the Dwarf in Frank Zappa 's 200 Motels and was featured in Harry Nilsson 's animated film The Point ! He co @-@ starred in That 'll Be the Day ( 1973 ) as a Teddy Boy and appeared in The Last Waltz , the Martin Scorsese documentary film about the 1976 farewell concert of the Band .
Starr played the Pope in Ken Russell 's Lisztomania ( 1975 ) , and a fictionalised version of himself in McCartney 's Give My Regards to Broad Street in 1984 . Starr appeared as himself and a downtrodden alter @-@ ego Ognir Rrats in Ringo ( 1978 ) , an American @-@ made television comedy film based loosely on The Prince and the Pauper . For the 1979 documentary film on the Who , The Kids Are Alright , Starr appeared in interview segments with fellow drummer Keith Moon .
= = Discography = =
Since the breakup of the Beatles , Starr has released 18 solo studio albums :
= = Books = =
Postcards From the Boys ( 2004 )
Octopus 's Garden ( 2014 )
Photograph ( 2015 )
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= Monarchies in Europe =
There are currently thirteen ( 13 ) sovereign monarchies in Europe : the Principality of Andorra , the Kingdom of Belgium , the Kingdom of Denmark , the Principality of Liechtenstein , the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg , the Principality of Monaco , the Kingdom of the Netherlands , the Kingdom of Norway , the Kingdom of Spain , the Kingdom of Sweden , the Sovereign Military Order of Malta , the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and the State of the Vatican City . Ten of these are states where the head of state ( a monarch ) inherits his or her office , and usually keeps it for life or until they abdicate . As for the other two : in the Vatican City ( an elective monarchy , styled as an absolute theocracy ) , the head of state , the Sovereign ( who is a Pope ) , is elected at the papal conclave , while in Andorra ( technically a semi @-@ elective diarchy ) , the joint heads of state are the elected President of France and the Bishop of Urgell , appointed by the Pope .
Most of the monarchies in Europe are constitutional monarchies , which means that the monarch does not influence the politics of the state : either the monarch is legally prohibited from doing so , or the monarch does not utilize the political powers vested in the office by convention . The exceptions are Liechtenstein , which is usually considered a semi @-@ constitutional monarchy due to the large influence the prince still has on politics , and the Vatican City , which is a theocratic absolute elective monarchy . There is currently no major campaign to abolish the monarchy ( see monarchism and republicanism ) in any of the twelve states , although there is a significant minority of republicans in many of them ( e.g. the political organisation Republic in the United Kingdom ) . Currently seven of the twelve monarchies are members of the European Union : Belgium , Denmark , Luxembourg , the Netherlands , Spain , Sweden and the United Kingdom .
At the start of the 20th century , France , Switzerland and San Marino were the only European nations to have a republican form of government . The ascent of republicanism to the political mainstream started only at the beginning of the 20th century , facilitated by the toppling of various European monarchies through war or revolution ; as at the beginning of the 21st century , most of the states in Europe are republics with either a directly or indirectly elected head of state .
= = Current monarchies = =
Europe 's monarchs
= = = Andorra = = =
Andorra has been a co @-@ principality since the signing of a paréage in 1278 , when the count of Foix and the bishop of La Seu d 'Urgell agreed to share sovereignty over the landlocked country . After the title of the count of Foix had been passed to the kings of Navarre , and after Henry of Navarre had become Henry IV of France , an edict was issued in 1607 which established the French head of state as the legal successor to the count of Foix in regard to the paréage . Andorra was annexed by the First French Empire together with Catalonia in 1812 – 1813 . After the Empire 's demise , Andorra became independent again . The current joint monarchs are Bishop Joan Enric Vives Sicília and President François Hollande of France .
= = = Belgium = = =
Belgium has been a kingdom since 21 July 1831 without interruption , after it became independent from the United Kingdom of the Netherlands with Léopold I as its first king . Belgium is the only remaining popular monarchy in the world : The monarch is formally known as the " King of the Belgians " , not the " King of Belgium " . While in a referendum held on 12 March 1950 , 57 @.@ 68 per cent of the Belgians voted in favor of allowing Léopold III , whose conduct during World War II had been considered questionable and who had been accused of treason , to return to the throne ; due to civil unrest , he opted to abdicate in favor of his son Baudouin I on 16 July 1951 . The current monarch is Philippe .
= = = Denmark = = =
In Denmark , the monarchy goes back to the prehistoric times of the legendary kings , before the 10th century . Currently , about 80 per cent support keeping the monarchy . The current monarch is Margrethe II . The Danish monarchy also includes the Faroe Islands and Greenland which are parts of the Kingdom of Denmark with internal home rule . Due to this status , the monarch has no separate title for these regions .
= = = Liechtenstein = = =
Liechtenstein formally came into existence on 23 January 1719 , when Charles VI , Holy Roman Emperor decreed the lordship of Schellenberg and the countship of Vaduz united and raised to the dignity of a principality . Liechtenstein was a part of the Holy Roman Empire until the Treaty of Pressburg was signed on 26 December 1805 ; this marked Liechtenstein 's formal independence , though it was a member of the Confederation of the Rhine and the German Confederation afterwards . While Liechtenstein was still closely aligned with Austria @-@ Hungary until World War I , it realigned its politics and its customs and monetary institutions with Switzerland instead . Having been a constitutional monarchy since 1921 , Hans @-@ Adam II demanded more influence in Liechtenstein 's politics in the early 21st century , which he was granted in a referendum held on 16 March 2003 , effectively making Liechtenstein a semi @-@ constitutional monarchy again . However , the constitutional changes also provide for the possibility of a referendum to abolish the monarchy entirely . The current monarch is Hans @-@ Adam II , who turned over the day @-@ to @-@ day governing decisions to his son and heir Alois , Hereditary Prince of Liechtenstein on 15 August 2004 .
= = = Luxembourg = = =
Luxembourg has been an independent grand duchy since 9 June 1815 . Originally , Luxembourg was in personal union with the United Kingdom of the Netherlands and the Kingdom of the Netherlands from 16 March 1815 until 23 November 1890 . While Wilhelmina succeeded Willem III in the Netherlands , this was not possible in Luxembourg due to the order of succession being based on Salic law at that time ; he was succeeded instead by Adolphe . In a referendum held on 28 September 1919 , 80 @.@ 34 per cent voted in favor of keeping the monarchy . The current monarch is Henri .
= = = Monaco = = =
Monaco has been ruled by the House of Grimaldi since 1297 . From 1793 until 1814 , Monaco was under French control ; the Congress of Vienna designated Monaco as being a protectorate of the Kingdom of Sardinia from 1815 until 1860 , when the Treaty of Turin ceded the surrounding counties of Nice and Savoy to France . Menton and Roquebrune @-@ Cap @-@ Martin , part of Monaco until the mid @-@ 19th century before seceding in hopes of being annexed by Sardinia , were ceded to France in exchange for 4 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 French francs with the Franco @-@ Monegasque Treaty in 1861 , which also formally guaranteed Monaco its independence . Until 2002 , Monaco would have become part of France had the house of Grimaldi ever died out ; in a treaty signed that year , the two nations agreed that Monaco would remain independent even in such a case . The current monarch is Albert II .
= = = Netherlands = = =
The Netherlands originally became independent as the Republic of the Seven United Netherlands , which lasted from 26 July 1581 until 18 January 1795 , when the Netherlands became a French puppet state as the Batavian Republic . The Batavian Republic existed from 19 January 1795 until 4 June 1806 . It was transformed into the Kingdom of Holland on 5 June 1806 ; since then , the Netherlands have been a kingdom . They were subsequently annexed to the French Empire in 1810 . The United Kingdom of the Netherlands was established on 16 March 1815 . With the independence of Belgium on 21 July 1831 , the Netherlands again took a new form , as the Kingdom of the Netherlands . Nowadays , about 70 to 80 per cent of the Dutch are in favor of keeping the monarchy . The current monarch is Willem @-@ Alexander .
= = = Norway = = =
Norway was united and independent for the first time in 872 , as a kingdom . It is thus one of the oldest monarchies in the world , along with the Swedish and Danish ones . Norway was part of the Kalmar Union from 1397 until 1524 , then part of Denmark – Norway from 1536 until 1814 , and finally part of the Union between Sweden and Norway from 1814 until 1905 . Norway became completely independent again on 7 June 1905 . Support for establishing a republic lies around 20 per cent . The current monarch is Harald V.
= = = Spain = = =
Spain came into existence as a single , united kingdom under Charles I of Spain on 23 January 1516 . The monarchy was briefly abolished by the First Spanish Republic from 11 February 1873 until 29 December 1874 . The monarchy was abolished again on 14 April 1931 , first by the Second Spanish Republic – which lasted until 1 April 1939 – and subsequently by the dictatorship of Francisco Franco , who ruled until his death on 20 November 1975 . Monarchy was restored on 22 November 1975 under Juan Carlos I , who was also the monarch until is abdication in 2014 . His son Felipe VI is the current monarch . Today , there is a large number of organisations campaigning in favor of establishing a Third Spanish Republic ; Data from 2006 suggest that only 25 per cent of Spaniards are in favor of establishing a republic , however , the numbers have increased since Juan Carlos I abdicated .
= = = Sweden = = =
Sweden ’ s monarchy goes back as far as the Danish one , to the semi – legendary kings before the 10th century , since then it has not been interrupted . However , the unification of the rivalling kingdoms Svealand and Götaland ( consolidation of Sweden ) did not occur until some time later , possibly in the early 11th century . The current royal family , the House of Bernadotte , has reigned since 1818 . The current monarch is Carl XVI Gustaf .
= = = United Kingdom = = =
The monarchy of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland can be defined to have started either with the Kingdoms of England ( 871 ) or Scotland ( 843 ) , with the Union of the Crowns on 24 March 1603 , or with the Acts of Union of 1 May 1707 . It was briefly interrupted by the English Interregnum , with the Commonwealth of England existing in its stead from 30 January 1649 until 15 December 1653 and from 26 May 1659 until 25 May 1660 and The Protectorate taking its place from 16 December 1653 until 25 May 1659 . The current monarch is Elizabeth II .
Support for establishing a republic instead of a monarchy was around 18 per cent in the United Kingdom in 2006 , while a majority thinks that there will still be a monarchy in the United Kingdom in ten years ' time , public opinion is rather uncertain about a monarchy still existing in fifty years and a clear majority believes that the monarchy will no longer exist a century after the poll . Public opinion is , however , certain that the monarchy will still exist in thirty years . About 30 per cent are in favour of discontinuing the monarchy after Elizabeth 's death .
The monarch of the United Kingdom is also the monarch of the fifteen other Commonwealth realms , none of which are in Europe . Some of these realms have significant levels of support for republicanism .
= = = Vatican City = = =
Differently from the Holy See , in existence for almost two thousand years , the Vatican City was not a sovereign state until the 20th century . In the 19th century the annexation of the Papal States by the Kingdom of Sardinia , and the subsequent establishment of the Kingdom of Italy , was not recognized by the Vatican . However , by the Lateran Treaty of 1929 , the Kingdom of Italy recognized Vatican City as an independent city state , and vice versa . Since then , the elected monarch of the Vatican City state has been the current pope . The pope still officially carries the title " King of the Ecclesiastical State " ( in Latin : Rex Status Ecclesiæ ) .
= = Succession laws = =
The succession order is determined by primogeniture in most European monarchies . Belgium , Denmark , Luxembourg , the Netherlands , Sweden and the United Kingdom now adhere to absolute primogeniture , whereby the eldest child inherits the throne , regardless of gender ; Monaco and Spain have the older system of male @-@ preference primogeniture , while Liechtenstein uses agnatic primogeniture . Norway will adopt absolute primogeniture for the grandchildren of King Harald V , but his second child and only son , Crown Prince Haakon remains the heir apparent over his older sister , Princess Märtha Louise .
There are plans to change to absolute primogeniture in Spain through a rather complicated process , as the change entails a constitutional amendment . Two successive parliaments will have to pass the law by a two @-@ thirds majority and then put it to a referendum . As parliament has to be dissolved and new elections have to be called after the constitutional amendment is passed for the first time , the previous Presidente del Gobierno José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero indicated he would wait until the end of his first term in 2008 before passing the law , although this deadline passed without the referendum being called . The amendment enjoys strong public support .
To change the order of succession in the United Kingdom , as the Queen of the United Kingdom is also the queen of the fifteen other Commonwealth realms , a change had to be agreed and made by all of the Commonwealth realms together . In the United Kingdom , the Succession to the Crown Act 2013 was enacted , and after completion of the legislative alterations required in some other realms , the changes came into effect across the Commonwealth realms on 26 March 2015 .
Liechtenstein uses agnatic primogeniture ( aka Salic law ) , which completely excludes women from the order of succession unless there are no male heirs of any kind present , and was criticised for this by a United Nations committee for this perceived gender equality issue in November 2007 .
The co @-@ princes of Andorra are elected and appointed ( the president of the French Republic , and the Bishop of La Seu d 'Urgell ( appointed by the Pope ) , respectively ) .
The absolute monarch of Vatican City , the Pope , is elected by the College of Cardinals . The current ruler is Pope Francis .
Luxembourg also used agnatic primogeniture until 20 June 2011 , when absolute primogeniture was introduced .
= = Table of monarchies in Europe = =
= = Calls for abolition = =
Due to the ongoing economic crisis in Europe beginning in 2008 , the value of monarchies , and especially of the civil lists or appanages allocated to some members of reigning families ( not just the sovereign and consort ) have come under increased scrutiny by members of the citizenry . Some taxpayers object to these endowments , in their entirety or in part , as in some cases members of dynasties draw hundreds of thousands or millions of euros from national coffers per year , depending on the family member in question . Others express concern that during a period of rising inequality of wealth and , in some cases , growing poverty , royalty should receive no allowances , accept cuts , or pay increased taxes .
Organisations which actively campaign to eliminate one or more of Europe 's ten remaining hereditary constitutional monarchies and / or to liquidate assets reserved for reigning families , include Alliance of European Republican Movements , Republic in the United Kingdom and Hetis2013 . Also , some political parties ( e.g. Podemos in Spain ) have stepped up and called for national referenda to abolish monarchies .
= = = Other references = = =
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= HMS Cambrian ( 1916 ) =
HMS Cambrian was a C @-@ class light cruiser built for the Royal Navy during World War I. She was the name ship of her sub @-@ class of four ships . Assigned to the Grand Fleet , the ship played only a small role during the war . Cambrian was assigned to the Atlantic and Mediterranean Fleets during the 1920s and was sent to support British interests in Turkey during the Chanak Crisis of 1922 – 23 . The ship was placed in reserve in late 1929 . She was sold for scrap in 1934 .
= = Design and description = =
The C @-@ class cruisers were intended to escort the fleet and defend it against enemy destroyers attempting to close within torpedo range . Ordered as part of the 1914 – 15 Naval Programme , the Cambrian sub @-@ class were a slightly larger and improved version of the preceding Calliope sub @-@ class ; Cambrian , the last ship of her sub @-@ class to be completed , differed from her sister ships as she had a more powerful armament . The ships were 446 feet ( 135 @.@ 9 m ) long overall , with a beam of 41 feet 6 inches ( 12 @.@ 6 m ) and a mean draught of 14 feet 10 inches ( 4 @.@ 5 m ) . Displacement was 4 @,@ 320 long tons ( 4 @,@ 390 t ) at normal and 4 @,@ 799 long tons ( 4 @,@ 876 t ) at deep load . Cambrian was powered by four direct @-@ drive Parsons steam turbines , each driving one propeller shaft , which produced a total of 40 @,@ 000 indicated horsepower ( 30 @,@ 000 kW ) . The turbines used steam generated by six Yarrow boilers which gave her a speed of 28 @.@ 5 knots ( 52 @.@ 8 km / h ; 32 @.@ 8 mph ) . She carried 841 long tons ( 854 t ) tons of fuel oil . The ship had a crew of 368 officers and other ranks .
Cambrian 's main armament consisted of three BL 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) Mk XII guns that were mounted on the centreline . One gun was forward of the bridge and the last two were in the stern , with one gun superfiring over the rearmost gun . Her secondary armament consisted of six QF 4 in ( 102 mm ) Mk IV guns , three on each side , one pair abaft the bridge on the forecastle deck and the other two pairs one deck lower amidships . For anti @-@ aircraft defence , she was fitted with one QF 4 in ( 102 mm ) Mk V gun . The ship also mounted two submerged 21 in ( 533 mm ) torpedo tubes , one on each broadside . The Cambrians were protected by a waterline belt amidships that ranged in thickness from 1 @.@ 5 – 3 inches ( 38 – 76 mm ) with a 1 @-@ inch ( 25 mm ) deck . The walls of their conning tower were 6 inches thick .
= = = Wartime modifications = = =
During 1917 – 18 , her pole foremast was replaced by a tripod mast that was fitted with a gunnery director . In January 1919 , Cambrian had her 4 @-@ inch guns removed and an additional 6 @-@ inch gun added abaft the funnels . At the same time , her AA gun was replaced by a pair of QF 3 in ( 76 mm ) 20 @-@ cwt anti @-@ aircraft guns . Sometime between 1919 and 1924 the ship received a pair of 2 @-@ pounder ( 40 mm ) Mk II " pom @-@ pom " guns on single mounts .
= = Construction and career = =
Cambrian , the fourth ship of her name in the Royal Navy , was laid down by Pembroke Dockyard in Pembroke Dock , Wales , on 8 December 1914 , launched on 3 March 1916 , and completed in May 1916 . She was commissioned into service that same month and was assigned to the 4th Light Cruiser Squadron of the Grand Fleet in which she served through the end of World War I and until 1919 . The squadron was generally tasked with screening the battleships of the Grand Fleet during the war . The ship did not participate in the inconclusive Action of 19 August 1916 with the rest of her squadron . The squadron was briefly detached from the Grand Fleet in March 1917 to fruitlessly patrol off the Norwegian coast when news of a blockade runner was received by the Admiralty .
At the beginning of 1919 , Cambrian was refitted in Rosyth before she sailed for Devonport where she was visited by the Edward , Prince of Wales on 13 June . The ship was assigned to the North American and West Indies Station the following month , where she served until 1922 . Cambrian 's crew spent several days in August trying to tow off the schooner Bella Scott after she had run aground near Kingston , Jamaica and received a brief refit in Bermuda in March – April 1920 . The Prince of Wales again visited the ship on 26 September in Dominica . On 25 January 1921 , she was inspected by Vice @-@ Admiral Sir William Pakenham at Bermuda and again on 17 June . The ship arrived at Plymouth , Massachusetts to participate in the Pilgrim Tercentenary celebrations on 31 July .
She was part of the 2nd Light Cruiser Squadron of the Atlantic Fleet from August 1922 until June 1924 , and was detached to support British interests during the Chanak Crisis of 1922 – 23 . She escorted the seaplane carrier Ark Royal from the UK to Turkey from 27 September to 8 October and was later guard ship at Smyrna in December .
The ship was decommissioned in June 1924 and began a refit that lasted into 1926 , during which her aft control tower and searchlight platform was removed , when she was recommissioned to serve in the 2nd Light Cruiser Squadron of the Mediterranean Fleet where she participated in a fleet exercise in March 1929 . After transporting troops to China in 1929 , she was decommissioned in November 1929 and assigned to the Nore Reserve . She was recommissioned as the flagship of the Nore Reserve in March 1931 and was then decommissioned in July 1933 at Sheerness and listed for sale . Cambrian was sold for scrap on 28 July 1934 .
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= Usama ibn Munqidh =
Majd ad @-@ Dīn Usāma ibn Murshid ibn ʿAlī ibn Munqidh al @-@ Kināni al @-@ Kalbi ( also Usamah , Ousama , etc . ; Arabic : أسامة بن منقذ ) ( July 4 , 1095 – November 17 , 1188 ) was a medieval Muslim poet , author , faris ( knight ) , and diplomat from the Banu Munqidh dynasty of Shaizar in northern Syria . His life coincided with the rise of several medieval Muslim dynasties , the arrival of the First Crusade , and the establishment of the crusader states .
He was the nephew and potential successor of the emir of Shaizar , but was exiled in 1131 and spent the rest of his life serving other leaders . He was a courtier to the Burids , Zengids , and Ayyubids in Damascus , serving the Zengi , Nur ad @-@ Din , and Saladin over a period of almost fifty years . He also served the Fatimid court in Cairo , as well as the Artuqids in Hisn Kayfa . He travelled extensively in Arab lands , visiting Egypt , Syria , Palestine and along the Tigris River , and went on pilgrimage to Mecca . He often meddled in the politics of the courts in which he served , and he was exiled from both Damascus and Cairo .
During and immediately after his life , he was most famous as a poet and adib ( a " man of letters " ) . He wrote many poetry anthologies , such as the Kitab al- ' Asa ( " Book of the Staff " ) , Lubab al @-@ Adab ( " Kernels of Refinement " ) , and al @-@ Manazil wa 'l @-@ Diyar ( " Dwellings and Abodes " ) , and collections of his own original poetry . In modern times , he is remembered more for his Kitab al @-@ I 'tibar ( " Book of Learning by Example " or " Book of Contemplation " ) , which contains lengthy descriptions of the crusaders , whom he interacted with on many occasions , and some of whom he considered friends .
Most of his family was killed in an earthquake at Shaizar in 1157 . He died in Damascus in 1188 , at the age of 93 .
= = Early life = =
Usama was the son of Murshid , and the nephew of Nasr , emir of Shaizar .
Shaizar was seen as a strategically important site and the gateway to enter and control inner Syria . The Arabs initially conquered Shaizar during the Muslim conquest of the Levant in 637 . Due to its importance it exchanged hands numerous times between the Arabs and Byzantines , who regained it in 999 . In 1025 the Banu Munqid tribe were given an allocation of land beside Shaizar by the ruler of Hama , Saleh al @-@ Murdase . Over time they expanded their lands building fortifications and castles until Usamas grandfather Iz Al @-@ Dawlah Al @-@ Murhif Nasr retook it in 1180 .
When Nasr died in 1098 , Usama 's father , Majd Al @-@ Deen Abi Salamah Murshed ( 1068- 1137 ) became the emir of Shaizar and the surrounding cities . However he soon gave up his position to Usama 's Uncle ( Iz Al @-@ Deen Abi Al @-@ Asaker Sultan Mrdad ) , Sultan , since Murshid was more interested in studying religion , writing the Quraan and hunting than matters of politics .
During Usamas life and when his uncle ruled Shaizr was attacked numerous times by Bani Klab in Aleppo , the Assassins sect , the Byzantines and the crusaders . It was struck with siege engines for 10 days in 1137 by the Byzantines and the crusaders attempted on many occasions to storm it . However , due to its natural fortifications along with castles and walls it never fell .
As a child , Usama was the second of four boys and raised by his nurse , Lu 'lu 'a , who had also raised his father and would later raise Usama 's own children . He was encouraged by his father to memorize the Qur 'an , and was also tutored by scholars such as Ibn Munira of Kafartab and Abu Abdullah al @-@ Tulaytuli of Toledo . He spent much of his youth hunting with his family , partly as recreation and certainly as warrior ( faris ) training for battle as part of furusiyya . He also had much direct experience of battle , against the neighbouring crusader County of Tripoli and Principality of Antioch , hostile Muslim neighbours in Hama , Homs , and elsewhere , and Hashshashin who had established a base near Shaizar .
Sultan did not initially have any male heirs and it is possible that Usama expected to succeed him . He certainly singled him out among his brothers by teaching him , tutoring him in the ways of war and hunting . He even favoured him for personal missions and as a representative . However , after Sultan had his own son , he no longer appreciated the presence of Usama and Murshid 's other sons . According to Usama , Sultan was jealous after a particularly successful lion @-@ hunt in 1131 when he entered the town with a large lion head in his arms as a hunting trophy . When his grandmother saw this she warned him about the effect this could have on his uncle . However , despite this he still spoke well of his uncle on a few occasions in his autobiography and highlighted his noble actions . Usama ultimately left Shaizar temporarily in 1129 and after his father died in 1137 his exile became permanent .
His uncle died in 1154 and his son , Taj Al @-@ Dawlah Naser Al @-@ Deen Mohammad , inherited the castle . However he was the last of the line when an earthquake in 1157 struck the area killing scores .
= = Damascus and Egypt = =
Usama went to Homs , where he was taken captive in a battle against Zengi , the atabeg of Mosul and Aleppo , who had just captured nearby Hama . After his capture he entered Zengi 's service , and travelled throughout northern Syria , Iraq , and Armenia fighting against Zengi 's enemies , including the Abbasid caliph outside Baghdad in 1132 . In 1135 he returned to the south , to Hama , where one of Zengi 's generals , al @-@ Yaghisiyani , was appointed governor . He returned to Shaizar when his father died in May 1137 , and again in April 1138 when Byzantine emperor John II Comnenus besieged the city .
The emperor 's siege of Shaizar was unsuccessful , but Shaizar was heavily damaged . After the siege , Usama left Zengi 's service and went to Damascus , which was ruled by Mu 'in ad @-@ Din Unur , the atabeg of the Burid dynasty . Zengi was determined to conquer Damascus , so Usama and Unur turned to the crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem for help . Usama was sent on a preliminary visit to Jerusalem in 1138 , and in 1139 Zengi captured Baalbek in Damascene territory . In 1140 Unur sent Usama back to Jerusalem to conclude a treaty with the crusaders , and both he and Unur visited their new allies numerous times between 1140 and 1143 . Afterwards , Usama was suspected of being involved in a plot against Unur , and he fled Damascus for Fatimid Cairo in November , 1144 .
In Cairo he became a wealthy courtier , but he was involved in plots and conspiracies there as well . The young az @-@ Zafir became caliph in 1149 , and Ibn as @-@ Sallar became vizier , with Usama as one of his advisors . As @-@ Sallar sent Usama to negotiate an alliance against the crusaders with Zengi 's son Nur ad @-@ Din , but the negotiations failed . Usama took part in battles with the crusaders outside of Ascalon on his way back to Egypt , and after he left , his brother ' Ali was killed at Gaza .
Back in Egypt , as @-@ Sallar was assassinated in 1153 by his son Abbas , Abbas 's son Nasr , and caliph az @-@ Zafir , who , according to Usama , was Nasr 's lover . Thirteenth @-@ century historian Ibn al @-@ Athir says that Usama was the instigator of this plot . Usama may also have been behind the assassination of az @-@ Zafir by Abbas , in 1154 . Az @-@ Zafir 's relatives called upon a supporter , Ibn Ruzzik , who chased Abbas out of Cairo , and Usama followed him . He lost his possessions in Cairo , and on the way to Damascus his retinue was attacked by the crusaders and Bedouin nomads , but in June 1154 he safely reached Damascus , which had recently been captured by Nur ad @-@ Din . Ibn Ruzzik tried to persuade him to come back , as the rest of his family was still in Cairo , but Usama was able to bring them to Damascus , through crusader territory , in 1156 . The crusaders promised to transport them safely , but they were attacked and pillaged , and Usama lost his entire library .
= = Later years = =
In 1157 , Shaizar was destroyed by an earthquake , killing almost all of Usama 's relatives . They were there for the circumcision of the son of his cousin Muhammad , who had recently succeeded Sultan as emir . The only survivor was Muhammad 's wife . Usama had remained in Damascus , and after the destruction of his homeland he remained there in semi @-@ retirement . He went on pilgrimage to Mecca in 1160 , then went on campaign against the crusaders with Nur ad @-@ Din in 1162 , and was at the Battle of Harim in 1164 . That year , Usama left Nur ad @-@ Din 's service and went north to the court of Kara Arslan , the Artuqid emir of Hisn Kayfa .
Usama 's life in Hisn Kayfa is very obscure , but he travelled throughout the region , and probably wrote many of his works there . In 1174 Usama was invited to Damascus to serve Saladin , who had succeeded Nur ad @-@ Din earlier that year and was a friend of Usama 's son Murhaf . Usama lived in semi @-@ retirement , as he did in Hisn Kayfa , and often met with Saladin to discuss literature and warfare . He may have also taught poetry and hadith in Damascus , and held poetry salons for Saladin and his chief men , including al @-@ Qadi al @-@ Fadl and Imad ad @-@ Din al @-@ Isfahani . He died on November 17 , 1188 . He was buried in Damascus on Mount Qasiyun , although the tomb is now lost .
= = Family = =
Usama had three brothers , Muhammad , ' Ali , and Munqidh ; his cousin , also named Muhammad , succeeded Usama 's uncle Sultan as emir of Shaizar . He had a son , Murhaf , in 1126 , and another son , Abu Bakr , who died as a child . He had a daughter , Umm Farwa , in Hisn Kayfa in 1166 . He mentions other children , but their names , and the name of his wife or wives , are unknown .
The picture he painted of his father was of a pious religious man who was not interested in the affairs of this world . He would spend most of his time reading the Quraan , fasting and hunting during the day and at night would copy the Quraan . He also recounted a few battles his father joined against the crusaders in his autobiography Kitab al Itibar .
= = Religion = =
It is sometimes assumed that Usama was Shi 'ite , because he often writes about ' Ali , his family cooperated with the Fatimids and other Shi 'ite dynasties , and he himself served the Fatimids in Egypt . Philip K. Hitti thought he had a " secret sympathy " with the Shi 'ites . Paul M. Cobb does not think there is enough evidence one way or the other , but believes he was probably Sunni with " acceptable Shi 'ite tendencies . " Robert Irwin thinks the Banu Munqidh were Twelver Shi 'ites ( unlike the Fatimids who were Seveners ) , and that another clue to Usama 's Shi 'ism is his dislike of jihad , which was not a Shi 'ite doctrine . Usama also admired Christian monks and holy men , and was disturbed that Muslims were not as pious as Christians . He was very fond of Sufis when he first learned about them late in his life in Damascus .
= = Works = =
Around 1171 in Hisn Kayfa , Usama wrote the Kitab al- ' Asa ( " Book of the Staff " ) , a poetry anthology about famous walking sticks and other staffs , and al @-@ Manazil wa 'l @-@ Diyar ( " Dwellings and Abodes " ) . In Damascus in the early 1180s he wrote another anthology , the Lubab al @-@ Adab ( " Kernels of Refinement " ) , instructions on living a properly cultured life . He is most famous for the Kitab al @-@ I 'tibar ( translated various ways , most recently as the Book of Contemplation ) , which was written as a gift to Saladin around 1183 . It is not exactly a " memoir " , as Philip Hitti translated the title , although it does include many autobiographical details that are incidental to the main point . It was meant to be " a book of examples ( ' ibar ) from which to draw lessons . "
In 1880 , Hartwig Derenbourg was the first to discover the Kitab al @-@ I 'tibar , which survived in only one manuscript , in the possession of the Escorial Monastery near Madrid . Derenbourg was also the first to produce an Arabic edition ( 1886 ) , a biography of Usama ( 1889 ) , and a French translation ( 1895 ) . In 1930 , Hitti produced an improved Arabic edition , and an English translation . Qasim as @-@ Samarrai produced another Arabic edition in 1987 .
Usama wrote in " Middle Arabic " , a less formal style of classical Arabic .
= = Reputation = =
Usama was known for meddling in the business of others , rather than commanding any power of his own . As the Encyclopaedia of Islam says , " his career was a troubled one , and for this his own actions were surely responsible in large part . "
To contemporary and later medieval Muslims , however , he was best remembered for his poetry and his poetry anthologies . Ibn Khallikan , author of a fourteenth @-@ century biographical dictionary , calls him " one of the most powerful , learned , and intrepid members of the [ Munqidh ] family " and speaks at great length about his poetry .
He was also known for his military and hunting exploits . Ibn al @-@ Athir described him as " the ultimate of bravery " , regarding his presence at the Battle of Harim .
For modern readers he is most famous for the Kitab al @-@ I 'tibar and his descriptions of life in Syria during the early crusades . The disjointed nature of the work has given him a reputation as a senile rambler , although it is actually written with an anthological structure , with humorous or moralistic tales that are not meant to proceed chronologically , as a true autobiography would . Since this style of literature , adab in Arabic , does not necessarily have to be factual , historians are quick to point out that Usama 's historical material cannot always be trusted . Usama 's anecdotes about the crusades are sometimes obvious jokes , exaggerating their " otherness " to entertain his Muslim audience . As Carole Hillenbrand wrote , it would be " dangerously misleading to take the evidence of his book at its face value . "
= = = Editions and translations of Usama 's works = = =
Ousama ibn Mounkidh , un emir Syrien au premier siècle des croisades ( 1095 – 1188 ) , ed . Hartwig Derenbourg . Paris , 1889 .
An Arab @-@ Syrian Gentleman and Warrior in the Period of the Crusades ; Memoirs of Usāmah ibn @-@ Munqidh ( Kitab al i 'tibar ) , trans Philip K. Hitti . New York , 1929 .
Memoirs Entitled Kitāb al @-@ I 'tibār , ed . Philip K. Hitti ( Arabic text ) . Princeton : Princeton University Press , 1930 .
Lubab al @-@ Adab , ed . A. M. Shakir . Cairo : Maktabat Luwis Sarkis , 1935 .
Diwan Usama ibn Munqidh , ed . A. Badawi and H. Abd al @-@ Majid . Cairo : Wizarat al @-@ Ma 'arif al @-@ Umumiyya , 1953 .
Kitab al @-@ Manazil wa 'l @-@ Diyar , ed . M. Hijazi . Cairo : Al @-@ Majlis al @-@ A 'la li @-@ l @-@ Shu 'un al @-@ Islamiyya , 1968 .
Kitab al- ' Asa , ed . Hassan Abbas . Alexandria : Al @-@ Hay 'at al @-@ Misriyya al- ' Amma li @-@ l @-@ Kitab , 1978 .
Al @-@ Badi ' fi @-@ l @-@ Badi ' , ed . A. Muhanna . Beirut : Dar al @-@ Kutub al- ' Ilmiyya , 1987 .
Kitab al i 'tibar , ed . Qasim as @-@ Samarra 'i . Riyadh , 1987 .
" Usama ibn Munqidh 's Book of the Staff ( Kitab al 'Asa ) : autobiographical and historical excerpts , " trans . Paul M. Cobb . Al @-@ Masaq : Islam and the Medieval Mediterranean 17 ( 2005 ) .
" Usama ibn Munqidh 's Kernels of Refinement ( Lubab al @-@ Adab ) : autobiographical and historical excerpts , " trans . Paul M. Cobb . Al @-@ Masaq : Islam and the Medieval Mediterranean 18 ( 2006 )
The Book of Contemplation : Islam and the Crusades , trans . Paul M. Cobb . Penguin Classics , 2008 .
= = = Secondary works = = =
Ibn Khallikan 's Biographical Dictionary , trans . William MacGuckin , Baron de Slane , vol . 1 . Paris , 1842 .
Hassan Abbas , Usama ibn Munqidh : Hayatuhu wa @-@ Atharuhu . Cairo : al @-@ Hay 'a al @-@ Misriya al- ' Ama li 'l @-@ Kitab , 1981 .
Niall Christie , " Just a bunch of dirty stories ? Women in the memoirs of Usamah ibn Munqidh . " Eastward Bound : Travel and Travellers , 1050 – 1550 , ed . Rosamund Allen . Manchester : Manchester University Press , 2004 , pp. 71 – 87 .
Paul M. Cobb , Usama ibn Munqidh : Warrior @-@ Poet in the Age of Crusades Oxford : Oneworld , 2005 .
Paul M. Cobb , " Infidel dogs : hunting crusaders with Usamah ibn Munqidh . " Crusades 6 ( 2007 ) .
Lawrence I. Conrad , " Usama ibn Munqidh and other witnesses to Frankish and Islamic medicine in the era of the crusades . " Medicine in Jerusalem throughout the Ages , ed . Zohar Amar et al . Tel Aviv : C. G. Foundation , 1999 .
Carole Hillenbrand , The Crusades : Islamic Perspectives . Routledge , 2000 .
R. S. Humphreys , Munkidh , Banu . Encyclopaedia of Islam , 2nd. ed . , vol . VII ( Leiden : Brill , 1960 – 2002 ) .
Robert Irwin , " Usama ibn Munqidh : an Arab @-@ Syrian gentleman at the time of the Crusades reconsidered . " The Crusades and their sources : essays presented to Bernard Hamilton ed . John France , William G. Zajac ( Aldershot : Ashgate , 1998 ) pp. 71 – 87 .
Adnan Husain , " Wondrous Crusade Encounters : Usamah ibn Munqidh 's Book of Learning by Example , " in Jason Glenn ( ed ) , The Middle Ages in Texts and Texture : Reflections on Medieval Sources ( Toronto , University of Toronto , 2012 ) ,
D. W. Morray , " The genius of Usamah ibn Munqidh : aspects of Kitab al @-@ I 'tibar by Usamah ibn Munqidh . " Working Paper . University of Durham , Centre for Middle Eastern and Islamic Studies , Durham , 1987 .
I. Schen , " Usama ibn Munqidh 's Memoirs : some further light on Muslim Middle Arabic . " Journal of Semitic Studies 17 ( 1972 ) , and Journal of Semitic Studies 18 ( 1973 ) .
G. R. Smith , " A new translation of certain passages of the hunting section of Usama ibn Munqidh 's I 'tibar . " Journal of Semitic Studies 26 ( 1981 ) .
Stefan Wild , " Open questions , new light : Usama ibn Munqidh 's account of his battles against Muslims and Franks . " The Frankish Wars and their Influence on Palestine , edd . Khalil Athamina and Roger Heacock ( Birzeit , 1994 ) , pp. 9 – 29 .
The Chronicle of Ibn al @-@ Athir for the Crusading Period from al @-@ Kamil i 'l @-@ Ta 'rikh , Part 2 : The Years 541 – 589 / 1146 – 1193 : The Age of Nur al @-@ Din and Saladin , trans . D.S. Richards . Crusade Texts in Translation 15 . Aldershot : Ashgate , 2007 .
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= Battle of Hulao =
The Battle of Hulao ( 虎牢之戰 ) on 28 May 621 was a decisive victory for the Tang Dynasty prince Li Shimin , through which he was able to subdue two rival warlords , Dou Jiande and Wang Shichong . The battle was fought at the strategically important Hulao Pass , east of Luoyang . Li Shimin led a siege on the city of Luoyang , seat of the self @-@ declared emperor Wang Shichong , who solicited help from Dou Jiande from the east . However , Dou Jiande delayed and when he finally arrived , Li Shimin brought forces to meet the new threat . Li Shimin 's army avoided conflict until the troops of Dou Jiande were exhausted and then led a cavalry charge , breaking the opposing army and capturing Dou Jiande . Afterwards , Wang Shichong , seeing no other choice , surrendered Luoyang , and both his and Dou Jiande 's states were absorbed by the Tang . Dou Jiande was later executed , resulting in some of his followers , led by Liu Heita , raising an unsuccessful rebellion against the Tang . Hulao marked the decisive turning point in the civil wars that followed the collapse of the Sui Dynasty , after which the eventual victory of the Tang was never in doubt .
= = Background = =
During the later reign of the second emperor of the Sui Dynasty , Yang ( reigned 604 – 618 ) , the dynasty 's authority began to wane : the immense material and human cost of the protracted and fruitless attempts to conquer the Korean kingdom of Goguryeo , coupled with natural disasters , caused unrest in the provinces , while the successive military failures eroded the emperor 's prestige and legitimacy ( " Mandate of Heaven " ) among the provincial governors . Yang nevertheless continued to be fixated on the Korean campaigns , and by the time he realized the gravity of the situation , it was too late : as revolts spread , in 616 , he abandoned the north and withdrew to Jiangdu , where he remained until his assassination in 618 .
Local governors and magnates rose to claim power in the wake of Yang 's withdrawal . Nine major contenders emerged , some claiming the imperial title , others contenting themselves , for the time being , with more modest titles . Among the most well @-@ positioned contenders was Li Yuan , Duke of Tang and governor of Taiyuan in the northwest ( modern Shanxi ) . A scion of a noble family related to the Sui dynasty , and with a distinguished career behind him , Li Yuan was an obvious candidate for the throne . His province possessed excellent natural defences , a heavily militarized population and was located near the capitals of Daxingcheng ( Chang 'an ) and Luoyang . In autumn 617 Li Yuan and his sons , Li Shimin and Li Jiancheng , led their troops south . In a lightning campaign they defeated the Sui forces that tried to bar their way and , on 9 November , Li Yuan 's troops stormed the capital . Li Yuan was now firmly placed as a major contender for the empire , and on 16 June 618 he proclaimed himself the first emperor of the Tang Dynasty .
In a series of campaigns in 618 – 620 the Tang , led by the talented Li Shimin , managed to eliminate their rivals in the northwest and repel an attack by Liu Wuzhou , who had taken control of Shanxi , but they still had to expand their control to the northeastern plain and the modern provinces of Hebei and Henan , which , in the words of historian Howard J. Wechsler , would decide whether the new dynasty " would remain a regional regime or whether they would succeed in uniting the country under its control " . By early 620 , two major regimes had established themselves over this region . Henan was controlled by the Luoyang @-@ based Wang Shichong , a former Sui general who declared himself the first emperor of the Zheng dynasty after defeating another rebel leader , Li Mi , at the Battle of Yanshi and absorbing his army and territories . Hebei was ruled by the one @-@ time bandit leader Dou Jiande , who had risen in revolt against the Sui already in 611 . From his base in central Hebei he had expanded his control south to the Yellow River , claiming the title of " King of Xia " . Like Wang and the Tang , he too made use of the pre @-@ existing Sui officialdom and administrative apparatus to maintain his realm .
= = Li Shimin 's campaign against Wang and Dou Jiande 's march west = =
Fresh from his crushing victory over Liu Wuzhou , in August 620 Li Shimin , with an army of 50 @,@ 000 men , began his advance from Shanxi towards Luoyang . His progress was swift : by September Tang troops had begun to establish a ring of fortified camps around the city , while detachments had penetrated further south , east and north , triggering the defection of most of central Henan from Wang 's control . The monks of the nearby Shaolin Monastery also sided with Li Shimin , defeating a detachment of Wang 's army at Mount Huanyuan and capturing his nephew , Wang Renze . Wang Shichong was now isolated in his capital and the territory immediately around it . The Tang were able to defeat his repeated attempts to break through the siege , and the supply situation in Luoyang grew steadily worse as the siege continued into winter and then spring . By March , people were reportedly shifting through dirt to find traces of food , or ate cakes of rice and mud .
By this time , Wang 's only hope for rescue was an intervention by Dou Jiande , to whom he had sent envoys already in late 620 . For Dou , the situation , as presented by his councillor Liu Bin , offered both danger and opportunity : if Luoyang fell , the Tang would next turn against Dou , but if Dou intervened and saved Luoyang , it would be easy to oust the weakened Wang and annex Henan to his own Xia state . It was therefore probably by design that Dou waited until April , when Wang 's situation was critical , before he began marching west to relieve the siege of Luoyang . Dou 's army was a huge force , reportedly over 100 @,@ 000 strong , and the two earliest sources report 120 @,@ 000 men . Although possibly exaggerated , an army of this size was well within the capabilities of the time . The Xia army was accompanied by a similarly large supply train , comprising both carts and boats .
At the news of his approach , some of Li Shimin 's generals suggested that he abandon the siege and retire west to Guanzhong , but the Tang prince refused to heed them . He left most of his army to maintain the siege , and with the rest he marched to the Hulao Pass , some 60 miles ( 97 km ) to the east , which he occupied on 22 April . The Hulao Pass was formed by the ravine of the Sishui river . Lined on both banks by escarpments and steep hills , rising in the south to the Songshang mountains , it possessed major strategic importance — it has been described as a " Chinese Thermopylae " — as the east – west road along the Yellow River 's south bank crossed it .
= = Standoff at Hulao and Dou 's strategic dilemma = =
When Dou Jiande 's army arrived before the pass , it found the walled town and the western heights behind strongly held by the Tang . Dou encamped his forces at Banzhu , a plain 10 miles ( 16 km ) east of the pass , and over the next weeks , repeatedly marched to Hulao and offered battle . Li Shimin , however , was content to remain in his powerful defensive position from which his numerically inferior force could easily hold the Xia at bay . The Tang prince knew that time worked in his favour , as each day the standoff continued only brought the garrison of Luoyang closer to starvation and surrender , and when this happened he would be able to launch his strike with the entire strength of the Tang army .
Other passes were available through the hills near Hulao , but they were smaller and equally defensible ; given the size of the Xia army , the only other alternatives for Dou would have been to bypass the Tang position entirely , either by crossing the Yellow River to the north or by venturing further south to the Huanyuan Pass . Indeed , one of Dou 's civil officials , Ling Jing , suggested a different strategic approach , namely to avoid any engagement with Li Shimin , cross to the northern bank of the Yellow River and strike at the Tang heartland in Shanxi , thereby both weakening the Tang and forcing them to abandon the siege of Luoyang without the Xia incurring any casualties . The plan was supported by Dou 's wife , but was not adopted due to the vehement opposition of the Xia generals . Aside from the natural disregard of the military professionals towards a suggestion from someone whom they regarded as an " armchair general " , however , this opposition is attributed by some sources to bribery of some Xia generals by Wang Shichong 's agents , to ensure that Dou remained committed to the relief of Luoyang .
Whatever the true events , military historian David A. Graff opines that logistical concerns played the major role in Dou 's decision to stay at Banzhu , as his huge army was utterly dependent on proximity to the Yellow River and its canal network for its supplies . In addition , the heterogeneous nature of the Xia army , containing as it did the forces of various rebel leaders Dou had defeated over the past few years , and whose loyalty was doubtful , prevented Dou from dividing his army and sending various detachments on independent missions .
= = Battle of Hulao Pass = =
In the event , after a month had passed , the Tang prince decided to force a confrontation . Li Shimin 's reasons for this move are unknown ; Graff suggests that it is " possible that he believed the morale of Dou 's men had deteriorated , and it is very likely that he did not wish to allow the exposed Xia army to withdraw to safety in Hebei after Luoyang had fallen " , or that he was frustrated at Luoyang 's unexpectedly long resistance . At the same time , Li Shimin was evidently determined to exploit the opportunity offered by the tactical situation to score a crushing victory against Dou , which would result in the rapid absorption of his domains by the Tang .
To entice his enemy to accept battle , Li Shimin sent his cavalry to raid Dou 's supply lines , and positioned his troops at Hulao so as to suggest that only a small force was present . Dou took the bait , and on the early morning hours of 28 May led a large part of his army against Hulao , deploying his troops for battle along the eastern shore of the Sishui river . Per Li Shimin 's plan , the Tang troops did not come forth to deploy for battle ; instead they remained in their strong defensive positions , waiting for the Xia army to tire and begin its withdrawal . Then the Tang , according to Graff , " would rush out and fall upon the by now demoralized and disorganized Xia army " . This conformed to Li Shimin 's usual blueprint , which he had already employed to prevail over Xue Rengao and Liu Wuzhou : the Tang prince let the enemy advance , stretching their supply lines , and chose a suitable , highly defensible position where to confront them ; he avoided a direct confrontation , instead launching raids on his opponent 's supply lines , awaiting either signs of weakness or the beginning of a retreat ; he then launched an all @-@ out attack aiming at a crushing battlefield success , which he rendered decisive by following it up with a " relentless cavalry pursuit " , in Graff 's words , to exploit it and bring about the collapse of his opponent 's entire regime .
Li Shimin 's plan was successful : apart from skirmishes between the two armies ' cavalry , the two armies maintained their standoff from about 08 : 00 until noon , when the Xia troops began to show signs of thirst and weariness . Li Shimin , from a high vantage point , saw this and sent 300 cavalry in a probing attack . When he saw that the demoralized Xia recoiled from this assault , he sent more of his cavalry to turn Dou 's left flank from the south . Dou reacted by ordering the withdrawal of his entire army from the river to the better defensive position offered by the eastern escarpment of the Sishui valley , but this manoeuvre created confusion in the Xia lines , breaking their battle order . Awaiting this opportunity , Li Shimin ordered his army to launch a general attack against the withdrawing Xia , himself spearheading the attack at the head of his remaining cavalry . Li Shimin always led from the front — accompanied by an elite force of 1000 black @-@ clad , black @-@ armoured horsemen — as indeed did most of the contemporary Chinese military leaders , who were expected to prove their personal bravery on the battlefield and motivate their men by their example , rather than stay in the rear and co @-@ ordinate their army .
The ensuing battle was bloody , but was decided when Li Shimin and a part of his cavalry broke through the Xia lines and reached the eastern escarpment , planting the Tang banners in full view of both armies . Possibly coupled with the arrival of the flanking Tang cavalry , this development caused the complete collapse of the Xia army : trapped between the Tang forces and the eastern cliffs , 3 @,@ 000 Xia soldiers fell in the field or the subsequent pursuit , but more than 50 @,@ 000 were taken prisoner . These included Dou Jiande himself , who was wounded and captured while trying to find a way to cross the Yellow River .
= = Aftermath = =
The Tang victory at Hulao spelled the end for Luoyang too : bereft of any hope of rescue , Wang Shichong surrendered on 4 June , after Li Shimin displayed the captured Dou Jiande and his generals before the city walls . In stark contrast to the leniency with which the Tang treated most of their defeated rivals , Dou Jiande and Wang Shichong were soon eliminated : Dou was sent to Chang 'an , where he was executed , while Wang was ostensibly allowed to retire in exile , but was killed on his way there . Dou 's wife and senior officials managed to escape the Xia camp and reach the safety of Hebei , but although some wanted to continue fighting under Dou 's adopted son , most , including the influential Qi Shanxing , regarded the outcome of the battle as a sign that the Tang possessed the " Mandate of Heaven " , the divine right to rule . On 10 June , the Xia formally surrendered to the Tang , with Dou 's ally Xu Yuanlang and Wang Shichong 's brother Shibian following suit over the next days .
As David A. Graff writes , " the great victory at Hulao was the single most decisive engagement of the civil wars that separated the Sui collapse from the consolidation of Tang authority " . By defeating Dou Jiande and Wang Shichong , the Tang eliminated their two strongest rivals and brought the vital north @-@ eastern plain under their control , thereby securing an unchallenged ascendancy over all other competing factions . Tang authority had not yet encompassed all of China , and new rebellions continued to occur for a few more years . The most notable of these occurred in late 621 , when the former Xia officials in Hebei rose up in reaction to the execution of Dou Jiande , under the leadership of Dou 's cavalry commander Liu Heita . Nevertheless , the eventual outcome of the civil war had been decided at Hulao , and the various rebel leaders were overcome one by one . The last of them , Liang Shidu of Shuofang , was defeated in June 628 , marking the end of the civil war .
In late 629 , Li Shimin , by now Emperor of China , ordered the erection of Buddhist monasteries on the sites of seven of the battles he had fought during the civil war . In a gesture that illustrated the emperor 's desire to bridge and heal the divisions of the conflict , for Hulao he chose the name " Temple of Equality in Commiseration " .
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= Samuel Lightfoot Flournoy =
Samuel Lightfoot Flournoy ( November 25 , 1846 – January 28 , 1904 ) was an American lawyer , politician , and businessperson in the U.S. state of West Virginia . Flournoy served as a state senator representing the 12th Senatorial District in the West Virginia Senate ( 1885 – 1890 ) and served three terms as mayor of Romney , West Virginia . Flournoy unsuccessfully ran as a candidate for the West Virginia Democratic Party gubernatorial nomination in 1900 .
Flournoy was born in 1846 in Chesterfield County , Virginia . In 1863 , during the American Civil War , he enlisted as a private in the Confederate States Army and served until the war 's end in 1865 . After graduating from Hampden – Sydney College in 1868 , Flournoy taught school for four years while studying law . In 1870 he relocated to Romney , West Virginia , where he served as principal of the Potomac Academy . He was admitted to the bar in 1873 , and afterward served on the Board of Regents for the West Virginia Schools for the Deaf and Blind ( 1876 – 1880 ) . During his second term in the West Virginia Senate , Flournoy relocated to Charleston to practice law . He also engaged in several business ventures and was an incorporator of the Bank of Romney , the Tug and Guyandotte Railroad Company , the Bradford Building Company , the White Oak Mining Company , and the West Construction Company . Flournoy served on the Board of Trustees of Hampden – Sydney College from 1892 until his death in 1904 .
Through his marriage to Frances " Fannie " Ann Armstrong White , Flournoy was a brother @-@ in @-@ law of West Virginia Attorney General Robert White and West Virginia Fish Commission President Christian Streit White , and the son @-@ in @-@ law of Hampshire County Clerk of Court John Baker White . Through his father , Flournoy was a relative of Thomas Flournoy , United States Representative from Virginia . Flournoy was the father of prominent Charleston lawyer Samuel Lightfoot Flournoy .
= = Early life and military career = =
Samuel Lightfoot Flournoy was born on November 25 , 1846 , in Chesterfield County , Virginia , 7 miles ( 11 km ) from Richmond , and was the son of Richard W. Flournoy and his wife , Sarah Parke Poindexter Flournoy . He had four siblings , two brothers and two sisters : Reverend Parke Poindexter Flournoy , Eliza Flournoy Ayler , Richard W. Flournoy , and Ellen Flournoy Thornton . Flournoy was of English and French ancestry . He was a relative of Thomas Flournoy , United States Representative from Virginia . The majority of Flournoy 's youth and early adulthood were spent in Richmond , where he attended the city 's public schools .
In 1863 , during the American Civil War , Flournoy enlisted as a private in the Confederate States Army at the age of 17 . He served the entirety of his enlistment in Company A , Otey Battery , 13th Battalion , Virginia Light Artillery in Richmond , throughout the course of the war until its end in 1865 .
= = Education and teaching career = =
Following the war , Flournoy entered Hampden – Sydney College in Hampden Sydney , Virginia , to pursue an education in classical studies . His elder brother Parke Poindexter Flournoy had been an assistant professor at the college during the war . Flournoy graduated with honors and a Bachelor of Arts from Hampden – Sydney College in 1868 and received the Speaker 's Medal from the institution 's Philanthropic Debating Society . While attending Hampden – Sydney College , he was a member of the Beta Theta Pi fraternity . Following graduation , Flournoy taught school for four years while studying law . Around 1870 he relocated to Romney , West Virginia , where he took charge as principal and taught at the Potomac Academy with " considerable success " and continued his law studies . Flournoy was admitted to the bar in Romney in January 1873 .
= = Law and political careers = =
= = = Romney law practice = = =
Following his admission to the bar , Flournoy immediately began practicing law in Romney and " won merited distinction " in his field . He became a prominent leader in the community and was elected as a member of the Romney Literary Society . Flournoy served on the fourth Board of Regents of the West Virginia Schools for the Deaf and Blind from 1876 to 1880 . He served three terms as mayor of Romney . As his law career prospered , Flournoy was active in the establishment of The Society of the Ex @-@ Confederate Soldiers in Hampshire County . The society 's missions were to obtain an accurate roster of Confederate veterans and to collect and preserve materials to maintain a " truthful " history of the American Civil War . Flournoy and a group of Confederate veterans met at the Hampshire County Courthouse in Romney on July 31 , 1883 , where he was appointed secretary of the society . The society 's constitution was presented at its first annual reunion on September 5 , 1883 , at which time Flournoy was officially titled as the society 's corresponding secretary . Alexander W. Monroe was among the society 's three concurrently @-@ serving vice presidents .
= = = West Virginia Senate = = =
Flournoy was elected to represent the 12th Senatorial District , consisting of Grant , Hampshire , Hardy , Mineral , and Pendleton counties , in the West Virginia Senate in 1885 and was re @-@ elected to the seat in 1889 . In the West Virginia state senatorial election on November 6 , 1888 , Flournoy defeated his Republican challenger S. G. Pownall with 5 @,@ 578 votes to Pownall 's 4 @,@ 028 votes . Following his election , Flournoy was selected as part of West Virginia 's attending delegation to the inauguration of President Benjamin Harrison . In his first term in the West Virginia Senate , Flournoy served as chairman of the Judiciary Committee , and in his second term he served as chairman of the Committee on Counties and Municipal Corporations . Throughout his two terms , Flournoy served on the committees of Privileges and Elections , Federal Relations , Immigration and Agriculture , and Public Printing . In 1890 , during his second term in the West Virginia Senate , Flournoy relocated from Romney to Charleston and continued practicing law there . He resigned from his senate seat in 1890 .
= = = Charleston law practice = = =
In Charleston , in 1891 , Flournoy founded the law firm Couch , Flournoy and Price with former West Virginia Senate President , George Edmund Price . The firm would later become Flournoy , Price , and Smith with the addition of Harrison Brooks Smith in 1894 . On March 7 , 1892 , Flournoy and his partner Price were admitted to practice before the Supreme Court of the United States . Flournoy and Price continued to expand their law practice into Southern West Virginia when they were admitted to the bar of Summers County in 1894 .
In April 1897 , while practicing law in Charleston , Flournoy became qualified to practice law at the bar of Tazewell County , Virginia . As a Charleston lawyer , Flournoy represented both plaintiffs and defendants involved in suits over coalfield land titles in Southern West Virginia and Southwest Virginia . From 1900 to 1901 , Flournoy represented the defendant Henry C. King in a widely publicized case involving claim to a land title of 500 @,@ 000 acres ( 2 @,@ 000 km2 ) spanning counties in Southern West Virginia and Southwest Virginia in the United States Circuit Court of Appeals . In 1901 , Flournoy represented S. J. Ritchie of Akron , Ohio , in the Tazewell County Court , where his client claimed a large land tract of valuable coalfields spanning Tazewell County and McDowell County , West Virginia .
= = = Gubernatorial candidacy = = =
In early April 1900 , a movement among prominent West Virginia Democratic Party members in Charleston began to coalesce around Flournoy in support of his candidacy for West Virginia governor . Flournoy was considered a William Jennings Bryan Democrat with conservative positions , and Charleston Democrats felt he would receive wide support and would not antagonize corporations . Flournoy took the matter under advisement and on April 25 , 1900 , he announced his candidacy for West Virginia governor . In his announcement , Flournoy stated that he was unwilling to engage in a heated contest for the nomination and that he would be content with the outcome of the Democratic Party state convention , no matter the decision . He further stated that he trusted the state convention would craft a ticket that would command the support of the people of West Virginia . Following his announcement , the Spirit of Jefferson newspaper in Charles Town stated of Flournoy on May 1 , 1900 : " Mr. Flournoy is a most estimable gentleman , well and favorably known here , would doubtless make an excellent governor , and as the nominee of the Democratic party would receive a hearty support in the Eastern panhandle . " Flournoy also received the support of the Democratic Party in Mineral County in May 1900 .
At the West Virginia Democratic Party State Convention held in Parkersburg on June 6 , 1900 , Flournoy competed for the party 's nomination for gubernatorial candidacy against Lewis N. Tavenner of Parkersburg , John H. Holt of Huntington , and Virgil G. Lewis of Mason City . Prior to the convention , Daniel B. Lucas of Jefferson County had been a candidate for nomination . Holt won the Democratic Party 's nomination on the first ballot , but lost in the general election to Republican candidate Albert B. White . Flournoy and Lewis each received just one vote while Holt received 483 and Tavenner received 450 votes .
= = = West Virginia Bar Association = = =
Flournoy was present at the first meeting of the West Virginia Bar Association held on the date of its organization on July 8 , 1886 , in Grafton . As a member , Flournoy was appointed to draft the association 's constitution and by @-@ laws and served on its executive committee . In addition to serving as a vice president of the association , Flournoy also represented the 12th Judicial Circuit on the association 's Committee on Judicial Administration and Legal Reform and later served on the Committee of Admissions . On January 7 , 1892 , Flournoy was elected as the association 's vice president for West Virginia 's 3rd congressional district .
= = Business pursuits = =
In addition to his law practice and political pursuits , Flournoy also engaged in several business ventures . On August 4 , 1888 , he purchased five shares priced at $ 100 each in order to invest in and provide capital stock for the incorporation of the Bank of Romney . Along with Harrison B. Smith and fellow state senator George E. Price , Flournoy again served as an incorporator on April 25 , 1901 , when the Tug and Guyandotte Railroad Company was granted its charter with $ 100 @,@ 000 in capital . The Tug and Guyandotte Railroad was constructed between the Norfolk and Western Railway at Davy and Baileysville to facilitate the transportation of coal . Flournoy , Price , and Flournoy 's son Richard Parke Flournoy were incorporators of the Bradford Building Company which was chartered with capital of $ 20 @,@ 000 on September 25 , 1901 , with the purpose of engaging in general building and construction projects .
The following year , on December 20 , 1902 , Flournoy , Price , and their law partner Smith were also incorporators of the White Oak Mining Company and of the West Construction Company . With an authorized capital stock of $ 100 @,@ 000 , the White Oak Mining Company , that was engaged in the mining , shipment , and sale of coal , the cutting and sawing of timber , and the operations and sales of railway , telephone , and telegraph lines and networks . The West Construction Company , based in Chattanooga , Tennessee , was a general contracting and construction firm also involved in the operation and maintenance of railway , telephone , and telegraph lines .
= = Personal life = =
= = = Marriage and children = = =
On April 10 , 1875 , in Hampshire County , Flournoy married Frances " Fannie " Ann Armstrong White ( April 10 , 1844 – February 25 , 1922 ) , the daughter of Hampshire County Clerk of Court John Baker White and his wife Frances Ann Streit White . Frances White 's brother , Robert White , served as West Virginia Attorney General , and her brother Christian Streit White served as President of the West Virginia Fish Commission . Flournoy and his wife Frances had six children ( five sons and one daughter ) :
Richard Parke Flournoy ( December 29 , 1875 – May 5 , 1959 )
Harry Lightfoot Flournoy ( March 4 , 1878 – December 31 , 1954 )
Frances T. Flournoy Preston , married James M. Preston of Lewisburg , West Virginia
Robert Baker Flournoy ( October 10 , 1882 – July 25 , 1883 )
Samuel Lightfoot Flournoy ( January 7 , 1886 – May 17 , 1961 ) , married Sarah Katharine Cotton
Alexander White Flournoy ( March 15 , 1887 – March 16 , 1958 ) , married Anne Cary Gravatt
= = = Religious activities = = =
Flournoy was active in the Presbyterian Church in Hampshire County and served as a trustee for the Presbytery of Winchester , along with Henry Bell Gilkeson . In 1881 , Flournoy and his fellow trustees were instrumental in securing from Amos L. and Allie G. Pugh a house and a large partially wooded lot in Capon Bridge for use by the Presbytery as a centrally located manse in Hampshire County . Flournoy was elected as a deacon in the Presbyterian Church in 1879 and remained a trustee of the Presbytery of Winchester until 1891 when he relocated to Charleston . Following his move to Charleston , Flournoy became a member of the First Presbyterian Church and served as one of seven church elders there .
= = = Later life and death = = =
Flounoy died as a result of throat and pulmonary illnesses on January 28 , 1904 , at 2 : 40 a.m. in Orlando , Florida , where he had traveled to restore his failing health . His wife and his physician Dr. Henry were at his side at the time of his death . Flournoy was survived by his wife , and five of his children .
He served on the Board of Trustees of Hampden – Sydney College from 1892 until his death . A tribute to Flournoy was rendered by college president Richard McIlwaine at a meeting of the Hampden – Sydney College trustees on June 13 , 1904 .
Following his death , The Weekly Register newspaper in Point Pleasant remarked that Flournoy " was one of the prominent [ Democratic ] leaders of the state , and occupied a high place in the estimation [ of ] the party followers " . The Times @-@ Dispatch of Richmond stated that Flournoy " was one of the best known members of the bar " of Charleston and described his service during the American Civil War as gallant .
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= Ireland in the Eurovision Song Contest 2008 =
Ireland participated in the Eurovision Song Contest 2008 after Radio Telefís Éireann ( RTÉ ) held a national final , Eurosong 2008 , to select the Irish entry for the contest , held in Belgrade , Serbia . For 2008 , RTÉ reverted to their multi @-@ song multi @-@ singer format that had previously been used to select the Irish entry at Eurovision . Six artists competed in the final , with the Irish public choosing the winner through televoting and SMS . Residents of Northern Ireland could also take part in the voting through televoting and SMS . The winner was Dustin the Turkey with the song " Irelande Douze Pointe " . At Eurovision , he placed 15th in the semi @-@ final , failing to qualify for the final of the contest .
= = Background = =
Ireland first entered the Eurovision Song Contest in 1965 and has since entered a total of 41 entries up to 2007 with its 42nd contribution in 2008 .
Ireland has won the contest seven times in total , with no other country beating or equalling that record . The country 's first win came in their sixth entry , in 1970 , with then @-@ 18 @-@ year @-@ old Dana winning with " All Kinds of Everything " . Ireland holds the record for being the only country to win the country three times in a row ( in 1992 , 1993 and 1994 ) , as well as having the only three @-@ times winner ( Johnny Logan , who won in 1980 as a singer , 1987 as a singer @-@ songwriter , and again in 1992 as a songwriter ) . In recent years , however , Ireland 's impressive record at Eurovision has taken a turn , with only two Top 10 results during the 2000s , and Ireland 's first last place finish in 2007 .
The Irish national broadcater , Radio Telefís Éireann ( RTÉ ) broadcasts the event each year and organizes the selection process for the selection its entry . Many methods of selection have been used , with the most common method used by RTÉ being a national final featuring a multi @-@ artist , multi @-@ song selection in which regional juries , and later the public , choosing the winner . In recent years the artist has sometimes been selected internally by RTÉ , with the song being chosen by the public , and previously a talent show format , You 're a Star , was used between the years 2003 and 2005 .
= = Eurosong 2008 = =
= = = Format = = =
After placing last in the Eurovision Song Contest 2007 , RTÉ announced that they would review their position in the contest with Tara O ’ Brien of RTÉ saying that they would " definitely be having a sit @-@ down and looking at our geographical position and going through the whole process . " RTÉ reached a consensus and agreed to change the selection process and revert to the " National Song Contest " format that was used in Ireland before 2001 , resulting in seven Irish winners .
Eurosong 2008 was the name of the Irish national final that replaced 2007 's selection process for 2008 . An open call for songs by RTÉ was conducted , with the deadline for submissions set at 23 January 2008 . A judging panel , including Irish Eurovision winner Linda Martin , reduced the shortlist of entries from the 150 songs submitted to RTÉ to just six entries . Of the 150 songs submitted , many were by previous Irish national final songwriters , including Karl Broderick ( Ireland 2005 songwriter ) , Niall Mooney ( You 're A Star 2004 songwriter ) and Marc Roberts ( Ireland 1997 ) . Similar to the " National Song Contest " that Ireland adopted until 2001 , the contest not only took song quality into account , but also visual presentation and proposed performance details . Three judges were present at the contest , giving their views on the songs , as well as their personal opinions . They were Louis Walsh , Irish music manager and X Factor judge , Dana Rosemary Scallon , Irish Eurovision winner of 1970 , and Marija Šerifović , winner of the Eurovision Song Contest 2007 for Serbia .
The six songs that competed in the contest were revealed on 3 February , with the artists featuring children 's television presenter / puppet Dustin the Turkey and former Irish Eurovision entrant Marc Roberts .
= = = The songs = = =
= = = = Donal Skehan = = = =
Donal Skehan entered a song composed by Joel Humlen , Oscar Gorres and Charlie Mason , called " Double Cross My Heart " . Mason had previously written a song for pop band Monrose for the German national final in 2007 . The song is a pop song , described by Skehan as " Eurovision by numbers " . It was performed by Skehan with two male and two female back @-@ up dancers , as well as a male back @-@ up singer , with Skehan wearing a silver waistcoat and trousers . The performance started with Skehan singing in a spotlight , with the dancers swaying in the background , before coming out and dancing around him .
= = = = Dustin the Turkey = = = =
Rumours circulated around Ireland after a news @-@ piece on the RTÉ website claimed that famous Irish children 's @-@ TV presenter Dustin the Turkey had entered a song for Eurosong , then called " Twelve points , douze points " . When the list of songs that was issued by RTÉ , it did in fact include Dustin , who was then tipped as the favourite to win the contest . Dustin 's entry , " Irelande Douze Pointe " , is a mock entry , making fun of the Eurovision Song Contest , with lyrics such as " Drag acts and bad acts and Terry Wogan 's wig " . The title of the song also mocks the contest , mimicking the famous phrase from Eurovision " douze points " . The song was composed by Darren Smith , Simon Fine and Dustin ( aka Johnny Morrison ) . Dustin was present on stage in a trolley , with Kitty B ( Kathleen Burke ) and Ann Harrington singing backing vocals , along with three male back @-@ up dancers . The performance began with Dustin being wheeled out from the side of the stage by a cloaked figure , with the trolley also being cloaked . The cloaks were removed and the performance included a lot of dancing by the back @-@ up dancers , bathed in green , white and orange , the colours of the Republic of Ireland flag .
= = = = Maja = = = =
Slovenian singer Maja Slatinšek had entered her song , " Time to Rise " , composed by herself and Ziga Pirnat , into not only the Irish final , but also the Slovenian and Romanian finals as well . Slovenian broadcaster Radiotelevizija Slovenija ( RTV SLO ) did not choose Slatinšek 's song to compete in EMA 2008 , the Slovenian final , but RTÉ and the Romanian broadcaster Televiziunea Română ( TVR ) allowed her to compete in their respective national finals . Slatinšek withdrew from the Romanian final , with her and Pirnat saying that the chance of competing in Ireland was higher than that of Romania , with the Romanian national final , Selecţia Naţională 2008 , containing 24 songs over two semi @-@ finals . The " possibility of being among the Irish finalists , one of the biggest powers in Eurovision , was an offer we could not turn down , " said Slatinšek . Slatinšek 's performance involved her singing for the first half of the song with four male dancers coming in later on , and performing artistic moves around her . The end of the performance involved her being raised on a box , with her plain white dress being lowered over it .
= = = = Leona Daly = = = =
Leona Daly entered the contest with " Not Crazy After All " , composed by herself and Steve Booker . The song was performed by Daly in a dark coat , that was taken off during the performance to reveal a red dress . She was accompanied on stage by a band , consisting of a guitarist , keyboardist and drummer in shirts and ties , as well as a female backing singer wearing a black dress .
= = = = Liam Geddes = = = =
Liam Geddes submitted " Sometimes " to the judging panel at RTÉ , written by Susan Hewitt . The song was performed by Geddes on the night of the contest in a red shirt and suit , as well as with a female pianist , a violinist and cellist , as well as a male and a female backing singer . The song began with Geddes sitting on a stool , leaning against the piano , before he got up and walked around the stage .
= = = = Marc Roberts = = = =
Marc Roberts sang " Chances " at Eurosong 2008 , composed by himself . Roberts performed the Irish entry to the Eurovision Song Contest 1997 in Dublin , finishing in second place . His performance at Eurosong involved him singing from a microphone stand , with two male and two female singers singing back @-@ up , with the female singers swaying to the song . Roberts wore a shirt and tie , with the backing singers wearing black .
= = = The final = = =
Eurosong 2008 was held at the University Concert Hall in Limerick , on 23 February 2008 and hosted by Ray D 'Arcy . The University Concert Hall also hosted the Eurosong 1994 national heat , where " Rock ' n ' Roll Kids " was selected to represent Ireland , securing Ireland 's sixth win .
The interval act of the contest was of jury member Marija Šerifović singing " Molitva " , the song with which she won the Eurovision Song Contest 2007 . After Dustin the Turkey was announced as the winner , he closed the show singing his song : " Irelande Douze Pointe " .
Dustin won Eurosong 2008 , and went on to represent Ireland in the first semi @-@ final of the Eurovision Song Contest 2008 on 20 May 2008 . Only the winner of the final was announced ; it is unknown where the other five songs placed .
= = At Eurovision = =
Since Ireland came last in the Eurovision Song Contest 2007 , Dustin was obliged to perform his song in one of the two semi @-@ finals of the 2008 contest . The EBU split up countries with a friendly voting history into the two different semi @-@ finals , to give a better chance to other countries to win . On 28 January 2008 , the EBU held a special draw which determined that Ireland would be in the first semi @-@ final , held on 20 May 2008 .
Dana , one of the judges at Eurosong , spoke out against Dustin 's entry , calling it a " mockery of the competition " and calling for Dustin and RTÉ to withdraw from the contest . The entry was also said to have been in breach of the rules of the contest , due to the mocking nature that could " bring the Shows or the ESC as such into disrepute " , however , the song was not disqualified . Due to the controversial nature of his entry , Dustin received widespread publicity over his entry before and after his victory . He was mentioned in Spanish media before winning Eurosong and after his victory , Dustin appeared on This Morning , a popular British morning programme on ITV , during Saint Patrick 's Day celebrations .
For the contest , the commentator for the semi @-@ finals and final on RTÉ One and Two was Marty Whelan , while the commentator for RTÉ Radio 1 was Larry Gogan .
= = = Semi @-@ final = = =
Dustin , along with his back @-@ up dancers Kitty B and Ann Harrington , sang at the first semi @-@ final on 20 May 2008 , performing 11th on the night . The EBU had forced a change of lyrics of the Eurovision performance of the song after the Greek broadcaster Ellinikí Radiofonía Tileórasi ( ERT ) complained over the use of " Macedonia " in the lyrics of the song in light of the Macedonia naming dispute . The EBU reference group forced the Irish delegation to either change the lyrics of the song to " FYR Macedonia " or similar , or remove Macedonia from the lyrics altogether .
The stage show at the semi @-@ final included Dustin in his trolley , wearing a silver suit . The trolley was dressed in green , white and gold , with the girls wearing gold dresses , green gloves and head @-@ dresses in green , white and gold . Two of the male backing dancers wore large green , white and gold wings and danced around the stage , while the third back @-@ up dancer wore a gold jump suit . The stage involved rippling effects of black and white , as well as waves of green , white and orange through the LCD screens on the stage . Despite being one of the favourites to win the contest outright , Dustin only managed to receive 22 points , placing 15th of the 19 countries competing and failing to reach the final .
= = = Points Awarded by Ireland = = =
= = After Eurovision = =
After his Eurovision experience , Dustin returned to Ireland where he launched a campaign against the Lisbon Treaty in the European Union , calling for a ' No ' vote by the Irish on the referendum for the amendment of the Irish constitution to allow the adoption of the treaty . Dustin 's campaign included the slogan " They didn 't vote for us . Get them back . Vote ' No ' to Lisbon " , referring to his failure at Eurovision .
RTÉ also announced that it was seeking a new television format for the turkey , targeting a more mature audience , but the show would not be in a chat @-@ show format . Pilots were currently in production ; however , RTÉ was not expected to air the show until 2009 .
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= Mihail Kogălniceanu =
Mihail Kogălniceanu ( Romanian pronunciation : [ mihaˈil koɡəlniˈt ͡ ʃe ̯ anu ] ; also known as Mihail Cogâlniceanu , Michel de Kogalnitchan ; September 6 , 1817 – July 1 , 1891 ) was a Moldavian @-@ born Romanian liberal statesman , lawyer , historian and publicist ; he became Prime Minister of Romania on October 11 , 1863 , after the 1859 union of the Danubian Principalities under Domnitor Alexandru Ioan Cuza , and later served as Foreign Minister under Carol I. He was several times Interior Minister under Cuza and Carol . A polymath , Kogălniceanu was one of the most influential Romanian intellectuals of his generation . Siding with the moderate liberal current for most of his lifetime , he began his political career as a collaborator of Prince Mihail Sturdza , while serving as head of the Iași Theater and issuing several publications together with the poet Vasile Alecsandri and the activist Ion Ghica . After editing the highly influential magazine Dacia Literară and serving as a professor at Academia Mihăileană , Kogălniceanu came into conflict with the authorities over his Romantic nationalist inaugural speech of 1843 . He was the ideologue of the abortive 1848 Moldavian revolution , authoring its main document , Dorințele partidei naționale din Moldova .
Following the Crimean War ( 1853 – 1856 ) , with Prince Grigore Alexandru Ghica , Kogălniceanu was responsible for drafting legislation to abolish Roma slavery . Together with Alecsandri , he edited the unionist magazine Steaua Dunării , played a prominent part during the elections for the ad hoc Divan , and successfully promoted Cuza , his lifelong friend , to the throne . Kogălniceanu advanced legislation to revoke traditional ranks and titles , and to secularize the property of monasteries . His efforts at land reform resulted in a censure vote , leading Cuza to enforce them through a coup d 'état in May 1864 . However , Kogălniceanu resigned in 1865 , following his own conflicts with the monarch . A decade after , he helped create the National Liberal Party , before playing an important part in Romania 's decision to enter the Russo @-@ Turkish War of 1877 – 1878 — a choice which consecrated her independence . He was also instrumental in the acquisition , and later colonization , of Northern Dobruja region . During his final years , he was a prominent member and one @-@ time President of the Romanian Academy , and briefly served as Romanian representative to France .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life = = =
Born in Iași , he belonged to the Kogălniceanu family of Moldavian boyars , being the son of Vornic Ilie Kogălniceanu , and the great @-@ grandson of Constantin Kogălniceanu ( noted for having signed his name to a 1749 document issued by Prince Constantine Mavrocordatos , through which serfdom was disestablished in Moldavia ) . Mihail 's mother , Catinca née Stavilla ( or Stavillă ) , was , according to Kogălniceanu 's own words , " [ from ] a Romanian family in Bessarabia " . The author took pride in noting that " my family has never searched its origins in foreign countries or peoples " . Nevertheless , in a speech he gave shortly before his death , Kogălniceanu commented that Catinca Stavilla had been the descendant of " a Genoese family , settled for centuries in the Genoese colony of Cetatea Albă ( Akerman ) , whence it then scattered throughout Bessarabia " .
During Milhail Kogălniceanu 's lifetime , there was confusion regarding his exact birth year , with several sources erroneously indicating it as 1806 ; in his speech to the Romanian Academy , he acknowledged this , and gave his exact birth date as present in a register kept by his father . It was also then that he mentioned his godmother was Marghioala Calimach , a Callimachi boyaress who married into the Sturdza family , and was the mother of Mihail Sturdza ( Kogălniceanu 's would @-@ be protector and foe ) .
Kogălniceanu was educated at Trei Ierarhi monastery in Iași , before being tutored by Gherman Vida , a monk who belonged to the Transylvanian School , and who was an associate of Gheorghe Șincai . He completed his primary education in Miroslava , where he attended the Cuénim boarding school . It was during this early period that he first met the poet Vasile Alecsandri ( they studied under both Vida and Cuénim ) , Costache Negri and Cuza . At the time , Kogălniceanu became a passionate student of history , beginning his investigations into old Moldavian chronicles .
With support from Prince Sturdza , Kogălniceanu continued his studies abroad , originally in the French city of Lunéville ( where he was cared for by Sturdza 's former tutor , the abbé Lhommé ) , and later at the University of Berlin . Among his colleagues was the future philosopher Grigore Sturdza , son of the Moldavian monarch . His stay in Lunéville was cut short by the intervention of Russian officials , who were supervising Moldavia under the provisions of the Regulamentul Organic regime , and who believed that , through the influence of Lhommé ( a participant in the French Revolution ) , students were being infused with rebellious ideas ; all Moldavian students , including Sturdza 's sons and other noblemen , were withdrawn from the school in late 1835 , and reassigned to Prussian education institutions .
= = = In Berlin = = =
During his period in Berlin , he came in contact with and was greatly influenced by Friedrich Carl von Savigny , Alexander von Humboldt , Eduard Gans , and especially Professor Leopold von Ranke , whose ideas on the necessity for politicians to be acquainted with historical science he readily adopted . In pages he dedicated to the influence exercised by Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel on Romanian thought , Tudor Vianu noted that certain Hegelian @-@ related principles were a common attribute of the Berlin faculty during Kogălniceanu 's stay . He commented that , in later years , the politician adopted views which resonated with those of Hegel , most notably the principle that legislation needed to adapt to the individual spirit of nations .
Kogălniceanu later noted with pride that he had been the first of Ranke 's Romanian students , and claimed that , in conversations with Humboldt , he was the first person to use the modern equivalents French @-@ language of the words " Romanian " and " Romania " ( roumain and Roumanie ) — replacing the references to " Moldavia ( n ) " and " Wallachia ( n ) " , as well as the antiquated versions used before him by the intellectual Gheorghe Asachi ; historian Nicolae Iorga also noted the part Kogălniceanu played in popularizing these references as the standard ones .
Kogălniceanu was also introduced to Frederica , Duchess of Cumberland , and became relatively close to her son George of Cumberland and Teviotdale , the future ruler of Hanover . Initially hosted by a community of the Huguenot diaspora , he later became the guest of a Calvinist pastor named Jonas , in whose residence he witnessed gatherings of activists in favor of German unification ( see Burschenschaft ) . According to his own recollections , his group of Moldavians was kept under close watch by Alexandru Sturdza , who , in addition , enlisted Kogălniceanu 's help in writing his work Études historiques , chrétiennes et morales ( " Historical , Christian and Moral Studies " ) . During summer trips to the Pomeranian town of Heringsdorf , he met the novelist Willibald Alexis , whom he befriended , and who , as Kogălniceanu recalled , lectured him on the land reform carried out by Prussian King Frederick William III . Later , Kogălniceanu studied the effects of reform when on visit to Alt Schwerin , and saw the possibility for replicating its results in his native country .
Greatly expanding his familiarity with historical and social subjects , Kogălniceanu also began work on his first volumes : a pioneering study on the Romani people and the French @-@ language Histoire de la Valachie , de la Moldavie et des Valaques transdanubiens ( " A History of Wallachia , Moldavia , and of Transdanubian Vlachs " , the first volume in a synthesis of Romanian history ) , both of which were first published in 1837 inside the German Confederation . He was becoming repulsed by the existence of Roma slavery in his country , and in his study , cited the example of active abolitionists in Western countries .
In addition , he authored a series of studies on Romanian literature . He signed these first works with a Francized version of his name , Michel de Kogalnitchan ( " Michael of Kogalnitchan " ) , which was slightly erroneous ( it used the partitive case twice : once in the French particle " de " , and a second time in the Romanian @-@ based suffix " -an " ) .
Raising the suspicions of Prince Sturdza after it became apparent that he sided with the reform @-@ minded youth of his day in opposition to the Regulamentul Organic regime , Kogălniceanu was prevented from completing his doctorate , and instead returned to Iași , where he became a princely adjutant in 1838 .
= = = In opposition to Prince Sturdza = = =
Over the following decade , he published a large number of works , including essays and articles , his first editions of the Moldavian chroniclers , as well as other books and articles , while founding a succession of short @-@ lived periodicals : Alăuta Românească ( 1838 ) , Foaea Sătească a Prințipatului Moldovei ( 1839 ) , Dacia Literară ( 1840 ) , Arhiva Românească ( 1840 ) , Calendar pentru Poporul Românesc ( 1842 ) , Propășirea ( renamed Foaie Științifică și Literară , 1843 ) , and several almanacs . In 1844 , as a Moldavian law was enacting freeing some of the slaves in Orthodox Church property , his articles announced a great triumph for " humanity " and " new ideas " .
Both Dacia Literară and Foaie Științifică , which he edited together with Alecsandri , Ion Ghica , and Petre Balș , were suppressed by Moldavian authorities , who considered them suspect . Together with Costache Negruzzi , he printed all of Dimitrie Cantemir 's works available at the time , and , in time , acquired his own printing press , which planned to issue the complete editions of Moldavian chronicles , including those of Miron Costin and Grigore Ureche ( after many disruptions associated with his political choices , the project was fulfilled in 1852 ) . In this context , Kogălniceanu and Negruzzi sought to Westernize the Moldavian public , with interest ranging as far as Romanian culinary tastes : the almanacs published by them featured gourmet @-@ themed aphorisms and recipes meant to educate local folk about the refinement and richness of European cuisine . Kogălniceanu would later claim that he and his friend were " originators of the culinary art in Moldavia " .
With Dacia Literară , Kogălniceanu began expanding his Romantic ideal of " national specificity " , which was to be a major influence on Alexandru Odobescu and other literary figures . One of the main goals his publications had was expanding the coverage of modern Romanian culture beyond its early stages , during which it had mainly relied on publishing translations of Western literature — according to Garabet Ibrăileanu , this was accompanied by a veiled attack on Gheorghe Asachi and his Albina Românească . Mihail Kogălniceanu later issued clear criticism of Asachi 's proposed version of literary Romanian , which relied on archaisms and Francized phonemes , notably pointing out that it was inconsistent . Additionally , he evidenced the influence foreign poetry had on Asachi 's own work , viewing it as excessive . Tensions also occurred between Kogălniceanu and Alecsandri , after the former began suspecting his collaborator of having reduced and toned down his contributions to Foaie Științifică . During this period , Kogălniceanu maintained close contacts with his former colleague Costache Negri and his sister Elena , becoming one of the main figures of the intellectual circle hosted by the Negris in Mânjina . He also became close to the French teacher and essayist Jean Alexandre Vaillant , who was himself involved in liberal causes while being interested in the work of Moldavian chroniclers . Intellectuals of the day speculated that Kogălniceanu later contributed several sections to Vaillant 's lengthy essay about Moldavia and Wallachia ( La Roumanie ) .
In May 1840 , while serving as Prince Sturdza 's private secretary , he became co @-@ director ( with Alecsandri and Negruzzi ) of the National Theater Iași . This followed the monarch 's decision to unite the two existing theaters in the city , one of which hosted plays in French , into a single institution . In later years , this venue , which staged popular comedies based on the French repertory of its age and had become the most popular of its kind in the country , also hosted Alecsandri 's debut as a playwright . Progressively , it also became subject to Sturdza 's censorship .
In 1843 , Kogălniceanu gave a celebrated inaugural lecture on national history at the newly founded Academia Mihăileană in Iași , a speech which greatly influenced ethnic Romanian students at the University of Paris and the 1848 generation ( see Cuvânt pentru deschiderea cursului de istorie națională ) . Other professors at the Academia , originating in several historical regions , were Ion Ghica , Eftimie Murgu , and Ion Ionescu de la Brad . Kogălniceanu 's introductory speech was partly prompted by Sturdza 's refusal to give him imprimatur , and amounted to a revolutionary project . Among other things , it made explicit references to the common cause of Romanians living in the two states of Moldavia and Wallachia , as well as in Austrian- and Russian @-@ ruled areas :
" I view as my country everywhere on earth where Romanian is spoken , and as national history the history of all of Moldavia , that of Wallachia , and that of our brothers in Transylvania . "
= = = Revolution = = =
Around 1843 , Kogălniceanu 's enthusiasm for change was making him a suspect to the Moldavian authorities , and his lectures on History were suspended in 1844 . His passport was revoked while he was traveling to Vienna as the secret representative of the Moldavian political opposition ( attempting to approach Metternich and discuss Sturdza 's ouster ) . Briefly imprisoned after returning to Iași , he soon after became involved in political agitation in Wallachia , assisting his friend Ion Ghica : in February , during a Romantic nationalist celebration , he traveled to Bucharest , where he met members of the secretive Frăția organization and of its legal front , Soțietatea Literară ( including Ghica , Nicolae Bălcescu , August Treboniu Laurian , Alexandru G. Golescu , and C. A. Rosetti ) .
Having sold his personal library to Academia Mihăileană , Kogălniceanu was in Paris and other Western European cities from 1845 to 1847 , joining the Romanian student association ( Societatea Studenților Români ) that included Ghica , Bălcescu , and Rosetti and was presided over by the French poet Alphonse de Lamartine . He also frequented La Bibliothèque roumaine ( " The Romanian Library " ) , while affiliating to the Freemasonry and joining the Lodge known as L 'Athénée des étrangers ( " Foreigners ' Atheneum " ) , as did most other reform @-@ minded Romanians in Paris . In 1846 , he visited Spain , wishing to witness the wedding of Isabella II and the Duke of Cádiz , but he was also curious to assess developments in Spanish culture . Upon the end of his trip , he authored Notes sur l 'Espagne ( " Notes on Spain " ) , a French @-@ language volume combining memoir , travel writing and historiographic record .
For a while , he concentrated his activities on reviewing historical sources , expanding his series of printed and edited Moldavian chronicles . At the time , he renewed his contacts with Vaillant , who helped him publish articles in the Revue de l 'Orient . He would later state : " We did not come to Paris just to learn how to speak French like the French do , but also to borrow the ideas and useful things of a nation that is so enlightened and so free " .
Following the onset of the European Revolutions , Kogălniceanu was present at the forefront of nationalist politics . Though , for a number of reasons , he failed to sign the March 1848 petition @-@ proclamation which signaled the Moldavian revolution , he was seen as one of its instigators , and Prince Sturdza ordered his arrest during the police roundup that followed . While evading capture , Kogălniceanu authored some of the most vocal attacks on Sturdza , and , by July , a reward was offered for his apprehension " dead or alive " . During late summer , he crossed the Austrian border into Bukovina , where he took refuge on the Hurmuzachi brothers ' property ( in parallel , the Frăția @-@ led Wallachian revolution managed to gain power in Bucharest ) .
Kogălniceanu became a member and chief ideologue of the Moldavian Central Revolutionary Committee in exile . His manifesto , Dorințele partidei naționale din Moldova ( " The Wishes of the National Party in Moldavia " , August 1848 ) , was , in effect , a constitutional project listing the goals of Romanian revolutionaries . It contrasted with the earlier demands the revolutionaries had presented to Sturdza , which called for strict adherence to the Regulamentul Organic and an end to abuse . In its 10 sections and 120 articles , the manifesto called for , among other things , internal autonomy , civil and political liberties , separation of powers , abolition of privilege , an end to corvées , and a Moldo @-@ Wallachian union . Referring to the latter ideal , Kogălniceanu stressed that it formed :
" the keystone without which the national edifice would crumble " .
At the same time , he published a more explicit " Project for a Moldavian Constitution " , which expanded on how Dorințele could be translated into reality . Kogălniceanu also contributed articles to the Bukovinan journal Bucovina , the voice of revolution in Romanian @-@ inhabited Austrian lands . In January 1849 , a cholera epidemic forced him to leave for the French Republic , where he carried on with his activities in support of the Romanian revolution .
= = = Prince Ghica 's reforms = = =
In April 1849 , part of the goals of the 1848 Revolution were fulfilled by the Treaty of Balta Liman , through which the two suzerain powers of the Regulamentul Organic regime — the Ottoman Empire and Russia — appointed Grigore Alexandru Ghica , a supporter of the liberal and unionist cause , as Prince of Moldova ( while , on the other hand , confirming the defeat of revolutionary power in Wallachia ) . Ghica allowed the instigators of the 1848 events to return from exile , and appointed Kogălniceanu , as well as Costache Negri and Alexandru Ioan Cuza to administrative offices . The measures enforced by the prince , together with the fallout from the defeat of Russia in the Crimean War , were to bring by 1860 the introduction of virtually all liberal tenets comprised in Dorințele partidei naționale din Moldova .
Kogălniceanu was consequently appointed to various high level government positions , while continuing his cultural contributions and becoming the main figure of the loose grouping Partida Națională , which sought the merger of the two Danubian Principalities under a single administration . In 1867 , reflecting back on his role , he stated :
" There is not a single reform , not a single national act , from which my name would be absent . All the major laws were made and countersigned by me . "
He inaugurated his career as a legislator under Prince Ghica . On December 22 , 1855 , legislation he drafted with Petre Mavrogheni regarding the abolition of slavery was passed by the Boyar Divan . This involved the freeing of privately owned Roma slaves , as those owned by the state had been set free by Prince Sturdza in January 1844 . Kogălniceanu claimed to have personally inspired the measure . Ghica was prompted to complete the process of liberation by the fate of Dincă , an educated Roma cook who had murdered his French wife and then killed himself after being made aware that he was not going to be set free by his Cantacuzino masters .
Prince Ghica also attempted to improve the peasant situation by outlawing quit @-@ rents and regulating that peasants could no longer be removed from the land they were working on . This measure produced little lasting effects ; according to Kogălniceanu , " the cause [ of this ] should be sought in the all @-@ mightiness of landowners , in the weakness of the government , who , through its very nature , was provisional , and thus powerless " .
= = = Ad hoc Divan = = =
Interrupted by Russian and Austrian interventions during the Crimean War , his activity as Partida Națională representative was successful after the 1856 Treaty of Paris , when Moldavia and Wallachia came under the direct supervision of the European Powers ( comprising , alongside Russia and Austria , the United Kingdom , the Second French Empire , the Kingdom of Piedmont @-@ Sardinia , and Prussia ) . As he later acknowledged , members of the Divan had begun to consider the Paris agreements , and especially the 1858 convention regarding the two countries , as a Constitution of Romania , in place until 1864 .
In addition , Kogălniceanu began printing the magazine Steaua Dunării in Iași : a unionist mouthpiece , it enlisted support from Alecsandri and his România Literară . Kogălniceanu encouraged Nicolae Ionescu to issue the magazine L 'Étoile de Danube in Brussels , as a French @-@ language version of Steaua Dunării which would also serve to popularize Partida Națională 's views . By that time , he was in correspondence with Jean Henri Abdolonyme Ubicini , a French essayist and traveler who had played a minor part in the Wallachian uprising , and who supported the Romanian cause in his native country .
Elected by the College of landowners in Dorohoi County to the ad hoc Divan , a newly established assembly through which Moldavians had gained the right to decide their own future , he kept in line with the Wallachian representatives to their respective Divan , and resumed his campaign in favor of union and increased autonomy , as well as the principles of neutrality , representative government , and , as he said later , rule by " a foreign prince " . However , both Kogălniceanu and Alecsandri initially presented themselves as candidates for the regency title of Caimacam — Alecsandri , who was more popular , renounced first in order to back Costache Negri . Negri 's candidature was dismissed by the Ottomans , who preferred to appoint Teodor Balș ( June 1856 ) .
Following the elections of September 1857 , the entire Partida Națională chose to support Cuza for the Moldavian throne . This came after Nicolae Vogoride , the new Caimaicam , carried out an anti @-@ unionist electoral fraud — a suffrage annulled by the common verdict of Napoleon III and Queen Victoria ( August 9 , 1857 , first announced to the world on August 26 ) .
He played the decisive part in the Divan 's decision to abolish boyar ranks and privileges , thus nullifying pieces of legislation first imposed under Prince Constantine Mavrocordatos . The final proposal , effectively imposing one law for all , universal conscription and an end to rank @-@ based tax exemptions , was made by a commission which included Kogălniceanu and Vasile Mălinescu , and was passed by the Divan on October 29 , 1857 , with 73 out of 77 votes ( the remaining 4 were all abstentions ) . Kogălniceanu noted with pride that " The entire nation has accepted this great reform , and everyone , former Princes , great boyars , low @-@ ranking boyars , privileged strata , have received this equalitarian reform , discarding , even without special laws , all that derived from the old regime , and even all that resembled the old regime " . He recorded that only two members of the boyar class had subsequently refused to abide by the new principles — the Vornics Iordache Beldiman ( in Moldavia ) and Ioan Manu ( in Wallachia ) . In November , Partida Națională passed legislation forcing the end of religious discrimination against all non @-@ Orthodox Christians in Moldavia ( specifically , against Roman Catholics and Gregorian Armenians ) . The law had been initiated by Negri .
Many of Kogălniceanu 's efforts were centered on bringing about an end to the peasant question , but , as he admitted , his boyar electorate threatened to recall him if he was to pursue this path any further . Consequently , he signed his name to the more moderate proposal of Dimitrie Rallet , which prevented boyars from instituting new corvées , while leaving other matters to be discussed by a future permanent Assembly . This project was instantly rejected by a solid majority of the Assembly , which in Kogălniceanu 's view , led to the creation of two poles , " national liberal " and conservative , replacing the unionist @-@ separatist divide and causing political conflicts inside the former unionist majority ( thus forming the National Liberal and Conservative parties ) .
Outmaneuvering the opposition of Vogoride and his group of conservative followers during new elections for the Divan , Kogălniceanu was able to promote Cuza in Moldavia on January 17 , 1859 , leading to Cuza 's election for a similar position in Wallachia ( February 5 ) — the de facto union of the two countries as the United Principalities . In October 1858 , he made a clear proposal regarding the unification , which , as he noted , carried the vote with only two opposing voices ( Alecu Balș and Nectarie Hermeziu , the Orthodox vicar of Roman Bishopric ) , being publicly acclaimed by Ion Roată , the peasant representative for Putna County . During 1859 , Kogălniceanu again stood in the ad hoc Divan and rallied support for Cuza from all factions of the unionist camp , while promoting his candidature in Bucharest — thus profiting from ambiguities in the Paris Treaty . On the day Cuza took the throne , to begin his rule as Domnitor , Mihail Kogălniceanu welcomed him with an emotional speech .
= = = Secularization of monastery estates = = =
From 1859 to 1865 , Kogălniceanu was on several occasions the cabinet leader in the Moldavian half of the United Principalities , then Prime Minister of Romania , being responsible for most of the reforms associated with Cuza 's reign . His first term in Moldavia ended during December 1860 , when Kogălniceanu became involved in the scandal involving Metropolitan Sofronie Miclescu , who opposed Cuza 's secularization of the monastery estates . In 1863 , secularization was imposed by Cuza , with the land thus freed being divided among peasants — the land reform of 1864 , which came together with the universal abolition of corvées .
Although political opposition prevented him from pushing agrarian reform at the time that he proposed it , Mihail Kogălniceanu is seen as the person responsible for the manner in which it was eventually carried out by Cuza . The changes in legislation came at the end of a lengthy process , inaugurated in 1860 , when the institution regulating legislative projects for the two principalities , the Conservative @-@ dominated Common Commission of Focșani , refused to create the basis for land reform . Instead , it provided for an end to corvées , while allowing peasants on boyar estates control over their own houses and a parcel of pasture . Known as Legea Rurală ( the " Rural Law " ) , the project received instant support from the then @-@ Premier Barbu Catargiu , leader of the Conservatives , and the target of vocal criticism on Kogălniceanu 's part . On June 6 , 1862 , the project was first debated in parliament , causing a standstill between Cuza and the Conservatives . As noted by historian L. S. Stavrianos , the latter considered the project advantageous because , while preserving estates , it created a sizable group of landless and dependent peasants , who could provide affordable labor .
Late in the same month , Catargiu was mysteriously assassinated on Mitropoliei Hill , on his way back from Filaret , where he had attended a festivity commemorating the Wallachian revolution ( he was succeeded by Nicolae Kretzulescu , after the interim premiership of Apostol Arsachi ) . On June 23 , Legea Rurală was passed by Parliament , but Cuza would not promulgate it . According to Kogălniceanu , the Conservatives Arsachi and Kretzulescu were reluctant to propose the law for review by Cuza , knowing that it was destined to be rejected . Discussions then drifted toward the matter of confiscating land from the Greek Orthodox monasteries in Romania ( their sizable properties and traditional tax exemptions had been the subject of controversy ever since the Phanariote period ) . In late 1862 , their revenues were taken over by the state , and , during the summer of the following year , a sum of 80 million piasters was offered as compensation to the Greek monks , in exchange for all of the monasteries ' land .
As the Ottoman Empire proposed international mediation , Cuza took the initiative , and , on October 23 , 1863 , deposed the Kretzulescu cabinet , nominating instead his own selection of men : Kogălniceanu as Premier and Interior Minister , Dimitrie Bolintineanu as Minister of Religious Affairs . In order to prevent further international tensions , they decided to generalize confiscation to all Eastern Orthodox Church estates , Greek as well as those of the incipient Romanian Orthodox monasteries . The resolution was passed with 97 out of 100 parliamentary votes . Later , the Greek Church was presented with an offer of 150 million piasters as compensation , which was viewed as two low by its intended recipients , including Patriarch Sophoronius III . Consequently , the Romanian state considered the matter closed . As a direct consequence , one third of the arable land in Moldavia and a fourth of that in Wallachia were made available for a future land reform ( one fifth to one fourth of the total arable land in the state as a whole ) .
= = = Cuza 's personal regime = = =
In the spring of 1864 , the cabinet introduced a bill providing for an extensive land reform , which proposed allocating land based on peasant status . The fruntași ( " foremost people " ) , who owned 4 or more oxen , were to receive 5 fălci of land , or approx . 7 @.@ 5 hectares ; mijlocași ( " middle people " ) , with two oxen — approx . 6 hectares ; pălmași ( " manual laborers " ) , with no oxen — approx . 3 hectares . Peasants were to own their plots after making 14 yearly payments to their respective landowner . This caused uproar in Parliament , which represented around 4 @,@ 000 mostly boyar electors , and voices from among the Conservatives deemed it " insane " . The latter party prepared a censure vote , based on the fact that Kogălniceanu had publicized the project through Monitorul Oficial in contradiction with the one endorsed by the Focșani Commission , thus going against the letter of the law — he later justified himself saying : " Publication was necessary in order to quell the rural population , agitated by the [ alternative project ] " . The cabinet handed in its resignation , but Cuza refused to countersign it .
Tensions mounted and , on May 14 , 1864 , Cuza carried out a coup d 'état , coinciding with the moment when Conservatives imposed a censure vote . Kogălniceanu read in Parliament the monarch 's decision to dissolve it , after which Cuza introduced a new constitution , titled Statutul dezvoltător al Convenției de la Paris ( " Statute Expanding the Paris Convention " ) . Together with a law virtually establishing a system of universal male suffrage , it was submitted to the 1864 plebiscite , gaining support from 682 @,@ 621 voters out of 754 @,@ 148 .
The new regime passed its own version of Legea Rurală , thus effectively imposing land reform , as well as putting an end to corvées . This was accomplished through discussions in August 1864 by the newly established Council of State , where the law was advanced by , among others , Kogălniceanu , Bolintineanu , George D. Vernescu , Gheorghe Apostoleanu and Alexandru Papadopol @-@ Callimachi . Kogălniceanu 's other measures as minister included : the establishment of Bucharest University , the introduction of identity papers , the establishment of a national police corps ( comprising Dorobanți units ) , the unification of Border Police .
More reserved members of the Council asked for the land reform law not to be applied for a duration of three years , instead of the presumed April 1865 deadline , and Cuza agreed . Arguing that Cuza 's decision was " the very condemnation and crushing of the law " , Kogălniceanu worried that peasants , informed of their future , could no longer be persuaded to carry out corvées . He threatened Cuza with his resignation , and was ultimately able to persuade all parties involved , including the opposition leader Kretzulescu , to accept the law 's application as of spring 1865 ; a proclamation by Cuza , Către locuitorii sătești ( " To the Rural Inhabitants " ) accompanied the resolution , and was described by Kogălniceanu as " the political testament of Cuza " . Despite this measure , factors such as a growing population , the division of plots among descendants , peasant debts and enduring reliance on revenues from working on estates , together with the widespread speculation of estate leaseholders and instances where political corruption was detrimental to the allocation of land , made the reform almost completely ineffectual on the long term , and contributed to the countryside unrest which culminated in the Peasants ' Revolt of 1907 .
With Kogălniceanu 's participation , the authoritarian regime established by Cuza succeeded in promulgating a series of reforms , notably introducing the Napoleonic code , public education , and state monopolies on alcohol and tobacco . At the same time , the regime became unstable and was contested by all sides , especially after his adulterous affair with Marija Obrenović became the topic of scandal . In early 1865 , Cuza came into conflict with his main ally Kogălniceanu , whom he dismissed soon after . Over the following months , the administration went into financial collapse , no longer able to provide state salaries , while Cuza came to rely on his own camarilla ( courtiers ) .
After 1863 , relations between Mihail Kogălniceanu and his friend Vasile Alecsandri soured dramatically , as the latter declared himself disgusted with politics . Alecsandri withdrew to his estate in Mircești , where he wrote pieces critical of the political developments .
= = = Carol 's ascent and Mazar Pașa Coalition = = =
Domnitor Cuza was ultimately ousted by a coalition of Conservatives and Liberals in February 1866 ; following a period of transition and maneuvers to avert international objections , a perpetually unified Principality of Romania was established under Carol of Hohenzollern , with the adoption of the 1866 Constitution . Two years later , in recognition of his scholarly contributions , Kogălniceanu became a member of the newly created Romanian Academy Historical Section .
In November 1868 – January 1870 , he was again Minister of the Interior under Dimitrie Ghica . In this capacity , he regulated the design of police uniforms , and investigated the murder of Cuca @-@ Măcăi peasants by rogue Gendarmes .
He was at the time involved in a new diplomatic effort : the Ghica government was aiming to receive formal recognition of the name " Romania " , as opposed to " United Principalities " . The bid was successful , after the Ottomans gave their approval , but marked a slump in Romania 's relationship with Prussia — its Minister President , Otto von Bismarck , abstained on the matter . Such tensions were only worsened when Prussian money was attracted by Ghica into the development of a Romanian Railways system : later Romanian governments confronted themselves with the " Strousberg Affair " , a volatile combination of investment scheme failure and anti @-@ Prussian sentiment ( see Republic of Ploiești ) . Although generally depicted as Prussian @-@ friendly , the Conservatives were also opposed to such dealings , and their daily Térra referred to Kogălniceanu as the guilty party . Overall , however , the Francophile Ghica and his minister were not only hostile to Prussia , but also tried to help the national cause of Romanians living in Austria @-@ Hungary ( Transylvania , Bukovina , etc . ) . Reportedly , these pitted them against Domnitor Carol , the Prussian @-@ born Germanophile .
Kogălniceanu 's term was confirmed by the 1869 election , after which he was able to persuade Alecsandri to accept a position as deputy for Roman . The poet , who had been nominated without expressing his consent , cast aside hostility and became one of Kogălniceanu 's main supporters in the chamber . Also then , Kogălniceanu blocked the republican gambit of his friend Ion Ghica , the acting Premier . When Carol threatened to leave the country and let he liberals deal with all subsequent problems , Kogălniceanu gathered together the party 's moderates in a decisive show of support for the monarch .
Even after Cuza left the country and settled in Baden , relations between him and Kogălniceanu remained respectful , but distant : in summer 1868 , when both of them were visiting Vienna , they happened to meet , and , without exchanging words , raised their hats as a form of greeting . On May 27 , 1873 , Kogălniceanu , alongside Alecsandri , Costache Negri , Petre Poni and other public figures , attended Cuza 's funeral in Ruginoasa . Speaking later , he noted : " Cuza has committed great errors , but [ the 1864 Către locuitorii sătești ] shall never fade out of the hearts of peasants , nor from Romania 's history " .
Kogălniceanu carried on as leader of pragmatic @-@ reformist liberalism in Romania ; in loose opposition to the Conservative Party cabinet of Lascăr Catargiu ( 1875 ) , he began talks with the radical faction of the liberal trend ( most notably , Ion Brătianu , Dimitrie Sturdza , Ion Ghica , C. A. Rosetti , Dimitrie Brătianu , and Alexandru G. Golescu ) , which were carried at the Bucharest residence of Pasha Stephen Bartlett Lakeman . On May 24 , 1875 , negotiations resulted in the creation of the National Liberal Party — the so @-@ called Coalition of Mazar Pașa .
Kogălniceanu also signed his name to the proclamation Alegătorul Liber ( " The Enfranchised Voter " ) , which stated the main National Liberal goals . He was however an outspoken adversary of his former collaborator Nicolae Ionescu , who , as leader of the liberal splinter group Fracțiunea liberă și independentă , rejected National Liberal politics . In an 1876 speech in front of Parliament , Kogălniceanu attacked Ionescu and his supporters for their political and academic positions , approval from the conservative literary society Junimea and its anti @-@ liberal gazette Timpul .
Like his political career , Kogălniceanu 's tracts focused on condemning Austrian ethnic and territorial policies . Also in 1875 , he issued from Paris an anti @-@ Austrian brochure about the Romanian cause in Bukovina . Called Rapt de la Bukovine d 'après les documents authentiques ( " The Rape of Bukovina , from Genuine Documents " ) , it reused old texts collected by the Hurmuzachis . The propaganda effort won support from across the floor : Junimea Conservatives ( Titu Maiorescu , Theodor Rosetti , Ioan Slavici ) , National Liberals ( D. Sturdza ) and independents ( Alexandru Odobescu ) all signed up to the enterprise .
Kogălniceanu joined other National Liberals in expressing opposition to the trade convention Catargiu had signed with Austria @-@ Hungary , which was advantageous to the latter 's exports , and which , they claimed , was leading Romanian industry to ruin . He accepted it while in office , but looked into adopting European @-@ like patent laws , as a measure of encouraging local industries . A National Liberal government would repeal the agreement in 1886 .
= = = Romanian independence = = =
Serving as Foreign Affairs Minister in the Ion Brătianu cabinet ( spring @-@ summer 1876 , and again from April 1877 to November 1878 ) , Mihail Kogălniceanu was responsible for Romania entering the War of 1877 – 1878 on the Russian side , which led the country to proclaim its independence ( see Romanian War of Independence ) . He initially tried to obtain diplomatic recognition from various states , but the European states rejected the offer , and the Ottoman Porte ignored them . The Russian envoy Dimitri Stuart received instructions to " halt " Kogălniceanu 's initiatives , so as not to aggravate the " Eastern Question " .
Upon his return to office , Kogălniceanu personally organized conspiratorial meetings with the Russian diplomat Aleksandr Nelidov , and approved Russian demands in exchange for co @-@ belligerency . With C. A. Rosetti and Brătianu , he supported the transit of Russian troops and persuaded Carol to accept the Russian alliance , contrary to the initial advice of the Crown Council . He also sought advice on this matter from the French Third Republic , who was still one of the powers supervising Romania ; Louis , duc Decazes , the French Foreign Minister , declined to give him a reassuring answer , and pointed that , were Romania to join up with Russia , the other powers would cease offering their protection . Making note of this , Kogălniceanu expressed his hope that France would still support his country at the decisive moment .
In the end , the Russian declaration of war came as a surprise to both Carol and Kogălniceanu , who had not been informed of the exact date ( April 23 ) when the Imperial Russian Army would start moving into Moldavia — hence , Romanians tended to regard it as an invasion . Also alarming for Kogălniceanu , the official Russian proclamation addressed Romanians as protegés of the Empire . Bilateral tensions were somewhat alleviated by Russian apologies and , later , by the Ottoman pledge to annex Romania ; addressing a discontented Parliament , Kogălniceanu asserted that the Russian road was the country 's only choice .
On May 9 , 1877 , it was through Kogălniceanu 's speech in Parliament that Romania acknowledged she was discarding Ottoman suzerainty . He was rewarded by Carol , becoming one of the first three statesmen received into the Order of the Star of Romania . The Minister also negotiated the terms under which the Romanian Land Forces were to join the war effort in Bulgaria , specifically demanding Russian reparations and indemnities .
Over the following year , he coordinated efforts to have the act recognized by all European states , and stated that his government 's policies were centered on " as rapid as possible , the transformation of foreign diplomatic agencies and consulates in Bucharest into legations " . Late in 1877 , he traveled to Austria @-@ Hungary and met Austrian Foreign Minister Gyula Andrássy . He recorded a mood of opposition to the Romanian military effort , but received guarantees of border security . The main challenge was convincing Bismarck , who had since become Chancellor of the German Empire , and who was very reserved on the issue of Romanian independence .
= = = Congress of Berlin and Northern Dobruja = = =
Upon the war 's end , Mihail Kogălniceanu and Ion Brătianu headed the Romanian delegation to the Congress of Berlin . In this capacity , they protested Russia 's offer to exchange the previously Ottoman @-@ ruled Northern Dobruja for Budjak , a portion of southern Bessarabia that Romania had received under the 1856 Treaty of Paris . This came after months of tension between Romania and Russia , generated over the territorial issue and the Russian claim to be representing Romania at Berlin : Kogălniceanu 's envoy ( Eraclie Arion ) had even threatened the Russians with a Romanian denunciation of their alliance , and 60 @,@ 000 Romanian soldiers were prepared for Budjak 's defense . The Conference 's ultimate decision ( Berlin Treaty ) was in favor of Russia 's proposal , largely due to support from Andrássy and William Henry Waddington , the French Minister of Foreign Affairs . Additional pressures came from Bismarck . The Russians themselves did register some setbacks by the end of the Conference . Their demands for Romania to allow indefinite military transit through Northern Dobruja were made ineffectual by the opposition of other European states , and Kogălniceanu was able to obtain the retrocession of Snake Island .
As an effect of Waddington 's intervention , Romania also agreed to resolve the issue of Jewish Emancipation . The government pledged itself to naturalize all of its non @-@ Christian residents ( see History of the Jews in Romania ) . Kogălniceanu himself made efforts to overturn this decision , and was bitter when the Germans refused to compromise . The resolution was debated inside Romania over the following year , and such a measure in respect to Jews was not introduced until 1922 – 1923 .
This outcome was the subject of controversy in Romania , where the territorial exchange was generally considered unfair , with some voices even arguing that the country could again accept Ottoman suzerainty as a means to overturn the state of affairs . Unbeknown to them , the Budjak cession had been secretly agreed upon with Nelidov in early 1877 . Even then , against his subordinates in the diplomatic corps , but in consonance with the Domnitor , Kogălniceanu privately noted that he " fully agreed " with it , and that he regarded the new province as a " splendid acquisition " . However , in April 1877 , Kogălniceanu had explicitly assured Parliament that no real threat loomed over the Budjak . By that point in time , both the Germans and the Austrians had begun suspecting that Kogălniceanu was in fact a favorite and agent of influence of the Russians , and , reportedly , he even encouraged the rumor to spread . Andrássy reportedly commented : " Prince Carol is really unfortunate to have people like Mr. Kogălniceanu in his service " .
Opposition came from both Conservative and National Liberal legislators , who viewed Northern Dobruja as an inhospitable , nonstrategic and non @-@ Romanian territory . Contrarily , with his proclamation to the peoples of Northern Dobruja , Kogălniceanu enshrined the standard patriotic narrative of the events : he asserted that the region had been " united " with Romania , as a " Romanian land " , because of the people 's wishes and sacrifices . During the heated parliamentary sessions of late September 1878 , he helped swing the vote in favor of the annexation , with speeches which also helped transform the public 's mood , and which promised a swift process of Romanianization . These addresses are credited with having first backdated the Romanian claim to ca . 1400 , when Wallachia briefly held the Principality of Karvuna .
In 1879 , again head of Internal Affairs , Kogălniceanu began organizing the administration of Northern Dobruja , through decrees . He supported a distinct legal regime , as a transition from Ottoman administration , and a period of rebuilding — in effect , a colonial rule , aiming for the assimilation of locals into the Romanian mainstream , but respectful of Dobrujan Islam . Unlike other partisans of colonization ( including scientist Ion Ionescu de la Brad ) , Kogălniceanu saw the new territory as open only to ethnic Romanian homesteaders . His intercession played a part in the ethnic policies : he is reported to have personally urged the Romanian pastoralists ( mocani ) to abandon their traditional lifestyle and their Budjak homes , offering them the option of purchasing Northern Dobrujan land . This had become widely available after the partition of Ottoman estates , the nationalization of land once owned by the Muhajir Balkan , and the appropriation of uncultivated plots ( miriè ) . Kogălniceanu also advised the local administration to overrepresent existing Romanian communities in the decision @-@ making process .
= = = Final years = = =
Kogălniceanu subsequently represented his country in France ( 1880 ) , being the first Romanian envoy to Paris , and having Alexandru Lahovary on his staff . The French state awarded him its Legion of Honour , with the rank of Grand Officier . In January 1880 – 1881 , Kogălniceanu oversaw the first diplomatic contacts between Romania and Qing China , as an exchange of correspondence between the Romanian Embassy to France and Zeng Jize , the Chinese Ambassador to the United Kingdom .
Upon his return to the newly proclaimed Kingdom of Romania , Kogălniceanu played a prominent part in opposing further concessions for Austria , on the issue of international Danube navigation . By 1883 , he was becoming known as the speaker of a liberal conservative faction of the National Liberal group . Kogălniceanu and his supporters criticized Rosetti and others who again pushed for universal ( male ) suffrage , and argued that Romania 's fragile international standing did not permit electoral divisiveness .
After withdrawing from political life , Kogălniceanu served as Romanian Academy President from 1887 to 1889 ( or 1890 ) . Having fallen severely ill in 1886 , he spent his final years editing historical documents of the Eudoxiu Hurmuzaki fund , publicizing Ancient Greek and Roman archeological finds in Northern Dobruja , and collecting foreign documents related to Romanian history . One of his last speeches , held in front of the Academy and witnessed by both Carol , who had since become King of Romania , and his wife Elisabeth of Wied , was a summary of his entire career as a politician , intellectual , and civil servant . In August 1890 , while traveling through the Austrian region of Vorarlberg , he was troubled by news that Alecsandri had died at his home in Mircești . Writing to Alecsandri 's wife Paulina , he asked : " I could not be present at his funeral , [ therefore ] you 'll allow me , my lady , since I have unable to kiss him either alive or dead , to at least kiss his grave ! "
Mihail Kogălniceanu died while undergoing surgery in Paris , and was succeeded in his seat at the Academy by Alexandru Dimitrie Xenopol . He was buried in his native Iași , at the Eternitatea cemetery .
= = Views = =
= = = Liberalism and conservatism = = =
Mihail Kogălniceanu 's contributions as a leader of opinion and statesman have won acclaim for their role in shaping the development of modern Romania before and after 1848 . Nicolae Iorga , a major historian of the 20th century , celebrated Kogălniceanu as " the founder of modern Romanian culture , the thinker who has seen in clarity the free and complete Romania [ ... ] , the redeemer of peasants thrown into serfdom [ a reference to corvées ] , the person understanding all the many , secretive , and indissoluble connections linking the life of a people to the moral quality and the energy of its soul " .
Kogălniceanu was a democratic and nationalist politician who combined liberalism with the conservative principles acquired during his education , taking inspiration from the policies of the Prussian statesmen Baron vom und zum Stein and Karl August von Hardenberg . German statesmen were however disinclined to consider him one of their own : Bernhard von Bülow took for granted rumors that he was an agent of the Russians , and further alleged that the Romanian land reform was a sham .
Supportive of constitutionalism , civil liberties , and other liberal positions , Kogălniceanu prioritized the nation over individualism , an approach with resonated with the tendencies of all his fellow Moldavian revolutionaries . In maturity , Kogălniceanu had become a skeptic with respect to the French Revolution and its Jacobin legacy , arguing : " civilization stops when revolutions begin " . At the same time , his connections within Freemasonry , mirroring the conviction and affiliation of most 1848 revolutionaries , were an important factor in ensuring the success of Romanian causes abroad , and arguably played a part in the election of Cuza , who was himself a member of the secretive organization .
Inside the Romanian liberal faction , and in contrast to his moderation on other topics , he was among the very few to tie together modernization , democracy , and the need to improve the situation of peasants ( other notable politicians to do so were Nicolae Bălcescu , who died in late 1852 , and Rosetti , who advocated a strict adherence to majoritarianism ) . Kogălniceanu praised Bălcescu 's manifestos and activism in favor of the peasantry , indicating that they formed a precedent for his own accomplishments , while deploring the Wallachian uprising 's failure to advance a definitive land reform . When faced with a negative response in the census @-@ elected Parliament just prior to Cuza 's coup , he defended his land reform project with the words :
" Two thousand boyars do not a nation make ; that is an undeniable truth . "
Late in his life , while crediting the University of Berlin and its notions of patriotism with having provided him with " the love for the Romanian motherland and the liberal spirit [ emphasis in original ] " , he stressed :
" In my lengthy combats and actions , in the grim persecutions that have more than once been exercised as a means to crush me , I always had before my eyes those beautiful words which [ ... ] Prince Hardenberg indicated as the strongest means to reawaken the character and manliness of the German people in order to liberate it from the foreign yoke , to raise and increase Germany : « Democratic principles as part of a monarchic government ! » "
= = = Antisemitism = = =
Like many of his fellow Romanian liberals , Kogălniceanu advocated a series of antisemitic policies . He used his position as Internal Affairs Minister in the Dimitrie Ghica executive to resume the expulsions of Jewish community members from the countryside ( thus denying them various sources of income ) . When faced with the official protests of European states , he replied that the matter was nobody 's business but Romania 's . He usually referred to the Jewish community in general with the insulting term jidani , and accepted their presence on Romanian soil as a concession to their alleged " too numerous and too powerful presence in Europe " . During the 1930s , such attitudes , together with Kogălniceanu 's involvement in peasant causes , were cited as a precedent by politicians of the fascist National Christian Party and Iron Guard , who , while promoting rural traditionalism , advocated restricting civil rights for the Jewish community .
Nevertheless , Kogălniceanu 's antisemitic discourse was nuanced and less violent than that of some of his contemporaries . According to historian George Voicu , he stood for " a complicated balance in dealing with the ' Jewish question ' " , one between " antisemitic intransigence " and " concessions " . The more radical antisemite and National Liberal Bogdan Petriceicu Hasdeu expressed much criticism of this moderate stance ( which he also believed was represented within the party by Rosetti and Ion Ghica ) , and he even claimed that Kogălniceanu was a secret " faithful " of the Talmud . In 1885 , Kogălniceanu strongly objected to a National Liberal cabinet decision to expel Moses Gaster , a renowned Jewish scholar , stating that the latter was " [ the ] only man who works in this country " ( he would later celebrate him as the man " to whom Romanian literature owes so much " ) . Five years later , as rapporteur on naturalization issues , he conferred citizenship upon Marxist thinker Constantin Dobrogeanu @-@ Gherea , who was a Russian @-@ born Jewish immigrant . Shortly before his death , he reportedly endorsed a similar measure for Jewish scholar Lazăr Șăineanu , expressing condemnation for those antisemites within his own party who made efforts to block it .
= = = Cultural tenets = = =
In his polemical history tracing the development of literary criticism and its role in Romanian culture , the 20th century author Garabet Ibrăileanu made ample mention of Kogălniceanu 's role in combating nationalist excesses , in particular the post @-@ 1840 attempts by Transylvanian and Wallachian intellectuals to change the fabric of the Romanian language by introducing strong influences from Latin or other modern Romance languages . To illustrate this view , he cited Kogălniceanu 's Cuvânt pentru deschiderea cursului de istorie națională , which notably states :
" In me you shall find a Romanian , but ever to the point where I would contribute in increasing Romanomania , that is to say the mania of calling ourselves Romans , a passion currently reigning foremost in Transylvania and among some of the writers in Wallachia . "
Ibrăileanu additionally credited the Moldavian faction , Kogălniceanu included , with having helped introduce spoken Romanian into the literary language , at a time when both Ion Heliade Rădulescu and successors of the Transylvanian School made use of the dialect prevalent in Orthodox and Greek @-@ Catholic religious culture . This was in connection with Kogălniceanu 's advocacy of pragmatic Westernization : " Civilization never does banish the national ideas and habits , but rather improves them for the benefit of the nation in particular and of humanity in general " . He was adverse to fast cultural reforms , stressing that acclimatization was always required .
A generation younger than Ibrăileanu , George Călinescu also noted the contrast between Mihail Kogălniceanu and his predecessors , as two sets of " Messianist " intellectuals — in this contrast , Heliade Rădulescu was " hazy and egotistic " , whereas Kogălniceanu and others had " a mission which they knew how to translate into positive terms " . As a historian , Kogălniceanu notably introduced several more or less influential Romantic nationalist theses : after 1840 , he was noted for stressing the image of the 17th @-@ century Wallachian Prince Michael the Brave as a unifier of Romania , although this view had not been at all present in his earlier essays ; he proposed that the Romanian folk was among the first European peoples to record history in their national language , although the earliest Romanian @-@ language chronicles date back to the 17th century ; additionally , he argued that the Second Bulgarian Empire was a Romanian state . In some of his works , he claimed that Romanians traditionally practiced endogamy to preserve their purity . His 1837 study of the Romani people ( Esquisse sur l 'histoire , les moeurs et la langue des Cigains , or " Sketch of the History , Mores and Language of the Cigains " ) is however still seen as a groundbreaking work in its field . According to historian Viorel Achim , while it " does not reach the standards of scientific research " , the book is still " a genuine contribution " to " Romology " , and " a work of reference " .
As early as 1840 , Mihail Kogălniceanu was urging writers to seek inspiration for their work in Romanian folklore in creating a " cultured literature " . In 1855 , after the Wallachian revolution was defeated and most of its leaders went into exile , he noted that the lighter toll Russian intervention had in Moldavia contributed to the preservation of literature ; alongside similar statements made by Vasile Alecsandri , this allowed Ibrăileanu to conclude that , after 1848 , Moldavia played a bigger part in shaping the cultural landscape of Romania . Writing more than half a century after the critic , historian Lucian Boia also noted that , while Kogălniceanu stressed national unity , his discourse tended to place emphasis on Moldavian particularities . Also according to Ibrăileanu , Kogălniceanu and Alecu Russo have set the foundation for the local school of literary criticism , and , together , had announced the cultural professionalism advocated by Junimea after the 1860s . The latter conclusion was partly shared by Călinescu , Tudor Vianu and literary researcher Z. Ornea . Nevertheless , in its reaction against the 1848 generation , Junimea , and especially its main figure Titu Maiorescu , tended to ignore or outright dismiss Kogălniceanu 's causes and the attitudes he expressed .
While commenting on the differences between Moldavian and Wallachian literature , Paul Zarifopol gave a more reserved assessment of Kogălniceanu 's position , arguing that the emphasis he had placed on " national taste " would occasionally result in acclaim for mediocre writers such as Alexandru Hrisoverghi . Călinescu observed that much of Kogălniceanu 's own prose works imitated the style of his friend Costache Negruzzi , without carrying the same artistic weight , while noting that his few works of autobiography featured " pages of gracious [ and ] good @-@ natured melancholy " , which he attributed to the author 's traditional upbringing . Also among Kogălniceanu 's anthumous writings was Fiziologia provincialului în Iași ( " The Physiology of the Parochial Man in Iași " ) , closely based on a French model by Pierre Durand and , through it , echoing Jean Anthelme Brillat @-@ Savarin 's Physiologie du goût . It was part of a series of such texts , popular in his generation and deemed " the first age of Romanian realism " by researcher Maria Protase . Among the other pieces were two comedy plays , both written in 1840 , when he was co @-@ director of the National Theater Iași : Două femei împotriva unui bărbat ( " Two Women against One Man " ) and Orbul fericit ( " The Happy Blind Man " ) . Kogălniceanu 's Notes sur l 'Espagne was published decades after his death , and received much critical acclaim .
= = Legacy = =
= = = Descendants = = =
Mihail Kogălniceanu was married to Ecaterina Jora ( 1827 – 1907 ) , the widow of Iorgu Scorțescu , a Moldavian Militia colonel ; they had more than eight children together ( three of whom were boys ) . The eldest son , Constantin , studied Law and had a career in diplomacy , being the author of an unfinished work on Romanian history . Ion , his brother , was born in 1859 and died in 1892 , being the only one of Mihail Kogălniceanu 's male children to have heirs . His line was still surviving in 2001 . Ion 's son , also named Mihail , established the Mihail Kogălniceanu Cultural Foundation in 1935 ( in 1939 – 1946 , it published a magazine named Arhiva Românească , which aimed to be a new series of the one published during the 1840s ; its other projects were rendered ineffectual by the outbreak of World War II ) .
Vasile Kogălniceanu , the youngest son , was noted for his involvement in agrarian and left @-@ wing politics during the early 20th century . A founder of Partida Țărănească ( which served as an inspiration for the Peasants ' Party after 1918 ) , he was a collaborator of Vintilă Rosetti in campaigning for the universal suffrage and legislating Sunday rest . A manifesto to the peasants , issued by him just before the Peasants ' Revolt of 1907 , was interpreted by the authorities as a call to rebellion , and led to Kogălniceanu 's imprisonment for a duration of five months . A member of the Chamber of Deputies for Ilfov County , he served as a rapporteur for the Alexandru Averescu executive during the 1921 debates regarding an extensive land reform .
Vasile 's sister Lucia ( or Lucie ) studied at a boarding school in Dresden during the late 1860s @-@ early 1870s . Her third husband , Leon Bogdan , was a local leader of the Conservatives in Neamț County ( according to the memoirist Constantin Argetoianu , Lucia was the one exercising real control over the organization 's branch ) . After the Conservative Party faded out of politics as a result of World War I , she came to support the People 's Party . Argetoianu later speculated that she was the most intelligent of the Kogălniceanu children , and claimed that Mihail Kogălniceanu had himself acknowledged this ( quoting him as saying , " too bad Lucie is not a boy " ) . She was the mother of eight ; one of her daughters , Manuela , married into the Ghica family .
Kogălniceanu 's nephew , Grigore , himself a local leader of the Conservative Party and a major landowner , married to Adela Cantacuzino @-@ Pașcanu , a member of the Cantacuzino family . He died in 1904 , leaving his wife a large fortune , which she spent on a large collection of jewels and fortune @-@ telling séances . Adela Kogălniceanu was robbed and murdered in October 1920 ; rumor had it that she had been killed by her own son , but this path was never pursued by authorities , who were quick to cancel the investigation ( at the time , they were faced with the major strikes of 1920 ) .
= = = Landmarks and portrayals = = =
Mihail Kogălniceanu 's residence in Iași is kept as a memorial house and public museum . His vacation house in the city , located in Copou area and known locally as Casa cu turn ( " The House with a Tower " ) , was the residence of composer George Enescu for part of the Romanian Campaign , and , in 1930 , was purchased by the novelist Mihail Sadoveanu ( in 1980 , it became a museum dedicated to Sadoveanu 's memory ) . The Kogălniceanu property in Râpile , Bacău County , was sold and divided during the early 20th century .
Chronicles edited by Kogălniceanu and Costache Negruzzi were the source of inspiration for several historical novelists , beginning with Alexandru Odobescu . His relationship with the peasant representative to the ad hoc Divan , Ion Roată , is briefly mentioned in an anecdote authored by Ion Creangă ( Moș Ion Roată ) . He is also the subject of a short writing by Ion Luca Caragiale ( first published by Vatra in 1894 ) . Symbolist poet Dimitrie Anghel , whose father , the National Liberal parliamentarian Dimitrie A. Anghel , had been well acquainted with Kogălniceanu , authored a memoir detailing the fluctuating relationship between the two political figures , as well as detailing one of the former Premier 's last speeches .
Kogălniceanu is the subject of many paintings , and features prominently in Costin Petrescu 's fresco at the Romanian Athenaeum ( where he is shown alongside Cuza , who is handing a deed to a peasant ) . In 1911 , Iași became host to Kogălniceanu bronze statue by Raffaello Romanelli , purported to have been recast from one of the sculptor 's older works . In 1936 , the Mihail Kogălniceanu Cultural Foundation commissioned Oscar Han to create a monument dedicated to Kogălniceanu , which was erected in Bucharest during the same year . Actors have portrayed Kogălniceanu in several Romanian films — most notably , Ion Niculescu in the 1912 Independența României , and George Constantin in Sergiu Nicolaescu 's 1977 Războiul Independenței . During the latter stages of the Romanian Communist regime , under Nicolae Ceaușescu , Mihail Kogălniceanu 's image was present in official propaganda , alongside those of other historical figures who were considered progressive .
The historian 's name was given to several places and landmarks ; these include downtown Bucharest 's Mihail Kogălniceanu Square ( near the Izvor metro station , and housing Han 's sculpture ) and Mihail Kogălniceanu Boulevard , the Mihail Kogălniceanu commune in Constanța County , the Mihail Kogălniceanu International Airport ( situated 26 km northwest of Constanța , and serving that city , the airport also houses a U.S. Military Forces base ) , and the Mihail Kogălniceanu University in Iași ( the first private university in Moldavia , founded in 1990 ) . In Lunéville , a plaque was dedicated to him by the French state .
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= Jalen Brunson =
Jalen Brunson ( born August 31 , 1996 ) is an American basketball player who plays for the Villanova Wildcats men 's basketball where he has completed his freshman season for the 2015 – 16 team . He completed his senior season for Stevenson High School in Lincolnshire , Illinois in the 2014 – 15 academic year .
According to ESPN , he ended his junior year of high school as the number one point guard in the country and prior to his senior year he was rated number one by Scout.com. He was selected as the 2014 Illinois Boys Basketball Gatorade Player of the Year . He was selected to participate in the 2015 McDonald 's All @-@ American Boys Game as well as the 2015 Jordan Brand Classic and to represent the Team USA in the Nike Hoop Summit . As a senior he repeated as the 2015 Illinois Gatorade Player of the Year and earned a third Associated Press All @-@ state recognition ( 2nd first team ) . That year , he led Stevenson to the Illinois High School Association ( IHSA ) Class 4A championship . Following the season , he won Illinois Mr. Basketball .
Brunson holds the IHSA playoff single @-@ game and the IHSA Class 4A championship game scoring records and set the USA Basketball single @-@ game assist record for the FIBA Americas Under @-@ 18 Championships . He earned the MVP of the 2015 FIBA Under @-@ 19 World Championship for the gold medal winning Team USA . He is the son of nine @-@ year National Basketball Association ( NBA ) veteran Rick Brunson .
He began his college career as the 2015 – 16 Big East Conference Preseason Freshman of the Year and was a Big East All @-@ Freshman Team selection following the season . He helped the 2015 – 16 Wildcats win the championship game of the 2016 NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament .
= = Early life = =
Born in New Brunswick , New Jersey , Brunson was raised in southern New Jersey until sixth grade . He is the son of Rick and Sandra Brunson . He has a sister Erica ( born c . 2000 / 01 ) . His parents met at Temple University where Rick played for the Owls men 's basketball team and Sandra played volleyball . Rick went on to spend nine seasons in the NBA . The family first settled in Cherry Hill , New Jersey but moved seven times before settling in Lincolnshire , Illinois in 2010 where Jalen played his high school career for Stevenson High School .
= = High school career = =
As a freshman , Brunson was an All @-@ Lake County honorable mention selection in 2012 , as Stevenson finished the season with a 17 – 11 record . During his sophomore season , Stevenson started the season 10 – 4 before going on a 19 @-@ game winning streak . That year , Brunson led Stevenson to the March 16 , 2013 IHSA Class 4A championship game against Jabari Parker and Kendrick Nunn 's three @-@ time defending state champion Simeon Career Academy , where he got the Simeon backcourt in foul trouble in the first half before being held to one point in the second half of a 58 – 40 loss . Stevenson finished the season 29 – 5 . Following the season , the Associated Press named him to the Class 4A All @-@ state second team as the only sophomore on the first or second team . Brunson averaged 21 @.@ 5 points that season .
On February 21 , 2014 , junior Brunson scored 57 points in a double overtime victory over Lake Forest High School . The performance gave him both the school single @-@ game and career scoring records . On March 21 , Brunson set the IHSA playoff single game scoring record against the Jahlil Okafor @-@ led Whitney Young High School by scoring 56 points in a 75 – 68 state playoff semifinal loss . In the game , still images of a movement by Brunson appeared to be an obscene gesture , but video of the gesture were deemed to be inconclusive and an initial suspension for the subsequent consolation game was overturned . Brunson averaged 26 @.@ 1 points , 5 @.@ 4 rebounds , 4 @.@ 7 assists and 2 @.@ 9 steals for a Stevenson team that finished the season with a 32 – 2 record . Two members of his high school team were National Football League athletes ' offspring : Matt Morrissey and Cameron Green . Brunson was named Gatorade Player of the Year for the state of Illinois as a junior . Following the season , Associated Press named him as the only non @-@ senior on the Class 4A All @-@ state first team that also included Okafor , Cliff Alexander , Tyler Ulis and Sean O 'Mara . He finished fourth in the 2014 Illinois Mr. Basketball voting . In April 2014 , Illinois , Purdue , Kansas and Villanova had in @-@ home visits . On May 3 , 2014 , he announced the eight schools that he was considering playing college basketball for : UConn , Michigan State , Illinois , Kansas , Purdue , Villanova , Michigan and Temple . That summer he was the number one rated point guard according to ESPN , although the class had a notable shortage of elite pure point guards . On June 25 — the day after Jalen won a gold medal at the FIBA Americas Under @-@ 18 Championship — Rick Brunson received an offer as an on @-@ bench assistant coach from Temple . The Temple offer fell through when Rick Brunson was arrested on various charges on July 25 , and Temple fell out of the running for Jalen 's services . Brunson participated in the July 9 – 11 LeBron James Skills Academy . On August 5 , he announced official visits to Illinois on August 29 – 31 , Villanova on September 4 – 6 and then Temple from September 11 – 13 and on August 9 , he announced official visits to Michigan State from September 19 – 21 and Purdue on September 26 – 28 .
On September 8 , Brunson announced that he would be curtailing his recruitment and making his decision between Illinois and Villanova on September 10 . On that date , Brunson committed to Villanova . At the time of his decision , he was ranked as the number one point guard in the national class of 2015 by Scout.com. Stevenson was a preseason top @-@ 10 team in the MaxPreps national high school rankings . A lot was expected of Brunson 's team after losing to teams led by Parker and Okafor in the IHSA tournament final four in 2013 and 2014 even though no team from Lake County has ever won a state basketball championship . The team rattled off 11 straight victories to start the season before losing 88 – 81 to Chaminade Prep and its star Jayson Tatum in the Cancer Research Classic in Wheeling , WV , despite 48 points from Brunson . On January 17 , Brunson and Stevenson faced Derryck Thornton , Jr. and Findlay Prep at the Hoophall Classic . At the time , Brunson was the number 3 ranked point guard in the class of 2015 and Thornton was the number 2 ranked point guard in the class of 2016 for the number 1 team in the country according to USA Today . Findlay , who was led by Arizona signee Allonzo Trier 's 27 points , held Brunson to 26 in the second loss of the season for Stevenson , who had been 15 – 1 . On January 28 , he was named to the 2015 McDonald 's All @-@ American Boys Game roster , becoming the second player from Lake County to earn such recognition . On February 2 , he was named to the 11 @-@ man Team USA for the Nike Hoop Summit . On February 21 , Stevenson lost to Simeon as Brunson posted 25 points on 9 – 24 shooting , ending a 22 @-@ game in @-@ state streak in a game that featured the top two teams in the state . The Simeon frontline featured three Big Ten Conference signees : D. J. Williams ( Illinois ) , Ed Morrow ( Nebraska ) and Isaiah Moss ( Iowa ) . On March 5 , he was named to the Jordan Brand Classic roster .
On March 17 , Brunson helped Stevenson qualify for a third consecutive appearance in the IHSA final four with a victory over Riverside Brookfield Township High School . In the game , Brunson became the Lake County career scoring record holder . On March 19 , Brunson received the highest vote total for the Illinois Class 4A Associated Press All @-@ state team . On March 20 , he repeated as Illinois Gatorade Player of the Year . Brunson led Stevenson to the IHSA final four for a third consecutive time , but he led the team to the first state championship by a Lake county school with an IHSA Class 4A title @-@ game record 30 points in a 57 @-@ 40 victory over Normal Community High School . Brunson was 9 @-@ for @-@ 15 from the field and 9 @-@ for @-@ 9 from the free throw line . 2015 was Lake county 's ninth consecutive year with a team reaching the IHSA final four ; Stevenson became the first school in the large school division and the third school overall to win IHSA football and basketball state championships in the same year . The win got him out of the shadow of IHSA final four losses to Parker- and Okafor @-@ led teams . Following the season , he won Illinois Mr. Basketball with 552 points and 99 of the 132 first place votes ahead of fellow Jordan Brand All @-@ American selection Charles Matthews who had 157 points . Brunson finished his senior season with averages of 23 @.@ 3 points , 5 @.@ 2 assists and 4 @.@ 7 rebounds per game and with shooting percentages of 38 % on three point shots and 83 % on free throws . At the March 30 POWERADE Jam Fest associated with the McDonalds All @-@ American game , Brunson won the skills competition over finalists Carlton Bragg and Isaiah Briscoe and was a finalist for the three @-@ point shooting contest . Brunson was a first @-@ team Parade All @-@ American , as well as a third @-@ team USA Today All @-@ USA high school basketball team selection . In the April 11 Nike Hoops Summit , Brunson had 12 points and 7 assists in a 103 – 101 loss . In the April 17 Jordan Brand Classic , Brunson had a game @-@ high 3 steals . He finished his high school career ranked # 16 in the ESPN 100 and as the # 2 point guard ( behind Isaiah Briscoe ) .
= = Scouting report = =
Brunson , like his father , is a left @-@ handed basketball player . In what is regarded as a weak point guard class , Brunson is the only true point guard that was ranked in the top 25 players at the conclusion of the class of 2015 's junior season . In addition to high ratings by the recruiting services , Brunson 's peers voted him to be the best passer in high school basketball prior to his senior season . At the time of his September 2014 commitment to Villanova , he was described by ESPN writer Reggie Rankin as " a left @-@ handed , pass @-@ first lead guard that excels at running his team and can also score as needed " . ESPN 's Paul Biancardi also used the " pass @-@ first point guard " description .
= = College career = =
= = = Freshman year = = =
Brunson was a selection to the 20 @-@ man Bob Cousy Award preseason watchlist . He was also selected as the 2015 – 16 Big East Conference Preseason Freshman of the Year by the conference coaches although Henry Ellenson was the only freshman selected to the 2015 @-@ 16 Preseason All @-@ Big East First or Second Team . Brunson 's 2015 – 16 Wildcats were the unanimous coaches preseason selection to win the conference . In preseason top 100 player rankings Brunson was ranked 46 by ESPN and 41 by NBC Sports . During the preseason , Mike Rutherford of SB Nation selected Brunson as one of its 10 most important college basketball players for 2015 @-@ 16 . He made the initial 50 @-@ man John R. Wooden Award watch list on November 17 . On December 2 , Brunson earned recognition on the 18 @-@ man Wayman Tisdale Award watchlist .
Brunson opened the season in the starting lineup with 12 points and 4 assists against the Fairleigh Dickinson Knights on November 13 . On November 26 in the semifinals of the NIT Season Tip @-@ Off against Stanford , Brunson posted 18 points . On December 28 , he posted a career @-@ high 22 points against Penn . The 22 @-@ point effort was part of a 3 – 0 week for Villanova in which Brunson averaged 15 @.@ 3 points and earned Big East Freshman of the Week . On February 8 , the 2015 – 16 Wildcats became the first Villanova Wildcats men 's basketball team to reach number one in the AP Poll by climbing to the top of the 2015 – 16 NCAA Division I men 's basketball rankings . Following the 2015 – 16 Big East season , he was a unanimous Big East All @-@ Freshman Team selection . In the 2016 NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament regional final against Kansas Brunson made the final two free throws that gave the Wildcats a two @-@ possession lead with 3 @.@ 5 seconds left . The 2015 – 16 Wildcats won the championship game of the tournament by defeating the North Carolina Tar Heels 77 – 74 , with Brunson as a starter .
= = International play = =
On May 5 , 2014 , USA Basketball announced the 21 athletes ( including Brunson ) invited to try out from June 10 to June 19 for the 12 @-@ member USA national team for the June 20 – 24 , 2014 FIBA Americas Under @-@ 18 Championship . Eventually , 24 players tried out for the team and the roster was cut to 15 on June 12 . Brunson made the final 12 @-@ man roster that was announced on June 15 . In the opening game , Brunson surpassed Stephon Marbury 's 12 assists against Brazil in the 1994 FIBA Americas U18 Championship by recording 13 against Uruguay to set a new USA Basketball U18 single @-@ game assist record . The United States claimed a gold medal in the tournament . On August 16 , 2014 , Brunson was named to the Nike Global Challenge USA All @-@ Tournament team along with Stephen Zimmerman , D. J. Hogg , Malik Monk , Jaylen Brown and Edrice Adebayo . Brunson led the midwest team to a third @-@ place finish in the eight @-@ team tournament .
On June 18 , 2015 Brunson was announced as a member of the 12 @-@ man 2015 USA Basketball Men ’ s U19 World Championship Team for the 2015 FIBA Under @-@ 19 World Championship . Brunson earned MVP of the tournament after leading the team with 5 @.@ 6 assists and 2 @.@ 1 steals for the tournament . He posted a game @-@ high 30 points in the semifinals against Greece , and he tallied a team @-@ high 14 points including 6 in overtime as well as 7 assists , 5 rebounds and a steal in the gold medal game against Croatia . Brunson tied teammate Harry Giles with a 14 @.@ 0 average for the tournament . He dominated in the final two games . Based on this performance , he was recognized as the USA Basketball Male Athlete of the Year on December 21 , 2015 .
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= Little Applegate River =
The Little Applegate River is a 21 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 34 km ) tributary of the Applegate River located in the U.S. state of Oregon . It is part of the Rogue River watershed , draining approximately 113 square miles ( 293 km2 ) of Jackson County . Rising in the Siskiyou Mountains , the river flows generally northwest to meet the Applegate about 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) northwest of Buncom and 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) south of Ruch .
The Little Applegate River 's watershed was originally settled about 11 @,@ 000 years ago by the Latgawa , Shasta , and Dakubetede Native American tribes . The first non @-@ indigenous settlers arrived in the early 19th century . Two boomtowns — Sterlingville and Buncom — were founded in the 1850s and grew rapidly as gold and other precious metals were discovered . They slowly declined in population as the supply of gold was exhausted ; only three buildings remain in Buncom , while Sterlingville was abandoned and later destroyed .
Despite low water quality , the Little Applegate watershed supports populations of coho and Chinook salmon , along with 138 known and 134 suspected species of other vertebrates . Sixty @-@ four percent of the watershed is forested , although its health is slowly declining due to fire suppression .
= = Course = =
The Little Applegate River arises at several springs near Siskiyou Peak , in the Siskiyou Mountains . It flows north , receiving McDonald Creek on the right , and Glade Creek on the left . Water is diverted into Sterling Ditch near the Little Applegate 's confluence with Glade Creek . Sterling Ditch is an approximately 23 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 37 km ) aqueduct , built in 1877 to provide water for hydraulic mining in the now destroyed town of Sterlingville .
About one mile past Sterling Ditch , the river turns west . It receives another major tributary , Yale Creek , on the left . Yale Creek drains nearly 24 square miles ( 62 km2 ) , making it the largest of the Little Applegate 's tributaries by watershed area . From Yale Creek , the Little Applegate flows northwest , receiving water from Sterling Creek on the right . The town of Buncom is located at the mouth of Sterling Creek .
The stream empties into the Applegate River about 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) northwest of Buncom and 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) south of Ruch , 34 miles ( 55 km ) above the Applegate 's confluence with the Rogue River . For fish swimming upstream , the Little Applegate is the last major tributary of the Applegate before the unpassable Applegate Dam . The Little Applegate River 's average discharge is 226 cubic feet per second ( 6 @.@ 40 m3 / s ) , but can range anywhere from 25 to 424 cubic feet per second ( 0 @.@ 708 to 12 @.@ 0 m3 / s ) depending on the season and the amount of precipitation .
= = Watershed = =
The Little Applegate drains approximately 113 square miles ( 293 km2 ) of southern Oregon . It makes up just under 15 percent of the Applegate River 's watershed , and just over 2 percent of the Rogue River basin . The Bureau of Land Management controls 40 percent of the watershed , and another 32 percent is owned by the United States Forest Service . Twenty @-@ seven percent is privately owned , and the state of Oregon controls less than one percent . Approximately 96 percent of the land is either forested or woodlots , while farmland and rural areas make up the remaining 4 percent .
The Little Applegate watershed experiences a Mediterranean climate ; the average annual precipitation in the watershed is 38 inches ( 970 mm ) , however as much as 55 inches ( 1 @,@ 400 mm ) and as little as 20 inches ( 510 mm ) have been recorded . Precipitation in the area consists of mostly rain , and occasionally snow in the higher elevations .
The primary rock types in the watershed are early Mesozoic metamorphosed sediments and volcanics , ultramafic deposits , and granitoid intrusions , like much of the Siskiyou Mountains . Elevations range from 1 @,@ 440 feet ( 438 @.@ 9 m ) at the river 's mouth to 7 @,@ 418 feet ( 2 @,@ 261 m ) at Dutchman Peak . Streams above about 5 @,@ 500 feet ( 1 @,@ 700 m ) have lower gradients because those areas were heavily eroded by glaciers ; they then drop quickly until they reach the Little Applegate Valley at about 2 @,@ 500 feet ( 760 m ) , which is fairly flat due to a high amount of alluvial deposits .
= = Flora and fauna = =
The watershed is covered predominantly by temperate coniferous forest , which makes up approximately 64 percent of the total area . The primary species in these areas are Douglas @-@ fir , ponderosa pine , madrone , and incense @-@ cedar . Buckbrush and manzanita grow in the drier chaparral regions . Several rare plants including Gentner 's fritillary , oblongleaf stonecrop , Siskiyou lewisia , clustered lady 's slipper , and splithair Indian paintbrush also grow in the watershed . Seven species of noxious weeds have been identified : three species of thistles , medusahead rye , Scotch broom , St. Johns wort , and tansy ragwort .
Prior to the 1940s , wildfires burned through the Little Applegate River watershed frequently . The United States Forest Service began fire suppression efforts in the 1920s , and a smokejumper station was built about 20 years later . Species that depend on fire to reproduce — such as ponderosa pine — declined in population , while Douglas @-@ fir and white fir spread . Buckbrush and manzanita , normally chaparral plants , encroached on the oak savanna regions . The vegetation in the watershed continues to grow denser , making it more susceptible to insect infestations and disease .
One hundred thirty @-@ eight species of vertebrates are known to live in the Little Applegate 's watershed , while another 134 are suspected . Some 37 square miles ( 96 km2 ) of the watershed have been designated as Critical Habitat Units for the northern spotted owl , a critically endangered species . Two other species known to live in the watershed are included in the IUCN Red List : the endangered Siskiyou Mountains salamander , and the vulnerable western pond turtle . Bighorn sheep , gray wolves , grizzly bears , and pronghorns once inhabited the region , but are now considered extirpated .
The most common fish inhabiting the river include Chinook salmon , threatened coho salmon , and rainbow trout . Fish populations are declining , however , due to low water quality and barriers such as dams and culverts .
= = History = =
Humans have lived in the Little Applegate River watershed for approximately 11 @,@ 000 years , based on Clovis points discovered in the area . The first inhabitants were most likely the Latgawa , Shasta , and Dakubetede tribes of Native Americans , descendants of the first humans who traveled across the Bering land bridge from Siberia . They fished for salmon , trout , and lamprey , and hunted for deer and elk . They also often set fires to clear brush from prairies and oak savannas , and to promote the growth of certain crops . The fires were limited by the Native Americans , creating a patchwork of burned and unburned land , thus increasing the biodiversity of the watershed .
The first European Americans to visit the area were a group of fur trappers led by Peter Skene Ogden in 1827 . The community of Buncom was founded by Chinese miners in 1851 when gold , silver , cinnabar , and chromite were discovered in nearby Jacksonville . In the spring of 1854 , James Sterling and Aaron Davis discovered gold in the Sterling Creek area , and hundreds of miners soon arrived . The town of Sterlingville was founded , and by October its population had risen to over 1 @,@ 500 . Mining lasted through the 1850s and 1860s , and much of the riverbeds of Sterling Creek and the lower Little Applegate River were excavated . The Sterling Ditch and several other ditches were constructed in the 1870s , providing water to large hydraulic mining operations in Sterlingville and surrounding regions . The Sterlingville mine quickly became the largest hydraulic mine in Oregon , and possibly the entire western United States .
The mining washed hundreds of thousands of tons of earth and sediment into the Little Applegate and its tributaries , devastated the landscape . The Sterlingville post office opened in 1879 , but was closed four years later as the town 's population declined . Buncom 's post office opened in 1896 . By 1910 , however , most mining operations had ended , and it was closed in 1918 . Hydraulic mines were reopened from 1933 to 1957 during the Great Depression . Three buildings remain in Buncom , but Sterlingville was abandoned and destroyed .
In the late 1990s , 41 irrigators in the lower watershed agreed to transfer their water rights to the nearby Applegate River ( supplemented by Applegate Lake ) , allowing for the removal of two large fish barriers on the Little Applegate River . The first , the Buck and Jones irrigation dam near Buncom , was removed in 2006 . The second , the Farmers Ditch irrigation dam , was removed in 2012 . Altogether , the removal of the two dams returned 15 cubic feet per second ( 0 @.@ 42 m3 / s ) of water back to the Little Applegate River and opened up 35 miles ( 56 km ) of streams to migrating fish .
= = Pollution = =
The water quality of the Little Applegate River watershed is generally poor due to high temperatures , sedimentation , and oxygen saturation levels which occur throughout the region . Most of these problems are created by human activity ; forests and riparian zones have been cleared to make way for agriculture , and high road densities cause slope failures . Hydraulic mining near Sterlingville devastated the surrounding landscape , leaving the slopes bare and sending rocks and gravel downstream . Cattle and sheep were introduced to the area in the late 19th century ; they have since overgrazed some areas of the watershed , reducing native grasses and allowing noxious weeds to spread . Overgrazing also contributes to soil erosion . Large amounts of water is diverted from the river and its tributaries , sometimes to such an extent that the mouth is left nearly dry .
A major contributor to the sedimentation of the Little Applegate River is McDonald Ditch , an irrigation ditch near McDonald Creek . Built in 1920 to provide water to residents of nearby Wagner Creek , the ditch has failed numerous times , sending several tons of dirt and mud downstream . The Talent Irrigation District approved purchasing a $ 10 @,@ 000 monitoring system for the ditch in September 2010 , and applied for a $ 100 @,@ 000 United States Bureau of Reclamation grant to replace the ditch with pipes .
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= River Rother , East Sussex =
The River Rother flows for 35 miles ( 56 km ) through the English counties of East Sussex and Kent . Its source is near Rotherfield in East Sussex , and its mouth is on Rye Bay , part of the English Channel . Prior to 1287 , its mouth was further to the east at New Romney , but it changed its course after a great storm blocked its exit to the sea . It was known as the Limen until the sixteenth century . For the final 14 miles ( 23 km ) , the river bed is below the high tide level , and Scots Float sluice is used to control levels . It prevents salt water entering the river system at high tides , and retains water in the river during the summer months to ensure the health of the surrounding marsh habitat . Below the sluice , the river is tidal for 3 @.@ 7 miles ( 6 @.@ 0 km ) .
The river has been used for navigation since Roman times , and is still navigable by small boats as far as Bodiam Castle . It flowed in a loop around the northern edge of the Isle of Oxney until 1635 , when it was diverted along the southern edge . Scots Float Sluice was built before 1723 , when the engineer John Reynolds made repairs to it , and later extended it , to try to keep the channel clear of silting , but it was criticised by John Rennie in 1804 , as it was inconvenient to shipping . The river became part of a defensive line to protect England from the threat of invasion by the French in the early 1800s , when its lower section and part of the River Brede formed a link between the two halves of the Royal Military Canal . Scots Float Sluice was again rebuilt in 1844 . Some 31 square miles ( 80 km2 ) of the valley were inundated by floodwater in 1960 , which resulted in the Rother Area Drainage Improvement Scheme being implemented between 1966 and 1980 . The river banks were raised , and 20 pumping stations were installed .
The river has been managed by a number of bodies , including the Rother Levels Commissioners of Sewers , the Rye Harbour Commissioners , and the Board of Conservators for the River Rother . After the passing of the Land Drainage Act 1930 , it was managed by the Rother and Jury 's Gut Catchment Board , the Kent River Board , the Kent and Sussex River Authorities , the National Rivers Authority and finally the Environment Agency . It is unusual , in that while it is under the jurisdiction of the Environment Agency , it has been a free river since 1826 , and so no licence is required to use it . Management of the levels adjacent to the river is undertaken by the Romney Marshes Area Internal Drainage Board . The Rother passes by or near the villages of Etchingham , Robertsbridge , Bodiam , Northiam , and Wittersham .
= = Etymology = =
The modern name of the river is comparatively recent , probably dating from around the sixteenth century . It is derived from the village and hundred of Rotherfield , located where the river rises . Rotherfield means ' open land of the cattle ' , based on the Old English Hrydera @-@ feld . Prior to being called the Rother , it was known as the Limen throughout its length . This is a Celtic word meaning ' river ' . In several Anglo @-@ Saxon charters , it is suffixed with -ea , appearing as Limenea , where the suffix also means ' river ' , but in Old English . During the thirteenth century , it was known as the River of Newenden .
= = Hydrology = =
The Rother rises in the High Weald of Sussex , at around 490 feet ( 150 m ) above ordnance datum ( AOD ) , and descends rapidly . It is joined by the River Dudwell at Etchingham and the River Darwell at Robertsbridge , and by the time it reaches Udiam , it is only 7 feet ( 2 m ) AOD . Average annual rainfall in the High Weald is 35 inches ( 900 mm ) , and most of the underlying geology is impermeable , resulting in rain rapidly reaching the river and flowing down to the sea . The river valley is thus prone to winter floods , while during the summer months , the flow can be quite low in dry periods , as there are few groundwater aquifers . Between Udiam and Bodiam , the bed of the river drops below sea level , and the lower river flows slowly . The surrounding land is crossed by networks of canals and ditches , which are pumped into the river during the winter to drain the land . During the summer , water is transferred in the other direction , to manage the habitat of the marshland .
Scots Float sluice , some 3 @.@ 7 miles ( 6 km ) from the mouth of the river , is used to control levels . The river below it is tidal , and it is closed as the tide rises , to prevent salt water passing up the river . During dry years , the sluice may be kept closed for most of the summer , as the water is used to maintain the marsh environment . A navigation lock bypasses the sluice . If heavy rainfall coincides with a high tide , where outflow is tide @-@ locked , the river above the sluice to Bodiam acts as a huge holding reservoir for flood water , and is managed as such . In times of high flow , water is also pumped from the river into Darwell Reservoir , which can hold 167 million cubic feet ( 4728 Ml ) of water . It covers an area of 154 acres ( 62 ha ) and was built between 1937 and 1949 . Since the 1980s , its output has been taken by pipeline to Beauport Park , from where it provides a public water supply for Hastings .
= = History = =
Near its mouth , the River Rother no longer follows its ancient course , as it once flowed across Romney Marsh and joined the sea at Dungeness . It is widely asserted that in 1287 a hurricane , known as the Great Storm , caused large quantities of shingle and mud to be deposited on the port of Romney and the mouth of the river . The water from the river created a new channel , joining the River Brede and the River Tillingham near Rye , where the combined rivers flow into the sea . However , Tatton @-@ Brown has argued that patterns of occupation on Romney Marsh suggest that the change of route took place at least a century before that date . Rye became part of the Cinque Ports in the thirteenth century , and although it is situated some distance from the sea , its harbour is still visited by commercial shipping and has a fleet of fishing boats .
= = = Early developments = = =
The river is known to have been used for shipping in Roman times , when it was navigable to Bodiam and possibly further upstream . There are records of small boats reaching Etchingham during Saxon and Norman periods . Stone for building Bodiam Castle was transported along the river in the fourteenth century , and iron was shipped from Newenden or Udiam in the sixteenth century . A century later , an iron store was erected at Udiam . Maytham Wharf served Rolvenden , while Tenterden was served by Small Hythe .
The Isle of Oxney is an area of higher land to the west of Appledore , which is isolated from high ground to its north and south . The valley around the northern edge of it was known as the Upper Levels , while that to the south was called the Wittersham Levels , and had its own Commission of Sewers . The Rother had been routed around the northern side of the Isle since the 1330s , when the Knelle Dam was built at the western end of the Wittersham Levels . The sea was prevented from entering the levels by the Wittersham Sea Wall , built across the eastern end of the valley . This enabled some of the levels to be used for agriculture all year round , although some was only suitable for summer grazing . A perennial problem with the river was that the tides deposited large quantities of silt in the channel , and during the summer months the flow of the river was insufficient to scour the silt away . As a result , some 3 @,@ 000 acres ( 1 @,@ 200 ha ) of the Upper Levels were " drowned lands " by 1629 , meaning that they were persistently flooded , and another 2 @,@ 000 acres ( 810 ha ) were only usable in the summer months .
From the 1600s onwards , much effort and expense had been spent trying to drain the Upper Levels , including the construction of the Great Freshwater Sluice below Appledore . Its purpose was to limit the inflow of the tide , and to control the outflow of the river . The works were not particularly successful , and negotiations were started with the Commissioners of the Wittersham Levels to divert the river through those levels . After initial reluctance , an agreement was reached in February 1631 . The western end of the levels , from Kent Wall to the Knelle Dam , was to be used as an " indraught " , essentially a holding reservoir for river water and some sea water , which would be released in a controlled way to scour the main channel . An embanked channel called the New Salt Channel was constructed across the levels between Kent Wall and a new sluice in the Wittersham Sea Wall . The river was flowing to the south of the Isle by 4 May 1635 , an on 4 October , the navigation was also routed along the new channel , reducing its length by 5 miles ( 8 km ) . The former channel to the north became known as the Reading Sewer .
Disaster occurred on Lady Day 1644 , when an exceptionally high tide flooded the Upper Levels , and broke through the walls of the New Salt Channel . The Commissioners authorised the construction of a new sea sluice at Kent Wall , and work began in May 1646 , but in September , they decided that it should be built at Blackwall instead . The height of Knelle Dam was regularly adjusted , in an attempt to manage the amount of water that still flowed along the Appledore Channel , and the conflicting needs of navigation and drainage . The Great Freshwater Sluice below Appledore deteriorated , and failed in 1650 . A new sluice with three channels was built in 1669 . The financial burden on the Upper Levels as a result of the sea entering the Wittersham Levels was huge , as they had to pay rent on all land that was not available to its original owners , and so in 1671 , an agreement was reached that the sea would be excluded from the levels . Work began in 1680 to enclose areas of land on both sides of the valley , and was largely completed by 1684 . The work included a new embanked channel for the Rother , which was built along the southern edge of the valley . It was called the Craven Channel , and ended at Craven Sluices .
When repairs to Craven Sluices were necessary in 1684 , the water was temporarily diverted into Scots Float Channel . This worked well , and a regulating penn was built , so that water could be routed to Craven Sluices or Scots Float . Knock Sluice was built below the Appledore Sluice in 1686 , and land above it was reclaimed . In 1696 , New Knock Sluice was built , close to Craven Sluices , and the sea was finally excluded from the Wittersham Levels .
In 1723 , the Commissioners of the Kent and Sussex Rother Levels employed the civil engineering contractor John Reynolds to make repairs to Scots Float Sluice , a timber lock on the lower river . He built a dovetailed sheet pile wall below the foundations , and the Commissioners offered him the job of maintaining the levels in 1725 , for which he would be paid £ 65 per year . He moved to Iden and held the post for fourteen years . Silting of the river estuary caused mounting problems with the drainage of the levels during the 1720s . Reynolds carried out further work on the sluice in 1729 , and in 1732 reconstructed it to provide an extra outlet . Several new channels were excavated through the levels in the early 1730s , so that all the runoff passed through Scots Float . Reynolds resigned his post in 1739 as he was too busy with other engineering projects .
= = = Navigation = = =
Vessels used on the river were Rye sailing barges , which were about 45 by 12 feet ( 13 @.@ 7 by 3 @.@ 7 m ) in size , with a draught of 2 @.@ 75 feet ( 0 @.@ 84 m ) . A pamphlet published in 1802 announced that there were 16 barges operating on the river , whereas there had only been three some ten years earlier . The main cargoes were manure , fuel and roadstone , and the places served by the river were listed as Appledore , Reading Street , Maytham Wharf , Newenden , Bodiam and Small Hythe . Boats also worked along part of the Newmill Channel towards Tenterden . The river did not have a towing path , and the boats were bow @-@ hauled by men . Scots Float Sluice was descripted as being " very inconvenient and ill @-@ adapted to the present vessels which navigate the Rother " by the civil engineer John Rennie in 1804 .
The end of the eighteenth century was a turbulent period ; Britain was at war with France from 1793 to 1802 . Hostilities between the two countries ceased with the signing of the Treaty of Amiens in 1802 , but in 1803 , the Napoleonic Wars began , and there were fears that France would invade England . In order to frustrate such an attack , the Royal Military Canal was proposed . This was initially a small canal near Hythe , but was extended during its planning phase to Cliff End , near Pett in East Sussex . The canal would join the River Rother at Iden and the river would become part of the defence system , as would the course of the River Brede from Rye to Winchelsea . Completion was scheduled for June 1805 , but construction did not start until late 1804 , and by the time it was completed in 1809 , invasion was thought to be unlikely .
The Rother Levels Acts were two Acts of Parliament which were obtained in 1826 and 1830 . The Commissioners of the Rother Levels were obliged by the acts to ensure that navigation between Scots Float and Bodiam Bridge was possible , and that all bridges provided at least 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) of headroom . They also enshrined the principle that it was a free river , and no tolls were to be collected for its use . The Rennie brothers , John and George , who had taken over from their father on his death in 1821 , produced two reports on the river in 1830 , as it was difficult to navigate and prone to flooding . They were critical of the way in which tidal water was allowed to enter the river through Scots Float Sluice , and thought that the river channel was too circuitous , which resulted in shoals forming . The Rennie brothers also criticised the angles at which bridges crossed the channel . William Cubitt and James Elliott rebuilt Scots Float Sluice in 1844 .
Iden Lock connected the Royal Military Canal to the river . The last commercial barge to pass from the Rother through Iden lock onto the canal was the Vulture , carrying 27 tons of shingle on 15 December 1909 . After that , the lock was replaced by a sluice , severing the navigable connection . The river was used by pleasure craft in Edwardian times , when regular boat trips from Scots Float Sluice , then called Star Lock , to Bodiam Castle were offered . The lower river is currently used for moorings , and the Bodiam Ferry Company operate a trip boat from Newenden Bridge to Bodiam Castle .
= = = Flooding = = =
In 1960 , there was extensive flooding of the Rother Valley , with some 31 square miles ( 80 km2 ) inundated , and in some areas the water did not recede for several months . In 1962 the Kent River Board introduced a bill to Parliament , which would authorise improvements to the river banks , with the construction of a sluice and associated lock below Rye , to prevent tidal flooding . At the time , the river was used by a fishing fleet of at least ten trawlers , and a freighter of 250 tons used the river for a trade in timber . There was some concern in the House of Lords that the lock would not be large enough to accommodate the freighter , although it would be possible to open both sets of lock gates when the tide level was suitable . The bill did not become an Act of Parliament , due to lack of parliamentary time , and so the sluice was not constructed . However , the Rother Area Drainage Improvement Scheme began in 1966 , and was completed in 1980 . This involved raising the level of the floodbanks along much of the river . Those in the Wet Level , an area of 690 acres ( 280 ha ) between the junction with the Maytham Sewer and Blackwall Bridge , were not raised as much , so that during periods of high flow when the river is tide @-@ locked , the levels can be used for flood storage . The scheme included the installation of 20 pumping stations , which raise water from the low @-@ lying marshes into the embanked river using Archimedes ' screw pumps . Some of the drainage ditches in the marshland had to be reconfigured to deliver the water to the pumping stations .
= = Jurisdiction = =
Responsibility for the river has resided with a number of legal bodies in the past . The first was the Rother Levels Commissioners of Sewers , who were established by letters patent issued under the provisions of the Statute of Sewers dated 1531 . The lower river was also covered by the Rye Harbour Commissioners , after they were established by Act of Parliament in 1731 . In 1872 , the Board of Conservators for the River Rother was created to manage and protect stocks of fish in the river . As in many parts of Britain , the rights and duties of these various bodies competed and overlapped , and by the early twentieth century , the situation was chaotic . An attempt to resolve the confusion was made in 1930 , with the passing of the Land Drainage Act 1930 , under which 47 catchment areas were established , and a Catchment Board was then created for each one , with overall responsibility for that area . Thus the Rother and Jury 's Gut Catchment Board was created . While the board had overall responsibility , local management of rivers and drainage was under the control of Internal Drainage Boards , and the transition was eased by reconstituting Commissioners of Sewers as Internal Drainage Boards , under the terms of the act .
The River Board Act of 1950 sought to replace the Catchment Boards with larger organisations , and from 1950 the East Sussex River Board took over the responsibilities of most of the catchments in East Sussex , but the Rother and Jury 's Gut Catchment Board became part of the Kent River Board . Further changes followed the Water Resources Act 1963 , and responsibility passed to the Kent and Sussex River Authorities in 1964 . Ten years later , these structures were replaced by unitary authorities , who had responsibility for the supply of drinking water and for the drainage function of rivers . This lasted until the passing of the Water Act 1989 , which split apart the two functions , and management of the river became the responsibility of the National Rivers Authority , Southern Region . Finally in April 1996 , the National Rivers Authority was abolished with the formation of the Environment Agency . The agency has responsibility for drainage and water quality , and in the case of some rivers , it holds the navigation rights . The Rother is unusual , in that while it is under the jurisdiction of the Environment Agency , it is a free river , and so a licence is not required to use it . The Environment Agency also acts as the harbour authority for Rye Harbour , another unique situation , and the Department for Environment , Food and Rural Affairs acts as a signatory to the Harbour of Rye Bylaws .
The Environment Agency has powers to manage flood control on main rivers , which are defined by a series of statutory main river maps , and for water quality on all watercourses . Responsibility for watercourses other than the main rivers resides with Internal Drainage Boards ( IDBs ) . The Rother is a main river below Mayfield . Internal Drainage Boards have tended to amalgamate to cover larger areas , and the Romney Marshes Area IDB formed from the Romney Marsh Levels , the Walland Marsh , the Denge and Southbrooks , the Rother and the Pett IDBs . It manages 220 miles ( 350 km ) of drainage ditches and watercourses , although most of the pumping stations which pump water from the drainage ditches into the Rother are owned by the Environment Agency .
= = Route = =
The River Rother rises from several springs on the south @-@ eastern side of Cottage Hill near Rotherfield in East Sussex . The hill is 653 feet ( 199 m ) above sea level at the top , and the springs are found near the 520 @-@ foot ( 160 m ) and 445 @-@ foot ( 136 m ) contours . The River Medway rises on the north @-@ eastern slopes of the same hill , and flows in the opposite direction . The Rother flows towards the south east , picking up water from other streams , to reach the western edges of Mayfield , where it is crossed by the A267 road . A little before the bridge is the site of Woolbridge Furnace , a scheduled ancient monument .
The river curves to the east along the southern edge of Mayfield , passing a sewage works on the south bank and crossing under an abandoned railway embankment and a road at St Dunstan 's Bridge . A tributary joins from the south , which once drove Moat Mill . The mill house dates from the seventeenth century , is timber framed and has been faced with red brick on the ground floor while the attached three @-@ storey mill building dates from the following century . It has been converted into a house , although most of the mill machinery is still present , but has been isolated from the living space by glass panels .
The river is joined by two more tributaries , one from the north and the second from the south , after which it is crossed by a minor road at Scotsford Bridge . It drops below the 148 @-@ foot ( 45 m ) contour soon afterwards . The next bridges are Turks Bridge and Bivelham Forge Bridge . Tide Brook joins from the north , and Witherenden Mill , a two @-@ storey building that was originally the mill house is below the junction . In its grounds are two grade II listed oasthouses and a two @-@ storey granary . The railway line , which was following the valley of the Tide Brook , runs parallel to the river as it continues eastwards , passing to the north of Burwash .
After Crowhurst Bridge , which carries the Burwash to Stonegate road over the river , the railway crosses to the south bank . By Etchingham railway station , the River Limden joins from the north , the A265 road crosses , and the River Dudwell joins from the southwest . Both the railway and the river turn to the south to reach Robertsbridge . Another tributary , which flows to the northwest from near a gypsum mine at Brightling , turns to the south and runs parallel to the Rother before joining it in Robertsbridge . There is a network of channels , as the River Darwell joins the river , and there was formerly a mill nearby . The mill was called Hodson 's Mill , and was part of Mill Farm . It burnt down in 1902 , and the Georgian farmhouse was subsequently demolished . The only original farm building still standing is part of an oasthouse , dating from the late eighteenth century .
A little further to the east , the grade I listed Abbot 's House from the former Cistercian Abbey at Robertsbridge stands on the south side of the river . The Abbey was founded by Alured and Alicia de St Martin in 1176 , although the house was probably built between 1225 and 1250 . It was modified in the 1530s by Sir William Sydney , and again in the nineteenth century . An attic bedroom had a wooden fireplace dating from the 1830s , but surrounded by medieval tiles described by the National Heritage List as being of " superlative quality . " There are additional ruins near Abbey Farmhouse .
The river turns towards the northeast , passing under an abandoned railway bridge and dropping below the 16 @-@ foot ( 4 @.@ 9 m ) contour to reach Bodiam . A local road crosses the river at Bodiam Bridge , and passes through the site of a Romano @-@ British settlement to the south of the bridge .
= = = Navigable section = = =
Beyond the bridge is Bodiam railway station , the western terminus of the Kent and East Sussex Railway since 2000 . On the north bank of the river is Bodiam Castle , built soon after 1385 by Sir Edward Dalyngrigge . Lord Curzon restored the ruins in 1919 and gave them to the National Trust six years later . The buildings are grade I listed , and the landscaped grounds , which include a millpond and a Second World War pillbox , are a scheduled ancient monument .
For the final 14 miles ( 23 km ) from Bodiam to the sea , the bed of the river is below the high @-@ water mark of neap tides , and there are numerous drainage ditches traversing the valley floor . The river is embanked , with sluices and pumping stations along its banks , which discharge water drained from the low @-@ lying land into the river channel . The Kent Ditch joins on the northern bank , and forms the boundary between the counties of Kent and East Sussex . After the junction , the boundary runs along the centre of the river .
At Newenden , Newenden Bridge carries the A28 road over the channel . It was built with three arches in 1706 , but in an earlier Medieval style . Northiam lies just to the south . A loop to the south takes the river under the Kent and East Sussex Railway , and into an area known as the Rother Levels . The county boundary now follows a small channel to the north , which was the main channel when the river passed around the northern edge of the Isle on Oxney prior to 1635 . The boundary joins the Hexden Channel near Maytham Wharf , and rejoins the river when the channel does . Next , Potman 's Heath Channel joins .
The short channel splits into Newmill Channel and Reading Sewer a little further to the north , the first flowing southwards , and the second originally flowing northwards , when it was the main channel for the River Rother . A public footpath follows the eastern bank of Potman 's Heath Channel , and continues along the north bank of the river to Blackwall Bridge , where it becomes part of the Sussex Border Path , a long @-@ distance footpath that follows the county boundary .
The low @-@ lying land through which the channel passes is called the Rother Levels . Soon after New Bridge carries Wittersham Road over the river , the channel turns to the south , to run along the eastern edge of Walland Marsh . The Military Road , which was built along the landward side of the Royal Military Canal , crosses to the western bank of the river just before Iden Lock , the disused entrance to the canal . The lock structure contains a sluice mechanism , which is used to regulate water levels in the canal , but during the summer months , water is pumped from the river into the canal , from where it irrigates the marshes .
The Military Road continues to follow the west bank , while the Saxon Shore Way footpath follows the eastern bank . Next comes Scots Float Lock , below which the river is tidal . As it approaches the eastern edge of Rye , it is crossed by a fixed truss bridge which carries the Marshlink railway line . The bridge was installed in 1903 , and replaced a swing bridge erected in 1851 during the construction of the railway , which opened in 1852 . Monk Bretton Bridge carries the A259 New Road , and below that , the Rother is joined by the River Brede at the southern edge of Rye . The river channel is quite wide , and is known as Rye Harbour . There is also a village called Rye Harbour , at the southern end of the wide section .
There was a wharf on the river in 1874 , served by a railway line , and sidings which were used to collect shingle . By 1909 , the wharf had been replaced by a landing stage slightly further downstream , which was also served by the railway . As it nears the sea , a Martello tower , built in 1806 to protect against French invasion , stands to the west of the channel . It is numbered 28 , and was one of many such structures built at the time . Nearby is an Inshore Rescue station , run by the Royal National Lifeboat Institution The river then enters Rye Bay , part of the English Channel .
= = Points of interest = =
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= Harveys Lake ( Pennsylvania ) =
Harveys Lake ( also known as Harvey Lake or Harvey 's Lake ) is a natural lake in Luzerne County , Pennsylvania . It has a surface area of approximately 621 @.@ 5 acres , or nearly a square mile . The lake is situated entirely within the borough of Harveys Lake . By volume , it is the largest natural lake in Pennsylvania , and by surface area , is the second @-@ largest lake . It is a glacial lake surrounded by hills and is the source of Harveys Creek , a tributary of the Susquehanna River . The lake has a stone masonry dam . The lake 's watershed has an area of approximately 3600 acres . The majority of the watershed is forested , but there is some developed land as well . Nearly all of the developed land is close to the lake itself , and the lake is surrounded entirely by a paved road .
Harveys Lake was affected by algae blooms from the mid @-@ 20th century onward , and these algae blooms were caused by pollution of nutrients , especially phosphorus . The lake was identified as impaired in 1994 , with an annual phosphorus load of 1 @,@ 019 pounds ( 462 kg ) . However , the phosphorus load has been reduced somewhat since then . The lake is listed on the Luzerne County Natural Areas Inventory . A number of rare or endangered plant species have been observed in its vicinity . Various species of fish inhabit the lake and a number of bird species have been observed in its vicinity .
Harveys Lake was accidentally discovered by Benjamin Harvey in 1781 . The first settlers arrived at the lake in the 1790s and 1800s . Early industries in the area included lumbering and farming , but it became well known as a summer resort in the latter part of the 1800s and into the 1900s . It was also used as a water supply in the early 1900s . However , the lake began to develop significant environmental problems in the 1960s and a total maximum daily load was created for it in 1994 . Since 1968 , the lake has been located in the borough of Harveys Lake .
= = Geography = =
Harveys Lake is the largest natural lake in Pennsylvania by volume and the second @-@ largest by surface area . It has a surface area of 621 @.@ 5 acres and an average depth of 36 feet ( 11 meters ) , as well as a maximum depth of 102 feet ( 31 m ) . The lake 's shoreline is 8 @.@ 3 miles ( 13 @.@ 4 km ) long . By surface area , it was approximately twice its current size when it was first surveyed in the late 1700s .
Harveys Lake is situated in the borough of Harveys Lake , and it is 12 miles ( 19 km ) northwest of the city of Wilkes @-@ Barre .
Harveys Lake is of glacial origin . It is surrounded by steep hills on all sides . At their highest point , to the south of the lake , the hills reach 410 feet ( 120 m ) above the lake 's elevation . The lake has a gravel bottom .
The main outflow of Harveys Lake is Harveys Creek , a tributary of the Susquehanna River . The lake 's major inflows include two unnamed streams with widths between 4 and 8 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 and 2 @.@ 4 m ) and depths of 6 inches ( 15 cm ) . Springs also feed into it . The lake 's elevation is 1 @,@ 253 feet ( 382 m ) above sea level . The lake is located in north @-@ central Luzerne County , in the Lower North Branch Susquehanna drainage basin and the Upper Susquehanna - Lackawanna basin .
A 1921 book described the shape of Harveys Lake as " very irregular " . The lake has a maximum length of 15 @,@ 640 feet ( 4 @,@ 770 m ) and a maximum width of 4 @,@ 960 feet ( 1 @,@ 510 m ) . It has a capacity of 7 @.@ 733 billion US gallons ( 29 @.@ 27 million cubic metres ) . Harveys Lake is dammed by a stone masonry dam with two spillways . The dam is 120 feet ( 37 m ) long and 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) high .
Harveys Lake was described as " one of the most beautiful " lakes in Pennsylvania in Henry C. Bradsby 's 1893 book History of Luzerne County , Pennsylvania .
= = Watershed = =
Harveys Lake is situated in the United States Geological Survey quadrangles of Harveys Lake and Noxen . The watershed of the lake has an area of 3 @,@ 600 acres ( 1 @,@ 500 ha ) . Most of the watershed is in Luzerne County , but its northeasternmost portion is in Wyoming County .
The vast majority ( 2 @,@ 841 acres [ 1 @,@ 150 ha ] ) of the watershed of Harveys Lake is forested land . Developed land and farmland comprise 499 acres ( 202 ha ) and 154 @.@ 7 acres ( 62 @.@ 6 ha ) , respectively . Unpaved roads make up 2 @.@ 5 acres ( 1 @.@ 0 ha ) of the watershed . The majority of the developed land in the watershed is directly on the shoreline and nearly all is within 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 80 km ) of the lake . Most of the developed land is used for residential and commercial purposes . One developed area in the watershed is known as Hemlock Gardens , which occupies an area of 28 acres ( 11 ha ) and has 26 homes . The development had steep slopes ( 8 to 18 percent grade ) , unpaved roads , and no infrastructure for dealing with stormwater . However , a nutrient @-@ separating baffle box and a water polishing unit were installed in the development , reducing the phosphorus load of Harveys Lake by an estimated 36 pounds ( 16 kg ) per year .
The shoreline of Harveys Lake is entirely surrounded by a paved road , which is atypical for a lake shoreline . Homes and cottages are situated on the road opposite the lake , and significant development has occurred in the vicinity of the lake . A ditch and outlet drainage structure made of concrete at Wardens Place drains into the lake ; its purpose is to control small @-@ scale local road flooding .
= = Hydrology = =
Although Harveys Lake 's waters were described as having " great purity " in 1893 , the lake has experienced nutrient pollution , especially from phosphorus since at least the mid @-@ 20th century . Algae blooms occurred on the lake and caused a reduction in water quality throughout the latter half of the 20th century . A sewage system was installed in the borough of Harveys Lake in the summer of 1976 , but this did not completely stop the algae blooms . However , the phosphorus load in the lake has been reduced by 29 percent . The lake was identified as impaired in 1994 , with the cause of the impairment being large algae blooms and sedimentation in some areas . It is an anoxic lake .
In the 1990s , the concentration of phosphorus in the waters of Harveys Lake was measured to be 0 @.@ 031 milligrams per liter . The annual load of phosphorus was 1 @,@ 019 pounds ( 462 kg ) per year . The lake 's total maximum daily load for phosphorus is 0 @.@ 024 milligrams per liter and 789 pounds ( 358 kg ) per year .
In the 1990s , 255 pounds ( 116 kg ) of the annual phosphorus load of Harveys Lake came from internal loading , 233 pounds ( 106 kg ) came from groundwater , 199 pounds ( 90 kg ) came from developed land , and 150 pounds ( 68 kg ) came from shorelines . Smaller sources of phosphorus included farmland ( 95 pounds ( 43 kg ) per year ) , forests ( 51 pounds ( 23 kg ) per year ) , septic systems ( 33 pounds ( 15 kg ) per year ) , and unpaved roads ( 3 @.@ 4 pounds ( 1 @.@ 5 kg ) per year ) .
The hydraulic residence time of Harveys Lake is 1116 days . The lake causes substantially reduced peak flood flows on Harveys Creek . Visibility in the lake is typically approximately 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) . However , it can be as low as 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) or as high as 15 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) .
= = History and recreation = =
Harveys Lake was entered into the Geographic Names Information System on August 2 , 1979 . Its identifier in the Geographic Names Information System is 1200085 . Lake Township is named after the lake .
Harveys Lake is named after Benjamin Harvey , a member of the Sons of Liberty and among the first settlers of the Wyoming Valley . Harvey inadvertently discovered the lake in 1781 , while returning home after being held as a prisoner of war in Fort Niagara . The first resident in the vicinity of the lake was Matthew Scouten , who arrived in the early 1790s , but the first settlers were the Worthingtons , who arrived in 1806 . The lake was first surveyed by Christopher Hurlbert in 1794 , and the first person of European descent to explore the lake by canoe was Andrew Bennett , in 1800 .
The early settlers in the vicinity of Harveys Lake mainly engaged in lumbering and farming , which was a common occupation . At one point during the 1800s , the mills of Hollenback & Urquhart were cutting more than a million board feet of lumber annually at the lake . However , by 1853 , summer resorts used by Wyoming Valley residents began appearing near the lake . Hotels such as the Lake House Hotel and later the Rhoads Hotel , the Lake Grove Hotel , and the Grand Hotel Oneonta were among the hotels on the lake in the late 1800s . Grand Hotel Oneonta was especially prominent in the early 1900s , and former United States President Theodore Roosevelt visited the hotel in August 1912 . In the early 1900s , there were three hotels , two hundred cottages , and sixty boathouses on the lake , most of them at least 15 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) above the water line .
The Harvey Lake and Towanda Branch of the Lehigh Valley Railroad was constructed in the late 1800s . It ran directly from Wilkes @-@ Barre to Harveys Lake . In the 1890s , railroad lines were constructed from the lake to the communities of Pittston and Towanda .
Harveys Lake has been popular for recreational purposes since the late 1800s . Places such as Warden Place and Sandy Beach were popular recreational areas near the lake in the early 1900s . Around this time period , there were four steamboats on Harveys Lake . They were used for carrying passengers and freight . Recreational steamboat rides on the lake were popular between 1900 and 1920 . A 60 @-@ foot ( 18 @-@ meter ) high Shoot the Chute was built in the area by Charles Shelley in 1910 . It was one of the largest attractions in the lake 's vicinity . A casino near the lake was opened by Frank Devlin in May 1924 , but was demolished in 1980 . Devlin also opened the largest bowling alley in northeast Pennsylvania near the lake . Throughout the 20th century , prior to and after World War II , the lake attracted thousands of visitors yearly .
In the early 1900s , Harveys Lake was used as a water supply for Nanticoke , as a private ice supply , and as a summer resort .
Harveys Lake has been the subject of scientific studies since the late 1940s , when C. B. Reif conducted limnological studies on it . By the 1960s , Harveys Lake began to develop environmental problems . It was the subject of a number of studies in the late 1980s and early 1990s . These studies indicated that the lake was eutrophic . Algae blooms caused it to be closed to swimming in 1981 and 1990 . The Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection completed a phosphorus TMDL for the lake in 2002 .
In modern times , the main recreational uses of Harveys Lake include swimming , fishing , and boating . However , it lacks public access locations for SCUBA diving . According to its TMDL document , the lake is " one of the most heavily used lakes in the area " . It has been situated within the borough of Harveys Lake since January 1 , 1968 , when the borough was incorporated . In 2004 , a plan to dredge and develop a patch of wetland for 30 boat slips near the lake was opposed due to safety concerns ( poor visibility ) as well as environmental concerns .
= = Biology = =
Harveys Lake is listed on the Luzerne County Natural Areas Inventory .
Numerous rare or endangered plant species have been observed in the vicinity of Harveys Lake . Plants in the vicinity of the lake include Vasey 's pondweed , flat @-@ leaved pondweed , grassy pondweed , broad @-@ leaved water @-@ milfoil , and Beck 's water @-@ marigold . However , exotic and invasive plants such as fanwort and aquatic coontail also inhabit the area and have altered the habitat in the vicinity of the lake . Second @-@ growth forests occur in the area surrounding the lake .
Algae blooms have occurred on Harveys Lake due to high levels of nutrients in the water .
Harveys Lake is inhabited by various species of native fish of Pennsylvania . In 1972 , Field and Stream noted that the lake was inhabited by rainbow trout , sockeye salmon , and some lake trout . As the basin of Harveys Creek upstream of the tributary Pikes Creek is designated as a High @-@ Quality Coldwater Fishery , the lake itself has the same designation . Harveys Lake has regulations permitting a creel limit of three trout per day , with only one being allowed to be more than 18 inches ( 46 cm ) long .
Various bird species have been observed in the vicinity of Harveys Lake . These include surf scoters and black scoters , which have been observed there in the winter . Although greater scaups are rare in Pennsylvania away from Lake Erie , one was observed at the lake in July 1992 . Franklin 's gulls have also been observed near the lake , as have snow buntings and black @-@ legged kittiwakes , and ruddy ducks . Nine brant geese were observed on the lake in May 1997 .
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= LW4 ( classification ) =
LW4 is a para @-@ Alpine and para @-@ Nordic standing skiing sport class defined by the International Paralympic Committee ( IPC ) for skiers who may have a disability in one lower extremity , which may be a result of a leg amputation below the knee , knee arthrodesis or a hip arthrodesis . For international skiing competitions , classification is done through IPC Alpine Skiing or IPC Nordic Skiing . A national federation such as Alpine Canada handles classification for domestic competitions .
Skiers in this classification compete with one or two skis and two ski poles , except in para @-@ Nordic skiing where the skier must use two skis and two ski poles . Skiers in this sport class may have a specially made ski boot with a prosthetic built into it . Cerebral palsy skiers in this class may have better balance while using skis than they would otherwise . This presents challenges for coaches who are working with the skier . Compared to other skiers in the class , the skier with cerebral palsy may tire more quickly .
A factoring system is used in the sport to allow different classes to compete against each other when there are too few individual competitors in one class in a competition . The factoring for LW4 alpine skiing classification during the 2011 / 2012 skiing season was 0 @.@ 9961 for slalom , 0 @.@ 995 for giant slalom , 0 @.@ 9901 for Super @-@ G and 0 @.@ 9949 for downhill . In para @-@ Nordic skiing , the percentage for the 2012 / 2013 ski season was 96 % for classic and 96 % for free . While LW4 was not grouped with others classes at an event in the 1980s , it became grouped with other classifications during the 1990s and 2000s . Eligible events for this classification included 1986 World Disabled Ski Championships , 1988 World Winter Games for the Disabled , 1990 Disabled Alpine World Championships , 1992 Winter Paralympics , 1994 Winter Paralympics , 1996 Disabled Alpine World Championships in Lech , Austria , 1998 Winter Paralympics and 2002 Winter Paralympics . Skiers in this classification include Australian Scott Adams and New Zealanders Steve Bayley and Patrick Cooper .
= = Definition = =
This classification is used in para @-@ Alpine and para @-@ Nordic standing skiing , where LW stands for Locomotor Winter . Skiers in this class have a disability in one lower extremity , which may be a result of a leg amputation below the knee , knee arthrodesis or a hip arthrodesis . If there are functional problems on the leg , the strength of the leg will be 30 or less , where a fully functional leg normally has a strength of 40 . Lower limb monoplegia is a type disability that is comparable to knee amputation for this class . Skiers may be in this class as a result of an amputation , or polio .
The International Paralympic Committee ( IPC ) defined this classification for para @-@ Alpine as " Competitors with disabilities in a lower limb skiing with two normal skis and two poles ... Typical disability profile of the class is single below @-@ knee amputation . " While skiers with a fused knee and hip are eligible for this classification , skiers with fused ankles are not . In 2002 , the Australian Paralympic Committee described this classification as a standing skiing classification with " Two skis , two poles , disability in one leg below the knee . " For para @-@ Nordic skiing , the IPC defines this classification as " those with impairment in one lower limb below the knee . " Cross Country Canada described this classification as " Impairment in one lower limb below the knee . "
For international para @-@ Alpine skiing competitions , classification is done through IPC Alpine Skiing . A national federation such as Alpine Canada handles classification for domestic competitions . For para @-@ Nordic skiing events , classification is handled by IPC Nordic Skiing Technical Committee on the international level and by the national sports federation such as Cross @-@ Country Canada on a country by country level . When being assessed into this classification , a number of things are considered including reviewing the skiers medical history and medical information on the skier 's disability , having a physical and an in person assessment of the skier training or competing .
= = Equipment = =
Skiers in this classification compete with one or two skis and two ski poles , except in para @-@ Nordic skiing where the skier must use two skis and two ski poles . Skiers use skis that would be slightly longer than if they were able bodied . Skiing with a prosthesis is allowed in this classification in international competitions . In training , skiers can also use cants , wedges and prostheses with a special skiing prosthesis having been developed for use . The prosthetic may be built into the ski boot for below knee amputees , though FIS rules for ski boots and binding heights are enforced for everyone in this class .
Some skiers with amputations may require the use of outriggers , a forearm crutches with a miniature ski on a rocker at the base which are fitted for the skier based the height of the skier 's hip joint when the skier is standing . Cants are wedges that sit under the binding that are intended to more evenly distribute weight . They are customised for the specific needs of the skier . Skiers in this class may have a specially made ski boot with a prosthetic built into it . In the Biathlon , athletes with amputations can use a rifle support while shooting .
= = Technique = =
Outriggers are used to stop using a technique that involves bringing the skiers elbows from their raised position down to their hips while pushing the outriggers down . When using the outrigger , skiers do not rotate their arms as this changes the location of the ski on the snow . Skiers with below the knee amputations get on and off the ski lift using the same technique as able @-@ bodied skiers . Cerebral palsy skiers in this class may have better balance while using skis than they would otherwise . This presents challenges for coaches who are working with the skier . Compared to other skiers in the class , the skier with cerebral palsy may tire more quickly .
One of the skiing techniques used by this class is called the three track method , and was developed as part of the American Training System . One of the first skills learned using this technique is how to walk with the ski so the skier can learn how to flex the ankle , knee and hip . This allows the skier to determine their centre of gravity . The skier is then taught how hop turn in order to understand arm and leg coordination while on skis . This technique is only used while stationary and is not a competition skill . The skier next learns how to fall down and get back up again . The next skill learned is climbing gentle terrain , followed by learning to go down a straight run and learning to stop . After this , the skier learns how to get on and off a ski lift . This is followed by learning how to traverse the fall line , which teaches the skier how to maintain the ski edge . Other skills are then taught including the Uphill Christie , beginning turns , parallel turns , short swings and moguls .
In the Biathlon , all Paralympic athletes shoot from a prone position .
= = Sport = =
A factoring system is used in the sport to allow different classes to compete against each other when there are too few individual competitors in one class in a competition . The factoring system works by having a number for each class based on their functional mobility or vision levels , where the results are calculated by multiplying the finish time by the factored number . The resulting number is the one used to determine the winner in events where the factor system is used .
In para @-@ Nordic skiing , which includes cross @-@ country skiing and biathlon events , this classification is grouped with other standing classes . For the 2003 / 2004 para @-@ Nordic skiing season , the percentage for the classic technique was 94 or 96 % and percentage for free was 96 % . The percentage for the 2008 / 2009 and 2009 / 2010 ski seasons was 96 % for classic and 96 % for free technique . The factoring for LW4 alpine skiing classification during the 2011 / 2012 skiing season was 0 @.@ 9961 for slalom , 0 @.@ 995 for giant slalom , 0 @.@ 9901 for Super @-@ G and 0 @.@ 9949 for downhill . The percentage for the 2012 / 2013 ski season was 96 % for classic and 96 % for free .
In para @-@ Alpine skiing events , this classification is grouped with standing classes who are seeded to start after visually impaired classes and before sitting classes in the slalom and giant slalom . In downhill , Super @-@ G and Super Combined , this same group competes after the visually impaired classes and sitting classes . A skier is required to have their ski poles or equivalent equipment planted in the snow in front of the starting position before the start of the race . The IPC advises event organisers to run the men 's standing ski group after the blind men 's group and before the blind women 's group . Women 's standing classes are advised to go last .
= = Events = =
While LW4 was not grouped with others classes at an event in the 1980s , it became grouped with other classifications during the 1990s and 2000s . At the 1986 World Disabled Ski Championships , 1988 World Winter Games for the Disabled , 1990 Disabled Alpine World Championships , 1992 Winter Paralympics , 1994 Winter Paralympics , 1996 Disabled Alpine World Championships in Lech , Austria , 1998 Winter Paralympics and 2002 Winter Paralympics , the men 's LW4 skiers were not grouped with others classes for medal events . For women at the 1998 Winter Paralympics , the LW1 , LW3 , LW4 , LW5 and LW6 classes competed in one group . At the 2002 Winter Paralympics in alpine @-@ skiing , women 's LW3 , LW4 , LW6 / 8 and LW9 were grouped for the women 's Super @-@ G and downhill events , and LW3 , LW4 , and LW9 were grouped for the Slalom and Giant Slalom events . At the 2005 IPC Nordic Skiing World Championships , this class was grouped with other standing skiing classifications . In cross country , this class was eligible to compete in the men and women 's 5 km , 10 km and 20 km individual race . In the men and women 's biathlon , this classification was again grouped with standing classes in the 7 @.@ 4 km race with 2 shooting stages 12 @.@ 5 km race which had four shooting stages . At the 2009 World Championships , there were no women from this class competing in the standing downhill event . In the men 's standing downhill , there were five skiers from this class .
= = Competitors = =
Skiers in this classification include Australian Scott Adams and New Zealanders Steve Bayley and Patrick Cooper .
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= Bharat Ratna =
The Bharat Ratna ( Hindi pronunciation : [ bʰaːrt ̪ rt ̪ n ] ; Jewel of India ) is the highest civilian award of the Republic of India . Instituted in 1954 , the award is conferred " in recognition of exceptional service / performance of the highest order " , without distinction of race , occupation , position , or sex . The award was originally limited to achievements in the arts , literature , science , and public services , but the government expanded the criteria to include " any field of human endeavour " in December 2011 . The recommendations for the Bharat Ratna are made by the Prime Minister to the President , with a maximum of three nominees being awarded per year . Recipients receive a Sanad ( certificate ) signed by the President and a peepal @-@ leaf – shaped medallion ; there is no monetary grant associated with the award . Bharat Ratna recipients rank seventh in the Indian order of precedence .
The first recipients of the Bharat Ratna were politician C. Rajagopalachari , philosopher Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan , and scientist C. V. Raman , who were honoured in 1954 . Since then , the award has been bestowed on 45 individuals , including 12 who were awarded posthumously . The original statutes did not provide for posthumous awards but were amended in January 1955 to permit them . The former Prime Minister Lal Bahadur Shastri became the first individual to be honoured posthumously . In 2014 , cricketer Sachin Tendulkar , then aged 40 , became the youngest recipient ; while social reformer Dhondo Keshav Karve was awarded on his 100th birthday . Though usually conferred on India @-@ born citizens , the Bharat Ratna has been awarded to one naturalised citizen , Mother Teresa , and to two non @-@ Indians , Pakistan national Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan and former South African President Nelson Mandela . On 24 December 2014 , the Indian government announced the award to independence activist Madan Mohan Malaviya ( posthumously ) and former Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee .
The Bharat Ratna , along with other personal civil honours , was briefly suspended from July 1977 to January 1980 , during the change in the national government ; and for a second time from August 1992 to December 1995 , when several public @-@ interest litigations challenged the constitutional validity of the awards . In 1992 , the government 's decision to confer the award posthumously on Subhash Chandra Bose was opposed by those who had refused to accept the fact of his death , including some members of his extended family . Following a 1997 Supreme Court decision , the press communiqué announcing Bose 's award was cancelled ; it is the only time when the award was announced but not conferred .
Several bestowals of the award have met with criticism . The posthumous awards for K. Kamaraj ( 1976 ) and M. G. Ramachandran ( 1988 ) were considered to have been aimed at placating the voters for the upcoming assembly elections and posthumous awards of Madan Mohan Malaviya ( 2015 ) and Vallabhbhai Patel ( 1991 ) drew criticism for they died before the award was instituted .
= = History = =
On 2 January 1954 , a press communiqué was released from the office of the secretary to the President announcing the creation of two civilian awards — Bharat Ratna , the highest civilian award , and the three @-@ tier Padma Vibhushan , classified into " Pahela Warg " ( Class I ) , " Dusra Warg " ( Class II ) , and " Tisra Warg " ( Class III ) , which rank below the Bharat Ratna . On 15 January 1955 , the Padma Vibhushan was reclassified into three different awards ; the Padma Vibhushan , the highest of the three , followed by the Padma Bhushan and the Padma Shri .
There is no formal provision that recipients of the Bharat Ratna should be Indian citizens . It has been awarded to a naturalised Indian citizen , Mother Teresa in 1980 , and to two non @-@ Indians , Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan of Pakistan in 1987 and the former South African president Nelson Mandela in 1990 . Sachin Tendulkar , at the age of 40 , became the youngest person and first athlete to receive the honour . In a special ceremony on 18 April 1958 , Dhondo Keshav Karve was awarded on his 100th birthday . As of 2015 , the award has been conferred upon 45 people with 12 posthumous declarations .
The award was briefly suspended twice in its history . The first suspension occurred after Morarji Desai was sworn in as the fourth Prime Minister in 1977 . His government withdrew all personal civil honours on 13 July 1977 . The suspension was rescinded on 25 January 1980 , after Indira Gandhi became the Prime Minister . The civilian awards were suspended again in mid @-@ 1992 , when two Public @-@ Interest Litigations were filed , one in the Kerala High Court and another in the Madhya Pradesh High Court , challenging the " constitutional validity " of the awards . The awards were reintroduced by the Supreme Court in December 1995 , following the conclusion of the litigation .
= = Regulations = =
The Bharat Ratna is conferred " in recognition of exceptional service / performance of the highest order " , without distinction of race , occupation , position , or sex . The award was originally confined to the arts , literature , science , and public services , as per the 1954 regulations . In December 2011 , the rules were changed to include " any field of human endeavour " . The 1954 statutes did not allow posthumous awards , but this was subsequently modified in the January 1955 statute , and Lal Bahadur Shastri became the first recipient to be honoured posthumously in 1966 .
Although there is no formal nomination process , recommendations for the award can only be made by the Prime Minister to the President with a maximum number of three nominees being awarded per year . However , in 1999 , four individuals were awarded the honour . The recipient receives a Sanad ( certificate ) signed by the President and a medallion without any monetary grant . Under the terms of Article 18 ( 1 ) of the Constitution , the recipients cannot use the award as a prefix or suffix to their name , although recipients may use either the expressions " Awarded Bharat Ratna by the President " or " Recipient of Bharat Ratna Award " to indicate that they have been honoured with the award . The holders of the Bharat Ratna rank seventh in the Indian order of precedence .
As with many official announcements , recipients are announced and registered in The Gazette of India , a publication released by the Department of Publication , Ministry of Urban Development used for official government notices ; without publication in the Gazette , conferral of the award is not considered official . Recipients whose awards have been revoked or restored , both of which require the authority of the President , are registered in the Gazette . Recipients whose awards have been revoked are required to surrender their medals , and their names are struck from the register .
= = Specifications = =
The original 1954 specifications of the award was a circle made of gold 1 3 ⁄ 8 inches ( 35 mm ) in diameter with a centred sun burst design on the obverse side . The text " Bharat Ratna " , in Devanagari Script , is inscribed on the upper edge in silver gilt with a wreath set along on the lower edge . A platinum State Emblem of India was placed in the centre of the reverse side with the national motto , " Satyameva Jayate " ( Truth alone triumphs ) in Devanagari Script , inscribed in silver @-@ gilt on the lower edge .
A year later , the design was modified . The current medal is in the shape of a peepal leaf , approximately 2 5 ⁄ 16 inches ( 59 mm ) long , 1 7 ⁄ 8 inches ( 48 mm ) wide and 1 ⁄ 8 inch ( 3 @.@ 2 mm ) thick and rimmed in platinum . The embossed sun burst design , made of platinum , on the obverse side of the medal has a diameter of 5 ⁄ 8 inch ( 16 mm ) with rays spreading out from 5 ⁄ 6 inch ( 21 mm ) to 1 ⁄ 2 inch ( 13 mm ) from the center of the Sun . The words " Bharat Ratna " on the obverse side remained the same as the 1954 design as did the emblem of India and " Satyameva Jayate " on the reverse side . A 2 @-@ inch @-@ wide ( 51 mm ) white ribbon is attached to the medal so it can be worn around the neck . In 1957 , the silver @-@ gilt decoration was changed to burnished bronze . The Bharat Ratna medals are produced at Alipore Mint , Kolkata along with the other civilian and military awards like Padma Vibushan , Padma Bhushan , Padma Shri , and Param Veer Chakra .
= = Controversies = =
The Bharat Ratna has been surrounded by several controversies and multiple Public @-@ Interest Litigations ( PIL ) had been filed against the conferral of the award .
Subhas Chandra Bose ( 1992 )
On 23 January 1992 , a press release was published by the President 's Secretariat to confer the award posthumously on Subhash Chandra Bose . The decision triggered much criticism and a PIL was filed in the Calcutta High Court to revoke the award . The petitioner took objection to the conferral of the award and its posthumous mention of Bose , saying that honouring a personality higher than the award is " ridiculous " , and it was an act of " carelessness " to classify such a person with past and future recipients . It said that the award cannot be conferred to Bose posthumously as the Government had not officially accepted his death on 18 August 1945 . The petitioner requested the whereabouts of Bose from 18 August 1945 till date , based on the information collected by the 1956 Shah Nawaz Committee and the 1970 Khosla Commission . Bose 's family members expressed their unwillingness to accept the award .
To deliver the judgement , the Supreme Court formed a Special Division Bench with Judge Sujata V. Manohar and G. B. Pattanaik . The Solicitor General noted that to confer the award per the appropriate regulations pertaining to the Bharat Ratna , Padma Vibhushan , Padma Bhushan , and Padma Shri , the name of the recipient must be published in The Gazette of India and entered in the recipients register maintained under the direction of the President . It was noted that only an announcement had been made by press communiqué , but the government had not proceeded to confer the award by publishing the name in the Gazette and entering the name in the register . Furthermore , the then presidents , R. Venkataraman ( 1987 – 92 ) and Shankar Dayal Sharma ( 1992 – 97 ) , had not conferred a Sanad ( certificate ) with their signature and seal .
On 4 August 1997 , the Supreme Court delivered an order that since the award had not been officially conferred , it cannot be revoked and declared that the press communiqué be treated as cancelled . The court declined to pass any judgement on the posthumous mention of Bose and his death .
Civilian awards as " Titles " ( 1992 )
In 1992 , two PILs were filed in the High Courts ; one in the Kerala High Court on 13 February 1992 by Balaji Raghavan and another in the Madhya Pradesh High Court ( Indore Bench ) on 24 August 1992 by Satya Pal Anand . Both petitioners questioned the civilian awards being " Titles " per an interpretation of Article 18 ( 1 ) of the Constitution . On 25 August 1992 , the Madhya Pradesh High Court issued a notice temporarily suspending all civilian awards . A Special Division Bench of the Supreme Court was formed comprising five judges ; A. M. Ahmadi C. J. , Kuldip Singh , B. P. Jeevan Reddy , N. P. Singh , and S. Saghir Ahmad . On 15 December 1995 , the Special Division Bench restored the awards and delivered a judgement that the " Bharat Ratna and Padma awards are not titles under Article 18 of the Constitution " .
C. N. R. Rao and Sachin Tendulkar ( 2013 )
Following the announcement , in November 2013 , that C. N. R. Rao and Sachin Tendulkar were to be awarded the Bharat Ratna , multiple PILs were filed challenging the conferring of the award . The PIL filed against Rao declared that other Indian scientists , such as Homi Bhabha and Vikram Sarabhai , had contributed more than Rao and his claim of publishing 1400 research papers was " physically impossible " . The suit stated that as Rao had proven cases of plagiarism , he should not be presented with the award but rather should be annulled . The PIL filed against Tendulkar to the Election Commission under the Right to Information Act indicated that the awarding him the Bharat Ratna was a violation of the model code of conduct . The petitioner noted that as Tendulkar was an Indian National Congress nominated Member of Rajya Sabha , the decision to award him the Bharat Ratna would influence the voters of Delhi , Rajasthan , Madhya Pradesh , Chhattisgarh , and Mizoram where the election process was underway at the time . Another PIL was filed against Tendulkar and a few ministers , " alleging a conspiracy to ignore " an Indian field hockey player Dhyan Chand . "
On 4 December 2013 , the Election Commission rejected the petition stating that conferring the award on people from non @-@ polling states did not amount to a violation of the code . Other High Courts as well rejected the petitions raised against Rao and Tendulkar .
= = Criticism = =
In 1988 , then Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi ( 1984 – 89 ) conferred the Bharat Ratna posthumously on film actor and former Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu , M. G. Ramachandran , in a bid to influence voters prior to the Tamil Nadu assembly elections in 1989 . The decision was criticised for awarding Ramachandran before independence activist B. R. Ambedkar and Vallabhbhai Patel , who were bestowed the honour in 1990 and 1991 respectively . While Ravi Shankar was accused of lobbying for the award , the decision by Indira Gandhi to posthumously honour K. Kamaraj was considered to have been aimed at placating Tamil voters for the Tamil Nadu assembly elections in 1977 . The seventh Prime Minister V. P. Singh was criticised for posthumously honouring B. R. Ambedkar to please Dalits .
The posthumous conferments of the award on the recipients who died before the Indian independence in 1947 or the award was instituted in 1954 have been criticised by historians . It was noted that such conferments could lead to more demands to honour people like Maurya Emperor Ashoka , Mughal Emperor Akbar , Maratha Emperor Shivaji , Nobel Laureate Rabindranath Tagore , Hindu monk Swami Vivekananda , and independence activist Bal Gangadhar Tilak . The then Prime Minister P. V. Narasimha Rao ( 1991 – 96 ) was criticised for bestowing the award upon Vallabhbhai Patel in 1991 , 41 years after his death in 1950 ; and upon Subhas Chandra Bose in 1992 , who went missing since 18 August 1945 . Similarly in 2015 , the incumbent Prime Minister Narendra Modi 's decision to award Madan Mohan Malaviya , who died in 1946 , met with the criticism . Janardan Dwivedi , politician of the Indian National Congress , said that Malaviya , who worked predominantly in Varanasi , was " deliberately chosen " by the Prime Minister Modi , who is the incumbent Member of Parliament from Varanasi .
A few of the conferments have been criticised for honouring personalities only after they received global recognition . The award for Mother Teresa was announced in 1980 , a year after she was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize . Satyajit Ray received an Academy Honorary Award in 1992 followed by the Bharat Ratna the same year . In 1999 , Amartya Sen was awarded the Bharat Ratna , a year after his 1998 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences . The award was proposed by President K. R. Narayanan to Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee who agreed to the proposal .
= = Popular demands = =
Though , as per the statutes for the Bharat Ratna , the recommendations for the award can only be made by the Prime Minister to the President , there have been several demands from various political parties to honour their leaders . In January 2008 , Bharatiya Janata Party ( BJP ) leader L. K. Advani wrote to the then Prime Minister Manmohan Singh recommending Singh 's predecessor Atal Bihari Vajpayee for the award . This was immediately followed by the Communist Party of India ( Marxist ) lobbying for their leader , Jyoti Basu , former Chief Minister of West Bengal . Basu , India 's longest @-@ serving chief minister , said that he would decline the honour , even if awarded . Similar such demands were made by Telugu Desam Party , Bahujan Samaj Party , and Shiromani Akali Dal for their respective leaders N. T. Rama Rao , Kanshi Ram , and Parkash Singh Badal . In September 2015 , a regional political party Shiv Sena demanded the award for the independence activist Vinayak Damodar Savarkar stating that he had been " deliberately neglected by previous governments " but their family clarified that they are not making such demand and that the freedom fighter is known for his contribution towards independence movement and did not need an award for recognition .
Per the original statutes , sportspersons were not eligible for the Bharat Ratna ; however , a revision of the rules in December 2011 made eligible " any field of human endeavour " . Subsequently , several sportspersons ' names were discussed ; among the most talked @-@ about of these was field @-@ hockey player Dhyan Chand , who was recommended multiple times for the posthumous honour . In 2011 , 82 members of parliament recommended Chand 's name for the award to the Prime Minister 's Office . In January 2012 , the Ministry of Youth Affairs and Sports forwarded his name again , this time along with 2008 Summer Olympics gold medallist shooter Abhinav Bindra and mountaineer Tenzing Norgay . Bindra had earlier been recommended for the award in May 2013 by the National Rifle Association of India . In July 2013 , the ministry again recommended Dhyan Chand . However , in November 2013 , cricketer Sachin Tendulkar became the first sports @-@ person to receive the honour and this garnered much criticism for the government .
A PIL was filed in the Karnataka High Court where in the petitioner requested the court to issue a direction to the Ministry of Home Affairs to consider their representation dated 26 October 2012 and confer the Bharat Ratna upon Mahatma Gandhi . On 27 January 2014 , a counsel appearing for the petitioner noted that after multiple representations from the petitioner , they were provided with the information under RTI that the recommendations to confer the award on Gandhi have been received multiple times in the past and were forwarded to the Prime Minister 's Office . A Division bench comprising Chief Justice D.H. Waghela and Justice B.V. Nagarathna dismissed the petition stating that the subject is not amenable to any adjudication process and the nominations and conferment process is stated to be informal and in the discretion of the highest authority in the Government .
= = List of recipients = =
= = Explanatory notes = =
Posthumous recipients
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= Orator Shafer =
George W. Shafer [ sometimes spelled Shaffer or Schaefer ] ( October 1851 – January 21 , 1922 ) was an outfielder in Major League Baseball . Nicknamed " Orator " , because he was an avid speaker , Shafer played for 10 teams in four different major leagues between 1874 and 1890 . Though he was a good hitter who batted over .300 three times , Shafer was best known for his defensive abilities . He led the National League 's outfielders in assists four times . In 1879 , he set an MLB single @-@ season record with 50 outfield assists , which is a mark that has stood for over 130 years . He was considered by some to be the greatest right fielder of his era .
Shafer was 5 feet 9 inches ( 1 @.@ 75 m ) tall and weighed 165 pounds ( 75 kg ) .
= = Background = =
Shafer was born in Philadelphia , Pennsylvania , in 1851 . He was a " promising young Philadelphia amateur " before starting his professional baseball career in 1874 in the National Association . That year , he played in nine games for the Hartford Dark Blues and in one game for the New York Mutuals , with a cumulative batting average of .225 . His fielding percentage was a career @-@ low .710 . The following season , he played 19 games for the Philadelphia Whites and batted .243 .
Shafer was known during his playing career by the nickname " Orator " . According to Alfred Henry Spink , founder of The Sporting News , he received the nickname because he " was a great stickler for his rights and talked to himself when not talking to the Umpire . " Another player of the era , future Baseball Hall of Fame inductee Orator Jim O 'Rourke , shared the same nickname .
= = Major league regular = =
Shafer joined the National League 's Louisville Grays in 1877 . He earned a job as the team 's starting right fielder , and he led the league in games played ( 61 ) , outfield assists ( 21 ) , and outfield errors ( 28 ) . He also batted .285 and had the second @-@ most home runs in the league with three . ( Lip Pike had four homers . ) In 1878 , Shafer had one of his best seasons at the plate for the Indianapolis Blues . He batted .338 to finish sixth in the batting race and also ranked among the league leaders in on @-@ base percentage ( third ) , slugging percentage ( third ) , and total bases ( fourth ) . His OPS + total of 186 led the league , and his 3 @.@ 8 wins above replacement was the highest among all position players . Shafer also had 28 assists in the outfield .
In 1879 , Shafer signed with Cap Anson 's Chicago White Stockings . However , he had left Indianapolis the previous year with some unpaid debts . The White Stockings traveled to Indianapolis to play an exhibition game in June , and the local sheriff was waiting for both him and teammate Silver Flint . After the game , Shafer and Flint escaped the ballpark in a horse @-@ drawn carriage to avoid arrest , and only their manager , Anson , was taken to jail .
Shafer batted .304 for Chicago in 1879 and also set a career high by getting 50 assists . The 50 outfield assists was 20 more than any other NL player and established a major league record that has never been broken .
In 1880 , Shafer joined the Cleveland Blues and was their regular right fielder for the next three seasons . He continued his good hitting and fielding during his first year with the club , batting .266 with an OPS + of 125 and leading the league again with 35 assists . However , his batting average dropped to .257 the following season and then to .214 in 1882 . His fielding percentage dropped as well , from .901 in 1880 ( fourth in the league ) to .805 in 1882 .
Shafer played for the Buffalo Bisons in 1883 . He batted .292 and led the NL in outfield assists for the fourth and final time , with 41 . He then signed with the St. Louis Maroons in the new Union Association for the 1884 season . Playing in a career @-@ high 106 games in 1884 , Shafer also batted a career @-@ high .360 and was one of the best hitters in the UA . He led the league with 40 doubles , and he finished second only to teammate Fred Dunlap in several other offensive categories , including batting average , on @-@ base percentage ( .398 ) , slugging percentage ( .501 ) , runs scored ( 130 ) , hits ( 168 ) , and total bases ( 234 ) . The Maroons went 94 – 19 and finished first in the Union Association .
= = Later career = =
Shafer stayed with St. Louis as they moved to the National League in 1885 ; his batting average fell to .195 . The following season , he played 21 games for the American Association 's Philadelphia Athletics , hit .268 , and then spent the next few years in the minor leagues . In 1887 , he played for Lincoln of the Western League until he was suspended in September for punching an umpire in the face . Shafer moved on to the Western Association 's Des Moines team in 1888 , and he played well , batting .338 and leading the league in hits . In 1889 , he was the captain of the Detroit Wolverines , which won the International League championship .
Shafer then rejoined the Philadelphia Athletics in 1890 . In his final major league season , he played in 100 games , batted .282 , and led the AA 's outfielders with a .958 fielding percentage . He was the second @-@ oldest player in the league , at 38 years old . Shafer 's younger brother , Taylor , also played for the 1890 Athletics .
= = Legacy = =
Over his 13 @-@ season Major League Baseball career , Orator Shafer played a total of 871 games . He had 1 @,@ 000 hits in 3 @,@ 552 at bats , a .282 batting average , 11 home runs , 601 runs scored , and 317 runs batted in . He also had 290 career outfield assists , which is the 10th highest total in MLB history .
Shafer was an outstanding fielder . Fellow major league right fielder Paul Radford , when writing about how to play the position , said : " I always considered ' Orator ' Shaffer a splendid right fielder , because of his skill in throwing out men at the initial bag . I know he threw me out thus in two successive games at Buffalo . " According to The Sporting Life , Shafer " was for years considered the best man in his position . " In 2001 , statistician Bill James ranked Shafer as the 99th greatest right fielder of all @-@ time .
After his baseball career ended , Shafer worked at a race track as a book @-@ writer . He died in Philadelphia in 1922 and was buried in West Laurel Hill Cemetery in Bala Cynwyd , Pennsylvania .
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= 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens =
On May 18 , 1980 , a major volcanic eruption occurred at Mount St. Helens , a volcano located in the state of Washington , United States . The eruption ( a VEI 5 event ) was the only significant volcanic eruption to occur in the contiguous 48 U.S. states since the 1915 eruption of Lassen Peak in California . The eruption was preceded by a two @-@ month series of earthquakes and steam @-@ venting episodes , caused by an injection of magma at shallow depth below the volcano that created a huge bulge and a fracture system on the mountain 's north slope .
An earthquake at 8 : 32 : 17 a.m. PDT ( UTC − 7 ) on Sunday , May 18 , 1980 , caused the entire weakened north face to slide away , creating the largest landslide ever recorded . This suddenly exposed the partly molten gas- and steam @-@ rich rock in the volcano to lower pressures . The rock responded by exploding a hot mix of lava and pulverized older rock toward Spirit Lake so fast that it overtook the avalanching north face .
An eruption column rose 80 @,@ 000 feet ( 24 km ; 15 mi ) into the atmosphere and deposited ash in 11 U.S. states . At the same time , snow , ice and several entire glaciers on the volcano melted , forming a series of large lahars ( volcanic mudslides ) that reached as far as the Columbia River , nearly 50 miles ( 80 km ) to the southwest . Less severe outbursts continued into the next day , only to be followed by other large , but not as destructive , eruptions later that year .
Approximately fifty @-@ seven people were killed directly , including innkeeper Harry R. Truman , photographer Reid Blackburn and geologist David A. Johnston . Hundreds of square miles were reduced to wasteland , causing over a billion U.S. dollars in damage ( $ 2 @.@ 89 billion in 2015 dollars ) , thousands of game animals were killed , and Mount St. Helens was left with a crater on its north side . At the time of the eruption , the summit of the volcano was owned by the Burlington Northern Railroad , but afterward the land passed to the United States Forest Service . The area was later preserved , as it was , in the Mount St. Helens National Volcanic Monument .
= = Build @-@ up to the eruption = =
Mount St. Helens remained dormant from its last period of activity in the 1840s and 1850s until March 1980 . Several small earthquakes , apparently beginning on March 15 , indicated that magma may have begun moving below the volcano . Then on March 20 , at 3 : 45 p.m. Pacific Standard Time ( all times will be in PST or PDT ) , a shallow magnitude 4 @.@ 2 earthquake ( the initial reading was 4 @.@ 1 ) , centered below the volcano 's north flank , signaled the volcano 's violent return from 123 years of hibernation . A gradually building earthquake swarm saturated area seismographs and started to climax at about noon on March 25 , reaching peak levels in the next two days , including an earthquake registering 5 @.@ 1 on the Richter scale . A total of 174 shocks of magnitude 2 @.@ 6 or greater were recorded during those two days .
Shocks of magnitude 3 @.@ 2 or greater occurred at a slightly increasing rate during April and May with five earthquakes of magnitude 4 or above per day in early April , and eight per day the week before May 18 . Initially there was no direct sign of eruption , but small earthquake @-@ induced avalanches of snow and ice were reported from aerial observations .
At 12 : 36 p.m. on March 27 , phreatic eruptions ( explosions of steam caused by magma suddenly heating groundwater ) ejected and smashed rock from within the old summit crater , excavating a new crater 250 feet ( 75 m ) wide and sending an ash column about 7 @,@ 000 feet ( 2 @,@ 100 m ) into the air . By this date a 16 @,@ 000 @-@ foot long ( 4 @,@ 900 m ) eastward @-@ trending fracture system had also developed across the summit area . This was followed by more earthquake swarms and a series of steam explosions that sent ash 10 @,@ 000 to 11 @,@ 000 feet ( 3 @,@ 000 to 3 @,@ 400 m ) above their vent . Most of this ash fell between 3 and 12 miles ( 5 and 19 km ) from its vent , but some was carried 150 miles ( 240 km ) south to Bend , Oregon or 285 miles ( 459 km ) east to Spokane , Washington .
A second , new crater and a blue flame were observed on March 29 . The flame was visibly emitted from both craters and was probably created by burning gases . Static electricity generated from ash clouds rolling down the volcano sent out lightning bolts that were up to 2 miles ( 3 km ) long . Ninety @-@ three separate outbursts were reported on March 30 , and increasingly strong harmonic tremors were first detected on April 1 , alarming geologists and prompting Governor Dixy Lee Ray to declare a state of emergency on April 3 . Governor Ray issued an executive order on April 30 creating a " red zone " around the volcano ; anyone caught in this zone without a pass faced a $ 500 fine or six months in jail . This precluded many cabin owners from visiting their property .
By April 7 the combined crater was 1 @,@ 700 feet long by 1 @,@ 200 ft wide and 500 ft deep ( 520 × 370 × 150 m ) . A USGS team determined in the last week of April that a 1 @.@ 5 @-@ mile @-@ diameter ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) section of St. Helens ' north face was displaced outward by at least 270 feet ( 82 m ) . For the rest of April and early May this bulge grew by 5 to 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 to 1 @.@ 8 m ) per day , and by mid @-@ May it extended more than 400 feet ( 120 m ) north . As the bulge moved northward , the summit area behind it progressively sank , forming a complex , down @-@ dropped block called a graben . Geologists announced on April 30 that sliding of the bulge area was the greatest immediate danger and that such a landslide might spark an eruption . These changes in the volcano 's shape were related to the overall deformation that increased the volume of the volcano by 0 @.@ 03 cubic miles ( 0 @.@ 13 km3 ) by mid @-@ May . This volume increase presumably corresponded to the volume of magma that pushed into the volcano and deformed its surface . Because the intruded magma remained below ground and was not directly visible , it was called a cryptodome , in contrast to a true lava dome exposed at the surface .
On May 7 , eruptions similar to those in March and April resumed , and over the next days the bulge approached its maximum size . All activity had been confined to the 350 @-@ year @-@ old summit dome and did not involve any new magma . A total of about 10 @,@ 000 earthquakes were recorded prior to the May 18 event , with most concentrated in a small zone less than 1 @.@ 6 miles ( 2 @.@ 6 km ) directly below the bulge . Visible eruptions ceased on May 16 , reducing public interest and consequently the number of spectators in the area . Mounting public pressure then forced officials to allow 50 carloads of property owners to enter the danger zone on May 17 to gather whatever property they could carry . Another trip was scheduled for 10 a.m. the next day . Because that next day was Sunday , more than 300 loggers would not be working in the area . By the time of the climactic eruption , dacite magma intruding into the volcano had forced the north flank outward nearly 500 feet ( 150 m ) and heated the volcano 's groundwater system , causing many steam @-@ driven explosions ( phreatic eruptions ) .
= = North face slides away = =
As May 18 dawned , Mount St. Helens ' activity did not show any change from the pattern of the preceding month . The rate of bulge movement , sulfur dioxide emission , and ground temperature readings did not reveal any changes indicating a catastrophic eruption . USGS volcanologist David A. Johnston was on duty at an observation post approximately 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) north of the volcano : as of 6 a.m. , Johnston 's measurements did not indicate any unusual activity .
At 8 : 32 a.m. , a magnitude 5 @.@ 1 earthquake centered directly below the north slope triggered that part of the volcano to slide , approximately 7 – 20 seconds ( about 10 seconds seems most reasonable ) after the shock . The landslide , the largest in recorded history , travelled at 110 to 155 miles per hour ( 177 to 249 km / h ) and moved across Spirit Lake 's west arm . Part of it hit a 1 @,@ 150 @-@ foot @-@ high ( 350 m ) ridge about 6 miles ( 10 km ) north . Some of the slide spilled over the ridge , but most of it moved 13 miles ( 21 km ) down the North Fork Toutle River , filling its valley up to 600 feet ( 180 m ) deep with avalanche debris . An area of about 24 square miles ( 62 km2 ) was covered , and the total volume of the deposit was about 0 @.@ 7 cubic miles ( 2 @.@ 9 km3 ) .
Scientists were able to reconstruct the motion of the landslide from a series of rapid photographs by Gary Rosenquist , who was camping 11 miles ( 18 km ) away from the blast . Rosenquist , his party and his photographs survived because the blast was deflected by local topography 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) short of his location .
Most of St. Helens ' former north side became a rubble deposit 17 miles ( 27 km ) long , averaging 150 feet ( 46 m ) thick ; the slide was thickest at 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) below Spirit Lake and thinnest at its western margin . Thousands of trees were torn from the surrounding hillside after the lake was sloshed 800 feet ( 240 m ) up the hillside . All the water in Spirit Lake was temporarily displaced by the landslide , sending 600 @-@ foot @-@ high ( 180 m ) waves crashing into a ridge north of the lake , adding 295 feet ( 90 m ) of new avalanche debris above the old lakebed , and raising its surface level by about 200 feet . As the water moved back into its basin , it pulled with it thousands of trees felled by a super @-@ heated wall of volcanic gas and searing ash and rock that had overtaken the landslide seconds before . Three decades after the eruption , mats of floating or stranded trees on the nearby Spirit Lake , St. Helens Lake , and Coldwater Lake remained visible on Google Earth satellite images .
= = Pyroclastic flows = =
= = = Initial lateral blast = = =
The landslide exposed the dacite magma in St. Helens ' neck to much lower pressure , causing the gas @-@ charged , partially molten rock and high @-@ pressure steam above it to explode a few seconds after the landslide started . Explosions burst through the trailing part of the landslide , blasting rock debris northward . The resulting blast laterally directed the pyroclastic flow of very hot volcanic gases , ash and pumice formed from new lava , while the pulverized old rock hugged the ground , initially moving at 220 miles per hour ( 350 km / h ) but quickly accelerating to 670 mph ( 1 @,@ 080 km / h ) , and it might have briefly passed the speed of sound .
Pyroclastic flow material passed over the moving avalanche and spread outward , devastating a fan @-@ shaped area 23 miles across by 19 miles long ( 37 km × 31 km ) . In total about 230 square miles ( 600 km2 ) of forest was knocked down , and extreme heat killed trees miles beyond the blow @-@ down zone . At its vent the lateral blast probably did not last longer than about 30 seconds , but the northward @-@ radiating and expanding blast cloud continued for about another minute .
Superheated flow material flashed water in Spirit Lake and North Fork Toutle River to steam , creating a larger , secondary explosion that was heard as far away as British Columbia , Montana , Idaho and Northern California . Yet many areas closer to the eruption ( Portland , Oregon , for example ) did not hear the blast . This so @-@ called " quiet zone " extended radially a few tens of miles from the volcano and was created by the complex response of the eruption 's sound waves to differences in temperature and air motion of the atmospheric layers and , to a lesser extent , local topography .
Later studies indicated that one @-@ third of the 0 @.@ 045 cubic miles ( 0 @.@ 19 km3 ) of material in the flow was new lava , and the rest was fragmented , older rock .
= = = Lateral blast result = = =
Everyone in the quiet zone could see the huge ash cloud that was sent skyward from St. Helens ' northern foot . The near @-@ supersonic lateral blast , loaded with volcanic debris , caused devastation as far as 19 miles ( 31 km ) from the volcano . The area affected by the blast can be subdivided into three roughly concentric zones :
Direct blast zone , the innermost zone , averaged about 8 miles ( 13 km ) in radius , an area in which virtually everything , natural or artificial , was obliterated or carried away . For this reason , this zone also has been called the " tree @-@ removal zone " . The flow of the material carried by the blast was not deflected by topographic features in this zone . The blast released energy equal to 24 Megatons of TNT .
Channelized blast zone , an intermediate zone , extended out to distances as far as 19 miles ( 31 km ) from the volcano , an area in which the flow flattened everything in its path and was channeled to some extent by topography . In this zone , the force and direction of the blast are strikingly demonstrated by the parallel alignment of toppled large trees , broken off at the base of the trunk as if they were blades of grass mown by a scythe . This zone was also known as the " tree @-@ down zone " . Channeling and deflection of the blast caused strikingly varied local effects that still remained conspicuous after some decades . Where the blast struck open land directly , it scoured it , breaking trees off short and stripping vegetation and even topsoil , thereby delaying revegetation for many years . Where the blast was deflected so as to pass overhead by several metres , it left the topsoil and the seeds it contained , permitting faster revegetation with scrub and herbaceous plants , and later with saplings . Trees in the path of such higher @-@ level blasts were broken off wholesale at various heights , whereas nearby stands in more sheltered positions recovered comparatively rapidly without conspicuous long @-@ term harm .
Seared zone , also called the " standing dead " zone , the outermost fringe of the impacted area , a zone in which trees remained standing but were singed brown by the hot gases of the blast .
By the time this pyroclastic flow hit its first human victims , it was still as hot as 360 ° C ( 680 ° F ) and filled with suffocating gas and flying angular material . Most of the 57 people known to have died in that day 's eruption succumbed to asphyxiation while several died from burns . Lodge owner Harry R. Truman was buried under hundreds of feet of avalanche material . Volcanologist David A. Johnston was one of those killed , as was Reid Blackburn , a National Geographic photographer . Robert Landsburg , another photographer , was killed by the ash cloud . He was able to protect his film with his body , and the surviving photos provided geologists with valuable documentation of the historic eruption .
= = = Later flows = = =
Subsequent outpourings of pyroclastic material from the breach left by the landslide consisted mainly of new magmatic debris rather than fragments of preexisting volcanic rocks . The resulting deposits formed a fan @-@ like pattern of overlapping sheets , tongues and lobes . At least 17 separate pyroclastic flows occurred during the May 18 eruption , and their aggregate volume was about 0 @.@ 05 cubic miles ( 210 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 m3 ) .
The flow deposits were still at about 300 to 420 ° C ( 572 to 788 ° F ) two weeks after they erupted . Secondary steam @-@ blast eruptions fed by this heat created pits on the northern margin of the pyroclastic @-@ flow deposits , at the south shore of Spirit Lake , and along the upper part of the North Fork Toutle River . These steam @-@ blast explosions continued sporadically for weeks or months after the emplacement of pyroclastic flows , and at least one occurred a year later , on May 16 , 1981 .
= = Ash column grows = =
As the avalanche and initial pyroclastic flow were still advancing , a huge ash column grew to a height of 12 miles ( 19 km ) above the expanding crater in less than 10 minutes and spread tephra into the stratosphere for 10 straight hours . Near the volcano , the swirling ash particles in the atmosphere generated lightning , which in turn started many forest fires . During this time , parts of the mushroom @-@ shaped ash @-@ cloud column collapsed , and fell back upon the earth . This fallout , mixed with magma , mud and steam , sent additional pyroclastic flows speeding down St. Helens ' flanks . Later , slower flows came directly from the new north @-@ facing crater and consisted of glowing pumice bombs and very hot pumiceous ash . Some of these hot flows covered ice or water which flashed to steam , creating craters up to 65 feet ( 20 m ) in diameter and sending ash as much as 6 @,@ 500 feet ( 2 @,@ 000 m ) into the air .
Strong high @-@ altitude wind carried much of this material east @-@ northeasterly from the volcano at an average speed of about 60 miles per hour ( 97 km / h ) . By 9 : 45 a.m. it had reached Yakima , Washington , 90 miles ( 140 km ) away , and by 11 : 45 a.m. it was over Spokane , Washington . A total of 4 to 5 inches ( 100 to 130 mm ) of ash fell on Yakima , and areas as far east as Spokane were plunged into darkness by noon where visibility was reduced to 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) and 0 @.@ 5 inches ( 13 mm ) of ash fell . Continuing eastward , St. Helens ' ash fell in the western part of Yellowstone National Park by 10 : 15 p.m. and was seen on the ground in Denver , Colorado , the next day . In time , ash fall from this eruption was reported as far away as Minnesota and Oklahoma , and some of the ash drifted around the globe within about 2 weeks .
During the nine hours of vigorous eruptive activity , about 540 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 tons of ash fell over an area of more than 22 @,@ 000 square miles ( 57 @,@ 000 km2 ) . The total volume of the ash before its compaction by rainfall was about 0 @.@ 3 cubic miles ( 1 @.@ 3 km3 ) . The volume of the uncompacted ash is equivalent to about 0 @.@ 05 cubic miles ( 210 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 m3 ) of solid rock , or about 7 % of the amount of material that slid off in the debris avalanche . By around 5 : 30 p.m. on May 18 , the vertical ash column declined in stature , but less severe outbursts continued through the next several days .
= = Ash properties = =
Generally , given that the way airborne ash is deposited after an eruption is strongly influenced by the meteorological conditions , a certain variation of the ash type will occur , as a function of distance to the volcano or time elapsed from eruption . The ash from Mount St. Helens is no exception , and hence the ash properties will have large uncertainties .
= = = Chemical composition = = =
The bulk chemical composition of the ash has been found to be approximately : 65 % for silicon dioxide , 18 % for aluminium oxide , 5 % for ferric oxide , 4 % each for calcium oxide and sodium oxide and 2 % for magnesium oxide . Trace chemicals were also detected , their concentrations varying as shown : 0 @.@ 05 @-@ 0 @.@ 09 % for chlorine , 0 @.@ 02 @-@ 0 @.@ 03 % for fluorine and finally , 0 @.@ 09 @-@ 0 @.@ 3 % for sulphur .
= = = Index of refraction = = =
The index of refraction is an important property of volcanic ash . Its imaginary part presents an important point of interest since it dictates how radiation is attenuated , while the real part is concerned with the refraction .
It is known that the silicate particles have a real index of refraction ranging between 1 @.@ 5 and 1 @.@ 6 for visible light . However , there is a spectrum of colours associated with samples of volcanic ash , from very light to dark gray . This makes for variations in the measured imaginary refractive index under visible light .
In the case of Mount St. Helens , the ash settled in three main layers on the ground :
the bottom layer was dark grey and was found to be abundant in older rocks and crystal fragments
the middle layer consisted of a mixture of glass shards and pumice
the top layer was ash consisting of very fine particles
For example , when comparing the imaginary part of the refractive index k of stratospheric ash from 15 km and 18 km from the volcano it has been discovered that they have similar values around 700 nm ( around 0 @.@ 009 ) , while they differ significantly around 300 nm . Here , the 18 km ( k was found to be around 0 @.@ 009 ) sample was much more absorbent than the 15 km sample ( k was found to be around 0 @.@ 002 ) .
= = Mudslides flow downstream = =
The hot , exploding material also broke apart and melted nearly all of the mountain 's glaciers along with most of the overlying snow . As in many previous St. Helens ' eruptions , this created huge lahars ( volcanic mudflows ) and muddy floods that affected three of the four stream drainage systems on the mountain , and which started to move as early as 8 : 50 a.m. Lahars travelled as fast as 90 miles per hour ( 140 km / h ) while still high on the volcano but progressively slowed to about 3 miles per hour ( 4 @.@ 8 km / h ) on the flatter and wider parts of rivers . Mudflows from the southern and eastern flanks had the consistency of wet concrete as they raced down Muddy River , Pine Creek and Smith Creek to their confluence at the Lewis River . Bridges were taken out at the mouth of Pine Creek and the head of Swift Reservoir , which rose 2 @.@ 6 feet ( 0 @.@ 79 m ) by noon to accommodate the nearly 18 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 cubic yards ( 14 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 m3 ) of additional water , mud and debris .
Glacier and snow melt mixed with tephra on the volcano 's northeast slope to create much larger lahars . These mudflows traveled down the north and south forks of the Toutle River and joined at the confluence of the Toutle forks and the Cowlitz River near Castle Rock , Washington , at 1 : 00 p.m. Ninety minutes after the eruption , the first mudflow had moved 27 miles ( 43 km ) upstream where observers at Weyerhaeuser 's Camp Baker saw a 12 @-@ foot @-@ high ( 4 m ) wall of muddy water and debris pass . Near the confluence of the Toutle 's north and south forks at Silver Lake , a record flood stage of 23 @.@ 5 feet ( 7 @.@ 2 m ) was recorded .
A large but slower @-@ moving mudflow with a mortar @-@ like consistency was mobilized in early afternoon at the head of the Toutle River north fork . By 2 : 30 p.m. the massive mudflow had destroyed Camp Baker , and in the following hours seven bridges were carried away . Part of the flow backed up for 2 @.@ 5 miles ( 4 @.@ 0 km ) soon after entering the Cowlitz River , but most continued downstream . After traveling 17 miles ( 27 km ) further , an estimated 3 @,@ 900 @,@ 000 cubic yards ( 3 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 m3 ) of material were injected into the Columbia River , reducing the river 's depth by 25 feet ( 8 m ) for a 4 @-@ mile ( 6 km ) stretch . The resulting 13 @-@ foot ( 4 @.@ 0 m ) river depth temporarily closed the busy channel to ocean @-@ going freighters , costing Portland , Oregon , an estimated five million US dollars . Ultimately more than 65 million cubic yards ( 50 million cubic metres ) of sediment were dumped along the lower Cowlitz and Columbia Rivers .
= = Aftermath = =
= = = Direct results = = =
The May 18 , 1980 event was the most deadly and economically destructive volcanic eruption in the history of the United States . Approximately fifty @-@ seven people were killed directly from the blast and 200 houses , 47 bridges , 15 miles ( 24 km ) of railways and 185 miles ( 298 km ) of highway were destroyed ; two people were killed indirectly in accidents that resulted from poor visibility , and two more suffered fatal heart attacks from shoveling ash . U.S. President Jimmy Carter surveyed the damage and said it looked more desolate than a moonscape . A film crew was dropped by helicopter on Mount St. Helens on May 23 to document the destruction . However their compasses spun in circles and they quickly became lost . A second eruption occurred the next day ( see below ) , but the crew survived and were rescued two days after that . The eruption ejected more than 1 cubic mile ( 4 @.@ 2 km3 ) of material . A quarter of that volume was fresh lava in the form of ash , pumice and volcanic bombs while the rest was fragmented , older rock . The removal of the north side of the mountain ( 13 % of the cone 's volume ) reduced Mount St. Helens ' height by about 1 @,@ 280 feet ( 390 m ) and left a crater 1 to 2 miles ( 2 to 3 km ) wide and 2 @,@ 100 feet ( 640 m ) deep with its north end open in a huge breach .
More than 4 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 board feet ( 9 @,@ 400 @,@ 000 m3 ) of timber was damaged or destroyed , mainly by the lateral blast . At least 25 % of the destroyed timber was salvaged after September 1980 . Downwind of the volcano , in areas of thick ash accumulation , many agricultural crops , such as wheat , apples , potatoes and alfalfa , were destroyed . As many as 1 @,@ 500 elk and 5 @,@ 000 deer were killed , and an estimated 12 million Chinook and Coho salmon fingerlings died when their hatcheries were destroyed . Another estimated 40 @,@ 000 young salmon were lost when they swam through turbine blades of hydroelectric generators after reservoir levels were lowered along the Lewis River to accommodate possible mudflows and flood waters .
In total Mount St. Helens released 24 megatons of thermal energy , 7 of which were a direct result of the blast . This is equivalent to 1 @,@ 600 times the size of the atomic bomb dropped on Hiroshima .
= = = = Disputed death toll = = = =
There is a minor controversy in regards to the exact death toll . The most common figure commonly cited is fifty @-@ seven . However , there are two points of dispute .
The first point regards two officially listed victims , Paul Hiatt and Dale Thayer . They were reported missing after the explosion . In the aftermath , investigators were able to locate individuals named Paul Hiatt and Dale Thayer who were alive and well . However , they were unable to determine who reported Hiatt missing , and the person who was listed as reporting Thayer missing claimed she wasn 't the one who had done so . Since the investigators could not thus verify that they were the same Hiatt and Thayer who were reported missing , the names remain listed among the presumed dead .
The second point regards three missing people who are not officially listed as victims : Robert Ruffle , Steven Whitsett and Mark Melanson . Cowlitz County Emergency Services Management lists them as " Possibly Missing — Not on [ the official ] List " . According to Melanson 's brother , in October 1983 , Cowlitz County officials told his family that Melanson " is believed [ ... ] a victim of the May 18 , 1980 eruption " and that after years of searching , the family eventually decided " he 's buried in the ash " .
Taking these two points of dispute into consideration , the direct death toll could be as low as fifty @-@ five or as high as sixty . When combined with the four indirect victims mentioned earlier , those numbers range from fifty @-@ nine to sixty @-@ four .
= = = Digging out = = =
The ash fall created some temporary major problems with transportation , sewage disposal , and water treatment systems . Visibility was greatly decreased during the ash fall , closing many highways and roads . Interstate 90 from Seattle to Spokane was closed for a week and a half . Air travel was disrupted for between a few days and two weeks , as several airports in eastern Washington shut down because of ash accumulation and poor visibility . Over a thousand commercial flights were cancelled following airport closures . Fine @-@ grained , gritty ash caused substantial problems for internal @-@ combustion engines and other mechanical and electrical equipment . The ash contaminated oil systems and clogged air filters , and scratched moving surfaces . Fine ash caused short circuits in electrical transformers , which in turn caused power blackouts .
Removing and disposing of the ash was a monumental task for some eastern Washington communities . State and federal agencies estimated that over 2 @,@ 400 @,@ 000 cubic yards ( 1 @,@ 800 @,@ 000 m3 ) of ash , equivalent to about 900 @,@ 000 tons in weight , were removed from highways and airports in Washington . The ash removal cost $ 2 @.@ 2 million and took 10 weeks in Yakima . The need to remove ash quickly from transport routes and civil works dictated the selection of some disposal sites . Some cities used old quarries and existing sanitary landfills ; others created dump sites wherever expedient . To minimize wind reworking of ash dumps , the surfaces of some disposal sites were covered with topsoil and seeded with grass . In Portland , the mayor eventually threatened businesses with fines if they failed to remove the ash from their parking lots .
= = = Cost = = =
A refined estimate of $ 1 @.@ 1 billion ( $ 2 @.@ 74 billion in 2007 dollars ) was determined in a study by the International Trade Commission at the request of the United States Congress . A supplemental appropriation of $ 951 million for disaster relief was voted by Congress , of which the largest share went to the Small Business Administration , U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and the Federal Emergency Management Agency .
There were also indirect and intangible costs of the eruption . Unemployment in the immediate region of Mount St. Helens rose tenfold in the weeks immediately following the eruption , and then returned to near @-@ normal levels once timber @-@ salvaging and ash @-@ cleanup operations were underway . Only a small percentage of residents left the region because of lost jobs owing to the eruption . Several months after May 18 , a few residents reported suffering stress and emotional problems , even though they had coped successfully during the crisis . Counties in the region requested funding for mental health programs to assist such people .
Initial public reaction to the May 18 eruption dealt a nearly crippling blow to tourism , an important industry in Washington . Not only was tourism down in the Mount St. Helens – Gifford Pinchot National Forest area , but conventions , meetings and social gatherings also were cancelled or postponed at cities and resorts elsewhere in Washington and neighboring Oregon not affected by the eruption . The adverse effect on tourism and conventioneering , however , proved only temporary . Mount St. Helens , perhaps because of its reawakening , has regained its appeal for tourists . The United States Forest Service and the State of Washington opened visitor centers and provided access for people to view the volcano 's devastation .
= = Later eruptions = =
St. Helens produced an additional five explosive eruptions between May and October 1980 . Through early 1990 at least 21 periods of eruptive activity had occurred . The volcano remains active , with smaller , dome @-@ building eruptions continuing into 2008 .
= = = 1980 – 1991 = = =
An eruption occurred on May 25 , 1980 , at 2 : 30 a.m. that sent an ash column 9 miles ( 14 km ) into the atmosphere . The eruption was preceded by a sudden increase in earthquake activity and occurred during a rainstorm . Erratic wind from the storm carried ash from the eruption to the south and west , lightly dusting large parts of western Washington and Oregon . Pyroclastic flows exited the northern breach and covered avalanche debris , lahars and other pyroclastic flows deposited by the May 18 eruption .
At 7 : 05 p.m. on June 12 , a plume of ash billowed 2 @.@ 5 miles ( 4 @.@ 0 km ) above the volcano . At 9 : 09 p.m. a much stronger explosion sent an ash column about 10 miles ( 16 km ) skyward . This event caused the Portland area , previously spared by wind direction , to be thinly coated with ash in the middle of the annual Rose Festival . A dacite dome then oozed into existence on the crater floor , growing to a height of 200 feet ( 61 m ) and a width of 1 @,@ 200 feet ( 370 m ) within a week .
A series of large explosions on July 22 broke more than a month of relative quiet . The July eruptive episode was preceded by several days of measurable expansion of the summit area , heightened earthquake activity , and changed emission rates of sulfur dioxide and carbon dioxide . The first hit at 5 : 14 p.m. as an ash column shot 10 miles ( 16 km ) and was followed by a faster blast at 6 : 25 p.m. that pushed the ash column above its previous maximum height in just 7 @.@ 5 minutes . The final explosion started at 7 : 01 p.m. and continued for over two hours . When the relatively small amount of ash settled over eastern Washington , the dome built in June was gone .
Seismic activity and gas emission steadily increased in early August , and on August 7 at 4 : 26 p.m. , an ash cloud slowly expanded 8 miles ( 13 km ) into the sky . Small pyroclastic flows came through the northern breach and a weaker outpouring of ash rose from the crater . This continued until 10 : 32 p.m. when a second large blast sent ash high into the air , proceeding due north . A second dacite dome filled this vent a few days later .
Two months of repose were ended by an eruption lasting from October 16 to 18 . This event obliterated the second dome , sent ash 10 miles ( 16 km ) in the air and created small , red @-@ hot pyroclastic flows . A third dome began to form within 30 minutes after the final explosion on October 18 , and within a few days , it was about 900 feet ( 270 m ) wide and 130 feet ( 40 m ) high . In spite of the dome growth next to it , a new glacier formed rapidly inside the crater .
All of the post @-@ 1980 eruptions were quiet dome @-@ building events , beginning with the December 27 , 1980 , to January 3 , 1981 , episode . By 1987 the third dome had grown to be more than 3 @,@ 000 feet ( 910 m ) wide and 800 feet ( 240 m ) high .
Further eruptions occurred over a few months between 1989 and 1991 .
= = = 2004 – 2008 = = =
The 2004 – 08 volcanic activity of Mount St. Helens has been documented as a continuous eruption with a gradual extrusion of magma at the Mount St. Helens volcano . Starting in October 2004 there was a gradual building of a new lava dome . The new dome did not rise above the caldera created by the 1980 eruption . This activity lasted until January 2008 .
= = Summary table = =
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= Turquoise parrot =
The turquoise parrot ( Neophema pulchella ) is a species of parrot in the genus Neophema native to Eastern Australia , from southeastern Queensland , through New South Wales and into north @-@ eastern Victoria . It was described by George Shaw in 1792 . A small lightly @-@ built parrot at around 20 cm ( 8 in ) long and 40 g ( 1 1 ⁄ 2 oz ) in weight , it exhibits sexual dimorphism . The male is predominantly green with more yellowish underparts and a bright turquoise blue face . Its wings are predominantly blue with red shoulders . The female is generally duller and paler , with a pale green breast and yellow belly , and lacks the red wing patch .
Found in grasslands and open woodlands dominated by Eucalyptus and Callitris species , the turquoise parrot feeds mainly on grasses and seeds and occasionally flowers , fruit and scale insects . It nests in hollows of gum trees . Much of its habitat has been altered and potential nesting sites lost . Predominantly sedentary , the turquoise parrot can be locally nomadic . Populations appear to be recovering from a crash in the early 20th century . The turquoise parrot has been kept in captivity since the 19th century , and several colour variants exist .
= = Taxonomy and naming = =
Well known around the Sydney district at the time of European settlement in 1788 , the turquoise parrot was described by George Shaw as Psittacus pulchellus in 1792 , the species name pulchellus being Latin for " very pretty " and referring to its plumage . He called it the Turquoisine after its turquoise face patch . The holotype likely ended up in the Leverian collection in England , and was lost when the collection was broken up and sold . German naturalist Johann Matthäus Bechstein gave it the scientific name Psittacus edwardsii in 1811 , based on François Levaillant 's description of the species as la Perruche Edwards in his 1805 work Histoire Naturelle des Perroquets . Levaillant named it in honour of the English naturalist George Edwards . William Swainson used Shaw 's name in 1823 in his work Zoological Illustrations , noting that it was " impossible to represent this superb little creature in its full beauty " . Drawing on the previous works , René Primevère Lesson described it as Lathamus azureus in 1830 , the species name being the Medieval Latin word azureus " blue " .
Italian ornithologist Tommaso Salvadori defined the new genus Neophema in 1891 , placing the turquoise parrot within it and giving it its current scientific name . There is little geographical variation , with some minor local differences in the amount of orange on the belly . In 1915 , Gregory Mathews described a subspecies dombrainii from Victoria on the basis of more prominent red on the scapulars ; however , this distinction was not confirmed on review with New South Wales specimens , and hence no subspecies are recognised . One of six species of grass parrot in the genus Neophema , it is most closely related to the scarlet @-@ chested parrot . The two are an allopatric species pair , and are the only two species in the genus to exhibit marked sexual dimorphism — namely the male and female being different in appearance .
The English common name of the turquoise parrot has varied between chestnut @-@ shouldered parakeet , chestnut @-@ shouldered grass @-@ parakeet , chestnut @-@ shouldered grass @-@ parrot , chestnut @-@ winged grass @-@ parakeet , chestnut @-@ winged grass @-@ parrot , and turquoisine grass parrot , this last name commonly used in aviculture . The name red @-@ shouldered parakeet was incorrectly applied to this species , as it was an alternative name for the paradise parrot .
= = Description = =
Ranging from 20 to 22 cm ( 8 – 83 ⁄ 4 in ) long with a 32 cm ( 12 1 ⁄ 2 in ) wingspan , the turquoise parrot is a small and slightly @-@ built parrot weighing around 40 g ( 1 1 ⁄ 2 oz ) Both sexes have predominantly green upperparts and yellow underparts . The male has a bright turquoise @-@ blue face which is darkest on the crown and slightly paler on the lores , cheeks and ear coverts . The neck and upperparts are grass @-@ green , and the tail is grass @-@ green with yellow borders . The wing appears bright blue with a darker leading edge when folded , with a band of red on the shoulder . The underparts are bright yellow , slightly greenish on the breast and neck . Some males have orange patches on the belly , which may extend to the breast . When extended , the wing is dark blue with red on the trailing edge on the upper surface , and black with dark blue leading coverts underneath . The upper mandible of the bill is black and may or may not fade to grey at the base , while the lower mandible is cream with a grey border in the mouth . The cere and orbital eye @-@ ring are grey and the iris is dark brown . The legs and feet are grey .
Generally duller and paler , the female has a more uniform and paler blue face , with highly contrasting cream bare skin around the eye . It lacks the red shoulder band , and the blue shoulder markings are darker and less distinct . The throat and chest are pale green and the belly is yellow . The upper mandible is paler brown @-@ grey with a darker tip , and has been recorded as black while nesting . The lower mandible is pale grey to almost white . When flying , the female has a broad white bar visible on the underwing .
Juvenile birds of both sexes have less extensive blue on their faces , the coloration not extending past the eye . The upperparts resemble those of the adult female . Both sexes have the white wing @-@ stripe , which disappears with maturity in males . The immature male has a red patch on the wing and may also have an orange wash on the belly .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The turquoise parrot is found in the foothills of the Great Dividing Range and surrounding areas . The northern limit of its range is 26 ° south in southeastern Queensland , around Cooloola , Blackbutt and Chinchilla , extending westwards to the vicinity of St George . Before 1945 , it had been recorded as far north as the Suttor River and Mackay . In New South Wales , it is found in a broad band across the central and eastern parts of the state , with its western limits delineated by Moree , Quambone , Hillston , Narrandera and Deniliquin . There have been unconfirmed sightings in the far west of the state . In Victoria it is found in the vicinity of Wangaratta as well as East Gippsland and around Mallacoota . Sightings in South Australia are likely to have been the scarlet @-@ chested parrot , the similar appearance of the females leading to confusion and misidentification .
The turquoise parrot inhabits open woodland and savanna woodland composed either of native cypress ( Callitris species ) or eucalypts , particularly white box ( Eucalyptus albens ) , yellow box ( E. melliodora ) , Blakely 's red gum ( E. blakelyi ) , red box ( E. polyanthemos ) , red stringybark ( E. macrorhyncha ) , bimble box ( E. populnea ) , or mugga ironbark ( E. sideroxylon ) , and less commonly Angophora near Sydney , silvertop ash forest ( E. sieberi ) in Nadgee Nature Reserve , and stands of river red gum ( E. camaldulensis ) , mountain swamp gum ( E. camphora ) or western grey box ( E. microcarpa ) in flatter more open areas . Within this habitat , it prefers rocky ridges or gullies , or transitional areas between different habitats , such as between woodland and grassland or fields in cultivated areas .
The turquoise parrot is considered sedentary and does not migrate , though its movements are not well known . Birds are present in some areas all year , though in northern Victoria they are thought to move into more open areas outside the breeding season . Some populations may be locally nomadic , following availability of water .
= = Conservation status = =
Around 90 % of the turquoise parrot population resides in New South Wales . The species is not listed as threatened on the Commonwealth Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 , though a status of near threatened was proposed by Stephen Garnett and Gabriel Crowley in their 2000 work The Action Plan for Australian Birds on account of the significant reduction in distribution . Its population and range have varied wildly ; widely distributed across eastern Australia from Mackay to Melbourne up to the 1880s , it vanished from much of its range to the extent that it was presumed extinct in 1915 . It was not recorded from Queensland between 1923 and 1950 , and Victoria between the mid @-@ 1880s and 1949 . However , numbers in New South Wales began increasing in the 1930s and the species had repopulated East Gippsland by the 1960s . Tentatively estimated at 20 @,@ 000 breeding birds in 2000 , the population is thought to be still rising .
= = = New South Wales = = =
The turquoise parrot was once common across the Sydney region , and particularly abundant between the localities of Parramatta and Penrith . It dramatically declined in numbers between 1875 and 1895 , although rare sightings in western Sydney and the Blue Mountains were recorded in the mid @-@ twentieth century . The turquoise parrot was trapped for the aviary trade and used as pie @-@ filling . Almost all of its preferred habitat , the Cumberland Plain , across western Sydney , had disappeared with development . Over half the woodland in New South Wales , and 80 % across Australia has been cleared , and the remaining habitat is fragmented . A key issue is removal of mature eucalypts with resulting loss of hollows available for nesting . The species is thus listed as a Vulnerable species under Schedule 2 of the New South Wales Threatened Species Conservation Act , 1995 because of habitat destruction ( TSC Act ) . Fire @-@ burning regimes may be resulting in the regeneration favouring shrubs rather than grasses , which are the preferred food source for the species . Feral cats and foxes are a threat , particularly to nesting birds and young .
= = = Victoria = = =
Although formerly common in its range , the species was on the brink of extinction in Victoria by 1917 . However , numbers have built up again since the 1930 – 40s as it reestablishes in its former territory . On the 2007 advisory list of threatened vertebrate fauna in Victoria , this species is listed as near threatened .
= = Behaviour = =
Turquoise parrots are encountered in pairs or small groups consisting of parents and several offspring , though they may congregate into larger flocks of up to 50 to 75 predominantly juvenile birds outside the breeding season . As the breeding season nears , pairs separate out from these flocks . Turquoise parrots roost together communally in autumn and winter . At night they roost among the foliage of trees such as gums or wattles , anywhere from 1 to 8 m ( 3 – 25 ft ) above the ground . They retreat to trees near their feeding areas during the day . The calls of the turquoise parrot have been little @-@ studied ; birds give a high @-@ pitched soft contact call when feeding or in flight , while the alarm call has been described as a high @-@ pitched zitting call . Turquoise parrots also chatter when settling to roost in the evening .
= = = Feeding = = =
The turquoise parrot is a predominantly ground @-@ based seed eater , foraging in clearings in open woodland , forest margins , and near trees in more open areas such as pastures . It occasionally feeds along road verges and rarely ventures onto lawns . Birds forage in pairs or small troops of up to thirty or even fifty individuals . Observations at Chiltern in Victoria indicated seasonal variation in flock size , with turquoise parrots foraging in groups of 5 – 30 in winter and 6 – 8 in spring and summer . Foraging takes place from early in the morning till late afternoon , with a break between midday and mid @-@ afternoon . Birds prefer to feed in shaded areas , where they are better camouflaged in the grass .
Grass and shrub seeds form the bulk of the diet , and leaves , flowers , fruit and scale insects are also eaten . The turquoise parrot has been recorded feeding on seeds of various plant species ; more commonly consumed items include the fruit of common fringe @-@ myrtle ( Calytrix tetragona ) , seeds and fruit of erect guinea @-@ flower ( Hibbertia riparia ) , daphne heath ( Brachyloma daphnoides ) , seeds of common raspwort ( Gonocarpus tetragynus ) , Geranium species , black @-@ anther flax @-@ lily ( Dianella revoluta ) and grass species such as the introduced big quaking grass ( Briza maxima ) and little quaking grass ( B. minor ) and members of the genus Danthonia , members of the pea genus Dillwynia , and small @-@ leaved beard @-@ heath ( Leucopogon microphyllus ) . Seed of the introduced common chickweed ( Stellaria media ) and capeweed ( Arctotheca calendula ) are also consumed . Nectar of Grevillea alpina , and spores from moss have been recorded as food items .
A female was observed placing leaves of the flaky @-@ barked tea @-@ tree ( Leptospermum trinervium ) underneath its feathers , leading the observers to wonder whether they were being used to deter or kill insects .
= = = Breeding = = =
The turquoise parrot is monogamous . The male perches upright on a tree stump and extends its wings to show off its red and blue markings when courting a female . Once paired , both sexes look for a nesting site , which is ultimately chosen by the female . Breeding has been reported from Girraween National Park on the New South Wales @-@ Queensland border in the north to Wangaratta and Mallacoota in Victoria . Birds use vertical or nearly @-@ vertical hollows of live and dead trees , generally eucalypts , as nesting sites . Occasionally old fence posts have been used . The turquoise parrot competes with — and may be ousted by — the eastern rosella ( Platycercus eximius ) , red @-@ rumped parrot ( Psephotus haematonotus ) and brown treecreeper ( Climacteris picumnus ) for suitable breeding sites . The tree containing the hollow is often located in open woodland , and the hollow itself is generally at least 1 m ( 3 ft ) above the ground . Fieldwork in northern Victoria yielded average dimensions of 10 by 6 cm ( 4 by 3 in ) for the hollow entrance , and a depth of around 50 cm ( 20 in ) for the depth of the hole . Elsewhere the average depth is around 76 cm ( 30 in ) .
Breeding takes place over the warmer months with eggs laid from August to January . The clutch is laid on a bed of wood dust or leaves and consists of two to five ( or rarely up to eight ) round or oval glossy white eggs , each of which is generally 21 to 22 mm long by 18 mm ( 0 @.@ 8 by 0 @.@ 7 in ) wide . Clutches tend to have more eggs in earlier rather than later clutches , and in nests located further from cleared land . Eggs are laid at an interval of two to three days . Incubation takes 18 to 21 days . The female incubates the eggs and broods the young , and feeds them for their first few days before the male begins helping . She leaves to feed and drink twice a day , once in the morning and once in the afternoon . Both parents take part in feeding the young , on a diet predominantly of seeds with some fruit . The chicks are altricial and nidicolous ; that is , they are born helpless and blind and remain in the nest for an extended period . Covered in silvery @-@ white down , they have pink skin and darker blue @-@ grey skin around the eye . By seven days they open their eyes , and are well @-@ covered in grey down with pin feathers emerging from their wings on day six . They are almost covered in feathers by day 21 , and fledge ( leave the nest ) at around 23 days of age in the wild and up to 30 days of age in captivity .
Around 56 % of eggs lead to successful fledging of young , with fieldwork in northeastern Victoria yielding an average of 2 @.@ 77 young leaving the nest . The lace monitor ( Varanus varius ) and red fox ( Vulpes vulpes ) are nest predators . Baby birds may perish by overheating in very hot weather , or by being drowned in the hollows after heavy rain .
= = Pathogens = =
In 1966 , a paramyxovirus with some antigenic similarity to Newcastle disease was isolated from the brain of a turquoise parrot in the Netherlands . That year , many aviary species including several species of Australian parrot and members of the genus Neophema had exhibited neurological symptoms reminiscent of Newcastle disease . Like other members of the genus , the turquoise parrot is highly sensitive to avian paramyxovirus infection . It is one of many species of parrot that can host the nematode Ascaridia platyceri .
= = Aviculture = =
Initially popular as a caged bird in the 19th century , the turquoise parrot was rarely seen in captivity between 1928 and 1956 , the main problem being the high rate of infertile eggs . It has become more common since , and has adapted readily to aviculture . A quiet species , it likes to bathe in captivity . There is a possibility of interbreeding with other members of the genus Neophema if caged together . Specimens with more prominent orange bellies have been bred , sourced from wild birds in New South Wales and not from breeding with scarlet @-@ chested parrots . A yellow form , where the blue pigment is lost and yellow and red pigments are conserved , first appeared in the 1950s in aviculture . It is a recessive mutation . Other colour forms seen are a red @-@ fronted and pied form ( both recessive ) , and jade and olive ( dominant ) .
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= Croup =
Croup is a type of respiratory infection that is usually caused by a virus . The infection leads to swelling inside the wind pipe , which interferes with normal breathing and produces the classic symptoms of " barking " cough , stridor , and a hoarse voice . Fever and runny nose may also be present . These symptoms may be mild , moderate , or severe . Often it starts or is worse at night . It normally lasts one to two days .
Croup can be caused by a number of viruses including parainfluenza and influenza virus . Rarely it is due to a bacterial infection . Croup is typically diagnosed based on signs and symptoms after potentially more severe causes such as epiglottitis or an airway foreign body have been ruled out . Further investigations — such as blood tests , X @-@ rays , and cultures — are usually not needed .
Many cases of croup are preventable by immunization for influenza and diphtheria . Croup is usually treated with a single dose of steroids by mouth . In more severe cases inhaled epinephrine may also be used . Hospitalization is required in one to five percent of cases .
Croup is a relatively common condition that affects about 15 % of children at some point . It most commonly occurs between 6 months and 5 years of age but may rarely be seen in children as old as fifteen . It is slightly more common in males than females . It occurs most often in autumn . Before vaccination , croup was frequently caused by diphtheria and was often fatal . This cause is now very rare in the Western world due to the success of the diphtheria vaccine .
= = Signs and symptoms = =
Croup is characterized by a " barking " cough , stridor , hoarseness , and difficulty breathing which usually worsens at night . The " barking " cough is often described as resembling the call of a seal or sea lion . The stridor is worsened by agitation or crying , and if it can be heard at rest , it may indicate critical narrowing of the airways . As croup worsens , stridor may decrease considerably .
Other symptoms include fever , coryza ( symptoms typical of the common cold ) , and chest wall indrawing . Drooling or a very sick appearance indicate other medical conditions .
= = Causes = =
Croup is usually deemed to be due to a viral infection . Others use the term more broadly , to include acute laryngotracheitis , spasmodic croup , laryngeal diphtheria , bacterial tracheitis , laryngotracheobronchitis , and laryngotracheobronchopneumonitis . The first two conditions involve a viral infection and are generally milder with respect to symptomatology ; the last four are due to bacterial infection and are usually of greater severity .
= = = Viral = = =
Viral croup or acute laryngotracheitis is caused by parainfluenza virus ( a member of the paramyxovirus family ) , primarily types 1 and 2 , in 75 % of cases . Other viral causes include influenza A and B , measles , adenovirus and respiratory syncytial virus ( RSV ) . Spasmodic croup is caused by the same group of viruses as acute laryngotracheitis , but lacks the usual signs of infection ( such as fever , sore throat , and increased white blood cell count ) . Treatment , and response to treatment , are also similar .
= = = Bacterial = = =
Bacterial croup may be divided into laryngeal diphtheria , bacterial tracheitis , laryngotracheobronchitis , and laryngotracheobronchopneumonitis . Laryngeal diphtheria is due to Corynebacterium diphtheriae while bacterial tracheitis , laryngotracheobronchitis , and laryngotracheobronchopneumonitis are usually due to a primary viral infection with secondary bacterial growth . The most common bacteria implicated are Staphylococcus aureus , Streptococcus pneumoniae , Hemophilus influenzae , and Moraxella catarrhalis .
= = Pathophysiology = =
The viral infection that causes croup leads to swelling of the larynx , trachea , and large bronchi due to infiltration of white blood cells ( especially histiocytes , lymphocytes , plasma cells , and neutrophils ) . Swelling produces airway obstruction which , when significant , leads to dramatically increased work of breathing and the characteristic turbulent , noisy airflow known as stridor .
= = Diagnosis = =
Croup is a clinical diagnosis . The first step is to exclude other obstructive conditions of the upper airway , especially epiglottitis , an airway foreign body , subglottic stenosis , angioedema , retropharyngeal abscess , and bacterial tracheitis .
A frontal X @-@ ray of the neck is not routinely performed , but if it is done , it may show a characteristic narrowing of the trachea , called the steeple sign , because of the subglottic stenosis , which is similar to a steeple in shape . The steeple sign is suggestive of the diagnosis , but is absent in half of cases .
Other investigations ( such as blood tests and viral culture ) are discouraged , as they may cause unnecessary agitation and thus worsen the stress on the compromised airway . While viral cultures , obtained via nasopharyngeal aspiration , can be used to confirm the exact cause , these are usually restricted to research settings . Bacterial infection should be considered if a person does not improve with standard treatment , at which point further investigations may be indicated .
= = = Severity = = =
The most commonly used system for classifying the severity of croup is the Westley score . It is primarily used for research purposes rather than in clinical practice . It is the sum of points assigned for five factors : level of consciousness , cyanosis , stridor , air entry , and retractions . The points given for each factor is listed in the table to the right , and the final score ranges from 0 to 17 .
A total score of ≤ 2 indicates mild croup . The characteristic barking cough and hoarseness may be present , but there is no stridor at rest .
A total score of 3 – 5 is classified as moderate croup . It presents with easily heard stridor , but with few other signs .
A total score of 6 – 11 is severe croup . It also presents with obvious stridor , but also features marked chest wall indrawing .
A total score of ≥ 12 indicates impending respiratory failure . The barking cough and stridor may no longer be prominent at this stage .
85 % of children presenting to the emergency department have mild disease ; severe croup is rare ( < 1 % ) .
= = Prevention = =
Many cases of croup have been prevented by immunization for influenza and diphtheria . At one time , croup referred to a diphtherial disease , but with vaccination , diphtheria is now rare in the developed world .
= = Treatment = =
Children with croup are generally kept as calm as possible . Steroids are given routinely , with epinephrine used in severe cases . Children with oxygen saturations under 92 % should receive oxygen , and those with severe croup may be hospitalized for observation . If oxygen is needed , " blow @-@ by " administration ( holding an oxygen source near the child 's face ) is recommended , as it causes less agitation than use of a mask . With treatment , less than 0 @.@ 2 % of people require endotracheal intubation .
= = = Steroids = = =
Corticosteroids , such as dexamethasone and budesonide , have been shown to improve outcomes in children with all severities of croup . Significant relief is obtained as early as six hours after administration . While effective when given orally , parenterally , or by inhalation , the oral route is preferred . A single dose is usually all that is required , and is generally considered to be quite safe . Dexamethasone at doses of 0 @.@ 15 , 0 @.@ 3 and 0 @.@ 6 mg / kg appear to be all equally effective .
= = = Epinephrine = = =
Moderate to severe croup may be improved temporarily with nebulized epinephrine . While epinephrine typically produces a reduction in croup severity within 10 – 30 minutes , the benefits last for only about 2 hours . If the condition remains improved for 2 – 4 hours after treatment and no other complications arise , the child is typically discharged from the hospital .
= = = Other = = =
While other treatments for croup have been studied , none have sufficient evidence to support their use . Inhalation of hot steam or humidified air is a traditional self @-@ care treatment , but clinical studies have failed to show effectiveness and currently it is rarely used . The use of cough medicines , which usually contain dextromethorphan and / or guaifenesin , are also discouraged . While breathing heliox ( a mixture of helium and oxygen ) to decrease the work of breathing has been used in the past , there is very little evidence to support its use . Since croup is usually a viral disease , antibiotics are not used unless secondary bacterial infection is suspected . In cases of possible secondary bacterial infection , the antibiotics vancomycin and cefotaxime are recommended . In severe cases associated with influenza A or B , the antiviral neuraminidase inhibitors may be administered .
= = Prognosis = =
Viral croup is usually a self @-@ limited disease , with half of cases going away in a day and 80 % of cases in two days . It can very rarely result in death from respiratory failure and / or cardiac arrest . Symptoms usually improve within two days , but may last for up to seven days . Other uncommon complications include bacterial tracheitis , pneumonia , and pulmonary edema .
= = Epidemiology = =
Croup affects about 15 % of children , and usually presents between the ages of 6 months and 5 – 6 years . It accounts for about 5 % of hospital admissions in this population . In rare cases , it may occur in children as young as 3 months and as old as 15 years . Males are affected 50 % more frequently than are females , and there is an increased prevalence in autumn .
= = History = =
The word croup comes from the Early Modern English verb croup , meaning " to cry hoarsely " ; the name was first applied to the disease in Scotland and popularized in the 18th century . Diphtheritic croup has been known since the time of Homer 's Ancient Greece and it was not until 1826 that viral croup was differentiated from croup due to diphtheria by Bretonneau . Viral croup was then called " faux @-@ croup " by the French and often called " false croup " in English , as " croup " or " true croup " then most often referred to the disease caused by the diphtheria bacterium . False croup has also been known as pseudo croup or spasmodic croup . Croup due to diphtheria has become nearly unknown in affluent countries in modern times due to the advent of effective immunization .
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= Hannah Banana =
" Hannah Banana " is the fifth episode of the eighth season of the animated series Family Guy . It originally aired on Fox in the United States on November 8 , 2009 . The episode follows baby Stewie after he sneaks backstage at a Miley Cyrus concert in Quahog , eventually discovering that she is actually an android and causing her to wreak havoc on the town . Meanwhile , Chris proves to his family that the Evil Monkey who lives in his closet is actually real , and eventually comes to realize that the monkey is actually friendly , well @-@ spoken and intelligent , when he begins spending more time with him than his own father .
First announced at the 2009 San Diego Comic @-@ Con International , the episode was written by Cherry Chevapravatdumrong and directed by John Holmquist . It received mixed reviews from critics for its storyline and cultural references . According to Nielsen ratings , it was viewed in 7 @.@ 73 million homes in its original airing . The episode aired during an " all @-@ Seth MacFarlane " line @-@ up , along with the live @-@ action special Seth and Alex 's Almost Live Comedy Show , and featured a guest performance by Candace Marie , along with several recurring guest voice actors for the series . " Hannah Banana " was released on DVD along with seven other episodes from the season on June 15 , 2010 .
= = Plot = =
Chris does poorly on a test at school and blames the Evil Monkey living in his closet , which he says prevented him from being able to study . His parents , Peter and Lois , are fed up with Chris talking about the Evil Monkey , saying it does not exist . Later , Stewie , a self @-@ proclaimed Hannah Montana fan , learns that Miley Cyrus is having a concert in Quahog . Tickets to the show are sold out mere seconds after being made available for purchase , leaving him unable to attend the show . Brian makes fun of Stewie for watching Hannah Montana , at one point , calling him " gay " . But seeing him cry about not being able to attend the show persuades him to help get tickets . Chris sets up a camera in his room to capture the creature . When he reviews the tape he finds no evidence of the Evil Monkey , and goes ahead with his plans on capturing him . The family is taken aback when Chris proves it is real by capturing the monkey , and showing it to them , but he turns out not to be evil after all . The monkey explains he was forced to move into Chris 's closet after his wife had an affair , and their divorce put him into a deep depression which made him lose his job , his money and his house altogether . He took refuge in Chris ' closet until getting back on his feet where he spent almost a decade in there , and pointing at Chris was only his way of trying to make conversation ( he 's been trying to talk to Chris this whole time ) . In addition , the angry face he gave was his way of thinking , and the trembling was due to a copper deficiency . The monkey apologizes for unintentionally terrorizing Chris , and wants to start over with him . Chris is at first unconvinced , but when the monkey helps him write a book report , he is surprised to receive a passing grade , and the two become great friends .
Brian and Stewie manage to sneak in backstage at the concert , where Miley asks why they 're here . Brian then explains that Stewie has a ' tumor ' shaped like a football , which convinces Miley to let them hang out with her backstage . Miley and Stewie quickly become best friends and they sing a song which Stewie wrote . Soon , Chris realizes that the Monkey has spent more time with him , like taking him to play baseball and going to a father and son BBQ in Monkeykid . Chris then says to Peter that he has never gave as much attention to him as the monkey has , so he grows to resent his own father . While having ice @-@ cream with Miley , Stewie notices a signal interference on her cell phone when handing it to her . He then realises something is strange about Miley . Upon spying on her , Stewie and Brian discover that she is actually an android after seeing an employee insert a USB drive on the control panel on Miley 's back . They both realized that Miley was created by Walt Disney Imagineering to become the perfect teen idol that can never fail . When Brian curiously asks if she can perform other tasks , Stewie agrees to reprogram Miley to have sex with Brian by gaining access to the control panel . However , it goes wrong and he accidentally sends Miley into a rage , forcing Stewie and Brian to run away from the monstrous Miley .
Peter and Chris set up traps for each other as they fight . Lois then gets sick of the boys fighting , so the monkey tricks Peter and Chris into coming to dinner together . Chris and Peter admit they don 't hate each other and vow to spend more time together . As they are doing this , they see Brian and Stewie running away from the chaotic Miley who is smashing vehicles , shops and houses . The monkey confronts her , and attempts to talk her out of her rampage ( as well as her career ) , but Miley ends up kidnapping him and takes him to the top of a nearby skyscraper . Fortunately , Peter is able to recruit his neighbor , Quagmire , to shoot her down in a biplane , and a battle with Miley starts escalating . The monkey falls out of her hands and he grips onto a narrow ledge with one hand . Miley 's skin , hair and clothes peel off , revealing her android skeleton and she tries to kill Peter and Quagmire with a rock , but fails . Eventually , she is pummelled off the top . Afterwards , the monkey falls off the ledge but is saved by Peter just before he hits the road far below . Stewie and Brian then see the broken Miley , where Stewie says Brian can now have sex with her , but Miley blows up seconds later . Monkey then moves out of Chris 's closet , and his friendly attitude also parts ways with him , saying he will " go where he 's needed " , and moves to Tom Tucker 's upside @-@ down @-@ faced son Jake 's closet as his new haunt .
= = Production and development = =
" Hannah Banana " was written by series regular Cherry Chevapravatdumrong and directed by John Holmquist , before the conclusion of the eighth production season . Commenting on the original development of the episode , series creator and executive producer Seth MacFarlane stated , " [ The episode ] was the result of our ongoing desire to let the series stagnate , and kind of evolve things that may have run their course . There 's only so many times you can do the Evil Monkey jumping out of that closet , before the joke gets old , and I think often times there 's a fear to mess with what works , and change things permanently . [ ... ] We literally retired the Evil Monkey in this episode , and got a great episode out of it , which was worth it , and kind of evolved the series in a way . " Singer and actress Candace Marie provided the voice of Miley Cyrus . Marie received the role when her producer alerted her of the audition , and she eventually received a call from the Family Guy casting director a month later . Even though the episode mocked Cyrus , Marie did not think she would upset any of Cyrus ' fans . She added that she is a fan herself , and " was very impressed by the way Family Guy developed the episode , " and thought it was " a huge compliment for them to refer to Miley as the " perfect popstar . " " After voicing Cyrus , Marie was called back to Family Guy to voice Meg 's friend Beth for " several upcoming episodes . " Marie described Beth as a girl that is " rarely addressed in conversation but loves to chime in whenever she can . " The song in the episode sung by Cyrus was written by Chevapravatdumrong , and composed and performed by Family Guy composer Walter Murphy .
The episode aired as a part of an " all @-@ Seth MacFarlane " line @-@ up , after the episode " Brian 's Got a Brand New Bag " and the live @-@ action special Seth and Alex 's Almost Live Comedy Show . " Hannah Banana " , along with the seven other episodes from Family Guy 's eighth season , were released on a three @-@ disc DVD set in the United States on June 15 , 2010 . The sets included brief audio commentaries by Seth MacFarlane and various crew and cast members for several episodes , a collection of deleted scenes , a special mini @-@ feature which discussed the process behind animating " Road to the Multiverse " , and mini @-@ feature entitled Family Guy Karaoke . In addition to the regular cast , series regular , writer and executive producer Danny Smith voiced the Evil Monkey . Recurring guest voice actors Chris Cox , actor Ralph Garman , writer Alec Sulkin and writer John Viener made minor appearances throughout the episode .
= = Cultural references = =
In the opening scene of the episode , Chris alerts his parents of a failing grade he received at school on a science test , causing his mother to suggest he receive help on his homework . Chris then asks his father , Peter , for help who ends up rejecting him , leading Chris to blame his bad grades on the Evil Monkey , and announces that he will prove the monkey is real . Peter then suggests that his son would have to do a better job than God when he created actresses Ellen Barkin and Kelly McGillis .
Later that day , Stewie is shown watching television in the family room , with a narrator announcing a Hannah Montana marathon , as well as a concert in Quahog , Rhode Island , causing him to become excited . A scene from an episode of Hannah Montana is then shown , featuring Miley Cyrus , as well as her father , singer @-@ songwriter Billy Ray Cyrus .
Deciding to sneak into the concert , Brian agrees to dress as rapper Kanye West , and is forced to sing one of his songs by a security guard . Despondent , Brian then begins singing the theme song to 1972 NBC sitcom Sanford and Son . The scene is not shown on TV ; Stewie and Brian sneak into the concert in the televised version .
As the monkey begins bonding with the family , including having a conversation about actress and comedian Sarah Silverman , Chris realizes his deep hatred of the monkey . Deciding to help Chris on his homework , the monkey scraps a lame attempt by Chris to write an essay about the 1951 novel The Catcher in the Rye by American author J. D. Salinger , and instead writes an A + essay titled , " The Slave Trade Allegory of Curious George . " The two then begin their own personal bonding , and eventually decide to go fishing , leading Chris to catch the comic book superhero Aquaman , before beating him to death and eating him .
In the conclusion of the episode , Miley Cyrus begins destroying downtown Quahog , causing the monkey to attempt to stop and reason with her . Not realizing that Stewie had unsuccessfully reprogrammed her , the monkey is then kidnapped , and taken to the top of a nearby skyscraper , in a parody of the 1933 film King Kong . Cyrus is then shot down by Quagmire and Peter while piloting a biplane , before the two rescue the monkey from certain death . After being shot during several passes , Miley 's robotic skeleton is partially revealed making her resemble a T @-@ 800 from " Terminator " .
= = Reception = =
In a slight improvement over the previous episode , the episode was viewed in 7 @.@ 73 million homes in its original airing , according to Nielsen ratings , despite airing simultaneously with Sunday Night Football on NBC , The Amazing Race on CBS and Desperate Housewives on ABC . The episode also acquired a 4 @.@ 0 rating in the 18 – 49 demographic , beating Seth & Alex 's Almost @-@ Live Comedy Show , The Cleveland Show and the Family Guy episode " Brian 's Got a Brand New Bag " , in addition to significantly edging out all three in total viewership .
Reviews of the episode from television critics were mostly mixed , who found it to be " a thorough examination of both Miley Cyrus and the evil monkey in Chris ' closet , " but , " things got ridiculous . " Television critic Ahsan Haque of IGN gave the episode an 8 @.@ 5 out of ten , and called it a " much better episode than Brian 's Got a Brand New Bag , with some clever sight gags , an annoyingly catchy musical number , and the revelation of the Evil Monkey 's true reasons for hiding in Chris ' closet . " In a simultaneous review of all four MacFarlane programs , Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club gave the episode a C- stating , " Turning Miley Cyrus into a Small Wonder parody was fitfully amusing , but the rest of the Hannah Montana material was ridiculously non @-@ specific , filled with the kinds of jokes everyone made about Cyrus a few years ago . " VanDerWerff praised the action sequence at the end of the episode , however , calling it " high quality stuff for the show . " Jason Hughes of TV Squad stated of the Evil Monkey 's role in the episode , " I don 't think I ever wanted this character fully explored or seen by anyone else in the house [ ... ] The character lost some of its mystique and charm . "
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= The Duel ( The Office ) =
" The Duel " is the twelfth episode of the fifth season of the American comedy television series The Office , and the show 's 84th overall episode . In the episode , Andy learns his fiancee Angela is having an affair with Dwight , and the two challenge each other to a physical fight to win her affections . Meanwhile , Michael travels to New York City for a meeting with David Wallace , where Wallace seeks managerial advice from Michael due to the poor financial condition of the fictional company , Dunder Mifflin .
The episode was written by Jennifer Celotta and directed by Dean Holland , the show 's long @-@ time editor making his directorial debut . It featured the conclusion of the love triangle between Dwight , Andy and Angela , a subplot that had been going on since the end of the fourth season . David Wallace 's meeting with Michael marked the show 's first acknowledgment of the economic crisis facing much of the globalized nation at the time of the episode due to the financial crisis of 2007 – 2010 .
" The Duel " was seen as a defining episode for Andy Bernard , who is portrayed in a more sympathetic way than he has been seen in previous episodes . Ed Helms was particularly praised for his performance . Several bits of dialogue were improvised , especially during the duel scene between Andy and Dwight . That scene was shot over the course of six hours in an exterior parking lot set , with Helms and Wilson providing their own stunts .
The episode received generally positive reviews , and was largely described as an effective conclusion to the love triangle subplot . According to Nielsen Media Research , " The Duel " was seen by 8 @.@ 35 million viewers . During its original American broadcast , it received particularly strong competition from the CBS drama series CSI : Crime Scene Investigation , which that night featured the final appearance of actor William Petersen .
= = Plot = =
Andy ( Ed Helms ) still has not learned about fiancee Angela 's ( Angela Kinsey ) affair with Dwight ( Rainn Wilson ) , seventeen days after Phyllis ( Phyllis Smith ) revealed it to everyone else in the Dunder Mifflin office . Michael ( Steve Carell ) suggests he should inform Andy , but the entire office argues that Angela should be the one to break the news . Jim ( John Krasinski ) is particularly concerned that Andy 's past anger management issues may lead to violence . Dwight tries convincing Angela to tell Andy , but she continues to put it off . This leaves Michael to tell Andy before he leaves for a meeting with David Wallace ( Andy Buckley ) . Michael reveals the affair to Andy while driving out of the parking lot , leaving Andy shocked and dismayed . Angela reluctantly confirms the affair occurred , and Andy realizes everybody else in the office already knew about it .
Andy confronts Dwight and challenges him to a " duel " in the parking lot , with Angela as a prize to the winner . Dwight accepts and Angela , anxious to avoid making a choice between the two men herself , says she will honor the results of the duel . Jim , acting as office manager in Michael 's absence , tries to talk them out of the duel and confiscates Dwight 's hidden weapons around the office , but concedes he does not have the power to prevent a fight outside the office . Meanwhile in New York , Michael is nervous about why David Wallace wants to meet with him . But as the meeting begins , David tells him Scranton is the most successful Dunder Mifflin branch amid a difficult economic climate , and he wants to learn why Michael 's management has been so successful . Michael is delighted with the compliment and attention , but can only manage vague , off @-@ topic and largely nonsensical answers . David claims it is difficult for someone to make a self @-@ evaluation , and Michael leaves the meeting in a very pleasant mood .
In the parking lot , Andy has not shown up for the duel , instead leaving a deliberately verbose note hanging in the bushes saying he has given up . As Dwight reads it , Andy sneaks up behind him in his Toyota Prius , a hybrid car that remains completely silent when driven below five miles per hour due to the electric motor . Impressed by Andy 's deviousness , the rest of the office does not warn Dwight , saying that Andy " deserves the win " . Andy pins Dwight between the car and the large bushes in the parking lot . Jim races out to check that Andy and Dwight are not seriously injured , but they snap at him to go away . The two bicker back and forth about Angela . However , the fight goes out of Dwight when he learns Andy has had sex with Angela , because she told him that he was the only one she had had sex with . Crestfallen , Dwight and Andy return to the office , where Andy calls to cancel his wedding cake , and Dwight throws away a bobblehead doll Angela previously bought him as a gift . A saddened Angela realizes she has lost both men .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing = = =
" The Duel " was written by Jennifer Celotta , a producer and show runner with The Office . The episode featured the conclusion of the love triangle between Dwight , Andy and Angela , a subplot that had been going on since the fourth season finale , " Goodbye , Toby " . The cast and writing staff saw " The Duel " as a defining episode for Andy Bernard because it demonstrated a softer , more emotional side of the character . Dean Holland , who directed the episode , said this was particularly effective because in past episodes , he displayed such rage problems that he had to attend anger management courses , but in " The Duel " he responded to horrible news in a heartrending way . Rainn Wilson particularly praised Ed Helms ' performance , saying , " He gives a lot of heart and soul , and Andy is such a doofus and a douche , and now you really get to see his heart break . There 's some reality there . That 's the great thing this show gives us , just when you think you know the characters and they 're two @-@ dimensional and they 're goofy and crazy , in their own way , you get real human redemption . "
The subplot with David Wallace seeking managerial advice from Michael due to the poor financial condition of Dunder Mifflin was the first acknowledgment of the economic crisis facing much of the globalized nation at the time of the episode due to the financial crisis of 2007 – 2010 . This set the stage for a continuing motif of financial difficulties for Dunder Mifflin , which would eventually culminate in the sixth season episode " Secret Santa " , in which it is revealed the company has been sold and its executives all fired .
A number of scenes and lines in " The Duel " were improvised by the actors . During one scene , Michael repeatedly tries to tell Andy about Angela 's affair , but Jim constantly interrupts him while forcing him into his office . John Krasinski improvised most of his lines and noises , and Wilson said they were so funny , " I was just chortling over at my desk " . The scene as it appears in the episode consists of about six different takes spliced together . Krasinski also conceived a moment in " The Duel " when Jim returns to his desk by awkwardly passing through Dwight and Andy while they are facing off against each other . Wilson called the addition to the scene " a really nice touch " . During another scene , Dwight sings a nursery rhyme that goes , " Learn your rules , you better learn your rules , if you don 't , you 'll be eaten in your sleep ! " Celotta and Wilson came up with several versions of the song , but the one that appeared in the final episode was conceived by Wilson .
A line in which Dwight tells Andy that Angela " certainly seems to enjoy making lovemaking " was improvised by Wilson . Much of the dialogue between Andy and Dwight during the duel scene was also improvised . It was writer Paul Lieberstein , who served as show runner along with Celotta at the time , who suggested the idea of Andy sneaking up on Dwight with his Toyota Prius . The original script called for the entire office cast to come down to the parking lot from the Dunder Mifflin office to try to stop Dwight and Andy from fighting . However , the staging proved awkward during filming , so John Krasinski suggested that only Jim go down to the parking lot while the others stayed behind , and the change was eventually incorporated into the episode .
= = = Filming = = =
" The Duel " marked the directorial debut of Dean Holland , a longtime film editor with The Office . The original cut of the episode was 38 minutes long and Holland , who edited it himself , had to trim it down to 22 minutes . During a cold open scene , the Dunder Mifflin employees run past a radar speed sign in the street and compete for the best speed . This was inspired by Aaron Shure , a television producer and The Office screenwriter , who worked on the staff of another television show that held races in front of a radar speed sign in exactly the same way . It was about 96 degrees when the scene was filmed , which made running particularly difficult for the actors . Despite the extremely hot temperatures , fake snow was placed in the exterior shots because the writers were trying to simulate the winter season weather of Scranton , Pennsylvania , where The Office is set , rather than the Van Nuys district in Los Angeles , California , where the show is filmed .
The original script called for Michael to tell Andy about Angela 's affair outside in the parking lot before getting into his car and driving away . When filming began , Holland considered filming the scene inside the car instead . Steve Carell suggested Michael get in the car and leave Andy outside , then tell him while driving away , which was how the scene was ultimately shot . During a scene when Andy returns to the office and confronts his co @-@ workers ; there is a long , awkward silence , and the script originally called for Kevin to pass gas and ruin the tension . During filming , it was changed so Phyllis would pass gas instead because it was decided it would be funnier if it were a woman . During the editing process , Holland decided the joke did not work very well and cut it , but a brief moment of Dwight reacting in a disgusted way to the flatulence , while maintaining a defensive fighting pose toward Andy , can still be seen in the finished episode .
The duel scene itself was shot over the course of six hours in the exterior parking lot setting . Natural lighting from the sun changed so drastically over that time , large bounce cards had to be placed above the hedges so the shadows would remain consistent throughout the shoot . Ed Helms actually drove the car during the scenes , and Rainn Wilson performed his own stunts . The crew considered using a stunt double for Wilson , but they found his acting so funny during filming that they decided against it . At the end of " The Duel " , Michael Scott talks directly to the camera with a New York City background behind him . The scenes were not filmed in the city , but rather behind a greenscreen where the scenery images were later added .
= = Cultural references = =
During the cold open , after Michael believes he has run extremely fast , he says , " Eat that , Carl Lewis " , a reference to the American track and field athlete and gold medalist .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast on January 15 , 2009 , " The Duel " was watched by 8 @.@ 35 million viewers . It aired the same night as actor William Petersen 's final appearance on the CBS drama series CSI : Crime Scene Investigation , which drew an unusually high viewership of 23 @.@ 13 million viewers . Nevertheless , The Office outperformed CSI in the ratings among viewers between ages 18 and 34 , earning a 5 @.@ 0 rating / 13 share compared to CSI 's 3 @.@ 8 rating / 10 share . Both shows were outperformed in that age group by the ABC drama series Grey 's Anatomy , which drew a 5 @.@ 2 rating / 13 share , and a total of 12 @.@ 95 million viewers for the night . Among viewers between ages 18 and 49 , " The Duel " drew a 4 @.@ 3 rating / 10 share , which was lower than both CSI and Grey 's Anatomy . The Office also earned higher ratings in its timeslot than the Fox reality television series " Kitchen Nightmares " ( 4 @.@ 28 million viewers ) and the CW thriller series Supernatural ( 2 @.@ 96 million viewers ) .
" The Duel " received generally positive reviews . Andy calling off the wedding after learning Angela cheated on him with Dwight ranked number 6 in phillyBurbs.com 's top ten moments from the fifth season of The Office . " The Duel " was voted the fourteenth highest @-@ rated episode out of 26 from the fifth season , according to an episode poll at the fansite OfficeTally , where the episode was rated 8 @.@ 11 out of 10 . Alan Sepinwall of The Star @-@ Ledger said the episode " brings the Dwight / Angela / Andy triangle to an effective close " that made him feel sympathy for both Dwight and Andy . He was disappointed , however , that the idea of David Wallace trying to learn from Michael seemed undeveloped . The A.V. Club writer Scott Tobias said " The Duel " efficiently resolved a major storyline in 30 minutes , and was " a nice mix of the wacky and the melancholy , though it ’ s perhaps a little long on the former and a little short on the latter " . He called the David Wallace subplot " funny @-@ but @-@ forgettable " . Travis Fickett of IGN said the episode was surprisingly intense and dramatic , and particularly highlighted the talents of Ed Helms . Fickett said " The Duel " was a great payoff to the Angela love triangle storyline and demonstrated how well The Office varies and paces stories from episode to episode .
TV Guide writer Shahzad Abbas called it possibly the best episode of the season . Abbas particular enjoyed the tension as Andy learned the truth and the resolution of the duel . Entertainment Weekly writer Alynda Wheat called it an " instant classic " and a vast improvement over the most recent string of episodes . Wheat called the interactions between Dwight and Andy " brilliance " and described the cold open " pretty genius " . New York magazine writer Will Leitch said the Andy @-@ Dwight @-@ Angela triangle was like a " dirtier , meaner , crazier parody " of the Jim @-@ Pam @-@ Roy subplot from previous seasons , and Leitch appreciated that it was resolved in a darker way than the latter love triangle . Brian Howard of The Journal News called it a " great episode " , and particularly enjoyed the moments between Angela and Dwight , and the way Jim tried to prevent Michael from telling Andy about the affair . Jay Black of TV Squad said he enjoyed seeing Angela get her comeuppance , and felt he could relate to the voyeuristic interest the office co @-@ workers took in the duel . Black praised the Michael subplot because it " provided an ironic counter @-@ weight " to the duel because Michael was being praised for his managerial skills while his co @-@ workers fought each other in the parking lot .
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= Bill Virdon =
William Charles Virdon ( born June 9 , 1931 ) is an American former professional baseball outfielder , manager , and coach in Major League Baseball ( MLB ) . Virdon played in MLB for the St. Louis Cardinals and Pittsburgh Pirates from 1955 through 1965 and in 1968 . He served as a coach for the Pirates and Houston Astros , and managed the Pirates , Astros , New York Yankees , and Montreal Expos .
After playing in Minor League Baseball for the Yankees organization , Virdon was traded to the Cardinals , and he made his MLB debut in 1955 . That year , Virdon won the National League Rookie of the Year Award . He slumped at the beginning of the 1956 season , and was traded to the Pirates , where he spent the remainder of his playing career . A premier defensive outfielder during his playing days as a center fielder for the Cardinals and Pirates , Virdon led a strong defensive team to the 1960 World Series championship . In 1962 , Virdon won a Rawlings Gold Glove Award . Following the 1965 season , he retired due to his desire to become a manager .
Virdon managed in Minor League Baseball until returning to the Pirates as a coach in 1968 . He served as manager of the Pirates in 1972 and 1973 , before becoming the manager of the Yankees in 1974 . During the 1975 season , the Yankees fired Virdon , and he was hired by the Astros . After being fired by the Astros after the 1982 season , Virdon managed the Expos in 1983 and 1984 . Virdon won The Sporting News ' Manager of the Year Award in 1974 , his only full season working for the Yankees , and in 1980 , while managing the Astros . He returned to the Pirates as a coach following his managerial career , and remains with the Pirates as a guest instructor during spring training .
= = Early life = =
William Charles Virdon was born in Hazel Park , Michigan , on June 9 , 1931 . His parents , Bertha and Charles Virdon , were originally from Missouri , but moved to Hazel Park during the Great Depression , where they were able to find jobs in automotive factories . When he was 12 years old , his family moved to West Plains , Missouri .
Virdon attended West Plains High School . He competed in American football , basketball , and track and field for the school . As West Plains did not compete in baseball , Virdon traveled to Clay Center , Kansas , to play for their American Amateur Baseball Congress team as a center fielder and shortstop . He enrolled at Drury University in Springfield , Missouri .
= = Professional career = =
= = = Playing career = = =
= = = = Minor league career = = = =
Virdon attended an open tryout held by the New York Yankees in Branson , Missouri , and scout Tom Greenwade signed Virdon to the Yankees for a $ 1 @,@ 800 signing bonus ( $ 17 @,@ 704 in current dollar terms ) . Virdon made his professional debut in 1950 with the Independence Yankees in the Class D Kansas – Oklahoma – Missouri League , and was promoted to the Kansas City Blues in the Class AAA American Association for the final 14 games of the season . Virdon played for the Norfolk Tars in the Class B Piedmont League in 1951 , and for the Binghamton Triplets in the Class A Eastern League in 1952 . The Yankees assigned him to Kansas City in 1953 , but he struggled , batting .233 . While he played in Kansas City , Virdon was diagnosed with astigmatism . When Kansas City manager Harry Craft noticed Virdon reading while wearing glasses , Craft told him to wear them while he played .
The Yankees demoted Virdon to the Birmingham Barons in the Class AA Southern Association . In 42 games for Birmingham , Virdon had a .317 batting average . According to Hal Smith , his roommate with Birmingham , Virdon changed his approach to hitting , prioritizing line drives to all parts of the field , rather than trying to hit for power .
Virdon remained stuck behind Mickey Mantle on the Yankees ' depth chart for center field , while Gene Woodling and Hank Bauer played the corner outfield positions . The Yankees traded Virdon to the St. Louis Cardinals before the 1954 season with Mel Wright and Emil Tellinger for veteran outfielder and All @-@ Star Enos Slaughter . Virdon struggled during spring training , and Cardinals manager Eddie Stanky worked with Virdon to improve his hitting . The Cardinals assigned Virdon to the Rochester Red Wings of the Class AAA International League for the season . He led the league with a .333 batting average and hit 22 home runs , finishing second in voting for the International League Most Valuable Player Award to Elston Howard .
= = = = Major league career = = = =
Virdon joined the Cardinals in 1955 , as the Cardinals moved Stan Musial to first base to allow Virdon to play the outfield . As a rookie , Virdon had a .281 average with 17 home runs and 69 runs batted in ( RBIs ) . He was named the winner of the National League ( NL ) Rookie of the Year Award , voted on by the Baseball Writers ' Association of America , beating Jack Meyer of the Philadelphia Phillies .
After the 1955 season , the Cardinals hired Frank Lane , nicknamed " The Trader " , as their general manager . Virdon slumped to begin the 1956 season , and the Cardinals traded him to the Pittsburgh Pirates in May 1956 for Bobby Del Greco and Dick Littlefield . Lane claimed that Virdon 's late season slump in 1955 was because he tired down the stretch , and that is why he chose to trade him . Lane later referred to the trade as " the worst trade [ he ] ever made " .
When he arrived at Pittsburgh , he developed an eye condition , for which he received treatment , missing one week of the season . Virdon 's vision improved , and he challenged Hank Aaron for the NL batting title . Virdon batted .334 for the Pirates during remainder of the season , which increased his season batting average to .319 , second @-@ best in the NL to Aaron , who batted .328 . Pirates ' announcer Bob Prince gave Virdon the nickname " Quail " due to the frequency of his soft @-@ hit infield hits .
The Pirates hired Danny Murtaugh as their manager during the 1957 season ; Virdon credited Murtaugh with pushing him to perform at his best . Virdon consistently batted in the .260s for the next several seasons . He led all NL center fielders in assists in 1959 with 16 , and in double plays turned with five . In 1960 , Virdon , along with right fielder Roberto Clemente , shortstop Dick Groat , second baseman Bill Mazeroski , and third baseman Don Hoak , formed a strong defensive unit for the Pirates , and they reached the 1960 World Series , where they faced the New York Yankees . Virdon batted .241 during the seven game series . In the deciding Game 7 , he hit a ground ball that struck Yankees shortstop Tony Kubek in the throat after taking an unpredictable bounce , enabling Virdon to reach base safely . This started a rally for the Pirates that culminated in Bill Mazeroski 's home run that won the series for Pittsburgh .
Virdon led the NL in triples with 10 during the 1962 season . That year , he won the Rawlings Gold Glove Award . He struggled in the 1964 season , batting only .243 . Though his batting average improved to .279 in the 1965 season , Virdon retired after the season due to his desire to become a manager . Virdon retired with 1 @,@ 596 MLB hits , a career batting average of .267 with 91 home runs during his 1 @,@ 583 @-@ game NL career .
= = = Coaching and managing = = =
Virdon began operating a baseball academy in 1956 . After the 1962 season , Virdon coached in the Arizona Instructional League . He coached in the Florida Instructional League following the 1964 season . Following his retirement as a player after the 1965 season , Virdon spent the next two seasons as a manager in the minor leagues for the New York Mets ' organization . In 1966 , he managed the Williamsport Mets of the Eastern League , and in 1967 , he managed the Jacksonville Suns of the International League . He led Williamsport to a 68 – 72 win @-@ loss record , and Jacksonville to a 66 – 73 record .
Virdon joined the Pirates ' major league coaching staff under manager Larry Shepard in 1968 . Shepard left the Pirates after the 1969 season , and Virdon interviewed to become the Pirates ' next manager . However , the Pirates re @-@ hired Murtaugh , and Virdon remained on Murtaugh 's coaching staff . Virdon coached the Pirates as they won the 1971 World Series . Due to health problems , Murtaugh retired after the 1971 season , and Virdon was named as his successor .
As a manager , Virdon led the Pirates to the 1972 NL East division title , but the Pirates lost the 1972 National League Championship Series ( NLCS ) to the Cincinnati Reds when Pittsburgh pitcher Bob Moose unleashed a wild pitch in the final inning of Game 5 , allowing the winning run to score . The 1973 Pirates had to play without Clemente , who died during the previous offseason . Further struggles included pitcher Steve Blass ' inability to throw strikes and injuries to Dock Ellis . In 1973 , Virdon clashed with Ellis and Richie Hebner , and the Pirates fell into third place , with a 67 – 69 record , and the team fired Virdon , replacing him with Murtaugh .
The Yankees announced the hiring of Dick Williams as their manager for the 1974 season , but American League president Joe Cronin nullified the transaction because Williams was still under contract with the Oakland Athletics . The Athletics demanded prospects Otto Vélez and Scott McGregor as compensation for Williams , but the Yankees decided the price was too steep . Without a manager , the Yankees hired Virdon , signing him to a one @-@ year contract . Virdon led the Yankees to a competitive finish , one game behind the Baltimore Orioles in the American League East division . He won The Sporting News ' Manager of the Year Award . The Yankees signed him to a two @-@ year contract after the 1974 season , with a raise from $ 50 @,@ 000 to $ 65 @,@ 000 per year . However , Virdon clashed with Bobby Murcer . He received a death threat due to his preference of playing Elliott Maddox over Murcer in center field . The Yankees struggled in 1975 . When Billy Martin was fired as manager of the Texas Rangers during the 1975 season , the Yankees fired Virdon on August 2 and hired Martin .
The Houston Astros hired Virdon as their manager on August 20 , 1975 , succeeding Preston Gómez . Tal Smith , who had served as executive vice president for the Yankees , had become the Astros ' general manager on August 7 . Virdon led the Astros to third @-@ place finishes in 1976 and 1977 , but the Astros slipped to fifth place in 1978 . The 1979 Astros fell one game short of winning the NL West division championship . The Astros tied the Los Angeles Dodgers for the division championship in 1980 , and defeated them in the 1980 NL West tie @-@ breaker game . The Astros played the Philadelphia Phillies in the 1980 NLCS , losing the series in five games . He again won the Manager of the Year Award in 1980 . Due to the 1981 Major League Baseball strike , the 1981 season was split into halves with each half 's winner appearing in the 1981 NL Division Series . The Dodgers won the first half , while the Astros won the second . In the Division Series , the Dodgers defeated the Astros in five games . During the 1982 season , the Astros fell to fifth place . Virdon was fired during the season and replaced by Bob Lillis .
The Montreal Expos hired Virdon as their manager before the 1983 season , replacing Jim Fanning , and signed a two @-@ year contract . During the 1984 season , Virdon expressed his to Expos general manager John McHale that he did not want to return to the Expos in 1985 . With a 64 – 67 record in August 1984 , the Expos fired Virdon during the 1984 season , replacing him with Fanning . Gary Lucas , a pitcher for the Expos , felt that they had lost many one @-@ run games because Virdon was too conservative in his managing , not employing the hit and run play and relying on the starting pitcher for long in the game .
Virdon returned to the Pirates as the hitting coach under Jim Leyland in 1986 , Leyland 's first season as a manager . He took the position only when he was convinced that he would not succeed Leyland should the Pirates fire him . Following a contract dispute , the Pirates replaced Virdon with Milt May before the 1987 season . Virdon remained with the Pirates as a minor league hitting instructor for the Pirates from 1987 through 1989 . He worked as a spring training instructor for the Cardinals in 1990 and 1991 , and then rejoined Leyland 's coaching staff in Pittsburgh in 1992 .
With Major League Baseball expanding by two teams for the 1993 season , Virdon interviewed for the managerial positions of both expansion teams , the Florida Marlins and the Colorado Rockies , in 1992 . The Marlins instead hired Rene Lachemann , and the Rockies hired Don Baylor . In 1994 , Virdon interviewed with the Orioles for their vacant managerial position . Virdon left the Pirates after the 1995 season . He became the bench coach for the Astros under first @-@ time manager Larry Dierker in 1997 . The Pirates brought Virdon back as their bench coach for the 2001 season under first @-@ time manager Lloyd McClendon . He retired from coaching after the 2002 season .
Virdon 's career managerial record , over all or parts of 13 seasons , was 995 – 921 ( .519 ) . He also managed in the minor leagues for the Cardinals and the Astros . In June 2012 , the Pirates attempted to add Virdon and Mazeroski to their coaching staff , but were rebuffed by MLB for violating the rules on uniformed coaching staffs after one game . Virdon continues to serve as a special outfield instructor for the Pirates during spring training .
= = Personal life = =
Virdon and his wife , Shirley , married in November 1951 , and live in Springfield , Missouri . They have three daughters . Together , Bill and Shirley Virdon endowed two scholarships at Southeast Missouri State University , Shirley 's alma mater , with one specifically devoted for a baseball player .
A portion of the U.S. Route 63 business route in West Plains is named " Bill Virdon Boulevard " . Virdon was inducted into the Missouri Sports Hall of Fame in 1983 , and named a Missouri Sports Legend by the Missouri Sports Hall of Fame in 2012 . The Independence , Missouri , Baseball Hall of Fame inducted Virdon in 2013 . Following Whitey Herzog 's election to the National Baseball Hall of Fame in 2012 , Herzog indicated that he would champion Virdon 's cause to the Veterans Committee in future elections .
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= Airborne real @-@ time cueing hyperspectral enhanced reconnaissance =
Airborne real @-@ time cueing hyperspectral enhanced reconnaissance , also known by the acronym ARCHER , is an aerial imaging system that produces ground images far more detailed than plain sight or ordinary aerial photography can . It is the most sophisticated unclassified hyperspectral imaging system available , according to U.S. Government officials . ARCHER can automatically scan detailed imaging for a given signature of the object being sought ( such as a missing aircraft ) , for abnormalities in the surrounding area , or for changes from previous recorded spectral signatures .
It has direct applications for search and rescue , counterdrug , disaster relief and impact assessment , and homeland security , and has been deployed by the Civil Air Patrol ( CAP ) in the US on the Australian @-@ built Gippsland GA8 Airvan fixed @-@ wing aircraft . CAP , the civilian auxiliary of the United States Air Force , is a volunteer education and public @-@ service non @-@ profit organization that conducts aircraft search and rescue in the US .
= = Overview = =
ARCHER is a daytime non @-@ invasive technology , which works by analyzing an object ’ s reflected light . It cannot detect objects at night , underwater , under dense cover , underground , under snow or inside buildings . The system uses a special camera facing down through a quartz glass portal in the belly of the aircraft , which is typically flown at a standard mission altitude of 2500 feet ( 800 meters ) and 100 knots ( 50 meters / second ) ground speed .
The system software was developed by Space Computer Corporation of Los Angeles and the system hardware is supplied by NovaSol Corp. of Honolulu , Hawaii specifically for CAP . The ARCHER system is based on hyperspectral technology research and testing previously undertaken by the United States Naval Research Laboratory ( NRL ) and Air Force Research Laboratory ( AFRL ) . CAP developed ARCHER in cooperation with the NRL , AFRL and the United States Coast Guard Research & Development Center in the largest interagency project CAP has undertaken in its 74 @-@ year history .
Since 2003 , almost US $ 5 million authorized under the 2002 Defense Appropriations Act has been spent on development and deployment . As of January 2007 , CAP reported completing the initial deployment of 16 aircraft throughout the U.S. and training over 100 operators , but had only used the system on a few search and rescue missions , and had not credited it with being the first to find any wreckage . In searches in Georgia and Maryland during 2007 , ARCHER located the aircraft wreckage , but both accidents had no survivors , according to Col. Drew Alexa , director of advanced technology , and the ARCHER program manager at CAP . An ARCHER equipped aircraft from the Utah Wing of the Civil Air Patrol was used in the search for adventurer Steve Fossett in September 2007 . ARCHER did not locate Mr. Fossett , but was instrumental in uncovering eight previously uncharted crash sites in the high desert area of Nevada , some decades old .
Col. Alexa described the system to the press in 2007 : " The human eye sees basically three bands of light . The ARCHER sensor sees 50 . It can see things that are anomalous in the vegetation such as metal or something from an airplane wreckage . " Major Cynthia Ryan of the Nevada Civil Air Patrol , while also describing the system to the press in 2007 , stated , " ARCHER is essentially something used by the geosciences . It 's pretty sophisticated stuff … beyond what the human eye can generally see , " She elaborated further , " It might see boulders , it might see trees , it might see mountains , sagebrush , whatever , but it goes ' not that ' or ' yes , that ' . The amazing part of this is that it can see as little as 10 per cent of the target , and extrapolate from there . "
In addition to the primary search and rescue mission , CAP has tested additional uses for ARCHER . For example , an ARCHER equipped CAP GA8 was used in a pilot project in Missouri in August 2005 to assess the suitability of the system for tracking hazardous material releases into the environment , and one was deployed to track oil spills in the aftermath of Hurricane Rita in Texas during September 2005 .
Since then , in the case of a flight originating in Missouri , the ARCHER system proved its usefulness in October 2006 , when it found the wreckage in Antlers , Okla . The National Transportation and Safety Board was extremely pleased with the data ARCHER provided , which was later used to locate aircraft debris spread over miles of rough , wooded terrain . In July 2007 , the ARCHER system identified a flood @-@ borne oil spill originating in a Kansas oil refinery , that extended downstream and had invaded previously unsuspected reservoir areas . The client agencies ( EPA , Coast Guard , and other federal and state agencies ) found the data essential to quick remediation . In September 2008 , a Civil Air Patrol GA @-@ 8 from Texas Wing searched for a missing aircraft from Arkansas . It was found in Oklahoma , identified simultaneously by ground searchers and the overflying ARCHER system . Rather than a direct find , this was a validation of the system ’ s accuracy and efficacy . In the subsequent recovery , it was found that the ARCHER plotted the debris area with great accuracy .
= = Technical description = =
The major ARCHER subsystem components include :
advanced hyperspectral imaging ( HSI ) system with a resolution of one square meter per pixel .
panchromatic high @-@ resolution imaging ( HRI ) camera with a resolution of 8 cm x 8 cm ( 3 in x 3 in ) per pixel .
global positioning system ( GPS ) integrated with an inertial navigation system ( INS )
= = = Hyperspectral imager = = =
The passive hyperspectral imaging spectroscopy remote sensor observes a target in multi @-@ spectral bands . The HSI camera separates the image spectra into 52 " bins " from 500 nanometers ( nm ) wavelength at the blue end of the visible spectrum to 1100 nm in the infrared , giving the camera a spectral resolution of 11 @.@ 5 nm . Although ARCHER records data in all 52 bands , the computational algorithms only use the first 40 bands , from 500 nm to 960 nm because the bands above 960 nm are too noisy to be useful . For comparison , the normal human eye will respond to wavelengths from approximately 400 to 700 nm , and is trichromatic , meaning the eye 's cone cells only sense light in three spectral bands .
As the ARCHER aircraft flies over a search area , reflected sunlight is collected by the HSI camera lens . The collected light passes through a set of lenses that focus the light to form an image of the ground . The imaging system uses a pushbroom approach to image acquisition . With the pushbroom approach , the focusing slit reduces the image height to the equivalent of one vertical pixel , creating a horizontal line image .
The horizontal line image is then projected onto a diffraction grating , which is a very finely etched reflecting surface that disperses light into its spectra . The diffraction grating is specially constructed and positioned to create a two @-@ dimensional ( 2D ) spectrum image from the horizontal line image . The spectra are projected vertically , i.e. , perpendicular to the line image , by the design and arrangement of the diffraction grating .
The 2D spectrum image projects onto a charge @-@ coupled device ( CCD ) two @-@ dimensional image sensor , which is aligned so that the horizontal pixels are parallel to the image 's horizontal . As a result , the vertical pixels are coincident to the spectra produced from the diffraction grating . Each column of pixels receives the spectrum of one horizontal pixel from the original image . The arrangement of vertical pixel sensors in the CCD divides the spectrum into distinct and non @-@ overlapping intervals . The CCD output consists of electrical signals for 52 spectral bands for each of 504 horizontal image pixels .
The on @-@ board computer records the CCD output signal at a frame rate of sixty times each second . At an aircraft altitude of 2 @,@ 500 ft AGL and a speed of 100 knots , a 60 Hz frame rate equates to a ground image resolution of approximately one square meter per pixel . Thus , every frame captured from the CCD contains the spectral data for a ground swath that is approximately one meter long and 500 meters wide .
= = = High @-@ resolution imager = = =
A high @-@ resolution imaging ( HRI ) black @-@ and @-@ white , or panchromatic , camera is mounted adjacent to the HSI camera to enable both cameras to capture the same reflected light . The HRI camera uses a pushbroom approach just like the HSI camera with a similar lens and slit arrangement to limit the incoming light to a thin , wide beam . However , the HRI camera does not have a diffraction grating to disperse the incoming reflected light . Instead , the light is directed to a wider CCD to capture more image data . Because it captures a single line of the ground image per frame , it is called a line scan camera . The HRI CCD is 6 @,@ 144 pixels wide and one pixel high . It operates at a frame rate of 720 Hz . At ARCHER search speed and altitude ( 100 knots over the ground at 2 @,@ 500 ft AGL ) each pixel in the black @-@ and @-@ white image represents a 3 inch by 3 inch area of the ground . This high resolution adds the capability to identify some objects .
= = = Processing = = =
A monitor in the cockpit displays detailed images in real time , and the system also logs the image and Global Positioning System data at a rate of 30 gigabytes ( GB ) per hour for later analysis . The on @-@ board data processing system performs numerous real @-@ time processing functions including data acquisition and recording , raw data correction , target detection , cueing and chipping , precision image geo @-@ registration , and display and dissemination of image products and target cue information .
ARCHER has three methods for locating targets :
signature matching where reflected light is matched to spectral signatures
anomaly detection using a statistical model of the pixels in the image to determine the probability that a pixel does not match the profile , and
change detection which executes a pixel @-@ by @-@ pixel comparison of the current image against ground conditions that were obtained in a previous mission over the same area .
In change detection , scene changes are identified , and new , moved or departed targets are highlighted for evaluation . In spectral signature matching , the system can be programmed with the parameters of a missing aircraft , such as paint colors , to alert the operators of possible wreckage . It can also be used to look for specific materials , such as petroleum products or other chemicals released into the environment , or even ordinary items like commonly available blue polyethylene tarpaulins . In an impact assessment role , information on the location of blue tarps used to temporarily repair buildings damaged in a storm can help direct disaster relief efforts ; in a counterdrug role , a blue tarp located in a remote area could be associated with illegal activity .
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= Tropical Storm Franklin ( 2005 ) =
Tropical Storm Franklin was a tropical storm over the western Atlantic Ocean during July of the 2005 Atlantic hurricane season . It was the sixth named storm of the season and twice approached hurricane strength . The storm formed over the Bahamas on July 21 then moved north erratically , approaching Bermuda on July 26 . Franklin eventually became extratropical near Newfoundland on July 30 , before being absorbed by a larger system . The National Hurricane Center struggled to predict Tropical Storm Franklin mainly due to difficulties in predicting the effects of wind shear . There were only minor effects on land from Tropical Storm Franklin and no damages were caused . The name Franklin was used for the first time because of Hurricane Floyd which was retired in the 1999 season .
= = Meteorological history = =
A tropical wave emerged from the African coast late on July 10 . The wave entered the Bahamas on July 21 and organized into Tropical Depression Six while 70 miles ( 110 km ) east of Eleuthera . Initially the storm was predicted to execute a clockwise loop and drift to the west in response to a high pressure system . Several models indicated the possibility of the storm to drift westward into central Florida . Soon after the depression formed , it strengthened into Tropical Storm Franklin .
Tropical Storm Franklin suffered high levels of wind shear associated with the development of Tropical Storm Gert , which led the forecasters at the National Hurricane Center to say that Franklin could be torn apart in the next few days . However the shear abated as Franklin moved to the northeast allowing the storm to strengthen . The forecasters then stated that Franklin could " attain and maintain hurricane strength " and make a close approach to Bermuda . Shortly after on July 23 , Tropical Storm Franklin reached its peak strength with 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) winds .
Franklin moved erratically to the east weakening as shear increased again . The NHC predicted that would dissipate , but the weakening trend stopped on July 25 with Franklin a minimal tropical storm . The storm passed to 200 miles ( 325 km ) to the west of Bermuda on July 26 and moved slowly northwards into the warmer waters of the Gulf Stream . The shear also reduced once again allowing Franklin to re @-@ strengthen somewhat , with winds reaching 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) on July 28 . Franklin began to accelerate to the northeast , becoming extratropical on July 30 to the south of Newfoundland . The extratropical storm passed just south of the Avalon Peninsula later that day and was absorbed by a larger system on July 31 .
= = Impact = =
As Tropical Storm Franklin was forming , a tropical storm warning was issued for the northwest Bahamas , but it was canceled as Franklin moved north and away from the islands . A tropical storm watch was issued for Bermuda on July 25 but was canceled a day later when Franklin turned away .
Tropical Storm Franklin developed very close to land in the Bahamas and passed near Bermuda , but there were no reports of tropical storm force winds overland , with the strongest gust recorded on Bermuda being 37 mph ( 60 km / h ) . After Franklin became extratropical , it brushed southeastern Newfoundland , bringing about 1 inch ( 25 mm ) of rain to the area . There were no damages or fatalities as a result of Tropical Storm Franklin .
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= Grade School Confidential =
" Grade School Confidential " is the nineteenth episode of The Simpsons ' eighth season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on April 6 , 1997 . It was written by Rachel Pulido and directed by Susie Dietter . The episode establishes the long @-@ term relationship between Seymour Skinner and Edna Krabappel . Bart witnesses a romantic moment between Principal Skinner and Mrs. Krabappel and acts as a snitch for them . However , they later embarrass him and he exposes their romance to the public .
= = Plot = =
Martin Prince invites his classmates to his birthday party , but the event turns out to be incredibly boring . To cap off the poorly received party , things come to an abrupt end when everyone becomes ill with food poisoning thanks to Martin 's parents serving diseased oysters instead of cake . In the meantime , Principal Seymour Skinner and Edna Krabappel attend and have a conversation which leads to them discovering that they have romantic feelings for each other . They end up kissing in Martin 's pink playhouse in an act witnessed by Bart Simpson , who did not get food poisoning since he fed his oysters to Martin 's cat along with Lisa who feigns sickness so she could leave without excuse .
Bart plans to reveal what he witnessed , but Seymour and Edna fear that they would be fired if anyone found out and they swear him to secrecy . They hire him as their gofer so they can secretly exchange messages . Bart agrees for a while because the reward for his cooperation is that Milhouse will inherit Bart 's poor school record . Eventually , Bart grows frustrated about his home , school and social life continually being interrupted to help them advance their relationship , putting him in embarrassing situations . One afternoon at school , after he is embarrassed in front of his classmates by having to say one of Seymour 's messages to Edna out loud , Bart bitterly gathers the entire school in front of a janitor 's closet and he opens the door to reveal that Seymour and Edna are making out .
Word of Seymour and Edna 's relationship quickly spreads throughout Springfield , with the story growing more illicit and exaggerated with each passing turn by the children . An appalled Chief Wiggum , upon hearing his son Ralph 's less than accurate version of the events , alerts Superintendent Chalmers . Chalmers gives Seymour an ultimatum – end the relationship or have both of them face dismissal . Seymour decides that love is stronger than his professional goals , so Chalmers fires him and Edna , expecting them to leave the school at the end of the day .
Bart learns that the couple have lost their jobs and feels remorseful . After Seymour apologizes to Bart for embarrassing him , Bart encourages the former principal to stand up for himself and Edna . Agreeing to Bart 's comment , Seymour and Edna lock down the school , call the media ( with Bart 's help ) and make their demands : They want their jobs back and the townspeople to not interfere with their relationship . However , several residents reply with their accusation about the two having sexual intercourse in the janitor 's closet described by their children . Seymour insists nothing of the sort happened and that he is a virgin . At first , everyone is speechless , but being on the basis of being such an embarrassing thing for someone his age to admit , it has to be true for them . Realizing that they have overreacted over the relationship , the residents peacefully leave , believing that no one can pretend to be a 44 @-@ year @-@ old virgin . Chalmers agrees to reinstate Seymour and Edna as though nothing ever happened , but insists that they keep their relationship at a minimum level during school days . The couple decide to continue their relationship more privately than ever by convincing Bart that they have broken up after thanking him for helping them . They then go back into their relationship and enter the janitor 's closet where they continue kissing .
= = Production = =
The idea of Skinner and Krabappel becoming a couple had been around since the days when Mike Reiss and Al Jean were show runners . The episode 's writer Rachel Pulido took some of the inspiration for this episode from " Bart the Lover " , specifically Mrs. Krabappel 's line to Bart about refusing to date Principal Skinner because , " his mommy won 't let him out to play " . The Mathmagician is based on Bill Gates . The cakes in Agnes Skinner 's cake book were designed to accurately resemble the real life versions of them . Homer using his megaphone to talk to Marge and Lisa , who were standing next to him , was ad @-@ libbed by Dan Castellaneta . A deleted scene featured an awkward moment at Martin 's party , between Bart , Milhouse and Martin , when the latter introduces the two to his parents .
= = Cultural references = =
The central argument of this episode was inspired by the film The Children 's Hour , starring Audrey Hepburn and Shirley MacLaine , in which two teachers was accused to have a lesbian relationship , starting a conflict between the teachers and the education community .
Mrs. Krabappel has a candle which resembles Charlie Brown , a character from Peanuts . At the Aztec theater , a movie by Tom Berenger was played . It is implied by Superintendent Chalmers ' comment " You think they actually filmed this in Atlanta ? " and from the commentary that the movie is The Big Chill . In trying to force Edna and Seymour out of the school , the Springfield police attempts to flood the area with music . This is similar to a tactic that the US troops used during Operation Just Cause in an attempt to force Manuel Noriega out of the Vatican embassy in Panama City . However , in this case , romance @-@ themed music was played , which was " Embraceable You " by George Gershwin and Ira Gershwin . Edna and Seymour 's dance poses were taken from Orlando Baeza , who was the assistant director for this episode .
= = Reception = =
In its original broadcast , " Grade School Confidential " finished 57th in ratings for the week of March 31 - April 6 , 1997 , with a Nielsen rating of 7 @.@ 7 , equivalent to approximately 7 @.@ 5 million viewing households . It was the fifth highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week , following The X @-@ Files , Party of Five , Beverly Hills , 90210 and Melrose Place .
The authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , called it " A delightful episode that finally brings to fruition one of the series ' longest running gags : Edna and Seymour 's mutual attraction . What is doubly refreshing is that it remains a constant in the subsequent episodes . " The scene in which Agnes Skinner shows Bart her cake book is one of Matt Groening 's all @-@ time favorite scenes .
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= Museum of Bad Art =
The Museum of Bad Art ( MOBA ) is a privately owned museum whose stated aim is " to celebrate the labor of artists whose work would be displayed and appreciated in no other forum " . It was originally located in Dedham with current branches in Somerville , Brookline , and South Weymouth in Massachusetts . Its permanent collection includes 500 pieces of " art too bad to be ignored " , 25 to 35 of which are on public display at any one time .
MOBA was founded in 1994 , after antique dealer Scott Wilson showed a painting he had recovered from the trash to some friends , who suggested starting a collection . Within a year , receptions held in Wilson 's friends ' home were so well @-@ attended that the collection needed its own viewing space . The museum then moved to the basement of a theater in Dedham . Explaining the reasoning behind the museum 's establishment , co @-@ founder Jerry Reilly said in 1995 : " While every city in the world has at least one museum dedicated to the best of art , MOBA is the only museum dedicated to collecting and exhibiting the worst . " To be included in MOBA 's collection , works must be original and have serious intent , but they must also have significant flaws without being boring ; curators are not interested in displaying deliberate kitsch .
MOBA has been mentioned in dozens of off @-@ the @-@ beaten @-@ path guides to Boston , featured in international newspapers and magazines , and has inspired several other collections throughout the world that set out to rival its own visual atrocities . Deborah Solomon of The New York Times Magazine noted that the attention the Museum of Bad Art receives is part of a wider trend of museums displaying " the best bad art " . The museum has been criticized for being anti @-@ art , but the founders deny this , responding that its collection is a tribute to the sincerity of the artists who persevered with their art despite something going horribly wrong in the process . According to co @-@ founder Marie Jackson , " We are here to celebrate an artist 's right to fail , gloriously . "
= = History = =
The Museum of Bad Art was established in 1994 by antique dealer Scott Wilson , who discovered what has become the museum 's signature piece — Lucy in the Field with Flowers — protruding from between two trash cans on a Roslindale @-@ area curb in Boston , among some garbage waiting to be collected . Wilson was initially interested only in the frame , but when he showed the picture to his friend Jerry Reilly , Reilly wanted both the frame and the painting . He exhibited Lucy in his home , and encouraged friends to look for other bad art and notify Wilson of what they found . When Wilson acquired another " equally lovely " piece and shared it with Reilly , they decided to start a collection . Reilly and his wife , Marie Jackson , held a party in their basement to exhibit the collection to date , and hosted a reception they facetiously titled " The Opening of the Museum of Bad Art " .
Regular showings of the pieces collected by Wilson , Reilly , and Jackson ( and those donated by others ) , became too much for Reilly and Jackson 's small home in West Roxbury , Massachusetts , as hundreds of people attended the receptions . The founders initial attempt at dealing with their constrained exhibition space was to create the Virtual Museum of Bad Art , a CD @-@ ROM with a cast of 95 people that presented the MOBA art collection in a fictional imaginary museum . This fictional MOBA allowed the visitors to not only view the paintings but to go behind the scenes in the fictional museum to see what was happening in the back offices , the restoration shop , the rest rooms etc .
Word of the museum 's collection continued to spread until , according to " Permanent Interim Acting Director " Louise Reilly Sacco , " it got completely out of hand " when a group of senior citizens on a tour bus stopped to see it . In 1995 the display space was moved to the basement of the Dedham Community Theatre , a building with an aesthetic described in 2004 as " ramshackle " . The museum in Dedham had no fixed operating hours , instead being open while the theater upstairs was open . As The Boston Globe notes , the art collection was appropriately placed " just outside the men 's room " , where sounds and smells carry to the collection and the constant flushing of the toilet " supposedly helps maintain a uniform humidity " , according to the South China Morning Post .
In MOBA 's early days , the museum hosted traveling shows ; on one occasion the works were hung from trees in the woods on Cape Cod for the " Art Goes Out the Window — The Gallery in the Woods " . Bad music was played during the public viewings to complete the ambiance . In an exhibition titled " Awash in Bad Art " , 18 pieces of art were covered in shrink wrap for " the world 's first drive @-@ thru museum and car wash " . Marie Jackson , formerly the Director of Aesthetic Interpretation noted , " We didn 't put any watercolors in there . " A 2001 exhibition , " Buck Naked — Nothing But Nudes " featured all of the MOBA nudes hung in a local spa .
MOBA features its works in rotating collections . In 2003 , " Freaks of Nature " focused on landscape artwork " gone awry " . A 2006 exhibit titled " Hackneyed Portraits " was designed to " pick up some of the slack " when the David Hockney show at Boston 's Museum of Fine Arts closed . MOBA unveiled its show " Nature Abhors a Vacuum and All Other Housework " in 2006 ; this format continues on the museum 's website .
A second gallery opened in 2008 at the Somerville Theatre in Davis Square , Somerville , Massachusetts , where the collection was placed near both the women 's and men 's restrooms . Although the original gallery was free and open to the public , the second is only free with admission to the theater . Exhibitions titled " Bright Colors / Dark Emotions " and " Know What You Like / Paint How You Feel " have been held in the academic gallery at Montserrat College of Art in Beverly , Massachusetts . One of MOBA 's goals is " to take bad art on the road " , according to Sacco . Pieces from MOBA 's collection have been on display in museums in Virginia , Ottawa , and New York .
In February 2009 , MOBA announced a fundraiser to assist the Rose Art Museum at Brandeis University , which was seriously considering whether to sell masterpieces because of the global financial crisis of 2008 – 2009 , made worse for the university by some of its donors ' losing money in Bernard Madoff 's investment scheme . Current MOBA curator and balloon artist / musician Michael Frank placed Studies in Digestion — a four @-@ panel piece showing four renditions of the human digestive tract in various media by artist Deborah Grumet — on eBay for a buy @-@ it @-@ now price of $ 10 @,@ 000 ; the first bid was $ 24 @.@ 99 . It eventually sold for $ 152 @.@ 53 and the meager proceeds went to the Rose Art Museum , while both museums gained publicity .
In 2010 , the museum opened a third location in the offices of the Brookline Interactive Group .
In December 2012 , the branch at the Dedham Community Theater closed to convert the space into a screening room . Another branch has since opened at the New England Wildlife Center in South Weymouth .
= = = Thefts = = =
The loss of two MOBA works to theft has drawn media attention and enhanced the museum 's stature . In 1996 , the painting Eileen , by R. Angelo Le , vanished from MOBA . Eileen was acquired from the trash by Wilson , and features a rip in the canvas where someone slashed it with a knife even before the museum acquired it , " adding an additional element of drama to an already powerful work " , according to MOBA .
The museum offered a reward of $ 6 @.@ 50 for the return of Eileen , and although MOBA donors later increased that reward to $ 36 @.@ 73 , the work remained unrecovered for many years . The Boston Police listed the crime as " larceny , other " , and Sacco was reported saying she was unable to establish a link between the disappearance of Eileen and a notorious heist at Boston 's famed Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum that occurred in 1990 . In 2006 – 10 years after Eileen was stolen — MOBA was contacted by the purported thief demanding a $ 5 @,@ 000 ransom for the painting ; no ransom was paid , but it was returned anyway .
Prompted by the theft of Eileen , MOBA staff installed a fake video camera over a sign at their Dedham branch reading : " Warning . This gallery is protected by a fake security camera " . Despite this deterrent , in 2004 Rebecca Harris ' Self Portrait as a Drainpipe was removed from the wall and replaced with a ransom note demanding $ 10 , although the thief neglected to include any contact information . Soon after its disappearance the painting was returned , with a $ 10 donation . Curator Michael Frank speculates that the thief had difficulty fencing the portrait because " reputable institutions refuse to negotiate with criminals . "
= = Collection standards = =
Although the museum 's motto is " Art too bad to be ignored " , MOBA holds rigorous standards as to what they will accept . According to Marie Jackson , " Nine out of ten pieces don 't get in because they 're not bad enough . What an artist considers to be bad doesn 't always meet our low standards . " As stated in the introduction to The Museum of Bad Art : Masterworks , the primary attribute of an objet d 'art to be acquired by MOBA is that it must have been seriously attempted by someone making an artistic statement . A lack of artistic skill is not essential for a work to be included ; a prospective painting or sculpture for the collection ideally should " [ result ] in a compelling image " , or as honorary curator Ollie Hallowell stated , the art must have an " Oh my God " quality .
An important criterion for inclusion is that a painting or sculpture must not be boring . Michael Frank says they are not interested in commercial works like Dogs Playing Poker : " We collect things made in earnest , where people attempted to make art and something went wrong , either in the execution or in the original premise . " Montserrat College of Art used MOBA 's exhibition as a demonstration to its students that " sincerity is still important , and pureness of intent is valid " .
MOBA accepts unsolicited works if they meet its standards . Frequently , curators consider works by artists who display an intensity or emotion in the art that they are unable to reconcile with their level of skill . The museum dedicated a show to " relentless creativity " in an exhibition titled " I Just Can 't Stop " that was covered by local news and CNN . Other artists are clearly technically proficient , but attempted an experiment that did not end well . Michael Frank has compared some of the works at MOBA with outsider art or art brut ; some MOBA artists ' works are also included in other galleries ' outsider collections . Dean Nimmer , a professor at the Massachusetts College of Art ( also holding the title of MOBA 's Executive Director of Good Taste ) , noted the parallels between the Museum of Bad Art 's standards and those of other institutions : " They take the model of a museum of fine arts and apply the same kind of criteria to acceptance for bad work ... [ Their rules ] are very similar to a gallery or museum that says ' Well , our area is really installation art or realist paintings or neo @-@ post @-@ modern abstractions . ' "
MOBA does not collect art created by children , or art traditionally perceived as lesser in quality , such as black velvet paintings , paint @-@ by @-@ numbers , kitsch , or factory @-@ produced art — including works specifically created for tourists . Curators are also not interested in crafts such as latch hook rug kits . MOBA curators suggest that more appropriate venues for such works would be the " Museum of Questionable Taste , The International Schlock Collection , or the National Treasury of Dubious Home Decoration " .
The Museum of Bad Art has been accused of being anti @-@ art , or taking works that were sincerely rendered and mocking them . However , Scott Wilson insists that a work of art accepted into MOBA is a celebration of the artist 's enthusiasm . Marie Jackson reiterated this thought , saying " I think it 's a great encouragement to people ... who want to create [ and ] are held back by fear , and when they see these pieces , they realize there 's nothing to be afraid of — just go for it . " Louise Reilly Sacco agreed , stating , " If we 're making fun of something , it 's the art community , not the artists . But this is a real museum . It 's 10 years . It 's 6 @,@ 000 people on a mailing list . It 's recognition all over the world . " Curators insist that artists whose works are selected by the MOBA enjoy the attention and that it is a win @-@ win ; the museum gains another work of art , and the artist receives exposure in a museum . A 1997 article in The Chicago Tribune stated that none of the 10 to 15 artists who had stepped forward to acknowledge their work in MOBA had been upset .
Many of the works in MOBA are donated , often by the artists themselves . Others come from yard sales or thrift stores ; the Trash Collectors Union in Cambridge , Massachusetts has donated works rescued from imminent demise . Occasionally a painting may be purchased ; at one time MOBA 's policy was not to spend more than $ 6 @.@ 50 on any piece . More recently , twice and even three times that amount has been paid for an exceptional work . Those pieces not retained by the museum are included in a " Rejection Collection " that may be sold at auction . In the past , some proceeds went to the Salvation Army for providing so many of MOBA 's pieces ; the museum itself usually benefits from most auctions .
= = Collection highlights = =
Each painting or sculpture MOBA exhibits is accompanied by a brief description of the medium , size , name of the artist , as well as how the piece was acquired , and an analysis of the work 's possible intention or symbolism . Museums Journal noted that the discussion accompanying each work would most likely have most visitors reduced " to hysterics " . The captions — described as " distinctly tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek commentaries " by David Mutch of the Christian Science Monitor — were primarily written by Marie Jackson , until the " dissolution of the MOBA interpretative staff " ; the task was then taken over by Michael Frank and Louise Reilly Sacco .
= = = Lucy in the Field with Flowers = = =
Many of MOBA 's works generate extensive discourse from visitors . Lucy in the Field with Flowers ( oil on canvas by Unknown ; acquired from trash in Boston ) remains a favorite with the news media and patrons . As the first work acquired by the museum , Lucy is " a painting so powerful it commands its own preservation for posterity " , setting a standard by which all future acquisitions would be compared , and causing MOBA 's founders to question if Scott Wilson found Lucy or she found him .
Kate Swoger of The Montreal Gazette called Lucy a " gorgeous mistake " , describing her thus : " an elderly woman dancing in a lush spring field , sagging breasts flopping willy @-@ nilly , as she inexplicably seems to hold a red chair to her behind with one hand and a clutch of daisies in the other " . Author Cash Peters , using less florid language , summarized it as " the old woman with an armchair glued to her ass " .
MOBA 's statement about Lucy reads : " The motion , the chair , the sway of her breast , the subtle hues of the sky , the expression on her face — every detail combines to create this transcendent and compelling portrait , every detail cries out ' masterpiece ' . " The Times recounted comments left by a museum visitor regarding the " endless layers of mysteries " the image offers : " What is Norman Mailer 's head doing on an innocent grandma 's body , and are those crows or F @-@ 16s skimming the hills ? "
Lucy 's granddaughter , a Boston @-@ area nurse named Susan Lawlor , became a fan of MOBA after seeing the portrait in a newspaper . She recognized it as her grandmother , Anna Lally Keane ( c . 1890 – 1968 ) ; upon seeing the picture , Lawlor snorted Coca @-@ Cola from her nose in astonishment . The painting was commissioned by her mother , and it hung in her aunt 's house for many years , despite the trepidation family members felt at seeing the final composition . Says Lawlor : " The face is hauntingly hers , but everything else is so horribly wrong . It looks like she only has one breast . I 'm not sure what happened to her arms and legs , and I don 't know where all the flowers and yellow sky came from . "
= = = Sunday on the Pot with George = = =
Sunday on the Pot With George ( acrylic on canvas by Unknown ; donated by Jim Schulman ) has been deemed " iconic " by Bella English of The Boston Globe , who assures the work is " 100 percent guaranteed to make you burst out laughing " . Wilson has pointed to George as an example of a technically well @-@ executed piece of art using a subject not usually seen rendered in paint .
Many admirers of the first work donated to MOBA are hypnotized by the image of a portly man wearing " Y @-@ front " underwear while sitting on a chamber pot , in pointillist impressionism similar to the style of Georges Seurat . One critic speculates the pointillist style in George may have been acquired " from watching too much TV " . The title refers to the Stephen Sondheim musical Sunday in the Park with George , which contains a dramatic recreation of Seurat 's painting A Sunday Afternoon on the Island of La Grande Jatte . Author Amy Levin suggests that George is a pastiche of Seurat 's painting . The subject of this painting has been " tentatively identified " by the Annals of Improbable Research — the creators of the Ig Nobel award — as John Ashcroft , former United States Attorney General .
A visitor was so moved by George he felt compelled to express his gratitude for its display in the Dedham Community Theatre basement , writing " Someone had slipped into the bathroom as I took in this painting and began peeing loudly into a toilet . The reverberating sound of urine splashing while viewing George brought the painting to life , and when the denouement of the flush sounded , I wept . " MOBA 's accompanying caption introduces questions and observations : " Can the swirling steam melt away the huge weight of George 's corporate responsibilities ? This pointillist piece is curious for meticulous attention to fine detail , such as the stitching around the edge of the towel , in contrast to the almost careless disregard for the subject 's feet . "
= = = Juggling Dog in Hula Skirt = = =
In contrast to the pointillist impressionism of George , the museum also features a " fine example of labor @-@ intensive pointlessism " , according to MOBA staff . Mari Newman 's Juggling Dog in Hula Skirt ( tempera and acrylic paint on canvas ; donated by the artist ) , inspired this description by MOBA : " We can only wonder what possesses an artist to portray a dog juggling bones while wearing a hula skirt . " MOBA enjoys the mystery as much as any other aspect of art , however .
Newman , a professional artist from Minneapolis , responded to the curators ' cogitation by describing how the image came into being . She bought used canvases while a poor art student , and was unsure how to use a canvas with these dimensions . Inspired by a cartoon of a dachshund , she chose that as a subject , but was unhappy with the effect until she added a hula skirt she had seen in a magazine , and colored dog bones she spied in a pet store . Newman wrote to them , saying " I almost threw it out until I heard of MOBA . After many years of slashing rejected work , now I wish I had saved them all for you . "
= = = Motifs and interpretations = = =
Travel writer Cash Peters identifies six characteristics common to many of the museum 's artworks . The first is that MOBA artists are unable to render hands or feet , and mask them by extending figures ' arms off the canvas , hiding them with long sleeves , or placing shoes on feet in inappropriate scenarios . Second , Peters compared artists Rembrandt and J. M. W. Turner , masters of landscapes , who " could probably paint with their eyes shut " to MOBA artists who apparently did paint with their eyes shut , as skies are often painted in any color but blue , flora are created without reference to any existing plant organisms , and fauna appear so small in the background it is impossible to discern what kind of animals they are . Third , MOBA artists apply perspective inconsistently , either from one painting to the next , or within a single work . Peters 's fourth observation concerns the difficulty MOBA artists seem to have in successfully rendering noses : he writes that a nose will be attempted so many times that the work takes on a third dimension as paint is reapplied over and over . Fifth , bad artists favor " mixed media " : if in doubt , they glue feathers , glitter , or hair to their work . Lastly , Peters suggests that artists know their work is bad , but apparently feel the piece may be saved by including a monkey or a poodle in the composition .
Since late 2008 , MOBA has been experimenting with allowing the public to title and caption some works . According to the curatorial staff , since some of the works are so puzzling , mere artistic interpretation is not sufficient : they must be " interpreted " . The " Guest Interpretator 's Collection " is an invitation for MOBA 's visitors to include their thoughts on compelling artworks ; a contest decides the best analysis and one is added every two months . A professor at Boston University offered his thoughts : " The location of the museum as much as its collection suggests a commitment to the abject and a belief in the power and force of culture 's marginalized effects . I was also reminded that I need to pick up some toilet bowl cleaner on my way home ! "
= = Influence = =
The Museum of Bad Art has been mentioned in hundreds of international publications , as well as in Boston @-@ area travel guides highlighting offbeat attractions . It has inspired similar collections or events in Ohio , Seattle , and Australia .
Commedia Beauregard , a theatre company whose mission focuses on translation , was inspired by MOBA 's mission to create their Master Works series of short play festivals . The company commissioned six playwrights to write short plays based on MOBA artworks . Master Works : The MOBA Plays was originally performed in January and February 2009 in Minneapolis , Minnesota . The plays were based on the MOBA pieces Mana Lisa , Invasion of the Office Zombies , My Left Foot , Bone @-@ Juggling Dog in Hula Skirt , Gina 's Demons , and Lulli , Fowl and Gravestone . After moving to Chicago , the company again produced The MOBA Plays in March and April 2011 , using three of the original plays and translating three new paintings .
= = = Responses to bad art = = =
Museum visitors can sign a guest book , and leave comments . One Canadian visitor wrote : " This collection is disturbing , yet I can 't seem to look away ... Just like a hideous car accident . " Another visitor warns : " Her nipples follow you around the room . Creepy ! "
Response to MOBA 's opening and continued success is , for some , evocative of the way art is treated in society . MOBA works have been described as " unintentionally hilarious " , similar to the atrocious films of Ed Wood . Visitors — and even MOBA staff — often laugh out loud at displays . In Gullible 's Travels , Cash Peters contrasted this behavior with what is expected of patrons at galleries such as Southern California 's Getty Museum ; though viewers might find the art at the Getty equally hilarious , were they to show it they would almost certainly be thrown out .
In 2006 , Louise Reilly Sacco participated in a panel discussion with authorities on art and architecture about standards of beauty and ugliness in art , published in Architecture Boston . She remarked that teachers bring high school art students to MOBA , then to the Museum of Fine Arts , Boston ( MFA ) . Sacco observes , " Somehow MOBA frees kids to laugh and point , to have their own opinions and argue about things . Then they take the experience to the MFA , where they might otherwise feel intimidated ... Maybe the ugly ... frees us . " Sacco believes that extreme ugliness is more striking than extreme beauty , and it forces people to think more deeply about what is wrong or misplaced . She connects this rigid judgment of what does not conform to beauty with intolerance for physical imperfections in people , noting that such rigidity sometimes causes parents to " fix " the perceived flaws in their children 's faces to keep them from suffering later .
Jason Kaufman , a Harvard professor who teaches the sociology of culture , wrote that MOBA is part of a social trend he calls " annoyism " , where mass media venues promote performances and artists who mix the deliberately bad with the clever . The Museum of Bad Art happens to embody this trend , and further illustrates its central aim to mock the judgment system by which people identify what is bad from what is not . For Kaufman , " The beauty of MOBA — though beauty is surely the wrong word — is the way it undermines aesthetic criteria from numerous angles . " Amy Levin , describing how American history and culture have been shaped by small local museums , suggests that MOBA is a parody of art itself , and that MOBA 's commentary , newsletter , website , and publications mock museums as authorities on what is good art . The director of the Ellipse Arts Center , a gallery in Arlington , Virginia , that hosted a traveling exhibition of MOBA works , was astonished to see people 's exuberant laughter because no one visiting the Ellipse had ever responded to art this way . She observed , " If I didn 't have a sign on the door , people might not think it 's so bad . Who 's to say what 's bad and what 's good ? "
Deborah Solomon , in The New York Times Magazine , asserted that MOBA 's success reflects a trend in modern art among artists and audiences . The arrival of abstraction and modern art in the early 20th century made art appreciation more esoteric and less accessible for the general community , showing that " the American public ... think [ s ] of museums as intimidating places ruled by a cadre of experts whose taste and rituals [ seem ] as mysterious as those of Byzantine priests . " Bad art is in vogue , as a movement that rejects the anti @-@ sentimentalism that marked earlier disdain for artists such as Norman Rockwell or Gustave Moreau , according to Solomon . Garen Daly , a MOBA fan on several Boston @-@ area art councils , stated in 1995 , " I go to a lot of openings , and sometimes they 're pretty damn stuffy . " Not only does the Museum of Bad Art offer different fare for the eyes , but instead of the wine and cheese that is provided for most museum and art gallery visitors , a MOBA show provides its patrons with Kool @-@ Aid , Fluffernutters and cheese puffs .
= = = Use in academic research = = =
The Museum of Bad Art has been used in academic studies as a standard of reference for the spectacularly awful . In one such study , published in Perspectives on Psychological Science , researchers tested the consistency of responses between people asked to make " gut " judgments versus those who gave conscious well @-@ reasoned responses regarding the quality of various pieces of art . The researchers showed respondents images from MOBA and New York 's Museum of Modern Art ( MoMA ) , and asked them to rate each painting on a scale with two ends representing " Very Attractive " and " Very Unattractive " . The study found that those who reasoned in conscious thought were neither more accurate nor as consistent in their ratings . Study participants identified and rated MoMA art higher quality , but those who used conscious reasoning did not find MoMA art more attractive than those who rated with " gut " judgments . Furthermore , the deliberators did not find MOBA art as unattractive as those with quicker response times . The study concluded that people who make quick judgments do so more consistently , with no significant change to accuracy .
In another study that appeared in the British Journal of Psychology , researchers tested how respondents considered balance in artwork composition of differing qualities . Fifteen pairs of works from ArtCyclopedia by artists such as Paul Gauguin , Georgia O 'Keeffe , and Georges @-@ Pierre Seurat , and fifteen from MOBA by artists including Doug Caderette , Unknown , and D. Alix were shown to participants ; in each , an item in the painting was shifted vertically or horizontally , and respondents were asked to identify the original . The researchers hypothesized that respondents would identify balance and composition more easily in the traditional masterworks , and that study participants would find a greater change of quality when items were shifted in traditional masterworks than they would in MOBA pieces . However , the study concluded that balance alone did not define art of higher quality for the participants , and that respondents were more likely to see that original art was more balanced than the altered version , not necessarily that the traditional art was significantly better composed and balanced than MOBA works .
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= County Road 492 ( Marquette County , Michigan ) =
County Road 492 ( CR 492 , Co . Rd . 492 ) is a primary county road in Marquette County , Michigan . The road serves as an alternate route between Negaunee and Marquette . Several historic sites line the roadway as it runs south and parallel to the main highway , U.S. Highway 41 ( US 41 ) and M @-@ 28 , through the Marquette Iron Range in Michigan 's Upper Peninsula . The path of the road runs near tracks of the Lake Superior and Ishpeming Railroad ( LS & I ) . The locally created Iron Ore Heritage Trail will follow CR 492 through Eagle Mills and Morgan Meadows upon completion . The western terminus of the county road is on US 41 / M @-@ 28 in Negaunee and the eastern end is in Marquette next to Lake Superior .
CR 492 was previously known as the Marquette – Negaunee Road before it was made a part of the State Trunkline Highway System . It was originally designated as a part of M @-@ 15 as early as 1917 . The superintendent of the Marquette County Road Commission , Kenneth Ingalls Sawyer , painted the first rural highway centerline on the roadway on Dead Man 's Curve . The highway was later a part of M @-@ 28 before being transferred back to county control . The highway assumed its current form by 2001 . The eastern section along Brookton Road in Marquette Township was redesignated as a county secondary highway when a new connection to US 41 / M @-@ 28 was opened , and the designation was extended along Wright Street on the west and north sides of Marquette .
= = Route description = =
In the city of Negaunee , CR 492 is a part of Maas Street , which runs east – west through town starting at Teal Lake . CR 492 begins at the intersection of Maas Street and US 41 / M @-@ 28 in Negaunee next to Miners Park . From there , CR 492 passes some businesses near the highway before running through a residential area . East of Woodland Drive , the street runs downhill into a more rural section of town . In this area , the roadway runs through forested terrain parallel to tracks of the LS & I. The road then loops to the north away from the tracks , crossing the Carp River next to the Forge Road intersection . Through this area , the Iron Ore Heritage Trail , a new multi @-@ use trail system , was built to follow CR 492 , and opened in 2013 . Forge Road runs north to the Michigan Iron Industry Museum on the site of the Carp River Forge , the original iron ore forge in the region . Maas Street runs along the south side of the city cemetery . The cemetery main gate is located near the city limits , where Maas Street ends and CR 492 continues into Negaunee Township .
CR 492 intersects M @-@ 35 near Eagle Mills Location . M @-@ 35 approaches the county road from the north before it turns east to run concurrently with CR 492 . The two roadway designations cross a rail track before M @-@ 35 separates and turns south ; traffic along the state highway must yield the right @-@ of @-@ way to traffic on the county road in the process . Eagle Mills is the location of the main LS & I rail yard and the former Pioneer Pellet Plant . CR 492 curves away from this industrial area to the northeast . The roadway crosses Morgan Creek and enters the Morgan Heights area on the border of Negaunee Township and Marquette Township . This is the site of the first tuberculosis sanatorium in the Upper Peninsula built in 1911 ; the facility is said to have been haunted before the main buildings were torn down around 2002 . The road continues east through forested lands in Marquette Township , rounding Dead Man 's Curve and running downhill into the Morgan Meadows area . CR 492 passes a convent of the Sisters of St. Paul de Chartres before entering a residential area . The road curves north past these subdivisions , meeting the western end of CR 500 ( Grove Street ) . Further north , CR 492 intersects Brookton Road before the southern segment terminates at US 41 / M @-@ 28 in the middle of Marquette Township 's commercial corridor .
The county road designation continues north on Wright Street . This segment of CR 492 is separated from the southern section by US 41 / M @-@ 28 . Traffic crossing between the two sides have to use the main highway through median turn arounds in a maneuver similar to a Michigan left . The roadway leaves the commercial corridor and returns to woodland before the intersection with Forestville Road and Commerce Drive . Wright Street curves to the northeast and then the east crossing into the westernmost section of the City of Marquette . As Wright Street continues eastward , it runs through a residential section along part of the city line before completely crossing into Marquette . The roadway passes the Holy Cross Cemetery and the north side of the campus of Northern Michigan University ( NMU ) . The northern main entrance to campus is located at the intersection with CR 550 ( Sugar Loaf Avenue ) and Tracy Avenue . Wright Street passes through residential neighborhoods east of CR 550 before meeting Presque Isle Avenue . East of that intersection , CR 492 crosses onto the northern edge of NMU 's campus immediately north of the Superior Dome . Wright Street ends as it curves around to the south into a junction with Lakeshore Boulevard at the shore of Lake Superior .
= = History = =
The first roadway along the route of the modern CR 492 was a plank road built by the Cleveland and Sharon Iron Companies in the 1850s . The roadway was originally named the Marquette – Negaunee Road , due to its endpoints . The road was included as a section of " Division 8 " in the State Trunkline Highway System when that was created on May 13 , 1913 . In 1917 , the first highway centerline in the nation was painted along a section of the road known as " Dead Man 's Curve " . The centerline was painted by Kenneth Ingalls Sawyer , long @-@ time superintendent of the county road commission . Traffic along the road was heavy for the era , and along the curves , drivers would follow the innermost side instead of keeping to their own lane . Sawyer added arrows to indicate travel direction and found that motorists used the appropriate travel lanes .
At this time , the road carried an unsigned designation of " Trunk Line 15 " ( T.L. 15 ) as designated by the Michigan State Highway Department ( MSHD ) . This designation was changed to M @-@ 15 by the time the state highway system was signed by MSHD in 1919 . With the creation of the United States Highway System on November 11 , 1926 , M @-@ 15 in Michigan was redesignated as a part of the larger US 41 . Between Negaunee and Marquette , US 41 was routed north of the Marquette – Negaunee Road , following a section of M @-@ 35 out of downtown Negaunee . At the same time , M @-@ 28 was extended eastward through the Upper Peninsula of Michigan . Between Negaunee and Marquette , M @-@ 28 followed the old routing of M @-@ 15 . By 1936 , M @-@ 28 was shifted to follow US 41 between Negaunee and Marquette , transferring the old Marquette – Negaunee Road to county control .
After this transfer , the roadway carried the CR 492 designation . In 1964 , several abandoned underground mine shafts collapsed underneath M @-@ 35 in Negaunee , and M @-@ 35 was rerouted out of the city along its current roadway through Negaunee Township , connecting with CR 492 . The eastern end of CR 492 was moved by 2001 . Before this realignment , CR 492 followed Brookton Road , parallel to US 41 / M @-@ 28 before turning to the previous terminus just west of the border between Marquette Township and the City of Marquette . After the change , CR 492 turned north to intersect the highway opposite of Wright Street . The CR 492 designation was extended along Wright Street at the same time . In 2006 , the city of Marquette extended Wright Street to end at Lakeshore Boulevard .
In 2010 , the county road commission built an extension to Commerce Drive across US 41 / M @-@ 28 . This extension was designed to connect the southern and northern segments of CR 492 severed by traffic flow changes along US 41 / M @-@ 28 . Traffic wishing to cross between the two segments needs to follow US 41 / M @-@ 28 to a median turn around in a maneuver similar to a Michigan left . After the project was completed , motorists gained a second option to cross between the two segments of CR 492 following Brookton Road to the Commerce Drive extension and around the Westwood Mall to Wright Street . This newer connector is designed for 35 @-@ mile @-@ per @-@ hour ( 56 km / h ) traffic . The stop light at the US 41 / M @-@ 28 intersection was installed in early November to complete the project . In August 2010 , the speed limits along Wright Street were increased . After the results of a speed study , the limits were increased from 25 and 35 mph ( 40 and 56 km / h ) to 35 , 40 and 45 mph ( 56 , 64 and 72 km / h ) .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire road is in Marquette County .
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= Naruto : Clash of Ninja =
Naruto : Clash of Ninja ( NARUTO -ナルト- 激闘忍者大戦 ! , Naruto : Gekitō Ninja Taisen , lit . " Naruto : Great Ninja Battle " ) is a 3 @-@ D cel @-@ shaded fighting game developed by Eighting and published by D3 Publisher and Tomy . It is based on the popular anime and manga series Naruto by Masashi Kishimoto , and the first installment of the Naruto : Clash of Ninja video game series . In the game , players pit two characters from the Naruto manga and anime series against each other , using basic attacks and special techniques to defeat their opponent in one of the game 's modes .
Clash of Ninja was originally released in Japan on December 19 , 2002 , and the game was subsequently released in North America on March 7 , 2006 , with the only major difference being the voice @-@ overs by the English voice actors from the Naruto anime . Critical opinions of the game have been mixed , with many praising the simple and easy @-@ to @-@ learn fighting system , with others lambasting the fighting system , and the lack of significant unlockable content .
= = Gameplay = =
Over the course of the game , the player controls one of a select few characters directly based upon their counterparts in the Naruto anime and manga . Clash of Ninja is a member of the fighting game genre ; the player pits their character against another character controlled by the game 's AI or by another player , depending on the mode that the player is in . The objective is to reduce the opponent 's health to zero using basic attacks and special techniques unique to each character that are derived from techniques they use in the Naruto anime or manga . For instance , Naruto Uzumaki is able to use his signature Shadow Clone Technique , and Rock Lee utilizes many of his Strong Fist style techniques . To use these techniques , characters have available a chakra bar , which depletes upon the execution of a special technique , and regenerates over time . In the game 's numerous modes , the player can choose from different styles of play . The game 's story mode follows the plot from the anime and manga , and a versus mode pitting two players against each other also included .
= = Development = =
The original Japanese version of Clash of Ninja , the first installment of the Clash of Ninja series , was developed by Eighting and published by D3 Publisher and Tomy , and released on December 19 , 2002 . On October 27 , 2005 , both Clash of Ninja and its sequel , Clash of Ninja 2 , were confirmed for a 2006 release in North America . The game has a total of ten characters that come from the Land of Waves arc and the start of the Chunin Exam arc of the series . Masato Toyoshima , one of the executives of Eighting , stated that the game was designed to appeal to both casual and hardcore gamers . The only significant difference made by Eighting in the development between the English variant and its Japanese counterpart were the voice @-@ overs , which were done by the English voice actors in the Naruto anime . Toyoshima claimed that the development team was especially " proud that [ they ] were able to accomplish " creating the cel @-@ shaded graphics that closely matched the scenes in the Naruto anime and manga .
= = Reception = =
Clash of Ninja has received mixed reactions from several video game publications . GameRankings gave it a score of 67 @.@ 35 % , while Metacritic gave it 72 out of 100 . In Japan , Famitsu gave the game a score of 31 out of 40 . The game sold well in North America , becoming part of Nintendo 's set of Player 's Choice games , which lowers the retail price to $ 19 @.@ 99 if the game has sold at least 250 @,@ 000 copies .
The gameplay present in the game was subject to mixed opinions amongst critics . IGN lauded the game 's battle system as " very balanced , amazingly quick , and still a lot of fun , " but accepted that the battle designs were " a bit basic . " GameSpot provided a more negative review , deriding the game 's different modes as " seriously boring and predictable , " as well as criticizing the lack of significant differences in the playing style of the game 's characters . GameSpot characterized the voice acting as having " some of the worst stereotypes of anime voice acting , " and noted the lack of unlockable items and other incentives to continue play . G4 's X @-@ Play gave Clash of Ninja two out of five stars , lambasting the fighting engine as " one of the laziest , most oversimplified engines ever seen in a 3D fighting game , " and " ridiculously basic . " X @-@ Play also criticized the lack of a significant plot in the story mode and the lack of use of cutscenes or unlockable items . GameSpy commented on this , noting that " considering the charm of the source material , [ the game ] is really a disappointment " .
The cel @-@ shaded graphics and audio received acclaim from reviewers , with GameSpot praising the game 's " smooth , powerful @-@ looking animations , " as well as extolling how " powerful sound effects and a driving soundtrack " contributed to the game 's overall feel . GameSpy noted that " [ the game ] manages to shine in the visual department , " making note of how the varied graphical details were " fluid and precise and doesn 't ever slow down or become choppy . " X @-@ Play , however , considered the graphics " underwhelming , " criticizing the lack of significant usage of animation and cinematic scenes , and remarking that the graphics " follow the rest of the game 's lead . "
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= RAF Northolt =
RAF Northolt ( IATA : NHT , ICAO : EGWU ) is a Royal Air Force station in South Ruislip , 2 nautical miles ( 3 @.@ 7 km ; 2 @.@ 3 mi ) from Uxbridge in the London Borough of Hillingdon , west London . Approximately 6 mi ( 10 km ) north of London Heathrow Airport , the station also handles a large number of private civil flights . Northolt has one runway in operation , spanning 1 @,@ 687 m × 46 m ( 5 @,@ 535 ft × 151 ft ) , with a grooved asphalt surface .
Northolt pre @-@ dates the establishment of the Royal Air Force by almost three years , having opened in May 1915 . Originally established for the Royal Flying Corps , it has the longest history of continuous use of any RAF airfield . Before the outbreak of the Second World War , the station was the first to take delivery of the Hawker Hurricane . The station played a key role during the Battle of Britain , when fighters from several of its units , including No. 303 Polish Fighter Squadron , engaged enemy aircraft as part of the defence of London . It became the first base to have squadrons operating Supermarine Spitfire aircraft within German airspace .
During the construction of Heathrow Airport , Northolt was used for commercial civil flights , becoming the busiest airport in Europe for a time and a major base for British European Airways . More recently the station has become the hub of British military flying operations in the London area . Northolt has been extensively redeveloped since 2006 to accommodate these changes , becoming home to the British Forces Post Office , which moved to a newly constructed headquarters and sorting office on the site . Units currently based at RAF Northolt are No. 32 ( The Royal ) Squadron , the Queen 's Colour Squadron , 600 ( City of London ) Squadron , No 1 Aeronautical Information Documents Unit , the Air Historical Branch and the Central Band of the RAF . The station has also been used as a filming location for productions made at Pinewood Studios .
= = History = =
= = = Construction = = =
Following Louis Blériot 's first flight across the English Channel in 1909 , the British Army considered the necessity of defending the United Kingdom from a future air attack . By May 1910 , Claude Grahame @-@ White and other aviation pioneers were flying from the flat areas around Ruislip , although they soon sought an aerodrome for London , which was eventually built at Hendon . A proposal was made in 1912 for the area around where RAF Northolt now stands to be developed as " Harrow Aerodrome " . The company established to develop the site was listed on the London Stock Exchange but the idea did not progress any further .
The outbreak of the First World War necessitated a new aerodrome for the Royal Flying Corps . The Corps had received the Royal Warrant on 13 April 1912 , whereupon Major Sefton Brancker of the War Office conducted aerial surveys in 1914 of Glebe Farm in Ickenham , and Hundred Acres Farm and Down Barnes Farm in Ruislip , looking for the most effective operating base for new squadrons . He settled on a site near Northolt Junction railway station but it was not until January 1915 that the British government officially requisitioned the land . It is rumoured that the government official tasked with acquiring the land arrived at the site with his map upside down , leading to the government requisitioning and developing land on the wrong side of the railway line , including the old Hill Farm .
Construction of the new aerodrome , to be named " RFC Military School , Ruislip " , began in January 1915 . It opened on 3 May 1915 , becoming known as Northolt and home to No. 4 Reserve Aeroplane Squadron which relocated from Farnborough . The airfield became " Northolt " despite being in neighbouring South Ruislip . Most early RAF airfields were named after the nearest railway station , in this case South Ruislip station , known at that time as Northolt Junction and later Northolt Halt . In the same year the airfield was extended westwards and aircraft began flying sorties in defence of London against Zeppelin raids . No. 18 Squadron was formed in the same month as Northolt and equipped with Bleriot Experimental biplanes , whose slow speed led to heavy losses in combat with the German Fliegertruppe .
In 1916 , No. 43 Squadron was formed under the command of Major Sholto Douglas . Aircraft equipping the squadron included the Sopwith 1 ½ Strutter , built by the Fairey Aviation company , then in Hayes . The Strutter made its first test flight from Northolt in 1916 with Harry Hawker at the controls . Fairey conducted test flights at Northolt from 1917 until 1928 when the Air Ministry gave the company notice to vacate the aerodrome . Flights later resumed from the Great West Aerodrome owned by Fairey in Harmondsworth , which was eventually developed as Heathrow Airport . No. 43 Squadron went on to fly sorties over France from 17 January 1917 , taking part in the Battle of Vimy Ridge between 4 and 8 April 1917 .
No. 600 Squadron and No. 601 Squadron of the fledgling Royal Auxiliary Air Force were formed at Northolt in 1925 under the command of Squadron Leader Lord Edward Grosvenor . Both squadrons were deployed to RAF Hendon in 1927 , although 600 Squadron would return in 1939 . The Prince of Wales , later King Edward VIII and subsequently the Duke of Windsor , made his first flight in a Bristol F.2 Fighter from Northolt on 27 April 1929 .
= = = Battle of Britain and the Second World War = = =
Northolt became an active base during the Second World War for Royal Air Force and Polish Air Force squadrons in their defence of the United Kingdom . It was the first RAF station to operate the Hawker Hurricane , with No. 111 Squadron receiving the first four aircraft in December 1937 , and reaching its full complement by February 1938 . In the lead @-@ up to war , the RAF implemented a policy of adding concrete runways to important airfields . As a result , by 1939 Northolt had a new 800 @-@ by @-@ 50 @-@ yard ( 732 by 46 m ) concrete runway . Later in 1939 RAF Hendon became one of its satellite airfields . Polish pilots were taught English at RAF Uxbridge , where they also practised formation flying using tricycles with radios , compasses and speed indicators .
On 15 September 1940 during the Battle of Britain , No. 1 Squadron RCAF , No. 229 Squadron , No. 303 Polish Fighter Squadron , No. 504 Squadron , and part of No. 264 Squadron were based at the station , all under the control of No. 11 Group RAF , headquartered at RAF Uxbridge . All flew Hawker Hurricanes except No. 264 Squadron 's contingent , which operated the Boulton Paul Defiant . During the Battle of Britain , the Polish Squadron downed the highest number of enemy aircraft with its Czech pilot Sergeant Josef Frantisek scoring the most " kills " . The Luftwaffe bombed the airfield in August 1940 as well as other sector airfields in the area , including Biggin Hill , Hornchurch and North Weald , as part of a concentrated effort against the airfields and sector stations of No. 11 Group RAF . A total of 4 @,@ 000 bombs were recorded as falling within two miles ( 3 km ) of the airfield over a fifteen @-@ month period , although only two were recorded as hitting the airfield itself . Under the leadership of the station commander , Group Captain Stanley Vincent , the airfield was camouflaged to resemble civil housing . Vincent had been concerned that camouflaging the airfield as open land would look too suspicious from the air ; Northolt was surrounded by housing and so a large open area would draw attention . A fake stream was painted across the main runway while the hangars were decorated to look like houses and gardens . The result was so effective that pilots flying to Northolt from other airfields often struggled to find the airfield .
Thirty Allied airmen including servicemen from Belgium , Canada , Czechoslovakia , New Zealand , Poland and the United Kingdom were killed flying from RAF Northolt during the Battle of Britain , of whom ten were Polish . The Polish War Memorial dedicated to all Polish airmen who lost their lives during the Second World War stands near the southeastern corner of the airfield . Its name is also commemorated at the adjacent eponymous junction on Western Avenue .
Squadrons based at RAF Northolt during the battle shot down a total of 148 Luftwaffe aircraft and damaged 52 . A further 25 were claimed by pilots and recorded as " probables " . Group Captain Vincent became one of the few RAF airmen to shoot down an enemy aircraft in both World Wars . Vincent was a long @-@ serving RAF man who had claimed an aerial victory over the Western Front in the First World War . By the time of the Battle of Britain he was too old for operational flying . Nevertheless , he took to the skies during one raid and succeeded in bringing down a German aircraft .
After the Battle of Britain , the station remained a base for daytime fighter operations , with No. 302 Polish Fighter Squadron , No. 229 Squadron and No. 615 Squadron all arriving before 3 November 1940 . No. 308 Polish Fighter Squadron and No. 306 Polish Fighter Squadron later joined No. 303 during 1941 to form the No. 1 Polish Fighter Wing . Polish Fighter Squadrons based at Northolt in 1942 took part in Operation Jubilee ( the raid on Dieppe ) on 19 August alongside Nos. 302 and 308 from nearby RAF Heston . Reconnaissance squadrons No. 16 Squadron and No. 140 Squadron operating Supermarine Spitfires and de Havilland Mosquitos moved to Northolt in 1944 . No. 69 Squadron with their Vickers Wellingtons modified for photographic reconnaissance arrived later . All three reconnaissance squadrons were combined to form No. 34 ( PR ) Wing .
In 1943 , the station became the first to fly sorties using Supermarine Spitfire Mk IXs in German airspace in support of bomber operations . On 25 March , RAF Ferry Command became RAF Transport Command and thereafter used Northolt as a London base for the transfer of new aircraft from factories to airfields . Runway 26 / 08 was extended in February that year to accommodate the larger transport aircraft required by the Command . Northolt continued as a Sector Fighter Station until February 1944 . As a result of this and the new larger runway , the smaller 02 / 20 runway closed in April 1944 .
RAF Northolt became home to Prime Minister Winston Churchill 's personal aircraft , a modified Douglas C @-@ 54 Skymaster , in June 1944 . The aircraft was used to fly him to meetings with other Allied leaders . Between 20 and 21 July 1944 , a converted Consolidated B @-@ 24 Liberator bomber named " Marco Polo " made the first non @-@ stop intercontinental flight , flying from London to Washington , DC , then returning to Northolt from La Guardia Airport within 18 hours . In November of the same year , an Avro York flew non @-@ stop from Northolt to Cairo in 10 hours and 25 minutes . A new runway , 31 / 13 , was surveyed the following month and built in March 1946 .
= = = Post @-@ war civil and military use = = =
Starting in 1946 the airfield was used by civil aviation during the construction of nearby Heathrow Airport . During this period , Northolt became a major base for British European Airways , which used the nearby Bourne School as its headquarters . Other airlines including Aer Lingus , Alitalia , Scandinavian Airlines System and Swissair used the airfield for scheduled services across Europe .
In December 1946 , after taking off during a heavy snowstorm , a Douglas DC @-@ 3 operated by British European Airways , flying from Northolt to Glasgow , crashed onto the roof of a house in South Ruislip . All the crew and passengers escaped unharmed by climbing through the loft of the house and leaving via the front door . No residents were injured , even though the owner of the house next door was standing at her front gate when the aircraft came down . The owners of the house had not moved in at the time of the crash as they were due to be married a few days later . The house was later named " Dakota Rest " after the Douglas DC @-@ 3 's wartime operational name , and still stands today .
During 1952 a total of 50 @,@ 000 air movements were recorded , making the airfield the busiest in Europe . By then the only scheduled airlines were BEA and Aer Lingus . The RAF maintained a presence throughout its use by civil airlines , making it the longest continually used airfield in the history of the Royal Air Force . En route from Northolt to Dublin , on 10 January 1952 , a civil Douglas C @-@ 47 Skytrain operated by Aer Lingus and named " St. Kevin " flew into an area of extreme turbulence caused by a mountain wave generated by Snowdon . As a result , the plane crashed into a peat bog near Llyn Gwynant in Snowdonia , killing all 20 passengers and three crew in the company 's first fatal accident .
Civil flights ceased when the central area at Heathrow opened in 1954 with Northolt reverting to sole military use in May that year . Northolt 's operations became constrained by its proximity to the new much larger civil airport at Heathrow . No. 1 Aeronautical Information Documents Unit ( AIDU ) moved to the station in 1956 from the neighbouring RAF West Ruislip station . The unit had been established in 1953 to provide information on airfields , communications and navigational aids for the benefit of aircraft safety . AIDU was originally under the command of RAF Transport Command but this was moved to Home Command in March 1957 .
On 1 June 1960 , an Avro Anson aircraft suffered engine failure soon after take @-@ off from Northolt and crash @-@ landed on top of the nearby Express Dairies plant in South Ruislip . There were no fatalities . Later that year , on 25 October , a Pan Am Boeing 707 , heading for Heathrow , mistakenly landed at Northolt with forty @-@ one passengers on board . A Lufthansa Boeing 707 also attempted to land at the station on 28 April 1964 but was dissuaded by a red signal flare fired by personnel from Air Traffic Control . In the days before navigational aids such as instrument landing systems ( ILS ) and the global positioning system ( GPS ) were available , the letters NO ( for Northolt ) and LH ( for Heathrow ) were painted on two gasometers on the approach to each airfield , one at Southall for the approach to Heathrow 's diagonal runway ( coded 23L ) and one at South Harrow for the approach to Northolt 's runway ( then coded 26 ) , in an effort to prevent a recurrence of such errors . By the 1980s movements of privately owned aircraft , mainly corporate jets , outnumbered military aircraft . Civil flights were limited to 28 per day , with a maximum of 7 @,@ 000 a year . This limit remains to this day .
Northolt received its first gate guardian , a Spitfire F.Mk 22 , in September 1963 . Purchased from the RAF in 1969 for use in the film Battle of Britain , it was replaced by a Spitfire Mk XVI on 2 June 1970 . This aircraft remained at the station until its removal on 8 September 1989 for restoration to full flying condition . The Kermit Weeks ' Fantasy of Flight Museum in Polk City , Florida , purchased the aircraft whereupon the station received a fibreglass replica of a Spitfire Mk IX as a replacement .
Servicing of No. 32 Squadron passed from the RAF to the private company Fields Aviation Services in April 1985 , then to Lovaux Aircraft Servicing in 1990 . In 1991 , the Station Flight was established , taking delivery of two Britten @-@ Norman Islanders in December which entered service in January 1992 . No. 32 Squadron celebrated its Diamond Jubilee in 1991 , at a time when personnel became involved in operations during the Gulf War . No. 38 Group RAF assumed control of RAF Northolt on 2 November 1992 following a wider restructuring of the RAF . On 16 December 1994 , the new southside Operations Building opened , replacing the old Northolt Airport Terminal building . With the reorganisation of RAF Strike Command on 1 April 2000 , No. 38 Group was disbanded and Northolt came under the control of No. 2 Group RAF .
= = = Modern use = = =
In August 1996 , a Spanish Learjet operated by Mar Aviation overshot runway 25 and collided with a van heading eastward on the A40 Western Avenue ; the aircraft was carrying an actress bound for Pinewood Studios in Buckinghamshire . The two pilots , the actress and van driver all suffered minor injuries . The ensuing investigation by the Civil Aviation Authority 's Air Accidents Investigation Branch found that both the crew 's lack of understanding English and military air traffic control procedures had contributed significantly to the crash . Subsequently , after some thirty years of protracted consideration , an ILS was eventually fitted to Northolt 's redefined Runway 25 . In addition , aggregate @-@ filled safety pits were installed at each end of the runway by 21 January 1998 to protect road users in the event of another business jet or military transport failing to stop or ascend before the end of the runway . The House of Commons Transport Select Committee considered the conversion of RAF Northolt to a possible offshoot of Heathrow Airport in the 1990s . While the existing runways would cause aircraft to cross the flightpaths of those using Heathrow , new parallel runways were suggested . These suggestions were opposed by then MP for Ruislip @-@ Northwood , John Wilkinson , and eventually progressed no further .
Much media attention focused on the airfield when the body of Diana , Princess of Wales , arrived there from Villacoublay airfield , in Paris , France , after her death in a car crash in the city on 31 August 1997 . The Queen 's Colour Squadron , then based at neighbouring RAF Uxbridge , acted as the bearer party , while the flight was met by the Prime Minister , the Lord Chamberlain , Lord Lieutenant of Greater London , Secretary of State for Defence , the RAF Northolt station commander and the RAF Chaplain @-@ in @-@ Chief .
Attention was high again in 2001 when Ronnie Biggs , the seriously ill , fugitive Great Train Robber , was flown from Brazil to the airfield to be arrested by waiting police officers . Biggs had escaped from custody in 1965 ; upon his return he was taken to Belmarsh Prison to complete the remainder of his sentence .
Since 1 June 1998 , station commanders have served as aides @-@ de @-@ camp to Her Majesty the Queen . The station received the Freedom of Entry to the London Borough of Hillingdon on 11 May 2000 . This allowed military personnel to march through the borough in full uniform , an honour granted by the council in light of 2000 being the 60th anniversary of the Battle of Britain and the 85th anniversary of the opening of RAF Northolt . The neighbouring RAF Uxbridge station had received the same honour in 1960 .
The remains of a Hawker Hurricane flown by Flying Officer Ludwik Witold Paszkiewicz , the first pilot in No. 303 Squadron to shoot down an enemy aircraft , were donated to the station in June 2008 . During the Battle of Britain , Paszkiewicz became a flying ace and received the Distinguished Flying Cross after shooting down six aircraft . He was killed in action over Borough Green in Kent on 27 September 1940 . No. 303 Squadron recorded its 100th kill less than a month after commencing operations . Polish pilot Squadron Leader Franciszek Kornicki , who saw wartime service at RAF Northolt , was reunited with the Supermarine Spitfire he had flown at a special ceremony in September 2010 .
An additional memorial to British , Polish , Australian and New Zealand aircrew killed during the Battle of Britain was unveiled in September 2010 . In October that year , the hangar which had housed Churchill 's personal aircraft , the former Squadron Watch office and the Operations Block were given Grade II listed building status . The Operations Block was a prototype of the " Dowding System " , which facilitated the chain of command 's issuance of orders for the interception of enemy aircraft and a scheme used for the first time during the Battle of Britain . Prior to the listing , the block was renamed the Sir Keith Park Building on 20 September in honour of the former No. 11 Group RAF commander who had also served as station commander at Northolt between 1931 and 1932 . RAF Northolt itself is the only airfield used in the Battle of Britain still operated by the RAF .
Group Captain Tom Barrett , appointed station commander in September 2009 and the final station commander of neighbouring RAF Uxbridge , died on 10 March 2011 following a road traffic accident on the A40 .
In January 2012 , it was reported that the future of station was under review by the Ministry of Defence as part of efforts to reduce defence spending . A proposed use has been as a satellite of Heathrow Airport , although a Ministry of Defence spokesman described that as unlikely . Stephen Pound , Member of Parliament for Ealing North , described such a move as " disastrous " for his constituency , and said it was unlikely that the site could be sold for construction of housing .
Four Eurofighter Typhoon aircraft arrived at the station from RAF Coningsby on 2 May 2012 to take part in a security exercise as part of preparations for the 2012 Summer Olympics . During the Games , the aircraft were deployed to the station to provide air superiority protection for London , in conjunction with other security measures by the British Armed Forces . Westland Sea King helicopters of the Royal Navy were also deployed to the station . The presence of the aircraft during the Olympics became the first time fighter aircraft had been stationed at RAF Northolt since the Second World War . The Typhoons and Sea Kings left Northolt on 16 August following the conclusion of the Olympics .
The overnight base of the London Air Ambulance moved to RAF Northolt from Denham Aerodrome in February 2013 . The flying time from the station to its daytime base at the Royal London Hospital in Whitechapel is three minutes shorter than from Denham , which also provides savings for the charity .
In April 2013 , the Ministry of Defence announced a proposal to increase the number of private flights from 7 @,@ 000 to 12 @,@ 000 per year as part of plans to increase the income generated by the airfield . The number of flights would be limited to 40 per day , and the increase would be phased in over three years to 2016 .
= = = Project MoDEL redevelopment = = =
The Ministry of Defence launched Project MoDEL ( Ministry of Defence Estates London ) in 2006 to consolidate many of its London @-@ based operations at RAF Northolt . Under the project , RAF Bentley Priory , RAF Uxbridge , RAF West Ruislip , RAF Eastcote and the Inglis Barracks in Mill Hill were all closed between 2006 and 2010 with any remaining units transferring to Northolt . The Air Historical Branch , originally established in 1919 to provide a record of air activity during the First World War , was also relocated to RAF Northolt from RAF Bentley Priory in 2008 as part of this project . As a result , the station has been extensively redeveloped with new facilities to support these operations .
The statue , Letter from Home , of a First World War soldier reading a letter was moved from outside Inglis Barracks in Mill Hill to RAF Northolt in June 2007 . It is a replica of the statue at Paddington Station and was first unveiled in 1982 . Following the relocation of the British Forces Post Office and Defence Courier Service from Mill Hill , a new headquarters and main sorting facility were built for their use which opened in November 2007 . New hangar facilities for the use of No. 32 Squadron were also constructed , along with new personnel accommodation .
The original 1920s Officers ' Mess was refurbished as part of the work , which also saw the relocation of the Supermarine Spitfire ( full @-@ scale replica ) gate guardian to the passenger terminal , and the unveiling of a new Hawker Hurricane ( full @-@ scale replica ) gate guardian near the eastern station entrance in September 2010 , commemorating the aircrew based at Northolt who had fought in the Battle of Britain .
Upon the closure of RAF Uxbridge , control of the Battle of Britain Bunker passed to RAF Northolt to allow for continued public visits . In December 2010 it was agreed that the South Hillingdon branch of the St. John Ambulance service would move from its existing base in RAF Uxbridge to new premises at Northolt .
The station 's new police dog section , featuring kennels and a quarantine building , opened in February 2012 , marking the completion of building work .
= = Operations = =
The station is organised into two wings , with a number of lodger units . Within the Operations Wing , the station houses No. 32 ( The Royal ) Squadron RAF , and the Comms Fleet Force Headquarters . 32 Squadron flies six BAe 125 CC.3 executive jets , two BAe 146 CC.2 four @-@ engine VIP short range transport aircraft and two BAe 146 QC versions , with one Agusta Westland A109E Power helicopter . RAF Northolt also houses the Station Flight , operating two Britten @-@ Norman Islander CC.2s in electronic intelligence gathering – described by the RAF as performing " photographic mapping and light communications roles " .
The Support Wing of the station incorporates the Personnel Management Squadron , the Estates Management Squadron , the Station Management Squadron , the Force Development Squadron , Media and Communications , the Finance Department and Safety , Health and Environmental Protection . Its Operations Squadron , the Air Movements Squadron and the Airfield Support Squadron make up the station 's Operations Wing .
Lodger Units at Northolt include No. 600 Squadron Royal Auxiliary Air Force , 621 EOD Squadron Royal Logistics Corps ( part of 11 Explosive Ordnance Disposal Regiment RLC ) , No. 1 AIDU ( Aeronautical Information Documents Unit ) , the Central Band of the Royal Air Force , the Service Prosecuting Authority , Naval Aeronautical Information Centre , the British Forces Post Office ( BFPO ) , the Air Historical Branch and the Polish Records Office .
= = Squadrons and aircraft = =
Sources : Battle of Britain Airfields ( 1st Edition ) and A History of Royal Air Force Northolt
= = In popular culture = =
As it is near several film studios including those at Pinewood , the airfield has been used to represent outside locations in a number of feature films . Scenes of the James Bond films Goldfinger , Thunderball and Octopussy were filmed at Northolt , and station personnel served as extras in the Octopussy hangar fly @-@ through stunt scene . The mini @-@ series The Winds of War and The Bill and the BBC shows Waking the Dead , Doctor Who and Red Dwarf have all used Northolt to represent various fictional airfields . In early 2010 the station was used for the filming action scenes of the final episode of the BBC 's final series of Ashes to Ashes .
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= Margaret McKenna =
Sister Margaret McKenna , M.M.S. , ( born 1940 ) is an American Medical Mission Sister and anti @-@ militarist activist . Raised in Hackensack , New Jersey , she earned her PhD in the origins and religious thought of Christianity from the University of Pennsylvania . In the 1970s , McKenna began participating in non @-@ violent civil disobedience with the Plowshares Movement , sometimes being arrested or imprisoned for her actions . Her activism has continued through recent years .
In 1989 , McKenna helped to found New Jerusalem Laura , a North Philadelphia addiction treatment center that strives to help people recover from substance abuse without the use of medication , by substituting community service , discussion , and Bible study as routes to recovery .
= = Early life and education = =
McKenna grew up in Hackensack , New Jersey and upon graduating from high school entered the Medical Mission Sisters , a Roman Catholic organization of women dedicated to improving world access to health care . She earned a bachelor 's degree in English from Chestnut Hill College , then a small Catholic women 's college , and a master 's degree in liturgy from Notre Dame University before moving on to the University of Pennsylvania and earning a doctorate in Christian origins and religious thought . For her doctorate thesis , she traveled to Israel for the clarity and solitude .
= = Activism = =
McKenna has been arrested for several acts of civil disobedience since becoming an activist in the 1970s . In 1987 , she participated in a protest over the Iran – Contra affair during the bicentennial celebration of the signing of the constitution in Philadelphia . In 1988 on Easter Sunday , McKenna and three other Plowshares activists accessed the third deck of the USS Iowa and symbolically hammered on empty Tomahawk missile housings before pouring their own blood on them . At the same time , a banner that read " Follow the nonviolent Christ " was placed on the side of the ship . The group was charged with trespassing , and McKenna was sentenced to four months in prison . In 2007 , McKenna , as well as musician Aaron Weiss , was arrested for participating in a " die @-@ in " to protest the civilian casualties of the Iraq War on the grounds of The Pentagon in Arlington County , Virginia . This event was referenced in the song " Timothy Hay " by Weiss 's band , mewithoutYou , on their album It 's All Crazy ! It 's All False ! It 's All a Dream ! It 's Alright .
= = New Jerusalem Laura = =
McKenna and modern @-@ day hermit Richard Withers , who were both passionate about Desert Fathers then , asked themselves , " Where is the desert today ? " After concluding that " the desert " was the inner cites , in 1989 , they moved to the Fox Chase neighborhood in Northeast Philadelphia . There , they witnessed the impact of drug addiction on the lives of the residents . In reaction , McKenna and Withers founded New Jerusalem Laura in an attempt to treat drug and alcohol addiction . In addition to New Jerusalem , McKenna helped set up the Peacemakers Reflection Center and the Alternate to Violence Project in her community .
New Jerusalem Laura 's addict counseling methods were influenced by those of One Day at a Time , founded by the Rev. Henry Wells . For the first 60 days of their stay , recovering addicts are prohibited from contacting the outside world , must surrender their cigarettes , and must be escorted if they leave the building . During this time , residents occupy their time with chores , community service , meetings , and Bible studies . Less than half of all people who enter the program remain after the first 60 days . After the first 60 days , residents ' actions are less tightly restricted ; however , they are still required to participate in the chores , Bible studies , and meetings . Residents graduate from the program after six months .
McKenna believes that the reason for the New Jerusalem Laura 's success is the community . " In a recovery community , you can 't get away with [ lying ] , because it shows , " she said . " It forces you to be honest . " Nearly 400 residents have graduated from the program since its inception . Of those , close to seventy percent are reported to remain drug @-@ free , well above the results of traditional recovery methods .
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= Khandoba =
Khandoba , ( Marathi : खंडोबा Kannada : ಖಂಡೋಬಾ , Telugu : ఖండోబా , Khaṇḍobā ) also known as Martanda Bhairava and Malhari , is a Hindu god , worshipped as a form of Shiva , mainly in the Deccan plateau of India , especially in the states of Maharashtra and Karnataka . He is the most popular Kuladaivat in Maharashtra . He is also the patron deity of warrior , farming , herding as well as some Brahmin ( priest ) castes , the hunters and gatherers of the hills and forests . The cult of Khandoba has linkages with Vaishnava and Jain traditions , and also assimilates all communities irrespective of caste , including Muslims . Khandoba is sometimes identified with Mallanna of Andhra Pradesh and Mailara of Karnataka . The worship of Khandoba developed during the 9th and 10th centuries from a folk deity into a composite god possessing the attributes of Shiva , Bhairava , Surya and Karttikeya ( Skanda ) . He is depicted either in the form of a Lingam , or as an image of a warrior riding on a bull or a horse . The foremost centre of Khandoba worship is Jejuri in Maharashtra . The legends of Khandoba , found in the text Malhari Mahatmya and also narrated in folk songs , revolve around his victory over demons Mani @-@ malla and his marriages .
= = Etymology and other names = =
The name " Khandoba " comes from the words " khadga " ( sword ) , the weapon used by Khandoba to kill the demons , and " ba " ( father ) . " Khanderaya " means " king Khandoba " . Another variant is " Khanderao " , where the suffix " rao " ( king ) is used .
In Sanskrit texts , Khandoba is known as Martanda Bhairava or Surya , a combination of the solar deity Martanda and Shiva 's fierce form Bhairava . The name " Mallari " or " Malhari " is split as " Malla " and " ari " ( enemy ) , thus meaning " enemy of the demon Malla " . Malhari Mahatmya records Martanda Bhairava , pleased with the bravery of Malla , takes the name " Mallari " ( the enemy of Malla ) . Other variants include Malanna ( Mallanna ) and Mailara ( Mailar ) .
Other names include Khandu Gavda , Mhalsa @-@ kant ( " husband of Mhalsa " ) and Jejurica Vani .
= = Iconography = =
In a popular oleograph representation of Khandoba , Mhalsa is seated in front of Khandoba on his white horse . Mhalsa is piercing a demon 's chest with a spear , while a dog is biting his thigh and the horse is hitting his head . The other demon is grabbing the reins of the horse and attacking Khandoba with a club as Khandoba is dismounting the horse and attacking the demon with his sword . In other representations , Khandoba is seen seated on a horse with the heads of demons trod under the horse 's hooves or their heads under Khandoba 's knees .
In murtis ( idols ) , Khandoba or Malhara is depicted as having four arms , carrying a damaru ( drum ) , Trishula ( trident ) , Bhandara @-@ patra ( turmeric powder @-@ filled bowl ) and khadga ( sword ) . Khandoba 's images are often dressed as a Maratha Sardar , or a Muslim pathan . Often , Khandoba is depicted as a warrior seated on horseback with one or both of his wives and accompanied with one or more dogs . He is also worshipped as the aniconic Lingam , the symbol of Shiva . Often in Khandoba temples , both representations of Khandoba — the aniconic lingam and the anthropomorphic horseback form .
= = Legends = =
Legends of Khandoba generally tell about the battle between the deity and demons Malla and Mani . The principle written source of the legend is Malhari Mahatmya ( Mallari Mahatmya ) , which claims to be from the chapter Kshetra @-@ kanda of the Sanskrit text Brahmanda Purana , but is not included in standard editions of the Purana . R.C. Dhere and Sontheimer suggests that the Sanskrit Mahatmya was composed around 1460 @-@ 1510 AD , mostly by a Deshastha Brahmin , to whom Khandoba is the family deity . A version is also available in Marathi by Siddhapal Kesasri ( 1585 ) . Other sources include the later texts of Jayadri Mahatmya and Martanda Vijaya by Gangadhara ( 1821 ) and the oral stories of the Vaghyas , bards of the god .
The legend tell of the demon Malla and his younger brother Mani , who had gained the boon of invincibility from Brahma , creating chaos on the earth and harassing the sages . When the seven sages approached Shiva for protection after Indra and Vishnu confessed their incapability , Shiva assumed the form ( Avatar ) of Martanda Bhairava , as the Mahatmya calls Khandoba , riding the Nandi bull , leading an army of the gods . Martanda Bhairava is described as shining like the gold and sun , covered in turmeric also known as Haridra , three @-@ eyed , with a crescent moon on his forehead . The demon army was slaughtered by the gods and finally Khandoba killed Malla and Mani . While dying , Mani offers his white horse to Khandoba as an act of repentance and asks for a boon . The boon is that he be present in every shrine of Khandoba , that human @-@ kind is bettered and that he be given an offering of goat flesh . The boon was granted , and thus he was transformed into a demigod . Malla , when asked by the deity if he asked for a boon , asks for the destruction of the world and human @-@ flesh . Angered by the demon 's request , Khandoba decapitates him , and his head falls at the temple stairs where it will trampled by devotees ' feet . The legend further describes how two Lingas appeared at Prempuri , the place where the demons were killed .
Oral stories continue the process of Sanskritization of Khandoba — his elevation from a folk deity to Shiva , a deity of the classical Hindu pantheon — that was initiated by the texts . Khandoba 's wives Mhalsa and Banai are also identified with Shiva 's classical Hindu wives Parvati and Ganga . Hegadi Pradhan , the minister and brother @-@ in @-@ law of Khandoba and brother of Lingavat Vani Mhalsa , the faithful dog that helps Khandoba kill the demons , the horse given by Mani and the demon brothers are considered avatars of Vishnu , Krishna , Nandi and the demons Madhu @-@ Kaitabha respectively . Other myth variants narrate that Khandoba defeats a single demon named Manimalla , who offers his white horse , sometimes called Mani , to the god . Other legends depict Mhalsa ( or Parvati ) and Banai or Banu ( or Ganga ) as futilely helping Khandoba in the battle to collect the blood of Mani , every drop of which was creating a new demon . Finally , the dog of Khandoba swallows all the blood . Sometimes , Mhalsa , or rarely Banai , is described as seated behind Khandoba on the horse and fighting with a sword or spear .
The legends portray Khandoba as a king who rules from his fortress of Jejuri and holds court where he distributes gold . Also , king Khandoba goes on hunting expeditions , which often turn into " erotic adventures " , and subsequent marriages .
= = Wives = =
Khandoba has many wives who are women from many communities , who serve as cultural links between the god and the communities . He has five wives , Mhalsa and Banai / Banu / Banubai being the most important . While Khandoba 's first wife Mhalsa is from the high caste Lingayat merchant ( Vani ) community , his second wife Banai is a Dhangar ( shepherd caste ) . Mhalsa has had a regular ritualistic marriage with Khandoba . Banai , on the other hand , has a love marriage by capture with the god . Mhalsa is described as jealous and a good cook ; Banai is erotic , resolute , but does not even know to cook . Often folk songs tell of their quarrels . Mhalsa represents " culture " and Banai " nature " . The god king Khandoba stands between them .
Mhalsa is believed to be a combined avatara of Mohini and Parvati . Mhalsa was born as the daughter of a rich merchant in Newase called Tirmarsheth . On the divine orders of Khandoba in a dream to Tirmarsheth , she was married to Khandoba on Pausha Pournima ( the full moon day of Hindu calendar month of Paush ) in Pali ( Pembar ) . Two shivlingas appeared on this occasion . An annual festival marking this event is celebrated in Pali every Paush Pournima .
Banai is believed to the daughter of Indra , the king of the gods . Banai was found by Dhangar shepherd , when she was abandoned on earth by an angry Indra . When Banai grew up , it was predicted that she would get her match at Jejuri . There , she felt in love with God Khandoba . Khandoba also fell in her love . Khandoba accepted a self @-@ exile for 12 years by intentionally losing a game of chess ( Saripat ) to his wife Mhalsa . He took disguise of shepherd and started serving Banai 's father . One day , Khandoba killed all the sheep and goats of Banai ' father and promised to make them alive again if he was married to Banai . The reluctant Banai was married to Khandoba , the shepherd in disguise at Naldurg . Khandoba revealed his real form to Banai on their way back to Jejuri .
On reaching Jejuri , Khandoba was greeted by Mhalsa 's fury and her strong protest of his second marriage . To avoid the quarrels of his wives , Khandoba gave the upper half of the hill to Mhalsa and the lower half to Banai . The idol of Mhalsa is placed with Khandoba in the main shrine at top of the hill at Jejuri . A separate shrine to Banai is situated halfway down the hill .
Khandoba 's third wife , Rambhai Shimpin , is a tailor woman who was a heavenly nymph or devangana and is sometimes identified with Banai . She is a prototype of the Muralis — the girls " married " to Khandoba . Rambhai is worshipped as a goddess whom Khandoba visits after his hunt . She is also localised , being said to come from the village from Belsare , near Jejuri . The fourth wife Phulai Malin , from the gardener or Mali caste , She was a particular Murali and is thus a deified devotee of Khandoba . She is visited by him at " Davna Mal " ( field of southernwood , a herb said to be dear to Khandoba ) . The fifth wife , Candai Bhagavin , is a Telin , a member of the oilpresser caste . She is recognised as a Muslim by the Muslims . Apart from these , Muralis — girls offered to Khandoba — are considered as wives or concubines of the god .
= = Other associations and identifications = =
Mallana ( Mallikaarjuna ) of Andhra Pradesh and Mailara of Karnataka are sometimes identified with Khandoba ( Mallari , Malhari , Mairaj ) . Khandoba is also associated with Bhairava , who is connected with Brāhmanahatya ( murder of a Brahmin ) . Devotees emphasize that Khandoba is a full avatar of Shiva , and not a partial avatar like Bhairava or Virabhadra . He accepts the attributes of the demon king — his horse , weapons and royal insignia .
Sontheimer stresses the association of Khandoba with clay and termite mounds . Oral legends tell of Khandoba 's murtis being found in termite mounds or " made of earth " . According to Sontheimer , Martanda Bhairava ( Khandoba ) is a combination of the sun god Surya and Shiva , who is associated with the moon . Martanda ( " blazing orb " ) is a name of Surya , while Bhairava is a form of Shiva . Sundays , gold and turmeric , which are culturally associated with the sun , form an important part of the rituals of Khandoba . Sontheimer associates the worship of the Sun as termite mounds for fertility and his role as a healer to Khandoba 's role as granter of fertility in marriages and to the healing powers of turmeric , which the latter holds .
Another theory identifies Kartikeya ( Skanda ) with Khandoba . The hypotheses of the theory rests upon the similarities between Skanda and Khandoba , namely their association with mountains and war , similarity of their names and weapons ( the lance of Skanda and the sword of Khandoba ) and both having two principal wives . Other symbols associated with Khandoba are the dog and horse . Also the festivals for both deities , Champa Sashthi and Skanda Sashthi respectively for Khandoba and Skanda fall on the same day .
= = Worship = =
Though Shiva is worshipped across Maharashtra in his original form , some Maharashtrian communities prefer to worship him in form of his avatars , Khandoba being the most popular . He is the most popular Kuldevta ( family deity ) in Maharashtra . One of the most widely worshipped gods of the Deccan plateau , Khandoba is considered as " the premier god of Sakama bhakti ( wish @-@ granting devotion ) and one of the most powerful deities responsive to vows ( navas ) " . He is worshipped by the vast majority of Marathi Hindu people from all strata of that society . He is the patron deity of warrior , farming , herding as well as some Brahmin ( priest ) castes , the hunters and gatherers of the hills and forests , merchants and kings . The cult of Khandoba in the Deccan principally consists of peasant classes Marathas and Kunabis , shepherd Dhangars , village guards and watchmen Ramoshis — a " Denotified tribe " , the former " untouchable " Mahars and Mangs , fisher @-@ folk Kolis , balutedar castes like gardeners ( Mali ) and tailors ( Shimpi ) , though it also includes of a few Brahmins and even some Muslims . Although Brahmin presence is nominal in his cult , Deshastha Brahmins , as well as the Kokanastha Brahmins - in Nashik and Satara - do worship Khandoba , some imitating the Deshastha Brahmins . The Deshastha Brahmins , Chandraseniya Kayastha Prabhus , as well as the royal families like Gaikwads and Holkars worship Khandoba as their Kuldevta . He is also worshipped by Jains and Lingayats . He is viewed as a " king " of his followers .
= = = Rituals and modes of worship = = =
Khandoba is believed to be a kadak ( fierce ) deity , who causes troubles if not propitiated properly as per the family duties . Khandoba is worshipped with Turmeric ( Bhandār ) , Bel fruit @-@ leaves , onions and other vegetables . The deity is offered puran poli - a sweet or a simpler dish called bharit rodga of onion and brinjal . Mostly a vegetarian naivedya ( offering of food ) is offered to Khandoba in the temples , though most devotees consider him a non @-@ vegetarian and a goat flesh is offered to the deity outside the temple .
An important part of the Khandoba @-@ cult is navas , a vow to perform service to the god in return for a boon of good harvest , male child , financial success etc . On fulfilment of the navas , Khandoba was offered children or some devotees would afflict pain by hook @-@ swinging or fire @-@ walking . This type of worship using navas is called Sakama Bhakti - worship done with an expectation of return and is considered " to be of a lower esteem " . But the most faithful bhaktas ( devotees ) are considered to be greedy only for the company of their Lord , Khandoba is also called bhukela - hungry for such true bhaktas in Martanda Vijaya .
Boys called Vāghyā ( or Waghya , literally " tigers " ) and girls called Muraḹi were formerly dedicated to Khandoba , but now the practice of marrying girls to Khandoba is illegal . The Vaghyas act as the bards of Khandoba and identify themselves with the dogs of Khandoba , while Muralis act as his courtesans ( devanganas — nymphs or devadasis ) . The Vaghyas and their female counterparts Muralis sing and dance in honour of Khandoba and narrate his stories on jagarans — all night song @-@ festivals , which are sometimes held after navas fulfilment . Another custom was ritual @-@ suicide by Viras ( heroes ) in the cult . According to legend , an " untouchable " Mang ( Matanga ) sacrificed himself for the foundation of the temple at Jejuri to persuade Khandoba to stay at Jejuri forever . Other practices in the cult include the belief that Khandoba possesses the body of a Vaghya or devrsi ( shaman ) . Another ritual in the cult is an act of chain @-@ breaking in fulfilment of a vow or an annual family rite ; the chain is identified with the snake around Shiva 's neck , which was cut by the demons in the fight . Another rite associated with the family duties to please Khandoba is the tali bharne , which is to be performed every full moon day . A tali ( dish ) is filled with coconuts , fruits , betel nuts , saffron , turmeric ( Bhandar ) and Bel leaves . Then , a coconut is placed on a pot filled with water and the pot is worshipped as an embodiment of Khandoba . Then , five persons lift the tali , place it repeatedly on the pot thrice , saying " Elkot " or " Khande rayaca Elkot " . Then the coconut in the tali is broken and mixed with sugar or jaggery and given to friends and relatives . A gondhal is performed along with the tali bharne . A gondhal is a ritualistic folk art in which the performer Gondhalis invoke the deities .
Khandoba is considered as the giver of fertility . Maharashtrian Hindu couples are expected to visit a Khandoba temple to obtain Khandoba 's blessing on consummation of marriage . Traditional Maharashtrian families also organize a jagaran as part of the marriage ceremony , inviting the god to the marriage . Copper figurines of Khandoba riding on a horse ( sometimes with Mhalsa ) are worshipped by devotees on a daily basis in the household shrine .
The Sanskrit Malhari Mahatmya suggests offerings of incense , lights , betel and animals to Khandoba . The Marathi version mentions offerings of meat and the worship by chedapatadi - " causing themselves to be cut " , hook @-@ swinging and self @-@ mortification by viras . Marathi version calls this form of bhakti ( devotion ) as ugra ( violent , demonic ) bhakti . Martanda vijaya narrates about Rakshashi bhakti ( demonic worship ) by animal sacrifice and self — torture . Possession by Khandoba , in form of a wind , is lower demonic worship ( pishachi worship ) . Sattvic worship , the purest form of worship , is believed to be feeding Khandoba in form of a Brahmin .
= = = Muslim veneration = = =
Khandoba is also a figure of respect and worship to Muslims , and this affiliation is visible in the style of his temples . He is called Mallu or Ajmat Khan ( Rautray ) by Muslim devotees , and many times portrayed as being a Muslim himself in this context . The latter is believed to conferred upon by the Mughal invader king Aurangzeb , who was forced to flee from Jejuri by Khandoba 's power . Some of these distinguishing Muslim features include his usual appearance as that of a Paṭhān on horseback , one of his wives being a Muslim , and that his horse @-@ keeper is a Muslim in Jejuri . The Mārtaṇḍa Vijaya expressly states that his devotees are mainly Muslims . The worship of Khandoba had received royal patronage by Ibrahim II , which consisted of the reinstatement of the annual jatra and the right of pilgrims to perform rituals at the Naldurg temple . Malhari Mahatmya even records Muslims ( mleccha ) as the god 's bhaktas ( devotees ) , who call him as Malluka Pathan or Mallu Khan . In Jejuri , a Muslim family traditionally looks after the horses of the god .
= = = Temples = = =
There are over 600 temples dedicated to Khandoba in the Deccan . His temples stretch from Nasik , Maharashtra in the north to Davangere , Karnataka in the south , Konkan , Maharashtra in the west to western Andhra Pradesh in the east . The eleven principal centres of worship of Khandoba or jagrut kshetras , where the deity is to be called awake or " jagrut " , are recognized ; six of them in Maharashtra and the rest in northern Karnataka . Khandoba 's temples resemble forts , the capital of his kingdom being Jejuri . The priests here are Guravs , not Brahmins . His most important temples are :
Jejuri : The foremost center of worship of Khandoba . It is situated 48 km from Pune , Maharashtra . There are two temples : the first is an ancient temple known as Kadepathar . Kadepathar is difficult to climb . The second one is the newer and more famous Gad @-@ kot temple , which is easy to climb . This temple has about 450 steps , 18 Kamani ( arches ) and 350 Dipmalas ( lamp @-@ pillars ) . Both temples are fort @-@ like structures .
Pali ( Rajapur ) or Pali @-@ Pember , Satara district , Maharashtra .
Adi @-@ mailar or Khanapur ( Pember or Mailkarpur ) near Bidar , Karnataka
Naldurg , Osmanabad district , Maharashtra .
Mailara Linga , Dharwad district , Karnataka .
Mangasuli , Belgaum district , Karnataka .
Maltesh or Mailara temple at Devaragudda , Ranebennur Taluk , Haveri district , Karnataka .
Mannamailar or Mailar , Bellary , Karnataka .
Nimgaon Dawadi , Pune district , Maharashtra .
Shegud , Ahmednagar district , Maharashtra .
Komarvali , Warangal district , Telangana .
Satare , Aurangabad district , Maharashtra .
= = = Festivals = = =
A six @-@ day festival , from the first to sixth lunar day of the bright fortnight of the Hindu month of Margashirsha , in honour of Khandoba is celebrated at Jejuri , to commemorate the fight with demons Mani @-@ Malla . On the sixth day ( Champa @-@ Shashthi ) , Khandoba is believed to have slew the demons . A jatra ( temple festival and fair ) is held in Pember on Champa @-@ shasthi , and the festival continues until the day of the new moon . Another festival Somvati Amavasya , which is a new @-@ moon day that falls on a Monday , is celebrated in Jejuri . A palakhi ( palanquin ) procession of Khandoba and Mhalsa 's images is carried from the Gad @-@ kot temple to the Karha river , where the images are ritually bathed .
Deshasth Brahmans and Marathas observe the Champasashthi festival every year in honour of Khandoba . The festival begins on the bright half of the Hindu month of Margshirsha . The images of Khandoba and Malla are cleaned and worshipped . For six days a fast is observed . On the seventh day the worshippers break their fast by a feast known as the Champasashtliiche parne . An invitation to this feast is regarded as an invitation from the god Khandoba himself and is harder to refuse .
In Pali @-@ Pember , the ritual of the marriage of Khandoba with Mhalsa is annually performed . Turmeric is offered to the deities . Two festivals are celebrated in honour of Mailara , as Khandoba is known in Karnataka . These are the Dasara festival at Devaragudda , and an eleven @-@ day festival in Magha month ( February – March ) in Mailar , Bellary district . Both festivals have enactments of the battle between Mailar and the demons Mani @-@ Malla . Chaitra Purnima ( full @-@ moon day ) is also considered auspicious . In general , Sundays , associated with the sun @-@ god , are considered as considered auspicious for Khandoba worship .
= = Development of the cult = =
The cult of Khandoba , a folk religion , reflects the effect of Vedic Rudra , the Puranic Shiva worshipped as Linga in Brahmanical religion and Nath and Lingayat sects . Khandoba may be a product of the Vedic Rudra , who like Khandoba was associated with robbers , horses and dogs . Sayana traces the name Malhari to Taittiriya Samhita , Malhari is explained as enemy ( ari ) of Malha ( Prajapati ) - an epithet of Rudra , who is considered a rival to deity Prajapati . According to Stanley , Khandoba originated as a mountain @-@ top god , solar deity and a regional guardian and then assimilated into himself gods of various regions and communities . According to Stanley , Khandoba inherits traits from both the sun @-@ god Surya as well as Shiva , who is identified with the moon . Stanley describes Khandoba as " a moon god , who has become a sun god " , emphasizing on how the moon imagery of Shiva transforms into the solar iconography of Khandoba in the Malhari Mahatmya .
As per R. C. Dhere , two stone inscriptions in 1063 C.E. and 1148 C.E mentioning the folk deities Mailara and his consort Malavva which suggests that Mailara gained popularity in Karnataka in this period . Soon , royals of this region started erecting temples to this folk deity , upsetting the elite class of established religion who vilified Mailara . Initially exaulted by an incarnation of Shiva , Mailara was denouned by Basava , the founder of the Shiva @-@ worshipping Lingayat sect - who would later promote the deity . Chakradhar Swami ( c.1270 , founder of Mahanubhava sect ) , Vidyaranyaswami , Sheikh Muhammad also criticized the god . The Varkari poet @-@ saint Eknath also wrote " disparagingly " about Khandoba 's cult worship , but after him , the " open " criticism of Khandoba stopped , but the " barbaric " practices of his cult were still targeted .
Sontheimer suggests that the cult of Khandoba is at least older than 12th century , which can be determined by references in Jain and Lingayat texts and inscriptions . A 12th @-@ century Jain author Brahmashiva claims that a Jain , who died in battle after a display of his valour , was later named as Mailara . By the 13th century , wide worship of Malhari or Mailara is observed by kings , Brahmins , simple folk and warriors . With the rise of Muslim empire , classical Hindu temples fell into ruin , giving rise to the folk religion such as of Khandoba . Chakradhara remarks , ' by the end of the Kali Yuga , temples of Vishnu and Shiva will be destroyed , but those of Mailara will stay ' . A 1369 AD inscription at Ailoni near Warangal tells an account of Mallari different from Malhari Mahatmya — Shiva helped the epic hero Arjuna kill the demon Malla , thus acquiring the title of Mallari . Mailara was the family deity of Kakatiya dynasty ( 1083 – 1323 AD ) ; a text from their rule records the self @-@ torture rituals of Mailara @-@ devotees and describes the deity . Throughout his development , Mailara is looked upon as a lower manifestation of Ishvara ( God ) by Lingayat and Maharashtrian bhakti saints .
Malhari Mahatmya states that Khandoba first appeared on Champashasti , which was a Sunday , at Premapur , which identified as Pember ( Adimailar , Mailarapur ) near Bidar . Marathi traditions tell that Khandoba came originally from Premapuri , now Pember in Karnataka , then went to Naldurg , Pali and finally to Jejuri . Sontheimer suggests that the cult of Mailara may have originated in Pember and then spread to Maharashtra , merging with the cult of Khandaka — the patron yaksha ( demi @-@ god ) of Paithan giving it its distinct Maharashtrain characteristics . Maharashtrains call the god - Kanadya Khanderaya , the god from Karnataka . The cult possibly was spread by Lingayat , Jain and other merchants , associated with Mailara @-@ Khandoba , to other parts of the Deccan . Besides Mailara , Khandoba is identified with other deities of Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh , and is called as Mallanna , Mairala , and Mallu Khan . Other traditions like Shakta cults of folk goddesses were assimilated into the Khandoba cult , identifying the goddesses with Khandoba 's wives Mhalsa or Banai .
Marathi literature has a mixed reaction to the cult of Khandoba . Naranjanamadhva ( 1790 ) in stotra ( hymn ) dedicated to Khandoba calls him " an illustrious king with rich clothes and a horse with a saddle studded with jewels " , who was once " an ascetic beggar who ride an old bull and carried an ant @-@ bitten club ( khatvanga ) " - a humorous take on the Puranic Shiva . In another instance ( 1855 ) , he is called a ghost by a Christian missionary and Konastha Brahmin in a debate against Deshastha Brahmin . Another Brahmin remarks with scorn about the impurity of the Khandoba temple , visited by Sudras and whose priests are non @-@ Brahmin Guravs . The Marathi term " khel @-@ khandoba " , which is taken to mean " devastation " in general usage , refers to the possession of devotee by the god in his cult .
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= 2009 Alabama Crimson Tide football team =
The 2009 Alabama Crimson Tide football team ( variously " Alabama " , " UA " , " Bama " or " The Tide " ) represented the University of Alabama in the 2009 NCAA Division I FBS football season . It was the Crimson Tide 's 115th overall season , 76th season as a member of the Southeastern Conference ( SEC ) and its 18th within the SEC Western Division . The team was led by head coach Nick Saban , in his third year , and played their home games at Bryant – Denny Stadium in Tuscaloosa , Alabama . They finished the season undefeated with a record of 14 – 0 ( 8 – 0 in the SEC ) and as national champions .
Looking to build on the successes of the 2008 campaign , Alabama entered the 2009 season as the favorite to win the Western Division and meet the Florida Gators in the 2009 SEC Championship Game . Alabama closed the regular season with a 12 – 0 record including four wins against Top 25 @-@ ranked teams — and met the Gators for the SEC Championship in a rematch of the 2008 contest . Alabama was victorious by a final score of 32 – 13 . The following day , final Bowl Championship Series ( BCS ) standings were unveiled . No. 1 ranked Alabama would meet No. 2 ranked Texas for the BCS National Championship . In the BCS National Championship Game , the Crimson Tide defeated the Longhorns 37 – 21 to capture their first @-@ ever BCS Championship .
Alabama earned their third SEC championship since the inception of the SEC Championship Game in 1992 , and their 22nd SEC title . The victory over Texas gave Alabama their 13th national championship in football ( their eighth wire service title since the AP Poll began in 1936 ) and their ninth perfect season since 1925 . The season included victories over the previous three national champions : Florida , Louisiana State University ( LSU ) , and Texas .
The season marked the first time a player for Alabama won the Heisman Trophy : Mark Ingram won the award over Stanford running back Toby Gerhart . Other award winners included Rolando McClain , who won the Butkus Award and the Jack Lambert Award , and defensive coordinator Kirby Smart , who won the Broyles Award as the nation 's top assistant coach . Also , six players were named to various All @-@ America Teams with Terrence Cody , Mike Johnson , and Javier Arenas being consensus selections and Ingram and McClain each being unanimous selections .
= = Before the season = =
During the 2008 – 2009 campaign , the Crimson Tide completed a perfect 12 – 0 regular season record with wins over No. 9 Clemson , No. 3 Georgia , longtime rival Tennessee , No. 16 LSU , and in @-@ state rival Auburn to end a six game losing streak in the Iron Bowl . The Tide went on to lose their final two games in the postseason to end the season 12 – 2 . They lost to the Florida Gators ( 31 – 20 ) in the SEC Championship Game , and to the Utah Utes ( 31 – 17 ) in the Sugar Bowl . Alabama reached No. 1 in the AP and Coaches ' Polls for the first time since the final polls in 1992 and during the regular season for the first time since 1980 between weeks ten and fourteen . The Tide reached No. 1 in the BCS rankings for the first time in school history between weeks ten and fourteen . The team finished the 2008 season with a final ranking of No. 6 in both the AP and Coaches ' Polls .
In February 2009 , Alabama signed the No. 1 recruiting class according to Rivals and the No. 2 recruiting class according to Scout . Spring practice began on March 13 and concluded with the annual A @-@ Day game on April 18 . Televised live by ESPN , the Crimson team defeated the White team by a score of 14 – 7 before 84 @,@ 050 fans in Bryant – Denny Stadium . Greg McElroy and Marquis Maze were named co @-@ MVPs of the game .
On June 11 , 2009 , the NCAA Committee on Infractions sanctioned Alabama for " major violations " of NCAA policies as a result of athletes who received improper benefits in 16 of 19 NCAA sports , including football . As a penalty , the football program was forced to vacate 21 victories from the 2005 , 2006 , and 2007 seasons in addition to being placed on three years probation , ending in June 2012 . The university stated that none of the textbooks or materials identified in the investigation were used for profit , and that the athletes involved who still had eligibility remaining were to pay restitution for the additional materials identified as part of the inquiry . Alabama appealed the ruling to the NCAA Infractions Appeals Committee in late June , but was unsuccessful ; the Committee upheld the sanctions in March 2010 .
During SEC Media Days in July , voters selected Alabama and Florida to again win their divisions , with 63 of 64 ballots choosing Florida to win the SEC Championship Game . Voters selected Julio Jones , Mike Johnson , Terrence Cody , Rolando McClain , Javier Arenas ( as a defensive back ) , and Leigh Tiffin to the Preseason All @-@ SEC First Team and selected Mark Ingram and Arenas ( as a return specialist ) to the Preseason All @-@ SEC Second Team .
By August , Alabama had 19 players on 11 different preseason award watch lists . These included Cody and McClain for the Chuck Bednarik Award ; Jones for the Fred Biletnikoff Award ; Dont ’ a Hightower and McClain for the Butkus Award ; Leigh Tiffin for the Lou Groza Award ; Cody , Hightower , Mike Johnson , and McClain for the Lombardi Award ; Cody and McClain for the Lott Trophy ; Jones for the Maxwell Award ; Javier Arenas , Cody , and McClain for the Bronko Nagurski Trophy ; Cody and Johnson for the Outland Trophy ; Arenas for the Jim Thorpe Award ; and Mark Ingram for the Doak Walker Award .
= = = Returning starters = = =
Alabama had 16 returning starters from the previous season , including eight on defense , four on offense , and all of the special teams . The most notable departures from the previous year were Andre Smith , Antoine Caldwell , and Marlon Davis on the offensive line ; John Parker Wilson at quarterback ; Glen Coffee at running back ; and Rashad Johnson at safety .
= = = Recruiting class = = =
Alabama 's recruiting class was highlighted by seven players from the " ESPN 150 " : No. 4 Dre Kirkpatrick ( CB ) ; No. 6 Trent Richardson ( RB ) ; No. 12 D.J. Fluker ( OT ) ; No. 20 Nico Johnson ( ILB ) ; No. 36 A. J. McCarron ( QB ) ; No. 65 Kendall Kelly ( WR ) ; No. 110 Tana Patrick ( OLB ) ; No. 142 Petey Smith ( ILB ) ; and No. 143 Eddie Lacy ( RB ) . Alabama signed the No. 1 recruiting class according to Rivals and the No. 2 recruiting class according to Scout . The football program received 29 letters of intent on National Signing Day , February 4 , 2009 .
= = Schedule = =
The Sagarin computer ratings calculated Alabama 's strength of schedule to be the most difficult out of the 245 Division I teams . The Congrove Computer Rankings also calculated it as the most difficult out of the 120 Division I FBS teams in its rankings . Alabama 's 2009 schedule was officially released on December 19 , 2008 . In accordance with conference rules , Alabama faced all five Western Division opponents : Arkansas , Auburn , LSU , Mississippi State , and Ole Miss . They also faced three Eastern Division opponents : official SEC rival Tennessee , Kentucky , and South Carolina . Alabama did not play SEC opponents Georgia and Vanderbilt . Although not on the regular season schedule , Bama met Florida in the SEC Championship Game .
Alabama also played five non @-@ conference games . For the season opener , the Tide played in the Chick @-@ fil @-@ A Kickoff Game against Virginia Tech at the Georgia Dome in Atlanta . The non @-@ conference schedule also included games against Florida International and North Texas of the Sun Belt Conference and UT @-@ Chattanooga of the Football Championship Subdivision ( FCS ) . For the 2010 BCS National Championship Game , Alabama played Texas for the first time since the 1982 Cotton Bowl Classic .
Source : Rolltide.com All @-@ time Football Results : 2009 Season
= = Depth chart = =
Starters and backups .
= = Coaching staff = =
Prior to the 2009 season , Alabama made several changes to its coaching staff . Alabama lost their defensive head coach , Kevin Steele , on January 10 , 2009 , when he was hired as defensive coordinator for Clemson , and their linebacker coach Lance Thompson on January 16 , when he was hired as linebacker coach by Tennessee . The following week , Saban named Sal Sunseri from the NFL 's Carolina Panthers as his team 's new assistant head and linebacker coach , and James Willis from Auburn as the new associate head and linebacker coach .
= = Game notes = =
= = = Virginia Tech = = =
After defeating Clemson in the inaugural Chick @-@ fil @-@ A Kickoff Game , Alabama announced in December 2008 they would return for the 2009 edition against the Virginia Tech Hokies . The Tide dominated play for most of the game , outgaining Tech in total offense by 498 yards to 155 , but mistakes , penalties , and poor play by the special teams allowed the Hokies to hang on until 18 fourth @-@ quarter points sealed the 34 – 24 Alabama victory .
Bama scored first with field goals of 49 and 34 yards from Leigh Tiffin to take an early 6 – 0 lead . The Hokies responded with a 98 @-@ yard Dyrell Roberts kickoff return for a touchdown to give Tech a 7 – 6 lead . Following the recovery of a Ryan Williams fumble by Brian Selman deep in Hokie territory , the Tide retook the lead 9 – 7 on a 32 @-@ yard Tiffin field goal . Early in the second quarter , Antoine Hopkins intercepted a Greg McElroy pass . On the ensuing possession , Tech led 10 – 9 after a successful 28 @-@ yard Matt Waldron field goal . Alabama responded by driving 76 yards for a touchdown and a 16 – 10 lead , with the big plays coming on a 14 @-@ yard run by Mark Ingram , passes of 16 and 10 yards from McElroy to Julio Jones and the score coming on a 19 @-@ yard Roy Upchurch run . On the next Virginia Tech possession , three personal fouls and a pass interference penalty carried the Hokies downfield with Williams scoring on an one @-@ yard touchdown run . The score remained 17 – 16 at the half after Tiffin missed a 36 @-@ yard field goal at the end of the second quarter .
In the third quarter Roy Upchurch fumbled the ball at the Tech nine after a long run , negating the lone scoring opportunity for either team in the third quarter . Still down by a point in the fourth quarter , McElroy hit Marquis Maze for a 48 @-@ yard completion to the Virginia Tech six @-@ yard line , and Ingram scored a touchdown on the next play . A successful two @-@ point conversion pass from McElroy to Colin Peek gave Alabama a 24 – 17 lead . On the ensuing kickoff , Davon Morgan fumbled and Chris Rogers recovered for the Tide at the Tech 21 . The following Alabama drive stalled at the 3 , but Tiffin 's fourth field goal made the score 27 – 17 . Poor kickoff coverage and penalties set up a 32 @-@ yard Williams that run cut the lead to 27 – 24 late in the fourth quarter . Alabama quickly struck back as Ingram rushed for 39 yards , McElroy completed a 19 @-@ yard pass to Peek , and then threw to Ingram for an 18 @-@ yard touchdown and a 34 – 24 lead . The Hokies never threatened to score again and Alabama won its opener , 34 – 24 . Ingram led the Tide with 150 yards rushing on 26 carries and a pair of touchdowns , and he was named the SEC Offensive Player of the Week . The victory improved Alabama 's all @-@ time record against the Hokies to 11 – 1 .
= = = Florida International = = =
The Golden Panthers of Florida International proved a tougher opponent than Alabama expected in the first half . However , the Tide pulled away with a 40 – 14 victory in the 2009 home opener . Alabama opened the scoring with a 23 @-@ yard Leigh Tiffin field goal followed by a 24 @-@ yard Greg McElroy touchdown pass to Mike McCoy , which gave Bama a 10 – 0 lead . FIU followed the McElroy touchdown with T.Y. Hilton returning the ensuing kickoff 96 yards , bringing the score to 10 – 7 . Bama responded with a 29 @-@ yard Tiffin field goal to extend the lead to 13 – 7 early in the second quarter ; the following kickoff was booted out of bounds , which set up the Golden Panthers at the 40 . The ensuing 60 @-@ yard drive resulted in a 9 @-@ yard Paul McCall touchdown pass to Greg Ellingson that gave FIU a 14 – 13 lead . Bama responded with a 64 @-@ yard drive culminating with a two @-@ yard Mark Ingram touchdown run to put Bama up 20 – 14 at the half .
Trent Richardson continued the Alabama scoring in the third quarter with a nine @-@ yard touchdown run to extend the lead to 26 – 14 . A 46 @-@ yard punt return by Javier Arenas set up Richardson 's second score on a 35 @-@ yard touchdown run on the first play of the fourth quarter . Alabama led 33 – 14 . Terry Grant scored the Tide 's final points with a 42 @-@ yard touchdown run to bring the final score to 40 – 14 . Alabama outgained FIU 516 – 214 in total offense and 275 – 1 in rushing offense . Greg McElroy set an all @-@ time Alabama record by completing 14 consecutive pass attempts and was 18 – 24 for 241 yards and a touchdown . For his 113 @-@ yard , two @-@ touchdown rushing performance , Richardson was named the SEC Freshman of the Week . The victory improved Alabama 's all @-@ time record against the Golden Panthers to 2 – 0 .
= = = North Texas = = =
Alabama 's second consecutive matchup with a Sun Belt opponent on the season resulted in its second consecutive victory , as the Tide defeated the North Texas Mean Green 53 – 7 . Greg McElroy opened the scoring with a two @-@ yard touchdown run followed by a 34 @-@ yard touchdown pass to Marquis Maze to take a 14 – 0 first quarter lead . The Tide continued the scoring in the second quarter , with touchdowns on a one @-@ yard Trent Richardson run and a 29 @-@ yard McElroy pass to Mark Ingram followed with a 35 @-@ yard Leigh Tiffin field goal . This gave Alabama a 30 – 0 lead at the half . In the third quarter , Bama extended their lead to 44 – 0 following touchdown runs of five and one yard respectively from Ingram and Terry Grant . After North Texas reached the end zone on a 34 @-@ yard Nathan Tune touchdown pass to Lance Dunbar , Alabama closed the game with ten fourth @-@ quarter points on a 20 @-@ yard Tiffin field goal and 9 @-@ yard Grant touchdown run .
Alabama outgained the Mean Green 523 – 187 in yards of total offense . It was the most points for Alabama in a game since beating Texas @-@ El Paso 56 – 7 in 2001 and the most scored at Bryant – Denny since defeating Tulane 62 – 0 in 1991 . By completing of 13 of 15 passes , McElroy tied a school record with an overall completion percentage of 86 @.@ 7 . The game was notable for McElroy as the North Texas head coach , Todd Dodge , was his high school head coach when McElroy led Southlake Carroll to the 2005 Texas Class 5A high school football championship . The victory improved Alabama 's all @-@ time record against the Mean Green to 3 – 0 .
= = = Arkansas = = =
In Bobby Petrino 's first visit to Tuscaloosa as a head coach , Alabama opened conference play by defeating the Arkansas Razorbacks 35 – 7 . After a scoreless first quarter , two big touchdown plays , a 52 @-@ yard run by Trent Richardson and a 50 @-@ yard pass from Greg McElroy to Julio Jones , had the Tide up 14 – 0 at the half . Arkansas responded early in the third quarter and cut the lead to 14 – 7 after Ryan Mallett hit Greg Childs for an 18 @-@ yard touchdown reception ; the Hogs would not reach the end zone again as the Tide responded with three unanswered touchdowns . Bama scored first on an 80 @-@ yard touchdown pass from McElroy to Marquis Maze followed with two touchdowns by Mark Ingram , one on a 14 @-@ yard pass from McElroy and one on a 2 @-@ yard run , bringing the final score to 35 – 7 .
Alabama outgained the Razorbacks 425 – 254 in yards of total offense . McElroy threw for career highs of 291 yards and three touchdowns . For his 65 @-@ yard , nine @-@ carry , one @-@ touchdown performance , Richardson was named the SEC Freshman of the Week . The victory improved Alabama 's all @-@ time record against the Razorbacks to 10 – 8 ( 13 – 7 without NCAA vacations and forfeits ) .
= = = Kentucky = = =
In Alabama 's first trip to Lexington since 2004 , and their first road game of the 2009 season , the Tide defeated the Kentucky Wildcats 38 – 20 . Alabama scored on their opening drive after Javier Arenas returned the opening kickoff 60 yards , which set up an 11 @-@ yard Mark Ingram touchdown for an early 7 – 0 lead . Kentucky responded with a pair of 49 @-@ yard Lones Seiber field goals . The score was 7 – 6 at the end of the first quarter . The Tide extended their lead late in the second quarter following a nearly seven @-@ minute , 13 @-@ play , 97 @-@ yard touchdown drive . Greg McElroy passes of 27 and 21 yards and a 13 @-@ yard run by Ingram moved Bama down the field , culminating with a three @-@ yard touchdown pass from McElroy to Colin Peek to put the Tide up 14 – 6 . With only 40 seconds remaining in the half , Kentucky tailback Derrick Locke fumbled the ball after catching a short pass . Courtney Upshaw returned 45 yards for an Alabama touchdown that put the Tide ahead 21 – 6 at halftime .
On the second play of the third quarter , Rolando McClain intercepted a Mike Hartline pass , giving Alabama possession at the Wildcat 38 . Two plays later Ingram scored on a 32 @-@ yard run , making the score 28 – 6 . Following an Eryk Anders interception that set up a 36 @-@ yard Leigh Tiffin field goal , the Wildcats reached the end zone for the first time on the ensuing drive . Hartline connected with Randall Cobb for a 45 @-@ yard touchdown reception in bringing the score to 31 – 13 . The Tide responded with a 7 @-@ yard Darius Hanks touchdown reception to complete a 13 @-@ play , 76 @-@ yard drive . Kentucky scored the afternoon 's final points in the fourth quarter on a two @-@ yard Alfonso Smith touchdown run . The final score was 38 – 20 . Kentucky 's four turnovers sabotaged an effort that was better than any other of Alabama 's previous opponents , as the Wildcats gained 301 yards in total offense and held Alabama to 352 . McElroy threw for two touchdowns , giving him nine on the season against only one interception , and Ingram rushed for 140 yards on 22 carries . For his 12 tackles ( 8 solo ) , one interception , one forced fumble and one pass break @-@ up , McClain was named both the SEC Defensive Player of the Week and the Bronko Nagurski Award National Defensive Player of the Week . The victory improved Alabama 's all @-@ time record against the Wildcats to 35 – 2 – 1 .
= = = Ole Miss = = =
Before the largest crowd to ever witness a game in Vaught – Hemingway Stadium , Alabama defeated their long @-@ time rival , the Ole Miss Rebels , 22 – 3 . Alabama struggled to put the ball in the end zone all afternoon with drives stalled at the Mississippi 8 , 4 , 4 , 4 , and 13 . Each of those drives resulted in a field goal by Leigh Tiffin , who was 5 for 5 on the day . Other special teams contributions included a blocked punt in the second quarter and a recovered Dexter McCluster fumble on a punt return in the third quarter , both by Cory Reamer . McElroy struggled , completing only 15 of 34 passes for 147 yards , but Mark Ingram ran for a then career @-@ high 172 yards and accounted for Alabama 's only touchdown on a 36 @-@ yard run in the second quarter .
The Alabama defense had an excellent day , with Javier Arenas , Kareem Jackson , Rolando McClain , and Cory Reamer each intercepting a Jevan Snead pass . Overall , the Tide held the Rebels to 212 yards of total offense and a single Joshua Shene field goal in the third quarter. center William Vlachos was named the SEC Offensive Lineman of the Week and Tiffin was named the Lou Groza Award " Star of Stars " for his five field goal performance . The victory was the team 's sixth in a row over the Rebels and improved Alabama 's all @-@ time record against Ole Miss to 43 – 9 – 2 ( 47 – 8 – 2 without NCAA vacations and forfeits ) .
= = = South Carolina = = =
In South Carolina 's first trip to Bryant – Denny since 2004 , the Tide defeated the South Carolina Gamecocks 20 – 6 on homecoming in Tuscaloosa . On the second play from the start of the game , Mark Barron intercepted a Stephen Garcia pass and returned it 77 yards for a touchdown and a 7 – 0 Alabama lead . Greg McElroy struggled ; he threw a pair of first @-@ quarter interceptions on Bama 's first two offensive possessions . South Carolina 's C.C. Whitlock fumbled the ball on the return of the second interception and possession was recovered by Darius Hanks . The Tide continued its drive to the Gamecock 8 , and Leigh Tiffin kicked a field goal to put Alabama ahead 10 – 0 .
Following a failed 49 @-@ yard Leigh Tiffin field goal attempt in the second quarter , South Carolina answered by driving to the Alabama five @-@ yard line . However , the Bama defense held the Gamecock offense to three consecutive incompletions ; the result was a 22 @-@ yard Spencer Lanning field goal to make the score 10 – 3 . On the following possession , Mark Ingram ran 54 yards to the South Carolina 28 . The drive stalled at the 17 and Tiffin 's field goal made it 13 – 3 . South Carolina responded with a quick drive that ended with a 31 @-@ yard Lanning field goal as time expired in the first half with the score 13 – 6 .
After a scoreless third quarter , with 8 : 08 to go , Alabama took possession at its own 32 following a Gamecock punt . Taking direct snaps out of the wildcat formation , Ingram rushed for 64 yards on five carries , then took a pitch from Greg McElroy for the last four yards and the touchdown , sealing Alabama 's 20 – 6 victory . The Alabama offense turned the ball over four times in this game after committing only two turnovers in the first six games . Mark Ingram 's 246 yards rushing marked his third consecutive career @-@ high effort and the third highest single game total in Alabama history . For their performances , Ingram was named the SEC Offensive Player of the Week and Rolando McClain was named the Lott Trophy IMPACT Player of the Week . The victory improved Alabama 's all @-@ time record against the Gamecocks to 10 – 3 ( 12 – 2 before NCAA vacations and forfeits ) .
= = = Tennessee = = =
This edition of the Third Saturday in October was a defensive struggle with a surprise finish as the Crimson Tide defeated the Tennessee Volunteers 12 – 10 . In a defensive struggle for both teams , Leigh Tiffin was 4 for 4 on field goals and accounted for all of Alabama 's scoring .
With the Tennessee defense stopping the Tide on consecutive drives , Alabama 's defense responded with Mark Barron intercepting a Jonathan Crompton pass at the Bama 19 in the first quarter . The ensuing drive resulted in a 38 @-@ yard Leigh Tiffin field goal and a 3 – 0 lead . The Vols responded with a 24 @-@ yard Daniel Lincoln field goal that tied the game 3 – 3 . Tiffin hit field goals of 50 and 22 yards before Lincoln missed a 47 @-@ yard attempt at the end of the first half , leaving the score 9 – 3 at halftime . After a scoreless third , in the fourth Tennessee drove to the Alabama 27 , but Terrence Cody blocked Lincoln 's field goal . On the ensuing possession , Tiffin hit a 49 @-@ yard field goal to bring the score to 12 – 3 .
Late in the fourth , Mark Ingram lost a fumble for the first time in his collegiate career , giving Tennessee possession at the Alabama 43 with 3 : 29 remaining in the game . The Vols drove the ball 43 yards in 2 : 10 , culminating with an 11 @-@ yard Crompton touchdown pass to Gerald Jones to cut the gap to 12 – 10 . The Vols followed with a successful onside kick attempt and regained possession of the ball at their own 41 @-@ yard line . After Tennessee was penalized five yards for a false start , Crompton completed a pass to Luke Stocker for 23 yards , to the Bama 27 @-@ yard line . With the clock ticking off the final seconds and Tennessee out of time outs , Crompton spiked the ball to stop the clock with four seconds left . This set up Lincoln for a 45 @-@ yard field goal attempt to win the game . However , Terrence Cody knocked his blocker over and broke through the line . He blocked Lincoln 's field goal as time expired , preserving Alabama 's 12 – 10 victory and perfect season . For their performances , Cody was named the SEC Defensive Lineman of the Week and Tiffin was named the SEC Special Teams Player of the Week .
= = = LSU = = =
With the SEC West divisional championship on the line , Alabama defeated their long @-@ time rival the LSU Tigers 24 – 15 to secure a spot in the SEC Championship Game . Following a scoreless first quarter , LSU took possession on its own 9 on the last play of the first quarter and embarked on a 13 @-@ play , 91 @-@ yard drive that ended in a 12 @-@ yard touchdown pass from Jordan Jefferson to Deangelo Peterson and a 7 – 0 lead . Javier Arenas returned the ensuing punt 40 yards to the Alabama 49 , and the Tide drove to the LSU 11 before settling for a 28 @-@ yard Leigh Tiffin field goal that made the score 7 – 3 . Neither team could mount a sustained drive for the rest of the half .
At the start of the second half Alabama received the kickoff , took possession at its own 19 , and started getting the ball to Mark Ingram . On the drive , Ingram was responsible for a 12 @-@ yard reception from Greg McElroy and rushes of 4 , 12 , 12 , and 18 yards that advanced the ball to the Tiger 23 . Two plays later , McElroy hit Darius Hanks for his first touchdown pass since the Kentucky game , and Alabama was up 10 – 7 . The ensuing LSU drive stalled at the Tide 46 . The LSU punt was downed at the Alabama 1 @-@ yard line . Two plays later McElroy was sacked for a safety , making the score 10 – 9 . LSU returned the free kick to its own 41 and drove 59 yards for the touchdown , the big play coming on a 34 @-@ yard run by Charles Scott . The two @-@ point conversion attempt failed , leaving the score 15 – 10 in favor of LSU .
Alabama received the kickoff and again relied on Ingram : seven Ingram rushes for 48 yards accounted for most of the offense on a drive that ended with a 20 @-@ yard Tiffin field goal , making the score 15 – 13 . Following a LSU three and out , Alabama took possession on its own 27 @-@ yard line . On first down , McElroy completed a screen pass to Julio Jones which Jones turned into a 73 @-@ yard touchdown . After a successful two @-@ point conversion , Alabama led 21 – 15 . LSU went three and out again . A methodical 11 @-@ play , 31 @-@ yard Alabama drive consumed 6 : 14 of game time and ended in a 40 @-@ yard Tiffin field goal with 3 : 04 left to seal a 24 – 15 Alabama victory . Alabama won the SEC Western Division championship and clinched a berth in the SEC Championship Game against Florida , which clinched the East that same day with a 27 – 3 victory over Vanderbilt . Ingram rushed for 144 yards and Jones had 102 receiving yards . The victory improved Alabama 's all @-@ time record against the Tigers to 45 – 23 – 5 .
= = = Mississippi State = = =
Playing in front of the largest crowd to ever witness a game in Davis Wade Stadium , and with the Bulldogs wearing black jerseys for the first time in their history , Alabama cruised to a 31 – 3 victory over long @-@ time rival Mississippi State . After a scoreless first quarter , Alabama scored a pair of touchdowns in the second to take a 14 – 0 lead . The first touchdown came on a 45 @-@ yard Darius Hanks reception from Greg McElroy and the second on a 1 @-@ yard Mark Ingram run .
After a 39 @-@ yard field goal by Leigh Tiffin extended the lead to 17 – 0 in the third , the Bulldogs scored their only points of the night on a 34 @-@ yard Derek DePasquale field goal . On the ensuing kickoff , Javier Arenas returned the ball 46 yards and on the next play , McElroy hit Julio Jones for a 48 @-@ yard touchdown reception . The score was 24 – 3 . Mark Barron intercepted a Tyson Lee pass at the Alabama 30 on the next Bulldog offensive series . On the following play , Ingram scored a touchdown on a 70 @-@ yard run to bring the final score to 31 – 3 .
For the game , McElroy threw for 192 yards and two touchdowns on 13 of 18 passing , and Mark Ingram rushed for 149 yards two touchdowns . Mississippi State was held to 213 total yards , with Barron intercepting two Tyson Lee and Marquis Johnson intercepting one Chris Relf pass . For his performance , left guard Mike Johnson was named the SEC Offensive Lineman of the Week . The victory improved Alabama 's all @-@ time record against the Bulldogs to 73 – 18 – 3 ( 72 – 19 – 3 without NCAA vacations and forfeits ) .
= = = Chattanooga = = =
On senior day in Tuscaloosa , Alabama dipped down to college football 's Football Championship Subdivision and defeated the Mocs of UT @-@ Chattanooga 45 – 0 . After being stopped on their first possession , Alabama reached the end zone on the next five consecutive possessions in running up a 35 – 0 lead in the first half . First @-@ quarter touchdowns included a 2 @-@ yard Trent Richardson run , a 25 @-@ yard Mark Ingram run , and a 19 @-@ yard Julio Jones reception from Greg McElroy . In the second quarter , touchdowns were scored by Javier Arenas on a 66 @-@ yard punt return and on a 40 @-@ yard Ingram run . With the only third quarter points coming on a 41 @-@ yard Leigh Tiffin field goal , Bama 's final points of the afternoon came on a 21 @-@ yard Roy Upchurch touchdown run in the fourth .
Javier Arenas set the all @-@ time SEC record with his seventh punt return for a touchdown and was named the SEC Special Teams Player of the Week . Mark Ingram led the offense with 102 yards and two touchdowns before being pulled early in the second quarter . Alabama outgained Chattanooga in total offense 422 – 84 and recorded their first defensive shutout since defeating Auburn 36 – 0 in 2008 . The victory improved Alabama 's all @-@ time record against the Mocs to 11 – 0 .
= = = Auburn = = =
One year after Alabama 's 36 – 0 victory in Tuscaloosa , the 2009 Iron Bowl contest against the Auburn Tigers ended with a 26 – 21 Tide victory and a 12 – 0 regular season . The Tigers , who entered the game 7 – 4 and unranked , took the ball after Alabama 's initial three and out and struck quickly . On Auburn 's fourth play from scrimmage , Terrell Zachery raced 67 yards on a reverse for a touchdown and a 7 – 0 Auburn lead . The run was the longest allowed by the Tide since a 70 @-@ yard run by Arkansas ' Darren McFadden in 2005 . Auburn then successfully executed an onside kick and retained possession of the ball . After the onside kick , Auburn drove 58 yards in 12 plays , scoring on a 1 @-@ yard touchdown pass from Chris Todd to Eric Smith . The Crimson Tide , which had never trailed in a game by more than seven points all season , found itself down 14 – 0 before the first quarter was over .
Early in the second quarter Alabama completed a 10 @-@ play , 58 @-@ yard drive by scoring on a two @-@ yard run by backup tailback Trent Richardson . The key plays were a 15 @-@ yard pass from McElroy to Darius Hanks and a 13 @-@ yard pass from McElroy to Richardson . After an exchange of punts gave Alabama good starting position at the Auburn 45 , the Tide quickly struck again with McElroy hitting tight end Colin Peek on a 33 @-@ yard touchdown pass that left the game tied 14 – 14 at halftime .
In the third quarter , Auburn scored on another quick strike . The Tigers took possession on their 24 after a Bama punt ; Kodi Burns rushed for four yards , and then Todd hit Darvin Adams on a 72 @-@ yard completion that put Auburn back in front 21 – 14 . The completion marked the longest play from scrimmage allowed by the Bama defense all season and the longest pass play since 1999 . Javier Arenas gave Alabama an opportunity by returning the ensuing kickoff 46 yards to the Auburn 45 , but Mark Ingram , who struggled the entire game , rushed for 7 yards and 2 yards and then was held for no gain on both third and one and fourth and one , and Alabama turned the ball over on downs . Auburn went three and out and punted , and Arenas set the Tide up again , returning the punt 56 yards to the Auburn 33 @-@ yard line . Alabama drove to the Auburn 10 before settling for a Leigh Tiffin field goal that cut the deficit to 21 – 17 . Alabama kicked off and two plays later , Auburn quarterback Todd threw an interception that gave Alabama possession at the Auburn 43 . The Tide drove to the Tigers ' 13 before this drive also stalled , forcing another Leigh Tiffin field goal that made the score 21 – 20 . As the third quarter ended , Auburn continued to hang on to a one @-@ point lead .
Neither team could make progress with possessions early in the fourth quarter , and after an exchange of punts , Alabama got the ball on its own 21 with 8 : 27 to go , and began what would soon be known as " The Drive " . Richardson opened with a 7 @-@ yard rush , and on third and three , McElroy completed a nine @-@ yard pass to Julio Jones for a first down . Three plays later , on third and five , McElroy completed a six @-@ yard pass to Jones for another first down and advancing the ball to the Tide 48 . Two plays later , on second and eight , a third pass from McElroy to Jones for 11 yards led to a third first down . Two plays after that , a fourth pass from McElroy to Jones and a fourth first down at the Auburn 28 @-@ yard line . On second and nine at the Auburn 27 , McElroy chose a different target , hitting Richardson for a first down to the Auburn 11 @-@ yard line . After a four @-@ yard run by Richardson to the Auburn 7 , the Tigers called time out with 1 : 34 left . Richardson took the ball three more yards to the Auburn 4 , leaving the Tide at third and three . Each team called a time out in succession with 1 : 29 left . Alabama 's offensive coaches called for a running play , but head coach Nick Saban , unwilling to settle for a field goal , overruled this decision and demanded a pass . McElroy completed a 4 @-@ yard touchdown pass to third @-@ string tailback Roy Upchurch , giving Alabama a 26 – 21 lead with 1 : 24 to go . McElroy had completed seven consecutive passes on The Drive after missing his first .
A two @-@ point conversion attempt failed and the lead was five points . Auburn took possession at the 25 following the kickoff and took 1 : 14 to run four plays and advance the ball to its own 46 with ten seconds to go . Todd completed a 17 @-@ yard pass to Darvin Adams at the Alabama 37 , and after spiking the ball , Todd 's last pass fell incomplete and the game was over . Alabama had survived , beating Auburn 26 – 21 despite being outgained 332 yards to 291 and being held to only 73 yards rushing .
= = = Florida = = =
Alabama faced Florida in the SEC Championship Game in a rematch of the 2008 contest , with the Tide capturing their 22nd conference championship following their 32 – 13 victory over the Gators . The Tide struck first , driving 47 yards with the opening possession before Leigh Tiffin kicked a 48 @-@ yard field goal and a 3 – 0 lead . Following a Florida three and out on their first possession , Alabama responded with an 8 @-@ play , 76 @-@ yard touchdown drive . On the drive , Greg McElroy completed key passes to Colin Peek and Marquis Maze and Mark Ingram rushed for 37 yards and the touchdown in taking a 9 – 0 lead following a missed extra point . On the ensuing possession , Caleb Sturgis hit a 48 @-@ yard field goal that made the score 9 – 3 at the end of the first quarter .
Alabama scored first in the second quarter on a 34 @-@ yard Tiffin field goal to complete a 68 @-@ yard drive and extend the Bama lead to 12 – 3 . Florida followed with what turned out to be its only touchdown drive of the game . Rushes of 23 yards and 15 yards from quarterback and former Heisman Trophy winner Tim Tebow were followed by a 23 @-@ yard touchdown pass from Tebow to David Nelson , and Florida had cut the lead to two , 12 – 10 . On the next offensive play , Ingram took a short pass from McElroy and raced 69 yards to the Gator 3 @-@ yard line , and ran it in for a touchdown from three yards out on the next play . The Gators ended the first half with a 32 @-@ yard Sturgis field goal to make the halftime score 19 – 13 .
Florida opened the third quarter with a three and out . On the Tide 's first offensive series of the second half , McElroy completed a 28 @-@ yard pass to Maze and was followed with a 15 @-@ yard personal foul penalty in bringing the ball into the red zone . On the next play McElroy completed the drive with a 17 @-@ yard touchdown pass to tight end Colin Peek . Alabama took a 26 – 13 lead . Florida got one first down on its next possession before punting the ball to Alabama . Taking the ball at its own 12 @-@ yard line with 7 : 36 to go in the third quarter , Alabama held the ball for the rest of the quarter and into the fourth , using up 8 : 47 of game time on a 12 @-@ play , 88 @-@ yard drive . Ingram , who rushed for 37 yards on the drive , scored on a 1 @-@ yard touchdown run early in the fourth quarter to increase Bama 's lead to 32 – 13 . Florida mounted a late drive that reached the Alabama 6 before Tebow threw an interception to Javier Arenas in the end zone . On Florida 's next possession , the Gators turned the ball over on downs at the Alabama 13 , and the Tide was able to run out the clock to secure the 32 – 13 victory .
For his 239 yard , one touchdown passing performance , Greg McElroy was named the game 's MVP . Ingram rushed for 113 and Trent Richardson rushed for 80 yards . The victory gave Alabama its 22nd SEC title , their third since the inception of the Championship Game and their first in ten years — the longest time the Crimson Tide program has ever gone without an SEC championship . The victory improved Alabama 's all @-@ time record against the Gators to 20 – 14 ( 21 – 14 without the NCAA vacation of the 2005 victory ) . Alabama earned their third SEC championship since the inception of the SEC Championship Game in 1992 , and their 22nd SEC title .
= = = Texas = = =
Following victories in their respective conference championship games , on December 6 the final Bowl Championship Series ( BCS ) standings were unveiled , pitting the No. 1 ranked Crimson Tide against the No. 2 ranked Texas Longhorns for the 2010 BCS National Championship . The game was held in the Rose Bowl , although it was not the actual Rose Bowl Game , in which Ohio State beat Oregon six days earlier . Alabama came into the game having never beaten Texas , compiling an all @-@ time 0 – 7 – 1 record against the Longhorns .
Alabama won the toss and elected to receive the opening kickoff . After losing thirteen yards on a sack and a penalty , Nick Saban called for a fake punt , which resulted in a Texas interception by Blake Gideon at the Alabama 37 @-@ yard line . On the initial possession , Texas quarterback Colt McCoy suffered a hit from Marcell Dareus which forced him to leave the game . Suffering from a pinched nerve in his throwing shoulder , McCoy did not return . With McCoy out , freshman Garrett Gilbert replaced him at quarterback , and the Longhorns settled for a field goal and a 3 – 0 lead . The ensuing kickoff was an onside kick , and Texas retained possession of the ball when Alabama failed to field the kick . The Longhorns only advanced the ball five yards and Hunter Lawrence kicked another field goal to go ahead 6 – 0 .
The Tide went ahead in the second quarter . Greg McElroy threw for only 58 yards on 6 of 11 passing for Alabama , but 23 of those yards came on a completion to Julio Jones that advanced the ball to the Texas 12 . Three plays later Mark Ingram ran it in from two yards out , and Alabama went ahead 7 – 6 . After an exchange of punts , Bama took possession on the Texas 49 @-@ yard line , and on the second play Trent Richardson burst through a hole in the middle and raced 49 yards untouched for the touchdown , extending the lead to 14 – 6 . Texas continued to struggle for offense in McCoy 's absence , and on the next possession a Texas drive ended when Javier Arenas intercepted a Gilbert pass at the Alabama 25 . Following a short punt late in the quarter , Bama drove to the Texas 9 , and increased their lead to 17 – 6 following a successful 26 @-@ yard Leigh Tiffin field goal . It appeared that the Crimson Tide would go into the locker room leading 17 – 6 . However , after gaining nine yards on a rush up the middle , Texas called time out with 15 seconds left . With the ball at the Texas 37 , Gilbert threw a shovel pass to D.J. Monroe , who bobbled the ball and batted it into the arms of Alabama defensive lineman Marcell Dareus , who lumbered 28 yards for a touchdown that made the halftime score 24 – 6 .
Having been sacked 4 times in the first half but had considerable success rushing the ball , Alabama came out rushing after halftime , attempting only two passes in the 3rd quarter . Meanwhile Gilbert , who had struggled early in the game , started to find his rhythm , mostly due to the efforts of Jordan Shipley , one of only two Texas receivers to catch a pass thrown beyond the line of scrimmage in the game . A 44 @-@ yard touchdown pass from Gilbert to Shipley cut the lead to 24 – 13 . Early in the fourth , Leigh Tiffin missed a 52 @-@ yard field goal . On the ensuing possession , the Longhorns drove 65 yards and scored another touchdown on a 28 @-@ yard Shipley reception . A successful two @-@ point conversion pulled the score to within three points , 24 – 21 . Following an Alabama punt , Texas gained possession on their own 7 @-@ yard line with 3 : 14 to go . On the second play of the drive , Eryk Anders laid a hit on Gilbert that forced a fumble , and Alabama recovered at the Texas 3 . Three plays later Ingram , who rushed for 116 yards in the game , ran it in for the score that gave Alabama a 31 – 21 lead . On the following drive , Gilbert threw a second interception to Arenas , and a Trent Richardson touchdown with 47 seconds left made the final score 37 – 21 .
For their performances , Mark Ingram was named the game 's offensive MVP and Marcell Dareus was named defensive MVP . Alabama beat Texas for the first time in their history , won its first ever BCS championship game , and won its first national championship since 1992 . It was Alabama 's thirteenth claimed and eighth national championship by vote of the AP poll or coaches ' poll , the others coming in 1961 , 1964 , 1965 , 1973 , 1978 , 1979 , and 1992 , and ninth perfect season , the others coming in 1925 , 1930 , 1934 , 1945 , 1961 , 1966 , 1979 , and 1992 . Alabama became the third school in major college history to go 14 – 0 , joining the 2002 Ohio State Buckeyes and the 2009 Boise State Broncos .
= = Rankings = =
Entering the 2009 season , the Crimson Tide was ranked No. 5 in the AP and Coaches ' Preseason Polls . By week seven Alabama moved into the No. 1 ranking in the AP Poll and the No. 2 ranking in both the Coaches ' Poll and the initial BCS rankings . After dropping as low as No. 3 , following the victory against Florida in the SEC Championship Game Alabama captured the No. 1 ranking in the AP and Coaches ' Polls as well as in the final BCS rankings . Following the victory over Texas in the BCS Championship Game , Alabama was selected a unanimous No. 1 by the AP and as the No. 1 team in the Coaches ' Poll .
= = After the season = =
Following the victory against Texas for the national championship , the team arrived at the Tuscaloosa Regional Airport on the evening of January 8 . Several thousand fans were there to greet them upon their arrival . On January 16 , a public national championship celebration at Bryant – Denny Stadium was attended by well over 30 @,@ 000 spectators . Speakers at the event included head coach Nick Saban and Alabama athletic director Mal Moore . All of the championship trophies were available for public viewing . In early March , the team was invited to the White House , where Obama greeted the team and offered congratulatory remarks for their championship season .
For their victory , each team member and coach received three championship rings designed by Jostens : a university @-@ issued title ring , a BCS issued title ring , and another for winning the SEC championship . The rings were distributed as part of the annual A @-@ Day weekend the following April . Also as part of the A @-@ Day celebrations , the 2009 team captains Javier Arenas , Rolando McClain , and Mike Johnson were honored at the Walk of Fame ceremony at the base of Denny Chimes . As recognition for becoming the fifth Alabama head coach to win a national championship , the University unveiled a statue of coach Saban along the Walk of Champions outside Bryant – Denny Stadium as part of A @-@ Day festivities on April 16 , 2011 .
= = = Final statistics = = =
After their victory over Texas in the BCS National Championship Game , Alabama 's final team statistics were released . On the defensive side of the ball , they ranked second in scoring defense ( 11 @.@ 71 points per game ) , second in total defense ( 244 @.@ 14 yards per game ) , second in rushing defense ( 78 @.@ 14 yards per game ) and tenth in passing defense ( 166 @.@ 00 yards per game ) . They were also the conference leaders in scoring , total and rushing defense . On offense , nationally the Crimson Tide ranked 12th in rushing offense ( 215 @.@ 07 yards per game ) , 22nd in scoring offense ( 32 @.@ 07 points per game ) , 42nd in total offense ( 403 @.@ 00 yards per game ) and 92nd in passing offense ( 187 @.@ 93 yards per game ) . Individually , Leigh Tiffin led the SEC with an average of 2 @.@ 14 field goals and 9 @.@ 43 points per game .
= = = Awards = = =
In the weeks following the SEC Championship Game , multiple Alabama players were recognized for their on @-@ field performances with a variety of awards and recognitions . At the team awards banquet on December 6 , Javier Arenas , Mike Johnson and Rolando McClain were each named the permanent captains of the 2009 squad . At that time both McClain and Mark Ingram were also named the 2009 co @-@ most valuable players with McClain and Terrence Cody named defensive players of the year and Ingram and Johnson named the offensive players of the year .
= = = = Conference = = = =
The SEC recognized several players for their individual performances with various awards . Alabama swept the three major individual awards on the AP All @-@ SEC team , with Mark Ingram named Offensive Player of the Year , Rolando McClain named Defensive Player of the Year , and Nick Saban named Coach of the Year . In addition to Ingram and McClain , Javier Arenas ( as a defensive back ) , Terrance Cody , Mike Johnson , and Leigh Tiffin were named to the AP All @-@ SEC First Team . James Carpenter , Colin Peek , and Arenas ( as a return specialist ) were named to the AP All @-@ SEC Second Team . Eight players were named to the Coaches ' All @-@ SEC First Team , including Arenas ( as both a defensive back and return specialist ) , Mark Barron , Cody , Ingram , Mike Johnson , McClain , and Tiffin . Julio Jones was named to the Coaches ' All @-@ SEC Second Team . Nico Johnson , Barrett Jones , and Trent Richardson were named to the 2009 Freshman All @-@ SEC Team .
= = = = National = = = =
After the season , a number of Alabama players were named as national award winners and finalists . Mark Ingram became Alabama 's first Heisman Trophy winner , with the closest margin of victory in the history of the award , over Stanford 's Toby Gerhart . Ingram was a finalist for the Maxwell Award and the Doak Walker Award . Linebacker Rolando McClain won the Butkus Award and the Jack Lambert Award . Other national award finalists included Terrence Cody ( for the Chuck Bednarik Award ) and Leigh Tiffin ( for the Lou Groza Award ) . Defensive coordinator Kirby Smart won the Broyles Award as the nation 's top assistant coach .
In addition to the individual awards , several players were also named to various national All @-@ American Teams . Javier Arenas , Terrance Cody , Mark Ingram , Mike Johnson , Rolando McClain , and Leigh Tiffin were named to the AP All @-@ American First Team and Mark Barron was named to the AP All @-@ American Second Team . Cody , Ingram , Mike Johnson , and McClain were named to the Walter Camp All @-@ American First Team . Arenas and Tiffin were named to the Walter Camp All @-@ American Second Team . Arenas , Ingram , Mike Johnson , and McClain were named to the AFCA All @-@ America Team . With their selections on various teams , Mike Johnson , Mark Ingram , Terrence Cody , Rolando McClain and Javier Arenas were each consensus All @-@ America , with Ingram and McClain each being unanimous selections .
= = = = All @-@ star games = = = =
Seven Alabama players were selected by postseason all @-@ star games . Lorenzo Washington appeared in the Texas vs. The Nation Game . Justin Woodall participated in the East @-@ West Shrine Game . Javier Arenas , Terrence Cody , Mike Johnson , Colin Peek , and Leigh Tiffin played in the Under Armour Senior Bowl .
= = = NFL Draft = = =
Of all the draft @-@ eligible juniors , only Rolando McClain and Kareem Jackson declared their eligibility for the 2010 NFL Draft . Ten Alabama players , eight seniors and two juniors , were invited to the NFL Scouting Combine . The invited Alabama players were tight end Colin Peek , offensive lineman Mike Johnson , defensive linemen Terrence Cody , Brandon Deaderick and Lorenzo Washington , linebacker Rolando McClain , defensive backs Javier Arenas , Kareem Jackson and Justin Woodall , and placekicker Leigh Tiffin . In the draft , Alabama had seven players selected . The first round selections were McClain ( 8th Oakland Raiders ) and Jackson ( 20th Houston Texans ) ; the second round picks were Arenas ( 50th Kansas City Chiefs ) and Cody ( 57th Baltimore Ravens ) ; the third round pick was Mike Johnson ( 98th Atlanta Falcons ) ; and the seventh round picks were Marquis Johnson ( 211th St. Louis Rams ) and Deaderick ( 247th New England Patriots ) . Both Peek and Washington , with the Atlanta Falcons and Dallas Cowboys respectively , signed as undrafted free agents .
Following the 2010 season , juniors Mark Ingram , Julio Jones and Marcell Dareus declared their eligibility for the 2011 NFL Draft . Five Alabama players , two seniors and three juniors , were invited to the 2011 NFL Scouting Combine . The invited players were offensive lineman James Carpenter , quarterback Greg McElroy , defensive end Marcell Dareus , running back Mark Ingram , and wide receiver Julio Jones . In the draft , Alabama set a school record with four players selected in the first round . The first round selections were Dareus ( 3rd Buffalo Bills ) , Jones ( 6th Atlanta Falcons ) , Carpenter ( 25th Seattle Seahawks ) and Ingram ( 28th New Orleans Saints ) . McElroy was selected in the seventh round ( 208th New York Jets ) . Preston Dial signed as an undrafted free agent with the Detroit Lions in July 2011 after the NFL labor dispute was resolved .
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= Banjo @-@ Kazooie =
Banjo @-@ Kazooie is a platform video game developed by Rare and originally released for the Nintendo 64 video game console on 29 June 1998 in North America and 17 July 1998 in Europe . It is the first instalment in the Banjo @-@ Kazooie series and follows the story of the title characters Banjo and Kazooie as they try to stop the plans of series antagonist Gruntilda , who intends to switch her beauty with Banjo 's sister Tooty . The game features nine nonlinear levels where the player must complete a number of challenges like solving puzzles , jumping over obstacles , gathering objects , and defeating opponents .
Banjo @-@ Kazooie was originally designed as an adventure game named Project Dream for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System , but was later changed for the Nintendo 64 . The game was a critical and commercial success , selling nearly two million copies in the United States and receiving an aggregated review score of 92 out of 100 from Metacritic . The game was praised for its detailed graphics , immersive sound , and intricate level design . In 1999 , it received two awards from the Academy of Interactive Arts & Sciences : Console Action Game of the Year and Outstanding Achievement in Art / Graphics . A sequel , Banjo @-@ Tooie , was released for the Nintendo 64 in 2000 . In 2008 , Banjo @-@ Kazooie was re @-@ released for the Xbox 360 through its Xbox Live Arcade download service . The game is also included in the Rare Replay video game compilation , released for the Xbox One in 2015 .
= = Gameplay = =
Banjo @-@ Kazooie is a single @-@ player platform game where the player controls the protagonists Banjo and Kazooie from a third @-@ person perspective . The game is split into nine levels where the player must gather musical notes and jigsaw pieces , called " Jiggies " , to progress . Players transit from one level to another through Gruntilda 's lair , which acts as the game 's central overworld . Jiggies allow the player to complete jigsaw puzzles which open doors to new levels , while musical notes grant players access to new inner sections of the overworld . Like in Super Mario 64 , the gameplay of Banjo @-@ Kazooie is very open and allows the player to collect Jiggies and musical notes in a nonlinear order . It is also possible to skip certain levels as long as the player has enough of these items to reach a farther one .
Each level is composed of a number of challenges that involve solving puzzles , jumping over obstacles , gathering objects , and defeating opponents . The game also features some elements of action @-@ adventure games . Players often have to speak with NPCs and then figure out a way to help them . It is also possible to increase Banjo and Kazooie 's energy bar by collecting extra honeycombs that are hidden throughout the levels . Banjo and Kazooie can perform a wide range of abilities , such as jumping , climbing , swimming , flying , and rolling into enemies . Most of these moves are learned by finding Bottles , a friendly mole , inside the worlds . Some moves require specific items so that they can be performed . For instance , red feathers allow Banjo and Kazooie to fly , while gold feathers protect them from damage . Some items also allow the character to gain temporary abilities in a particular moment . For instance , the turbo trainers provide a speed burst to reach a certain destination on time .
Banjo and Kazooie are occasionally aided by their friend Mumbo Jumbo , a shaman who can use magical powers to transform them into several creatures like a termite , a pumpkin , a bee , a walrus , and a crocodile . These transformations have their own special features and allow the player to access areas that were previously inaccessible . For instance , the walrus can resist the effects of icy @-@ cold water . Mumbo Tokens that are scattered throughout the game allow the transformation process . The game also includes cheats that the player can unlock by finding Gruntilda 's spellbook , Cheato .
= = Plot = =
Banjo @-@ Kazooie is set in the Spiral Mountain and follows the story of Banjo , a male brown honey bear , and Kazooie , a red @-@ crested Breegull who is always kept in Banjo 's backpack . The game begins when a foul @-@ tempered witch named Gruntilda learns from her cauldron Dingpot that Tooty , Banjo 's younger sister , is more beautiful than her . Jealous , Gruntilda creates a machine that can transfer a person 's level of beauty to another , which she intends to use with Tooty . She then abducts Tooty from Banjo 's house while he is sleeping . In response to the kidnapping , Kazooie wakes Banjo up and the two set out to rescue her . Banjo and Kazooie learn from Tooty 's friend , Bottles the mole , that she was captured by Gruntilda and suggests they need some training to collect musical notes and jigsaw pieces to progress through Gruntilda 's lair . Along the way , they are aided by Mumbo Jumbo , a shaman and Gruntilda 's former teacher .
By the time most of the musical notes and jiggies are gathered , Banjo and Kazooie face Gruntilda in a trivia game show named " Grunty 's Furnace Fun " . The game presents questions and challenges related to certain aspects of the game . After going through several game boards , the two win the game and Gruntilda flees . Reunited with Tooty , Banjo and Kazooie return home and celebrate their victory with their friends and a barbecue . However , Tooty reminds everyone that Gruntilda has fled and orders Banjo and Kazooie to defeat her . The duo returns to Gruntilda 's lair and reach the top of the tower , where they face a battle with Gruntilda . With the help of some friendly creatures called Jinjos , Banjo and Kazooie defeat Gruntilda , trapping her underneath a boulder . Returning to their home , Banjo and Kazooie go on vacation at a beach with their friends and celebrate their victory . The game ends with Gruntilda swearing revenge against Banjo and Kazooie and calling for her henchman Klungo to move the boulder that is covering her .
= = Development = =
Banjo @-@ Kazooie was developed by Rare and designed by Gregg Mayles . The game evolved from Project Dream , a cancelled adventure game for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System that was being developed by Rare 's Donkey Kong Country 2 : Diddy 's Kong Quest team . Project Dream used Rare 's ACM ( Advanced Computer Modeling ) graphics technology , first used in Donkey Kong Country , to a very advanced level and was originally intended to star a boy named Edison who would own a wooden sword and get into trouble with a group of pirates . However , as development of the game continued , Edison was replaced by a rabbit and later a bear , who became Banjo . Although the project was in development for more than one year , it was ultimately cancelled with the introduction of the Nintendo 64 , which made the ACM technology obsolete .
Actual work on Banjo @-@ Kazooie started in March 1997 with a development team of 10 people . However , as development progressed , the team grew to a total of 15 members , which included seven engineers , five artists , two designers and one musician . The team was composed of both experienced and inexperienced people ; some had been working at Rare for 10 years while others had never previously worked on a video game . The 3D world of Super Mario 64 was a major inspiration for Banjo @-@ Kazooie , as Rare intended to combine it with the look of Donkey Kong Country . The game was designed to appeal players of all ages in a similar vein to Walt Disney Animation Studios films . According to Rare , " We wanted the characters to primarily appeal to a younger audience but , at the same time , give them enough humour and attitude not to discourage older players . " The music of the game , composed by Grant Kirkhope , was designed to gradually fade from one style to the next without pause , while the overall composition loops continuously .
Rare decided to make an action @-@ based game that focused totally on Banjo and his abilities . Kazooie was later conceived during the planning of such abilities . According to Mayles , " We came up with the [ ... ] idea that a pair of wings could appear from his backpack to help him perform a second jump . We also wanted Banjo to be able to run very fast when required [ so ] we added a pair of ' fast @-@ running ' legs that appeared from the bottom of the backpack . [ And soon after ] we came up with the logical conclusion that these could belong to another character , one that actually lived in Banjo 's backpack . " The character was named after a kazoo , which was considered an annoying instrument , " much like the personality of the bird " , Mayles explained . Instead of actual dialogue , all the characters in the game feature " mumbling " voices . This choice was made to convey their personalities without them actually speaking , as Rare felt the actual speech " could ruin the player 's perception of the characters . " The witch Gruntilda was inspired by Grotbags from the Grotbags British television series .
Banjo @-@ Kazooie employs a very advanced technique to render its graphics . The characters were created with minimal amounts of texturing to give them a sharp and clean look , while the backgrounds use very large textures split into 64 × 64 pieces , which was the largest texture size the Nintendo 64 could render . As a result , this technique caused significant memory fragmentation issues . However , the developers managed to create a proprietary system that could " reshuffle " memory as players played through the game to solve the fragmentation . According to lead programmer Chris Sutherland , " I 'd doubt many N64 games of the time did anything like that " . The fact that the player could be transformed into small creatures was implemented to give some of the worlds a different sense of scale .
Rare originally planned to include a multiplayer mode and more worlds to the game , but these features were not implemented due to time constraints ; some of these would later be included in the sequel Banjo @-@ Tooie instead . In addition , a feature called " Stop ' N ' Swop " , which would have allowed data to be transferred between both Banjo @-@ Kazooie and Banjo @-@ Tooie , remains incomplete in the game . The feature was never fully implemented due to technical difficulties in the Nintendo 64 hardware . The actual development of the game took overall 17 months to complete after Rare discarded Project Dream , the first two of these being spent experimenting with Dream 's graphic technology . A working version of the game was shown at the Electronic Entertainment Expo in June 1997 . The game was initially scheduled for a release in late 1997 , but was eventually delayed . It was released on 29 June 1998 in North America and 17 July 1998 in Europe .
= = Reception = =
Banjo @-@ Kazooie was a critical and commercial success , selling more than 1 @.@ 8 million copies in the United States and more than 405 @,@ 000 units in Japan . The game has an aggregated score of 92 out of 100 at Metacritic , which is considered " universal acclaim " . GamePro described Banjo @-@ Kazooie as a " more complex , more fluid , and more attractive game than its plumber predecessor Super Mario 64 . It 's sure to have even the staunchest [ Nintendo 64 ] critics raising their eyebrows . " Journalist Peer Schneider , writing for IGN , awarded the game a rating of 9 @.@ 6 out of 10 , stating that the game " is the best 3D platformer [ he has ] ever played , and a more than worthy successor to Super Mario 64 " .
The graphics were seen as one of the strongest aspects of the game . Jeff Gerstmann of GameSpot wrote : " graphically , Banjo @-@ Kazooie takes it to another level . The game maintains the look and feel of Mario 64 , but instead of flat , shaded polygons , [ Banjo @-@ Kazooie ] uses a lot of textures " . The game 's long draw distance , solid frame rate , and differently themed worlds were highlighted very positively . Critics also praised the game 's dynamic soundtrack . Schneider remarked that this feature " lets players know where they are going . This happens all the time and in every level . It 's all very Disney @-@ esque . " The sound effects received similar praise , with several editors crediting the unique and diverse speech patterns of the characters . The writing was also praised for its double @-@ meanings in several character interactions .
The game was often called a Super Mario 64 clone for its similarity in gameplay . Gerstmann compared it favourably to Mario , saying that " it doesn 't stray too far from the formula , but it makes the logical progressions you would expect Nintendo to make . " Game Informer observed that , while both games are very similar , Banjo @-@ Kazooie has less emphasis on the platforming and more on exploration . Schneider noted that the worlds in Banjo @-@ Kazooie are " bigger , more detailed and are filled with interactive characters at every corner . " Colin Williamson of AllGame stated similar pros , crediting the level design as " simply delightful , loaded with creativity , secrets , and memorable characters . " James Ashton of N64 Magazine highlighted the game 's replay value , noting that the game can take 40 or 50 hours to fully complete . One habitually @-@ criticized aspect of the game was its flawed camera system . Game Revolution remarked it can occasionally be in a bad angle to gauge a jump properly .
In 1999 , Banjo @-@ Kazooie received two awards from the Academy of Interactive Arts & Sciences : Console Action Game of the Year and Outstanding Achievement in Art / Graphics . Similarly , IGN awarded the game Overall Best Graphics of 1998 , Best Texture Design of 1998 , and Best Music of 1998 . In 2000 , the game was ranked number seven on IGN 's list of The Top 25 N64 Games of All Time . In 2009 , Game Informer ranked the game 71st in their list of the Top 100 Games Of All Time .
= = Legacy = =
Banjo @-@ Kazooie 's critical and commercial success led Rare to begin development of a sequel titled Banjo @-@ Tooie , also for the Nintendo 64 . Banjo @-@ Tooie was released on 20 November 2000 to very positive reviews , and largely adopts the gameplay mechanics of its predecessor . The characters Banjo and Kazooie proved to be popular and made cameo appearances in subsequent Rare games such as Conker 's Bad Fur Day and Grabbed by the Ghoulies . The series continued to be developed with the release of the handheld games Banjo @-@ Kazooie : Grunty 's Revenge and Banjo @-@ Pilot for the Game Boy Advance . In 2008 , a third main game titled Banjo @-@ Kazooie : Nuts & Bolts was released for the Xbox 360 to generally favourable reviews . The gameplay of Nuts & Bolts is a departure from the previous games in that , rather than learning new moves to continue , the player must instead build vehicles of all shapes and sizes to complete challenges .
An Xbox Live Arcade version of Banjo @-@ Kazooie , developed by 4J Studios , was also released for the Xbox 360 on 3 December 2008 . This version runs in a full widescreen mode , includes achievements , and supports the " Stop ' N ' Swop " connectivity that was incomplete in the Nintendo 64 game , used now to unlock features in both Banjo @-@ Kazooie : Nuts & Bolts and the then @-@ upcoming Xbox Live Arcade version of Banjo @-@ Tooie . The Xbox Live Arcade version was generally well received by critics , featuring an aggregate score of 77 out of 100 at Metacritic . While some publications such as Eurogamer considered the relatively unchanged game to be outdated , several agreed that the Xbox Live Arcade version is a solid resurrection of a classic . In 2009 , IGN ranked it seventh on its list of Top 10 Xbox Live Arcade Games , with editor Cam Shea stating that while the game is " not perfect , it was a landmark title for a reason " . The Xbox Live Arcade version of Banjo @-@ Tooie was released in 2009 to a similar critical reception . In 2015 , the Xbox Live Arcade version of Banjo @-@ Kazooie was included as part of the Rare Replay video game compilation for Xbox One .
On 10 February 2015 , a group of former Rare employees announced their formation of a new studio named Playtonic Games , planning a " spiritual successor " to the Banjo @-@ Kazooie franchise titled Yooka @-@ Laylee , formerly code @-@ named Project Ukulele . The game reached its initial funding goal of £ 175 @,@ 000 within thirty @-@ eight minutes and is currently set to be released in the first quarter of 2017 on Microsoft Windows , Mac , Linux , PlayStation 4 , Xbox One and Wii U.
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= Flatworm =
The flatworms , flat worms , Platyhelminthes , Plathelminthes , or platyhelminths ( from the Greek πλατύ , platy , meaning " flat " and ἕλμινς ( root : ἑλμινθ- ) , helminth- , meaning " worm " ) are a phylum of relatively simple bilaterian , unsegmented , soft @-@ bodied invertebrates . Unlike other bilaterians , they are acoelomates ( having no body cavity ) , and have no specialized circulatory and respiratory organs , which restricts them to having flattened shapes that allow oxygen and nutrients to pass through their bodies by diffusion . The digestive cavity has only one opening for both ingestion ( intake of nutrients ) and egestion ( removal of undigested wastes ) ; as a result , the food cannot be processed continuously .
In traditional medicinal texts , Platyhelminthes are divided into Turbellaria , which are mostly non @-@ parasitic animals such as planarians , and three entirely parasitic groups : Cestoda , Trematoda and Monogenea ; however , since the turbellarians have since been proven not to be monophyletic , this classification is now deprecated . Free @-@ living flatworms are mostly predators , and live in water or in shaded , humid terrestrial environments , such as leaf litter . Cestodes ( tapeworms ) and trematodes ( flukes ) have complex life @-@ cycles , with mature stages that live as parasites in the digestive systems of fish or land vertebrates , and intermediate stages that infest secondary hosts . The eggs of trematodes are excreted from their main hosts , whereas adult cestodes generate vast numbers of hermaphroditic , segment @-@ like proglottids that detach when mature , are excreted , and then release eggs . Unlike the other parasitic groups , the monogeneans are external parasites infesting aquatic animals , and their larvae metamorphose into the adult form after attaching to a suitable host .
Because they do not have internal body cavities , Platyhelminthes were regarded as a primitive stage in the evolution of bilaterians ( animals with bilateral symmetry and hence with distinct front and rear ends ) . However , analyses since the mid @-@ 1980s have separated out one subgroup , the Acoelomorpha , as basal bilaterians — closer to the original bilaterians than to any other modern groups . The remaining Platyhelminthes form a monophyletic group , one that contains all and only descendants of a common ancestor that is itself a member of the group . The redefined Platyhelminthes is part of the Lophotrochozoa , one of the three main groups of more complex bilaterians . These analyses had concluded the redefined Platyhelminthes , excluding Acoelomorpha , consists of two monophyletic subgroups , Catenulida and Rhabditophora , with Cestoda , Trematoda and Monogenea forming a monophyletic subgroup within one branch of the Rhabditophora . Hence , the traditional platyhelminth subgroup " Turbellaria " is now regarded as paraphyletic , since it excludes the wholly parasitic groups , although these are descended from one group of " turbellarians " .
Over half of all known flatworm species are parasitic , and some do enormous harm to humans and their livestock . Schistosomiasis , caused by one genus of trematodes , is the second @-@ most devastating of all human diseases caused by parasites , surpassed only by malaria . Neurocysticercosis , which arises when larvae of the pork tapeworm Taenia solium penetrate the central nervous system , is the major cause of acquired epilepsy worldwide . The threat of platyhelminth parasites to humans in developed countries is rising because of the popularity of raw or lightly cooked foods , and imports of food from high @-@ risk areas . In less developed countries , people often cannot afford the fuel required to cook food thoroughly , and poorly designed water @-@ supply and irrigation projects increase the dangers presented by poor sanitation and unhygienic farming .
Two planarian species have been used successfully in the Philippines , Indonesia , Hawaii , New Guinea , and Guam to control populations of the imported giant African snail Achatina fulica , which was displacing native snails . However , there is now concern that these planarians may themselves become a serious threat to native snails . In northwest Europe , there are concerns about the spread of the New Zealand planarian Arthurdendyus triangulatus , which preys on earthworms .
= = Description = =
= = = Distinguishing features = = =
Platyhelminthes are bilaterally symmetrical animals : their left and right sides are mirror images of each other ; this also implies they have distinct top and bottom surfaces and distinct head and tail ends . Like other bilaterians , they have three main cell layers ( endoderm , mesoderm , and ectoderm ) , while the radially symmetrical cnidarians and ctenophores ( comb jellies ) have only two cell layers . Beyond that , they are " defined more by what they do not have than by any particular series of specializations . " Unlike other bilaterians , Platyhelminthes have no internal body cavity , so are described as acoelomates . They also lack specialized circulatory and respiratory organs , both of these facts are defining features when classifying a flatworm 's anatomy . Their bodies are soft and unsegmented .
= = = Features common to all subgroups = = =
The lack of circulatory and respiratory organs limits platyhelminths to sizes and shapes that enable oxygen to reach and carbon dioxide to leave all parts of their bodies by simple diffusion . Hence , many are microscopic and the large species have flat ribbon @-@ like or leaf @-@ like shapes . The guts of large species have many branches , so nutrients can diffuse to all parts of the body . Respiration through the whole surface of the body makes them vulnerable to fluid loss , and restricts them to environments where dehydration is unlikely : sea and freshwater , moist terrestrial environments such as leaf litter or between grains of soil , and as parasites within other animals .
The space between the skin and gut is filled with mesenchyme , a connective tissue made of cells and reinforced by collagen fibers that act as a type of skeleton , providing attachment points for muscles . The mesenchyme contains all the internal organs and allows the passage of oxygen , nutrients and waste products . It consists of two main types of cell : fixed cells , some of which have fluid @-@ filled vacuoles ; and stem cells , which can transform into any other type of cell , and are used in regenerating tissues after injury or asexual reproduction .
Most platyhelminths have no anus and regurgitate undigested material through the mouth . However , some long species have an anus and some with complex , branched guts have more than one anus , since excretion only through the mouth would be difficult for them . The gut is lined with a single layer of endodermal cells that absorb and digest food . Some species break up and soften food first by secreting enzymes in the gut or pharynx ( throat ) .
All animals need to keep the concentration of dissolved substances in their body fluids at a fairly constant level . Internal parasites and free @-@ living marine animals live in environments with high concentrations of dissolved material , and generally let their tissues have the same level of concentration as the environment , while freshwater animals need to prevent their body fluids from becoming too dilute . Despite this difference in environments , most platyhelminths use the same system to control the concentration of their body fluids . Flame cells , so called because the beating of their flagella looks like a flickering candle flame , extract from the mesenchyme water that contains wastes and some reusable material , and drive it into networks of tube cells which are lined with flagella and microvilli . The tube cells ' flagella drive the water towards exits called nephridiopores , while their microvilli reabsorb reusable materials and as much water as is needed to keep the body fluids at the right concentration . These combinations of flame cells and tube cells are called protonephredia .
In all platyhelminths , the nervous system is concentrated at the head end . This is least marked in the acoels , which have nerve nets rather like those of cnidarians and ctenophores , but densest around the head . Other platyhelminths have rings of ganglia in the head and main nerve trunks running along their bodies .
= = Major subgroups = =
Early classification divided the flatworms into four groups : Turbellaria , Trematoda , Monogenea and Cestoda . This classification had long been recognized to be artificial , and in 1985 , Ehlers proposed a phylogenetically more correct classification , where the massively polyphyletic " Turbellaria " was split into a dozen orders , and Trematoda , Monogenea and Cestoda were joined in the new order Neodermata . However , the classification presented here is the early , traditional , classification , as it still is the one used everywhere except in scientific articles .
= = = Turbellaria = = =
These have about 4 @,@ 500 species , are mostly free @-@ living , and range from 1 mm ( 0 @.@ 039 in ) to 600 mm ( 24 in ) in length . Most are predators or scavengers , and terrestrial species are mostly nocturnal and live in shaded , humid locations , such as leaf litter or rotting wood . However , some are symbiotes of other animals , such as crustaceans , and some are parasites . Free @-@ living turbellarians are mostly black , brown or gray , but some larger ones are brightly colored . The Acoela and Nemertodermatida were traditionally regarded as turbellarians , but are now regarded as members of a separate phylum , the Acoelomorpha , or as two separate phyla . Xenoturbella , a genus of very simple animals , has also been reclassified as a separate phylum .
Some turbellarians have a simple pharynx lined with cilia and generally feed by using cilia to sweep food particles and small prey into their mouths , which are usually in the middle of their undersides . Most other turbellarians have a pharynx that is eversible ( can be extended by being turned inside @-@ out ) , and the mouths of different species can be anywhere along the underside . The freshwater species Microstomum caudatum can open its mouth almost as wide as its body is long , to swallow prey about as large as itself .
Most turbellarians have pigment @-@ cup ocelli ( " little eyes " ) , one pair in most species , but two or even three pairs in some . A few large species have many eyes in clusters over the brain , mounted on tentacles , or spaced uniformly around the edge of the body . The ocelli can only distinguish the direction from which light is coming and enable the animals to avoid it . A few groups have statocysts , fluid @-@ filled chambers containing a small , solid particle or , in a few groups , two . These statocysts are thought to be balance and acceleration sensors , as that is the function they perform in cnidarian medusae and in ctenophores . However , turbellarian statocysts have no sensory cilia , and how they sense the movements and positions of the solid particles is unknown . On the other hand , most have ciliated touch @-@ sensor cells scattered over their bodies , especially on tentacles and around the edges . Specialized cells in pits or grooves on the head are probably smell sensors .
Planarians , a subgroup of seriates , are famous for their ability to regenerate if divided by cuts across their bodies . Experiments show that , in fragments that do not already have a head , a new head grows most quickly on those closest to the original head . This suggests the growth of a head is controlled by a chemical whose concentration diminishes from head to tail . Many turbellarians clone themselves by transverse or longitudinal division , and others , especially acoels , reproduce by budding .
The vast majority of turbellarians are hermaphrodites ( have both female and male reproductive cells ) , and fertilize eggs internally by copulation . Some of the larger aquatic species mate by penis fencing , a duel in which each tries to impregnate the other , and the loser adopts the female role of developing the eggs . In most species , " miniature adults " emerge when the eggs hatch , but a few large species produce plankton @-@ like larvae .
= = = Trematoda = = =
These parasites ' name refers to the cavities in their holdfasts ( Greek τρῆμα , hole ) , which resemble suckers and anchor them within their hosts . The skin of all species is a syncitium , a layer of cells that shares a single external membrane . Trematodes are divided into two groups , Digenea and Aspidogastrea ( also known as Aspodibothrea ) .
= = = = Digenea = = = =
These are often called flukes , as most have flat rhomboid shapes like that of a flounder ( Old English flóc ) . There are about 11 @,@ 000 species , more than all other platyhelminthes combined , and second only to roundworms among parasites on metazoans . Adults usually have two holdfasts , a ring around the mouth and a larger sucker midway along what would be the underside in a free @-@ living flatworm . Although the name " Digeneans " means " two generations " , most have very complex life cycles with up to seven stages , depending on what combinations of environments the early stages encounter – most importantly whether the eggs are deposited on land or in water . The intermediate stages transfer the parasites from one host to another . The definitive host in which adults develop is a land vertebrate , the earliest host of juvenile stages is usually a snail that may live on land or in water , and in many cases a fish or arthropod is the second host . For example , the adjoining illustration shows the life cycle of the intestinal fluke metagonimus , which hatches in the intestine of a snail ; moves to a fish , where it penetrates the body and encysts in the flesh ; then moves to the small intestine of a land animal that eats the fish raw ; and then generates eggs that are excreted and ingested by snails , thereby completing the cycle . Schistosomes , which cause the devastating tropical disease bilharzia , belong to this group .
Adults range between 0 @.@ 2 mm ( 0 @.@ 0079 in ) and 6 mm ( 0 @.@ 24 in ) in length . Individual adult digeneans are of a single sex , and in some species , slender females live in enclosed grooves that run along the bodies of the males , and partially emerge to lay eggs . In all species , the adults have complex reproductive systems and can produce between 10 @,@ 000 and 100 @,@ 000 times as many eggs as a free @-@ living flatworm . In addition , the intermediate stages that live in snails reproduce asexually .
Adults of different species infest different parts of the definitive host , for example the intestine , lungs , large blood vessels , and liver . The adults use a relatively large , muscular pharynx to ingest cells , cell fragments , mucus , body fluids or blood . In both the adults and the stages that live in snails , the external syncytium absorbs dissolved nutrients from the host . Adult digeneans can live without oxygen for long periods .
= = = = Aspidogastrea = = = =
Members of this small group have either a single divided sucker or a row of suckers that cover the underside . They infest the guts of bony or cartilaginous fish and of turtles , and the body cavities of marine and freshwater bivalves and gastropods . Their eggs produce ciliated swimming larvae , and the life cycle has one or two hosts .
= = = Cercomeromorpha = = =
These parasites attach themselves to their hosts by means of disks that bear crescent @-@ shaped hooks . They are divided into Monogenea and Cestoda .
= = = = Monogenea = = = =
Of about 1 @,@ 100 species of monogeneans , most are external parasites that require particular host species , mainly fish , but in some cases amphibians or aquatic reptiles . However , a few are internal parasites . Adult monogeneans have large attachment organs at the rear , haptors ( Greek ἅπτειν , haptein , means " catch " ) , which have suckers , clamps , and hooks . They often have flattened bodies . In some species , the pharynx secretes enzymes to digest the host 's skin , allowing the parasite to feed on blood and cellular debris . Others graze externally on mucus and flakes of the hosts ' skins . The name " Monogenea " is based on the fact that these parasites have only one nonlarval generation .
= = = = Cestoda = = = =
These are often called tapeworms because of their flat , slender but very long bodies – the name " cestode " is derived from the Latin word cestus , which means " tape " . The adults of all 3 @,@ 400 cestode species are internal parasites . Cestodes have no mouths or guts , and the syncitial skin absorbs nutrients – mainly carbohydrates and amino acids – from the host , and also disguises it chemically to avoid attacks by the host 's immune system . Shortage of carbohydrates in the host 's diet stunts the growth of the parasites and kills some . Their metabolisms generally use simple but inefficient chemical processes , and they compensate by consuming large amounts of food relative to their size .
In the majority of species , known as eucestodes ( " true tapeworms " ) , the neck produces a chain of segments called proglottids by a process known as strobilation . Hence , the most mature proglottids are furthest from the scolex . Adults of Taenia saginata , which infests humans , can form proglottid chains over 20 metres ( 66 ft ) long , although 4 metres ( 13 ft ) is more typical . Each proglottid has both male and female reproductive organs . If the host 's gut contains two or more adults of the same cestode species , they generally fertilize each other , but proglottids of the same worm can fertilize each other and even fertilize themselves . When the eggs are fully developed , the proglottids separate and are excreted by the host . The eucestode life cycle is less complex than that of digeneans , but varies depending on the species . For example :
Adults of Diphyllobothrium infest fish , and the juveniles use copepod crustaceans as intermediate hosts . Excreted proglottids release their eggs into the water , and the eggs hatch into ciliated , swimming larvae . If a larva is swallowed by a copepod , it sheds the cilia and the skin becomes a syncitium and the larva makes its way into the copepod 's hemocoel ( internal cavity that is the main part of the circulatory system ) and attached itself with three small hooks . If the copepod is eaten by a fish , the larva metamorphoses into a small , unsegmented tapeworm , drills through to the gut and becomes an adult .
Various species of Taenia infest the guts of humans , cats and dogs . The juveniles use herbivores – for example pigs , cattle and rabbits – as intermediate hosts . Excreted proglottids release eggs that stick to grass leaves and hatch after being swallowed by a herbivore . The larva makes its way to the herbivore 's muscles and metamorphoses into an oval worm about 10 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 39 in ) long , with a scolex that is kept inside . When the definitive host eats infested and raw or undercooked meat from an intermediate host , the worm 's scolex pops out and attaches itself to the gut , and the adult tapeworm develops .
A members of the smaller group known as Cestodaria have no scolex , do not produce proglottids , and have body shapes like those of diageneans . Cestodarians parasitize fish and turtles .
= = Classification and evolutionary relationships = =
The oldest confidentially identified parasitic flatworm fossils are cestode eggs found in a Permian shark coprolite , but helminth hooks still attached to Devonian acanthodians and placoderms might also represent parasitic flatworms with simple life cycles . The oldest known free @-@ living platyhelminth specimen is a fossil preserved in Eocene age Baltic amber and placed in the monotypic species Micropalaeosoma balticus , while the oldest subfossil specimens are schistosome eggs discovered in ancient Egyptian mummies . The Platyhelminthes have very few synapomorphies , distinguishing features that all Platyhelminthes and no other animals have . This makes it difficult to work out both their relationships with other groups of animals and the relationships between different groups that are described as members of the Platyhelminthes .
The " traditional " view before the 1990s was that Platyhelminthes formed the sister group to all the other bilaterians , which include , for example , arthropods , molluscs , annelids and chordates . Since then molecular phylogenetics , which aims to work out evolutionary " family trees " by comparing different organisms ' biochemicals such as DNA , RNA and proteins , has radically changed scientists ' view of evolutionary relationships between animals . Detailed morphological analyses of anatomical features in the mid @-@ 1980s and molecular phylogenetics analyses since 2000 using different sections of DNA agree that Acoelomorpha , consisting of Acoela ( traditionally regarded as very simple " turbellarians " ) and Nemertodermatida ( another small group previously classified as " turbellarians " ) are the sister group to all other bilaterians , including the rest of the Platyhelminthes . However , a 2007 study concluded that Acoela and Nemertodermatida were two distinct groups of bilaterians , although it agreed that both are more closely related to cnidarians ( jellyfish , etc . ) than other bilaterians are .
Xenoturbella , a bilaterian whose only well @-@ defined organ is a statocyst , was originally classified as a " primitive turbellarian " . However , it has recently been reclassified as a deuterostome .
The Platyhelminthes excluding Acoelomorpha contain two main groups , Catenulida and Rhabditophora , both of which are generally agreed to be monophyletic ( each contains all and only the descendants of an ancestor that is a member of the same group ) . Early molecular phylogenetics analyses of the Catenulida and Rhabditophora left uncertainties about whether these could be combined in a single monophyletic group , but a study in 2008 concluded they could , therefore Platyhelminthes could be redefined as Catenulida plus Rhabditophora , excluding the Acoelomorpha .
Other molecular phylogenetics analyses agree the redefined Platyhelminthes are most closely related to Gastrotricha , and both are part of a grouping known as Platyzoa . Platyzoa are generally agreed to be at least closely related to the Lophotrochozoa , a superphylum that includes molluscs and annelid worms . The majority view is that Platyzoa are part of Lophotrochozoa , but a significant minority of researchers regard Platyzoa as a sister group of Lophotrochozoa .
It has been agreed since 1985 that each of the wholly parasitic platyhelminth groups ( Cestoda , Monogenea and Trematoda ) is monophyletic , and that together these form a larger monophyletic grouping , the Neodermata , in which the adults of all members have syncitial skins . However , there is debate about whether the Cestoda and Monogenea can be combined as an intermediate monophyletic group , the Cercomeromorpha , within the Neodermata . It is generally agreed that the Neodermata are a sub @-@ group a few levels down in the " family tree " of the Rhabditophora . Hence the traditional sub @-@ phylum " Turbellaria " is paraphyletic , since it does not include the Neodermata although these are descendants of a sub @-@ group of " turbellarians " .
= = Evolution = =
An outline of the origins of the parasitic life style has been proposed . Epithelial feeding monopisthocotyleans on fish hosts are basal in the Neodermata and were the first shift to parasitism from free living ancestors . The next evolutionary step was a dietary change from epithelium to blood . The last common ancestor of Digenea + Cestoda was monogenean and most likely sanguinivorous .
The earliest known fossils of tapeworms have been dated to 270 million years ago . They were found in coprolites ( fossilised faeces ) from an elasmobranch .
= = Interaction with humans = =
= = = Parasitism = = =
Cestodes ( tapeworms ) and digeneans ( flukes ) cause important diseases in humans and their livestock , and monogeneans can cause serious losses of stocks in fish farms . Schistosomiasis , also known as bilharzia or snail fever , is the second @-@ most devastating parasitic disease in tropical countries , behind malaria . The Carter Center estimated 200 million people in 74 countries are infected with the disease , and half the victims live in Africa . The condition has a low mortality rate , but often is a chronic illness that can damage internal organs . It can impair the growth and cognitive development of children , and increase the risk of bladder cancer in adults . The disease is caused by several flukes of the genus Schistosoma , which can bore through human skin . The people most at risk are those who use infected bodies of water for recreation or laundry .
In 2000 , an estimated 45 million people were infected with the beef tapeworm Taenia saginata and 3 million with the pork tapeworm Taenia solium . Infection of the digestive system by adult tapeworms causes abdominal symptoms that are unpleasant but not disabling or life @-@ threatening . However , neurocysticercosis resulting from penetration of T. solium larvae into the central nervous system is the major cause of acquired epilepsy worldwide . In 2000 , about 39 million people were infected with trematodes ( flukes ) that naturally parasitize fish and crustaceans , but can pass to humans who eat raw or lightly cooked seafood . Infection of humans by the broad fish tapeworm Diphyllobothrium latum occasionally causes vitamin B12 deficiency and , in severe cases , megaloblastic anemia .
The threat to humans in developed countries is rising as a result of social trends : the increase in organic farming , which uses manure and sewage sludge rather than artificial fertilizers , and spreads parasites both directly and via the droppings of seagulls which feed on manure and sludge ; the increasing popularity of raw or lightly cooked foods ; imports of meat , seafood and salad vegetables from high @-@ risk areas ; and , as an underlying cause , reduced awareness of parasites compared with other public health issues such as pollution . In less @-@ developed countries , inadequate sanitation and the use of human feces ( night soil ) as fertilizer and to enrich fish farm ponds continues to spread parasitic platyhelminths , and poorly designed water @-@ supply and irrigation projects have provided additional channels for their spread . People in these countries often cannot afford the cost of fuel required to cook food thoroughly enough to kill parasites . Controlling parasites that infect humans and livestock has become more difficult , as many species have become resistant to drugs that used to be effective , mainly for killing juveniles in meat . While poorer countries still struggle with unintentional infection , cases have been reported of intentional infection in the US by dieters desperate for rapid weight @-@ loss .
= = = Pests = = =
There is concern about the proliferation in northwest Europe , including the British Isles , of the New Zealand planarian Arthurdendyus triangulatus and the Australian flatworm Australoplana sanguinea , both of which prey on earthworms . A. triangulatus is thought to have reached Europe in containers of plants imported by botanical gardens .
= = = Benefits = = =
In Hawaii , the planarian Endeavouria septemlineata has been used to control the imported giant African snail Achatina fulica , which was displacing native snails , and Platydemus manokwari , another planarian , has been used for the same purpose in Philippines , Indonesia , New Guinea and Guam . Although A. fulica has declined sharply in Hawaii , there are doubts about how much E. septemlineata contributed to this . However , P. manokwari is given credit for severely reducing , and in places exterminating , A. fulica – achieving much greater success than most biological pest control programs , which generally aim for a low , stable population of the pest species . The ability of planarians to take different kinds of prey and to resist starvation may account for their ability to decimate A. fulica . However , these abilities have raised concerns that planarians may themselves become a serious threat to native snails .
A study in La Plata , Argentina shows the potential for planarians such as Girardia anceps , Mesostoma ehrenbergii , and Bothromesostoma evelinae to reduce populations of the mosquito species Aedes aegypti and Culex pipiens . The experiment showed that G. anceps in particular can prey on all instars of both mosquito species and maintain a steady predation rate over time . The ability for these flatworms to live in artificial containers showed the potential of placing these species in popular mosquito breeding sites , which would ideally reduce the amount of mosquito @-@ borne diseases .
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= Francis Gleeson ( priest ) =
Father Francis Gleeson ( 28 May 1884 – 26 June 1959 ) was an Irish Roman Catholic priest who served as a British Army chaplain during Irelands ' involvement in the First World War . Educated at seminaries near Dublin , Gleeson was ordained in 1910 and worked at a home for the blind before volunteering for service upon the outbreak of war . Commissioned into the Army Chaplains ' Department and attached to the 2nd Battalion , Royal Munster Fusiliers he served with them at the First Battle of Ypres . During this battle Gleeson is said to have taken command of the battalion after all the officers were incapacitated by the enemy . He was highly regarded by his men for tending to the wounded under fire , visiting the frontline trenches , and bringing gifts .
On 8 May 1915 , on the eve of the Battle of Aubers Ridge , Gleeson addressed the assembled battalion at a roadside shrine and gave the general absolution . The battalion suffered heavily in the battle and when paraded again afterwards only 200 men were assembled . Gleeson 's absolution was the subject of a painting by Fortunino Matania that was made at the request of the widow of the battalion 's commanding officer . At the end of his year 's service in 1915 Gleeson returned to Dublin and became a curate but rejoined the army as a Chaplain in 1917 and remained for a further two years . After the war he returned once more to Ireland , becoming a priest at churches near to Dublin and being elected canon of the Metropolitan Chapter of the Archdiocese of Dublin before his death on 26 June 1959 .
= = Early life = =
Gleeson was born on 28 May 1884 at Templemore , County Tipperary in Ireland , one of thirteen children . Gleeson decided to become a Catholic priest and was educated at the Holy Cross College in Dublin and St Patrick 's College in Maynooth . He was ordained as a priest in 1910 at St Mary 's Pro @-@ Cathedral , Dublin and lived in Glasnevin before going to St. Mary 's Home for the Blind in March 1912 . Gleeson was a Jesuit , a nationalist and a speaker of Irish Gaelic .
= = Outbreak of war = =
On the outbreak of the First World War in July 1914 Gleeson volunteered for service with the British Army , one of only 17 priests to do so . He was commissioned as a Chaplain to the Forces , 4th Class ( equivalent to a Captain ) the Army Chaplains ' Department on 18 November 1914 and was soon serving with the 2nd battalion , Royal Munster Fusiliers on the Western Front in France . The battalion , regular troops who formed part of the 3rd Infantry Brigade of the 1st Infantry Division , were amongst the first British troops to be deployed to France , seeing action during the Battle of Mons , and after Gleeson joined them they participated in the First Battle of Ypres . British officer and poet Robert Graves recalled in his autobiography Good @-@ Bye to All That that during this battle Gleeson found himself the only unwounded officer of the battalion and , having removed his chaplain 's insignia that indicated his non @-@ combatant status , took command of the unit and held until relieved . Later in December that year he joined the battalion in a counterattack at the Battle of Givenchy . On Christmas Day the Munsters were in part of the front line unaffected by the Christmas Truce and Gleeson chose to conduct a Mass in one of the front line trenches that was frequently under fire . The mass was in memory of the seven officers and 200 men of the Munsters who had died in a failed attack on 22 December .
Gleeson was an advisor to men of all faiths in the regiment and kept careful records of their names and addresses so that he could write to the families of those that died . He ended each letter with the words " They paid a great sacrifice " , which was later used as the title of a book published in 2010 that details the wartime service records of men from Cork . Much of his time was spent answering letters from families in Ireland concerned about the wellbeing of their sons and husbands . At times the task almost overwhelmed him and this is evident in his personal diary when he wrote , in June 1915 , " I got 12 letters today ; just after reading them . What answering they will take tomorrow . I like to give these poor people all the solace I can , anyhow , but still there ’ s no limit to the sorrowing inquiries . The tragedy of these letters " .
Gleeson made frequent visits to the front lines and often conducted burial services there with wooden grave marker crosses that he made himself or entering no man 's land to comfort dying soldiers . His men said that they were always sure of a cup of tea from him when he visited the trenches late at night and he was certain to check that they were not short of ammunition . Gleeson sent requests to Ireland for hymn books for the men in the field and also bought mouth organs for their entertainment . One of Gleeson 's men said " He 's a warrior and no mistake . There 's no man at the Front more brave or cooler . Why , it is in the hottest place up in the firing line he do be to give comfort to the boys that are dying . " His work as a chaplain was renowned , one war correspondent stated that " If you meet a man of the 2nd Munsters , just mention the name of Father Gleeson and see how his face lights up " .
= = Aubers Ridge = =
Whilst moving forwards to the trenches on 8 May 1915 , in preparation for the Battle of Aubers Ridge , Lieutenant @-@ Colonel Victor Rickard ordered the battalion to halt at a roadside shrine in Rue du Bois , near Fleurbaix . The shrine was in fact the altar of the Chapel of Notre Dame de Seez which had been destroyed by shells earlier in the war . Gleeson , who had ridden at the front of the column , addressed the assembled 800 men and gave them the general absolution whilst still mounted on his horse . The men then sang the hymns Hail , Queen of Heaven , the Te Deum and Hail Glorious Saint Patrick before Gleeson moved along the ranks bidding farewell to the officers and encouraging the men to maintain the honour of the regiment . The battalion then moved off to the trenches from which they launched their attack at 5 @.@ 30 the next morning . The Munsters were largely cut down by machine gun fire before they had advanced more than a few yards although enough men survived to capture the German trenches , the only unit to do so that day , before being forced to withdraw .
Casualties in the battalion amounted to 11 officers and 140 men killed , including Lieutenant @-@ Colonel Rickard , in addition to 8 officers and 230 men wounded . Gleeson made it his duty to attend to the wounded and dying , comforting them and delivering the last rites , despite German shells landing close by him . After the battle the Munsters once again assembled at the Rue de Bois , though only three officers and 200 men were found fit to parade . Rickard 's widow , Jessie Louisa Rickard , requested that war artist Fortunino Matania immortalise the parade at Rue de Bois in a painting that centred on Gleeson delivering the absolution ( Rickard is also depicted in the background ) . Gleeson later donated the stole he wore for the parade to the regimental museum .
Gleeson further distinguished himself later that year by assisting in the defence of a trench against enemy attack . He had a strong commitment to the idea of freeing Belgium from German occupation but was known to be critical of what he considered anti @-@ clerical views held by the French authorities . Gleeson was familiar with the realities of war and , in December 1914 , wrote that " if ... advocates of war were made to be soaked and caked and crusted with cold , wet trench mud , like these poor soldiers , and to wear those mud @-@ weighted coats they would not be so glib with their treatises on the art of war . These militants should be made undergo a few nights in cheerless billets [ and ] mud @-@ river trenches to teach them a lesson . What is it all for at all ? " .
Having originally agreed to serve for a year Gleeson wrote to Father Bernard Rawlinson , the senior Roman Catholic chaplain , in October 1915 requesting that he be relieved of duty stating that " I am sorry to be leaving the dear old Munster lads , but I really can 't stand it any longer . I do not like the life , though I love the poor men ever so much " . He became a curate at the Church of Our Lady of Lourdes in Dublin but requested permission from his Archbishop , William Walsh , to return to army service for another year . He was recommissioned in his previous rank on 15 May 1917 and would serve another two years . When the Royal Munster Fusiliers were transferred to the 48th Brigade , 16th ( Irish ) Division on 29 January 1918 Gleeson remained with the 1st Infantry Division .
= = Post @-@ war = =
After the Armistice with Germany Gleeson returned once more to Ireland , being discharged from the British Army in May 1919 . Gleeson encountered hostility with Irish republicans after the war due to his association with the British Army . On 4 June 1922 he attended the dedication of Étreux British Cemetery which holds the remains of 110 men of the Royal Munster Fusiliers who were killed in the defence of Étreux against superior German forces whilst acting as a rearguard for the Great Retreat of August 1914 . Gleeson served as a chaplain to the armed forces of the Irish Free State from February 1923 and was with them during the Irish Civil War .
= = Dramatist = =
Gleeson successfully wrote and produced two dramas ; the first was a drama of the first Holy Week , entitled Bethany to Calvary which was staged at the Theatre Royal , Dublin in February 1931 and received high praise from many authorities on sacred drama . It was subsequently staged in the Abbey Theatre Dublin in April 1935 . In March 1938 it was presented again during the Sundays of Lent and the Passion Week with a cast of seventy at Our Lady ’ s Hall in Inchicore , Dublin .
His second drama Rose of Battle was laid in the French lines during the 1917 @-@ 18 war , in which one of two soldier friends is reconciled to his faith and Church after his friend is killed but he , though badly wounded , becomes miraculously cured through the prayers of his friend ’ s sister , a hospital nurse . The drama was widely acclaimed in 1935 when staged at the Abbey Theatre , Dublin ( casting Cyril Cusack ) , the Opera House , Cork , and the Theatre Royal , Waterford .
= = Later life and legacy = =
He worked later as a priest at Bray , Aughrim and was at St Catherine 's in Meath Street , Dublin from August 1944 . He was elected a canon of the Metropolitan Chapter of the Archdiocese of Dublin on 7 May 1956 and died on 26 June 1959 . Gleeson was buried at the Glasnevin Cemetery in Dublin . The Old Comrades Association of the Royal Munster Fusiliers honoured him in their annual report , stating that he was " a canon when he died . A saint when next we all meet " .
A stone tablet at the Island of Ireland Peace Park near Ypres , Belgium is inscribed with a quote from Gleeson describing his efforts to comfort the wounded . The stole Gleeson wore during his famous absolution before Aubers Ridge was rediscovered in August 2014 in the collection of the National Army Museum , having been acquired by them in 1959 . A memorial was unveiled in May 2015 at the recently rediscovered site of Gleeson 's absolution at Rue de Bois . Gleeson 's war diaries are held by the Archdiocese of Dublin and the National Museum of Ireland at Collins Barracks , Dublin . The diaries , notes and records from the diocesan collection were digitised in an 18 @-@ month @-@ long joint project with the University College Dublin that was completed in April 2015 .
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= Green Lantern ( film ) =
Green Lantern is a 2011 American superhero film based on the DC Comics character of the same name . The film stars Ryan Reynolds , Blake Lively , Peter Sarsgaard , Mark Strong , Angela Bassett , and Tim Robbins , with Martin Campbell directing a script by Greg Berlanti and comic book writers Michael Green and Marc Guggenheim , which was subsequently rewritten by Michael Goldenberg . Green Lantern tells the story of Hal Jordan , a test pilot who is selected to become the first human member of the Green Lantern Corps . Hal is given a ring that grants him superpowers and must confront Parallax , who threatens to upset the balance of power in the universe .
The film first entered development in 1997 ; progress remained stalled until Greg Berlanti was hired to write and direct in October 2007 . Martin Campbell was brought on board in February 2009 after Berlanti was forced to vacate the director 's position . Most of the live @-@ action actors were cast between July 2009 and February 2010 and filming took place from March to August 2010 in Louisiana . The film was converted to 3D in post @-@ production .
Green Lantern was released on June 17 , 2011 and received generally negative reviews ; most criticised the film for its screenplay , inconsistent tone , choice and portrayal of villains , and use of CGI while some praised Reynolds ' performance . The film underperformed at the box office , grossing just $ 220 million against a production budget of $ 200 million . Due to the film 's negative reception and disappointing box office performance , Warner Bros. cancelled any plans for a sequel , instead opting to reboot the character in the DC Extended Universe with the movie Green Lantern Corps , set for release in 2020 .
= = Plot = =
Billions of years ago , beings called the Guardians of the Universe used the green essence of willpower to create an intergalactic police force called the Green Lantern Corps . They divided the universe into 3600 sectors , with one Green Lantern per sector . One such Green Lantern , Abin Sur of Sector 2814 , defeated the malevolent being Parallax and imprisoned him in the Lost Sector on the desolate planet Ryut . In the present day , Parallax escapes from his prison after becoming strengthened by an encounter with crash survivors on the planet , feeding off of their fear to gain strength before pursuing and nearly killing Abin Sur , who escapes and crash @-@ lands on Earth where he commands his ring to find a worthy successor .
Hal Jordan , a cocky test pilot working at Ferris Aircraft , is chosen by the ring and transported to the crash site , where the dying Abin Sur appoints him a Green Lantern , telling him to take the lantern and speak the oath . At home he says the oath and is later whisked away to the Green Lantern Corps home planet of Oa , where he meets and trains with veteran Corps members Tomar @-@ Re and Kilowog and Corps leader Sinestro , who believes he is unfit and fearful . Jordan quits and returns to Earth , keeping the power ring and lantern .
Meanwhile , scientist Hector Hammond is summoned by his father , Senator Robert Hammond , to a secret government facility to perform an autopsy on Abin Sur 's body . A piece of Parallax inside the corpse enters Hammond , giving him telepathic and telekinetic powers , at the cost of his sanity . After discovering that he was chosen for the secret work only due to his father 's influence , Hammond attempts to kill his father by telekinetically sabotaging his helicopter at a party . Jordan saves the senator and the party guests , including his childhood sweetheart Carol Ferris . Later , Hammond successfully kills his father by burning him alive , and Jordan learns of Parallax coming to Earth .
Back on Oa , the Guardians tell Sinestro that Parallax was once one of their own until he desired to control the yellow essence of fear , only to become the embodiment of fear itself . Arguing that the way to fight fear is by fear itself , Sinestro requests that the Guardians forge a ring of the same yellow power , preparing to concede Earth 's destruction to Parallax in order to protect Oa . Jordan appears and tries to convince the Guardians that fear will turn the users evil if its power is used , but they reject his pleas , and he returns to Earth to try to defeat Parallax alone feeling defeated .
Upon returning to Earth as the Lantern , Jordan saves Ferris from Hammond after a brief showdown with him . Parallax arrives , consumes Hammond 's life force , killing him and then wreaks havoc on Coast City . After a fierce battle , with new @-@ found strength , Jordan lures Parallax away from Earth and toward the Sun , destroying and killing Parallax . He loses consciousness after the battle and falls toward the sun , but is saved by Sinestro , Kilowog , and Tomar @-@ Re . Later , the entire Green Lantern Corps congratulates him for his bravery . Sinestro tells Jordan he now bears the responsibility of protecting his sector as a Green Lantern .
In a mid @-@ credits scene , Sinestro steals the yellow ring and places it on his finger , causing his green suit and eyes to change to yellow .
= = Cast = =
Ryan Reynolds as Hal Jordan / Green Lantern :
A test pilot for the Ferris Aircraft Company whose will to act indoctrinates him as first earthman ever inducted into an intergalactic peacekeeping force fueled by green energy of will . Reynolds said , " I 've known about ' Green Lantern ' my whole life , but I 've never really followed it before . I fell out of love with the character when I met with Martin Campbell " . Reynolds called the film " an origin story to a certain degree , but it 's not a labored origin story , where the movie begins in the third act . The movie starts when it starts . We find out Hal is the guy fairly early on , and the adventure begins " . Alternatively Chris Pine and Sam Worthington had been in discussions for the role . Bradley Cooper , Jared Leto and Justin Timberlake were other top contenders , while Brian Austin Green , a Green Lantern fan , campaigned for the part , but ultimately did not audition.Gattlin Griffith as Young Hal Jordan .
Blake Lively as Carol Ferris :
The vice president of Ferris Aircraft and a long @-@ time love interest of Hal Jordan . One pseudonymous writer citing unnamed sources said Lively was among five leading contenders that included Eva Green , Keri Russell , Diane Kruger and Jennifer Garner . About her stunt work in which she rehearsed with stunt coordinator Gary Powell ( Casino Royale , The Bourne Ultimatum , Quantum of Solace ) , gymnastic acrobats from Cirque du Soleil and used aerial stunt rigs created for The Matrix , Lively explained , " Our director likes it real — the fights close and dirty ... I 'm 40 feet in the air , spiraling around . That 's the best workout you can ever do because it 's all core ... You do that for ten minutes and you should see your body the next day ! It 's so exhilarating , so thrilling — and nauseating " .Jena Craig as Young Carol Ferris .
Peter Sarsgaard as Dr. Hector Hammond :
A scientist who is exposed to the yellow energy of fear from Parallax , causing his brain to grow to enormous size grant him psionic powers . Regarding his preparation for the role , Sarsgaard stated , " I actually did hang with this biologist from Tulane that was I think just the most eccentric guy they could find . He was entertaining , and he and I actually worked on my lecture that I give in [ Green Lantern ] . " About his character Sarsgaard remarked , " He 's got shades of gray . It 's eccentricity on top of eccentricity " .Kennon Kepper as Young Hector Hammond .
Mark Strong as Thaal Sinestro / Green Lantern :
A Green Lantern and Hal Jordan 's mentor . Strong affirmed that the film will follow the origin story , " the film closely follows the early comics . Sinestro starts out as Hal Jordan ’ s mentor , slightly suspicious and not sure of him because obviously Hal is the first human being who ’ s made into a Green Lantern . He 's certainly very strict and unsure of the wisdom of Hal becoming a Green Lantern " . Strong said , the character " is a military guy but isn 't immediately bad . It 's the kind of person that lends himself to becoming bad over the course of the comics being written , but initially he ’ s quite a heroic figure . ” He also revealed that the outfit and other aspects of the character very closely follow the character 's early days , “ That widow 's peak and thin mustache was for some reason originally based on David Niven ... So I would like to do justice to the Sinestro that was conceived for the comic books ” .
Angela Bassett as Dr. Amanda Waller :
A former congressional aide and government agent . About the differences between the comic book and film character Bassett said , " Well , I ’ m not 300lbs , " but added that her character does have " that intellectual , that bright , that no @-@ nonsense , that means business [ personality ] . [ She 's ] getting it done and in the trenches nothing fazes her " .
Tim Robbins as Robert Hammond :
A United States senator and the father of the movie 's human villain , Hector Hammond .
Temuera Morrison as Abin Sur / Green Lantern :
A Green Lantern who crash lands on Earth and recruits Hal Jordan as his replacement . Morrison said it took four to five hours to put on the prosthetic makeup for the character . About filming with Ryan Reynolds , Morrison commented , " We did the whole scene together where I give him the ring , our suits are CGI so we had these grey suits with things on them so it was cool and working with Martin Campbell again was great too " .
Geoffrey Rush as the voice of Tomar @-@ Re / Green Lantern :
A bird @-@ beaked member of the Green Lantern Corps who teaches Hal Jordan how to use his cosmic powers . Rush stated he was not initially familiar with Green Lantern but was drawn to the part after seeing the concept art explaining , " When I got the offer for it I said , ‘ Haven ’ t they made that film ? ’ They said , ‘ No , it ’ s a completely computer @-@ generated character . ’ I saw the artwork and I said , I would love to be that guy . Because I had voiced an owl in Legend of the Guardians : The Owls of Ga 'Hoole and I ’ d voiced a pelican in Finding Nemo and I thought I could really improve on that now by being half @-@ bird , half @-@ fish , part lizard . You don ’ t get to do that in a live @-@ action film . " Rush compared the role to previous roles where he played a mentoring figure , " You could say that I ’ ve mentored Queen Elizabeth I as [ Sir Francis ] Walsingham , and [ Leon ] Trotsky has mentored Frida Kahlo and now Tomar Re is going to mentor Hal Jordan , and I was sort of mentoring King George VI in The King 's Speech . But I can ’ t imagine Tomar Re setting up an office on Harley Street in London . They ’ re all very different people to me , but there is a kind of theme I suppose " .
Michael Clarke Duncan as the voice of Kilowog / Green Lantern :
A drill sergeant trainer of new recruits for the Green Lantern Corps . About the character , Duncan , a fan of the comic book , stated , " He 's a real type of tough guy who knows everything , and actually in one of the comic books he and Superman fought to a tie " .
Taika Waititi as Thomas Kalmaku :
An Inuit engineer at Ferris Aircraft . Waititi said he was cast after a Warner Bros. casting agent saw his performance in Boy , which he also wrote and directed . Waititi – who has a Jewish mother and Maori father – says the production " had an opening for a role in the film for someone who wasn 't , I don 't [ know ] , not @-@ white or not @-@ black . "
Clancy Brown as the voice of Parallax :
A former Guardian of the Universe who was imprisoned by Abin Sur after he was exposed to the yellow energy of fear .
Additionally , Jon Tenney plays Martin Jordan , Hal Jordan 's father ; Jay O. Sanders portrays Carl Ferris , an aircraft designer and father of Carol Ferris ; and Mike Doyle is cast as Jack Jordan , Hal Jordan 's older brother .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
In early 1997 , Warner Bros. approached cult filmmaker and comic book writer Kevin Smith , who had then just finished writing Superman Lives , to script a Green Lantern film . Smith turned down the offer , believing there were more suitable candidates to make a Green Lantern film . At one point Quentin Tarantino was offered the chance to write and direct . Warner also considered the property as an action comedy ; by 2004 , Robert Smigel had completed a script which was set to star Jack Black in the lead role . However , the studio dropped the comedy idea following poor fan reaction from the Internet . David S. Goyer was offered the chance to write and direct either a Green Lantern or Flash film after Warner Bros. was impressed with his screenplay for Batman Begins , but he opted to direct the latter . Actor @-@ writer Corey Reynolds , a comic book fan of the John Stewart character , pitched Warner an idea for a trilogy , with him starring as John Stewart and performing screenwriting duties . Reynolds intended to introduce Hal Jordan , the Green Lantern Corps and Justice League in possible sequels . He finished the script for Green Lantern : Birth of a Hero in June 2007 , receiving positive feedback from Warner Bros. with a potential 2010 release date . However , the studio abandoned Reynolds ' concept , and in October 2007 , Greg Berlanti signed to direct the film and co @-@ write it with comic @-@ book writers Michael Green and Marc Guggenheim . A draft of the trio 's 2008 script , leaked on the Internet , revealed a story that included the hero 's origin and included the characters Carol Ferris , Kilowog , Sinestro , and Guy Gardner in a cameo appearance , and appeared " to set up Hector Hammond as Hal Jordan 's ... first major nemesis .... " Shortly afterward , Guggenheim said that the script would contain characterizations inspired by the Denny O 'Neil @-@ Neal Adams run on the comic in the 1970s , and Dave Gibbons ' work in the early 1980s . He added that he and his co @-@ writers also looked to the 2000s Geoff Johns stories , saying , " It ’ s been interesting because we finished a draft just before [ Johns ' ] ' Secret Origin ' [ story arc ] started up . " So I ’ ve been reading ' Secret Origin ' with a real interest in seeing ' OK , how did Geoff solve this problem ? ' There are certain elements just for anyone trying to retell Hal ’ s origin for a modern day audience has to address and grapple with . For example , why the hell was Abin [ Sur ] flying in a space ship when he 's a Green Lantern ? You don 't ask that question back in the Silver Age , but when you 're writing in the Modern Age , you have to answer these things . "
= = = Pre @-@ production = = =
By December 2008 , the writers had written three drafts of the screenplay and Warner was preparing for pre @-@ production . However , Berlanti was forced to vacate the director 's position when Warner Bros. attached him to This Is Where I Leave You , and in February 2009 , Martin Campbell entered negotiations to direct . The release date was set as December 2010 , before being moved to June 17 , 2011 .
Bradley Cooper , Ryan Reynolds , Justin Timberlake , and Jared Leto were the producers ' top choices for the starring role in July 2009 . On July 10 , Warner announced that Reynolds had been cast as Hal Jordan / Green Lantern . A website reported on January 7 , 2010 , that a crew @-@ member had written on her blog that the film was greenlit the day before and that filming would begin in 10 weeks . Also in January , Blake Lively was cast as Carol Ferris , Peter Sarsgaard was in negotiations to portray Hector Hammond , and Mark Strong was in negotiations to play Sinestro . In February , Tim Robbins joined the cast as Senator Hammond . The following month , New Zealanders Temuera Morrison and Taika Waititi had joined the cast as Abin Sur and Tom Kalmaku , respectively .
= = = Filming = = =
With a production budget of $ 200 million , Green Lantern was initially scheduled to begin filming in November 2009 at Fox Studios Australia . The start date was pushed back to January 2010 , but the production moved to Louisiana , where , on March 3 , 2010 , test footage was filmed in Madisonville involving stunt cars . Principal photography began on March 15 , 2010 in New Orleans . Nine days after filming began , Angela Bassett joined the cast as Dr. Amanda Waller , a government agent who is a staple of the DC Comics universe .
In April 2010 , Jon Tenney revealed that he would play Hal Jordan 's father , test pilot Martin H. Jordan . By June 2010 filming had begun at New Orleans Lakefront Airport . In the same month it was reported that Mike Doyle has been cast for the role of Jack Jordan , the older brother of Hal Jordan . In July 2010 it was reported that Ryan Reynolds was injured while shooting scenes for the film , separating his shoulder and was in " lots of pain " .
= = = Post @-@ production = = =
Geoff Johns confirmed on his Twitter account that the film had ended principal photography on August 6 , 2010 and entered post @-@ production . In an interview with MTV News , director Martin Campbell when asked about the film 's effects @-@ heavy epic scale commented ; " It 's daunting , just the process , ( there are ) something like 1 @,@ 300 visual shots , it 's mind @-@ blowing , quite honestly " . When asked about the constructs created from the power rings Campbell stated ; " One of the nice things is , we 'll all sit down and say , ' Well , what are we going to do here ? ' Really , it 's as much as your imagination can go to make the constructs " . The studio also confirmed to MTV News that the film would have a 3 @-@ D release .
In January 2011 , it was reported that Green Lantern had begun re @-@ shoots for key scenes at Warner Bros. Studios in Los Angeles , California . In March 2011 it was reported that Geoffrey Rush had joined the cast as the voice of the CGI @-@ created character , Tomar @-@ Re .
In April 2011 , Michael Clarke Duncan entered negotiations to voice Kilowog . Also in April it was reported that Warner Bros. raised the visual effects budget by $ 9 million and hired additional visual effects studios to bolster the ranks of the team that had been working overtime to meet the film 's June 17 launch .
= = Soundtrack = =
The soundtrack was released in stores on June 14 , 2011 . The soundtrack was composed by James Newton Howard , who also worked on the other Warner Bros / DC Comics based films Batman Begins and The Dark Knight with Hans Zimmer . The soundtrack was published by WaterTower Music .
= = Release = =
The world premiere of Green Lantern took place on June 15 , 2011 at Grauman 's Chinese Theatre in Hollywood , California , and two days later the film was released in North America and the UK .
= = = Home media = = =
Green Lantern was released on DVD and Blu @-@ ray on October 14 , 2011 . The Blu @-@ ray release includes an extended cut , which adds an extra nine minutes of footage to the running time , totaling 123 minutes .
= = = Marketing = = =
Marketing and promotion of the film cost $ 100 million . The first footage of the film was shown at the 2010 San Diego Comic @-@ Con. The footage was widely released online in November 2010 with thirty seconds of footage airing the following day on Entertainment Tonight . The first full theatrical trailer for the film was shown before screenings of Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows - Part 1 and became available online in November 2010 . This initial trailer was met with a poor reception from fans and , as a result , the film 's marketing campaign was delayed . Sue Kroll , the studio 's worldwide marketing president stated , " Part of the reason the response to the first trailer was lukewarm was that the big @-@ scale sequences weren 't ready to show , and we suffered for it . We can 't afford to do that again . " In April Warner Bros. debuted nine minutes of footage at the 2011 WonderCon in San Francisco . The Hollywood Reporter reported that the footage wowed the audience . A four @-@ minute cut of the WonderCon footage was later released online .
= = = = Animation = = = =
In March 2010 , Comics Continuum reported that an animated Green Lantern film was in the works at Warner Bros. Animation and would be part of a direct @-@ to @-@ video project that was timed for release of the live @-@ action Green Lantern movie in the summer of 2011 . The Green Lantern animated project would likely take a look at the origins of the Green Lantern Corps , including the first ring wielders . In an interview with Bruce Timm , the producer revealed that a sequel to the Green Lantern animated movie had been discussed but cancelled because of the picture not achieving the immediate success that they had hoped for . However , Timm did hope the live @-@ action film would renew interest in a sequel . The animated movie entitled Green Lantern : Emerald Knights was officially announced in June 2010 instead .
= = = = Comics = = = =
DC Entertainment began releasing a series of Green Lantern Movie Prequel comics the week before the film was released , covering the lives of the characters before the events of the film , written by members of the film 's production team . Five comics were made , covering Tomar @-@ Re by Marc Guggenheim , Kilowog by Peter J. Tomasi , Abin Sur by Michael Green , Hal Jordan by Greg Berlanti and Sinestro by Michael Goldenberg and Geoff Johns . A free excerpt of the Sinestro prequel comic was released online as " Secret Origin of the Green Lantern Corps # 1 " two days before the release of the film .
= = = = Roller coaster = = = =
Six Flags debuted two roller coasters named Green Lantern at Great Adventure and Magic Mountain in 2011 to coincide with the film 's release . A third ride , Green Lantern Coaster , also opened in November of the same year at Warner Bros. Movie World in Australia . Although this ride was more based on the original comic .
= = = = Video game = = = =
Warner Bros. Interactive produced a tie @-@ in video game , Green Lantern : Rise of the Manhunters , for the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 by Double Helix Games , with versions for Wii , Nintendo DS and Nintendo 3DS by Griptonite Games .
= = Reception = =
= = = Box office = = =
Green Lantern opened on Friday , June 17 , 2011 in North America , earning $ 3 @.@ 4 million in 1 @,@ 180 midnight runs . The film went on to gross $ 21 @,@ 386 @,@ 523 its opening day , but fell 22 % on Saturday for a weekend total of $ 53 @,@ 174 @,@ 303 , earning it the No. 1 spot . In its second weekend Green Lantern experienced a 66 @.@ 1 % decline , which was the largest second weekend decline for a superhero film in 2011 . According to the box office data and analysis website Box Office Mojo , Green Lantern grossed $ 116 @,@ 601 @,@ 172 in the U.S. and Canada as well as $ 103 @,@ 250 @,@ 000 internationally bringing its worldwide total to $ 219 @,@ 851 @,@ 172 .
Many industry analysts felt that Green Lantern " failed to perform to expectations " . The Hollywood Reporter speculated that Green Lantern needed to make approximately $ 500 million to be considered financially solid .
= = = Reception = = =
Green Lantern received negative reviews from critics . On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes , the film has a rating of 26 % , based on 226 reviews , with an average rating of 4 @.@ 6 / 10 . The site 's critical consensus reads , " Noisy , overproduced , and thinly written , Green Lantern squanders an impressive budget and decades of comics mythology . On Metacritic , the film has a score of 39 out of 100 , based on 39 critics , indicating " Generally unfavorable reviews " .
Justin Chang of Variety gave Green Lantern a Great review , stating , " Martin Campbell 's visually lavish sci @-@ fi adventure is a highly unstable alloy of the serious , the goofy and the downright derivative . " Manohla Dargis of The New York Times said , " Green Lantern is bad . This despite Ryan Reynolds 's dazzling dentistry , hard @-@ body physique and earnest efforts , and the support of fine performers like Peter Sarsgaard ... Mark Strong ... and Angela Bassett " . Christy Lemire of the Associated Press called it a " joyless amalgamation of expository dialogue and special effects that aren 't especially special . " Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times had mixed feelings , stating , " Green Lantern does not intend to be plausible . It intends to be a sound @-@ and @-@ light show , assaulting the audience with sensational special effects . If that 's what you want , that 's what you get . " British newspaper The Telegraph named The Green Lantern one of the ten worst films of 2011 .
Conversely , Todd McCarthy of The Hollywood Reporter gave it a positive review , saying the film " serves up all the requisite elements with enough self @-@ deprecating humor to suggest it doesn 't take itself too seriously " . Reviewer Leonard Maltin felt that " the film offers a dazzling array of visual effects , a likable hero , a beautiful leading lady , a colorful villain , and a good backstory . It also doesn ’ t take itself too seriously . " Kenneth Turan of the Los Angeles Times said , " More science @-@ fiction space opera than superhero epic , it works in fits and starts as its disparate parts go in and out of effectiveness , but the professionalism of the production make it watchable in a comic book kind of way " .
While promoting Deadpool ( in which Reynolds portrays another famous comic book superhero ) , Reynolds said that filming Green Lantern itself was frustrating , " You really need a visionary behind a movie like that , but it was the classic studio story : " We have a poster , but we don 't have a script or know what we want ; let 's start shooting ! " The Deadpool film references Reynolds ' time as Green Lantern in two scenes , the opening scene which features a picture of Green Lantern , and a later scene where his character says , " Just please don 't make the super @-@ suit green , or animated ! "
= = = Accolades = = =
= = Cancelled sequel and planned reboot = =
In 2010 , director Martin Campbell confirmed the possibility of a Green Lantern trilogy . Warner Bros originally planned on Green Lantern being the first entry of a new DC franchise , and commissioned a script for a sequel from Greg Berlanti , Michael Green , and Marc Guggenheim during filming . In August 2010 , they retained Michael Goldenberg to write the screenplay , based on the sequel treatment . The scene in the film 's end credits implying a resurgence of the yellow power ring of " fear " including Sinestro becoming corrupted by its energy strongly suggested a planned sequel . In September 2011 , Warner Bros. , dismayed by the film 's negative reviews and disappointing box office return , abandoned plans for sequels .
In June 2013 , David S. Goyer confirmed that Man of Steel is the first film of the DC Extended Universe by stating that " from Man of Steel onward , possible films could expand into a shared universe " , confirming that should the Green Lantern property be featured in an upcoming DC film , it will be a rebooted version . Goyer also said to have interest in taking the new version of the character to film . Warner Bros announced plans on releasing a solo Green Lantern film titled Green Lantern Corps on June 19 , 2020 , as the eleventh installment of the DC Extended Universe . Hal Jordan and John Stewart will reportedly be the featured Green Lanterns in the film .
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= Satsuma @-@ class battleship =
The Satsuma class ( 薩摩型戦艦 , Satsuma @-@ gata senkan ) was a pair of semi @-@ dreadnought battleships built for the Imperial Japanese Navy ( IJN ) in the first decade of the 20th century . They were the first battleships to be built in Japan and marked a transitional stage between the pre @-@ dreadnought and true dreadnought designs . They saw no combat during World War I , although Satsuma led a squadron that occupied several German colonies in the Pacific Ocean in 1914 . Both ships were disarmed and expended as targets in 1922 – 24 in accordance with the terms of the Washington Naval Treaty of 1922 .
= = Background = =
The Satsuma class was ordered in late 1904 under the 1904 War Naval Supplementary Program during the Russo @-@ Japanese War . Unlike the previous Katori @-@ class pre @-@ dreadnought battleships , they were the first battleships ordered from Japanese shipyards , although the first ship in the class , Satsuma , used many imported components .
They were originally intended to mount a dozen 12 @-@ inch ( 305 mm ) gun in four twin and four single @-@ gun turrets , but the combination of a shortage of Japanese @-@ built 12 @-@ inch guns and their additional expense caused the ships to be redesigned to carry four 12 @-@ inch and twelve 10 @-@ inch ( 254 mm ) guns , all in twin @-@ gun turrets . The intended armament of these ships , laid down before HMS Dreadnought , would have made them the first " all big @-@ gun " battleships in the world had they been completed to their original design .
Probably reflecting extensive British technical assistance , the Satsuma @-@ class ships greatly resembled an enlarged version of the British Lord Nelson class with the single @-@ gun amidships intermediate turrets replaced by twin @-@ gun turrets . With their heavy intermediate armament , the ships were considered to be semi @-@ dreadnoughts , a transitional stage between pre @-@ dreadnoughts with their light intermediate armament and dreadnoughts solely equipped with large guns .
= = Description = =
The construction of Aki was delayed since she could not be laid down until the slipway occupied by the armored cruiser Tsukuba was freed by that ship 's launching . The IJN took the opportunity provided by the delay to modify the ship to accommodate steam turbines and various other changes that generally increased her size . The changes were great enough that Aki is generally considered a half sister to Satsuma . The crew ranged from 800 to 940 officers and enlisted men .
Satsuma had an overall length of 482 feet ( 146 @.@ 9 m ) , a beam of 83 @.@ 5 feet ( 25 @.@ 5 m ) , and a normal draft of 27 @.@ 5 feet ( 8 @.@ 4 m ) . She displaced 19 @,@ 372 long tons ( 19 @,@ 683 t ) at normal load .
Aki was 492 feet ( 150 @.@ 0 m ) long overall , had a beam of 83 @.@ 6 feet ( 25 @.@ 5 m ) , and the same draft as her half @-@ sister . She displaced 20 @,@ 100 long tons ( 20 @,@ 400 t ) at normal load .
= = = Propulsion = = =
Satsuma was powered by a pair of vertical triple @-@ expansion steam engines , each driving one propeller shaft , using steam generated by 20 Miyabara water @-@ tube boilers using a mixture of coal and fuel oil . The engines were rated at a total of 17 @,@ 300 indicated horsepower ( 12 @,@ 900 kW ) and designed to reach a top speed of 18 @.@ 25 knots ( 33 @.@ 80 km / h ; 21 @.@ 00 mph ) . During the ship 's sea trials she reached 18 @.@ 95 knots ( 35 @.@ 10 km / h ; 21 @.@ 81 mph ) from 18 @,@ 507 ihp ( 13 @,@ 801 kW ) . Satsuma carried a maximum of 2 @,@ 860 long tons ( 2 @,@ 910 t ) of coal and 377 long tons ( 383 t ) of oil which allowed her to steam for 9 @,@ 100 nautical miles ( 16 @,@ 900 km ; 10 @,@ 500 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . Unlike her half @-@ sister , she only had two funnels .
Aki was intended use the same type of engines as her sister , but the IJN decided fit her with a pair of Curtiss steam turbine sets after she was launched in 1907 . The turbines each powered one propeller shaft using steam from 15 Miyabara boilers . The turbines were rated at a total of 24 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 18 @,@ 000 kW ) for a design speed of 20 knots ( 37 km / h ; 23 mph ) . The ship reached a top speed of 20 @.@ 25 knots ( 37 @.@ 50 km / h ; 23 @.@ 30 mph ) during her sea trials from 27 @,@ 740 shp ( 20 @,@ 690 kW ) . She carried a maximum of 3 @,@ 000 long tons ( 3 @,@ 000 t ) of coal and 172 long tons ( 175 t ) of oil gave her the same range as her half sister .
= = = Armament = = =
The ships were completed with four 45 @-@ caliber 12 @-@ inch 41st Year Type guns in two gun turrets , one each fore and aft of the superstructure . They fired 850 @-@ pound ( 386 kg ) armor @-@ piercing ( AP ) shells at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 800 ft / s ( 850 m / s ) ; this gave a maximum range of 24 @,@ 000 yards ( 22 @,@ 000 m ) . The intermediate armament was much more numerous than in the preceding Katori class , with six twin @-@ gun turrets equipped with 45 @-@ caliber Type 41 10 @-@ inch guns , three turrets on each side of the superstructure . The guns had a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 707 ft / s ( 825 m / s ) when firing 500 @-@ pound ( 227 kg ) shells .
The other major difference between the two ships was that Aki 's secondary armament consisted of eight 45 @-@ caliber 6 @-@ inch 41st Year Type guns , mounted in casemates in the sides of the hull . The gun fired a 100 @-@ pound ( 45 kg ) AP shell at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 706 ft / s ( 825 m / s ) . Satsuma , in contrast , was equipped with a dozen 40 @-@ caliber 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch 41st Year Type quick @-@ firing ( QF ) guns , mounted in casemates in the sides of the hull . The gun fired a 45 @-@ pound ( 20 kg ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 150 ft / s ( 660 m / s ) .
The ships were also equipped with four ( Satsuma ) or eight ( Aki ) 40 @-@ caliber 12 @-@ pounder 12 @-@ cwt QF guns and four 28 @-@ caliber 12 @-@ pounder QF guns . Both of these guns fired 12 @.@ 5 @-@ pound ( 5 @.@ 67 kg ) shells with muzzle velocities of 2 @,@ 300 ft / s ( 700 m / s ) and 1 @,@ 500 feet per second ( 450 m / s ) respectively . In addition , the battleships were fitted with five submerged 18 @-@ inch ( 457 mm ) torpedo tubes , two on each broadside and one in the stern .
= = = Armor = = =
The waterline main belt of the Satsuma @-@ class vessels consisted of Krupp cemented armor that had a maximum thickness of 9 inches ( 229 mm ) amidships and tapered to a thickness of 4 inches ( 102 mm ) inches at the ends of the ship . A 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) strake of armor protected the casemates . The barbettes for the main guns were 7 – 9 @.@ 5 inches ( 180 – 240 mm ) thick . The armor of Satsuma 's main gun turrets had a maximum thickness of 8 inches ( 203 mm ) inches and those of Aki were an inch thicker . The deck armor was 2 – 3 inches ( 51 – 76 mm ) thick and the conning tower was protected by six inches of armor .
= = Ships = =
= = Service = =
The completion of the British battleship Dreadnought with her all big @-@ gun @-@ armament and steam turbines in 1906 meant that these ships were obsolete even before they were completed . The IJN recognized that fact when it drew up the first iteration of its Eight @-@ Eight Fleet building plan for eight first @-@ class battleships and eight battlecruisers in 1910 and did not include them .
Aki was refitting at Kure and Satsuma was assigned to the 1st Battleship Squadron when World War I began in August 1914 . The latter served as Rear Admiral Tatsuo Matsumura 's flagship in the Second South Seas Squadron as it seized the German possessions of the Caroline and the Palau Islands in October 1914 . Satsuma rejoined the 1st Battleship Squadron in 1915 , was refitted at Sasebo Naval Arsenal in 1916 and served with the 1st Squadron for the rest of the war . Aki was also assigned to the 1st Squadron upon the completion of her refit and remained with it until she was transferred to the 2nd Battleship Squadron in 1918 .
In the years immediately following the end of the war , the United States , Britain , and Japan all launched huge naval construction programs . All three countries decided that a new naval arms race would be ill @-@ advised , and so convened the Washington Naval Conference to discuss arms limitations , which produced the Washington Naval Treaty , signed in February 1922 . Japan was well over the tonnage limits and all of her obsolete predreadnought and semi @-@ dreadnought battleships had to be disposed of by the end of 1924 . Both ships were disarmed at Yokosuka in 1922 , stricken from the Navy List during 1923 and converted into target ships . Aki was sunk by the battlecruiser Kongō and the battleship Hyūga in Tokyo Bay on 2 September 1924 ; Satsuma was sunk by the battleships Nagato and Mutsu five days later in the same area .
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= Great Eastern Highway =
Great Eastern Highway is a 590 @-@ kilometre @-@ long ( 370 mi ) road that links the Western Australian capital of Perth with the city of Kalgoorlie . A key route for road vehicles accessing the eastern Wheatbelt and the Goldfields , it is the western portion of the main road link between Perth and the eastern states of Australia . The highway forms the majority of National Highway 94 , although the alignment through the Perth suburbs of Guildford and Midland , and the eastern section between Coolgardie and Kalgoorlie are not included . Various segments form parts of other road routes , including National Route 1 , Alternate National Route 94 , and State Route 51 .
There are numerous intersections in Perth with other highways and main roads , including Canning , Albany , Tonkin and Roe Highways , and Graham Farmer Freeway . There are also two rural highways that spur off Great Eastern Highway . Great Southern Highway begins near Perth 's eastern metropolitan boundary , linking towns such as York , Brookton , Narrogin , and Katanning . Near the eastern end of the highway , Coolgardie is the starting point of Coolgardie – Esperance Highway , connecting to the interstate route Eyre Highway at Norseman , as well as the coastal town of Esperance .
The highway was created in the 1930s from an existing system of roads linking Perth with the Goldfields . Though the name Great Eastern Highway was coined to describe the route from Perth to Guildford on the northern side of the Swan River ( modern @-@ day Guildford Road ) , it was actually used for the road through Belmont , south of the river . This section was constructed in 1867 using convict labour , with the road base made from sections of tree trunks . Over the years the road has been upgraded , with the whole highway sealed by 1953 , segments reconstructed and widened , dual carriageways created in Perth and Kalgoorlie , and grade separated interchanges built at major intersections . Great Eastern Highway Bypass in Perth 's eastern suburbs opened in 1988 , allowing through traffic to avoid the Guildford and Midland townsites , and in 2002 a new bypass diverted the highway around Northam . A future route to replace Great Eastern Highway 's current ascent of the Darling Scarp has been identified . The planned route is a controlled @-@ access highway along Toodyay Road to Gidgegannup , and then across to Wundowie via a new alignment . Though planning began in the 1970s , as of 2012 , construction of this route has not been scheduled , and it is not considered a priority .
= = Route description = =
Great Eastern Highway commences at The Causeway , a river crossing that connects to Perth 's central business district . Travelling north @-@ east through the city to Greenmount Hill , and following a steep climb , the highway heads east through Western Australia 's Wheatbelt to Kalgoorlie , in the state 's Goldfields . Within Perth , the highway is a six @-@ lane dual carriageway from The Causeway to Tonkin Highway near Perth Airport . It travels as a four lane single carriageway to Midland , with the second carriageway reappearing after Roe Highway , and continuing all the way to The Lakes at Perth 's eastern fringe . The remainder of the highway is a two @-@ lane single carriageway until Kalgoorlie , where a dual carriageway exists . The speed limit is 60 kilometres per hour ( 35 mph ) from The Causeway to Midland , 70 km / h ( 45 mph ) near the bottom of Greenmount Hill , and 80 km / h ( 50 mph ) from Greenmount to Sawyers Valley . From the eastern edge of Perth it is generally 110 km / h ( 70 mph ) , but with lower limits for sections near the towns the highway encounters en route to Kalgoorlie .
The highway runs mostly parallel to the Mundaring to Kalgoorlie water pipeline , which supplies the Goldfields with water from Mundaring Weir in the eastern part of Perth . The Golden Pipeline Heritage Trail is a tourist drive alongside the pipeline , with large sections of the trail following Great Eastern Highway . Various road routes are allocated to sections of Great Eastern Highway , with some overlap between some of the routes . It is mostly signed as National Highway 94 , except for the section between Great Eastern Highway Bypass and Roe Highway , and the final 40 kilometres ( 25 mi ) from Coolgardie to Kalgoorlie . It is also signed as National Route 1 between The Causeway and Morrison Road in Midland , State Route 51 between Johnson Street in Guildford and Roe Highway , Tourist Drive 203 between Terrace Road in Guildford and Morrison Road , Midland , and Alternate National Route 94 east of Coolgardie .
Main Roads Western Australia monitors traffic volume across the state 's road network , including various locations along Great Eastern Highway . In 2008 / 09 , the busiest section was east of the Graham Farmer Freeway interchange , averaging 60 @,@ 760 vehicles per weekday . The lowest volume was an average of 850 vehicles per day near Ryans Find Road , partway between Southern Cross and Coolgardie ; however , this point also received the largest proportion of heavy vehicles , at 40 @.@ 2 % of all traffic . As of 2012 , Great Eastern Highway between Mundaring and Northam is the state 's worst section of National Highway , in terms of road safety . Casualty crash rates had decreased since 2007 , although the Royal Automobile Club of Western Australia ( RAC ) still considered it a risky section of road needing close attention from road authorities . In 2013 , Great Eastern Highway remained as a road of particular concern , with the Australian Automobile Association giving 67 % of the highway a low one- or two @-@ star rating ( out of five ) , and 77 % of the route between The Lakes and Northam a one @-@ star safety rating .
= = = Burswood to Midvale = = =
Great Eastern Highway begins at a grade separated interchange between the south @-@ eastern end of The Causeway , north @-@ eastern end of Canning Highway , and north @-@ western ends of Shepperton Road and Albany Highway . It proceeds in a north @-@ easterly direction between local parks for 1 @.@ 3 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 8 mi ) , south of the Crown Perth entertainment complex in Burswood . After passing under the Armadale / Thornlie railway line , there is a diamond interchange with Graham Farmer Freeway to the north @-@ west and Orrong Road to the south @-@ east , with an additional south @-@ westbound to north @-@ westbound looped ramp . The highway continues north @-@ east , parallel to the Swan River , through the residential and commercial areas of Rivervale , Belmont , Ascot , and Redcliffe . There are many at @-@ grade intersections and driveway access crossovers in these high density suburbs . Major intersections are controlled by traffic lights , while many others are left @-@ in / left @-@ out . After 4 @.@ 6 kilometres ( 2 @.@ 9 mi ) , Great Eastern Highway interchanges with Tonkin Highway , which connects to Perth 's north @-@ eastern and south @-@ eastern suburbs , and Brearley Avenue , which provides access to Perth Airport 's domestic terminals .
The road travels for another 2 @.@ 1 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 3 mi ) along the border between Ascot and Redcliffe , before reaching a traffic light controlled fork with Great Eastern Highway Bypass . The main traffic flow continues east on the bypass to Roe Highway , while the Great Eastern Highway runs north @-@ east through South Guildford for 2 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) , separating a narrow residential area along the Swan River from industrial development in the rest of the suburb . The highway crosses the Helena River via a two @-@ lane bridge , and continues north into the historic townsite of Guildford , named as Johnson Street . After 800 metres ( 2 @,@ 600 ft ) , Johnson Street terminates at a T junction , just south of the Midland railway line . The highway turns east onto James Street , which after 1 @.@ 2 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 75 mi ) has a sharp 90 degree turn to the north , continuing as East Street for 450 metres ( 1 @,@ 480 ft ) . Following a level crossing of the railway , and an adjacent set of traffic lights at Terrace Road , the name Great Eastern Highway is resumed .
The highway continues north @-@ east for 1 @.@ 6 kilometres ( 1 mi ) to Midland . Throughout Midland and the adjacent suburb of Midvale , it is at the centre of a commercial area , with two shopping centres located alongside the highway , and retail businesses fronting both sides of the road . As Great Eastern Highway enters Midland , traffic splits into a pair of one @-@ way roads . Eastbound traffic continues on Great Eastern Highway , while westbound traffic travels along Victoria Street . The split ends after 1 kilometre ( 0 @.@ 6 mi ) , and a further 1 @.@ 8 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 1 mi ) takes the highway to an interchange with Roe Highway , meeting up with traffic that bypassed the Guildford and Midland areas .
= = = Greenmount to The Lakes = = =
Great Eastern Highway is notorious for Greenmount Hill , where the highway encounters a steep three @-@ kilometre @-@ long ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) slope with a 7 % gradient on Perth 's eastern outskirts . The highway rises from the Swan Coastal Plain to the Darling Scarp to the north of Greenmount Hill , though it is commonly described as travelling " up Greenmount " . The historic hill , with significant Aboriginal and European heritage sites , has been a well @-@ known landmark since the 1830s , and featured on an 1846 survey of the York Road . Part of this original eastern route remains as a separate road , now known as Old York Road . The highway diverges from this original route at a point 2 @.@ 8 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 7 mi ) east of Roe Highway , bypassing residential properties that line the old road . The two routes meet again at the top of the main climb of the hill , after 1 @.@ 8 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 1 mi ) .
From the sudden rise of Greenmount Hill through to Sawyers Valley , Great Eastern Highway has a series of rising and falling sections over rolling terrain . Along the way , the route follows the southern edge of John Forrest National Park for 3 @.@ 3 kilometres ( 2 @.@ 1 mi ) , passing to the north of the suburb of Glen Forrest . Beyond the national park , the highway continues to be lined by native trees and patches of remaining forest . It continues east for six kilometres ( 3 @.@ 7 mi ) between the low @-@ density , rural residential areas of Hovea , Mahogany Creek , and Parkerville , before entering the Mundaring town centre . Continuing its journey east , the route leaves Mundaring and travels briefly through the north @-@ eastern corner of Beelu National Park before coming to the rural community of Sawyers Valley , three and a half kilometres ( 2 @.@ 2 mi ) east of Mundaring .
Beyond Sawyers Valley , Great Eastern Highway travels in a north @-@ easterly direction , alongside and later within the northernmost part of the Jarrahdale State Forest . After 6 @.@ 6 kilometres ( 4 @.@ 1 mi ) , the highway reaches the Old Northam Road turnoff , which offers an alternative route through Chidlow . The highway route bypasses the development by continuing east for 5 @.@ 9 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 7 mi ) to The Lakes , where it curves around to the north to meet Great Southern Highway , at the edge of the Perth Metropolitan Region .
= = = East to Kalgoorlie = = =
Great Eastern Highway continues past The Lakes in a northerly direction , reduced to a single carriageway with one lane in each direction . Five kilometres ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) later , the highway encounters the north @-@ eastern end of Old Northam Road , and subsequently winds its way through a reverse curve . It travels in between Acacia Prison and Wooroloo Prison Farm and then alongside Wooroloo Brook , for 3 @.@ 7 kilometres ( 2 @.@ 3 mi ) , before crossing the waterway . The highway then heads in a north @-@ easterly direction , passing to the south of Wundowie , through Bakers Hill , and reaching Clackline after 20 kilometres ( 12 mi ) . Another 12 @.@ 4 kilometres ( 7 @.@ 7 mi ) takes Great Eastern Highway to Mitchell Avenue , the turnoff for Northam , and part of the highway 's former route through the town . The highway takes an 11 @.@ 7 @-@ kilometre ( 7 @.@ 3 mi ) curve around the northern edge of Northam , meeting up with the eastern section of the former alignment , known as Yilgarn Avenue . This section of highway , also known as the Northam Bypass , intersects three other roads at grade separated interchanges : Northam – Toodyay Road , Irishtown Road , and Northam – Pithara Road . Each interchange consists of a flyover bridge for the highway , and a single two @-@ way ramp that connects to each road at a T junction .
The highway heads east through the Wheatbelt as the region 's main east @-@ west route . The road passes by agricultural land and remnant native vegetation , intermittently encountering small settlements and towns such as Meckering , Cunderdin , Kellerberrin , and Merredin . Great Eastern Highway enters Southern Cross 265 kilometres ( 165 mi ) out from Northam , near the edge of the Wheatbelt . The landscape changes to low shrubland , with few signs of human activity other than the highway itself , and the mostly parallel water pipeline and power line . The road continues eastwards in this fashion over a vast distance of 285 kilometres ( 177 mi ) before reaching the town of Coolgardie . Three hundred metres ( 980 ft ) beyond the townsite , traffic bound for South Australia turns south onto Coolgardie – Esperance Highway , following the National Highway 94 route . Great Eastern Highway , now signposted as Alternate National Route 94 , turns north @-@ east , travelling through another 32 kilometres ( 20 mi ) of scrubland to the outskirts of Kalgoorlie . The road continues its journey eastward within the grid of Kalgoorlie 's road system , initially passing by the industrial district of West Kalgoorlie . After 1 @.@ 9 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) , the highway once more becomes a dual carriageway , and travels past residential neighbourhoods . Following 1 @.@ 2 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 75 mi ) , the highway takes on the name Hannan Street , and continues for 3 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 2 @.@ 2 mi ) through to downtown Kalgoorlie , terminating at Goldfields Highway on Kalgoorlie 's eastern edge . Alternate Route 94 turns south , back towards the National Highway route .
= = History = =
= = = Convict @-@ era road = = =
A road along what is now Great Eastern Highway has existed since the convict era of Western Australia . The original road is thought to have been constructed in 1867 , using convict labour , with a road base made of jarrah tree trunks cut into disc shapes . The use of wooden discs as a road base had been proposed by Western Australian Governor John Hampton , leading them to be known as " Hampton 's Cheeses " . The discs were approximately 30 centimetres ( 1 ft ) thick and as large as 90 centimetres ( 3 ft ) in diameter , and the gaps between pieces would have been filled with soil or lime . The same type of road is known to have existed along Stirling Highway , Guildford Road , Albany Highway and Wanneroo Road in the 1860s , and would have prevented horses and carts from getting bogged in wet weather . Evidence of this original road was found in Belmont in 1948 when widening works uncovered jarrah discs . During upgrade works in 2012 , more discs were discovered beneath the existing asphalt , over a twenty @-@ metre ( 66 ft ) stretch .
= = = Highway origins = = =
The name Great Eastern Highway was coined by the Perth Road Board in December 1933 . It was suggested for the Perth to Guildford road on the north side of the Swan River ( now known as Guildford Road ) , as an alternative to the Bassendean Road Board 's proposal , Perth Road . In February 1934 , the Bassendean Road Board agreed to the name , as Perth Road would be too general , and the road was considered the main artery serving eastern districts , all the way through to Kalgoorlie . Other local governments in the area considered the issue over the next few months . The Bayswater Road Board and Greenmount Road Board were in favour of the idea , but Guildford Road Board was opposed , as several local road names would be lost . Greenmount , and public advertising , thereafter referred to the road as Great Eastern Highway , and the council wrote to the Main Roads Department , requesting the name change be gazetted . This prompted Main Roads to write to other local governments , advising of the request and soliciting their views . The Mundaring Road Board and Kellerberrin Road Board were supportive , while the Kalgoorlie Road Board suggested Great Eastern Goldfields Highway . The Kalgoorlie Municipal Council agreed that the road should be known as a highway , but thought the name was inadequate for a road that only connected Midland Junction with Coolgardie . The Midland Junction Municipal Council opposed the renaming , citing " sentimental and practical reasons for the continuance of the use of the old name " .
In August 1934 , the Bassendean Road Board applied to the Lands Department to change the portion of the Perth – Guildford road within its district to Great Eastern Highway . The department refused the request , reasoning that most traffic bound for Midland used The Causeway and travelled on the south side of the Swan River , and that therefore the Perth – Guildford road should not be part of the main highway . Despite this setback , the Perth Road Board organised a local government conference to consider renaming the road from Perth to Guildford . The issue was considered important , as losing the name to the south side of the river would divert traffic away from the old established centres to the north . The straightening of dangerous bends and the replacement of an old bridge between Bassendean and Guildford were also to be considered . The conference , held on 7 September 1934 , was attended by representatives of the Perth , Bayswater , Bassendean , and Guildford road boards , and the Midland Junction Council . Guildford and Midland Junction were still opposed to the renaming , but the others were supportive . Motions that passed included submitting a rename proposal to the state government , urging the government to construct a new bridge at Bassendean , and approaching the government to have the road declared a main road .
In November 1934 , the state government Land Council contacted the local governments on the south side of the Swan River , asking them to rename the roads that make up the Causeway – Midland route as Great Eastern Highway . Both the Perth City Council and Belmont Park Road Board agreed to the request . This created a " peculiar situation " , as described by the RAC , with roads both north and south of the Swan River proposed to be renamed as Great Eastern Highway . Despite the name change not being official , some residents along the road through Belmont started describing their properties as located on Great Eastern Highway .
Another conference of the local governments north of the river was held in December 1934 . They decided to continue to pursue renaming the Perth – Guildford road to Great Eastern Highway , and having it gazetted as a main road . A letter from the Commissioner of Main Roads had stated that the road through Belmont was considered the principal highway to the eastern states . He therefore recommended that if the name Great Eastern Highway were to be applied west of Midland Junction , it should be to that road , as the road through Bassendean was not considered a main road . Traffic counts collected by the Bassendean Road Board , however , showed that the north of river route , through Bassendean , carried more traffic in both directions than the southern route , through Belmont – 54 % compared to 46 % . The northern route was also shorter by about two miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) , and considered by the local governments to be the " natural entrance to the city " , only crossing the Swan River once and not again at the Causeway .
On 8 January 1935 , representatives from the local governments north of the river urged Minister for Lands , Michael Troy , to rename the Perth – Guildford road through those areas as Great Eastern Highway . Despite the route being shorter and carrying more traffic , he refused . He said that it was not gazetted as main road , and a previous decision to rename the road through Belmont as Great Eastern Highway was made after considering the facts , and at the request of the Main Roads Board . There was resentment and an objection over the name being " pinched " from the Perth Road Board . The minister disregarded the objection . He advised the representatives to see the Minister for Works to get the road declared a main road , and then approach him with a new name . This resolved Great Eastern Highway 's route , with the local governments north of the river pursuing other names such as Main Highway .
On 14 April 1938 , the name Great Eastern Highway was gazetted , in accordance with section 10 of the Land Act , 1933 – 1937 . It replaced the names previously used along the route : Ascot Road , Guildford Road , York Road , Guildford – Northam Road , Toodyay – Northam Road , Mitchell Avenue , Throsell Road , Sermon Road , Dreyer Road , Goldfields Road , Kalgoorlie Road , Woodward Street , and Coolgardie Road .
= = = Upgrades and improvements = = =
By 1950 , the highway had been sealed from Perth to Southern Cross , and from a few miles west of Coolgardie to Kalgoorlie . Traffic in the Goldfields was light , with an average daily traffic of 44 vehicles between Southern Cross and Coolgardie , and 33 from Coolgardie to Kalgoorlie . The road was completely sealed by 1953 . Between 1954 and 1956 , sections of the highway between Perth and Southern Cross were improved . The works included increasing the seal width along 38 miles ( 61 km ) of the road , reconstructing 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) of road , and resealing 23 @.@ 5 miles ( 37 @.@ 8 km ) . Precast concrete structures were used to replace two old , narrow wooden bridges .
In the 1950s , roundabouts were constructed at each end of The Causeway , to improve the flow of traffic on the bridges and the distribution of traffic back into the road network . The roundabout at the eastern end , connecting with Great Eastern Highway , opened in 1952 . In 1973 construction began on upgrading that intersection to a grade @-@ separated partial cloverleaf interchange . The interchange opened on 8 March 1974 , having cost AUS $ 1 @.@ 3 million .
A major accident occurred at the intersection with Roe Highway on 30 December 1993 . A truck lost control coming down Greenmount Hill and rolled over at the intersection , after crashing into six vehicles on the hill and another 14 at the intersection . One woman was killed , and another 12 people were injured , including four with serious injuries . It was Western Australia 's worst accident that year , according to police , with the aftermath described by a witness as " like a battlefield " . This accident led to the construction of a truck arrester bed near the bottom of the hill . It has been used in emergencies several times since .
In 1994 , the federal government approved a $ 43 @.@ 9 million project to upgrade substandard sections of Great Eastern Highway between Northam and Southern Cross . That portion of the highway was one of the oldest sections of the National Highway within Western Australia . The road was susceptible to failure due to poor drainage and frequent flooding . Further works in the 1990s saw a second carriageway constructed from Mundaring to Sawyers Valley , and then extended to The Lakes at the edge of Perth . A dual carriageway was also constructed in Kalgoorlie , and a long overtaking lane was built near Clackline .
More recent works have improved sections of the highway in Perth . Great Eastern Highway 's intersection with Roe Highway was upgraded to a grade separated interchange . The design is a diamond interchange , with free @-@ flowing traffic on Roe Highway , and an additional looped ramp for northbound to eastbound traffic movements . Construction of the $ 101 @.@ 5 million project began in late 2010 , and the interchange was officially opened to traffic on 9 June 2012 . Another project undertaken was the widening of the highway through the suburbs of Rivervale , Belmont and Redcliffe – between Kooyong Road , just north @-@ east of the Graham Farmer Freeway interchange , and Tonkin Highway . Work commenced in June 2011 , and was completed in February 2013 , nine months earlier than scheduled . Prime Minister Julia Gillard opened the upgraded highway on 28 March 2013 , participating in a ribbon @-@ cutting ceremony . The $ 280 million upgrade included construction of a median strip , widening the road to three lanes in each direction , bus priority lanes at several traffic light controlled intersections , and bicycle lanes . The upgrade was expected to reduce congestion along the highway , which had been one of Perth 's worst accident spots in 2011 / 12 . However , the accidents were usually not serious , and roadworks were considered a " major contributing factor " . In October 2013 , the project was recognised with the Civil Contractors Federation National Earth Award for Excellence .
= = = Bypasses = = =
Great Eastern Highway Bypass , together with Roe Highway , provides a limited @-@ access bypass of Guildford and Midland town sites . The 5 @.@ 6 @-@ kilometre ( 3 @.@ 5 mi ) bypass branches off the original highway alignment at South Guildford , proceeds around the northern edge of Perth Airport , and then heads east through Hazelmere . At the eastern end of Great Eastern Highway Bypass , traffic returns to the main highway by heading north on Roe Highway for three kilometres ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) . Plans for a major highway along a similar alignment date back to Gordon Stephenson and Alistair Hepburn 's 1955 " Plan for the Metropolitan Region " , which was the precursor of Perth 's Metropolitan Region Scheme . The road was constructed in the late 1980s , and was known as the Redcliffe – Bushmead Highway during construction . Great Eastern Highway Bypass was opened on 14 May 1988 , after 21 months of construction , and at a cost of $ 10 million .
Planning for a bypass around Northam began in the 1960s . The original route through the town centre functioned as both a local access road and primary traffic route , including for heavy vehicles . There were particular concerns with the amount of traffic congestion , frequency of crashes , and the noise and visual pollution of the highway 's traffic . Twelve different alignments were considered for the bypass , which were narrowed down to three options by the 1990s . In 1993 the Environmental Protection Authority assessed the proposal , and found that only the route that deviated furthest away from the townsite would be environmentally acceptable . The closer routes were not acceptable due to the potential impact on the Avon River . The project gained the Minister for the Environment 's conditional approval on 24 June 1994 . Construction of the Northam bypass began in January 2001 , with the new road opened on 17 May 2002 .
A bypass of Clackline was also constructed , realigning 1 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 93 mi ) of Great Eastern Highway 100 metres ( 330 ft ) north of the town . Works began in January 2007 , and were completed in February 2008 . The project also involved constructing overtaking lanes between Clackline and Bakers Hill , upgrading intersections in Clackline , and constructing a pedestrian underpass for a heritage trail . Clackline Brook was realigned through a large box culvert , allowing a safer crossing than the narrow Clackline Bridge on the original alignment . The bypass was originally allocated $ 2 @.@ 4 million of funding in 2006 , but by January 2007 it was expected to cost almost $ 11 million . The final project value was $ 9 @.@ 2 million . Issues and challenges in the project 's design and construction included extensive rock protection requirements for the Clackline Brook culvert , drilling and blasting close to the existing highway , and protecting heritage and environmentally sensitive areas . The Clackline community welcomed the bypass , but there were concerns that the historic Clackline Bridge would be lost . The bridge has since received a permanent entry on the Heritage Council of Western Australia 's Register of Heritage Places , in November 2008 .
= = Future = =
There are long @-@ term plans to bypass Great Eastern Highway 's current ascent of the Darling Scarp . Planning for a new major road network in Perth 's eastern corridor began in the 1970s . Early planning efforts between 1978 and 1981 for a new highway reservation from Mundaring to Wooroloo encountered community opposition , and the Environmental Protection Authority ( EPA ) requested a more detailed environmental assessment . In 1985 , a study into the primary east @-@ west traffic routes in the area was commissioned by the Main Roads Department , Metropolitan Region Planning Authority , Shire of Mundaring , and Shire of Swan . It recommended a new alignment , known as the " Orange Route " , be selected for the Perth to Adelaide National Highway . Alternative routes were identified using other colours as codenames . The new national highway would travel north @-@ east along Toodyay Road from Roe Highway to beyond Gidgegannup , and then deviate east via the proposed Orange Route to meet Great Eastern Highway near Wundowie . The ultimate design of the highway included grade @-@ separated interchanges for all of the roads that it intersects . The Orange Route received environmental approval on 22 November 1989 . Detailed planning for the Clackline to Wooroloo section of the Orange Route was to begin in 1998 . As of 2012 , construction of the Orange Route is not a priority for Main Roads . The project was not in the forward works program , there was no indication of the expected starting date , and a cost – benefit analysis had not been performed recently . Plans are still in development , but the federal government is responsible for financing the project .
= = Major intersections = =
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= Battle of Maysalun =
The Battle of Maysalun ( Arabic : معركة ميسلون ) , also called the Battle of Maysalun Pass or the Battle of Khan Maysalun , was a battle fought between the forces of the Arab Kingdom of Syria and the French Army of the Levant on 24 July 1920 near Khan Maysalun in the Anti @-@ Lebanon Mountains , about 25 kilometers ( 16 mi ) west of Damascus
As part of the British @-@ backed Arab Revolt against the Ottoman Empire , the Arab forces of the Sharifian army under Emir Faisal captured Damascus in October 1918 . An Arab government under Faisal was subsequently formed in Syria , but it was not recognized internationally . Instead , France and Great Britain had agreed to divide the Arab territories of the Ottoman Empire among themselves , despite earlier British promises to the Sharifian leadership that the Arab territories would form part of a Sharifian @-@ ruled state in return for Arab participation in the British war effort . French attempts to establish control over Syria were challenged by its inhabitants and government , and in March 1920 , the Arab Kingdom of Syria was proclaimed with Faisal as king . A month later , Syria was allocated to France as a mandate by the League of Nations . The battle of Maysalun occurred as France sought to assert its claim over Damascus and topple Faisal 's government .
Prior to the engagement at Maysalun , General Henri Gouraud of France issued an ultimatum to Faisal , demanding that he disband his rudimentary Arab Army , a demand to which Faisal ultimately acceded . However , by the time Faisal communicated his agreement , French forces had launched an offensive towards Damascus from Lebanon , and Faisal 's war minister , General Yusuf al- ' Azma , set out to confront them with the remnants of the Arab Army and Damascene volunteers . During the battle , the better @-@ equipped French forces under the command of General Mariano Goybet defeated the Syrian forces of al- ' Azma , who was killed in action . French troops entered Damascus the following day , encountering little resistance . Soon after , Faisal was expelled from Syria . Despite the Arab Army 's decisive defeat , the Battle of Maysalun became a symbol in Syria and the Arab world of desperate courage against a stronger imperial power .
= = Background = =
On 30 October 1918 , towards the end of World War I , the Sharifian Army led by Emir Faisal , backed by the British Army , captured Damascus from the Ottomans as part of the Arab Revolt against the Ottoman Empire . The war ended less than a month after the Sharifian – British conquest of Damascus . In correspondences between the Sharifian leadership in Mecca and Henry McMahon , the British high commissioner in Cairo , the latter promised to support the establishment of a Sharifian kingdom in the Arab provinces of the Ottoman Empire in return for launching a revolt against the Ottomans . However , the British and French governments made previous arrangements regarding the division of the Ottomans ' Arab provinces between themselves in the 1916 Sykes @-@ Picot Agreement .
To allay his fears regarding his throne in Syria , Faisal attended the January 1919 Paris Conference , where he was not recognized by the French government as the sovereign ruler of Syria ; Faisal called for Syrian sovereignty under his rule , but the European powers attending the conference called for European mandates to be established over the former Arab territories of the Ottoman Empire . In the US @-@ led June 1919 King – Crane Commission , which published its conclusions in 1922 , the commission determined that the people of Syria overwhelmingly rejected French rule . Furthermore , Emir Faisal stated to the commission that " French rule would mean certain death to Syrians as a distinguished people " .
French forces commanded by General Henri Gouraud landed in Beirut on 18 November 1919 , with the ultimate goal of bringing all of Syria under French control . Shortly thereafter , French forces deployed to the Beqaa Valley , a wide area between Beirut and Damascus . Against King Faisal 's wishes , his delegate to General Gouraud , Nuri al @-@ Said , agreed to the French deployment and the disbandment of Arab troops from al @-@ Mu 'allaqa , near Zahle . The agreement between al @-@ Said and Gouraud was contrary to an earlier agreement Faisal had made with French Prime Minister Georges Clemenceau , which held that French troops would not deploy in the Beqaa Valley until the League of Nations ruled on the matter . Faisal condemned al @-@ Said and accused of him of treachery . Following the Arab Army withdrawal from al @-@ Mu 'allaqa , Christian militiamen from Zahle raided the town , prompting attacks from local Muslim militiamen , which forced several Christian families to the coast . Amid these developments , armed groups of rebels and bandits emerged throughout the Beqaa Valley . When a French officer in Baalbek was assaulted by Shia Muslim rebels opposed to the French presence , Gouraud believed the Arab government was responsible for the act and demanded that it apologize , which it did not . In response , Gouraud violated his agreement with al @-@ Said and occupied Baalbek . The French deployment along the Syrian coast and the Beqaa Valley provoked unrest throughout Syria and sharpened political divisions between the political camp that called for confronting the French and the camp that sought compromise .
On 8 March 1920 , the Syrian National Congress proclaimed the establishment of the Kingdom of Syria , with Faisal as king . This unilateral action was immediately rejected by the British and French . In the San Remo Conference , which was called by the Allied Powers in April 1920 , the allocation of mandates in the Arab territories was finalized , with France given a mandate over Syria . France 's allocation of Syria was , in turn , repudiated by Faisal and the Syrian National Congress . After months of instability and failure to make good on the promises Faisal had made to the French , General Gouraud gave an ultimatum to Faisal on 14 July 1920 demanding that he disband the Arab Army and submit to French authority by 20 July or face a French military invasion . On 18 July , Faisal and the entire cabinet , with the exception of War Minister Yusuf al- ' Azma , agreed to the ultimatum and issued disbandment orders for the Arab Army units at Anjar , the Beirut – Damascus road and the hills of the Anti @-@ Lebanon Mountains overlooking the Beqaa Valley . Two days later , Faisal informed the French liaison in Damascus of his acceptance of the ultimatum , but for unclear reasons , Faisal 's notification did not reach Gouraud until 21 July . Sources suspicious of French intentions accused the French of intentionally delaying delivery of the notice to give Gouraud an official excuse for advancing on Damascus . However , there has been no evidence or indication of French sabotage . News of the disbandment and Faisal 's submission led to riots in Damascus on 20 July and their suppression by Emir Zeid , which led to around 200 deaths . Al- ' Azma , who was staunchly opposed to surrender , implored Faisal to give him and the remnants of his army the opportunity to confront the French .
= = = Prelude = = =
On 22 July , Faisal dispatched Education Minister Sati al @-@ Husri and the Arab government 's former Beirut representative , Jamil al @-@ Ulshi , to meet Gouraud at his headquarters in Aley and persuade him to end his army 's advance to Damascus . Gouraud responded by extending the ultimatum by one day and with new , more stringent conditions , namely that France be allowed to establish a mission in Damascus to supervise the implementation of the original ultimatum and the establishment of the French mandate . Al @-@ Husri returned to Damascus the same day to communicate Gouraud 's message to Faisal , who called for a meeting of the cabinet on 23 July to consider the new ultimatum . Colonel Cousse , a French liaison officer to Damascus , interrupted the meeting with a demand from Gouraud that the French army be allowed to advance toward Maysalun , where water wells were abundant . Gouraud had originally planned to launch the offensive against Damascus from Ayn al @-@ Judaydah , a spring in the Anti @-@ Lebanon Range , but the lack of water sources there amid the steep , barren mountains led to a change of plans . Accordingly , Gouraud sought to occupy Khan Maysalun , an isolated caravanserai on the Beirut – Damascus road situated at the crest of the Wadi al @-@ Qarn mountain pass in the Anti @-@ Lebanon , located 25 kilometers ( 16 mi ) west of Damascus . Gouraud was also motivated to occupy Khan Maysalun because of its proximity to the Hejaz Railway .
Cousse 's message confirmed the fears of Faisal 's cabinet that Gouraud was intent on taking over Syria by force . The cabinet subsequently rejected Gouraud 's ultimatum and issued a largely symbolic appeal to the international community to end the French advance . On 23 July , Al- ' Azma set out from Damascus with his motley force of army regulars and volunteers , which was divided into northern , central and southern columns each headed by camel cavalry units . French forces launched their offensive towards Khan Maysalun and Wadi al @-@ Qarn shortly after dawn on 24 July , at 5 : 00 , while Syrian forces were waiting at their positions overlooking the low end of Wadi al @-@ Qarn .
= = Battle = =
The first clashes took place at 6 : 30 when French tank divisions stormed the central position of the Syrian defensive line while French cavalry and infantry units assaulted the Syrians ' northern and southern positions . The camel cavalry were the first Syrian units to engage the French . Syrian forces initially put up stiff resistance along the front , but lacked coordination between their different units . Early in the clashes , Syrian artillery fire inflicted casualties on a battery of French soldiers . French tanks faced heavy fire as they attempted to gain ground against the Syrians . However , French artillery took a toll on Syrian forces and by 8 : 30 the French had broken the Syrians ' central trench . At one point in the first few hours of the clashes , Syrian forces managed to briefly pin down two Senegalese companies that were relatively isolated on the French right flank . The losses inflicted on the two Senegalese units represented roughly half of the French army 's total casualties . Nonetheless , by 10 : 00 , the battle was effectively over , having turned decisively in favor of the French .
At 10 : 30 , French forces reached al- ' Azma 's headquarters , unhindered by the mines laid en route by the Syrians . Little information is known about the battle from the Syrian side . According to one version , when French forces were about 100 meters in the distance , al- ' Azma rushed to a Syrian artilleryman stationed near him and demanded him to open fire . However , before any shells could be fired , a French tank unit spotted al- ' Azma and gunned him down with machine gun fire . In another account of events , al- ' Azma had attempted to mine the trenches as the French forces approached his position , but was shot down by the French before he could set off the charges . Al- ' Azma 's death marked the end of the battle , although intermittent clashes continued until 13 : 30 . Surviving Syrian fighters were bombed from the air and harried by the French as they retreated toward Damascus .
After the battle , General Gouraud addressed General Goybet as follows :
GENERAL ORDER No. 22
Aley , 24 July 1920
" The General is deeply happy to address his congratulations to General Goybet and his valiant troops : 415th of line , 2nd Algerian sharpshooters , 11th and 10th Senegalese sharpshooters , light @-@ infantry @-@ men of Africa , Moroccan trooper regiment , batteries of African groups , batteries of 155 , 314 , company of tanks , bombardment groups and squadrons who in the hard fight of 24 of July , have broken the resistance of the enemy who defied us for 8 months ... They have engraved a glorious page in the history of our country . " – General Gouraud
= = Aftermath = =
Initial estimates of the casualties which claimed 2 @,@ 000 Syrian dead and 800 French casualties turned out to be exaggerated . The French Army claimed 42 of its soldiers were killed , 152 wounded and 14 missing in action , while around 150 Syrian fighters were killed and 1 @,@ 500 wounded . King Faisal observed the battle unfold from the village of al @-@ Hamah , and as it became apparent that the Syrians had been routed , he and his cabinet , with the exception of Interior Minister ' Ala al @-@ Din al @-@ Durubi , who had quietly secured a deal with the French , departed for al @-@ Kiswah , a town located at the southern approaches of Damascus .
French forces had captured Aleppo on 23 July without a fight , and after their victory at Maysalun , French troops besieged and captured Damascus on 25 July . Within a short time , the majority of Faisal 's forces fled or surrendered to the French , although parties of Arab groups opposed to French rule continued to resist before being quickly defeated . King Faisal returned to Damascus on 25 July and asked al @-@ Durubi to form a government , although al @-@ Durubi had already decided on the composition of his cabinet , which was confirmed by the French . General Gouraud condemned Faisal 's rule in Syria , accusing him of having " dragged the country to within an inch of destruction " , and stating that because of this , it was " utterly impossible for him to remain in the country " . Faisal denounced Gouraud 's statement and insisted that he remained the sovereign head of Syria whose authority he was " granted by the Syrian people " .
Although he verbally dismissed the French order expelling him and his family from Syria , Faisal departed Damascus on 27 July with only one of his cabinet members , al @-@ Husri . He initially traveled south to Daraa in the Hauran region where he gained the allegiance of local tribal leaders . However , a French ultimatum to the tribal leaders to expel Faisal or face the bombardment of their encampments compelled Faisal to head west to Haifa in British @-@ held Palestine on 1 August and avoid further bloodshed . Faisal 's departure from Syria marked an end to his goal of establishing and leading an Arab state in Syria .
= = Combatants and arms = =
= = = French forces = = =
Estimates of the combined size of the French Army of the Levant divisions that participated in the battle ranged from 9 @,@ 000 to 12 @,@ 000 troops . The troops were mostly made up of Senegalese and Algerian units , and consisted of ten infantry battalions and a number of cavalry and artillery units . Among the participating units were the 415th Infantry Regiment , the 2nd Algerian Riflemen Regiment , the Senegalese Division , the African Riflemen Regiment and the Moroccan Sipahi Battalion . A number of Maronite volunteers from Mount Lebanon reportedly joined the French forces as well . The Army of the Levant was equipped with plain and mountain artillery batteries and 155mm guns , and backed by tanks and fighter bombers . The commander of the French forces was General Mariano Goybet .
= = = Syrian forces = = =
The Syrian forces that fought in the battle consisted of the remnants of General Hassan al @-@ Hindi 's disbanded Arab Army unit based in Anjar , a force of Arab Army regulars from disbanded units in Damascus , Bedouin camel @-@ mounted soldiers assembled by General al- ' Azma , and numerous civilian volunteers and militiamen . Estimates put the number of Arab Army soldiers and local irregulars at around 4 @,@ 000 . Most Arab Army units had already been disbanded days prior to the battle by order of King Faisal as part of his acceptance of the terms set out in General Gouraud 's 14 July ultimatum . According to historian Eliezer Tauber , al- ' Azma recruited 3 @,@ 000 soldiers and volunteers , and of them only 1 @,@ 400 participated in the battle .
Part of the civilian militia units were assembled and led by Yasin Kiwan , a Damascene merchant , Abd al @-@ Qadir Kiwan , the former imam of the Umayyad Mosque , and Shaykh Hamdi al @-@ Juwajani , a Muslim scholar . Yasin and Abd al @-@ Qadir were killed during the battle . Shaykh Muhammad al @-@ Ashmar also participated in the battle with 40 – 50 of his men from the Midan quarter of Damascus . Other Muslim preachers and scholars from Damascus , including Tawfiq al @-@ Darra ( ex @-@ mufti of the Ottoman Fifth Army ) , Sa 'id al @-@ Barhani ( preacher at the Tuba Mosque ) , Muhammad al @-@ Fahl ( scholar from the Qalbaqjiyya Madrasa ) and Ali Daqqar ( preacher at the Sinan Pasha Mosque ) also participated in the battle .
The Syrians were equipped with rifles discarded by retreating Ottoman soldiers during World War I and those used by the Sharifian Army 's Bedouin cavalry during the 1916 Arab Revolt . The Syrians also possessed a number of machine guns and about 15 artillery batteries . According to various versions , ammunition was low , with 120 – 250 bullets per rifle , 45 bullets per machine gun , and 50 – 80 shells per cannon . Part of this ammunition was also unusable because many bullet and rifle types did not correspond to each other .
= = Legacy = =
The French took control of the territory that became the French Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon . France divided Syria into smaller statelets centered on certain regions and sects , including Greater Lebanon for the Maronites , Jabal al @-@ Druze State for the Druze in Hauran , the Alawite State for the Alawites in the Syrian coastal mountains and the states of Damascus and Aleppo . Gouraud reportedly went to the tomb of Saladin , kicked it , and said : " Awake , Saladin . We have returned . My presence here consecrates victory of the Cross over the Crescent . "
Although the Syrians were decisively defeated , the Battle of Maysalun " has gone down in Arab history as a synonym for heroism and hopeless courage against huge odds , as well as for treachery and betrayal " , according to Iraqi historian Ali al @-@ Allawi . According to British journalist Robert Fisk , the Battle of Maysalun was " a struggle which every Syrian learns at school but about which almost every Westerner is ignorant " . Historian Tareq Y. Ismael wrote that following the battle , the " Syrian resistance at Khan Maysalun soon took on epic proportions . It was viewed as an Arab attempt to stop the imperial avalanche . " He also states that the Syrians ' defeat caused popular attitudes in the Arab world that exist until the present day which hold that the Western world dishonors the commitments it makes to the Arab people and " oppresses anyone who stands in the way of its imperial designs . " Sati ' al @-@ Husri , a major pan @-@ Arabist thinker , asserted that the battle was " one of the most important events in the modern history of the Arab nation . " The event was annually commemorated by Syrians , during which thousands would visit the grave of al- ' Azma in Maysalun .
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= Goliath ( Six Flags Fiesta Texas ) =
Goliath is a steel inverted roller coaster manufactured by Bolliger & Mabillard currently operating at Six Flags Fiesta Texas in San Antonio , Texas since April 18 , 2008 . In the roller coaster 's lifetime , it has operated at two other amusement parks : Thrill Valley from 1995 to May 6 , 2002 , and Six Flags New Orleans from April 12 , 2003 to August 21 , 2005 when Hurricane Katrina hit New Orleans . Goliath 's highest point is 105 feet ( 32 m ) , the trains can reach a top speed of 50 miles per hour ( 80 km / h ) , and the length of the track is approximately 2 @,@ 693 feet ( 821 m ) .
= = History = =
= = = Thrill Valley ( 1995 — 2002 ) = = =
Goliath originally opened at Thrill Valley in Japan as Gambit in 1995 . The ride operated at the park for about 7 years before closing on May 6 , 2002 . The ride was dismantled and transported to Six Flags New Orleans .
= = = Six Flags New Orleans ( 2003 — 2007 ) = = =
In 2002 , Six Flags took over the lease of Jazzland and renamed the park to Six Flags New Orleans . After the take over , Six Flags announced major changes coming to the park included the arrival of Gambit , but now named Batman : The Ride . The roller coaster was built in one of the new area 's Six Flags had constructed for the 2003 season after the acquisition , DC Comics Super Hero Adventures . The ride re @-@ opened at Six Flags New Orleans on April 12 , 2003 .
On August 21 , 2005 before Hurricane Katrina hit New Orleans , Six Flags closed the park as a safety precaution . Due to substantial flooding , many of the park 's rides were damaged beyond repair causing the park to remain standing but not operating . In 2007 , Six Flags moved Batman : The Ride to Six Flags Fiesta Texas , considering it to be the only salvageable ride due to its elevated station platform and corrosion @-@ resistant support structure , which caused it to make it through Hurricane Katrina relatively unscathed .
= = = Six Flags Fiesta Texas ( 2008 — present ) = = =
In 2007 , Batman : The Ride was dismantled and moved to Six Flags Fiesta Texas . Before reconstructing the ride , the track was repainted and the roller coaster was renamed Goliath . It opened on April 18 , 2008 .
The roller coaster is also currently sponsored by Snickers .
= = Ride experience = =
After departing from the station , the train immediately begins to climb the 105 @-@ foot ( 32 m ) chain lift hill . Once at the top , the train makes a sharp 80 @-@ foot ( 24 m ) downward right turn into the roller coasters first element , a vertical loop , reaching a top speed of approximately 50 miles per hour ( 80 km / h ) . After exiting the loop , the train then goes through a zero @-@ g roll before entering a second loop . The train then goes up a rightward helix before backing a downward left turn into a corkscrew . After a sharp left turn , the train enters another corkscrew . Upon exiting the corkscrew , the train makes a right turn into the brake run which leads directly back to the station where the current riders unload and the next load . One cycle of the ride lasts about 2 minutes .
= = = Track = = =
Goliath has a track length of about 2 @,@ 693 feet ( 821 m ) and reaches a top height of 105 @-@ foot ( 32 m ) . The track colours of the roller coaster when it was known as Gambit at Thrill Valley are not known . When it was known as Batman : The Ride at Six Flags News Orleans the track featured black and orange track with grey supports . Today , at Six Flags Fiesta Texas , the ride has blue track and yellow supports . Friction brakes are used to control the speed of the train at the end of the ride . The track was manufactured by Clermont Steel Fabricators located in Batavia , Ohio .
Also , Goliath is a clone of several other Bolliger & Mabillard roller coasters ( over half at Six Flags parks ) with the only difference being that the track is " mirrored " from the other clones . Coincidentally , one of those clones is The Great White at the SeaWorld San Antonio amusement park which is also located in San Antonio , Texas .
= = = Trains = = =
Goliath operates with two generic steel and fiberglass trains with seven cars each . Each car seats four riders in a single row for a total of 28 riders per train . The supports for the seats are orange , the actual seats are black with a yellow over @-@ the @-@ shoulder restraint connected to each one , and the coverings for the wheels are orange , blue , and yellow .
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= Peak oil =
Peak oil , an event based on M. King Hubbert 's theory , is the point in time when the maximum rate of extraction of petroleum is reached , after which it is expected to enter terminal decline . Peak oil theory is based on the observed rise , peak , fall , and depletion of aggregate production rate in oil fields over time . It is often confused with oil depletion ; however , peak oil is the point of maximum production , while depletion refers to a period of falling reserves and supply .
Some observers , such as petroleum industry experts Kenneth S. Deffeyes and Matthew Simmons , predict negative global economy implications following a post @-@ peak production decline and subsequent oil price increase because of the high dependence of most modern industrial transport , agricultural , and industrial systems on the low cost and high availability of oil . Predictions vary greatly as to what exactly these negative effects would be .
Oil production forecasts on which predictions of peak oil are based are often made within a range which includes optimistic ( higher production ) and pessimistic ( lower production ) scenarios . Optimistic estimations of peak production forecast the global decline will begin after 2020 , and assume major investments in alternatives will occur before a crisis , without requiring major changes in the lifestyle of heavily oil @-@ consuming nations . Pessimistic predictions of future oil production made after 2007 stated either that the peak had already occurred , that oil production was on the cusp of the peak , or that it would occur shortly .
Hubbert 's original prediction that US peak oil would be in about 1970 seemed accurate for a time , as US average annual production peaked in 1970 at 9 @.@ 6 million barrels per day . However , the successful application of massive hydraulic fracturing to additional tight reservoirs caused US production to rebound , challenging the inevitability of post @-@ peak decline for the US oil production . In addition , Hubbert 's original predictions for world peak oil production proved premature .
= = Modeling global oil production = =
The idea that the rate of oil production would peak and irreversibly decline is an old one . In 1919 , David White , chief geologist of the United States Geological Survey , wrote of US petroleum : " ... the peak of production will soon be passed , possibly within 3 years . " In 1953 , Eugene Ayers , a researcher for Gulf Oil , projected that if US ultimate recoverable oil reserves were 100 billion barrels , then production in the US would peak no later than 1960 . If ultimate recoverable were to be as high as 200 billion barrels , which he warned was wishful thinking , US peak production would come no later than 1970 . Likewise for the world , he projected a peak somewhere between 1985 ( one trillion barrels ultimate recoverable ) and 2000 ( two trillion barrels recoverable ) . Ayers made his projections without a mathematical model . He wrote : " But if the curve is made to look reasonable , it is quite possible to adapt mathematical expressions to it and to determine , in this way , the peak dates corresponding to various ultimate recoverable reserve numbers "
By observing past discoveries and production levels , and predicting future discovery trends , the geoscientist M. King Hubbert used statistical modelling in 1956 to accurately predict that United States oil production would peak between 1965 and 1971 . Hubbert used a semi @-@ logistical curved model ( sometimes incorrectly compared to a normal distribution ) . He assumed the production rate of a limited resource would follow a roughly symmetrical distribution . Depending on the limits of exploitability and market pressures , the rise or decline of resource production over time might be sharper or more stable , appear more linear or curved . That model and its variants are now called Hubbert peak theory ; they have been used to describe and predict the peak and decline of production from regions , countries , and multinational areas . The same theory has also been applied to other limited @-@ resource production .
In a 2006 analysis of Hubbert theory , it was noted that uncertainty in real world oil production amounts and confusion in definitions increases the uncertainty in general of production predictions . By comparing the fit of various other models , it was found that Hubbert 's methods yielded the closest fit over all , but that none of the models were very accurate . In 1956 Hubbert himself recommended using " a family of possible production curves " when predicting a production peak and decline curve .
More recently , the term " peak oil " was popularized by Colin Campbell and Kjell Aleklett in 2002 when they helped form the Association for the Study of Peak Oil and Gas ( ASPO ) . In his publications , Hubbert used the term " peak production rate " and " peak in the rate of discoveries " .
= = Demand = =
The demand side of peak oil over time is concerned with the total quantity of oil that the global market would choose to consume at various possible market prices and how this entire listing of quantities at various prices would evolve over time . Global demand for crude oil grew an average of 1 @.@ 76 % per year from 1994 to 2006 , with a high growth of 3 @.@ 4 % in 2003 – 2004 . After reaching a high of 85 @.@ 6 million barrels ( 13 @,@ 610 @,@ 000 m3 ) per day in 2007 , world consumption decreased in both 2008 and 2009 by a total of 1 @.@ 8 % , despite fuel costs plummeting in 2008 . Despite this lull , world quantity @-@ demanded for oil is projected to increase 21 % over 2007 levels by 2030 ( 104 million barrels per day ( 16 @.@ 5 × 10 ^ 6 m3 / d ) from 86 million barrels ( 13 @.@ 7 × 10 ^ 6 m3 ) ) , or about 0 @.@ 8 % average annual growth , due in large part to increases in demand from the transportation sector . According to projections by the International Energy Agency ( IEA ) in 2013 , growth in global oil demand will be significantly outpaced by growth in production capacity over the next 5 years . Developments in late 2014 – 2015 have seen an oversupply of global markets leading to a significant drop in the price of oil .
Energy demand is distributed amongst four broad sectors : transportation , residential , commercial , and industrial . In terms of oil use , transportation is the largest sector and the one that has seen the largest growth in demand in recent decades . This growth has largely come from new demand for personal @-@ use vehicles powered by internal combustion engines . This sector also has the highest consumption rates , accounting for approximately 71 % of the oil used in the United States in 2013 @.@ and 55 % of oil use worldwide as documented in the Hirsch report . Transportation is therefore of particular interest to those seeking to mitigate the effects of peak oil .
Although demand growth is highest in the developing world , the United States is the world 's largest consumer of petroleum . Between 1995 and 2005 , US consumption grew from 17 @,@ 700 @,@ 000 barrels per day ( 2 @,@ 810 @,@ 000 m3 / d ) to 20 @,@ 700 @,@ 000 barrels per day ( 3 @,@ 290 @,@ 000 m3 / d ) , a 3 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 barrels per day ( 480 @,@ 000 m3 / d ) increase . China , by comparison , increased consumption from 3 @,@ 400 @,@ 000 barrels per day ( 540 @,@ 000 m3 / d ) to 7 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 barrels per day ( 1 @,@ 100 @,@ 000 m3 / d ) , an increase of 3 @,@ 600 @,@ 000 barrels per day ( 570 @,@ 000 m3 / d ) , in the same time frame . The Energy Information Administration ( EIA ) stated that gasoline usage in the United States may have peaked in 2007 , in part because of increasing interest in and mandates for use of biofuels and energy efficiency .
As countries develop , industry and higher living standards drive up energy use , oil usage being a major component . Thriving economies , such as China and India , are quickly becoming large oil consumers . For example , China surpassed the United States as the world 's largest crude oil importer in 2015 . Oil consumption growth is expected to continue ; however , not at previous rates , as China 's economic growth is predicted to decrease from the high rates of the early part of the 21st century . India 's oil imports are expected to more than triple from 2005 levels by 2020 , rising to 5 million barrels per day ( 790 × 103 m3 / d ) .
= = = Population = = =
Another significant factor affecting petroleum demand has been human population growth . The United States Census Bureau predicts that world population in 2030 will be almost double that of 1980 . Oil production per capita peaked in 1979 at 5 @.@ 5 barrels / year but then declined to fluctuate around 4 @.@ 5 barrels / year since . In this regard , the decreasing population growth rate since the 1970s has somewhat ameliorated the per capita decline .
= = = Economic growth = = =
Some analysts argue that the cost of oil has a profound effect on economic growth due to its pivotal role in the extraction of resources and the processing , manufacturing , and transportation of goods . As the industrial effort to extract new unconventional oil sources increases , this has a compounding negative effect on all sectors of the economy , leading to economic stagnation or even eventual contraction . Such a scenario would result in an inability for national economies to pay high oil prices , leading to declining demand and a price collapse .
= = Supply = =
Our analysis suggests there are ample physical oil and liquid fuel resources for the foreseeable future . However , the rate at which new supplies can be developed and the break @-@ even prices for those new supplies are changing .
= = = Defining sources of oil = = =
Oil may come from conventional or unconventional sources . The terms are not strictly defined , and vary within the literature as definitions based on new technologies tend to change over time . As a result , different oil forecasting studies have included different classes of liquid fuels . Some use the terms " conventional " oil for what is included in the model , and " unconventional " oil for classes excluded .
In 1956 , Hubbert confined his peak oil prediction to that crude oil " producible by methods now in use . " By 1962 , however , his analyses included future improvements in exploration and production . All of Hubbert 's analyses of peak oil specifically excluded oil manufactured from oil shale or mined from oil sands . A 2013 study predicting an early peak excluded deepwater oil , tight oil , oil with API gravity less than 17 @.@ 5 , and oil close to the poles , such as that on the North Slope of Alaska , all of which it defined as non @-@ conventional . Some commonly used definitions for conventional and unconventional oil are detailed below .
= = = Conventional sources = = =
Conventional oil is extracted on land and offshore using standard techniques , and can be categorized as light , medium , heavy , or extra heavy in grade . The exact definitions of these grades vary depending on the region from which the oil came . Light oil flows naturally to the surface or can be extracted by simply pumping it out of the ground . Heavy refers to oil that has higher density and therefore lower API gravity . It does not flow easily , and its consistency is similar to that of molasses . While some of it can be produced using conventional techniques , recovery rates are better using unconventional methods .
= = = Unconventional sources = = =
Oil currently considered unconventional is derived from multiple sources .
Tight oil is extracted from deposits of low @-@ permeability rock , sometimes shale deposits but often other rock types , using hydraulic fracturing , or " fracking . " It is often confused with shale oil , which is oil manufactured from the kerogen contained in an oil shale ( see below ) , Production of tight oil has led to a resurgence of US production in recent years . However , tight oil production peaked in 2015 and is not expected to increase again until there is a significant oil price recovery .
Oil shale is a common term for sedimentary rock such as shale or marl , containing kerogen , a waxy oil precursor that has not yet been transformed into crude oil by the high pressures and temperatures caused by deep burial . The term " oil shale " is somewhat confusing , because what is referred to in the U.S. as " oil shale " is not really oil and the rock it is found in is generally not shale . Since it is close to the surface rather than buried deep in the earth , the shale or marl is typically mined , crushed , and retorted , producing synthetic oil from the kerogen . Its net energy yield is much lower than conventional oil , so much so that estimates of the net energy yield of shale discoveries are considered extremely unreliable .
Oil sands are unconsolidated sandstone deposits containing large amounts of very viscous crude bitumen or extra @-@ heavy crude oil that can be recovered by surface mining or by in @-@ situ oil wells using steam injection or other techniques . It can be liquefied by upgrading , blending with diluent , or by heating ; and then processed by a conventional oil refinery . The recovery process requires advanced technology but is more efficient than that of oil shale . The reason is that , unlike U.S. " oil shale " , Canadian oil sands actually contain oil , and the sandstones they are found in are much easier to produce oil from than shale or marl . In the U.S. dialect of English , these formations are often called " tar sands " , but the material found in them is not tar but an extra @-@ heavy and viscous form of oil technically known as bitumen .
Coal liquefaction or gas to liquids product are liquid hydrocarbons that are synthesised from the conversion of coal or natural gas by the Fischer @-@ Tropsch process , Bergius process , or Karrick process . Currently , two companies SASOL and Shell , have synthetic oil technology proven to work on a commercial scale . Sasol 's primary business is based on CTL ( coal @-@ to @-@ liquid ) and GTL ( natural gas @-@ to @-@ liquid ) technology , producing US $ 4 @.@ 40 billion in revenues ( FY2009 ) . Shell has used these processes to recycle waste flare gas ( usually burnt off at oil wells and refineries ) into usable synthetic oil . However , for CTL there may be insufficient coal reserves to supply global needs for both liquid fuels and electric power generation .
Minor sources include thermal depolymerization , as discussed in a 2003 article in Discover magazine , that could be used to manufacture oil indefinitely , out of garbage , sewage , and agricultural waste . The article claimed that the cost of the process was $ 15 per barrel . A follow @-@ up article in 2006 stated that the cost was actually $ 80 per barrel , because the feedstock that had previously been considered as hazardous waste now had market value . A 2008 news bulletin published by Los Alamos Laboratory proposed that hydrogen ( possibly produced using hot fluid from nuclear reactors to split water into hydrogen and oxygen ) in combination with sequestered CO2 could be used to produce methanol ( CH3OH ) , which could then be converted into gasoline .
= = = Discoveries = = =
All the easy oil and gas in the world has pretty much been found . Now comes the harder work in finding and producing oil from more challenging environments and work areas .
It is pretty clear that there is not much chance of finding any significant quantity of new cheap oil . Any new or unconventional oil is going to be expensive .
The peak of world oilfield discoveries occurred in the 1960s at around 55 billion barrels ( 8 @.@ 7 × 109 m3 ) ( Gb ) / year . According to the Association for the Study of Peak Oil and Gas ( ASPO ) , the rate of discovery has been falling steadily since . Less than 10 Gb / yr of oil were discovered each year between 2002 and 2007 . According to a 2010 Reuters article , the annual rate of discovery of new fields has remained remarkably constant at 15 – 20 Gb / yr .
But despite the fall @-@ off in new field discoveries , and record @-@ high production rates , the reported proved reserves of crude oil remaining in the ground in 2014 , which totaled 1 @,@ 490 billion barrels , not counting Canadian heavy oil sands , were more than quadruple the 1965 proved reserves of 354 billion barrels . A researcher for the U.S. Energy Information Administration has pointed out that after the first wave of discoveries in an area , most oil and natural gas reserve growth comes not from discoveries of new fields , but from extensions and additional gas found within existing fields .
A report by the UK Energy Research Centre noted that " discovery " is often used ambiguously , and explained the seeming contradiction between falling discovery rates since the 1960s and increasing reserves by the phenomenon of reserve growth . The report noted that increased reserves within a field may be discovered or developed by new technology years or decades after the original discovery . But because of the practice of " backdating , " any new reserves within a field , even those to be discovered decades after the field discovery , are attributed to the year of initial field discovery , creating an illusion that discovery is not keeping pace with production .
= = = Reserves = = =
Total possible conventional crude oil reserves include crude oil with 90 – 95 % certainty of being technically possible to produce ( from reservoirs through a wellbore using primary , secondary , improved , enhanced , or tertiary methods ) ; all crude with a 50 % probability of being produced in the future ; and discovered reserves that have a 5 – 10 % possibility of being produced in the future . These are referred to as 1P / Proven ( 90 – 95 % ) , 2P / Probable ( 50 % ) , and 3P / Possible ( 5 – 10 % ) , respectively . This does not include liquids extracted from mined solids or gasses ( oil sands , oil shale , gas @-@ to @-@ liquid processes , or coal @-@ to @-@ liquid processes ) .
Hubbert 's 1956 peak projection for the United States depended on geological estimates of ultimate recoverable oil resources , but starting in his 1962 publication , he concluded that ultimate oil recovery was an output of his mathematical analysis , rather than an assumption . He regarded his peak oil calculation as independent of reserve estimamtes .
Many current 2P calculations predict reserves to be between 1150 and 1350 Gb , but some authors have written that because of misinformation , withheld information , and misleading reserve calculations , 2P reserves are likely nearer to 850 – 900 Gb . The Energy Watch Group wrote that actual reserves peaked in 1980 , when production first surpassed new discoveries , that apparent increases in reserves since then are illusory , and concluded ( in 2007 ) : " Probably the world oil production has peaked already , but we cannot be sure yet . "
= = = = Concerns over stated reserves = = = =
[ World ] reserves are confused and in fact inflated . Many of the so @-@ called reserves are in fact resources . They 're not delineated , they 're not accessible , they 're not available for production .
Al @-@ Husseini estimated that 300 billion barrels ( 48 × 10 ^ 9 m3 ) of the world 's 1 @,@ 200 billion barrels ( 190 × 10 ^ 9 m3 ) of proven reserves should be recategorized as speculative resources .
One difficulty in forecasting the date of peak oil is the opacity surrounding the oil reserves classified as " proven " . In many major producing countries , the majority of reserves claims have not been subject to outside audit or examination . Many worrying signs concerning the depletion of proven reserves have emerged in recent years . This was best exemplified by the 2004 scandal surrounding the " evaporation " of 20 % of Shell 's reserves .
For the most part , proven reserves are stated by the oil companies , the producer states and the consumer states . All three have reasons to overstate their proven reserves : oil companies may look to increase their potential worth ; producer countries gain a stronger international stature ; and governments of consumer countries may seek a means to foster sentiments of security and stability within their economies and among consumers .
Major discrepancies arise from accuracy issues with the self @-@ reported numbers from the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries ( OPEC ) . Besides the possibility that these nations have overstated their reserves for political reasons ( during periods of no substantial discoveries ) , over 70 nations also follow a practice of not reducing their reserves to account for yearly production . Analysts have suggested that OPEC member nations have economic incentives to exaggerate their reserves , as the OPEC quota system allows greater output for countries with greater reserves .
Kuwait , for example , was reported in the January 2006 issue of Petroleum Intelligence Weekly to have only 48 billion barrels ( 7 @.@ 6 × 10 ^ 9 m3 ) in reserve , of which only 24 were fully proven . This report was based on the leak of a confidential document from Kuwait and has not been formally denied by the Kuwaiti authorities . This leaked document is from 2001 , but excludes revisions or discoveries made since then . Additionally , the reported 1 @.@ 5 billion barrels ( 240 × 10 ^ 6 m3 ) of oil burned off by Iraqi soldiers in the First Persian Gulf War are conspicuously missing from Kuwait 's figures .
On the other hand , investigative journalist Greg Palast argues that oil companies have an interest in making oil look more rare than it is , to justify higher prices . This view is contested by ecological journalist Richard Heinberg . Other analysts argue that oil producing countries understate the extent of their reserves to drive up the price .
The EUR reported by the 2000 USGS survey of 2 @,@ 300 billion barrels ( 370 × 10 ^ 9 m3 ) has been criticized for assuming a discovery trend over the next twenty years that would reverse the observed trend of the past 40 years . Their 95 % confidence EUR of 2 @,@ 300 billion barrels ( 370 × 10 ^ 9 m3 ) assumed that discovery levels would stay steady , despite the fact that new @-@ field discovery rates have declined since the 1960s . That trend of falling discoveries has continued in the ten years since the USGS made their assumption . The 2000 USGS is also criticized for other assumptions , as well as assuming 2030 production rates inconsistent with projected reserves .
= = = = Reserves of unconventional oil = = = =
As conventional oil becomes less available , it can be replaced with production of liquids from unconventional sources such as tight oil , oil sands , ultra @-@ heavy oils , gas @-@ to @-@ liquid technologies , coal @-@ to @-@ liquid technologies , biofuel technologies , and shale oil . In the 2007 and subsequent International Energy Outlook editions , the word " Oil " was replaced with " Liquids " in the chart of world energy consumption . In 2009 biofuels was included in " Liquids " instead of in " Renewables " . The inclusion of natural gas liquids , a bi @-@ product of natural gas extraction , in " Liquids " has been criticized as it is mostly a chemical feedstock which is generally not used as transport fuel .
Reserve estimates are based on the oil price . Hence , unconventional sources such as heavy crude oil , oil sands , and oil shale may be included as new techniques reduce the cost of extraction . With rule changes by the SEC , oil companies can now book them as proven reserves after opening a strip mine or thermal facility for extraction . These unconventional sources are more labor and resource intensive to produce , however , requiring extra energy to refine , resulting in higher production costs and up to three times more greenhouse gas emissions per barrel ( or barrel equivalent ) on a " well to tank " basis or 10 to 45 % more on a " well to wheels " basis , which includes the carbon emitted from combustion of the final product .
While the energy used , resources needed , and environmental effects of extracting unconventional sources have traditionally been prohibitively high , major unconventional oil sources being considered for large @-@ scale production are the extra heavy oil in the Orinoco Belt of Venezuela , the Athabasca Oil Sands in the Western Canadian Sedimentary Basin , and the oil shale of the Green River Formation in Colorado , Utah , and Wyoming in the United States . Energy companies such as Syncrude and Suncor have been extracting bitumen for decades but production has increased greatly in recent years with the development of Steam Assisted Gravity Drainage and other extraction technologies .
Chuck Masters of the USGS estimates that , " Taken together , these resource occurrences , in the Western Hemisphere , are approximately equal to the Identified Reserves of conventional crude oil accredited to the Middle East . " Authorities familiar with the resources believe that the world 's ultimate reserves of unconventional oil are several times as large as those of conventional oil and will be highly profitable for companies as a result of higher prices in the 21st century . In October 2009 , the USGS updated the Orinoco tar sands ( Venezuela ) recoverable " mean value " to 513 billion barrels ( 8 @.@ 16 × 1010 m3 ) , with a 90 % chance of being within the range of 380 @-@ 652 billion barrels ( 103 @.@ 7 × 10 ^ 9 m3 ) , making this area " one of the world 's largest recoverable oil accumulations " .
Despite the large quantities of oil available in non @-@ conventional sources , Matthew Simmons argued in 2005 that limitations on production prevent them from becoming an effective substitute for conventional crude oil . Simmons stated " these are high energy intensity projects that can never reach high volumes " to offset significant losses from other sources . Another study claims that even under highly optimistic assumptions , " Canada 's oil sands will not prevent peak oil , " although production could reach 5 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 bbl / d ( 790 @,@ 000 m3 / d ) by 2030 in a " crash program " development effort .
Moreover , oil extracted from these sources typically contains contaminants such as sulfur and heavy metals that are energy @-@ intensive to extract and can leave tailings , ponds containing hydrocarbon sludge , in some cases . The same applies to much of the Middle East 's undeveloped conventional oil reserves , much of which is heavy , viscous , and contaminated with sulfur and metals to the point of being unusable . However , high oil prices make these sources more financially appealing . A study by Wood Mackenzie suggests that by the early 2020s all the world 's extra oil supply is likely to come from unconventional sources .
= = = Production = = =
The point in time when peak global oil production occurs defines peak oil . Some adherents of ' peak oil ' believe that production capacity will remain the main limitation of supply , and that when production decreases , it will be the main bottleneck to the petroleum supply / demand equation . Others believe that the increasing industrial effort to extract oil will have a negative effect on global economic growth , leading to demand contraction and a price collapse , thereby causing production decline as some unconventional sources become uneconomical . Yet others believe that the peak may be to some extent led by declining demand as new technologies and improving efficiency shift energy usage away from oil .
Worldwide oil discoveries have been less than annual production since 1980 . World population has grown faster than oil production . Because of this , oil production per capita peaked in 1979 ( preceded by a plateau during the period of 1973 – 1979 ) .
The increasing investment in harder @-@ to @-@ reach oil is a sign of oil companies ' belief in the end of easy oil . Also , while it is widely believed that increased oil prices spur an increase in production , an increasing number of oil industry insiders were reportedly coming to believe that even with higher prices , oil production was unlikely to increase significantly . Among the reasons cited were both geological factors as well as " above ground " factors that are likely to see oil production plateau .
An important concept with regard to declining " easy oil " is energy returned on energy invested , also referred to as EROEI . A 2008 Journal of Energy Security analysis of the energy return on drilling effort in the United States concluded that there was extremely limited potential to increase production of both gas and ( especially ) oil . By looking at the historical response of production to variation in drilling effort , the analysis showed very little increase of production attributable to increased drilling . This was because of a tight quantitative relationship of diminishing returns with increasing drilling effort : as drilling effort increased , the energy obtained per active drill rig was reduced according to a severely diminishing power law . The study concluded that even an enormous increase of drilling effort was unlikely to significantly increase oil and gas production in a mature petroleum region such as the United States . However , contrary to the study 's conclusion , since the analysis was published in 2008 , US production of crude oil has increased 74 % , and production of dry natural gas has increased 28 % ( 2014 compared to 2008 ) .
= = = = Anticipated production by major agencies = = = =
Average yearly gains in global supply from 1987 to 2005 were 1 @.@ 2 million barrels per day ( 190 × 10 ^ 3 m3 / d ) ( 1 @.@ 7 % ) . In 2005 , the IEA predicted that 2030 production rates would reach 120 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 barrels per day ( 19 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 m3 / d ) , but this number was gradually reduced to 105 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 barrels per day ( 16 @,@ 700 @,@ 000 m3 / d ) . A 2008 analysis of IEA predictions questioned several underlying assumptions and claimed that a 2030 production level of 75 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 barrels per day ( 11 @,@ 900 @,@ 000 m3 / d ) ( comprising 55 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 barrels ( 8 @,@ 700 @,@ 000 m3 ) of crude oil and 20 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 barrels ( 3 @,@ 200 @,@ 000 m3 ) of both non @-@ conventional oil and natural gas liquids ) was more realistic than the IEA numbers . More recently , the EIA 's Annual Energy Outlook 2015 indicated no production peak out to 2040 . However , this required a future Brent crude oil price of $ US144 / bbl ( 2013 dollars ) " as growing demand leads to the development of more costly resources . " Whether the world economy can grow and maintain demand for such a high oil price remains to be seen .
= = = = Oil field decline = = = =
In a 2013 study of 733 giant oil fields , only 32 % of the ultimately recoverable oil , condensate and gas remained . Ghawar , which is the largest oil field in the world and responsible for approximately half of Saudi Arabia 's oil production over the last 50 years , was in decline before 2009 . The world 's second largest oil field , the Burgan Field in Kuwait , entered decline in November 2005 .
It is well established that once an oilfield reaches maximum production , it will decrease at a certain decline rate . For example , Mexico announced that production from its giant Cantarell Field began to decline in March 2006 , reportedly at a rate of 13 % per year . Also in 2006 , Saudi Aramco Senior Vice President Abdullah Saif estimated that its existing fields were declining at a rate of 5 % to 12 % per year . According to a study of the largest 811 oilfields conducted in early 2008 by Cambridge Energy Research Associates , the average rate of field decline is 4 @.@ 5 % per year . The Association for the Study of Peak Oil and Gas agreed with their decline rates , but considered the rate of new fields coming online overly optimistic . The IEA stated in November 2008 that an analysis of 800 oilfields showed the decline in oil production to be 6 @.@ 7 % a year for fields past their peak , and that this would grow to 8 @.@ 6 % in 2030 . A more rapid annual rate of decline of 5 @.@ 1 % in 800 of the world 's largest oil fields weighted for production over their whole lives was reported by the International Energy Agency in their World Energy Outlook 2008 . The 2013 study of 733 giant fields mentioned previously had an average decline rate 3 @.@ 83 % which was described as " conservative . "
= = = Control over supply = = =
Entities such as governments or cartels can reduce supply to the world market by limiting access to the supply through nationalizing oil , cutting back on production , limiting drilling rights , imposing taxes , etc . International sanctions , corruption , and military conflicts can also reduce supply .
= = = = Nationalization of oil supplies = = = =
Another factor affecting global oil supply is the nationalization of oil reserves by producing nations . The nationalization of oil occurs as countries begin to deprivatize oil production and withhold exports . Kate Dourian , Platts ' Middle East editor , points out that while estimates of oil reserves may vary , politics have now entered the equation of oil supply . " Some countries are becoming off limits . Major oil companies operating in Venezuela find themselves in a difficult position because of the growing nationalization of that resource . These countries are now reluctant to share their reserves . "
According to consulting firm PFC Energy , only 7 % of the world 's estimated oil and gas reserves are in countries that allow companies like ExxonMobil free rein . Fully 65 % are in the hands of state @-@ owned companies such as Saudi Aramco , with the rest in countries such as Russia and Venezuela , where access by Western European and North American companies is difficult . The PFC study implies political factors are limiting capacity increases in Mexico , Venezuela , Iran , Iraq , Kuwait , and Russia . Saudi Arabia is also limiting capacity expansion , but because of a self @-@ imposed cap , unlike the other countries . As a result of not having access to countries amenable to oil exploration , ExxonMobil is not making nearly the investment in finding new oil that it did in 1981 .
= = = = OPEC influence on supply = = = =
OPEC is an alliance between 12 diverse oil producing countries ( Algeria , Angola , Ecuador , Iran , Iraq , Kuwait , Libya , Nigeria , Qatar , Saudi Arabia , the United Arab Emirates , and Venezuela ) to control the supply of oil . OPEC 's power was consolidated as various countries nationalized their oil holdings , and wrested decision @-@ making away from the " Seven Sisters , " ( Anglo @-@ Iranian , Socony @-@ Vacuum , Royal Dutch Shell , Gulf , Esso , Texaco , and Socal ) and created their own oil companies to control the oil . OPEC tries to influence prices by restricting production . It does this by allocating each member country a quota for production . All 12 members agree to keep prices high by producing at lower levels than they otherwise would . There is no way to verify adherence to the quota , so every member faces the same incentive to " cheat " the cartel . United States policy of selling arms and providing security to Saudi Arabia is often seen as an attempt to influence the Saudis to increase oil production . According to sociology professor Michael Schwartz , the purpose for the second Iraq war was to break the back of OPEC and return control of the oil fields to western oil companies .
Alternatively , commodities trader Raymond Learsy , author of Over a Barrel : Breaking the Middle East Oil Cartel , contends that OPEC has trained consumers to believe that oil is a much more finite resource than it is . To back his argument , he points to past false alarms and apparent collaboration . He also believes that peak oil analysts are conspiring with OPEC and the oil companies to create a " fabricated drama of peak oil " to drive up oil prices and profits ; oil had risen to a little over $ 30 / barrel at that time . A counter @-@ argument was given in the Huffington Post after he and Steve Andrews , co @-@ founder of ASPO , debated on CNBC in June 2007 .
= = Predictions of peak oil = =
In 1962 , Hubbert predicted that world oil production would peak at a rate of 12 @.@ 5 billion barrels per year , around the year 2000 . In 1974 , Hubbert predicted that peak oil would occur in 1995 " if current trends continue . " Those predictions proved incorrect . However , a number of industry leaders and analysts believe that world oil production will peak between 2015 and 2030 , with a significant chance that the peak will occur before 2020 . They consider dates after 2030 implausible . By comparison , a 2014 analysis of production and reserve data predicted a peak in oil production about 2035 . Determining a more specific range is difficult due to the lack of certainty over the actual size of world oil reserves . Unconventional oil is not currently predicted to meet the expected shortfall even in a best @-@ case scenario . For unconventional oil to fill the gap without " potentially serious impacts on the global economy " , oil production would have to remain stable after its peak , until 2035 at the earliest .
Papers published since 2010 have been relatively pessimistic . A 2010 Kuwait University study predicted production would peak in 2014 . A 2010 Oxford University study predicted that production will peak before 2015 , but its projection of a change soon " ... from a demand @-@ led market to a supply constrained market ... " was incorrect . A 2014 validation of a significant 2004 study in the journal Energy proposed that it is likely that conventional oil production peaked , according to various definitions , between 2005 and 2011 . A set of models published in a 2014 Ph.D. thesis predicted that a 2012 peak would be followed by a drop in oil prices , which in some scenarios could turn into a rapid rise in prices thereafter . According to energy blogger Ron Patterson , the peak of world oil production was probably around 2010 .
Major oil companies hit peak production in 2005 . Several sources in 2006 and 2007 predicted that worldwide production was at or past its maximum . Fatih Birol , chief economist at the International Energy Agency , also stated that " crude oil production for the world has already peaked in 2006 . " However , in 2013 OPEC 's figures showed that world crude oil production and remaining proven reserves were at record highs . According to Matthew Simmons , former Chairman of Simmons & Company International and author of Twilight in the Desert : The Coming Saudi Oil Shock and the World Economy , " peaking is one of these fuzzy events that you only know clearly when you see it through a rear view mirror , and by then an alternate resolution is generally too late . "
= = Possible consequences = =
The wide use of fossil fuels has been one of the most important stimuli of economic growth and prosperity since the industrial revolution , allowing humans to participate in takedown , or the consumption of energy at a greater rate than it is being replaced . Some believe that when oil production decreases , human culture , and modern technological society will be forced to change drastically . The impact of peak oil will depend heavily on the rate of decline and the development and adoption of effective alternatives .
In 2005 , the United States Department of Energy published a report titled Peaking of World Oil Production : Impacts , Mitigation , & Risk Management . Known as the Hirsch report , it stated , " The peaking of world oil production presents the U.S. and the world with an unprecedented risk management problem . As peaking is approached , liquid fuel prices and price volatility will increase dramatically , and , without timely mitigation , the economic , social , and political costs will be unprecedented . Viable mitigation options exist on both the supply and demand sides , but to have substantial impact , they must be initiated more than a decade in advance of peaking . " Some of the information was updated in 2007 .
= = = Oil prices = = =
= = = = Historical oil prices = = = =
The oil price historically was comparatively low until the 1973 oil crisis and the 1979 energy crisis when it increased more than tenfold during that six @-@ year timeframe . Even though the oil price dropped significantly in the following years , it has never come back to the previous levels . Oil price began to increase again during the 2000s until it hit historical heights of $ 143 per barrel ( 2007 inflation adjusted dollars ) on 30 June 2008 . As these prices were well above those that caused the 1973 and 1979 energy crises , they contributed to fears of an economic recession similar to that of the early 1980s .
It is generally agreed that the main reason for the price spike in 2005 – 2008 was strong demand pressure . For example , global consumption of oil rose from 30 billion barrels ( 4 @.@ 8 × 10 ^ 9 m3 ) in 2004 to 31 billion in 2005 . The consumption rates were far above new discoveries in the period , which had fallen to only eight billion barrels of new oil reserves in new accumulations in 2004 .
Oil price increases were partially fueled by reports that petroleum production is at or near full capacity . In June 2005 , OPEC stated that they would ' struggle ' to pump enough oil to meet pricing pressures for the fourth quarter of that year . From 2007 to 2008 , the decline in the U.S. dollar against other significant currencies was also considered as a significant reason for the oil price increases , as the dollar lost approximately 14 % of its value against the Euro from May 2007 to May 2008 .
Besides supply and demand pressures , at times security related factors may have contributed to increases in prices , including the War on Terror , missile launches in North Korea , the Crisis between Israel and Lebanon , nuclear brinkmanship between the U.S. and Iran , and reports from the U.S. Department of Energy and others showing a decline in petroleum reserves .
More recently , between 2011 and 2014 the price of crude oil was relatively stable , fluctuating around $ US100 per barrel . It dropped sharply in late 2014 to below $ US70 where it remained for most of 2015 . In early 2016 it traded at a low of $ US27 . The price drop has been attributed to both oversupply and reduced demand as a result of the slowing global economy , OPEC reluctance to concede market share , and a stronger US dollar . These factors may be exacerbated by a combination of monetary policy and the increased debt of oil producers , who may increase production to maintain liquidity .
This price drop has placed many US tight oil producers under considerable financial pressure . As a result , there has been a reduction by oil companies in capital expenditure of over $ US400 billion . It is anticipated that this will have effects on global production in the longer term , leading to statements of concern by the International Energy Agency that governments should not be complacent about energy security . Energy Information Agency projections anticipate market oversupply and prices below $ US50 until late 2017 .
= = = = Effects of historical oil price rises = = = =
In the past , the price of oil has led to economic recessions , such as the 1973 and 1979 energy crises . The effect the price of oil has on an economy is known as a price shock . In many European countries , which have high taxes on fuels , such price shocks could potentially be mitigated somewhat by temporarily or permanently suspending the taxes as fuel costs rise . This method of softening price shocks is less useful in countries with much lower gas taxes , such as the United States . A baseline scenario for a recent IMF paper found oil production growing at 0 @.@ 8 % ( as opposed to a historical average of 1 @.@ 8 % ) would result in a small reduction in economic growth of 0 @.@ 2 – 0 @.@ 4 % .
Researchers at the Stanford Energy Modeling Forum found that the economy can adjust to steady , gradual increases in the price of crude better than wild lurches .
Some economists predict that a substitution effect will spur demand for alternate energy sources , such as coal or liquefied natural gas . This substitution can be only temporary , as coal and natural gas are finite resources as well .
Prior to the run @-@ up in fuel prices , many motorists opted for larger , less fuel @-@ efficient sport utility vehicles and full @-@ sized pickups in the United States , Canada , and other countries . This trend has been reversing because of sustained high prices of fuel . The September 2005 sales data for all vehicle vendors indicated SUV sales dropped while small cars sales increased . Hybrid and diesel vehicles are also gaining in popularity .
EIA published Household Vehicles Energy Use : Latest Data and Trends in Nov 2005 illustrating the steady increase in disposable income and $ 20 – 30 per barrel price of oil in 2004 . The report notes " The average household spent $ 1 @,@ 520 on fuel purchases for transport . " According to CNBC that expense climbed to $ 4 @,@ 155 in 2011 .
In 2008 , a report by Cambridge Energy Research Associates stated that 2007 had been the year of peak gasoline usage in the United States , and that record energy prices would cause an " enduring shift " in energy consumption practices . The total miles driven in the U.S. peaked in 2006 .
The Export Land Model states that after peak oil petroleum exporting countries will be forced to reduce their exports more quickly than their production decreases because of internal demand growth . Countries that rely on imported petroleum will therefore be affected earlier and more dramatically than exporting countries . Mexico is already in this situation . Internal consumption grew by 5 @.@ 9 % in 2006 in the five biggest exporting countries , and their exports declined by over 3 % . It was estimated that by 2010 internal demand would decrease worldwide exports by 2 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 barrels per day ( 400 @,@ 000 m3 / d ) .
Canadian economist Jeff Rubin has stated that high oil prices are likely to result in increased consumption in developed countries through partial manufacturing de @-@ globalisation of trade . Manufacturing production would move closer to the end consumer to minimise transportation network costs , and therefore a demand decoupling from gross domestic product would occur . Higher oil prices would lead to increased freighting costs and consequently , the manufacturing industry would move back to the developed countries since freight costs would outweigh the current economic wage advantage of developing countries . Economic research carried out by the International Monetary Fund puts overall price elasticity of demand for oil at − 0 @.@ 025 short @-@ term and − 0 @.@ 093 long term .
= = = = Agricultural effects and population limits = = = =
Since supplies of oil and gas are essential to modern agriculture techniques , a fall in global oil supplies could cause spiking food prices and unprecedented famine in the coming decades . Geologist Dale Allen Pfeiffer contends that current population levels are unsustainable , and that to achieve a sustainable economy and avert disaster the United States population would have to be reduced by at least one @-@ third , and world population by two @-@ thirds .
The largest consumer of fossil fuels in modern agriculture is ammonia production ( for fertilizer ) via the Haber process , which is essential to high @-@ yielding intensive agriculture . The specific fossil fuel input to fertilizer production is primarily natural gas , to provide hydrogen via steam reforming . Given sufficient supplies of renewable electricity , hydrogen can be generated without fossil fuels using methods such as electrolysis . For example , the Vemork hydroelectric plant in Norway used its surplus electricity output to generate renewable ammonia from 1911 to 1971 .
Iceland currently generates ammonia using the electrical output from its hydroelectric and geothermal power plants , because Iceland has those resources in abundance while having no domestic hydrocarbon resources , and a high cost for importing natural gas .
= = = Long @-@ term effects on lifestyle = = =
A majority of Americans live in suburbs , a type of low @-@ density settlement designed around universal personal automobile use . Commentators such as James Howard Kunstler argue that because over 90 % of transportation in the U.S. relies on oil , the suburbs ' reliance on the automobile is an unsustainable living arrangement . Peak oil would leave many Americans unable to afford petroleum based fuel for their cars , and force them to use bicycles or electric vehicles . Additional options include telecommuting , moving to rural areas , or moving to higher density areas , where walking and public transportation are more viable options . In the latter two cases , suburbs may become the " slums of the future . " The issue of petroleum supply and demand is also a concern for growing cities in developing countries ( where urban areas are expected to absorb most of the world 's projected 2 @.@ 3 billion population increase by 2050 ) . Stressing the energy component of future development plans is seen as an important goal .
Rising oil prices , if they occur , would also affect the cost of food , heating , and electricity . A high amount of stress would then be put on current middle to low income families as economies contract from the decline in excess funds , decreasing employment rates . The Hirsch / US DoE Report concludes that " without timely mitigation , world supply / demand balance will be achieved through massive demand destruction ( shortages ) , accompanied by huge oil price increases , both of which would create a long period of significant economic hardship worldwide . "
Methods that have been suggested for mitigating these urban and suburban issues include the use of non @-@ petroleum vehicles such as electric cars , battery electric vehicles , transit @-@ oriented development , carfree cities , bicycles , new trains , new pedestrianism , smart growth , shared space , urban consolidation , urban villages , and New Urbanism .
An extensive 2009 report on the effects of compact development by the United States National Research Council of the Academy of Sciences , commissioned by the United States Congress , stated six main findings . First , that compact development is likely to reduce " Vehicle Miles Traveled " ( VMT ) throughout the country . Second , that doubling residential density in a given area could reduce VMT by as much as 25 % if coupled with measures such as increased employment density and improved public transportation . Third , that higher density , mixed @-@ use developments would produce both direct reductions in CO2 emissions ( from less driving ) , and indirect reductions ( such as from lower amounts of materials used per housing unit , higher efficiency climate control , longer vehicle lifespans , and higher efficiency delivery of goods and services ) . Fourth , that although short term reductions in energy use and CO2 emissions would be modest , that these reductions would become more significant over time . Fifth , that a major obstacle to more compact development in the United States is political resistance from local zoning regulators , which would hamper efforts by state and regional governments to participate in land @-@ use planning . Sixth , the committee agreed that changes in development that would alter driving patterns and building efficiency would have various secondary costs and benefits that are difficult to quantify . The report recommends that policies supporting compact development ( and especially its ability to reduce driving , energy use , and CO2 emissions ) should be encouraged .
An economic theory that has been proposed as a remedy is the introduction of a steady state economy . Such a system could include a tax shifting from income to depleting natural resources ( and pollution ) , as well as the limitation of advertising that stimulates demand and population growth . It could also include the institution of policies that move away from globalization and toward localization to conserve energy resources , provide local jobs , and maintain local decision @-@ making authority . Zoning policies could be adjusted to promote resource conservation and eliminate sprawl .
= = = Mitigation = = =
To avoid the serious social and economic implications a global decline in oil production could entail , the Hirsch report emphasized the need to find alternatives , at least ten to twenty years before the peak , and to phase out the use of petroleum over that time . This was similar to a plan proposed for Sweden that same year . Such mitigation could include energy conservation , fuel substitution , and the use of unconventional oil . The timing of mitigation responses is critical . Premature initiation would be undesirable , but if initiated too late could be more costly and have more negative economic consequences .
= = = Positive aspects = = =
Permaculture sees peak oil as holding tremendous potential for positive change , assuming countries act with foresight . The rebuilding of local food networks , energy production , and the general implementation of " energy descent culture " are argued to be ethical responses to the acknowledgment of finite fossil resources . Majorca is an island currently diversifying its energy supply from fossil fuels to alternative sources and looking back at traditional construction and permaculture methods .
The Transition Towns movement , started in Totnes , Devon and spread internationally by " The Transition Handbook " ( Rob Hopkins ) and Transition Network , sees the restructuring of society for more local resilience and ecological stewardship as a natural response to the combination of peak oil and climate change .
= = Criticisms = =
= = = General arguments = = =
Opponents to the theory of peak oil often cite new oil reserves that have been found , which continue to forestall a peak oil event . In particular , some contend that oil production from these new oil reserves as well as from existing fields will continue to increase at a rate that outpaces demand , until alternate energy sources for our current fossil fuel dependence are found . As of 2015 , analysts in both the petroleum and financial industries were concluding that the " age of oil " had already reached a new stage where the excess supply that appeared in late 2014 may continue to prevail in the future . A consensus appeared to be emerging that an international agreement will be reached to introduce measures to constrain the combustion of hydrocarbons in an effort to limit global temperature rise to the nominal 2 ° C that is consensually predicted to limit environmental harm to tolerable levels .
Further criticism against peak oil is confidence in the various options and technologies for substituting oil . And indeed there are some promising approaches that seem to have the potential to reduce or even counterbalance the effects of a peak oil situation . For example , US federal funding has increased for algae fuels since the year 2000 due to rising fuel prices . Numerous more projects are being funded in Australia , New Zealand , Europe , the Middle East , and other parts of the world and private companies are entering the field .
= = = Oil industry representatives = = =
Oil industry representatives have criticised peak oil theory , at least as it has been presented by Matthew Simmons . The president of Royal Dutch Shell 's U.S. operations John Hofmeister , while agreeing that conventional oil production would soon start to decline , criticized Simmons 's analysis for being " overly focused on a single country : Saudi Arabia , the world 's largest exporter and OPEC swing producer . " He also pointed to the large reserves at the US outer continental shelf , which held an estimated 100 billion barrels ( 16 × 10 ^ 9 m3 ) of oil and natural gas . However , only 15 % of those reserves were currently exploitable , a good part of that off the coasts of Louisiana , Alabama , Mississippi , and Texas . Hofmeister also contended that Simmons erred in excluding unconventional sources of oil such as the oil sands of Canada , where Shell was active . The Canadian oil sands — a natural combination of sand , water , and oil found largely in Alberta and Saskatchewan — are believed to contain one trillion barrels of oil . Another trillion barrels are also said to be trapped in rocks in Colorado , Utah , and Wyoming , but are in the form of oil shale . These particular reserves present major environmental , social , and economic obstacles to recovery . Hofmeister also claimed that if oil companies were allowed to drill more in the United States enough to produce another 2 million barrels per day ( 320 × 10 ^ 3 m3 / d ) , oil and gas prices would not be as high as they were in the later part of the 2000 to 2010 decade . He thought in 2008 that high energy prices would cause social unrest similar to the 1992 Rodney King riots .
In 2009 , Dr. Christoph Rühl , chief economist of BP , argued against the peak oil hypothesis :
Physical peak oil , which I have no reason to accept as a valid statement either on theoretical , scientific or ideological grounds , would be insensitive to prices . ... In fact the whole hypothesis of peak oil – which is that there is a certain amount of oil in the ground , consumed at a certain rate , and then it 's finished – does not react to anything ... Therefore there will never be a moment when the world runs out of oil because there will always be a price at which the last drop of oil can clear the market . And you can turn anything into oil into if you are willing to pay the financial and environmental price ... ( Global Warming ) is likely to be more of a natural limit than all these peak oil theories combined . ... Peak oil has been predicted for 150 years . It has never happened , and it will stay this way .
According to Rühl , the main limitations for oil availability are " above ground " and are to be found in the availability of staff , expertise , technology , investment security , money and last but not least in global warming . The oil question is about price and not the basic availability . Rühl 's views are shared by Daniel Yergin of CERA , who added that the recent high price phase might add to a future demise of the oil industry , not of complete exhaustion of resources or an apocalyptic shock but the timely and smooth setup of alternatives .
Clive Mather , CEO of Shell Canada , said the Earth 's supply of bitumen hydrocarbons is " almost infinite " , referring to hydrocarbons in oil sands .
= = = Others = = =
Economist Robert L. Bradley , Jr. wrote in a 2007 article in The Review of Austrian Economics that , " [ a ] n Austrian institutional theory is more robust for explaining changes in mineral @-@ resource scarcity than neoclassical depletionism [ . ] " Using the writings of Erich Zimmermann and Julian Simon , Bradley also argued in 2012 that resources have subjective rather than objective existences in economics . He concluded that , " what resources come from the ground ultimately depend on the resources in the mind . "
Attorney and mechanical engineer Peter W. Huber pointed out in 2006 that the world is just running out of " cheap oil . " As oil prices rise , unconventional sources become economically viable . He predicted that , " [ t ] he tar sands of Alberta alone contain enough hydrocarbon to fuel the entire planet for over 100 years . "
Industry blogger Steve Maley echoed some of the points of Yergin , Rühl , Mather and Hofmeister .
Environmental journalist George Monbiot responded to a 2012 report by Leonardo Maugeri by proclaiming that there is more than enough oil ( from unconventional sources ) for capitalism to " deep @-@ fry " the world with climate change . Stephen Sorrell , senior lecturer Science and Technology Policy Research , Sussex Energy Group , and lead author of the UKERC Global Oil Depletion report , and Christophe McGlade , doctoral researcher at the UCL Energy Institute have criticized Maugeri 's assumptions about decline rates .
= = Further information = =
= = = Books = = =
Aleklett , Kjel ( 2012 ) . Peeking at Peak Oil . Springer Science . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 4614 @-@ 3423 @-@ 8 .
Campbell , Colin J ( 2004 ) . The Essence of Oil & Gas Depletion . Multi @-@ Science Publishing . ISBN 0 @-@ 906522 @-@ 19 @-@ 6 .
Campbell , Colin J ( 1997 ) . The Coming Oil Crisis . Multi @-@ Science Publishing . ISBN 0 @-@ 906522 @-@ 11 @-@ 0 .
Campbell , Colin J ( 2005 ) . Oil Crisis . Multi @-@ Science Publishing . ISBN 0 @-@ 906522 @-@ 39 @-@ 0 .
Deffeyes , Kenneth S ( 2002 ) . Hubbert 's Peak : The Impending World Oil Shortage . Princeton University Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 691 @-@ 09086 @-@ 6 .
Deffeyes , Kenneth S ( 2005 ) . Beyond Oil : The View from Hubbert 's Peak . Hill and Wang . ISBN 0 @-@ 8090 @-@ 2956 @-@ 1 .
Goodstein David ( 2005 ) . Out of Gas : The End of the Age of Oil . WW Norton . ISBN 0 @-@ 393 @-@ 05857 @-@ 3 .
Greer , J. M. ( 2013 ) . Not the Future We Ordered : The Psychology of Peak Oil and the Myth of Eternal Progress . Karnac Books . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 78049 @-@ 088 @-@ 5 .
Herold , D. M. ( 2012 ) . Peak Oil . Hurstelung und Verlag . ISBN 978 @-@ 3 @-@ 8448 @-@ 0097 @-@ 5 .
Heinberg Richard ( 2003 ) . The Party 's Over : Oil , War , and the Fate of Industrial Societies . New Society Publishers . ISBN 0 @-@ 86571 @-@ 482 @-@ 7 .
Heinberg , Richard ( 2004 ) . Power Down : Options and Actions for a Post @-@ Carbon World . New Society Publishers . ISBN 0 @-@ 86571 @-@ 510 @-@ 6 .
Heinberg , Richard ( 2006 ) . The Oil Depletion Protocol : A Plan to Avert Oil Wars , Terrorism and Economic Collapse . New Society Publishers . ISBN 0 @-@ 86571 @-@ 563 @-@ 7 .
Heinberg , Richard & Lerch , Daniel ( 2010 ) . The Post Carbon Reader : Managing the 21st Century 's Sustainability Crises . Watershed Media . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 9709500 @-@ 6 @-@ 2 .
Herberg , Mikkal ( 2014 ) . Energy Security and the Asia @-@ Pacific : Course Reader . United States : The National Bureau of Asian Research .
Huber Peter ( 2005 ) . The Bottomless Well . Basic Books . ISBN 0 @-@ 465 @-@ 03116 @-@ 1 .
Kunstler James H ( 2005 ) . The Long Emergency : Surviving the End of the Oil Age , Climate Change , and Other Converging Catastrophes . Atlantic Monthly Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 87113 @-@ 888 @-@ 3 .
Leggett Jeremy K ( 2005 ) . The Empty Tank : Oil , Gas , Hot Air , and the Coming Financial Catastrophe . Random House . ISBN 1 @-@ 4000 @-@ 6527 @-@ 5 .
Leggett , Jeremy K ( 2005 ) . Half Gone : Oil , Gas , Hot Air and the Global Energy Crisis . Portobello Books . ISBN 1 @-@ 84627 @-@ 004 @-@ 9 .
Leggett Jeremy K ( 2001 ) . The Carbon War : Global Warming and the End of the Oil Era . Routledge . ISBN 0 @-@ 415 @-@ 93102 @-@ 9 .
Lovins Amory ; et al . ( 2005 ) . Winning the Oil Endgame : Innovation for Profit , Jobs and Security . Rocky Mountain Institute . ISBN 1 @-@ 881071 @-@ 10 @-@ 3 .
Pfeiffer Dale Allen ( 2004 ) . The End of the Oil Age . Lulu Press . ISBN 1 @-@ 4116 @-@ 0629 @-@ 9 .
Newman Sheila ( 2008 ) . The Final Energy Crisis ( 2nd ed . ) . Pluto Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 7453 @-@ 2717 @-@ 4 . OCLC 228370383 .
Roberts Paul ( 2004 ) . The End of Oil . On the Edge of a Perilous New World . Boston : Houghton Mifflin . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 618 @-@ 23977 @-@ 1 .
Ruppert Michael C ( 2005 ) . Crossing the Rubicon : The Decline of the American Empire at the End of the Age of Oil . New Society . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 86571 @-@ 540 @-@ 0 .
Simmons Matthew R ( 2005 ) . Twilight in the Desert : The Coming Saudi Oil Shock and the World Economy . Hoboken , N.J. : Wiley & Sons . ISBN 0 @-@ 471 @-@ 73876 @-@ X.
Simon Julian L ( 1998 ) . The Ultimate Resource . Princeton University Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 691 @-@ 00381 @-@ 5 .
Schneider @-@ Mayerson Matthew ( 2015 ) . Peak Oil : Apocalyptic Environmentalism and Libertarian Political Culture . University of Chicago Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 226 @-@ 28543 @-@ 6 .
Stansberry Mark A ; Reimbold Jason ( 2008 ) . The Braking Point . Hawk Publishing . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 930709 @-@ 67 @-@ 6 .
Tertzakian Peter ( 2006 ) . A Thousand Barrels a Second . McGraw @-@ Hill . ISBN 0 @-@ 07 @-@ 146874 @-@ 9 .
Vassiliou , Marius ( 2009 ) . Historical Dictionary of the Petroleum Industry . Scarecrow Press ( Rowman & Littlefield ) . ISBN 0 @-@ 8108 @-@ 5993 @-@ 9 .
= = = Articles = = =
Appenzeller , Tim . " The end of cheap oil " . National Geographic .
Benner , Katie ( 7 December 2005 ) . " Lawmakers : Will we run out of oil ? " . CNN .
Benner , Katie ( 3 November 2004 ) . " Oil : Is the end at hand ? " . CNN .
Colin , Campbell , Laherrère Jean . " The end of cheap oil " . Scientific American . CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list ( link )
Cochrane , Troy ( 4 January 2008 ) . " Peak oil ? : Oil supply and accumulation " . Cultural Shifts .
De Young , R. ( 2014 ) . " Some behavioral aspects of energy descent . " Frontiers in Psychology , 5 ( 1255 ) .
" The future of oil " . Foreign Policy .
Leonardo Maugeri ( 20 May 2004 ) . " Oil : Never Cry Wolf — Why the Petroleum Age Is Far from over " . Science .
Porter , Adam ( 10 June 2005 ) . " ' Peak oil ' enters mainstream debate " . BBC News . Retrieved 26 March 2010 .
Kuhlman , Alex ( June 2006 ) . " Peak oil and the collapse of commercial aviation " ( PDF ) . Airways .
Jaeon Kirby & Colin Campbell ( 30 May 2008 ) . " Life at $ 200 a barrel " . Maclean 's .
Stefan Schaller ( 28 September 2010 ) . " The Theory behind Peak Oil " .
Ariel Schwartz ( 9 February 2011 ) . " WikiLeaks May Have Just Confirmed That Peak Oil Is Imminent " . Fast Company .
Matthew Schneider @-@ Mayerson ( 2013 ) . " From politics to prophecy : environmental quiescence and the peak @-@ oil movement " ( PDF ) . Environmental Politics .
= = = Documentary films = = =
The End of Suburbia : Oil Depletion and the Collapse of the American Dream ( 2004 )
Crude Awakening : The Oil Crash ( 2006 )
The Power of Community : How Cuba Survived Peak Oil ( 2006 )
Crude Impact ( 2006 )
What a Way to Go : Life at the End of Empire ( 2007 )
Crude ( 2007 ) Australian Broadcasting Corporation documentary [ 3 x 30 minutes ] about the formation of oil , and humanity 's use of it
PetroApocalypse Now ? ( 2008 )
Blind Spot ( 2008 )
Gashole ( 2008 )
Collapse ( 2009 )
Oil Education TV : Series of video interviews with international oil industry experts
Peak Oil : A Staggering Challenge to " Business As Usual "
= = = Podcasts = = =
Saudi America ? – The U.S. Oil Boom in Perspective : https : / / energyx.org / saudi @-@ america /
KunstlerCast 275 — Art Berman Clarifies Whatever Happened to Peak Oil : http : / / kunstler.com / podcast / kunstlercast @-@ 275 @-@ art @-@ berman @-@ clarifies @-@ whatever @-@ happened @-@ to @-@ peak @-@ oil /
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= 1990 – 91 South @-@ West Indian Ocean cyclone season =
The 1990 – 91 South @-@ West Indian Ocean cyclone season was fairly quiet , although activity began early and the final named storm formed at a record late date . There were seven named storms classified by the Météo @-@ France office ( MFR ) on Réunion , as well as three depressions ; an additional depression was classified by the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) , an unofficial warning agency . The JTWC tracked storms in both September and October , although neither affected land . In late November , another short @-@ lived depression formed in the northeastern portion of the basin . Activity remained minimal until January , when Tropical Storm Alison formed in the eastern portion of the basin . Later in the month , Cyclone Bella became the strongest storm of the season , reaching 10 ‑ minute maximum sustained winds of 155 km / h ( 100 mph ) . It passed near the island of Rodrigues , becoming the worst cyclone there in 20 years and killing half of the population of one endangered species . Bella also likely caused a cargo ship to go missing with 36 people on board .
Three storms developed in short succession in the second half of February . Cyclone Cynthia developed rapidly in the Mozambique Channel on February 16 and struck western Madagascar , killing 36 people and ruining local rice harvests . A residual trough after Cynthia dissipated spawned Tropical Storm Debra , which looped in the Mozambique Channel . Toward the end of the month , Tropical Storm Elma exited the basin into the adjacent Australian region , only to re @-@ enter the south @-@ west Indian Ocean and dissipate . Long @-@ lived Cyclone Fatima originated in the Australian basin in late March and changed directions before becoming extratropical . On April 2 , a tropical depression struck eastern Madagascar , killing 18 people . The final storm , Gritelle , was named on June 10 , the latest on record .
= = Seasonal summary = =
During the season , the Météo @-@ France office ( MFR ) on Réunion island issued warnings in tropical cyclones within the basin . The agency estimated intensity through the Dvorak technique , and warned on tropical cyclones in the region from the coast of Africa to 90 ° E , south of the equator . Beginning in November 1990 , MFR utilized a high resolution picture transmission station in conjunction with its satellite imagery . This allowed for improved Dvorak ratings , allowing for zooming and adjusting the satellite pictures . The Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) , which is a joint United States Navy – United States Air Force task force , also issued tropical cyclone warnings for the southwestern Indian Ocean . In addition to the named storms , the MFR also tracked four tropical depressions , named A1 , A2 , A3 , and G1 .
In general , the monsoon was weaker than normal within the basin , which provided less flow across the equator to spawn tropical cyclones . As a result , there was a marked decrease in overall activity compared to the 1989 – 90 season . The MFR issued 198 cyclone bulletins during the season , a 40 % decrease over the previous year . Many of the storms formed at the edge of satellite coverage .
= = Storms = =
= = = Severe Tropical Storm Alison = = =
A southward @-@ moving anticyclone influenced the monsoon trough to spawn a tropical disturbance on January 8 , located east of Diego Garcia . The system moved to the east without much organization , turning to the southwest on January 11 around a ridge . On the next day , the JTWC classified the system as Tropical Cyclone 07S , the same day that the MFR upgraded the depression to Tropical Storm Alison . Conditions favored further strengthening , and Alison gradually intensified to peak 10 ‑ minute sustained winds of 115 km / h ( 70 mph ) on January 15 , according to the MFR . On the same date , the JTWC assessed peak 1 ‑ minute winds of 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) , equivalent to a minimal hurricane . By that time , the storm had turned more to the south @-@ southeast , and began to weaken on January 16 . Two days later , Alison weakened to tropical depression status and dissipated .
= = = Tropical Cyclone Bella = = =
Similar to Alison , Bella originated on January 18 from a surge in the monsoon trough to the southwest of Sumatra . For several days , the system remained weak as it moved generally west @-@ southwestward . On January 25 , it intensified to tropical storm status , but Bella took three more days to intensify to tropical cyclone status , or with 10 ‑ minute maximum sustained winds of 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) . The cyclone attained peak intensity on January 29 , officially reaching winds of 155 km / h ( 100 mph ) . The JTWC unofficially estimated winds of 240 km / h ( 150 mph ) , the highest the agency estimated for any storm in the Southern Hemisphere in the year . Bella later turned to the southeast and weakened , passing about 50 km ( 30 mi ) west of Rodrigues on January 31 . The storm turned to the south @-@ southwest and back to the southeast again , becoming extratropical on February 4 .
While passing near Rodrigues , Bella produced strong winds and high tides , the latter of which caused flooding in the capital Port Mathurin . The storm was considered the worst on the island in 20 years . About 1 @,@ 500 homes were damaged or destroyed , leaving 1 @,@ 000 people homeless . Bella also severely damaged crops , roads , and the power grid on Rodrigues . The storm killed about half of the Rodrigues flying fox , a critically endangered species . Elsewhere , Bella was believed to have sunk a Madagascar cargo ship , with its 36 people on board .
= = = Tropical Cyclone Cynthia = = =
For several days beginning on February 9 , an area of convection persisted in the Mozambique Channel off the southeast coast of Mozambique , between the towns of Beira and Quelimane . On February 15 , deep convection increased greatly , leading to a tropical disturbance forming at 06 : 00 UTC the next morning . Also on February 16 , the JTWC initiated advisories on Tropical Cyclone 10S . Moving southeastward , the convection quickly organized around the center , aided by warm sea surface temperatures and convergence . Late on February 16 , the system intensified into Tropical Storm Cynthia while it was passing near Juan de Nova Island . Continuing to rapidly intensify , Cynthia attained tropical cyclone status on February 17 , reaching peak winds of 125 km / h ( 75 mph ) . Shortly thereafter , the storm made landfall on western Madagascar just north of Morondava . It rapidly weakened over land as it shifted to the south and later southwest . Early on February 19 , Cynthia emerged into the Mozambique Channel as a tropical disturbance , and the circulation dissipated shortly thereafter .
Making landfall in western Madagascar , Cynthia produced peak winds of 157 km / h ( 98 mph ) at Maintirano , with gusts to 185 km / h ( 115 mph ) . The city also recorded 420 @.@ 1 mm ( 16 @.@ 54 in ) of rainfall . In some locations , the rainfall from Cynthia was heavier than the average annual precipitation . In some villages , the storm destroyed upwards of 98 % of houses , leaving 125 @,@ 000 people homeless nationwide . The cyclone also wrecked crops and killed livestock , with over 20 @,@ 000 tons of rice destroyed that had been readied for harvest . Cynthia destroyed an irrigation canal in Morondava , flooding 10 @,@ 000 ha ( 25 @,@ 000 acres ) of rice fields . Flooding washed away or heavily damaged several roads and bridges in southwestern Madagascar . The Morondava River , which empties into the Mozambique Channel at Morondava , eroded greatly during the storm . Cynthia killed 36 people , mostly in Toliara . Heavy rains from the storm also spread into Tanzania , causing flooding that destroyed 90 houses and washed away two bridges .
Following the storm , the Malagasy government appealed for international aid . In response , the United States Agency for International Development ( USAID ) provided $ 25 @,@ 000 ( USD ) toward rebuilding damaged roofs and placing a temporary pontoon bridge where a bridge had been washed out . Due to the damaged rice harvest , the Food for Peace program via USAID provided 15 @,@ 000 tons of rice to Madagascar at the cost of $ 7 @.@ 5 million ( USD ) . The French government bought 130 tons of rice seed to be distributed to affected farmers . Local governments in Madagascar provided 6 @,@ 000 farmers with rice seed to replant the ruined crop . In addition , the Swiss government provided money toward a reforestation project to discourage slash @-@ and @-@ burn practices .
= = = Severe Tropical Storm Debra = = =
After Cynthia dissipated , a residual trough persisted in the Mozambique Channel , spawning a tropical disturbance on February 22 about halfway between Madagascar and Mozambique . The interaction between cool air from the south and warm monsoonal air to the north fueled deep convection . After initially moving to the south , the system turned more to the southwest toward Mozambique on February 24 , developing an eye feature in the center . The JTWC initiated advisories that day as Tropical Cyclone 12S , although the MFR initially maintained the system as a tropical depression . The MFR upgraded the depression to tropical storm status on February 25 , by which time the JTWC already estimated winds of 140 km / h ( 85 mph ) . That day , the storm approached the coast of Mozambique within 100 km ( 60 mi ) before turning to the east @-@ northeast . On February 26 , the MFR named the system Debra , and later that day estimated peak 10 ‑ minute winds of 115 km / h ( 70 mph ) . In contrast , the JTWC estimated peak 1 ‑ minute winds of 165 km / h ( 105 mph ) . While moving to the northeast , Debra passed within 200 km ( 125 mi ) of Europa Island on February 27 . The storm subsequently executed a counterclockwise loop to the south , during which it began weakening . By February 28 , Debra had weakened to minimal tropical storm status while accelerating to the southeast , although it briefly re @-@ intensified the next day . On March 4 , an approaching cold front absorbed the storm .
While near Europa Island , Debra produced gusts of 63 km / h ( 39 mph ) and sustained winds of 48 km / h ( 30 mph ) .
= = = Severe Tropical Storm Elma = = =
On February 26 , a tropical disturbance formed in the northeastern portion of the basin , well to the east @-@ southeast of Diego Garcia . It originated from the monsoon trough , and moved generally to the south @-@ southeast while quickly intensifying . Late on February 26 , the MFR upgraded the depression to Tropical Storm Elma , around the same time the JTWC began tracking it as Tropical Cyclone 17S . On February 27 , the JTWC estimated Elma attained peak 1 ‑ minute winds of 110 km / h ( 70 mph ) , before assessing the storm as weakening . In contrast , the MFR estimated Emla continued to slowly intensify to a 10 ‑ minute peak strength of 105 km / h ( 65 mph ) on March 1 . Shortly thereafter , the storm crossed 90 ° E into the Australian region , where the Bureau of Meteorology estimated that Elma entered at tropical cyclone status . Steady weakening commenced due to the influence of a trough and cooler waters . Elma weakened to the equivalent of tropical depression status by March 3 before turning back to the west . On March 5 , the system recrossed 90 ° E into the south @-@ west Indian Ocean , dissipating shortly thereafter .
= = = Tropical Cyclone Fatima = = =
A surge in the monsoon trough spawned what would become Cyclone Fatima to the southwest of Sumatra . On March 21 , the MFR identified a tropical disturbance in the Australian region , which crossed into the south @-@ west Indian Ocean on the next day . Also on March 22 , the MFR upgraded the storm to Tropical Storm Fatima , and the JTWC tracked the system as Tropical Cyclone 17S . The storm moved southwestward due to a ridge to the northwest , and gradually intensified . On March 25 , the JTWC upgraded Fatima to the equivalent of a minimal hurricane , although the MFR only estimated 10 ‑ minute winds of 95 km / h ( 60 mph ) at that time . Due to a break in the ridge , Fatima turned toward the south on March 26 , around the time that the JTWC estimated peak 1 ‑ minute winds of 165 km / h ( 105 mph ) . The storm later turned more to the southeast , although it shifted back to the southwest on March 29 . On the next day , the MFR upgraded Fatima to tropical cyclone status and estimated peak 10 ‑ minute winds of 135 km / h ( 85 mph ) . Fatima turned back to the southeast on March 31 and accelerated , weakening to tropical storm status due to upper @-@ level wind shear . As it was approaching 90 ° E , Fatima became extratropical on April 1 .
= = = Tropical Depression G1 = = =
On March 30 , an area of convection spawned a small tropical disturbance about 310 km ( 190 mi ) east of Toamasina off the eastern coast of Madagascar . Classified as Tropical Disturbance G1 , the system initially moved to the west @-@ northwest and had poorly @-@ organized convection . On April 1 , the disturbance turned back to the southeast and organized more due to an increase in convection . Later that day it turned back to the west toward Madagascar . On April 2 , the disturbance intensified into a tropical depression , reaching peak winds of 50 km / h ( 30 mph ) . At 09 : 00 UTC that day , the system made landfall about 30 km ( 20 mi ) north of Toamasina . It quickly weakened over land , dissipating on April 3 .
The depression brought heavy rainfall to eastern Madagascar that resulted in flooding . Taomasina reported 228 @.@ 2 mm ( 8 @.@ 98 in ) of rainfall , as well as wind gusts to 90 km / h ( 56 mph ) . The floods killed 18 people in the country .
= = = Moderate Tropical Storm Gritelle = = =
On June 5 , the near @-@ equator trough spawned a tropical disturbance to the east @-@ southeast of Diego Garcia . The system moved to the southwest and later to the west , influenced by a trough to the south . Initially it failed to intensify much , although an anticyclone provided favorable conditions for development , as did warm water temperatures . On June 7 , the system passed south of the Chagos Archipelago , and on the next day the JTWC classified it as Tropical Cyclone 22S , the final of the season . When the system reached the MFR area of satellite coverage on June 10 , it appeared as a well @-@ developed system ; as a result , the agency upgraded the depression to Tropical Storm Gritelle , estimating peak 10 ‑ minute winds of 85 km / h ( 50 mph ) . On June 11 , Gritelle began weakening due to increased wind shear , deteriorating to tropical depression status on June 12 . Over the subsequent two days , the system executed a loop , maintaining its status as a tropical depression or disturbance . On June 15 , Gritelle passed about 425 km ( 265 mi ) east of Rodrigues while moving to the south . It accelerated to the southeast , dissipating on June 16 .
The storm formed was very late in the cyclone season , making Gritelle the strongest June storm in 20 years , as well as the latest in the cyclone year that a storm was properly named . Tropical Depression Fely in 1983 formed later but was wrongly named , and Cyclone Odette in 1971 formed in July when the cyclone year ended on July 31 . The end of the tropical cyclone year shifted from July 31 to June 30 in 2003 .
= = = Other storms = = =
On September 19 , the JTWC began monitoring a system near the Chagos Archipelago . The system tracked westward , organizing enough that the JTWC classified it as Tropical Cyclone 01S on September 21 . Despite predictions that it would strengthen into a tropical storm , the system failed to intensify beyond winds of 55 km / h ( 35 mph ) , and dissipated on September 25 .
Similar to the previous system , the JTWC began monitoring a disturbance on October 15 . After an initial movement to the southwest , the system turned to the north and later to the west . The JTWC classified the system as Tropical Cyclone 02S on October 18 , estimating peak winds of 55 km / h ( 35 mph ) . Two days later , the agency declared the system as dissipated .
On November 29 , the JTWC tracked a system to the east @-@ southeast of Diego Garcia , which originated in the monsoon trough . The system moved to the southwest and was classified by MFR as Tropical Disturbance A2 on November 30 . On December 2 , the disturbance intensified into a tropical depression as it curved to the southeast . On that day , the MFR estimated peak winds of 55 km / h ( 35 mph ) , based on the distinct appearance on satellite imagery . On the next day , the JTWC classified the system as Tropical Cyclone 04S , and assessed the storm as intensifying to a peak of 100 km / h ( 65 mph ) ; the intensification was aided by an anticyclone aloft . However , an increase in wind shear caused marked weakening . The JTWC discontinued advisories on December 4 , although the MFR continued tracking the system until December 7 , when the depression had curved back to the southwest for a final time .
= = Season effects = =
= = Contemporary seasons = =
Atlantic hurricane seasons : 1990 , 1991
Pacific hurricane seasons : 1990 , 1991
Pacific typhoon seasons : 1990 , 1991
North Indian Ocean cyclone seasons : 1990 , 1991
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= The finger =
In Western culture , the finger or the middle finger ( as in giving someone the ( middle ) finger or the bird or flipping someone off , ) is the most obscene hand gesture . It communicates moderate to extreme contempt , and is roughly equivalent in meaning to " fuck off " , " fuck you " , " shove it up your ass " , " up yours " or " go fuck yourself " . It is performed by showing the back of a hand that has only the middle finger extended upwards , though in some locales the thumb is extended . Extending the finger is considered a symbol of contempt in several cultures , especially in the West . Many cultures use similar gestures to display their disrespect , although others use it to express pointing without intentional disrespect toward other cultures . The gesture is usually used to express contempt but can also be used humorously or playfully .
The gesture dates back to Ancient Greece and it was also used in Ancient Rome . Historically , it represented the phallus . In some modern cultures , it has gained increasing recognition as a sign of disrespect , and has been used by music artists ( notably more common among hardcore punk bands and rappers ) , actors , celebrities , athletes , and politicians . Most still view the gesture as obscene . The index finger and ring finger besides the middle finger in more contemporary periods has been likened to represent the testicles .
= = Origin = =
= = = Classical era = = =
The middle finger gesture was used in Ancient times as a symbol of sexual intercourse , in a manner meant to degrade , intimidate and threaten the individual receiving the gesture . It also represented the phallus , with the fingers next to the middle finger representing testicles ; from its close association , the gesture may have assumed apotropaic potency . In the 1st @-@ century Mediterranean world , extending the finger was one of many methods used to divert the ever @-@ present threat of the evil eye .
In Greek the gesture was known as the katapygon ( κατάπυγον , from kata – κατά , " downwards " and pugē – πυγή , " rump , buttocks " ) . In ancient Greek comedy , the finger was a gesture of insult toward another person , with the term katapugon also referring to " a male who submits to anal penetration " or katapygaina to a female . In Aristophanes 's comedy The Clouds ( 423 BC ) , when the character Socrates is quizzing his student on poetic meters , Strepsiades declares that he knows quite well what a dactyl is , and gives the finger . The gesture is a visual pun on the two meanings of the Greek word dactylos , both " finger " and the rhythmic measure composed of a long syllable and two short , like the joints of a finger ( — ‿ ‿ , which also appears as a visual pun on the penis and testicles in a medieval Latin text ) . Socrates reacts to the gesture as boorish and childish . The gesture recurs as a form of mockery in Peace , alongside farting in someone 's face ; the usage is later explained in the Suda and included in the Adagia of Erasmus . The verb " to play the Siphnian " appears in a fragment of Aristophanes and has a similar meaning ; the usage is once again explained in the Suda , where it is said to mean " to touch the anus with a finger " . Diogenes Laertius records how the Cynic philosopher Diogenes directed the gesture at the orator Demosthenes in 4th @-@ century BC Athens . In the Discourses of Epictetus , Diogenes 's target is instead one of the sophists .
In Latin , the middle finger was the digitus impudicus , meaning the " shameless , indecent or offensive finger " . In the 1st century AD , Persius had superstitious female relatives concoct a charm with the " infamous finger " ( digitus infamis ) and " purifying spit " ; while in the Satyricon , an old woman uses dust , spit and her middle finger to mark the forehead before casting a spell . The poet Martial has a character in good health extend " the indecent one " toward three doctors . In another epigram , Martial wrote : " Laugh loud , Sextillus , at whoever calls you a cinaedus and extend your middle finger . " Juvenal , through synecdoche , has the " middle nail " cocked at threatening Fortuna . The indecent finger features again in a mocking context in the Priapeia , a collection of poems relating to the phallic god Priapus . In Late Antiquity , the term " shameless finger " is explained in the Etymologiae of Isidore of Seville with reference to its frequent use when accusing someone of a " shameful action " .
= = = Medieval era = = =
The finger is similar to a gesture made by knights in the Middle Ages , in which they raised their lances upright towards each other .
= = = Modern era ( United States ) = = =
Linguist Jesse Sheidlower traces the gesture 's development in the United States to the 1890s . According to anthropologist Desmond Morris , the gesture probably came to the United States via Italian immigrants . The first documented appearance of the finger in the United States was in 1886 , when Old Hoss Radbourn , a baseball pitcher for the Boston Beaneaters , was photographed giving it to a member of their rival the New York Giants . In the film Speedy ( 1928 ) , Harold Lloyd 's character gives himself the finger into a distorting mirror at Luna Park , about 24 minutes into the film ; the exact meaning in the film 's context is not clear .
= = Cultural impact = =
= = = Politics and military incidents = = =
The gesture has been involved in notable political events . During the USS Pueblo incident , in which an American ship was captured by North Korea , the captured American crewmembers often discreetly gave the finger in staged photo ops , thus ruining the North Koreans ' efforts at propaganda . The North Koreans , ignorant of what the gesture meant , were at first told by the prisoners that it was a " Hawaiian good luck sign " , similar to " hang loose " . When the guards finally figured things out , the crewmembers were subjected to more severe mistreatment . Abbie Hoffman used the gesture at the 1968 Democratic National Convention . Ronald Reagan , while serving as the Governor of California , gave the middle finger to counterculture protestors in Berkeley , California . Nelson Rockefeller , then the Vice President of the United States , directed the gesture to hecklers at a 1976 campaign stop near Binghamton , New York , leading it to be called the " Rockefeller gesture " . Pierre Trudeau , then the Prime Minister of Canada , gave the finger to protesters in Salmon Arm , British Columbia , earning the incident the nickname the " Salmon Arm salute " . The gesture itself has also been nicknamed the " Trudeau salute " . Former president George W. Bush gave the finger to the camera at an Austin production facility during his term as governor of Texas , saying it was " just a one @-@ finger victory salute . " Anthony Weiner gave the finger to reporters after leaving his election headquarters the night he lost the 2013 primary election for Mayor of New York City .
During World War II , the 91st Bombardment Group of the United States Army Air Forces referred to the gesture as the " rigid digit " salute . It was used in a more jocular manner , to suggest an airman had committed an error or infraction ; the term was a reference to British slang terms for inattentiveness ( i.e. " pull your finger out ( of your bum ) " ) . The " order of the rigid digit " continued after the war as a series of awards presented by the veteran 's association of the 91st , marked by wooden statuettes of a hand giving the single finger gesture . In 2005 during the war in Iraq , Gunnery Sergeant Michael Burghardt gained prominence when the Omaha World @-@ Herald published a photo of Burghardt making the gesture towards Iraqi insurgents he believed to be watching after an improvised explosive device failed to kill him .
The middle finger has been involved in judicial hearings . An appellate court in Hartford , Connecticut ruled in 1976 that gesturing with the middle finger was offensive , but not obscene , after a police officer charged a 16 @-@ year @-@ old with making an obscene gesture when the student gave the officer the middle finger . The case was appealed to the Connecticut Supreme Court , which upheld the decision . In March 2006 , a federal lawsuit was filed regarding the free speech issue .
Giving the finger has resulted in negative consequences . A Malaysian man was bludgeoned to death after giving the finger to a motorist following a car chase . A Pakistani man was deported by the United Arab Emirates for the gesture , which violates indecency codes .
People have given the finger as a method of political protest . At a concert , Ricky Martin gave a picture of George W. Bush the finger to protest the War in Iraq . Serbian protesters gave the finger to the Russian embassy regarding their support of Slobodan Milošević . Artist Ai Weiwei has used the finger in photographs and sculptures as a political statement . As a political message to the Czech President , Czech artist David Cerny floated an outsize , purple statue of a hand on the River Vltava in Prague ; its middle finger extended towards Prague Castle , the Presidential seat .
= = = In popular culture = = =
The use of the middle finger has become pervasive in popular culture . The band Cobra Starship released a song called " Middle Finger " , and released a music video that showed people giving the finger . Italian artist Maurizio Cattelan installed a marble statue of a middle finger measuring 11 metres ( 36 ft ) , located directly in front of the Milan Stock Exchange . A now @-@ famous photograph of Johnny Cash shows him giving the middle finger to a photographer during a 1969 concert at San Quentin State Prison , released as At San Quentin . However , the photo remained fairly obscure until 1998 , when producer Rick Rubin made it the centerpiece of an ad in Billboard criticizing country radio for not giving airplay to Cash 's Grammy @-@ winning album Unchained . Cameron Diaz made the gesture during a photo shoot for Esquire . Harold Lloyd shot the finger to his own reflection in a Coney Island funhouse after getting paint on his suit in Speedy , his final silent feature , from 1928 .
Athletes , including Stefan Effenberg , Ron Artest , Luis Suárez , Juan Pablo Montoya , Iván Rodríguez , Danny Graves , Jack McDowell , Natasha Zvereva , Josh Smith , Bryan Cox , and Johnny Manziel have been suspended or fined for making the gesture . José Paniagua was released by the Chicago White Sox after giving the middle finger to an umpire ; he hasn 't played in the majors since . Baseball executive Chub Feeney once resigned after giving the finger to fans on Fan Appreciation Night . Bud Adams , owner of the National Football League 's Tennessee Titans , was fined US $ 250 @,@ 000 for giving both middle fingers to the fans of the Buffalo Bills during a game . Professional wrestler Stone Cold Steve Austin is also famous for flashing one or both middle fingers as part of his gimmick .
Many musical artists , including Madonna , Lady Gaga , Eminem , Ariana Grande , Katy Perry , and Adele have publicly made the gesture . Britney Spears and Iggy Azalea have given the gesture towards members of the paparazzi , but had to apologize when fans interpreted the gesture as directed at them . M.I.A. gave the gesture during the Super Bowl XLVI Halftime Show . The National Football League , NBC , and M.I.A. apologized . The CD itself for Kid Rock 's album Devil Without a Cause is a picture of his raised middle finger . On the cover of Moby Grape 's first album , Moby Grape , band member Don Stevenson was caught flipping the bird at the camera . The finger was airbrushed out of subsequent releases of the album .
In automobile driving culture , giving the finger to a fellow motorist communicates displeasure at another person 's reckless driving habits and / or their disregard for common courtesy .
The finger is included in Unicode as U + 1F595 🖕 REVERSED HAND WITH MIDDLE FINGER EXTENDED .
The media sometimes refers to the gesture as being mistaken for an indication of " we 're number one " , typically indicated with a raised index finger . Sometimes , though , the " mistake " is actually an intentional euphemism meant to indirectly convey the gesture in a medium where a direct description would be inappropriate . For example , Don Meredith is famously noted in a 1972 Monday Night Football game describing the Finger of a dejected Houston Oilers fan as , " He thinks they 're number one in the nation . " Ira Robbins , a law professor , believes the finger is no longer an obscene gesture . Psychologist David Walsh , founder of the National Institute on Media and the Family , sees the growing acceptance of the middle finger as a sign of the growth of a " culture of disrespect " .
Google Street View 's picture of the area around the Wisconsin Governor 's Mansion , taken in 2011 , shows a jogger giving the finger in the direction of the mansion .
= = Similar gestures = =
In the United Kingdom , Ireland , Australia , and New Zealand , the V sign or " the fingers " , when given with back of the hand towards the recipient , serves a similar purpose . George H. W. Bush , former President of the United States , accidentally made the gesture while on a diplomatic trip to Australia . In countries where Spanish , Portuguese , or French are spoken , and especially in Spain , Portugal , Brazil , France the gesture involving raising a fist and slapping the biceps on the same arm as the fist used , sometimes called the Spanish slap , is equivalent to the finger . Italy , Poland , and countries under the influence of Russian culture , such as Russia , Belarus , and Ukraine , also see it as equivalent to the finger , but the majority of young people in these countries use the finger as an insult , which is associated with the Western culture .
In Iran and Iraq , a gesture involving exposing only the thumb in a vertical orientation – a thumbs up – is used in lieu of the finger to express roughly the same sentiment . A similarly obscene gesture is extending all five digits with the palm facing forward , meaning " you have five fathers " , thus calling someone a bastard . This is similar to a gesture known in Greece as the Moutza , where the five fingers are spread wide and the palm is pushed towards the recipient . More commonly in Turkish or Slavic regions , the fig sign ( also known as nah or shish ) serves as the equivalent to the finger , meaning " you won 't get it " / " in your dreams " . The gesture is typically made with the hand and fingers curled and the thumb thrust between the middle and index fingers . This gesture is also used similarly in Indonesia , Turkey and China .
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= Hillforts in Scotland =
Hillforts in Scotland are earthworks , sometimes with wooden or stone enclosures , built on higher ground , which usually include a significant settlement , built within the modern boundaries of Scotland . They were first studied in the eighteenth century and the first serious field research was undertaken in the nineteenth century . In the twentieth century there were large numbers of archaeological investigations of specific sites , with an emphasis on establishing a chronology of the forts . Forts have been classified by type and their military and ritual functions have been debated .
They were introduced into Scotland during the Bronze Age from around 1000 BCE . The largest group are from the Iron Age , with over 1 @,@ 000 hillforts , mostly below the Clyde @-@ Forth line , most of which were abandoned during the period of Roman occupation of Britain . There are also large numbers of vitrified forts , which have been subjected to fire , many of which may date to this period . After Roman occupation in the early Middle Ages some hillforts were reoccupied and petty kingdoms were often ruled from smaller nucleated forts using defensible natural features , as at Edinburgh and Dunbarton .
= = Early studies = =
The first major study of Scottish hillforts was undertaken by General William Roy and published as The Military Antiquities of the Romans in Britain in 1793 . However , Roy only recorded native forts like Burnswark that had a close relationship to Roman constructions ( in this case probably Roman practice siege camps ) , or which he wrongly attributed to be Roman in origin . George Chalmers ' ( 1742 – 1825 ) first volume of Caledonia ( 1807 ) contained an arbitrary list of forts , but recognised that defences at Burnswark were not just in anticipation of Roman invasion , but to defend against native threats . He also recognised some of the relationships between major and subordinate sites , and the importance of intervisibility between sites . In 1851 the Scots @-@ Canadian Daniel Wilson was the first person to use the term " pre @-@ historic " in English , but he was dismissive of the significance of hillforts . The first serious field research in Scotland was undertaken by David Christison , in the decade preceding his Rhind lectures of 1894 . This was the first comprehensive survey of hillforts in a region of Britain . It was critical of previous neglect of the subject and cautious in labelling all forts as prehistoric . His work was published in 1898 as Early Fortification of Scotland and became the model for subsequent national and regional studies .
In the twentieth century there were large numbers of archaeological investigations of specific sites , which formed the basis for an attempt to establish a chronology of the forts that would allow them to be fitted into a " defensive sequence " of invasion and occupation . Particularly important in Northern Britain was C. M. Piggott 's investigation at Hownam Rings in the Cheviots ( 1948 ) . This established the " Hownam model " for Iron Age forts of progressive complexity of enclosure . These began with simple palisades , developed into stone univallate defences ( with a single rampart ) , then more complex multivallate walls ( with multiple ramparts ) and then finally the abandonment of these defences for stone @-@ built roundhouses attributed to the Pax Romana in the first or second century BCE . This was challenged by Peter Hill on the basis of his excavations at Broxmouth near Edinburgh , from which he was able to suggest that the chronology of hill fort development was more complex and that stone @-@ build houses pre @-@ dated the arrival of the Romans . The introduction of reliable carbon dating in the late twentieth century allowed new approaches to be developed in which the defensive sequence was less prominent . The idea of developing enclosure , followed by a period of post @-@ enclosure settlement developed in the Hownam model is still seen as having some validity .
= = Classification and function = =
A. H. A. Hogg identified four types of hillfort : contour forts , promontory forts , cliff forts and ridge forts . Contour forts , where banks and ditches are moulded to the shape of the hill , are the dominant form in Scotland . Less significant are promontory forts , usually employing coastal features , such as the largest one in Scotland at the Mull of Galloway . Different types of defensive style occurred throughout the Iron Age period , some of which may have been a response to Roman siege warfare . There were different combinations in the use of earth , stone or timber . Timber was frequently in @-@ filled with stone or other materials . In continental Europe the timber is often arranged vertically , but in Scotland horizontal timbers were more common . The function of hillforts has been much debated . It was traditionally assumed that they were primarily defensive in nature , but in the late twentieth century this view began to be questioned and social , ritual and religious functions were emphasised .
= = Bronze Age = =
Bronze working developed in Scotland from about 2000 BCE . As elsewhere in Europe , it was in this period that hillforts of varying size and form were first introduced . Some had timber palisades and others ditches and ramparts . These included the occupation of Eildon hill near Melrose in the Scottish Borders , from around 1000 BCE , which accommodated hundreds of houses on a fortified hilltop . Traprain Law in East Lothian , had a 20 @-@ acre enclosure , sectioned in two places west of the summit , made up of a coursed , stone wall with a rubble core . The occupation of Castle Rock at Edinburgh and Burnswark in Dumfries and Galloway , also date from this time . Additionally , there were much smaller forts that were domestic in scale and which would have housed only one or two families . The function of these forts have been debated , with some stressing their military role and others their importance as symbolic centres of local society .
= = Iron Age = =
From about 700 BCE iron working reached north Britain . There is evidence for about 1 @,@ 000 Iron Age hillforts in Scotland , most located below the Clyde @-@ Forth line . The majority are circular , with a single palisade around an enclosure . They appear to have been largely abandoned in the Roman period , both in the occupied region and further north in the regions beyond Roman control . This may have been because of the threat posed by Roman incursions , which meant that concentrations of military and political force were vulnerable to incursions and siege . Archaeological evidence indicates that some were reoccupied after their departure .
There are also numerous vitrified forts , the walls of which have been subjected to fire , which may date to this period , but an accurate chronology has proven to be evasive . When first noted in the nineteenth century it was assumed that vitrification had been deliberately undertaken as part of the building process to harden walls , but this hypothesis was rejected by V. Gordon Childe in the 1940s and subsequent excavations have indicated that , since the debris from such walls fell on the deposits of occupation it could not been part of the building process . Reconstructions have indicated the difficulty of deliberately firing timbers in this way , particularly in the prevailing climatic conditions in Scotland , and it is more likely that this was done as part of a process of fort destruction , either after conquest or when abandoned by the inhabitants . Extensive studies of such a fort at Finavon Hill near Forfar in Angus , suggest dates for the destruction of the site in either the last two centuries BCE , or the mid @-@ first millennium CE . Excavations at Dunnideer , Aberdeenshire indicate a date for its destruction in the period 500 – 250 BCE .
= = Early Medieval = =
For the period after the departure of the Romans in the fifth century there is evidence of a series of new forts . According to archaeologist Leslie Alcock , warfare was perhaps the " principal social activity in Early Historic northern Britain " , playing a major part in " contemporary prose and poetry " , and for this reason hill forts of this period have been commonly thought of as defensive structures designed to repel attack . Some became the centres of competing kingdoms . These were often smaller " nucleated " constructions compared with those from the Iron Age , sometimes utilising major geographical features , as at Edinburgh , which was probably the main fortification of the Brythonic kingdom of the Gododdin , and Dunbarton rock , who gave its Brythonic name of Alt Clut to the kingdom that dominated the Strathclyde region in the post @-@ Roman period . The northern British peoples utilised different forms of fort and the determining factors in construction were local terrain , building materials , and politico @-@ military needs . The first identifiable king of the Picts , Bridei mac Maelchon ( r. c . 550 @-@ 84 ) had his base at the fort of Craig Phadrig near modern Inverness . The Gaelic overkingdom of Dál Riata was probably ruled from the fortress of Dunadd , now near Kilmartin in Argyll and Bute .
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= New York State Route 326 =
New York State Route 326 ( NY 326 ) is a state highway in Cayuga County , New York , in the United States . NY 326 runs in a southwest to northeast direction from the village of Union Springs to the city of Auburn . The western terminus of the route is at an intersection with NY 90 near the northern village line of Union Springs . Its eastern terminus is at a junction with U.S. Route 20 ( US 20 ) and NY 5 just west of the Auburn city limits in the town of Aurelius . NY 326 passes through largely rural portions of the Finger Lakes region and does not pass through any built @-@ up areas other than those at each of its termini .
NY 326 was assigned as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York as a connector highway between Union Springs and Auburn . However , its original alignment followed Oakwood Road and Genesee Street from the hamlet of Oakwood to downtown Auburn . It was realigned in the mid @-@ 1970s to end at US 20 and NY 5 west of downtown Auburn . In 1981 , NY 326 was rerouted between the hamlets of Oakwood and Half Acre to follow Half Acre Road . NY 326 's former routing between the two points is now maintained by Cayuga County .
= = Route description = =
NY 326 begins at an intersection with NY 90 near the northern village line of Union Springs . The highway heads eastward , following Auburn Street as it runs along the northern village boundary . It briefly parallels a former alignment of itself , now known as " Old Route 326 " , before exiting Union Springs and entering the surrounding town of Springport . Much of Springport , a town situated on the eastern shore of Cayuga Lake , is rural and largely undeveloped . The route passes by houses and fields as it proceeds to a junction known locally as " Powers Corner " . Here , NY 326 turns northeastward and becomes known only by its designation as it heads toward the hamlet of Oakwood .
In Oakwood , NY 326 passes several homes and intersects Oakwood Road , a north – south highway linking the community to West Genesee Street in the town of Aurelius to the north . At this junction , NY 326 becomes Half Acre Road , named for the hamlet of Half Acre to the northeast . The highway continues its northeastern track for 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) before turning to the north and entering Half Acre , a small community in Aurelius that is built up around the junction of Half Acre Road and West Genesee Street . Here , NY 326 turns eastward to follow West Genesee Road toward the city of Auburn . It parallels US 20 and NY 5 for 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) to the Veterans Memorial Parkway , which NY 326 turns northward onto . It briefly enters the Auburn city limits but ends at an intersection with US 20 and NY 5 just west of the Auburn city limits in Aurelius .
= = History = =
NY 326 was assigned as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York and extended from the village of Union Springs to the city of Auburn . The route initially followed Oakwood Road and Genesee Street from the hamlet of Oakwood to Auburn , where it ended at an intersection with NY 34 ( South Street ) in downtown Auburn . A divided highway was built west of Auburn c . 1975 , connecting the overlapping routes of US 20 and NY 5 to NY 326 . US 20 and NY 5 were rerouted to follow the new highway south to NY 326 , and all three routes continued east into downtown on Genesee Street . By 1977 , US 20 and NY 5 were realigned once again to follow a new arterial leading from the north end of the divided highway eastward into downtown . NY 326 , meanwhile , was realigned to follow the divided highway north to US 20 and NY 5 .
On April 1 , 1981 , NY 326 was realigned between the hamlets of Oakwood and Half Acre as the result of a highway maintenance swap between the state of New York and Cayuga County . As part of the swap , the state of New York assumed maintenance of Half Acre Road from Oakwood to Half Acre while maintenance of NY 326 's former routing between the two locations was transferred to Cayuga County . The former routing of NY 326 on Oakwood Road is now designated as County Route 168A ( CR 168A ) in the town of Aurelius and CR 168B in the town of Springport . The Genesee Street portion of old NY 326 is now part of CR 1 . In the 1981 maintenance swap , the state of New York also assumed maintenance of the section of Half Acre Road between Half Acre ( at NY 326 ) and the US 20 / NY 5 concurrency . This portion of Half Acre Road is now NY 931E , an unsigned reference route .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Cayuga County .
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= Kate Bush =
Catherine " Kate " Bush , CBE ( born 30 July 1958 ) is an English singer @-@ songwriter , musician and record producer . She is known for her eclectic and experimental music as well as her idiosyncratic performances .
Bush first came to note in 1978 when , at the age of 19 , she topped the UK Singles Chart for four weeks with her debut single , " Wuthering Heights " , becoming the first female artist to achieve a UK number @-@ one with a self @-@ written song . She has since released twenty @-@ five UK Top 40 singles , including the top ten hits " The Man with the Child in His Eyes " , " Babooshka " , " Running Up That Hill " , and " King of the Mountain " . She has released ten studio albums , all of which reached the UK Top 10 , including the UK number @-@ one albums , Never for Ever ( 1980 ) and Hounds of Love ( 1985 ) . She is the first British solo female artist to top the UK album charts and the first female artist ever to enter the album chart at number @-@ one , as well as the first ( and to date , only ) female artist to have top five albums in the UK charts in five successive decades .
Bush has been nominated 13 times for British Phonographic Industry accolades , and in 1987 she won a Brit Award for Best British Female Artist . During the course of her career , she has also been nominated for three Grammy Awards . In 2002 , she was recognised with an Ivor Novello Award for Outstanding Contribution to British Music . Bush was appointed Commander of the Order of the British Empire ( CBE ) in the 2013 New Year Honours for services to music .
= = Early life = =
Bush was born in Bexleyheath , Kent , ( now part of the London Borough of Bexley ) to English medical doctor Robert Bush ( 1920 – 2008 ) and Hannah Daly ( 1918 – 1992 ; from County Waterford , Ireland ) . She was raised as a Roman Catholic in their farmhouse in East Wickham with her older brothers , John and Paddy . Bush came from an artistic background : her mother was an accomplished traditional Irish dancer , her father was an accomplished pianist , Paddy worked as a musical instrument maker and John was a poet and photographer . Both brothers were involved in the local folk music scene .
John was a karateka at Goldsmiths College karate club and Kate also trained there , becoming known as " Ee @-@ ee " because of her squeaky kiai . One of the instructors , Dave Hazard , later noted in his autobiography that her dance moves seemed to owe something to karate .
Her family 's musical influence inspired Bush to teach herself the piano at the age of 11 . She also played the organ in a barn behind her parents ' house and studied the violin . She soon began writing her own tunes and eventually added lyrics to them .
= = Musical career = =
= = = 1975 – 77 : Beginnings = = =
Bush attended St Joseph 's Convent Grammar School , a Catholic girls ' school ( later part of St Mary 's and St Joseph 's School , Sidcup ) , in Woolwich Road , Abbey Wood , south east London , in the mid @-@ 1970s . During this time her family produced a demo tape with over 50 of her compositions , which was turned down by record labels . David Gilmour of Pink Floyd received the demo from Ricky Hopper , a mutual friend of Gilmour and the Bush family . Impressed with what he heard , Gilmour helped the sixteen @-@ year @-@ old Bush get a more professional @-@ sounding demo tape recorded that would be more saleable to the record companies . Three tracks in total were recorded and paid for by Gilmour . The tape was produced by Gilmour 's friend Andrew Powell , who would go on to produce Bush 's first two albums , and sound engineer Geoff Emerick . The tape was sent to EMI executive Terry Slater . Slater was impressed by the tape and signed her . The British record industry was reaching a point of stagnation . Progressive rock was very popular and visually oriented rock performers were growing in popularity , thus record labels looking for the next big thing were considering experimental acts .
Bush was put on retainer for two years by Bob Mercer , managing director of EMI group @-@ repertoire division . According to Mercer he felt Bush 's material was good enough to be released but felt that if the album failed it would be demoralising and if it was successful Bush was too young to handle it . For the first two years of her contract , Bush spent more time on school work than making an album . She left school after doing her mock A @-@ levels and having gained ten GCE O @-@ Level qualifications . In 2005 , Bush stated in an interview with Mark Radcliffe on BBC Radio 2 that she believed EMI signed her before she was ready to make an album so that no other record company could offer her a contract . After the contract signing , EMI forwarded her a sizeable advance which she used to enroll in interpretive dance classes taught by Lindsay Kemp , a former teacher of David Bowie , and mime training with Adam Darius .
Bush also wrote and made demos of close to 200 songs , a few of which today can be found on bootleg recordings and are known as the Phoenix Recordings . From March to August 1977 , she fronted the KT Bush Band at public houses around London – specifically at the Rose of Lee public house ( now Dirty South ) in Lewisham . The other three band members were Del Palmer ( bass ) , Brian Bath ( guitar ) , and Vic King ( drums ) . She began recording her first album in August 1977 , although two tracks had been recorded during the summer of 1975 .
= = = 1978 – 79 : The Kick Inside and Lionheart = = =
As part of her preparation for entering the studio , Bush toured pubs with the KT Bush Band . However , for her début album , The Kick Inside ( 1978 ) , she was persuaded to use established session musicians , some of whom she would retain even after she had brought her bandmates back on board . Her brother Paddy played the harmonica and mandolin , unlike on later albums where he would play more exotic instruments such as the balalaika and didgeridoo . Stuart Elliott played some of the drums and would become her main drummer on subsequent albums .
Bush released The Kick Inside when she was 19 years old , but some of the songs had been written when she was as young as 13 . EMI originally wanted the more rock @-@ oriented track " James and the Cold Gun " to be her début single , but Bush insisted that it should be " Wuthering Heights " . Even at this early stage of her career , she had gained a reputation for her determination to have a say in decisions affecting her work . " Wuthering Heights " topped the UK and Australian charts and became an international hit . Bush became the first woman to reach number one in the UK charts with a self @-@ penned song . Despite her considerable subsequent chart success it is still her only No. 1 single ( as of 2015 ) . A second single , " The Man with the Child in His Eyes " , reached number six in the UK charts . It also made it onto the American Billboard Hot 100 where it reached number 85 in early 1979 , and went on to win her an Ivor Novello Award in 1979 for Outstanding British Lyric .
Bob Mercer felt that Bush 's relative lack of success in the United States compared to the rest of the world was due to her music being a poor fit for American radio formats , and that there were no outlets for the visual presentation central to Bush 's appeal . EMI capitalised on Bush 's appearance by promoting the album with a poster of her in a tight pink top that emphasised her breasts . In an interview with NME magazine in 1982 Bush criticised this marketing technique , stating : " People weren 't even generally aware that I wrote my own songs or played the piano . The media just promoted me as a female body . It 's like I 've had to prove that I 'm an artist in a female body . " In late 1978 , EMI persuaded Bush to quickly record a follow @-@ up album , Lionheart , to take advantage of the success of The Kick Inside . Bush has often expressed dissatisfaction with Lionheart , feeling that she had needed more time to get it right . The album was produced by Andrew Powell , assisted by Bush . While it had spawned several hit singles , most notably " Wow " , it did not garner the same reception as her first album , reaching number six in the UK album charts .
Bush was displeased with being rushed into making the second album . She set up her own publishing company , Kate Bush Music , and her own management company , Novercia , to maintain complete control over her work . Members of her family , along with Bush herself , composed the company 's board of directors . Following the album 's release , she was required by EMI to undertake heavy promotional work and an exhausting tour . The tour , named The Tour of Life , began in April 1979 and lasted six weeks . This live show was co @-@ devised and performed on stage with magician Simon Drake . Typical of her determination to have creative control , she was involved in every aspect of the production , choreography , set design and staff recruitment for the show . The shows were noted for her dancing , complex lighting and her 17 costume changes per show . Because of her intention to dance as she sang , her sound engineers used a wire coat hanger and a radio microphone to fashion the first headset microphone to be used by a rock performer since the Swedish group the Spotnicks used a very primitive version in the early 1960s .
= = = 1980 – 84 : Never for Ever and The Dreaming = = =
Released in September 1980 , Never for Ever saw Bush 's second foray into production , co @-@ producing with Jon Kelly . Her first time as a producer was on her Live on Stage EP , released after her tour the previous year . The first two albums had resulted in a definitive sound evident in every track , with orchestral arrangements supporting the live band sound . The range of styles on Never for Ever is much more diverse , veering from the straightforward rocker " Violin " to the wistful waltz of hit single " Army Dreamers " .
Never for Ever was the first Kate Bush album to feature synthesisers and drum machines , in particular the Fairlight CMI , to which she was introduced when providing backing vocals on Peter Gabriel 's eponymous third album in early 1980 . It was her first record to reach the top position in the UK album charts , also making her the first female British artist to achieve that status , and the first female artist ever to enter the album chart at the top . The top @-@ selling single from the album was " Babooshka " , which reached number five in the UK singles chart . In November 1980 , she released the standalone Christmas single " December Will Be Magic Again " , which reached number 29 in the UK charts .
September 1982 saw the release of The Dreaming , the first album Bush produced by herself . With her new @-@ found freedom , she experimented with production techniques , creating an album that features a diverse blend of musical styles and is known for its near @-@ exhaustive use of the Fairlight CMI . The Dreaming received a mixed critical reception in the UK , and many were baffled by the dense soundscapes Bush had created to become " less accessible " . In a 1993 interview with Q ( magazine ) , Bush stated : " That was my ' She 's gone mad ' album . " However , the album became her first to enter the US Billboard 200 chart , albeit only reaching number 157 . The album entered the UK album chart at number @-@ three , but is to date her lowest @-@ selling album , garnering only a silver disc .
" Sat in Your Lap " was the first single from the album to be released . It pre @-@ dated the album by over a year and peaked at number 11 in the UK . The album 's title track , featuring the talents of Rolf Harris and Percy Edwards , stalled at number 48 , while the third single , " There Goes a Tenner " , stalled at # 93 , despite promotion from EMI and Bush . The track " Suspended in Gaffa " was released as a single in Europe , but not in the UK .
Continuing in her storytelling tradition , Bush looked far outside her own personal experience for sources of inspiration . She drew on old crime films for " There Goes a Tenner " , a documentary about the war in Vietnam for " Pull Out the Pin " , and the plight of Indigenous Australians for " The Dreaming " . " Houdini " is about the magician 's death , and " Get Out of My House " was inspired by Stephen King 's novel The Shining .
= = = 1985 – 88 : Hounds of Love and The Whole Story = = =
Hounds of Love was released in 1985 . Because of the high cost of hiring studio space for her previous album , she built a private studio near her home , where she could work at her own pace . Hounds of Love ultimately topped the charts in the UK , knocking Madonna 's Like a Virgin from the number @-@ one position .
The album takes advantage of the vinyl and cassette formats with two very different sides . The first side , Hounds of Love , contains five " accessible " pop songs , including the four singles " Running Up that Hill " , " Cloudbusting " , " Hounds of Love " , and " The Big Sky " . " Running Up that Hill " reached number @-@ three in the UK charts and re @-@ introduced Bush to American listeners , climbing to number 30 on the Billboard Hot 100 in November 1985 . The second side of the album , The Ninth Wave , takes its name from Tennyson 's poem , " Idylls of the King " , about the legendary King Arthur 's reign , and is seven interconnecting songs joined in one continuous piece of music .
The album earned Bush nominations for Best Female Solo Artist , Best Album , Best Single , and Best Producer at the 1986 BRIT Awards . In the same year , Bush and Peter Gabriel had a UK Top 10 hit with the duet " Don 't Give Up " ( Dolly Parton , Gabriel 's original choice to sing the female vocal , turned his offer down ) , and EMI released her " greatest hits " album , The Whole Story . Bush provided a new lead vocal and refreshed backing track on " Wuthering Heights , " and recorded a new single , " Experiment IV , " for inclusion on the compilation . Dawn French and Hugh Laurie were among those featured in the video for Experiment IV . At the 1987 BRIT Awards , Bush won the award for Best Female Solo Artist .
= = = 1989 – 93 : The Sensual World and The Red Shoes = = =
The increasingly personal tone of her writing continued on 1989 's The Sensual World . One of the quirkiest tracks on the album , touched by Bush 's black humour , is " Heads We 're Dancing " , about a woman who dances all night with a charming stranger only to discover in the morning that he is Adolf Hitler . The title track drew its inspiration from James Joyce 's novel Ulysses .
The Sensual World went on to become her biggest @-@ selling album in the US , receiving an RIAA Gold certification four years after its release for 500 @,@ 000 copies sold . In the United Kingdom album charts , it reached the number @-@ two position .
In 1990 , the boxed @-@ set This Woman 's Work was released and included all of her albums with their original cover art , as well as two discs of all single B sides recorded from 1978 to 1990 . In 1991 , Bush released a cover of Elton John 's " Rocket Man " , which reached number 12 in the UK singles chart , and went as high as number @-@ two in Australia , and in 2007 , was voted the greatest cover ever by readers of The Observer newspaper . She recorded " Candle in the Wind " , as the single 's b @-@ side .
Bush 's seventh studio album , The Red Shoes , was released in November 1993 . The album features more high @-@ profile cameo appearances than her previous efforts , including contributions from composer and conductor Michael Kamen , comedy actor Lenny Henry , Prince , Eric Clapton , Gary Brooker of Procol Harum , Trevor Whittaker , and Jeff Beck . Both The Sensual World and The Red Shoes featured contributions from Trio Bulgarka , the Bulgarian female vocal trio , who sang on six tracks , including " You 're The One " and " Rocket 's Tail " . The album gave Bush her highest chart position in the US , reaching number 28 , although the only song from the album to make the US singles chart was " Rubberband Girl " , which peaked at number 88 in January 1994 . In the UK , the album reached number @-@ two , and the singles " Rubberband Girl " , " The Red Shoes " , " Moments of Pleasure " , and " And So Is Love " all reached the top 30 . In 1994 , Bush released an accompanying short film , The Line , the Cross & the Curve . Written , directed by , and starring Bush , along with English actress Miranda Richardson , the film was based around the concept of The Red Shoes and featured six of the songs from the album .
The initial plan had been to take the songs out on the road , but no new tour transpired . Thus , Bush deliberately aimed for a live @-@ band feel , with less of the studio trickery that had typified her last three albums and which would have been too difficult to re @-@ create on stage . The result alienated some of her fan base , who had enjoyed the intricacy of her earlier compositions , but others found a new complexity in the lyrics and the emotions they expressed .
This period had been a troubled time for Bush . She had suffered a series of bereavements , including the loss of guitarist Alan Murphy , who had started working with her on The Tour of Life in 1979 , and her mother Hannah , to whom she was exceptionally close . Many of the people she lost are honoured in the ballad " Moments of Pleasure . " However , Bush 's mother was still alive when " Moments of Pleasure " was written and recorded . Bush describes playing the song to her mother , who thought the line where she is quoted by Bush as saying , " Every old sock meets an old shoe , " was hilarious and " couldn 't stop laughing . "
= = = 1994 – 2010 : Aerial = = =
After the release of The Red Shoes , Kate Bush dropped out of the public eye for many years , although her name occasionally cropped up in the media with rumours of a new album release . Bush had originally intended to take one year off but despite working on material twelve years passed before her next album release . The press often viewed her as an eccentric recluse , sometimes drawing a comparison with Miss Havisham from Charles Dickens 's Great Expectations . In 1998 , Bush had given birth to Albert , known as " Bertie " , fathered by her guitarist and now husband Danny McIntosh . In 2001 , Bush was awarded a Q Award as Classic Songwriter . In 2002 , she was awarded an Ivor Novello Award for Outstanding Contribution to Music , and performed " Comfortably Numb " at David Gilmour 's concert at the Royal Festival Hall in London .
Kate Bush 's eighth studio album , Aerial , was released on double CD and vinyl in November 2005 . The first single from the album was " King of the Mountain " , which was played for the first time on BBC Radio 2 on 21 September 2005 .
As on Hounds of Love ( 1985 ) , the album is divided into two sections , each with its own theme and mood . The first disc , subtitled A Sea of Honey , features a set of unrelated themed songs , including " King of the Mountain " ; " Bertie " , a Renaissance @-@ style ode to her son ; and " Joanni " , based on the story of Joan of Arc . In the song " <formula> " , Bush sings 117 digits of the number Pi , but misses 22 digits from the 80th to the 101st place of the value of pi . The second disc , subtitled A Sky of Honey , features one continuous piece of music describing the experience of being outdoors after waking at dawn , moving through afternoon , dusk , to night , then back to the following dawn of single summer 's day . All the pieces in this suite refer or allude to sky and sea in their lyrical content . Bush mixed her voice with cooing woodpigeons to repeat the phrases " A sea of honey , a sky of honey , " and " You 're full of beauty " throughout the piece , and uses recordings of actual birdsong throughout . A Sky of Honey features Rolf Harris playing the didgeridoo on one track , and providing vocals on " The Painter 's Link " . Other artists making guest appearances on the album include Peter Erskine , Eberhard Weber , Lol Creme , and Gary Brooker . Two tracks feature string arrangements by Michael Kamen , performed by the London Metropolitan Orchestra . A CD release of the single " King of the Mountain " included a cover of " Sexual Healing " by Marvin Gaye .
" King of the Mountain " entered the UK Downloads Chart at number @-@ six on 17 October 2005 , and by 30 October it had become Bush 's third @-@ highest @-@ charting single ever in the UK , peaking at number @-@ four on the full chart . Aerial entered the UK albums chart at number @-@ three , and the US chart at number 48 . Bush herself carried out relatively little publicity for the album , only conducting a handful of magazine and radio interviews . Aerial earned Bush two nominations at the 2006 BRIT Awards , for Best British Female Solo Artist and Best British Album .
In late 2007 , Bush composed and recorded a new song , " Lyra " , for the soundtrack to the fantasy film The Golden Compass .
= = = 2011 @-@ 12 : Director 's Cut and 50 Words for Snow = = =
On 16 May 2011 , Bush released the album , Director 's Cut . The album , which Bush has described as an entirely new project rather than a collection of mere remixes , contains 11 tracks of substantially reworked material from her earlier albums , The Sensual World and The Red Shoes , all of which have been recorded using analogue , rather than digital , equipment to create " a warmer sound " . All the tracks have new lead vocals , new drums , and radically reworked instrumentation . Some of them have been transposed to a lower key to accommodate her lowering voice . Three of the songs , including " This Woman 's Work " , have been completely re @-@ recorded , with lyrics often changed in places . The album has been met with a wide range of reviews with most reviewers a bit confused about the concept of the album itself , while responding with varying degrees of enthusiasm about its revamped tracks . Of particular note is the warmer , more intimate tone of the songs and the richer , more mature sound of her voice . This is the first album on her new label , Fish People , a division of EMI Records , with whom she 's had a relationship since she started recording . In addition to the album , Director 's Cut in both its single CD form and in a box @-@ set with The Sensual World and the analogue re @-@ mastered The Red Shoes , Fish People will be releasing re @-@ mastered editions of The Hounds of Love and The Dreaming . The album debuted at number @-@ two on the United Kingdom chart .
The song " The Sensual World " has been renamed " Flower of the Mountain " and contains a passage of Molly Bloom 's famous soliloquy from James Joyce 's novel Ulysses . Bush said , " Originally when I wrote the song ' The Sensual World ' , I had used text from the end of Ulysses . When I asked for permission to use the text I was refused , which was disappointing . I then wrote my own lyrics for the song , although I felt that the original idea had been more interesting . Well , I 'm not James Joyce am I ? When I came to work on this project I thought I would ask for permission again and this time they said yes . "
The first single released from the album was " Deeper Understanding " and contains a new chorus featuring computerised vocals from Bush 's son , Albert . A video for the song , directed by Bush , has been released through her channel on YouTube . It features Robbie Coltrane as a man consumed by his relationship with his computer ( voiced by Bush 's son ) . Frances Barber plays the man 's wife , and Noel Fielding also appears .
Bush 's next studio album , 50 Words for Snow , was released on 21 November 2011 . The album contains seven new songs " set against a backdrop of falling snow , " with a total running time of 65 minutes . A radio edit of the first single , " Wild Man , " was played on BBC Radio 2 's The Ken Bruce Show on 10 October. and was released as a digital download on 11 October . The album is distributed in the United States by Anti @-@ Records .
On 14 November 2011 , NPR played 50 Words for Snow in its entirety for the first time . Australia 's ABC Radio National declared 50 Words for Snow album of the week of 12 November 2011 .
The album 's songs are built around Bush 's quietly jazzy piano and Steve Gadd 's drums , and utilise both sung and spoken word vocals in what Classic Rock critic Stephen Dalton calls " a ... supple and experimental affair , with a contemporary chamber pop sound grounded in crisp piano , minimal percussion and light @-@ touch electronics ... billowing jazz @-@ rock soundscapes , interwoven with fragmentary narratives delivered in a range of voices from shrill to Laurie Anderson @-@ style cooing . " Bassist Danny Thompson appears on the album , which also features performances by Elton John and actor Stephen Fry .
On the first track , " Snowflake , " in a song written specifically to use his still high choir @-@ boy voice , Bush 's son Albert ( Bertie ) sings the role of a falling snowflake in a song expressing the hope of a noisy world soon being hushed by snowfall . " Snowflake " drifts into " Lake Tahoe " , where choral singer Stefan Roberts and Bush sing about a rarely seen ghost : a woman who appears in a Victorian gown to call to her dog , Snowflake . Bush explained to fellow musician Jamie Cullum in an interview on Dutch Radio that she wished to explore using high male voices in contrast to her own , deeper , voice . " Misty " is about a snowman lover who melts away after a night of passion , while " Wild Man " tells the story of a group of climbers in the Himalayas who , upon finding evidence of a nearby Yeti , erase all traces of it to protect it from discovery . Elton John and Bush as eternally divided lovers trade vocals on " Snowed in at Wheeler Street " , while Stephen Fry recites the " 50 Words for Snow " . The quiet " Among Angels " finishes the album .
50 Words for Snow received general acclaim from music critics . At Metacritic , which assigns a normalised rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , the album received an average score of 88 , based on 26 reviews , which indicates " universal acclaim " . She was nominated for a Brit Award in the " Best Female Artist " category , and the album won the 2012 Best Album at the South Bank Arts Awards , and was also nominated for Best Album at the Ivor Novello Awards .
= = = 2012 – present = = =
Bush turned down an invitation by the organisers of the 2012 Summer Olympics closing ceremony to perform at the event . Instead a recording of a new remix of her 1985 hit " Running Up that Hill " was played at the end of the ceremony . Bush released an exclusive limited @-@ edition 10 " picture disc of the 2012 remix as part of Record Store Day 2013 on 20 April 2013 .
In March 2014 , Bush announced her first live concerts in several decades : a 22 @-@ night residency called Before the Dawn in London from 26 August – 1 October 2014 at the Hammersmith Apollo . Tickets sold out in 15 minutes . The concerts received positive reviews . In August 2014 , bolstered by the publicity around her upcoming performances , she became the first female performer to have eight albums in the Official UK Top 40 Albums Chart simultaneously , putting her at number three for simultaneous UK Top 40 albums ( behind Elvis Presley with 12 albums in 1977 , and The Beatles in 2009 with 11 albums ) ; altogether she had 11 albums in the top 50 .
= = Artistry = =
Bush 's musical aesthetic is eclectic , and is known to employ varied influences and meld disparate styles , often within a single song or over the course of an album . Even in her earliest works , with piano the primary instrument , she wove together many diverse influences , drawing on classical music , glam rock , and a wide range of ethnic and folk sources . This would continue throughout her career . By the time of Never for Ever , Bush had begun to make prominent use of the Fairlight CMI synthesizer , which allowed her to sample and manipulate sounds , expanding her sonic palette . Her career output has been variously categorized as art rock , art pop , baroque pop , experimental pop , and pop rock . She has been compared with other " ' arty ' 1970s and ' 80s British pop rock artists " such as Roxy Music and Peter Gabriel .
Bush has a soprano vocal range . Her vocals contain elements of British , Anglo @-@ Irish and most prominently ( southern ) English accents and , in its utilisation of musical instruments from many periods and cultures , her music has differed from American pop norms . Elements of Bush 's lyrics often employ historical or literary references , as embodied in her first single " Wuthering Heights , " which is based on Emily Brontë 's novel of the same name . She has described herself as a storyteller who embodies the character singing the song and has dismissed efforts by others to conceive of her work as autobiographical . Bush 's lyrics have been known to touch on obscure or esoteric subject matter , and New Musical Express noted that Bush was not afraid to tackle sensitive and taboo subjects in her work . " The Kick Inside " is based on a traditional English folk song ( The Ballad of Lucy Wan ) about an incestuous pregnancy and a resulting suicide . " Kashka from Baghdad " is a song about a homosexual male couple ; Out magazine listed two of her albums in their " Top 100 Greatest Gayest Albums " list . She has referenced G. I. Gurdjieff in the song " Them Heavy People " , while " Cloudbusting " was inspired by Peter Reich 's autobiography , A Book of Dreams , about his relationship with his father , Wilhelm Reich . " The Infant Kiss " is a song about a haunted , unstable woman 's almost paedophilic infatuation with a young boy in her care ( inspired by Jack Clayton 's film The Innocents ( 1961 ) , which had been based on Henry James 's famous novella The Turn of the Screw ) ; and " Breathing " explores the results of nuclear fallout from the perspective of a fetus .
Other non @-@ musical sources of inspiration for Bush include horror films , which have influenced the gothic nature of several of her songs , such as " Hounds of Love " , which samples the 1957 horror movie Night of the Demon . Her songs have occasionally combined comedy and horror to form dark humour , such as murder by poisoning in " Coffee Homeground " , an alcoholic mother in " Ran Tan Waltz " and the upbeat " The Wedding List " , a song inspired by François Truffaut 's 1967 film of Cornell Woolrich 's The Bride Wore Black about the death of a groom and the bride 's subsequent revenge against the killer . Bush has also cited comedy as a significant influence . She has cited Woody Allen , Monty Python , Fawlty Towers , and The Young Ones as particular favourites .
Reviewers have used the term " surreal " to describe her music . Many of her songs explore melodramatic emotional and musical surrealism that defies easy categorisation . It has been observed that even her more joyous pieces are often tinged with traces of melancholy , and even the most sorrowful pieces have elements of vitality struggling against all that would oppress them .
= = Duration between album releases and media rumours = =
The length of time between album releases has led to rumours in the media concerning her health or appearance . In the past , stories of weight gain or mental instability have been disproved by Bush 's periodic reappearance . In 2011 Bush told BBC Radio 4 that the amount of time between album releases is extremely stressful noting : " It 's very frustrating the albums take as long as they do ... I wish there weren 't such big gaps between them . " In the same interview Bush denied she was a perfectionist in the studio , saying : " I think it 's important that things are flawed ... That 's what makes a piece of art interesting sometimes – the bit that 's wrong or the mistake you 've made that 's led onto an idea you wouldn 't have had otherwise , " and reiterated her prioritisation of her family life .
= = Live performances = =
Bush 's first tour took place 2 April – 13 May 1979 ; 35 years later she embarked on a series of 22 concerts at the Hammersmith Apollo , beginning 26 August 2014 . Apart from these two concert series , she has only given occasional live performances . Several reasons have been suggested as to why she abandoned touring , among them her reputed need to be in total control of the final product , which is incompatible with live stage performance , a rumour of a crippling fear of flying , and the suggestion that the death of 21 @-@ year @-@ old Bill Duffield severely affected her . Duffield , her lighting engineer , was killed in an accident during her concert of 2 April 1979 at Poole Arts Centre . Bush held a benefit concert on 12 May 1979 , with Peter Gabriel and Steve Harley at London 's Hammersmith Odeon for his family . Duffield would be honoured in two later songs : " Blow Away " on Never for Ever and " Moments of Pleasure " on The Red Shoes . Bush explained in a BBC Radio 2 interview with Mark Radcliffe that she actually enjoyed the tour but was consumed with producing her subsequent records . A BBC film crew followed the preparation for the tour which was shown on the BBC Nationwide program as a 30 @-@ minute special .
During the same period as her tour , she made numerous television appearances around the world , including Top of the Pops in the United Kingdom , Bios Bahnhof in Germany , and Saturday Night Live in the United States ( with Paul Shaffer on piano ) --her only appearance on American television to date . On 28 December 1979 , BBC TV aired the Kate Bush Christmas Special . It was recorded in October 1979 at the BBC Studios in Birmingham , England ; choreography by Anthony Van Laast . As well as playing songs from her first two albums , she played " December Will Be Magic Again " , " Violin " , " The Wedding List " , " Ran Tan Waltz " and " Egypt " from her forthcoming album , Never for Ever . Peter Gabriel made a guest appearance to play " Here Comes the Flood " , and a duet of Roy Harper 's " Another Day " with Bush .
After the Tour of Life , Bush desired to make two more albums before touring again . At that point , she got involved with production techniques and sound experimentation that took up a lot of time and prevented her from touring . She came close to touring again following the release of The Dreaming and The Red Shoes , but live shows never materialised .
In 1982 , Bush participated in the first benefit concert in aid of The Prince 's Trust alongside artists such as Madness , Midge Ure , Phil Collins , Mick Karn and Pete Townshend . On 25 April 1986 Bush performed live for British charity event Comic Relief , singing " Do Bears ... ? " , a humorous duet with Rowan Atkinson , and a rendition of " Breathing " . In March 1987 , Bush sang " Running Up That Hill " at The Secret Policeman 's Third Ball accompanied by David Gilmour . On 28 June 1987 , she made a guest appearance to duet with Peter Gabriel on " Don 't Give Up " at Earl 's Court , London as part of his So tour .
On 17 January 2002 , Bush appeared with her long @-@ time champion , David Gilmour , singing the part of the doctor in " Comfortably Numb " at the Royal Festival Hall in London .
In 2011 , Bush told the magazine Classic Rock : " I do hope that some time I get a chance to do some shows . Maybe not a tour , but something . "
In March 2014 , Bush announced a 22 @-@ night residency called Before the Dawn in London from 26 August – 1 October 2014 at the Hammersmith Apollo . The BBC reviewed the concert positively . The set list comprised most of Hounds of Love featuring the entire Ninth Wave suite , most of Aerial including the entire second disc , two songs from The Red Shoes , and one song from 50 Words for Snow . Bush 's first four albums and The Sensual World were noticeably excluded from the set list .
= = Video projects = =
In 1978 Bush made her debut on Dutch television in " De Efteling Special " , which was broadcast on 11 May 1978 . The amusement park De Efteling served as a backdrop for six songs from The Kick Inside : " Moving " , " Wuthering Heights " , " Them Heavy People " , " Strange Phenomena " , " The Man With The Child In His Eyes " and " The Kick Inside " . Early 1978 the amusement parks Haunted Castle was completed and the opening was scheduled on 10 May that year . Bush , who just had a big hit in the Netherlands with " Wuthering Heights " , made her debut on Dutch television in this special . Her popularity was used to draw the attention to the Haunted Castle ( and the popularity of De Efteling drew attention to Kate ) .
In 1979 Bush 's one live show , The Tour of Life , was recorded for the BBC and for release on VHS as Kate Bush Live at Hammersmith Odeon .
Bush has appeared in innovative music videos designed to accompany her singles releases . Among the best known are those for " Running Up that Hill " , " Babooshka " , " Breathing " , " Wuthering Heights " , and " The Man with the Child in His Eyes " , and " Cloudbusting " , featuring actor Donald Sutherland , who made time during the filming of another project to take part in the video . EMI has released collections of her videos , including The Single File , Hair of the Hound , The Whole Story , a career video overview released in conjunction with the 1986 compilation album of the same title , and The Sensual World .
In 1993 , she directed and starred in the short film , The Line , the Cross & the Curve , a musical co @-@ starring Miranda Richardson , featuring music from Bush 's album The Red Shoes , which was inspired by the classic movie of the same name . It was released on VHS in the UK in 1994 and also received a small number of cinema screenings around the world . In recent interviews , Bush has said that she considers it a failure , and stated in 2001 : " I 'm very pleased with four minutes of it , but I 'm very disappointed with the rest . " In a 2005 interview , she described the film as " A load of bollocks . "
In 1994 , Bush provided the music used in a series of psychedelic @-@ themed television adverts for the soft drink Fruitopia that appeared in the United States . The same company aired the adverts in the United Kingdom , but the British version featured singer Elizabeth Fraser of Cocteau Twins instead of Bush .
In late 2006 , a DVD documentary titled Kate Bush Under Review was released by Sexy Intellectual , which included archival interviews with Bush , along with interviews with a selection of music historians and journalists ( including Phil Sutcliffe , Nigel Williamson , and Morris Pert ) . The DVD also includes clips from several of Bush 's music videos .
On 2 December 2008 , the DVD collection of the fourth season of Saturday Night Live , including her performances , was released . A three DVD set of The Secret Policeman 's Balls benefit concerts that includes Bush 's performance was released on 27 January 2009 .
Bush has released four short videos for the album 50 Words for Snow . One is an advertisement for the album . Two stop @-@ motion " Animation Segments " were posted on the Kate Bush Official website and YouTube , one to accompany a 2 @-@ minute 25 second section of " Misty " , called " Mistraldespair " , the other to accompany a 2 @-@ minute 33 second section of " Wild Man " . " Mistraldespair " was directed by Bush and animated by Gary Pureton , while the " Wild Man " segment was created by Finn and Patrick at Brandt Animation . On 24 January 2012 , a third piece called " Eider Falls at Lake Tahoe " , was premiered on her website and on YouTube . Running at 5 : 01 , the piece is a sepia tone shadow puppet animation . Directed by Bush and photographed by award @-@ winning British cinematographer Roger Pratt , the shadow puppets were designed by Robert Allsopp . Bush stated that " Eider Falls at Lake Tahoe " is intended to be a " self contained piece " separate from the song " Lake Tahoe " .
= = Film projects = =
In 1990 , Bush starred in the black comedy film Les Dogs , produced by The Comic Strip for BBC television . Aired on 8 March 1990 , Bush plays the bride Angela at a wedding set in a post @-@ apocalyptic version of Britain . While Bush 's is a silent presence in a wedding dress throughout most of the film , she does have several lines of dialogue with Peter Richardson in two dream sequences . In another Comic Strip Presents film , GLC , she produced the theme song " Ken " , which includes a vocal performance by Bush . The song was written about Ken Livingstone , the leader of the Greater London Council , who would later be elected as mayor of London and at the time was working with musicians to help the Labour Party garner the youth vote . She also wrote and performed a new song " Home for Christmas " for the Comic Strip Presents film Wild Turkey .
She also produced all the incidental music , which is synthesiser based . Bush wrote and performed the song " The Magician " , in a fairground @-@ like arrangement , for Menahem Golan 's 1979 film The Magician of Lublin . In 1985 , Bush contributed a darkly melancholic version of the Ary Barroso song " Brazil " to the soundtrack of the Terry Gilliam film Brazil . The track was scored and arranged by Michael Kamen . In 1986 , she wrote and recorded " Be Kind to My Mistakes " for the Nicolas Roeg film Castaway . An edited version of this track was used as the B @-@ side to her 1989 single " This Woman 's Work " . In 1988 , the song " This Woman 's Work " was featured in the John Hughes film She 's Having a Baby , and a slightly remixed version appeared on Bush 's album The Sensual World . The song has since appeared on numerous television shows , and in 2005 reached number @-@ eight on the UK download chart after featuring in a British television advertisement for the charity NSPCC .
In 1999 , Bush wrote and recorded a song for the Disney film Dinosaur , but the track was ultimately not included on the soundtrack . According to the winter 1999 issue of HomeGround , a Bush fanzine , it was scrapped when Disney asked her to rewrite the song and she refused . Also in 1999 , Bush 's song " The Sensual World " was featured prominently in Canadian filmmaker Atom Egoyan 's film " Felicia 's Journey " . " The Man with the Child in His Eyes " is on the soundtrack for the 2007 British romantic comedy film Starter for 10 .
In 2007 , Bush was asked to write a song for The Golden Compass soundtrack which made reference to the lead character , Lyra Belacqua . The song , " Lyra " , was used in the closing credits of the film , reached number 187 in the UK Singles Chart and was nominated for the International Press Academy 's Satellite Award for original song in a motion picture . According to Del Palmer , Bush was asked to compose the song on very short notice and the whole project was completed in 10 days . The song was produced and recorded by Bush in her own studio , and features the Magdalen College , Oxford choir .
= = Collaborations = =
Bush provided vocals on two of Peter Gabriel 's albums , including the hits " Games Without Frontiers " and " Don 't Give Up " , as well as " No Self @-@ Control " . Gabriel appeared on Bush 's 1979 television special , where they sang a duet of Roy Harper 's " Another Day " . She has sung on two Roy Harper tracks , " You " , on his 1979 album , " The Unknown Soldier " , and " Once " , the title track of his 1990 album . She has also sung on the title song of the 1986 Big Country album The Seer , the Midge Ure song " Sister and Brother " from his 1988 album Answers to Nothing , Go West 's 1987 single " The King Is Dead " and two songs with Prince – " Why Should I Love You ? " , from her 1993 album The Red Shoes , and in 1996 , the song " My Computer " from Prince 's album Emancipation . In 1987 , she sang a verse on the Beatles cover charity single " Let It Be " by Ferry Aid . She sang a line on the charity single " Spirit of the Forest " by Spirit of the Forest in 1989 .
1990 saw Kate producing , for the only time in her career , one song for another artist , Alan Stivell 's " Kimiad " , on his album Again . Stivell had appeared on The Sensual World . In 1991 , Kate Bush was invited to perform a cover of Elton John 1972 song " Rocket Man " for the tribute album Two Rooms : Celebrating the Songs of Elton John & Bernie Taupin . In 2011 , Elton John collaborated with Bush once again in Snowed in at Wheeler Street for her most recent album 50 Words for Snow . In 1994 , Bush covered George Gershwin 's " The Man I Love " for the tribute album The Glory of Gershwin . In 1996 , Bush contributed a version of " Mná na hÉireann " ( Irish for " Women of Ireland " ) for the Anglo @-@ Irish folk @-@ rock compilation project Common Ground : The Voices of Modern Irish Music . Bush had to sing the song in Irish , which she learned to do phonetically .
Artists who have contributed to Bush 's own albums include Elton John , Eric Clapton , Jeff Beck , David Gilmour , Nigel Kennedy , Gary Brooker , Danny Thompson , and Prince . Bush provided backing vocals for a song that was recorded during the 1990s titled Wouldn 't Change a Thing by Lionel Azulay , the drummer with the original band that was later to become the KT Bush Band . The song , which was engineered and produced by Del Palmer , was released on Azulay 's album Out of the Ashes .
Bush declined a request by Erasure to produce one of their albums because " she didn 't feel that that was her area " .
= = Influence on musicians = =
Many artists cite her as an influence , including Tori Amos , Charli XCX , Tegan and Sara , k.d. lang , Paula Cole , and Alison Goldfrapp of Goldfrapp . Nerina Pallot was inspired to become a songwriter after seeing Bush play " This Woman 's Work " on Wogan . Natasha Khan a.k.a. Bat for Lashes said she inspired her , as did Kate Nash . Coldplay took inspiration from " Running Up That Hill " to compose their hit single " Speed of Sound " . Andy Bell cites Bush as an influence on Erasure .
In addition to those artists who state that Bush has been a direct influence on their own careers , other artists have been quoted expressing admiration for her work including Annie Lennox , Björk , Little Boots , Dido , Sky Ferreira , St. Vincent , Lily Allen , Anohni of Antony and the Johnsons , Big Boi of OutKast , and Tupac Shakur . Marina and the Diamonds discovered Bush 's music when people compared her music to Bush 's . Courtney Love of Hole mentioned Bush among other artists as one of her favourites as a teenager . Tricky wrote an article about The Kick Inside , saying : " Her music has always sounded like dreamland to me " . [ ... ] " I don ’ t believe in God , but if I did , her music would be my bible " . Suede front @-@ man Brett Anderson stated about Hounds Of Love : " I love the way it 's a record of two halves , and the second half is a concept record about fear of drowning . It 's an amazing record to listen to really late at night , unsettling and really jarring " . John Lydon , better known as Johnny Rotten of the Sex Pistols , declared her work to be " beauty beyond belief " . Rotten once wrote a song for her , titled " Bird in Hand " ( about exploitation of parrots ) that Bush rejected . Bush was one of the singers that Prince thanked in the liner notes of 1991 's Diamonds and Pearls . In December 1989 , Robert Smith of The Cure chose " The Sensual World " as his favourite single of the year , The Sensual World as his favourite album of the year and included " all of Kate Bush " plus other artists in his list , " the best things about the eighties " .
Kele Okereke of Bloc Party said about " Hounds of Love " : " The first time I heard it I was sitting in a reclining sofa . As the beat started I was transported somewhere else . Her voice , the imagery , the huge drum sound : it seemed to capture everything for me . As a songwriter you 're constantly chasing that feeling " . Rufus Wainwright named Bush as one of his top ten gay icons . Outside music , Bush has been an inspiration to several fashion designers , including Hussein Chalayan .
= = Personal life = =
Bush is married to guitarist Dan McIntosh and they have a son , Albert , born 1998 , known as Bertie . Bertie featured prominently in the 2014 concert , " Before the Dawn " . She previously had a long @-@ term relationship with Del Palmer .
Bush is a former resident of Eltham , southeast London . In the 1990s , she moved to a canalside residence in Sulhamstead , Berkshire , and subsequently moved to Devon in 2004 . Bush is a vegetarian .
Raised a Roman Catholic , she said in 1999 :
I was a Roman Catholic and brought up in Roman Catholic schools . I would never say I was a strict follower of Roman Catholic belief , but a lot of images are in there ; they have to be ; they 're so strong . Such powerful , beautiful , passionate images ! There 's a lot of suffering in Roman Catholicism . I think I 'm looking for not necessarily religion , but ways of helping myself to become more understanding , more complete , a happier person — what we all want in life . But I really don 't think I 've found a niche .
= = Awards and nominations = =
= = Discography = =
The Kick Inside ( 1978 )
Lionheart ( 1978 )
Never for Ever ( 1980 )
The Dreaming ( 1982 )
Hounds of Love ( 1985 )
The Sensual World ( 1989 )
The Red Shoes ( 1993 )
Aerial ( 2005 )
Director 's Cut ( 2011 )
50 Words for Snow ( 2011 )
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= Richmond Park =
Richmond Park , in the London Borough of Richmond upon Thames , was created by Charles I in the 17th century as a deer park . The largest of London 's Royal Parks , it is of national and international importance for wildlife conservation . The park is a national nature reserve , a Site of Special Scientific Interest and a Special Area of Conservation and is included , at Grade I , on Historic England 's Register of Historic Parks and Gardens of special historic interest in England . Its landscapes have inspired many famous artists and it has been a location for several films and TV series .
Richmond Park includes many buildings of architectural or historic interest . The Grade I @-@ listed White Lodge was formerly a royal residence and is now home to the Royal Ballet School . The park 's boundary walls and ten other buildings are listed at Grade II , including Pembroke Lodge , the home of 19th @-@ century British Prime Minister Lord John Russell and his grandson , the philosopher Bertrand Russell .
Historically the preserve of the monarch , the park is now open for all to use and includes a golf course and other facilities for sport and recreation . It played an important role in both world wars and in the 1948 and 2012 Olympics .
= = Overview = =
= = = Size = = =
Richmond Park is the largest of London 's Royal Parks . It is the second @-@ largest park in London ( after the 10 @,@ 000 acre Lee Valley Park , whose area extends beyond the M25 into Hertfordshire and Essex ) and is Britain 's second @-@ largest urban walled park after Sutton Park , Birmingham . Measuring 3 @.@ 69 square miles ( 955 hectares or 2 @,@ 360 acres ) , it is comparable in size to Paris 's Bois de Vincennes ( 995 ha or 2 @,@ 458 ac ) and Bois de Boulogne ( 846 ha or 2 @,@ 090 ac ) . It is almost half the size of Casa de Campo ( Madrid ) ( 1750 ha or 4324 @.@ 34 ac ) and around three times the size of Central Park in New York ( 341 ha or 843 ac ) .
= = = Status = = =
Of national and international importance for wildlife conservation , most of Richmond Park ( 856 hectares ) is a Site of Special Scientific Interest ( SSSI ) , a National Nature Reserve ( NNR ) and Special Area of Conservation ( SAC ) . The largest Site of Special Scientific Interest in London , it was designated as an SSSI in 1992 , excluding the area of the golf course , Pembroke Lodge Gardens and the Gate Gardens . In its citation , Natural England said : " Richmond Park has been managed as a royal deer park since the seventeenth century , producing a range of habitats of value to wildlife . In particular , Richmond Park is of importance for its diverse deadwood beetle fauna associated with the ancient trees found throughout the parkland . In addition the park supports the most extensive area of dry acid grassland in Greater London . "
The park was designated as an SAC in April 2005 on account of its having " a large number of ancient trees with decaying timber . It is at the heart of the south London centre of distribution for stag beetle Lucanus cervus , and is a site of national importance for the conservation of the fauna of invertebrates associated with the decaying timber of ancient trees " .
Since October 1987 the park has also been included , at Grade I , on the Register of Historic Parks and Gardens of special historic interest in England , being described in Historic England 's listing as " A royal deer park with pre C15 origins , imparked by Charles I and improved by subsequent monarchs . A public open space since the mid C19 " .
= = = Geography = = =
Richmond Park is located in the London Borough of Richmond upon Thames . It is close to Richmond , Ham , Kingston upon Thames , Wimbledon , Roehampton and East Sheen .
= = Organisation = =
= = = Governance = = =
The Secretary of State for Culture , Media and Sport manages Richmond Park and the other Royal Parks of London under powers set out in the Crown Lands Act 1851 , which transferred management of the parks from the monarch to the government . Day @-@ to @-@ day management of the Royal Parks has been delegated to The Royal Parks , an executive agency of the Department for Culture , Media and Sport ( DCMS ) . The Royal Parks ' Board sets the strategic direction for the agency . Appointments to the Board are made by the Mayor of London .
The Friends of Richmond Park and the Friends of Bushy Park co @-@ chair the Richmond and Bushy Parks Forum , comprising 38 local groups of local stakeholder organisations . The forum was formed in September 2010 to consider proposals to bring Richmond Park and Bushy Park – and London 's other royal parks – under the control of the Mayor of London through a new Royal Parks Board and to make a joint response . Although welcoming the principles of the new governance arrangements , the forum ( in 2011 ) and the Friends of Richmond Park ( in 2012 ) have expressed concerns about the composition of the new board .
= = = Access = = =
Richmond Park is enclosed by a high wall with several gates . The gates either allow pedestrian and bicycle access only , or allow bicycle , pedestrian and other vehicle access . The gates for motor vehicle access are open only during daylight hours , and the speed limit is 20 mph . Apart from taxis , no commercial vehicles are allowed unless they are being used to transact business with residents of the park .
From Easter until the end of August 2015 , a free bus service runs on Wednesdays , stopping at the main car parks and the gate at Isabella Plantation nearest Peg 's Pond .
The gates open to motor traffic are : Sheen Gate , Richmond Gate , Ham Gate , Kingston Gate , Roehampton Gate and ( for access to Richmond Park Golf Course only ) Chohole Gate . There is pedestrian and bicycle access to the park 24 hours a day except during the deer cull in February and November when the pedestrian gates are closed between 8 : 00 pm and 7 : 30 am .
The Beverley Brook Walk runs through the park between Roehampton Gate and Robin Hood Gate . The Capital Ring walking route passes through the park from Robin Hood Gate to Petersham Gate . The Thames Cycle Route runs across the park from Ham Gate to Roehampton Gate . London Cycle Network route no . 3 goes through the park .
The park has designated bridleways and cycle paths . These are shown on maps and noticeboards displayed near the main entrances , along with other regulations that govern use of the park . The bridleways are special in that they are for horses ( and their riders ) only and not open to other users like normal bridleways . Cycling is allowed only on main roads and on the Tamsin Trail ( the shared @-@ use pedestrian cycle path that runs close to the park 's perimeter ) .
As the park is a national nature reserve and a Site of Special Scientific Interest , all dog owners are required to keep their dogs under control while in the park . This includes not allowing their dog to disturb other park users or disrupt wildlife . In 2009 , after some incidents leading to the death of wildfowl , the park 's dogs on leads policy was extended . Park users are said to believe that the deer are feeling increasingly threatened by the growing number of dogs using the park and Royal Parks advises against walking dogs in the park during the deer 's birthing season .
= = = Law enforcement = = =
A mugging at gunpoint in 1854 reputedly led to the establishment of a park police force . Until 2005 the park was policed by the separate Royal Parks Constabulary but that has now been subsumed into the Royal Parks Operational Command Unit of the Metropolitan Police . The mounted police have been replaced by a patrol team in a four @-@ wheel drive vehicle . In 2015 the Friends of Richmond Park expressed concern about plans to cut the numbers of police in the park to half the level that they were ten years previously , despite an increase in visitor numbers and in incidents of crime .
In July 2012 it was reported that police have been given the power to issue £ 50 on @-@ the @-@ spot fines for littering , cycling outside designated areas and for dog fouling offences . In August 2012 a dog owner was ordered to pay £ 315 after allowing five dogs to chase ducks in the park . Since 2013 commercial dog @-@ walkers have been required to apply for licences to walk dogs in the park and are allowed to walk only four dogs at a time . In September 2013 a cyclist was successfully prosecuted for speeding at 37 mph in the park . In March 2015 a cycling club member was fined for speeding at 41 mph and faced disciplinary action from his cycling club , which uses the park for training . In 2014 and 2015 two men were prosecuted for picking mushrooms in the park .
= = = Sport and recreation = = =
Cycling : Cycles are available for hire near Roehampton Gate and , at peak times , near Pembroke Lodge . The Tamsin Trail ( shared between pedestrians and cyclists ) provides a circuit of the park and is almost entirely car @-@ free .
Fishing is allowed , by paid permit , on Pen Ponds from mid @-@ June to mid @-@ March .
Golf is played at Richmond Park Golf Course , accessed from Chohole Gate .
Horse riding : Horses from several local stables are ridden in the park .
Rugby : A section of the grassland to the north of the Roehampton Gate is maintained and laid out during the winter months for rugby ; there are three pitches . At weekends , this area is hired extensively to Rosslyn Park Rugby Football Club . The club buses visiting teams to and from the park pitches from its nearby clubhouse and changing rooms .
Running : The Tamsin Trail is a 7 @.@ 2 miles ( 11 @.@ 6 km ) trail around the park which is popular with runners . Members of Barnes Runners complete at least one circumnavigation of it on the first and third Sunday of every month . The Richmond Park Parkrun , a 5 km organised run , takes place every Saturday at 9 : 00 a.m. from a starting point close to Bishop 's Gate .
There are children 's playgrounds at Kingston Gate and Petersham Gate .
= = = Friends of Richmond Park = = =
The Friends of Richmond Park ( FRP ) was founded in 1961 to protect the park . In 1960 the speed limit in the park had been raised from 20 to 30 miles an hour and there were concerns that the roads in the park would be assigned to the main highway system as had recently happened in parts of Hyde Park . In 1969 , plans by the then Greater London Council to assign the park 's roads to the national highway were revealed by the Friends and subsequently withdrawn . The speed limit was reduced to 20 miles an hour in the summer of 2004 .
In 2011 , the Friends successfully campaigned for the withdrawal of plans for open air screenings of films in the park . In 2012 , the Friends contributed towards the cost of a new Jubilee Pond , and launched a public appeal for a Ponds and Streams Conservation Programme in which the Friends , the Richmond Park Wildlife Group and Healthy Planet have been working with staff from The Royal Parks to restore some of the streams and ponds in the park .
The Friends run a visitor centre near Pembroke Lodge , organise a programme of walks and education activities for young people , and produce a quarterly newsletter . The Friends have published two books , A Guide to Richmond Park and Family Trails in Richmond Park ; profits from the books ' sales contribute towards the Friends ' conservation work .
The Friends of Richmond Park has been a charitable organisation since 2009 . It has 2200 members , is run by approximately 150 volunteers and has no staff . Broadcaster and naturalist Sir David Attenborough , former Richmond Park MP Baroness Susan Kramer and children 's author Dame Jacqueline Wilson are patrons of FRP . The chair ( in 2015 ) is Ron Crompton , who also chairs the Royal Parks Friends Forum . The Friends Forum enables the chairs of all the Royal Parks Friends groups to meet regularly to discuss common issues and to make their views known to the chief executive of the Royal Parks , the Royal Parks Advisory Group and the Department of Culture , Media and Sport .
= = History = =
= = = Stuart origins = = =
In 1625 Charles I brought his court to Richmond Palace to escape an outbreak of plague in London and turned the area on the hill above Richmond into a park for the hunting of red and fallow deer . It was originally referred to as the king 's " New Park " to distinguish it from the existing park in Richmond , which is now known as Old Deer Park . In 1637 he appointed Jerome Weston , 2nd Earl of Portland as keeper of the new park for life , with a fee of 12 ( old ) pence a day , pasture for four horses , and the use of the brushwood . – later holders of that office were known as " Ranger " . Charles 's decision , also in 1637 , to enclose the land was not popular with the local residents , but he did allow pedestrians the right of way . To this day the walls remain , although they have been partially rebuilt and reinforced . Following Charles I 's execution , custodianship of the park passed to the Corporation of the City of London . It was returned to the restored monarch , Charles II , on his return to London in 1660 .
= = = Georgian alterations = = =
In 1719 Caroline of Ansbach and her husband , the future George II of Great Britain , bought Richmond Lodge as a country residence . This building had first been built as a hunting lodge for James I in 1619 and had also been occupied by William III . As shown in a map of 1734 , Richmond Park and Richmond Gardens then formed a single unit – the latter was merged with Kew Gardens by George III in the early 1800s . In 1736 the Queen 's Ride was cut through existing woodland to create a grand avenue through the park and Bog Gate or Queen 's Gate was opened as a private entrance for Caroline to enter the park on her journeys between White Lodge and Richmond Lodge . The same map shows Pen Ponds , a lake divided in two by a causeway , dug in 1746 and initially referred to as the Canals , which is now a good place to see water birds . Richmond Lodge fell out of use on Caroline 's death in 1737 but was brought back into use by her grandson George III as his summer residence from 1764 to 1772 , when he switched his summer residence to Kew Palace and had Richmond Lodge demolished .
In 1751 , Caroline 's daughter Princess Amelia became ranger of Richmond Park after the death of Robert Walpole . Immediately afterwards , the Princess caused major public uproar by closing the park to the public , only allowing few close friends and those with special permits to enter . This continued until 1758 , when a local brewer , John Lewis , took the gatekeeper , who stopped him from entering the park , to court . The court ruled in favour of Lewis , citing the fact that , when Charles I enclosed the park in the 17th century , he allowed the public right of way in the park . Princess Amelia was forced to lift the restrictions .
= = = 19th century = = =
Full right of public access to the park was confirmed by Act of Parliament in 1872 . However , people were no longer given the right to remove firewood ; this is still the case and helps in preserving the park .
Between 1833 and 1842 the Petersham Lodge estate , and then part of Sudbrook Park , were incorporated into Richmond Park . Terrace Walk was created from Richmond Gate to Pembroke Lodge . The Russell School was built near Petersham Gate in 1851 . Between 1855 and 1861 , new drainage improvements were constructed , including drinking points for deer . In 1867 and 1876 fallow deer from the park were sent to New Zealand to help build up stocks – the first fallow deer introduced to that country In or around 1870 , the Inns of Court Rifle Volunteers were using an area near Bog Gate as a drill ground . Giuseppe Garibaldi , Italian general and politician , visited Lord John Russell at Pembroke Lodge in 1864 , as did the Shah of Persia , Naser al @-@ Din Shah Qajar in 1873 . He was the first modern Iranian monarch to visit Europe .
= = = Early 20th century = = =
Edward VII developed the park as a public amenity by opening up almost all the previously fenced woods and making public those gates that were previously private . From 1915 level areas of the park were marked out for football and cricket pitches . A golf course was developed on the former " Great Paddock " of Richmond Park , an area used for feeding deer for the royal hunt . The tree belt in this part of the park was supplemented by additional planting in 1936 . The golf course was opened in 1923 by Edward , Prince of Wales ( who was to become King Edward VIII and , after his abdication , Duke of Windsor ) . The future king had been born in the park , at White Lodge , in 1894 .
The park played an important role during World War I and was used for cavalry training . On 7 December 1915 English inventor Harry Grindell Matthews demonstrated , in a secret test on Pen Ponds , how selenium cells would work in a remotely controlled prototype weapon for use against German Zeppelins . Reporting on this story several years later , in April 1924 , The Daily Chronicle reported that the test had been carried out in the presence of Lord Balfour , Lord Fisher and a staff of experts . Its success led to Matthews receiving a payment of £ 25 @,@ 000 from the Government the very next morning . Despite this large sum changing hands , the Admiralty never used the invention . Between 1916 and 1925 the park housed a South African military war hospital , which was built between Bishop 's Pond and Conduit Wood . The hospital closed in 1921 and was demolished in 1925 . Richmond Cemetery , just outside the park , contains a section of war graves commemorating 39 soldiers who died at the hospital ; the section is marked by a Cross of Sacrifice and a grade II listed cenotaph designed by Sir Edwin Lutyens .
= = = 1925 – present = = =
Faisal I of Iraq and Lebanese politician Salim Ali Salam were photographed visiting the park in 1925 . In 1938 , an army camp was set up near Dann 's Pond . During World War II Pembroke Lodge was used as the base for " Phantom " ( the GHQ Liaison Regiment ) . The Pen Ponds were drained , in order to disguise them as a landmark , and an experimental bomb disposal centre was set up at Killcat Corner , which is between Robin Hood Gate and Roehampton Gate . Picture Post , on 13 December 1941 , featured a photograph of an anti @-@ aircraft gun site inside Sheen Gate . The Russell School was destroyed by enemy action in 1943 and Sheen Cottage a year later . For the 1948 Summer Olympics , an Olympic village was built near Dann 's Pond . In 1953 President Tito of Yugoslavia stayed at White Lodge during a state visit to Britain .
The Petersham Hole was a sink hole caused by subsidence of a sewer which forced the total closure of the A307 road in Petersham in 1979 – 80 . As the hole and subsequent repair work had forced a total closure of this main road between Richmond and Kingston , traffic was diverted through the park and the Richmond , Ham , and Kingston gates remained open throughout the day and night . The park road was widened at Ham Cross near Ham Gate to accommodate temporary traffic lights . About 10 deer a month were killed by traffic while the diversion was in operation . In the 2012 Summer Olympics the men 's and the women 's cycling road races went through the park .
= = Features = =
= = = Gates = = =
= = = = Six original gates = = = =
When the park was enclosed in 1637 there were six gates in the boundary wall : Coombe Gate , Ham Gate , Richmond Gate , Robin Hood Gate , Roehampton Gate and Sheen Gate . Of these , Richmond Gate has the heaviest traffic . The present gates were designed by Sir John Soane and were widened in 1896 . Sheen Gate was where the brewer John Lewis asserted pedestrian right of entry in 1755 after Princess Amelia had denied it . The present double gates date from 1926 . Coombe Gate ( later known as Ladderstile Gate ) provided access to the park for the parishioners of Coombe , with both a gate and a step ladder . The gate was locked in the early 1700s and bricked up in about 1735 . The stepladder was reinstated after John Lewis 's case in 1758 and remained in place until about 1884 . The present gate dates from 1901 . The present wrought iron gates of Roehampton Gate were installed in 1899 . Ham Gate was widened in 1921 , when the present wrought iron gates were installed . The chinoiserie lantern lights over the gate were installed in 1825 .
Robin Hood Gate takes its name from the nearby Robin Hood Inn ( demolished in 2001 ) and is close to what is called the Robin Hood roundabout on the A3 . Widened in 1907 , it has been closed to motorised vehicles since a 2003 traffic reduction trial . Alterations commenced in March 2013 to make the gates more suitable for pedestrian use and return some of the hard surface to parkland .
= = = = Other gates = = = =
Chohole Gate served the farm that stood within the park on the site of the present Kings Farm Plantation . It is first mentioned in 1680 . The gate now provides access to Richmond Park Golf Course . Kingston Gate dates from about 1750 . The existing gates date from 1898 .
Public access via Bog Gate or Queen 's Gate ( built in 1736 ) , 24 hours a day , was granted in 1894 and the present " cradle " gate installed . The gate connects the park with East Sheen Common .
Petersham Gate served the Russell School , replacing the more ornate gates to Petersham Lodge . A disused carriage gate further up the hill was probably a tradesman 's entrance to the school or to the Lodge stables . Bishop 's Gate in Chisholm Road , previously known as the Cattle Gate , was for use by livestock allowed to pasture in the nineteenth century . It was opened for public use in 1896 . Kitchen Garden Gate , hidden behind Teck Plantation , is probably a nineteenth @-@ century gate . It has never been open to the public . Cambrian Gate or Cambrian Road Gate was constructed during World War I for access to the newly built South Africa Military Hospital . When the hospital was demolished in 1925 , the entrance was made permanent and public as a pedestrian gate .
= = = Buildings = = =
The park includes a Grade I listed building , White Lodge . The boundary wall of the park is Grade II listed as are ten other buildings : Ham Gate Lodge , built in 1742 ; Holly Lodge ( formerly known as Bog Lodge ) and the game larder in its courtyard , built in 1735 ; Pembroke Lodge ; Richmond Gate and Richmond Gate Lodge , dated 1798 and designed by Sir John Soane ; Thatched House Lodge ; and White Ash Lodge and its barns and stables , built in the 1730s or 1740s .
The Freebord or " deer leap " is a strip of land 5m ( 16 ' 6 " ) wide , running around most of the perimeter of the park . Owned by the Crown , it allows access to the outside of the boundary wall for inspection and repairs . Householders whose property backs on to the park can use this land by paying an annual fee .
= = = = Holly Lodge = = = =
In 1735 , a new lodge , Cooper 's Lodge , was built on the site of Hill Farm . It was later known as Lucas 's Lodge and as Bog Lodge . Bog Lodge was renamed Holly Lodge in 1993 and now contains a visitors ' centre ( bookings only ) , the park 's administrative headquarters and a base for the Metropolitan Police 's Royal Parks Operational Command Unit .
Holly Lodge also includes the Holly Lodge Centre , an organisation which provides an opportunity for people of all ages and abilities to enjoy and learn from a series of hands @-@ on experiences , focusing particularly on the environment and in the Victorian history and heritage of Richmond Park . The Centre , which is wheelchair @-@ accessible throughout , was opened in 1994 . It was founded by Mike Fitt OBE , who was then The Royal Parks ' Superintendent of Richmond Park and later became Deputy Chief Executive of London 's Royal Parks . A registered charity , the Holly Lodge Centre received the Queen 's Award for Voluntary Service in 2005 .
In 2007 Princess Alexandra agreed to become Holly Lodge Centre 's Royal Patron . In 2011 she opened the Centre 's Victorian @-@ themed pharmacy , Mr Palmer 's Chymist . This includes the original interior , artefacts and dispensing records dating from 1865 , from a chemist 's shop in Mortlake , and is used for educational activities . The Centre also includes a replica Victorian kitchen , Mrs Sawyer 's Victorian Kitchen , and a kitchen garden planted with varieties of vegetables used in Victorian times and herbs cultivated for their medicinal properties .
= = = = Pembroke Lodge = = = =
Pembroke Lodge and some associated houses stand in their own garden within the park . In 1847 Pembroke Lodge became the home of the then Prime Minister , Lord John Russell and was later the childhood home of his grandson , Bertrand Russell . It is now a popular restaurant with views across the Thames Valley .
= = = = Thatched House Lodge = = = =
Thatched House Lodge was the London home of U.S. General Dwight D. Eisenhower during the Second World War . Since 1963 it has been the residence of Princess Alexandra , The Honourable Lady Ogilvy . The residence was originally built as two houses in 1673 for two Richmond Park Keepers , as Aldridge Lodge . Enlarged in 1727 , the two houses were joined and renamed Thatched House Lodge in 1771 by Sir John Soane . The gardens include an 18th @-@ century two @-@ room thatched summer house which gave the main house its name .
= = = = White Lodge = = = =
Built as a hunting lodge for George II by the architect Roger Morris , White Lodge was completed in 1730 . Its many famous residents have included members of the Royal Family . The future Edward VIII was born at White Lodge in 1894 and his brother Prince Albert , Duke of York ( the future George VI ) , and the Duchess of York ( later Queen Elizabeth the Queen Mother ) , lived there in the 1920s . The Royal Ballet School ( formerly Sadler 's Wells Ballet ) has been based since 1955 at White Lodge where younger ballet students continue to be trained .
= = = = Other buildings = = = =
Oak Lodge , near Sidmouth Wood , was built in about 1852 as a home for the park bailiff , who was responsible for repair and maintenance in the park . It is used by The Royal Parks as its base for a similar function today .
There are also gate lodges at Bishops Gate , Chohole Gate , Kingston Gate , Robin Hood Gate , Roehampton Gate and at Sheen Gate , which also has a bungalow ( Sheen Gate Bungalow ) . Ladderstile Cottage , at Ladderstile Gate , was built in the 1780s .
= = = = Former buildings = = = =
A map by John Eyre , " Plan of His Majesty 's New Park " , shows a summerhouse near Richmond Gate .
Several buildings already existed within the park when it was created . One of these was a manor house at Petersham which was renamed Petersham Lodge . During the Commonwealth period it became accommodation for one of the park 's deputy keepers , Lodowick Carlell ( or Carlile ) , who was also a renowned playwright in his day , and his wife , Joan Carlile , one of the very first women to practise painting professionally .
Elizabeth , Countess of Dysart , and her husband Sir Lionel Tollemache , took over Petersham Lodge when they became joint keepers of Richmond Park . After Tollemache 's death the Lodge and its surrounding land were leased in 1686 to Lawrence Hyde , Earl of Rochester , whose sister Anne was married to the new king , James II . It became a private park and was subsequently landscaped . By 1692 Rochester had demolished the Lodge and replaced it with a splendid new mansion in his " New Park " . In 1732 , a new Petersham Lodge was built to replace it after a fire . This Petersham Lodge was demolished in 1835 .
Professor Sir Richard Owen , the first Director of the Natural History Museum , lived at Sheen Cottage until his death in 1892 . The cottage was destroyed by enemy action in 1944 . The remains of the cottage can be seen in patches and irregularities in the wall 220 metres from Sheen Gate .
A bandstand , similar to one in Kensington Gardens , was erected near Richmond Gate in 1931 . In 1975 , after many years of disuse , it was moved to Regent 's Park .
= = = Viewpoints = = =
There is a protected view of St Paul 's Cathedral from King Henry 's Mound , and also from Sawyer 's Hill a view of central London in which the London Eye , Natwest Tower and " The Gherkin " appear to be close to one another .
= = = = King Henry 's Mound = = = =
King Henry 's Mound , a Neolithic burial barrow , is the highest point within the park and is located within the public gardens of Pembroke Lodge . At various times the mound 's name has been connected with Henry VIII or with his father Henry VII . But there is no evidence to support the legend that Henry VIII stood on the mound to watch for a sign from St Paul 's that Anne Boleyn had been executed at the Tower and that he was then free to marry Jane Seymour .
To the west of King Henry 's Mound is a panorama of the Thames Valley . St Paul 's Cathedral , over 10 miles ( 16 km ) to the east , can be seen through the naked eye or via a telescope that has been installed on the Mound . This vista , created soon after the cathedral was completed in 1710 , is protected by a " dome and a half " width of sky on either side . In 2005 the then Mayor of London , Ken Livingstone , sought to overturn this protection and reduce it to " half a dome " . In 2009 his successor , Boris Johnson , promised to reinstate the wider view , though also approving a development at Victoria Station which , when completed , will obscure its right @-@ hand corner . New gates − " The Way " − which can be viewed through the King Henry 's Mound telescope , were installed in 2012 on the edge of Sidmouth Wood to mark the 300th anniversary of St Paul 's Cathedral .
= = = Plantings and memorials = = =
The park 's open slopes and woods are based on lowland acid soils . The grassland is mostly managed by grazing . The park contains numerous woods and copses , some created with donations from members of the public .
Between 1819 and 1835 , Lord Sidmouth , Deputy Ranger , established several new plantations and enclosures , including Sidmouth Wood and the ornamental Isabella Plantation , both of which are fenced to keep the deer out . After World War II the existing woodland at Isabella Plantation was transformed into a woodland garden , and is organically run , resulting in a rich flora and fauna . Opened to the public in 1953 , it is now a major visitor attraction in its own right . It is best known for the flowering , in April and May , of its evergreen azaleas and camellias , which have been planted next to its ponds and streams . There are also many rare and unusual trees and shrubs .
The Jubilee Plantation , created to commemorate the Golden Jubilee of Queen Victoria , was established in 1887 . Prince Charles ' Spinney was planted out in 1951 with trees protected from the deer by fences , to preserve a natural habitat . The bluebell glade is managed to encourage native British bluebells . Teck Plantation , established in 1905 , commemorates the Duke and Duchess of Teck , who lived at White Lodge . Their daughter Mary married George V. Tercentenary Plantation , in 1937 , marked the 300th anniversary of the enclosure of the park . Victory Plantation was established in 1946 to mark the end of the Second World War . Queen Mother 's Copse , a small triangular enclosure on the woodland hill halfway between Robin Hood Gate and Ham Gate , was established in 1980 to commemorate the 80th birthday of Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother .
The park lost over 1000 mature trees during the Great Storm of 1987 and the Burns ' Day storm of 1990 . The subsequent replanting included a new plantation , Two Storms Wood , a short distance into the park from Sheen Gate . Some extremely old trees can also be seen inside this enclosure .
Bone Copse , which was named in 2005 , was started by the Bone family in 1988 by purchasing and planting a tree from the park authorities in memory of Bessie Bone who died in that year . Trees have been added annually , and in 1994 her husband Frederick Bone also died . The annual planting has been continued by their children .
= = = = James Thomson = = = =
A bench known as " Poet 's seat " is located at the north end of Pembroke Lodge Gardens , in a spot called Poet 's Corner . Sculpted by Richard Farrington , it was based on an idea by Jane Fowles . The seat is inscribed with lines by the poet James Thomson , who was living in Richmond at the time of his death .
A wooden memorial plaque with an ode to Thomson by the writer and historian John Heneage Jesse was formerly located near Pembroke Lodge stables , where it was installed in 1851 . The plaque was replaced by the Selborne Society in 1895 .
In 2014 Poet 's Corner was re @-@ sited to the other side of the main path and the ode , on a re @-@ gilded board , was installed in a completely new oak frame . The new Poet 's Corner , funded by the Friends of Richmond Park and the Visitor Centre at Pembroke Lodge , and by a donation in memory of Wendy Vachell , also includes three curved benches made from reclaimed teak . The benches are inscribed with a couplet by the Welsh poet W. H. Davies , " A poor life this , if , full of care , we have no time to stand and stare " .
King Henry 's Mound is inscribed with a few lines from Thomson 's poem " The Seasons " .
Poets ' Corner is linked to King Henry 's Mound by The John Beer Laburnum Arch , named after one of Pembroke Lodge Gardens ' former charge @-@ hands . The arch has a display of yellow laburnum flowers in May .
= = = = Ian Dury = = = =
In 2002 a " musical bench " , designed by Mil Stricevic , was placed in a favoured viewing spot of rock @-@ and @-@ roll singer and lyricist Ian Dury ( 1942 – 2000 ) near Poet 's Corner . On the back of the bench are the words " Reasons to be cheerful " , the title of one of Dury 's songs . The solar powered seat was intended to allow visitors to plug in and listen to eight of his songs as well as an interview , but has been subjected to repeated vandalism .
= = Nature = =
= = = Wildlife = = =
Originally created for deer hunting , Richmond Park now has 630 red and fallow deer that roam freely within much of the park . A cull takes place each November and February to ensure numbers can be sustained . Some deer are also killed in road accidents , through ingesting litter such as small items of plastic , or by dogs ; three deer were killed by dogs in 2012 . Many of the deer in Richmond Park are infected with a bacterium called Borrelia burgdorferi which can be transmitted to humans through a tick bite causing Lyme disease .
The park is an important refuge for other wildlife , including woodpeckers , squirrels , rabbits , snakes , frogs , toads , stag beetles and many other insects plus numerous ancient trees and varieties of fungi . It is particularly notable for its rare beetles .
Richmond Park supports a large population of what are believed to be ring @-@ necked ( or rose @-@ ringed ) parakeets . These bred from birds that escaped or were freed from captivity .
= = = Ponds and streams = = =
There are about 30 ponds in the park . Some – including Barn Wood Pond , Bishop 's Pond , Gallows Pond , Leg of Mutton Pond , Martin 's Pond and White Ash Pond – have been created to drain the land or to provide water for livestock . The Pen Ponds ( which in the past were used to rear carp for food ) date from 1746 . They were formed when a trench was dug in the early 17th century to drain a boggy area ; later in that century this was widened and deepened by the extraction of gravel for local building . The Ponds now take in water from streams flowing from the higher ground around them and release it to Beverley Brook . Beverley Brook and the two Pen Ponds are most visible areas of water in the park .
Beverley Brook rises at Cuddington Recreation Park in Worcester Park and enters the park ( where it is followed by the Tamsin Trail and Beverley Walk ) at Robin Hood Gate , creating a water feature used by deer , smaller animals and water grasses and some water lilies . Its name is derived from the former presence in the river of the European beaver ( Castor fiber ) , a species extinct in Britain since the sixteenth century .
Most of the streams in the park drain into Beverley Brook but a spring above Dann 's Pond flows to join Sudbrook ( from " South brook " ) on the park boundary . Sudbrook flows through a small valley known as Ham Dip and has been dammed and enlarged in two places to form Ham Dip Pond and Ham Gate Pond , first mapped in 1861 and 1754 respectively . These were created for the watering of deer . Both ponds underwent restoration work including de @-@ silting , which was completed in 2013 . Sudbrook drains the western escarpment of the hill that , to the east , forms part of the catchment of Beverley Brook and , to the south , the Hogsmill River . Sudbrook is joined by the Latchmere Stream just beyond Ham Gate Pond . Sudbrook then flows into Sudbrook Park , Petersham . Another stream rises north of Sidmouth Wood and goes through Conduit Wood towards the park boundary near Bog Gate .
A separate water system for Isabella Plantation was developed in the 1950s . Water from the upper Pen Pond is pumped to Still Pond , Thomson 's Pond and Peg 's Pond .
The park 's newest pond is Attenborough Pond , opened by and named after the broadcaster and naturalist Sir David Attenborough in July 2014 . It was created as part of the park 's Ponds and Streams Conservation Programme .
= = In culture = =
= = = The Hearsum Collection = = =
The Hearsum Collection is a registered charity that collects and preserves the heritage of Richmond Park . It has a collection , which was started in 1997 , of heritage material covering the last four centuries , with over 5000 items including antique prints , paintings , maps , postcards , photographs , documents , books and press cuttings . Volunteers from the Friends of Richmond Park have been cataloguing them . The Collection , which as of 2015 continues to be stored in unsatisfactory accommodation in Pembroke Lodge , is overseen by volunteers and part @-@ time staff . The trustees announced in 2014 plans for a new purpose @-@ built heritage centre to provide full public access to the Collection .
= = = Literature = = =
= = = = Fiction = = = =
Chapter 22 of George MacDonald 's novel The Marquis of Lossie ( published in London in 1877 by Hurst and Blackett ) is entitled " Richmond Park " .
In Georgette Heyer 's Regency romance Sylvester , or the Wicked Uncle ( 1957 ) there is an expedition to Richmond Park .
Isabella Plantation in Richmond Park is the scene of a picnic and a child 's disappearance in chapters 9 and 10 of Chris Cleave 's 2008 novel The Other Hand . Richmond Park features in Jacqueline Wilson 's novel Lily Alone ( 2010 ) and in the poetry anthology she edited , Green Glass Beads ( 2011 ) .
Anthony Horowitz 's 2014 novel Moriarty , about Arthur Conan Doyle 's character in his Sherlock Holmes stories , includes a scene set in Richmond Park .
= = = = Non @-@ fiction = = = =
A Hind in Richmond Park by William Henry Hudson , published in 1922 and republished in 2006 , is an extended natural history essay . It includes an account of his visits to Richmond Park and a particular occasion when a young girl was struck by a red deer when she tried to feed it an acorn .
= = = Art = = =
= = = = 17th century = = = =
The oil painting The Carlile Family with Sir Justinian Isham in Richmond Park is held at Lamport Hall in Northamptonshire . It was painted by Joan Carlile ( 1600 – 1679 ) who lived at Petersham Lodge .
= = = = 18th and 19th centuries = = = =
A portrait by T Stewart ( a pupil of Sir Joshua Reynolds ) in 1758 of John Lewis , Brewer of Richmond , Surrey , whose legal action forced Princess Amelia to reinstate pedestrian access to the park , is in the Richmond upon Thames Borough Art Collection . It is on display in Richmond Reference Library .
Joseph Allen 's Sir Robert Walpole ( 1676 – 1745 ) , 1st Earl of Orford , KG , as Ranger of Richmond Park ( after Jonathan Richardson the Elder ) is in the collection of the National Trust , and is held at Erddig , Wrexham . The painting is based on a portrait with a similar title , by Jonathan Richardson the Elder and John Wootton , which is held at Norwich Castle Museum and Art Gallery .
Artist and caricaturist Thomas Rowlandson ( 1756 – 1827 ) ' s drawing Richmond Park is at the Yale Center for British Art .
The Earl of Dysart 's Family in Richmond Park by William Frederick Witherington ( 1785 – 1865 ) is in The Hearsum Collection at Pembroke Lodge .
Landscape : View in Richmond Park was painted in 1850 by the English Romantic painter John Martin . It is held at the Fitzwilliam Museum in Cambridge .
William Bennett 's watercolour In Richmond Park , painted in 1852 , is held by Tate Britain . It can be viewed , by appointment , at its Prints and Drawings Rooms .
The oil painting In Richmond Park ( 1856 ) by the Victorian painter Henry Moore is in the collection of the York Museums Trust .
Landscape with Deer , Richmond Park ( 1875 ) by Alfred Dawson is in the Reading Museum 's collection .
John Buxton Knight 's White Lodge , Richmond Park , painted in 1898 , is in the collection of Leeds Museums and Galleries .
= = = = 20th and 21st centuries = = = =
The oil painting Richmond Park ( 1913 ) by Arthur George Bell is in the collection of the London Transport Museum .
Spencer Gore 's painting Richmond Park , thought to have been painted in the autumn of 1913 or shortly before the artist 's death in March 1914 , was exhibited at the Paterson and Carfax Gallery in 1920 . In 1939 it was exhibited in Warsaw , Helsingfors and Stockholm by the British Council as Group of Trees . It is now in the collection of the Tate Gallery under its original title but is not currently on display . The painting is one of a series of landscapes painted in Richmond Park during the last months of Gore 's life . According to Tate curator Helena Bonett , Gore 's early death from pneumonia , two months before what would have been his 36th birthday , was brought on by his painting outdoors in Richmond Park in the cold and wet winter months . It is not certain where in the park the picture was made but a row of trees close to the pond near Cambrian Gate has a very close resemblance to those in the painting . Another Gore painting , with the same title ( Richmond Park ) , painted in 1914 , is at the Ashmolean Museum . His painting Wood in Richmond Park is in the Birmingham Art Gallery 's collection .
The oil painting Autumn , Richmond Park by Alfred James Munnings is at the Sir Alfred Munnings Art Museum in Colchester .
Chinese artist Chiang Yee wrote and illustrated several books while living in Britain . Deer in Richmond Park is Plate V in his book The Silent Traveller in London , published in 1938 .
Trees , Richmond Park , Surrey , painted in 1938 by Francis Ferdinand Maurice Cook , is in the Manchester City Galleries ' collection .
Richmond Park No 2 by the English Impressionist painter Laura Knight is at the Royal Academy of Arts .
In Richmond Park ( 1962 ) by James Andrew Wykeham Simons is at the UCL Art Museum .
Kenneth Armitage ( 1916 – 2002 ) made a series of sculptures and drawings of oak trees in Richmond Park between 1975 and 1986 . His collage and etching Richmond Park : Tall Figure with Jerky Arms ( 1981 ) is in the British Government Art Collection and is on display at the British Embassy in Prague . The Government Art Collection also holds his Richmond Park : Two Trees with White Trunks ( 1975 ) , Richmond Park : Five Trees , Grey Sky ( 1979 ) and his sculpture Richmond Oak ( 1985 – 86 ) .
Richmond Park Morning , London ( 2004 ) by Bob Rankin is at Queen Mary 's Hospital , Roehampton , which also holds a panel of five oil paintings by Yvonne Fletcher entitled Richmond Park , London ( 2005 – 06 ) .
= = = = Historic posters = = = =
The Underground Electric Railways Company published , in 1911 , a poster , Richmond Park , designed by Charles Sharland . This is at the London Transport Museum , which also has : a District line poster from 1908 , Richmond Park for pleasure and fresh air , by an unknown artist ; Richmond Park , by an unknown artist ( 1910 ) ; Richmond by Underground , by Alfred France ( 1910 ) ; Richmond Park , by Arthur G Bell ( 1913 ) ; Richmond Park ; humours no . 10 by German American puppeteer and illustrator Tony Sarg ( 1913 ) ; Richmond Park by tram , by Charles Sharland ( 1913 ) ; Richmond Park , by Harold L Oakley ( 1914 ) ; Natural history of London ; no . 3 , herons at Richmond Park , by Edwin Noble ( 1916 ) ; Richmond Park by Emilio Camilio Leopoldo Tafani ( 1920 ) ; Rambles in Richmond Park , by Freda Lingstrom ( 1924 ) ; Richmond Park by Charles Paine ( 1925 ) ; and Richmond Park , a poster commissioned by London Transport in 1938 and illustrated by the artist Dame Laura Knight .
= = = Film = = =
Richmond Park has been a location for several films and TV series :
A locomotive runs through the park and crashes into a tree in the film The Titfield Thunderbolt ( 1955 ) .
In the 1968 film Performance , James Fox crosses Richmond Park in a Rolls Royce car .
The park was the backdrop for the classic historical film Anne of the Thousand Days ( 1969 ) , with Richard Burton and Geneviève Bujold , which looks back to Richmond Park in the 16th century . The film tells the story of King Henry VIII 's courtship of Anne Boleyn and their brief marriage .
An Indian dust storm was filmed in the park for the film Heat and Dust ( 1983 ) .
The Royal Ballet School in Richmond Park featured in the film Billy Elliot ( 2000 ) .
In 2010 , director Guy Ritchie filmed parts of Sherlock Holmes : A Game of Shadows in the park with Robert Downey , Jr. and Jude Law .
Some of the scenes from Into the Woods ( 2014 ) , the Disney fantasy film featuring Meryl Streep , were filmed in the park .
As well as a location for films , Richmond Park is regularly featured in television programmes , corporate videos and fashion shoots . It has made an appearance on Blue Peter , Inside Out ( the BBC regional current affairs programme ) and BBC Springwatch . In 2014 it was featured in a video commissioned by The Hearsum Collection .
= = International connections = =
= = = Richmond Park , Brunswick , Germany = = =
The " Richmond Park " in Germany is named after the park in Britain , since it was created in 1768 in Brunswick for Princess Augusta , sister of George III . She was married to the Duke of Brunswick and was feeling homesick , so an English @-@ style park was laid out and a palace built for her , both with the name " Richmond " .
In 1935 , the palace including the entire estate was purchased by the City of Braunschweig . One condition for the purchase was that no structural changes ever be made and the park not be built on . The palace , which was rebuilt after the war , is now used for public events .
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= Bye Bye Nerdie =
" Bye Bye Nerdie " is the sixteenth episode of the twelfth season of the American animated sitcom The Simpsons . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on March 11 , 2001 . In the episode , after Lisa becomes the target of a female bully named Francine , she discovers a scientific reason as to why bullies pick on nerds and demonstrates her findings at a science conference . Meanwhile , Homer goes into the childproofing business , causing baby @-@ injury @-@ related businesses to go in decline .
John Frink and Don Payne wrote " Bye Bye Nerdie " and their original idea for the episode saw Lisa being sent to juvenile hall after accidentally punching Principal Skinner when she was attempting to punch Francine . " Bye Bye Nerdie " was the first The Simpsons episode directed by Lauren MacMullan , who also made the design for Francine . Actress and comedian Kathy Griffin guest starred in the episode as this new bully character .
" Bye Bye Nerdie " has received generally positive reviews from critics and it was listed among " The Top Ten science moments in The Simpsons " by the editorial staff of Nature . Around 8 @.@ 8 million American homes tuned in to watch the episode during its original airing , and in 2009 it was released on DVD along with the rest of the episodes of the twelfth season .
= = Plot = =
On an ordinary day at Springfield Elementary , Lisa attempts to make friends with a new girl , Francine ( who is much larger and tougher than Lisa ) , but Francine beats up Lisa severely . Even attempting to share an interest in Malibu Stacy does not work since the doll that Francine has turns out to be Lisa 's , which she then ruins . Lisa attempts to hire the school bullies ( Nelson , Dolph , Jimbo , and Kearney ) to protect her , but they refuse since girls fight dirtier than boys ( and boys tend to be more vulnerable to falling in love ) . It is up to Lisa to investigate by herself the reason why Francine is targeting her .
Meanwhile , Homer starts to fear that Maggie could die from touching things unsafe to her when he hears this from a childproofing saleswoman . As a result , he starts his own childproofing crusade , selling cheap but safe and effective products and making Springfield safe for children . However , this causes the baby @-@ injury @-@ related business in Springfield to go in decline . Homer feels bad for making people such as pediatricians lose their jobs and thus he ends his childproofing career .
Lisa does scientific research on nerds and discovers that the odor of the chemical nerd pheromone " poindextrose " attracts bullies like Francine , proving that both nerds and bullies are predisposed to be what they are . Lisa then tests the poindextrose extracted from the nerds on famous boxer Drederick Tatum by putting it on his clothes when he visits the school . This causes Nelson to start punching Tatum uncontrollably and give him a wedgie . Lisa demonstrates her experiment at Professor Frink 's science conference , the " 12th Annual Big Science Thing " , using an antidote on herself and making Francine peaceful and friendly towards her , the antidote being just salad dressing which covers up the smell of the poindextrose . The audience is impressed and Lisa is awarded a gift certificate from J. C. Penney for her research . However , the salad dressing soon runs out and Francine goes on a rampage beating up all the scientists in the room .
= = Production = =
The episode was produced as part of the twelfth season of The Simpsons ( 2000 – 01 ) and was written by writing partners John Frink and Don Payne . " Bye Bye Nerdie " was the first episode of the show directed by Lauren MacMullan , who joined the staff of The Simpsons following the cancellation of the short @-@ lived television series Mission Hill , which was created by former Simpsons writers and executive producers Bill Oakley and Josh Weinstein on which she worked as a supervising director and designer . American actress and stand @-@ up comedian Kathy Griffin guest starred in the episode as the bully Francine . MacMullan designed this new character herself and tried to make her seem like a professional bully by having her carry her lunch box with her all the time like a briefcase .
" Bye Bye Nerdie " was initially titled " Lisa the Bully " because the original idea for the episode , which the writers first pitched , saw Lisa becoming so fed up with Francine 's behavior that she attempted to punch Francine . However , she would miss and accidentally punch Principal Skinner instead , resulting in her being sent to juvenile hall where she would make illegal jeans . According to The Simpsons show runner Mike Scully , when the staff members worked on the episode they decided to include a lot of observations they had made about how it is like to be the new student in school . Scully has said that the episode shows how in real life the " poor new kid always has kind of two strikes against them just for being the new kid , and the other students are usually looking for anything that they perceive as different or weird about that kid . "
The subplot of Homer entering the childproofing business was inspired by an instance when a salesman visited Payne and his pregnant wife to see if their home was safe for children . In an interview with Star @-@ News , Payne commented : " You hire this person to come into your home to look for changes you can make . They make you feel like the most horrible person in the world and that your house is the temple of doom . " " Bye Bye Nerdie " features a scene based specifically on this instance in which a saleswoman ( voiced by cast member Tress MacNeille ) selling childproofing items visits Homer and Marge and exaggerates the dangers in their home . NRBQ 's song " Always Safety First " is played during a montage in the episode in which Homer is seen improving the safety of the infants of Springfield .
= = Release = =
The episode originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on March 11 , 2001 . During this broadcast , it was watched in approximately 8 @.@ 8 million households . It received an 8 @.@ 7 Nielsen rating , ranking twenty @-@ sixth in the ratings for the week of March 5 – 11 , 2001 . The episode was seen by a fourteen percent share of the television audience during the broadcast . On August 18 , 2009 , " Bye Bye Nerdie " was released on DVD as part of the box set The Simpsons – The Complete Twelfth Season . Staff members Mike Scully , Don Payne , Lauren MacMullan , Tim Long , Ian Maxtone @-@ Graham , Matt Selman , Tom Gammill , Yeardley Smith , and Steven Dean Moore participated in the DVD audio commentary for the episode . Deleted scenes from the episode were also featured on the box set .
Critics have given " Bye Bye Nerdie " generally positive reviews . DVD Movie Guide 's Colin Jacobson commented that " While this isn ’ t saying much , ' Nerdie ' provides one of Season 12 ’ s better shows . Both plots work well , though I prefer the childproofing side of things ; it peters out at the end , but it has some good bits . The episode keeps us interested and entertained . " Mac McEntire of DVD Verdict cited the scene in which the children imagine what kind of person the new student is as the greatest moment in the episode .
In the July 26 , 2007 issue of Nature , the scientific journal 's editorial staff listed " Bye Bye Nerdie " among " The Top Ten science moments in The Simpsons " , writing : " Lisa isolates the element in nerd sweat that makes them irresistible targets for bullies . She presents her data at a conference with luminaries including former surgeon general C. Everett Koop , a scene in which we find the true purpose of a science pole . " At the conference , Professor Frink gets the attention of the audience by shouting " Pi is exactly three ! " , making everyone gasp . This scene and the episode as a whole has been used by mathematicians Sarah J. Greenwald of Appalachian State University and Andrew Nestler of Santa Monica College in mathematics classes to teach students about the number pi ( π ) .
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= Indiana World War Memorial Plaza =
The Indiana World War Memorial Plaza is an urban feature located in Indianapolis , Indiana , United States , originally built to honor the veterans of World War I. The five @-@ city @-@ block plaza was conceived in 1919 as a location for the national headquarters of the American Legion and a memorial to the state 's and nation 's veterans . At the north end of the plaza is the American Legion Mall , which is the site of the administration buildings of the Legion , as well as a memorial cenotaph . South of that is the Veterans Memorial Plaza with its obelisk .
The centerpiece of the plaza is the Indiana World War Memorial , modeled after the Mausoleum of Halicarnassus . Within is a military museum , the Shrine Room , and an auditorium . At the south end is University Park , the oldest part of the plaza , filled with statues and a fountain . On October 11 , 1994 , the Indiana World War Memorial Plaza was designated a National Historic Landmark District .
= = History = =
The origins of the Indiana World War Memorial Plaza lay in a 1919 attempt by the city of Indianapolis to lure the newly formed American Legion from its temporary headquarters in New York City . The American Legion , chartered by Congress in 1919 after World War I , is an organization of veterans that sponsors youth programs , promotes patriotism and national security , and provides commitment to Americans who have served in the armed forces . Three Indianapolis veterans wanted to attract the Legion to the city , which already had the Soldiers ' and Sailors ' Monument . At an American Legion national convention in Minneapolis during November 1919 , cities sent representatives to lobby to become the new headquarters . Indianapolis drew support because of its central location within the United States and the city 's shows of patriotism . Although Washington , D.C. received the most votes on the first ballot , Indianapolis gained a majority and won the second with 361 votes out of 684 cast .
The city and state then had to provide a location , and one of the promises the city made was to erect a fitting memorial to those who served in World War I. Thus , in January 1920 a public library , St. Clair Park , University Park , and two occupied city blocks were designated as the site for the plaza , with one new building for the American Legion to use as their national headquarters , various public buildings , and a war memorial . The Indiana War Memorial Bill was passed in July 1920 and appropriated $ 2 million for construction and land . Work began in 1921 . The city and state reached an agreement whereby the city would pay for the site and maintenance costs , while the State of Indiana would pay for the memorial 's construction . The Plaza was dedicated by the Legion in November 1921 with the laying of a cornerstone from the bridge over the River Marne at Château @-@ Thierry .
Various architects were invited by an appointed War Memorial Board to submit designs for a memorial intended to honor all who fought in World War I and also to provide meeting places , archives , and offices for the American Legion . The partnership of Walker and Weeks of Cleveland , Ohio was chosen in 1923 . Their plan consisted of a main memorial and two auxiliary buildings , an obelisk , a mall , and a cenotaph . Bids for the American Legion building , one of the two auxiliary buildings , were put out in 1925 and construction by the Craig @-@ Curtiss Company began the same year . In style the structure complimented the nearby local library . The second auxiliary building was not constructed until 1950 . When Congress authorized the payment of WWI veterans ' bonuses in 1936 , the state of Indiana used the money for construction of the memorial plaza , rather than paying it to the veterans . The Neoclassical design incorporated the existing library , federal building , and University Park . One additional building was planned but never built .
The War Memorial and the parks in the plaza are an example of the City Beautiful movement , which supported classical , uniform , and beautiful public architecture . The plaza covers a five @-@ block strip north of Monument Circle between St. Clair , Pennsylvania , New York , and Meridian Streets . In 1989 , the plaza was listed on the National Register of Historic Places , and it was named a National Historic Landmark District in 1994 . The Historic District includes the plaza as well as the Indianapolis Public Library , immediately north of the plaza , and the Birch Bayh Federal Building & U.S. Courthouse , immediately south . The Scottish Rite Cathedral is across the street on the west side of the plaza , and the Minton @-@ Capehart Federal Building is across the street on the east side .
The Indiana World War Memorial Plaza is a popular location for celebrations , including the Fourth of July festival , Veterans Day , and Memorial Day services . The Chase Tower , located three blocks directly south of the Memorial building , has a roof with a design similar to the Memorial 's .
= = American Legion Mall = =
The two auxiliary buildings on the plaza are used by the American Legion . Both buildings were constructed from Indiana limestone in neoclassical style , similar to the public library just to the north . The east building at Meridian and St. Clair , designated building B on the original plan , houses the Indiana Department of the American Legion , the American Legion Auxiliary , and the National Forty and Eight . The four @-@ story building served as the national headquarters until the second building was completed .
The larger west building at Pennsylvania and St. Clair , building C , serves as the Legion 's national headquarters . The headquarters deals with the mail , archives , and other internal administrative functions of the Legion ; the lobbying efforts of the Legion are based in its Washington , D.C. office . Its two wings each mirror building B and are joined by a recessed central entrance .
Three semi @-@ circular granite memorials list the names of the Hoosiers killed in World War II , the Korean War , and the Vietnam War .
= = = Cenotaph Square = = =
Cenotaph Square is located between the two auxiliary buildings used by the American Legion . It is in a sunken garden with the rectangular black granite cenotaph centered in it resting upon a base of red and dark green granite . Four shafts of black granite , with gold eagles surmounted on them , mark the corners of the square . The inscription on the north face of the cenotaph memorializes James Bethel Gresham , a Hoosier who was the first member of the American Expeditionary Force to be killed in action in World War I. A native of Evansville , he was a corporal in the 16th Infantry Regiment and was killed at Bathelemont , France on November 3 , 1917 . The inscription on the south side says " A tribute by Indiana to the hallowed memory of the glorious dead who served in the World War . "
= = Veterans Memorial Plaza = =
The Veterans Memorial Plaza , also called Obelisk Square , has an obelisk and fountain and is located on the plaza south of the Mall . The 100 @-@ foot ( 30 m ) black granite obelisk was built in 1923 , and the square was completed in 1930 . Near the base of the obelisk are 4 @-@ foot ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) -by @-@ 8 @-@ foot ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) panels placed in 1929 representing law , science , religion , and education intended to represent the fundamentals of the nation . The obelisk rises from a 100 @-@ foot @-@ diameter ( 30 m ) , two @-@ level fountain made of pink Georgia marble and terrazzo . The fountain has two basins , spray rings , and multicolored lights . On the east and west sides fly the flags of the fifty states , which were installed in 1976 for the US Bicentennial . They were replaced with the flags of countries of the Americas during the 1987 Pan American Games . The square was originally paved with asphalt , but it was landscaped with grass and trees in 1975 .
= = The War Memorial = =
Architects Walker and Weeks planned the Indiana World War Memorial Building as the plaza 's centerpiece , sitting between the federal building and the public library . Work on the actual memorial to the veterans of World War I began in early 1926 . Five of the seven buildings located on the site had to be demolished before the construction commenced ; the other two , Second Presbyterian Church and First Baptist Church , were not demolished until 1960 . General John Pershing laid the cornerstone of the memorial on July 4 , 1927 , saying he was " consecrating the edifice as a patriotic shrine " . Funding problems in 1928 slowed the building of the interior . Even a new contractor in 1931 and $ 195 @,@ 000 provided by the Public Works Administration in 1936 did little to speed the process of completing the structure . Although its interior was incomplete , it was dedicated on November 11 , 1933 ( Veterans Day ) by Governor Paul McNutt and Lt. Gen. Hugh Drum , Deputy Chief of Staff of the United States Army . In 1949 a local newspaper reported that the memorial was already deteriorating , its limestone scaling , paint peeling , leaks forming , and plaster cracking ; further reports were published in 1961 . Despite proposals to develop the area instead of completing it as originally planned , the memorial and surrounding landscaping were finally completed in 1965 .
The memorial 's design is based upon the Mausoleum of Halicarnassus , which was one of the Seven Wonders of the World . At 210 feet ( 64 m ) tall it is approximately 75 feet ( 23 m ) taller than the original Mausoleum . The blue lights which shine between columns on the side of the War Memorial make the monument easily recognizable . It is the most imposing neoclassical structure in Indianapolis due to its scale and size .
The cubical structure is clad in unrelieved ashlar Indiana limestone on a high , lightly rusticated base , and is topped with a low pyramidal roof that sheathes its interior dome . It stands on a raised terrace approached by a wide monumental staircase . The structure has four identical faces . On each face an Ionic screen of six columns , behind which are tall banks of windows , and is surmounted by symbolic standing figures designed by Henry Hering : Courage , Memory , Peace , Victory , Liberty , and Patriotism . The sculptures are repeated on each façade . On the south side , standing on a pink granite base in the center of the grand access stairs , is Hering 's colossal exultant male nude bronze Pro Patria ( 1929 ) ; it is 24 feet ( 7 @.@ 3 m ) high , weighs seven tons , and was the largest cast bronze sculpture in the United States .
The north and south entrances are guarded by shield @-@ bearing limestone lions , and on each corner of the terrace sits an urn . The pyramidal roof is stepped and has a lantern on top . Above the tall bronze doors on each side is the inscription " To vindicate the principles of peace and justice in the world . " On the north side is the building 's main inscription :
= = = Indiana World War Memorial Military Museum = = =
The main entrance of the Indiana War Memorial Museum is on the north façade , which opens into a large hall with Tennessee marble floors and Art Deco Egyptian themes . The museum is housed mainly on the lower level of the monument and honors the efforts of Hoosier soldiers in a timeline from the American Revolutionary War to modern conflicts . World War I and World War II are featured most prominently . Aside from firearms , it features a Cobra helicopter , and the USS Indiana 's commission plate . There are over 400 military flags housed in the museum , more than 300 of which are from the American Civil War . Indiana 's Liberty Bell replica is located near the main entrance . It is of the kind given to each state by the federal government in 1950 to encourage the purchase of savings bonds .
Additional museum exhibits are displayed on the main level of the monument . An exhibit replicating the radio room of the USS Indianapolis includes original equipment from World War II was opened on November 7 , 2009 . The Grand Foyer main level features the 500 @-@ seat Pershing Auditorium , built and decorated with materials donated from several states and World War I allies . The memorial also has three meeting rooms on the main level ; these rooms were originally named in honor of General George Patton , General Douglas MacArthur , and Admiral Chester Nimitz . In 2009 , the rooms were renamed in honor of Hoosier veterans : Admiral Raymond A. Spruance , General David M. Shoup , and Major Samuel Woodfill .
Above the main level is the Shrine Room , nearly a vertical double cube , 110 ft ( 34 m ) high and 60 ft ( 18 m ) on a side , clad in materials collected from all the allied nations of World War I. Accessed by two staircases from the Grand Foyer , the Shrine Room Stairway 's American Pavonazzo marble walls bear the names of all Hoosiers who fought in World War I. On the east and west sides are paintings by Walter Brough of the leading soldiers of France , America , Great Britain , Belgium , Italy , and Serbia . Surrounding the room are sculptor Frank Jirouch 's marble frieze depicting events of World War I. At the center of the space , beneath a giant hanging 17 @-@ foot ( 5 @.@ 2 m ) -by @-@ 30 @-@ foot ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) American flag , is the Altar of Consecration , flanked at the corners with cauldrons on tripod stands . Above the flag is the Star of Destiny , made of Swedish crystal , representing the future of the nation .
= = University Park = =
University Park occupies the southernmost block of the plaza . It was originally intended to serve as the site of a state university , but this never occurred . Instead , it was the site of churches , a high school , and a training ground for Union soldiers during the American Civil War . In 1876 it was transformed into a city park . Surrounding the square are statues of prominent Hoosiers . Benjamin Harrison 's statue is on the south side , designed by Henry Bacon and Charles Niehaus ; seated Abraham Lincoln is in the southeast corner , designed by Henry Hering in 1934 ; and Schuyler Colfax is on the east side , designed by Lorado Taft in 1887 . There are also sculptures of Pan and the nymph Syrinx designed by Myra Reynolds Richards in 1923 . University Park was redesigned in 1914 by George Kessler for the park and boulevard system he had developed for Indianapolis , which included a fountain at the center . Street lamps on the walkways have acorn globes and fluted shafts , and two of them decorated with lions ' heads stand on the backs of metal turtles .
= = = The Depew Memorial Fountain = = =
The Depew Memorial Fountain is a free standing fountain completed in 1919 . It is composed of multiple bronze figures arranged on a five @-@ tier granite stone base with three basins . The bronze sculptures depict fish , eight children dancing , and a woman on the topmost tier dancing and playing cymbals . The dimensions are approximately 25 x 45 x 45 feet ( 14 m ) .
The fountain was commissioned in memory of Dr. Richard J. Depew by his wife , Emma Ely , following Dr. Depew 's death in 1887 . When Mrs. Depew died in 1913 , she had bequeathed $ 50 @,@ 000 from her estate to the city of Indianapolis for the erection of a fountain in memory of her husband " in some park or public place where all classes of people may enjoy it . " The original design was created by Karl Bitter , who was killed in a traffic accident in 1915 before the work could be finished . Following Bitter 's overall design , Alexander Stirling Calder created the bronze figures and the fountain . Architect Henry Bacon designed the fountain 's setting .
A memorial plaque on south side of the large granite basin reads " Depew Memorial Fountain . A gift to Indianapolis from Emma Ely Depew in memory of her husband Richard Johnson Depew M.D. whose long and honorable life was spent in untiring service to his fellow men . "
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= Charlemagne @-@ class battleship =
The Charlemagne class was a class of three pre @-@ dreadnought battleships built for the French Navy in the 1890s . The ships spent most of their careers assigned to the Mediterranean Squadron ( Escadre de la Méditerranée ) . They had oddly eventful peacetime careers as they were involved in four accidental collisions between them , one of which sank a French submarine with all hands . Saint Louis was usually a fleet flagship during her career and Charlemagne twice participated in the occupation of the port of Mytilene on the island of Lesbos — then owned by the Ottoman Empire — once as part of a French expedition and another as part of an international squadron .
During World War I , they were initially used to escort Allied troop convoys in the Mediterranean . All three ships were ordered to the Dardanelles in November 1914 to guard against a sortie into the Mediterranean by the German battlecruiser SMS Goeben . Charlemagne and Gaulois joined British ships in bombarding Turkish fortifications in early 1915 while Saint Louis was briefly assigned to bombard Turkish positions in Palestine and the Sinai Peninsula . Gaulois was badly damaged by a Turkish shell during one of these bombardments and had to beach herself to avoid sinking . She later returned to the Dardanelles and rejoined her sisters , providing fire support during the Gallipoli Campaign until the Allies evacuated their troops . Saint Louis and Charlemagne were transferred to the squadron assigned to prevent any interference by the Greeks with Allied operations on the Salonica front in 1916 and Gaulois was en route to join them when she was sunk by a German submarine later that year .
The two surviving ships were placed in reserve during 1917 . Charlemagne was decommissioned later in 1917 and sold for scrap in 1923 . Saint Louis briefly became a training ship in 1919 – 20 and was then converted to serve as an accommodation hulk in 1920 . She was not sold until 1933 , although she was listed for disposal in 1931 .
= = Design and description = =
The Charlemagne @-@ class battleships were 117 @.@ 7 metres ( 386 ft 2 in ) long overall and had a beam of 20 @.@ 3 metres ( 66 ft 7 in ) . At deep load , they had a draught of 7 @.@ 4 metres ( 24 ft 3 in ) forward and 8 @.@ 4 metres ( 27 ft 7 in ) aft . They displaced 11 @,@ 275 metric tons ( 11 @,@ 097 long tons ) at deep load . Their crew generally consisted of 727 officers and enlisted men as a private ship , or 41 officers and 744 men as a fleet flagship .
The Charlemagne @-@ class ships did not function well in a head sea . Stormy weather in the Bay of Biscay in 1900 caused the captain of Gaulois to complain that the ship 's forward gun turret and casemates were flooded out and that the ship generated enormous sheets of spray when water came over the bow . Like most French capital ships of the period , they had pronounced tumblehome . Gaulois 's captain also said that his ship was a steady gunnery platform and manoeuvered well in tight spaces but he criticized the armour layout as not high enough to prevent munitions from penetrating above the main armour belt and detonating below the secondary armament positions .
The ships used three 4 @-@ cylinder vertical triple expansion steam engines , each engine driving a 4 @.@ 3 @-@ metre ( 14 ft ) propeller . Rated at 14 @,@ 500 PS ( 10 @,@ 700 kW ) , they produced between 14 @,@ 220 – 15 @,@ 295 metric horsepower ( 10 @,@ 459 – 11 @,@ 249 kW ) during their sea trials using steam generated by 20 Belleville water @-@ tube boilers . The boilers had a maximum operating pressure of 17 kg / cm2 ( 1 @,@ 667 kPa ; 242 psi ) . The ships reached top speeds of 18 @.@ 024 to 18 @.@ 5 knots ( 33 @.@ 380 to 34 @.@ 262 km / h ; 20 @.@ 742 to 21 @.@ 289 mph ) on their trials . They carried a maximum of 1 @,@ 050 tonnes ( 1 @,@ 030 long tons ) of coal which allowed them to steam for 4 @,@ 200 miles ( 3 @,@ 600 nmi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .
= = = Armament = = =
The Charlemagnes carried their main armament of four 40 @-@ calibre Canon de 305 mm Modèle 1893 guns in two twin @-@ gun turrets , one each fore and aft . These were the first twin 305 mm gun turrets to be used by the French Navy . They were rotated by electric motors , but the guns were hand @-@ cranked to elevate and depress . This ranged from -5 ° to + 15 ° and the guns were loaded at full depression . The turrets had a ready rack holding 10 shells before they needed to reload from the magazine . The guns fired 349 @.@ 4 @-@ kilogram ( 770 lb ) armour @-@ piercing projectiles at a muzzle velocity of 815 m / s ( 2 @,@ 670 ft / s ) at a theoretical rate of one round every 1 @.@ 3 minutes . At maximum elevation , this provided a range of 12 @,@ 900 metres ( 14 @,@ 100 yd ) . The guns were provided with 45 shells each .
The ships ' secondary armament consisted of ten 45 @-@ calibre Canon de 138 mm Modèle 1893 guns , eight of which were mounted in individual casemates and the remaining pair in shielded mounts on the forecastle deck amidships . The guns had an elevation range between -5 ° 30 " and + 19 ° 30 " . They fired four 35 @-@ kilogram ( 77 lb ) armour @-@ piercing shells per minute at a muzzle velocity of 730 m / s ( 2 @,@ 400 ft / s ) . This gave them a range of 11 @,@ 000 metres ( 12 @,@ 000 yd ) at maximum elevation . The ships carried a total of 2316 rounds for these guns .
They also carried eight 45 @-@ calibre Canon de 100 mm Modèle 1893 guns in shielded mounts on the superstructure . These guns could elevate from -10 ° to + 20 ° and they fired a 16 @-@ kilogram ( 35 lb ) shell at a rate of five rounds per minute . With a muzzle velocity of 710 m / s ( 2 @,@ 300 ft / s ) , they had a range of 10 @,@ 000 metres ( 11 @,@ 000 yd ) at maximum elevation . A total of 2288 rounds , or 286 rounds per gun , was carried for them in each ship . Their anti @-@ torpedo boat defences consisted of twenty 40 @-@ calibre Canon de 47 mm Modèle 1885 Hotchkiss guns , fitted in platforms on both masts , on the superstructure , and in casemates in the hull . These guns could depress to -21 ° and elevate to + 24 ° They fired 1 @.@ 5 @-@ kilogram ( 3 @.@ 3 lb ) projectiles at a muzzle velocity of 650 m / s ( 2 @,@ 100 ft / s ) at a rate of 12 rounds every minute . They had a maximum range of 4 @,@ 000 metres ( 4 @,@ 400 yd ) and were provided with a total of 10 @,@ 500 rounds .
The Charlemagne class mounted four 450 @-@ millimetre ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes , two on each broadside . Two of these were submerged , angled 20 ° from the ship 's axis , and the other two were above the waterline . They were provided with a total of twelve Modèle 1892 torpedoes . These torpedoes had a 75 @-@ kilogram ( 165 lb ) warhead and a maximum range of 800 metres ( 870 yd ) at a speed of 27 @.@ 5 knots ( 50 @.@ 9 km / h ; 31 @.@ 6 mph ) . Beginning about 1906 , the above @-@ water torpedo tubes were removed from each ship . As was common with ships of their generation , they were built with a plough @-@ shaped ram .
= = = Armour = = =
The Charlemagne @-@ class ships carried a total of 820 @.@ 7 tonnes ( 807 @.@ 7 long tons ) of Harvey armour . They had a complete waterline armour belt that was 3 @.@ 26 metres ( 10 ft 8 in ) high . The armour belt tapered from its maximum thickness of 400 mm ( 15 @.@ 7 in ) to a thickness of 110 mm ( 4 @.@ 3 in ) at its lower edge . The armoured deck was 55 mm ( 2 @.@ 2 in ) thick on the flat and was reinforced with an additional 35 mm ( 1 @.@ 4 in ) plate where it angled downwards to meet the armoured belt . The main turrets were protected by 320 mm ( 12 @.@ 6 in ) of armour and their roofs were 50 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) thick . Their barbettes were 270 mm ( 10 @.@ 6 in ) thick . The outer walls of the casemates for the 138 @.@ 6 @-@ millimetre ( 5 @.@ 46 in ) guns were 55 mm thick and they were protected by transverse bulkheads 150 mm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) thick . The conning tower walls were 326 mm ( 12 @.@ 8 in ) thick and its roof consisted of 50 mm armour plates . Its communications tube was protected by armour plates 200 mm ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) thick .
= = Ships = =
= = Careers = =
Charlemagne , the first ship completed , was initially assigned to the Northern Squadron ( escadre du Nord ) , but all three ships were assigned to the Mediterranean Squadron during 1900 . Saint Louis became the flagship of the squadron almost as soon as she reached Toulon and all three participated in a number of port visits and naval reviews . Shortly after her arrival in Toulon , Gaulois accidentally rammed the destroyer Hallebarde and later rammed the battleship Bouvet in 1903 , none of the ships involved were seriously damaged . In 1901 , Gaulois and Charlemagne participated in the occupation of Mytilene in an effort for force the Turkish Sultan , Abdul Hamid II , to enforce contracts made with French companies and to repay loans made by French banks . Charlemagne was the French contribution to an international squadron that briefly occupied Mytilene in November – December 1905 for much the same purposes . Together with the battleships Iéna and Bouvet , Gaulois aided survivors of the April 1906 eruption of Mount Vesuvius in Naples .
All three ships were transferred to the Northern Squadron in 1909 – 10 and Saint Louis was accidentally rammed by the destroyer Poignard during manoeuvers off Hyères in 1911 . Repairs were combined with a major refit later in the year . She accidentally rammed the submarine Vendémiaire on 8 June 1912 off the Casquets , killing all 24 of the submarine 's crew . Her sisters received their refits during 1912 – 13 . All three ships were transferred back to the Mediterranean Fleet after their refits , although their exact assignments differed . Saint Louis became a divisional flagship and Charlemagne was assigned to the Training Division . The Navy intended to assign Gaulois to the Training Division in October 1914 , but the war intervened .
= = = World War I = = =
Together with the older French pre @-@ dreadnoughts , the trio escorted Allied troop convoys through the Mediterranean for the first several months of the war . All three ships were ordered to Tenedos Island , not far from the Gallipoli Peninsula of Turkey , in November to guard against a sortie by the German battlecruiser Goeben . Gaulois became the temporary flagship of Rear Admiral ( contre @-@ amiral ) Émile Guépratte upon her arrival until the return of the battleship Suffren in January 1915 . Saint Louis became the flagship of the newly formed Syrian Squadron ( escadre de Syrie ) on 9 February . The squadron was intended to attack Turkish positions and lines of communication in Syria , Lebanon , Palestine and the Sinai Peninsula . Saint Louis participated in the bombardment of Gaza and El Arish in April before she was transferred back to the Dardanelles in May .
During the bombardment of 19 February , Gaulois bombarded Turkish forts covering the mouth of the Dardanelles , although Charlemagne did not participate that day . During the day 's action , the ship was hit twice , but was only lightly damaged . The two ships traded positions during the bombardment of 25 February , although Charlemagne was not damaged . On 2 March , the French squadron bombarded targets in the Gulf of Saros , at the base of the Gallipoli Peninsula . Five days later , the French squadron attempted to suppress the Turkish guns while British battleships bombarded the fortifications . Gaulois was hit by one shell during this attack that failed to detonate . Admiral Guépratte and his squadron returned to the Gulf of Saros on 11 March where they again bombarded Turkish fortifications .
They returned to assist in the major attack on the fortifications planned for 18 March . British ships made the initial entry into the Dardanelles , but the French ships passed through them to engage the forts at closer range . Gaulois was hit twice during this bombardment , but only one shell did any significant damage . It hit just above the waterline on the starboard bow and pushed in the armour plates below the waterline and opened up a hole through which water flooded in . Little could be done to staunch the inflow and the ship 's captain decided to head for the Rabbit Islands , north of Tenedos , where he could beach his ship for temporary repairs . Escorted by Charlemagne in case she foundered en route , Gaulois managed to reach the islands . After temporary repairs , the ship was refloated and sailed for Toulon , escorted by Suffren . They encountered heavy weather en route and emergency repairs had to be made in the Bay of Navarin . She made Toulon without further incident where the ship was refitted and extensively modified to improve her stability , returning to the Dardanelles in July .
Charlemagne was less severely damaged and was repaired at Bizerte , returning to the Dardanelles in May . Saint Louis arrived that same month and both ships provided fire support for French troops ashore . Charlemagne was transferred to Salonica in October 1915 where she joined the French squadron assigned to prevent any interference by the Greeks with Allied operations in Greece . Saint Louis departed for a refit in Lorient that same month and relieved Charlemagne at Salonica in May 1916 so the latter could be refitted in Bizerte . Gaulois remained at the Dardanelles until August , covering the evacuation of Allied troops from Gallipoli at the end of 1915 , when she started a refit at Brest .
Saint Louis became flagship of the Eastern Naval Division ( division navale d 'Orient ) in October 1916 until she was transferred to Bizerte in February 1917 . Charlemagne returned to Salonica in August 1916 and remained there until ordered to Toulon in August 1917 . Gaulois was en route to Salonica after the completion of her refit in December and was sunk on 27 December 1916 by the German U @-@ boat UB @-@ 47 . Four crewmen were killed , but the rest of the crew was rescued by her escorts . Both of her sisters were placed in reserve upon their arrivals in Bizerte and Toulon . Charlemagne was disarmed on 1 November 1917 , condemned on 21 June 1920 and later sold for scrap in 1923 . Saint Louis was transferred to Toulon in January 1919 and was disarmed and decommissioned the following month . She became a training ship for stokers and engineers that same month . The ship was condemned in June 1920 , although she was converted into an accommodation hulk . Saint Louis listed for disposal in 1931 , but was not sold until 1933 .
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= Pamela C. Rasmussen =
Pamela Cecile Rasmussen ( born October 16 , 1959 ) is a prominent American ornithologist and expert on Asian birds . She was formerly a research associate at the Smithsonian Institution in Washington D.C. , and is based at the Michigan State University . She is associated with other major centers of research in the United States and the United Kingdom .
Rasmussen 's early research investigated South American seabirds and fossil birds from North America . She later specialised in Asian birds describing several new species and clarifying the status of others , particularly white @-@ eyes and owls . More recently , she has been involved in large scale collaborations looking at patterns of global biodiversity , and has assessed the taxonomic status of South Asian vultures .
She was the main author of Birds of South Asia : The Ripley Guide , a landmark publication due to its greater geographical and species coverage compared to its predecessors . As a result of her study of museum bird specimens when researching for the book , she was instrumental in unveiling the extent of the theft from museums and fraudulent documentation perpetrated by eminent British ornithologist Richard Meinertzhagen .
= = Early life and career = =
Rasmussen is the daughter of Helen Rasmussen , a Seventh @-@ Day Adventist , whose husband , Chester Murray Rasmussen , a doctor , had left the family when Pamela and her sisters were young . Her interest in birds started when her mother bought her the junior edition of Oliver Austin 's Birds of the World , and Pamela subsequently always chose to receive bird books as presents .
She took her M.S. in 1983 at Walla Walla University , an Adventist @-@ affiliated university in southeast Washington , and her Ph.D. at the University of Kansas in 1990 , where she studied blue @-@ eyed shags , and was introduced to evolutionary theory , which had not been taught at her alma mater .
Rasmussen is a visiting assistant professor of zoology , and assistant museum curator of mammalogy and ornithology , at Michigan State University , having formerly been a research associate for the eminent American ornithologist S. Dillon Ripley at the Smithsonian Institution in Washington D.C. She is a member of the American Ornithologists Union ( AOU ) Committee on Classification and Nomenclature , a scientific associate with the bird group of the British Natural History Museum zoology section at Tring , and an associate editor of The Ibis , the scientific journal of the British Ornithologists ' Union . Pamela Rasmussen is married to Dr Michael D. Gottfried , who is Curator of Paleontology , Associate Professor of Geology , and Director of the Center for Integrative Studies in General Science at MSU .
= = = Research highlights = = =
= = = = South American seabirds = = = =
Rasmussen ’ s early work was largely focused on studies of the systematics , ecology and behaviour of Patagonian seabirds , notably cormorants . She studied plumage variations in juvenile blue @-@ eyed , king and red @-@ legged shags , and used plumage and behavioural patterns to establish relationships between king and blue @-@ eyed shags . She also reviewed the fishing activity of olivaceous cormorants .
= = = = Asian birds = = = =
Rasmussen described four new Asian bird species from her study of museum specimens . The Nicobar scops owl Otus alius , the Sangihe scops owl Otus collari , and the cinnabar hawk owl Ninox ios , a Sulawesi endemic , all in 1998 , and the Taiwan bush @-@ warbler Bradypterus alishanensis in 2000 . She rediscovered the forest owlet Athene blewitti , which had not been seen since 1884 , in western India , previous searches by S. Dillon Ripley , Salim Ali and others having failed because they relied on fake documentation from Richard Meinertzhagen . In November 1997 , Rasmussen and Ben King of the American Museum of Natural History spent ten days unsuccessfully searching two east Indian locations before driving west to the site of another old specimen , where King spotted a small , chunky owl with short , heavily white @-@ feathered legs and huge claws , which Rasmussen confirmed as the target species whilst the owl was videotaped and photographed .
With her colleagues , she clarified the taxonomy of Indonesian white @-@ eyes , establishing the specific status of the Sangihe white @-@ eye Zosterops nehrkorni and the Seram white @-@ eye Z. stalkeri and confirmed the identity of the Serendib scops owl which had originally been discovered in Sri Lanka by local ornithologist Deepal Warakagoda .
The imperial pheasant is a rare bird found in the forests of Vietnam and Laos . Rasmussen and her co @-@ workers used morphology , hybridisation experiments , and DNA analysis to show that this pheasant , previously thought critically endangered , is actually a naturally occurring hybrid between the Vietnamese pheasant Lophura hatinhensis and the subspecies annamensis of the silver pheasant L. nycthemera .
A 2008 paper saw a return to white @-@ eye taxonomy with the formal description of the Togian white @-@ eye Zosterops somadikartai , an endemic species of the Togian Islands of Indonesia , which , unlike most of its relatives , lacks the white ring around the eye which give this group of birds its name . Rasmussen noted that the Togian white @-@ eye is distinctive not only in its appearance , but also in its lilting song , which sounds higher pitched and is less varied in frequency than the songs of its close relatives .
Pamela Rasmussen ’ s interest in Asian birds led to her involvement in more specifically conservation @-@ directed projects . Two Gyps vultures , the Indian white @-@ rumped vulture , Gyps bengalensis , and the " long @-@ billed vulture " suffered a 99 percent population decrease in South Asia due to poisoning by diclofenac , a veterinary drug that causes kidney failure in birds that have eaten the carcasses of treated cattle . Rasmussen showed that there are two distinct species of long @-@ billed vulture : the Indian vulture G. indicus and slender @-@ billed vulture G. tenuirostris . This is important to conservation , since a captive @-@ breeding program has been established to assist the recovery of at @-@ risk vulture species .
= = = = Biodiversity = = = =
In 2005 , Rasmussen was part of a large multi @-@ institutional collaboration investigating biodiversity hotspots , which have a prominent role in conservation . The study assessed locations quantitatively for three criteria of bird diversity – species richness , the level of threat , and the number of endemism species . The results demonstrated that hotspots did not show the same geographical distribution for each factor . Only 2 @.@ 5 % of hotspot areas are common to all three aspects of diversity , with over 80 % of hotspots registering on only one criterion . Each criterion explained less than 24 % of the variation in the other factors , suggesting that even within a single taxonomic class , different mechanisms are responsible for the origin and maintenance of various aspects of diversity . Consequently , the different types of hotspots also vary greatly in their utility as conservation tools .
Rasmussen 's recent work has concentrated on further large @-@ scale collaborations with the same group of institutions studying global patterns in biodiversity . A survey of species richness and geographical range size did not show the decrease in range size from temperate regions to the tropics that had been previously assumed ; although that pattern was largely true in the northern hemisphere , it did not appear to apply in the southern hemisphere . Research evaluating the relationship between extinction and human impact showed that , after controlling for species richness , the best predictors of the global pattern of extinction risk are measures of human impact , with ecological factors being of secondary importance . An examination of the distribution of rare and threatened vertebrate species , showed differing patterns for bird , mammal and amphibian species , which has consequences for hotspot @-@ based conservation strategies .
Other studies by Rasmussen and her international colleagues looked at the importance of energy availability , and a 2007 paper showed that global patterns of spatial turnover are driven principally by widespread species rather than restricted ones . This complements other work , and helps to establish a unified model of how terrestrial biodiversity varies both within and between the Earth 's major land masses .
= = = = Zooarchaeology = = = =
A fossil site at a borrow pit in near Cheswold , Delaware created during highway construction unearthed 11 specimens of fragmentary and unassociated avian fossils , which were identified by Rasmussen as including a small loon , a small gull @-@ like species and five specimens of a gannet @-@ like seabird , probably Morus loxostylus , a common species in the Miocene . All of these forms were already known from a site in Chesapeake Bay , Maryland . The finds suggests that the Delaware site was the near @-@ shore area of a large bay at the time of deposition .
Rasmussen was also involved in a review of fossil birds from Miocene and Pliocene deposits in North Carolina . Finds included an early Miocene loon Colymboides minutus , various ducks , a crested tern closely resembling the modern royal tern Sterna maxima , and a member of the crow genus , one of the few fossil passerine birds from that period . The review found that fossil birds from this period generally closely resemble a modern species or genus , and those that do not can usually be placed in a modern family with a fair degree of confidence .
= = = Birds of South Asia = = =
In 1992 , Rasmussen took the position of assistant to S. Dillon Ripley , the former secretary of the Smithsonian , who was planning to produce a definitive guide to the birds of South Asia . When he became ill shortly after beginning the project , Rasmussen took over the project , and with artist John C. Anderton , produced Birds of South Asia : The Ripley Guide , a two @-@ volume bird guide for the Indian subcontinent which was the first field guide for the area to include sonograms . Volume 1 contains the field guide with over 3400 illustrations in 180 plates , and more than 1450 colour maps . Volume 2 ( Attributes and Status ) gives specimen measurements , data about identification , status , distribution and habits . Vocalizations are described from recordings , and there are over 1000 sonagrams .
1508 species that have occurred in India , Bangladesh , Pakistan , Nepal , Bhutan , Maldives , the Chagos archipelago and Afghanistan are covered , including 85 hypothetical and 67 ' possible ' species , which are given only short accounts . Notable aspects of Birds of South Asia are its distribution evidence @-@ base – the book 's authors based their distributional information almost completely on museum specimens – and its taxonomic approach , involving a large number of species @-@ level splits . Its geographical range was also greater than that of older works , notably in the inclusion of Afghanistan .
Many allopatric forms previously regarded as conspecific are treated by Rasmussen and Anderton as full species . Most of these had previously been proposed elsewhere , but the book introduced a number of innovations of its own . Experts on Asian birds , Nigel Collar and John Pilgrim , in 2008 analysed Rasmussen and Anderton 's proposed changes , indicating which had previously been proposed by other authors , and which were novel , and required further justification .
Although reviews in the birding and ornithological press have often been favourable , there have been criticisms . Peter Kennerley , author and Asian bird expert , considered that some of the illustrations are small and garish or technically inaccurate . He also believes that the over @-@ reliance on sometimes very old museum specimens and dismissal of the wealth of observational data filed by amateur travelling birders is a mistake , and states that many of the taxonomic decisions appear to be random choices , unsupported by published research .
Apart from the Meinertzhagen fraud , which is discussed in the next section , and the death of S. Dillon Ripley , other problems in the production of Birds of South Asia included the loss of the main map database during a trip to Burma , and poorly prepared specimen skins . There were also difficulties reconciling sources , delays in producing illustrations and maps , and in obtaining reliable data for " difficult " areas like Assam , Arunachal Pradesh , Bangladesh and Afghanistan . The Andaman and Nicobar Islands also presented serious challenges with regard to the status and taxonomy of their avifaunas .
Rasmussen considered in a 2005 paper whether the revised taxonomy of the book , with its many species splits , had significant conservation implications , but felt that the effect on species richness in South Asia was limited , and would have only a moderate conservation impact , increasing the number of potentially threatened species in the region from 6 % of the total avifauna to about 7 % .
= = = The Meinertzhagen fraud = = =
Rasmussen revealed the true extent of the major fraud perpetrated by the eminent British soldier , ornithologist and expert on bird lice , Colonel Richard Meinertzhagen . Meinertzhagen , who died in 1967 , was the author of numerous taxonomic and other works on birds , and possessed a vast collection of bird and bird lice specimens ; he was considered to be one of Britain 's greatest ornithologists . However , British ornithologist Alan Knox had analysed Meinertzhagen 's bird collection at the Walter Rothschild Zoological Museum in Tring , UK in the early 1990s , and uncovered significant fraud involving theft of specimens from museums and falsification of the accompanying documentation .
When researching for Birds of South Asia , Rasmussen examined tens of thousands of bird specimens , since the late S. Dillon Ripley had strongly favoured the use of museum specimens to determine which birds to include . With Robert Prys @-@ Jones of the Natural History Museum , she showed that the decades @-@ old Meinertzhagen fraud was far more extensive than first thought . Many of the 20 @,@ 000 bird specimens in his collection had been relabelled with regard to where they were collected , and sometimes also remounted . The false documentation delayed the rediscovery of the forest owlet , since previous searches had relied on Meinertzagen 's faked records . Rasmussen 's successful expedition ignored these and looked in the areas identified by the remaining genuine specimens .
Meinertzhargen had been banned from the Natural History Museum 's Bird Room for 18 months for unauthorised removal of specimens , and suspicions that he was stealing specimens and library material were documented by staff for over 30 years , twice reaching the verge of prosecution .
Falsified records identified by Rasmussen and Prys @-@ Jones included high @-@ altitude occurrences of coral @-@ billed scimitar @-@ babbler Pomatorhinus ferruginosus , out @-@ of @-@ range Kashmir flycatcher Ficedula subrubra and Himalayan winter records of ferruginous flycatcher Muscicapa ferruginea and large blue flycatcher Cyornis magnirostris ( now hill blue @-@ flycatcher C. banyumas ) . However , some records such as those for Afghan snowfinch Montifringilla theresae , a species Meinertzhagen described , appear to be genuine .
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= Grévy 's zebra =
The Grévy 's zebra ( Equus grevyi ) , also known as the imperial zebra , is the largest extant wild equid and the largest and most threatened of the three species of zebra , the other two being the plains zebra and the mountain zebra . Named after Jules Grévy , it is the sole extant member of the subgenus Dolichohippus . The Grévy 's zebra is found in Kenya and Ethiopia . Compared with other zebras , it is tall , has large ears , and its stripes are narrower .
The Grévy 's zebra lives in semi @-@ arid grasslands where it feeds on grasses , legumes , and browse ; it can survive up to five days without water . It differs from the other zebra species in that it does not live in harems and has few long @-@ lasting social bonds . Male territoriality and mother – foal relationships form the basis of the social system of the Grévy 's zebra . This zebra is considered to be endangered . Its population has declined from 15 @,@ 000 to 3 @,@ 000 since the 1970s . However , as of 2008 , the population is stable .
= = Taxonomy and naming = =
The Grévy 's zebra was first described by French naturalist Émile Oustalet in 1882 . He named it after Jules Grévy , then president of France , who , in the 1880s , was given one by the government of Abyssinia . Traditionally , this species was classified in the subgenus Dolichohippus with plains zebra and mountain zebra in Hippotigris . Fossils of zebra @-@ like equids have been found throughout Africa and Asia in the Pliocene and Pleistocene deposits . Notable examples include E. sanmeniensis from China , E. cautleyi from India , E. valeriani from central Asia and E. oldowayensis from East Africa . The latter , in particular is very similar to the Grévy 's zebra and may have been its ancestor . The modern Grévy 's zebra arose in the early Pleistocene . Zebras appear to be a monophyletic linage and recent ( 2013 ) phylogenies have placed Grevy 's zebra in a sister taxon with the plains zebra . In areas where Grévy 's zebras are sympatric with plains zebras , the two may gather in same herds and fertile hybrids do occur .
= = Description = =
The Grévy 's zebra is the largest of all wild equines . It is 2 @.@ 5 – 2 @.@ 75 m ( 8 @.@ 2 – 9 @.@ 0 ft ) from head to tail with a 55 – 75 cm ( 22 – 30 in ) tail , and stands 1 @.@ 45 – 1 @.@ 6 m ( 4 @.@ 8 – 5 @.@ 2 ft ) high at the shoulder . These zebras weigh 350 – 450 kg ( 770 – 990 lb ) . Grévy 's zebra differs from the other two zebras in its more primitive characteristics . It is particularly mule @-@ like in appearance ; the head is large , long , and narrow with elongated nostril openings ; the ears are very large , rounded , and conical and the neck is short but thick . The zebra 's muzzle is ash @-@ grey to black in colour with the lips having whiskers . The mane is tall and erect ; juveniles have a mane that extends to the length of the back and shortens as they reach adulthood .
As with all zebra species , the Grevy 's zebra 's pelage has a black and white striping pattern . The stripes are narrow and close @-@ set , being broader on the neck , and they extend to the hooves . The belly and the area around the base of the tail lack stripes which is unique to the Grevy 's zebra . Foals are born with brown and white striping , with the brown stripes darkening as they grow older . Embryological evidence has shown that the zebra 's background colour is dark and the white is an addition . The stripes of the zebra may serve to make it look bigger than it actually is or disrupt its outline . It appears that a stationary zebra can be inconspicuous at night or in shade . Experiments have suggested that the stripes polarize light in such a way that it discourages biting horse @-@ flies in a manner not shown with other coat patterns . Other studies suggest that , when moving , the stripes may confuse observers , such as mammalian predators and biting insects , via two visual illusions , the wagon wheel effect , where the perceived motion is inverted , and the barber pole illusion , where the perceived motion is in a wrong direction .
= = Ecology and behaviour = =
The Grévy ’ s zebra largely inhabits northern Kenya , with some isolated populations in Ethiopia . It was extirpated from Somalia and Djibouti and its status in South Sudan is uncertain . It lives in Acacia @-@ Commiphora bushlands and barren plains . Ecologically , this species is intermediate between the arid @-@ living African wild ass and the water @-@ dependent plains zebra . Lactating females and non @-@ territorial males use areas with green , short grass and medium , dense bush more often than non @-@ lactating females and territorial males .
Grévy 's zebras rely on grasses , legumes , and browse for nutrition . They commonly browse when grasses are not plentiful . Their hindgut fermentation digestive system allows them to subsist on diets of lower nutritional quality than that necessary for ruminant herbivores . Grevy 's zebras can survive up to five days without water , but will drink daily when it is plentiful . They often migrate to better watered highlands during the dry season . Females require significantly more water when they are lactating . During droughts , the zebras will dig water holes and defend them . Grévy 's zebras are preyed on by lions , hyenas , wild dogs , cheetahs and leopards . In addition , they are susceptible to various gastro @-@ intestinal parasites , notably of the Trichostrongylus genus .
Adult males mostly live in territories during the wet seasons but some may stay in them year round if there 's enough water left . Stallions that are unable to establish territories are free @-@ ranging and are known as bachelors . Females , young and non @-@ territorial males wander through large home ranges . The females will wander from territory to territory preferring the ones with the highest @-@ quality food and water sources . Up to nine males may compete for a female outside of a territory .
Territorial stallions will tolerate other stallions who wander in their territory , however when an oestrous female is present the territorial stallion keeps other males at bay . Non @-@ territorial males may avoid territorial ones because of harassment . When females are not around , a territorial stallion will seek the company of other stallions . The stallion shows his dominance with an arched neck and a high @-@ stepping gait and the least dominant stallions submit by extending their tail , lowering their heads and nuzzling their superior 's chest or groin . The call of the Grévy 's zebra has been described as " something like a hippo 's grunt combined with a donkey 's wheeze " . To get rid of flies or parasites , they roll in dust , water or mud or , in the case of flies , twitch their skin . They also rub against trees , rocks and other objects to get rid of irritations like itchy skin , hair or parasites . Although Grévy 's zebras do not perform mutual grooming , they do sometimes rub against a conspecific .
= = = Reproduction = = =
Grévy 's zebras can mate and give birth year @-@ round , but most mating takes place in the early rainy seasons and births mostly take place in August or September after the long rains . An oestrous mare may visit though as many as four territories a day and will mate with the stallions in them . Among territorial stallions , the most dominant ones control territories near water sources , which mostly attract mares with dependant foals , while more subordinate stallions control territories away from water with greater amounts of vegetation , which mostly attract mares without dependant foals .
The resident stallions of territories will try to subdue the entering mares with dominance rituals and then continue with courtship and copulation . Grévy 's zebra stallions have large testicles and can ejaculate a large amount of semen to replace the sperm of other males . This is a useful adaptation for a species whose females mate polyandrously . Bachelors or outside territorial stallions sometimes " sneak " copulation of mares in another stallion ’ s territory . While female associations with individual males are brief and mating is promiscuous , females who have just given birth will reside with one male for long periods and mate exclusively with that male . Lactating females are harassed by males more often than non @-@ lactating ones and thus associating with one male and his territory provides an advantage as he will guard against other males .
Gestation of the Grévy 's zebra normally lasts 390 days , with a single foal being born . A newborn zebra will follow anything that moves , so new mothers prevent other mares from approaching their foals while imprinting their own striping pattern , scent and vocalisation on them . Females with young foals may gather into small groups . Mares may leave their foals in " kindergartens " while searching for water . The foals will not hide , so they can be vulnerable to predators . However , kindergartens tend to be protected by an adult , usually a territorial male . A female with a foal stays with one dominant territorial male who has exclusive mating rights to her . While the foal will not likely be his , the stallion will look after it to ensure that the female stays in his territory . To adapt to a semi @-@ arid environment , Grévy 's zebra foals have longer nursing intervals and wait until they are three months old before they start drinking water . Although offspring became less dependant on their mothers after half a year , associations with them continue for up to three years .
= = Relationship with humans = =
The Grévy 's zebra was known to the Europeans in antiquity and was used by the Romans in circuses . It was subsequently forgotten in the Western world for a thousand years . In the seventeenth century , the king of Shoa ( now central Ethiopia ) exported two zebras ; one to the Sultan of Turkey and another to the Dutch governor of Jakarta . A century later , in 1882 , the government of Abyssinia sent one to French president Jules Grévy . It was at that time that the animal was recognised as its own species and named in Grévy ’ s honor .
= = = Status and conservation = = =
The Grévy 's zebra is considered endangered . Its population was estimated to be 15 @,@ 000 in the 1970s and by the early 21st century the population was lower than 3 @,@ 500 , a 75 % decline . It is estimated that there are less than 2 @,@ 500 Grévy 's zebras still living in the wild . There are also an estimated 600 Grévy 's zebras in captivity . Captive herds have been known to thrive , like at White Oak Conservation in Yulee , Florida , United States , where more than 70 foals have been born . There , research is underway in partnership with the Conservation Centers for Species Survival on semen collection and freezing and on artificial insemination . The Grévy 's zebra population trend is considered stable as of 2008 .
The Grévy 's zebra is legally protected in Ethiopia . In Kenya , it is protected by the hunting ban of 1977 . In the past , Grévy 's zebras were threatened mainly by hunting for their skins which fetched a high price on the world market . However , hunting has declined and the main threat to the zebra is habitat loss and competition with livestock . Cattle gather around watering holes and the Grévy 's zebras are fenced from those areas . Community @-@ based conservation efforts have shown to the most effective in preserving Grévy 's zebras and their habitat . Less than 0 @.@ 5 % of the range of the Grévy 's zebra is in protected areas . In Ethiopia , the protected areas include Alledeghi Wildlife Reserve , Yabelo Wildlife Sanctuary , Borana Controlled Hunting Area and Chalbi Sanctuary . In Kenya , important protected areas include the Buffalo Springs , Samburu and Shaba National Reserves and the private and community land wildlife conservancies in Isiolo , Samburu and the Laikipia Plateau .
The Mesquite plant was introduced into Ethiopia around 1997 and is endangering the zebra 's food supply . The Mesquite plant is an invasive species replacing the two grass species , Cenchrus ciliaris and Chrysopogon plumulosus , which the zebra 's eat for most of their food .
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= House of Lancaster =
The House of Lancaster was the name of two cadet branches of the royal House of Plantagenet . The first house was created when Henry III of England created the Earldom of Lancaster — from which the house was named — for his second son Edmund Crouchback in 1267 . Edmund had already been created Earl of Leicester in 1265 and was granted the lands and privileges of Simon de Montfort , 6th Earl of Leicester , after de Montfort 's death and attainder at the end of the Second Barons ' War . When Edmund 's son Thomas , 2nd Earl of Lancaster , inherited his father @-@ in @-@ law 's estates and title of Earl of Lincoln he became at a stroke the most powerful nobleman in England , with lands throughout the kingdom and the ability to raise vast private armies to wield power at national and local levels . This brought him — and Henry , his younger brother — into conflict with their cousin Edward II of England , leading to Thomas 's execution . Henry inherited Thomas 's titles and he and his son , who was also called Henry , gave loyal service to Edward 's son — Edward III of England .
The second house of Lancaster was descended from John of Gaunt , who married the heiress of the first house . Edward III married all his sons to wealthy English heiresses rather than following his predecessors ' practice of finding continental political marriages for royal princes . Henry of Grosmont , 1st Duke of Lancaster , had no male heir so Edward married his son John to Henry 's heiress daughter and John 's third cousin Blanche of Lancaster . This gave John the vast wealth of the House of Lancaster . Their son Henry usurped the throne in 1399 , creating one of the factions in the Wars of the Roses . There was an intermittent dynastic struggle between the descendants of Edward III . In these wars , the term Lancastrian became a reference to members of the family and their supporters . The family provided England with three kings : Henry IV , who ruled from 1399 to 1413 , Henry V ( 1413 – 1422 ) , and Henry VI ( 1422 – 1461 and 1470 – 1471 ) .
The House became extinct in the male line upon the murder in the Tower of London of Henry VI , following the battlefield execution of his son Edward of Westminster , Prince of Wales , by supporters of the House of York in 1471 . Lancastrian cognatic descent — from John of Gaunt and Blanche of Lancaster 's daughter Phillipa — continued in the royal houses of Spain and Portugal while the Lancastrian political cause was maintained by Henry Tudor — a relatively unknown scion of the Beauforts — eventually leading to the establishment of the House of Tudor . The Lancastrians left a legacy through the patronage of the arts — most notably in founding Eton College and King 's College , Cambridge — but to historians ’ chagrin their propaganda , and that of their Tudor successors , means that it is Shakespeare ’ s partly fictionalized history plays rather than medievalist scholarly research that has the greater influence on modern perceptions of the dynasty .
= = Origin of the Earls of Lancaster = =
After the supporters of Henry III of England suppressed opposition from the English nobility in the Second Barons ' War , Henry granted to his second son Edmund Crouchback the titles and possessions forfeited by attainder of the barons ' leader , Simon de Montfort , 6th Earl of Leicester , including the Earldom of Leicester , on 26 October 1265 . Later grants included the first Earldom of Lancaster on 30 June 1267 and that of Earl Ferrers in 1301 . Edmund was also Count of Champagne and Brie from 1276 by right of his wife . Henry IV of England would later use his descent from Edmund to legitimise his claim to the throne , even making the spurious claim that Edmund was the elder son of Henry but had been passed over as king because of his deformity .
Edmund 's second marriage to Blanche of Artois , the widow of the King of Navarre , placed him at the centre of the European aristocracy . Blanche 's daughter Joan I of Navarre was queen regnant of Navarre and through her marriage to Philip IV of France was queen consort of France . Edmund 's son Thomas became the most powerful nobleman in England , gaining the Earldoms of Lincoln and Salisbury through marriage to the heiress of Henry de Lacy , 3rd Earl of Lincoln . His income was £ 11 @,@ 000 per annum — double that of the next wealthiest earl .
Thomas and his younger brother Henry served in the coronation of their cousin King Edward II of England on 25 February 1308 ; Thomas carried Curtana , the Sword of Mercy , and Henry carried the royal sceptre . After initially supporting Edward , Thomas became one of the Lords Ordainers , who demanded the banishment of Piers Gaveston and the governance of the realm by a baronial council . After Gaveston was captured , Thomas took the lead in his trial and execution at Warwick in 1312 . Edward 's authority was weakened by poor governance and defeat by the Scots at the Battle of Bannockburn . This allowed Thomas to restrain Edward 's power by republishing the Ordinances of 1311 . Following this achievement Thomas took little part in the governance of the realm and instead retreated to Pontefract Castle . This allowed Edward to regroup and re @-@ arm , leading to a fragile peace in August 1318 with the Treaty of Leake . In 1321 Edward 's rule again collapsed into civil war . Thomas raised a northern army but was defeated and captured at the Battle of Boroughbridge . He was sentenced to be hanged , drawn and quartered but because he was Edward 's cousin he was given a quicker death by beheading .
Henry joined the revolt of Edward 's wife Isabella of France and her lover Mortimer in 1326 , pursuing and capturing Edward at Neath in South Wales . Following Edward 's deposition at the Parliament of Kenilworth in 1326 and reputed murder at Berkeley Castle , Thomas 's conviction was posthumously reversed and Henry regained possession of the Earldoms of Lancaster , Derby , Salisbury and Lincoln that had been forfeit for Thomas 's treason . His restored prestige led to him knighting the young King Edward III of England before his coronation . Mortimer lost support over the Treaty of Edinburgh – Northampton that formalised Scotland 's independence , and his developing power in the Welsh Marches provoked jealousy from the barons . When Mortimer called a parliament to make his new powers and estates permanent with the title of Earl of March in 1328 , Henry led the opposition and held a counter @-@ meeting . In response , Mortimer ravaged the lands of Lancaster and checked the revolt . Edward III was able to assume control in 1330 but Henry 's further influence was restricted by poor health and blindness for the last fifteen years of his life .
= = Duchy and Palatinate of Lancaster = =
Henry 's son , also called Henry , was born at the castle of Grosmont in Monmouthshire between 1299 and 1314 . According to the younger Henry 's memoirs , he was better at martial arts than academic subjects and did not learn to read until later in life . Henry was coeval with Edward III and was pivotal to his reign , becoming his best friend and most trusted commander . Henry was knighted in 1330 , represented his father in parliament and fought in Edward 's Scottish campaign . After the outbreak of the Hundred Years ' War , Henry took part in several diplomatic missions and minor campaigns and was present at the great English victory in the naval Battle of Sluys in 1340 . Later , he was required to commit himself as hostage in the Low Countries for Edward ’ s considerable debts . He remained hostage for a year and had to pay a large ransom for his own release .
In 1345 , Edward III launched a major , three @-@ pronged attack on France . The Earl of Northampton attacked from Brittany , Edward from Flanders , and Henry from Aquitaine in the south . Moving rapidly through the country , Henry confronted the Comte d 'Isle at the Battle of Auberoche and achieved a victory described as " the greatest single achievement of Lancaster 's entire military career " . The ransom from the prisoners has been estimated at £ 50 @,@ 000 . Edward rewarded Henry by including him as a founding knight of the Order of the Garter . An even greater honour was bestowed on Lancaster when Edward created him Duke of Lancaster . The title of duke was relatively new in England , with only Cornwall being a previous ducal title . Lancaster was also given palatinate status for the county of Lancashire , which entailed a separate administration independent of the crown . There were two other counties palatine ; Durham was an ancient ecclesiastical palatinate and Chester was crown property .
In 1350 , Henry was present at the naval victory at Winchelsea , where he saved the life of the Black Prince . He spent 1351 @-@ 2 on crusade in Prussia where a quarrel with Otto , Duke of Brunswick , almost led to a duel between the two men , which was only averted by the intervention of John II of France . As campaigning in France resumed , Henry participated in the last great offensive of the Rheims campaign of 1359 – 60 — the first phase of the Hundred Years ' War — before returning to England where he fell ill and died , most likely of the plague , at Leicester Castle .
Edward III of England married John of Gaunt , his third surviving son , to Henry 's heiress Blanche of Lancaster . On Henry 's death , Edward conferred on Gaunt the second creation of the title of Duke of Lancaster , which made Gaunt , after Edward , the wealthiest landowner in England . Gaunt enjoyed great political influence during his lifetime , but upon his death in 1399 his lands were confiscated by Richard II . Gaunt 's exiled son and heir Henry of Bolingbroke returned home and gathered military support in clear contravention of Richard 's treason act of 1397 , which included a definition of treason of " or [ to ] ... raiseth People and rideth against the King to make War within his Realm ... " . Although he claimed his aim was restoration of his Lancaster inheritance , this Act and Henry 's knowledge of Richard 's character — suspicious and vindictive — probably meant Henry knew that only by removing Richard from power could he be secure . Henry unified popular opposition to Richard II , took control of the kingdom and Richard — recognising that he had insufficient support to resist — surrendered to Henry ’ s forces at Conwy Castle . Henry instigated a commission to decide who should be king . Richard was forced to abdicate and although Henry was not next in line , he was chosen by an unlawfully constituted parliament dominated by his supporters . After the first unrest of his reign and a revolt by the Earls of Salisbury , Gloucester , Exeter and Surrey , Richard reputedly starved to death . There is some debate as to whether this was self @-@ inflicted or ordered by Henry to end the risk of restoration without leaving incriminating marks on the body .
= = Reign of Henry IV = =
There is much debate amongst historians about Henry 's accession , in part because some see it as a cause of the Wars of the Roses . For many historians , the accession by force of the throne broke principles the Plantagenets had established successfully over two and a half centuries and allowed any magnate with sufficient power and Plantagenet blood to have ambitions to assume the throne . Richard had attempted to disinherit Henry and remove him from the succession . In response Henry ’ s legal advisors , led by William Thirning , dissuaded Henry from claiming the throne by right of conquest and instead look for legal justification . Although Henry established a committee to investigate his assertion that his mother had legitimate rights through descent from Edmund Crouchback , whom he said was the elder son of Henry III of England but was set aside because of deformity , no evidence was found . The eight @-@ year @-@ old Edmund Mortimer , Earl of March , was the heir general to Richard II by being the grandson of Edward III 's second son , Lionel of Antwerp , 1st Duke of Clarence , and also the son of Richard 's last nominated heir . In desperation , Henry 's advisors made the case that Henry was heir male to Henry III and this was supported by thirteenth @-@ century entails . Mortimer 's sister Anne de Mortimer married Richard of Conisburgh , 3rd Earl of Cambridge , son of Edward III 's fourth son Edmund of Langley , consolidating Anne 's place in the succession with that of the more junior House of York . As a child Mortimer was not considered a serious contender and as an adult he showed no interest in the throne , instead loyally serving the House of Lancaster . Mortimer informed Henry V when Conisburgh , in what was later called the Southampton Plot , attempted to place him on the throne instead of Henry 's newly crowned son — their mutual cousin — leading to the execution of Conisburgh and the other plotters .
Henry IV was plagued with financial problems , the political need to reward his supporters , frequent rebellions and declining health — including leprosy and epilepsy . The Percy family had been some of Henry 's leading supporters , defending the North from Scotland largely at their own expense , but revolted in the face of lack of reward and suspicion from Henry . Henry Percy ( Hotspur ) was defeated and killed at the Battle of Shrewsbury . In 1405 , Hotspur 's father Henry Percy , 1st Earl of Northumberland , supported the Archbishop of York , Richard le Scrope , in another rebellion , after which the elder Percy fled to Scotland and his estates were confiscated . Henry had Scrope executed in an act comparable to the murder of another Archbishop — Thomas Beckett by men loyal to Henry II . This would probably have led to Henry 's excommunication but the church was in the midst of the Western Schism , with competing popes keen on Henry 's support ; it protested but took no action . In 1408 , Percy invaded England once more and was killed at the Battle of Bramham Moor . In Wales , Owain Glyndŵr 's widespread rebellion was only suppressed with the recapture of Harlech Castle in 1409 , although sporadic fighting continued until 1421 .
Henry IV was succeeded by his son Henry V , and eventually by his grandson Henry VI in 1422 .
= = Henry V and the Hundred Years ' War = =
Henry V of England was a successful and ruthless monarch . He was quick to re @-@ assert the claim to the French throne he inherited from Edward III , continuing what was later called the Hundred Years ' War . The war was not a formal , continuous conflict but a series of English raids and military expeditions from 1337 until 1453 . There were six major royal expeditions ; Henry himself led the fifth and sixth , but these were unlike the smaller , frequent , provincial campaigns . In Henry 's first major campaign — and the fifth major royal campaign of the war — he invaded France , captured Harfleur , made a chevauchée to Calais and won a near @-@ total victory over the French at the Battle of Agincourt despite being outnumbered , outmanoeuvred and low on supplies . In his second campaign , he recaptured much of Normandy and in a treaty secured a marriage to Catherine of Valois . The terms of the Treaty of Troyes were that Henry 's and Catherine 's heirs would succeed to the throne of France . This condition was contested by the Dauphin and the momentum of the war changed . In 1421 , Henry 's brother Thomas , Duke of Clarence , was killed at the Battle of Baugé , and Henry V died of dysentery at Vincennes in 1422 .
Henry VI of England was less than a year old but his uncles — led by Henry V 's brother John of Lancaster , 1st Duke of Bedford — continued the war . There were more victories , including the Battle of Verneuil , but it was impossible to maintain campaigning at this level . Joan of Arc 's involvement helped the French remove the siege of Orleans and win the Battle of Patay before Joan was captured by the Burgundians , sold to the English , tried as a witch and burned at the stake . The Dauphin was crowned and continued the successful Fabian tactics of avoiding full frontal assault and exploiting logistical advantage .
= = Henry VI and the fall of the House of Lancaster = =
The Hundred Years ' War caused political division between the Lancastrians and the other Plantagenets during the minority of Henry VI : Bedford wanted to maintain the majority of the Lancastrian ’ s French possessions ; Humphrey of Lancaster , 1st Duke of Gloucester wanted to hold only Calais ; and Cardinal Beaufort desired a negotiated peace . Gloucester 's attacks on Beaufort forced the latter from public life but brought him little advantage as the earl of Suffolk ’ s influence over the king enabled him to direct policy for the rest of the decade . Gloucester remained heir presumptive but in 1441 his ambitious wife , Eleanor Cobham , consulted astrologers on the likelihood of the king 's death and was arrested for treasonable necromancy — although Gloucester was not implicated he was discredited forced into retirement . In 1447 Suffolk had him arrested and within days he died in prison .
England 's ally Philip III , Duke of Burgundy defected to Charles , when the English ambassadors ' refusal to renounce the claim to the French crown stalled negotiations , signing the Treaty of Arras ( 1435 ) . The French reorganised the superior numbers of their feudal levies into a modern professional army and retook Paris , Rouen , Bordeaux and Normandy . Victories at the Battle of Formigny in 1450 and the Battle of Castillon in 1453 brought the war to an end with the House of Lancaster losing forever all its French holdings , except Calais and the Channel Islands .
Henry VI proved to be a weak king and vulnerable to the over @-@ mighty subjects who developed private armies of retainers . Rivalries often spilled over from the courtroom into armed confrontations , such as the Percy – Neville feud . Without the common purpose of the war in France , Henry 's cousin Richard of York , 3rd Duke of York , and Richard Neville , 16th Earl of Warwick , used their networks to defy the crown . Henry became the focus of discontent as the population , agricultural production , prices , the wool trade and credit declined in the Great Slump . This led to radical demands from the lower classes . In 1450 , Jack Cade raised a rebellion to force Henry to address the economic problems or abdicate his throne . The uprising was suppressed but conflict remained between villagers , gentry and aristocracy . Society remained deeply unsettled and radical demands continued to be suppressed such as those from the yeoman brothers John and William Merfold .
Henry 's marriage to Margaret of Anjou prompted criticism from Richard Plantagenet , Duke of York , because it included the surrender of Maine and an extended truce with France . York was Henry 's cousin through his descent from Edward III sons Lionel of Antwerp , 1st Duke of Clarence , and Edmund , Duke of York . This gave York political influence but he was removed from English and French politics through his appointment as Lord Lieutenant of Ireland . On returning to England , York was conscious of the fate of Henry 's uncle Humphrey at the hands of the Beauforts and suspicious that Henry intended to nominate Edmund Beaufort , 2nd Duke of Somerset , as heir presumptive , and recruited military forces . Armed conflict was avoided because York lacked aristocratic support and was forced to swear allegiance to Henry . However , when Henry later underwent a mental breakdown , York was named regent . Henry was trusting and not a man of war , but Margaret was more assertive and showed open enmity towards York — particularly after the birth of a male heir that resolved the succession question and assured her position .
According to historian Robin Storey , " If Henry 's insanity was a tragedy ; his recovery was a national disaster " . When Henry 's sanity returned , the court party reasserted its authority but York and his relatives , the Nevilles , defeated them at the First Battle of St Albans . Historian Anthony Goodman suggests that around 50 men were killed ; among them were Somerset and two Percy lords , Henry Percy , 2nd Earl of Northumberland , and Thomas Clifford , 8th Baron de Clifford , creating feuds that would confound reconciliation attempts despite the shock to the ruling class caused by the armed conflict . Threatened with treason charges and lacking support , York , Richard Neville , 5th Earl of Salisbury , and Richard Neville , 16th Earl of Warwick , fled abroad . Henry was captured by the opposition when the Nevilles returned and won the Battle of Northampton . York joined them , surprising parliament by claiming the throne and then forcing through the Act of Accord stating that Henry would remain as monarch for his lifetime and that York would succeed him . The disinheriting of Henry 's son Edward was unacceptable to Margaret so the conflict continued . York was killed at the Battle of Wakefield and his head was displayed at Micklegate Bar , York , along with those of Edmund , Earl of Rutland , and Richard Neville , Earl of Salisbury — both of whom were captured and beheaded .
Margaret gained the support of the Scottish queen Mary of Guelders , and with a Scottish army she pillaged into southern England . The citizens of London feared the city being plundered and enthusiastically welcomed York 's son Edward , Earl of March . Margaret 's defeat at the Battle of Towton confirmed Edward 's position and he was crowned . Disaffected with Edward 's marriage to Elizabeth Woodville and preferment of her formerly Lancastrian @-@ supporting family , Warwick and Clarence defected to the Lancastrians . The alliance was sealed with the marriage of Henry 's son Edward to Anne , Warwick 's daughter . Edward and Richard , Duke of Gloucester , fled England . When they returned , Clarence switched sides at the Battle of Barnet and Warwick and his brother were killed . Henry , Margaret and Edward of Lancaster were caught at the Battle of Tewkesbury before they could escape back to France . Edward of Westminster , Prince of Wales , was executed on the battlefield and John Beaufort , Marquess of Dorset , was killed in the fighting — meaning that when his brother Edmund Beaufort , 4th Duke of Somerset , was executed two days later , the Beaufort family became extinct in the legitimate male line . The captive Henry was murdered on 21 May 1471 in the Tower of London and buried in Chertsey Abbey , extinguishing the House of Lancaster .
= = Legacy = =
= = = Shakespeare ’ s history plays = = =
It is a source of irritation to historians that Shakespeare ’ s influence on the perception of the later medieval period exceeds that of academic research . While the chronology of Shakespeare 's history plays runs from King John to Henry VIII , they are dominated by eight plays in which members of the House of Lancaster play a significant part , voicing speeches on a par with those in Hamlet and King Lear . These plays are :
Richard II
Henry IV , Part 1
Henry IV , Part 2
Henry V
Henry VI , Part 1
Henry VI , Part 2
Henry VI , Part 3
Richard III .
According to the historian Norman Davies , the plays were constrained by the political and religious requirements of Tudor England . While they are factually inaccurate , they demonstrate how the past and the House of Lancaster are remembered in terms of myth , legend , ideas and popular misconceptions . Shakespeare avoided contentious political and religious issues to dubiously illustrate Tudor England as having rejected medieval conflict and entered an era of harmony and prosperity . The famous patriotic " sceptr 'd isle " speech is voiced by John of Gaunt , a man who spent the majority of his life in Aquitaine , and is a piece of poetic licence that illustrates English prejudices . Henry V is one @-@ sided with little sympathy for the French . Many of these historical lines illustrate historical myth rather than realism .
= = = Succession = = =
Lancastrian cognatic descent from John of Gaunt and Blanche 's daughter Phillipa continued in the royal houses of Spain and Portugal . The remnants of the Lancastrian court party coalesced support around Henry Tudor — a relatively unknown scion of the Beauforts . They had been amongst the most ardent supporters of the House of Lancaster and were descended illegitimately from John of Gaunt by his mistress Katherine Swynford . Although later legitimised by Richard II , Henry IV had formally and permanently debarred them from the succession to avoid competition with the House of Lancaster ’ s claims to the throne . By some calculations of primogeniture , there were as many as 18 people — including both his mother and future wife — with more right to the throne . By 1510 , this figure had increased with the birth of an additional 16 possible Yorkist claimants .
With the House of Lancaster extinct , Henry claimed to be the Lancastrian heir through his mother Lady Margaret Beaufort . His father was Henry VI 's maternal half @-@ brother . In 1485 , Henry Tudor united increasing opposition within England to the reign of Richard III with the Lancastrian cause to take the throne . To legitimise his questionable claim , Henry married Elizabeth of York — Edward IV of England 's daughter — and promoted the House of Tudor as a dynasty of dual Lancastrian and Yorkist descent .
= = = Religion , education and the arts = = =
The Lancastrians were both pious and well read . Henry IV was the first English king known to have possessed a vernacular Bible , supported the canonization of John Twenge , gave a pension to the anchoress Margaret Pensax and maintained close relations with several Westminster recluses . His household accounts as king record conventional payments to large numbers of paupers ( 12 @,@ 000 on Easter day 1406 ) and the intercession for him of twenty @-@ four oratores domini regis at 2d each per day . However , his reliance on the church was both personal and political . Archbishop Arundel gave the Lancastrians vital support and carried other bishops with him . In return the church required support for religious orthodoxy against heresy . Lollards were suppressed and heresy was made a capital offence in England under the statute of De haeretico comburendo even though Henry could not afford to overly antagonize his supporters with Lollard sympathies , including those among his Lancastrian retainers .
According to the author of the Gesta Henrici quinti , Henry V aimed ‘ to promote the honour of God , the extension of the Church , the deliverance of his country and the peace and tranquillity of kingdoms ’ . He was deeply religious , engaged with ecclesiastical issues and saw that his role as king was to honour God , extend the church , fight heresy and defend the established social order . All his victories , especially Agincourt , were attributed to divine intervention . Henry V founded Syon Abbey in 1415 , as penance for his father ’ s execution of Archbishop Scrope , and three monasteries in London : for Carthusian , Bridgettine and Celestine orders . The equally devout Henry VI continued the architectural patronage begun by his father , founding Eton College and King 's College , Cambridge and leaving a lasting educational and architectural legacy in buildings including King 's College Chapel and Eton College Chapel .
The Lancastrian regime was founded and legitimised by formal lying that was both public and official . This has been described as " a series of unconstitutional actions " based " upon three major acts of perjury " . The historian K.B. McFarlane found it hard " to think of another moment of comparable importance in medieval English political history when the supply of information was so effectively manipulated as it was by Henry IV on this occasion " . The Lancastrians patronised poets for panegyric purposes for years before Henry IV ascended the throne , including Geoffrey Chaucer who dedicated The Book of the Duchess to Blanche of Lancaster around 1368 . In 1400 , poets in the pay of Henry IV were directed to propaganda purposes . John Gower based his Cronica Tripertita on the official Lancastrian accounts of the usurpation : " The Record and Process of the Deposition of Richard II " from 1399 . Gower also produced a number of further favourable works including " In praise of peace " which was dedicated to Henry IV .
= = Earls and Dukes of Lancaster ( first creation ) = =
= = Dukes of Lancaster ( second creation ) = =
= = Lancastrian Kings of England = =
= = Family tree = =
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= Symphony No. 8 ( Sibelius ) =
Jean Sibelius 's Symphony No. 8 was his final major compositional project , occupying him intermittently from the mid @-@ 1920s until around 1938 , though he never published it . During this time Sibelius was at the peak of his fame , a national figure in his native Finland and a composer of international stature . How much of the Eighth Symphony was completed is unknown ; Sibelius repeatedly refused to release it for performance , though he continued to assert that he was working on it even after he had , according to later reports from his family , burned the score and associated material in 1945 .
Much of Sibelius 's reputation , during his lifetime and subsequently , derived from his work as a symphonist . His Seventh Symphony of 1924 has been widely recognised as a landmark in the development of symphonic form , and at the time there was no reason to suppose that the flow of innovative orchestral works would not continue . However , after the symphonic poem Tapiola , completed in 1926 , his output was confined to relatively minor pieces and revisions to earlier works . The Eighth Symphony 's premiere was promised to Serge Koussevitzky and the Boston Symphony Orchestra on several occasions , but as each scheduled date approached Sibelius demurred , claiming that the work was not ready for performance . Similar promises made to the British conductor Basil Cameron and to the Finnish Georg Schnéevoigt likewise proved illusory .
After Sibelius 's death in 1957 , news of the Eighth Symphony 's destruction was made public , and it was assumed that the work had disappeared forever . In the 1990s , when the composer 's many notebooks and sketches were being catalogued , scholars first raised the possibility that some of the music for the lost symphony might have survived . Since then , several short manuscript sketches have been tentatively identified with the Eighth , three of which ( comprising less than three minutes of music ) were recorded by the Helsinki Philharmonic Orchestra in 2011 . While a few musicologists have speculated that , if further fragments can be identified , it may be possible to reconstruct the entire work , others have suggested that this is unlikely given the ambiguity of the extant material . The propriety of publicly performing music that Sibelius himself had rejected has also been questioned .
= = Background = =
Jean Sibelius was born in 1865 in Finland , since 1809 an autonomous grand duchy within the Russian Empire having earlier been under Swedish control for many centuries . The country remained divided between a culturally dominant Swedish @-@ speaking minority , to which the Sibelius family belonged , and a more nationalistically @-@ minded Finnish @-@ speaking , or " Fennoman " majority . In about 1889 Sibelius met his future wife , Aino Järnefelt , who came from a staunch Fennoman family . Sibelius 's association with the Järnefelts helped to awaken and develop his own nationalism ; in 1892 , the year of his marriage to Aino , he completed his first overtly nationalistic work , the symphonic suite Kullervo . Through the 1890s , as Russian control over the duchy grew increasingly oppressive , Sibelius produced a series of works reflecting Finnish resistance to foreign rule , culminating in the tone poem Finlandia .
Sibelius 's national stature was recognised in 1897 when he was awarded a state pension to enable him to spend more time composing . In 1904 he and Aino settled in Ainola , a country residence he built on the shores of Lake Tuusula in Järvenpää , where they lived for the remainder of their lives . Although life at Ainola was not always calm and carefree — Sibelius was often in debt and prone to bouts of heavy drinking — he managed over the following 20 years to produce a large output of orchestral works , chamber music , piano pieces and songs , as well as lighter music . His popularity spread across Europe to the United States where , during a triumphant tour in 1914 , he was awarded an honorary doctorate by Yale University . At home his status was such that his 50th birthday celebrations in 1915 were a national event , the centrepiece of which was the Helsinki premiere of his Fifth Symphony .
By the mid @-@ 1920s Sibelius had acquired the status of a living national monument and was the principal cultural ambassador of his country , independent since 1917 . According to his biographer Guy Rickards , he invested " his most crucial inspiration " into the seven symphonies he composed between 1898 and 1924 . The Sibelius scholar James Hepokoski considers the compact , single @-@ movement Seventh Symphony , which Sibelius completed in 1924 , to be the composer 's most remarkable symphonic achievement , " the consummate realization of his late @-@ style rethinking of form " . It was followed in 1926 by Tapiola , a tone poem in which , says Rickards , Sibelius " pushed orchestral resources into quite new regions ... Tapiola was thirty or forty years ahead of its time " .
= = Composition = =
= = = Beginnings = = =
The first reference to the Eighth Symphony in Sibelius 's diary is dated 12 September 1926 : " working on the new one " . However , some of the initial ideas for the new symphony were almost certainly set down earlier , since it was Sibelius 's compositional habit to set aside themes and motifs for use in later projects . Thus , one of the extant sketches for his Seventh Symphony , on which he was engaged in 1923 – 24 , contains a ringed motif marked " VIII " . By the autumn of 1927 Sibelius was able to inform the New York Times music critic Olin Downes — one of his greatest admirers — that he had set down two movements of the Eighth on paper and had composed the rest in his head .
Early in 1928 Sibelius made one of his regular visits to Berlin , to imbibe the city 's musical life and to compose . He sent positive work @-@ in @-@ progress reports to Aino : the symphony , he said , will be " wonderful " . Back home in Ainola in September , he told his sister that he was " writing a new work , which will be sent to America . It will still need time . But it will turn out well . " In December 1928 , however , when his Danish publisher Wilhelm Hansen asked him how the work was developing , Sibelius was less forthcoming ; the symphony existed , he said , only in his head . Thereafter Sibelius 's reports of the symphony 's progress became equivocal , sometimes contradictory , and difficult to follow .
= = = Progress and prevarication = = =
Probably at the instigation of Downes , Sibelius had promised the world premiere of his new symphony to Serge Koussevitzky and the Boston Symphony Orchestra . For several years , in a protracted correspondence with the conductor and Downes , Sibelius hesitated and prevaricated . In January 1930 he said the symphony was " not nearly ready and I cannot say when it will be ready " , but in August that year he told Koussevitzky that a performance in the spring of 1931 was possible . Nothing resulted from this . In the summer of 1931 Sibelius told Downes that not only was the Eighth Symphony almost ready for the printers , he also had several other new works pending . Thus encouraged , in December 1931 Koussevitzky used the Boston Evening Transcript to announce the work for the orchestra 's 1931 – 32 season . This brought a swift telegram from Sibelius , to the effect that the symphony would not , after all , be ready for that season .
Koussevitzky then decided to perform all of Sibelius 's symphonies in the Boston Symphony 's 1932 – 33 season , with the world premiere of the Eighth as the culmination . In June 1932 Sibelius wrote to Koussevitzky suggesting that the Eighth be scheduled for the end of October . A week later he retracted : " I am very disturbed about it . Please do not announce the performance . " Further promises , for December 1932 and January 1933 , brought forth no scores . Koussevitzky was by now losing hope , yet he inquired once more , in the summer of 1933 . Sibelius was evasive ; he made no promise of delivery but would " return to the matter at a later date " . So far as Koussevitzky and the Boston Symphony were concerned , the matter ended there . Sibelius had made agreements with other conductors ; he had promised the European premiere to Basil Cameron and the Royal Philharmonic Society , and the first Finnish performance to Georg Schnéevoigt , who had recently taken over direction of the Helsinki Philharmonic Orchestra . These arrangements were , however , subject to the illusory Boston premiere , and thus were stillborn . Later in the decade , Eugene Ormandy , a fervent admirer of Sibelius who directed the Philadelphia Orchestra from 1936 , is thought to have lobbied strongly for the right to perform the premiere , should the symphony in due course emerge .
During his procrastinations with Koussevitzky , Sibelius continued to work on the symphony . In 1931 he again spent time in Berlin , writing to Aino in May 1931 that " the symphony is advancing with rapid strides " . Progress was interrupted by illness , but towards the end of the year Sibelius was confidently asserting that " I am writing my eighth symphony and I am full of youth . How can this be explained ? " In May 1933 , as he continued to deny Koussevitzky , Sibelius wrote in his diary that he was deeply immersed in composition : " It is as if I had come home ... I 'm taking everything in another way , more deeply . A gypsy within me . Romantic . " Later that summer he informed a journalist that his new symphony was nearly complete : " It will be the reckoning of my whole existence – sixty @-@ eight years . It will probably be my last . Eight symphonies and a hundred songs . It has to be enough . "
At some stage in that summer the formal copying of the symphony began . On 4 September 1933 Paul Voigt , Sibelius 's long @-@ time copyist , sent a bill for making a fair copy of the first movement — 23 pages of music . Sibelius informed him — the note survives — that the complete manuscript would be about eight times as long as this excerpt , indicating that the symphony might be on a larger scale than any of its seven predecessors . Aino Sibelius later recalled other visits to Voigt that autumn at which Sibelius , whose mood she described as gloomy and taciturn , delivered further piles of music manuscript to the copyist .
= = = Limbo = = =
Various reports appeared to confirm that the symphony 's release was imminent . The Finnish composer Leevi Madetoja mentioned in 1934 that the work was virtually complete ; an article by the Swedish journalist Kurt Nordfors indicated that two movements were complete and the rest sketched out . As pressure to produce the symphony increased , Sibelius became increasingly withdrawn and unwilling to discuss his progress . In December 1935 , during an interview in connection with his 70th birthday celebrations , he indicated that he had discarded a whole year 's work ; this pointed to a full @-@ scale revision of the Eighth . However , when The Times 's correspondent asked for details of the work 's progress Sibelius became irritated . He was furious when Downes continued to pester him for information , on one occasion shouting " Ich kann nicht ! " ( " I cannot ! " ) .
A receipt found among Sibelius 's papers refers to a " Symphonie " being bound by the firm of Weilin & Göös in August 1938 . While it is not established that this transaction related to the Eighth , the Sibelius scholar Kari Kilpeläinen points out that none of the earlier symphony scores carry the unnumbered heading " Symphonie " , and asks : " Could he have omitted the number to prevent news of the now completed Eighth from spreading ? Or did he not give the work a number at all , because he was not satisfied with it ? " The composer 's daughter Katarina spoke of the self @-@ doubt that afflicted her father at this time , aggravated by the continuing expectations and fuss that surrounded the Eighth Symphony . " He wanted it to be better than the other symphonies . Finally it became a burden , even though so much of it had already been written down . In the end I don 't know whether he would have accepted what he had written . "
Sibelius remained in Finland during the Winter War of 1939 – 40 , despite offers of asylum in the United States . After the war ended in March 1940 he moved with his family to an apartment on Kammiokatu ( later renamed Sibeliuksenkatu or ' Sibelius Street ' in his honour ) in the Töölö district of Helsinki , where they remained for a year . During that time they were visited by the pianist Martti Paavola , who was able to examine the contents of Sibelius 's safe . Paavola later reported to his pupil Einar Englund that among the music kept there was a symphony , " most likely the Eighth " .
= = Destruction = =
Back in Ainola , Sibelius busied himself by making new arrangements of old songs . However , his mind returned frequently to the now apparently moribund symphony . In February 1943 he told his secretary that he hoped to complete a " great work " before he died , but blamed the war for his inability to make progress : " I cannot sleep at nights when I think about it . " In June he discussed the symphony with his future son @-@ in @-@ law Jussi Jalas and provided another reason for its non @-@ completion : " For each of my symphonies I have developed a special technique . It can 't be something superficial , it has to be something that has been lived though . In my new work I am struggling with precisely these issues . " Sibelius also told Jalas that all rough sketches and drafts were to be burned after his death ; he did not want anyone labelling these rejected scraps as " Sibelius letzten [ sic ] Gedanken " ( Sibelius 's last thoughts ) .
At some time in the mid @-@ 1940s , probably in 1945 , Sibelius and Aino together burned a large number of the composer 's manuscripts on the stove in the dining room at Ainola . There is no record of what was burned ; while most commentators assume that the Eighth Symphony was among the works destroyed , Kilpeläinen observes that there had been at least two manuscripts of the work — the original and Voigt 's copy — as well as sketches and fragments of earlier versions . It is possible , says Kilpeläinen , that Sibelius may not have burned them all . Aino , who found the process very painful , recalled later that the burning appeared to ease Sibelius 's mind : " After this , my husband appeared calmer and his attitude was more optimistic . It was a happy time " . The most optimistic interpretation of his action , according to The Philadelphia Inquirer 's music critic David Patrick Stearns , is that he got rid of old drafts of the symphony to clear his mind for a fresh start . In 1947 , after visiting Ainola , the conductor Nils @-@ Eric Fougstedt claimed to have seen a copy of the Eighth on the shelf , with separate choral parts . The musicologist Erkki Salmenhaara posits the idea of two burnings : that of 1945 which destroyed early material , and another after Sibelius finally recognised that he could never complete the work to his satisfaction .
Although Sibelius informed his secretary that the symphony had been burned , the matter remained a secret confined to the composer 's private circle . During the remaining years of his life , Sibelius from time to time hinted that the Eighth Symphony project was still alive . In August 1945 he wrote to Basil Cameron : " I have finished my eighth symphony several times , but I am still not satisfied with it . I will be delighted to hand it over to you when the time comes . " In fact , after the burning he had altogether abandoned creative composing ; in 1951 , when the Royal Philharmonic Society requested a work to mark the 1951 Festival of Britain , Sibelius declined . As late as 1953 he told his secretary , Santeri Levas , that he was working on the symphony " in his mind " ; only in 1954 did he admit , in a letter to the widow of his friend Adolf Paul , that it would never be completed . Sibelius died on 20 September 1957 ; the next day his daughter Eva Paloheimo announced publicly that the Eighth Symphony did not exist . The burning of the manuscript became generally known later , when Aino revealed the fact to the composer 's biographer Erik W. Tawaststjerna .
Critics and commentators have pondered the reasons why Sibelius finally abandoned the symphony . Throughout his life he was prone to depression and often suffered crises of self @-@ confidence . Alex Ross , in The New Yorker , quotes an entry from the composer 's 1927 diary , when the Eighth Symphony was allegedly under way : " Isolation and loneliness are driving me to despair ... Am abused , alone , and all my real friends are dead . My prestige here at present is rock @-@ bottom . Impossible to work . If only there were a way out . " Writers have pointed to the hand tremor that made writing difficult and to the alcoholism that afflicted him at numerous stages of his life . Others have argued that Sibelius 's exalted status as a national hero effectively silenced him ; he became afraid that any further major work would not live up to the expectations of the adoring nation . Andrew Barnett , another of the composer 's many biographers , points to Sibelius 's intense self @-@ criticism ; he would withhold or suppress anything that failed to meet his self @-@ imposed standards : " It was this attitude that brought about the destruction of the Eighth Symphony , but the very same trait forced him to keep on revising the Fifth until it was perfect . " The historian Mark McKenna agrees that Sibelius became stifled by a combination of perfectionism and increasing self @-@ doubt . The myth , sustained for more than 15 years , that Sibelius was still working on the symphony was , according to McKenna , a deliberate fiction : " To admit that he had stopped completely would be to admit the unthinkable — that he was no longer a composer " .
= = Discoveries = =
After his death Sibelius , though remaining popular with the general public , was frequently denigrated by critics who found his music dated and tedious . René Leibowitz , a proponent of the music of Arnold Schoenberg , published a pamphlet describing Sibelius as " the worst composer in the world " ; others dismissed him as irrelevant in what was perceived for a time as an irresistible movement towards atonality . This climate diminished curiosity about the existence of material from a possible Sibelius Eighth , until late in the 20th century , when critical interest in the composer revived . In 1995 Kilpeläinen , who had published a survey of the Sibelius manuscripts held in the Helsinki University Library , wrote that all that could definitely be connected to the Eighth Symphony were a single page from a draft score and the ringed melody fragment marked " VIII " within the Seventh Symphony sketches . He added , however , that the library contained further Sibelius sketches from the late 1920s and early 1930s , some of which are akin to the ringed fragment and which could conceivably have been intended for the Eighth Symphony . Kilpeläinen also revealed that " [ j ] ust recently various documents have come to light which no one dreamt even existed . Maybe there are still some clues to the 8th Symphony hidden away and just waiting for some scholar to discover them . "
In 2004 , in an article entitled " On Some Apparent Sketches for Sibelius 's Eighth Symphony " , the musical theorist Nors Josephson identifies around 20 manuscripts or fragments held in the Helsinki University Library as being relevant to the symphony and concludes that : " Given the abundance of preserved material for this work , one looks forward with great anticipation to a thoughtful , meticulous completion of the entire composition " . Another Sibelius scholar , Timo Virtanen , has examined the same material and is more restrained , concluding that although some of the sketches may relate to the Eighth Symphony , it is not possible to determine exactly which , if any , these are . Even the fragment marked " VIII " , he maintains , cannot with certainty be said to relate to the symphony , since Sibelius often used both Roman and Arabic numerals to refer to themes , motifs or passages within a composition . Virtanen provides a further note of caution : " We should be aware that [ the fragments ] are , after all , drafts : unfinished as music , and representing only a certain stage in planning a new composition " .
Despite his reservations , in October 2011 Virtanen cooperated with another scholar , Vesa Sirén , to prepare three of the more developed fragments for performance . The sketches were copied and tidied , but nothing not written by Sibelius was added to the material . Permission from the Sibelius Rights Holders was secured , and John Storgårds , chief conductor of the Helsinki Philharmonic , agreed to play and record these excerpts at the orchestra 's rehearsal session on 30 October 2011 . The pieces comprise an opening segment of about a minute 's duration , an eight @-@ second fragment that might be part of a scherzo , and a final scrap of orchestral music again lasting roughly a minute . Sirén describes the music as " strange , powerful , and with daring , spicy harmonies — a step into the new even after Tapiola and the music for The Tempest " . Stearns gives a more detailed insight : " The first excerpt is classic Sibelian announcement of a first movement . There 's a genteel orchestral thunderclap that throws open the door to a harmonic world that is Sibelius ' alone , but has strange dissonances unlike any other work . Another glimpse sounds like the beginning of a scherzo , surprisingly spring @-@ like with a buoyant flute solo . Another snippet has a classic Sibelian bassoon solo , the sort that speaks of primal things and goes to a dark , wintry underworld . "
= = Speculation = =
Although only the first movement , copied by Voigt , is fully accepted as having been completed , the intended scale and general character of the Eighth Symphony may be inferred from several sources . Sibelius 's correspondence with Voigt and with his binders , in 1933 and 1938 respectively , indicates the possibility of a notably large @-@ scale work . Apart from Nils @-@ Eric Fougstedt 's 1947 observation , there are also indications from Voigt that the work may have contained choral elements , along the lines of Beethoven 's Ninth .
From the available fragments of music , both Virtanen and Andrew Mellor of Gramophone detect hints of Tapiola , particularly in the first of the three extracts . Kilpeläinen points to some of Sibelius 's late minor works , in particular the " Five Esquisses " for piano Op. 114 ( 1929 ) , as providing evidence that in his final compositional years Sibelius was " progressing towards a more abstract idiom : clear , ethereal images little touched by the human passions " . Further originality , Kilpeläinen says , is found in the " Surusoitto " music for organ , composed in 1931 for the funeral of Sibelius 's friend Akseli Gallen @-@ Kallela , a work that Aino Sibelius admitted might have been based on Eighth Symphony material : " Did the new symphony " , asks Kilpeläinen , " thus also represent a modern sound unlike that of his previous style , with bleak , open tones and unresolved dissonances ? " After the recording of the fragments , Storgårds could recognise the composer 's late style , adding that " the harmonies are so wild and the music so exciting that I 'd really love to know how he went on with this . " Sibelius 's only preserved comment on the music itself , as distinct from his occasional progress reports , is a remark to Schnéevoigt in December 1932 : " You have no idea how clever it is " .
Scholars and critics are divided in their views about the value of the recovered excerpts . On the one hand , Josephson is convinced that sufficient material exists for a reconstruction of the entire symphony and eagerly awaits the undertaking of this task . This view is echoed by Stearns : " [ T ] here 's absolutely no reason not to attempt a completion " . Others , however , are more circumspect : Virtanen , in particular , emphasises that although the music is irrefutably late Sibelius , it has not been established beyond doubt that any of it belongs to the Eighth Symphony . Sirén , who played a major role in organising the performance of the fragments , believes that completion is impossible on the basis of existing sketches , and would be dependent on further discoveries . He also surmises that Sibelius , having rejected the work , would not have relished hearing the fragments played , a viewpoint which McKenna endorses : " Watching the performance on YouTube , I could not help but think how disappointed the composer would have been to hear his unfinished music performed . " Reviewing the recorded excerpts in Gramophone , Mellor remarks that even if further manuscripts should come to light , the Sibelius Rights Holders would have full control over the material and would decide whether performance was appropriate . Mellor concludes : " We 've had to wait some 80 years to hear less than three minutes of music , and the mystery of the Eighth isn 't set to unfold any more rapidly from here " .
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= St Mary 's Church , Llanfair @-@ yng @-@ Nghornwy =
St Mary 's Church , Llanfair @-@ yng @-@ Nghornwy is a medieval parish church in the north @-@ west of Anglesey , north Wales . The date of foundation of the church , which is in the village of Llanfair @-@ yng @-@ Nghornwy , is unknown , but the oldest parts date from the 11th or 12th century . It has twice been enlarged : in the 15th century , when the chancel was rebuilt , and in the 16th century , when a chapel was added to the south of the chancel , separated by three arches . The tower at the west end is from the 17th century . A south porch of unknown date has been converted into a vestry , and the church is now entered through the tower .
St Mary 's is a Grade I listed building , a national designation given to buildings of " exceptional , usually national , interest " , in particular because it is regarded as " a fine rural parish church , incorporating significant early Medieval fabric " . Writers in the 19th century commented on the " lofty square tower " , the " very good " east window , and the " many elegant monuments " ; the clergyman and antiquarian Harry Longueville Jones called St Mary 's " one of the best specimens of an old parish church in the island " . In the 21st century , one writer has noted the " impressive lychgate " and a guide to the buildings of the region calls it " the most important church in north west Anglesey " .
The church is still used for worship by the Church in Wales , one of nine in a combined parish , although as of 2013 there has not been an incumbent priest since September 2009 . People associated with the church include James Williams , a 19th @-@ century rector who was awarded a gold medal for his efforts to save lives at sea , and his great @-@ grandson , the artist Sir Kyffin Williams . Both are buried in the churchyard .
= = History and location = =
St Mary 's Church is the parish church for the village of Llanfair @-@ yng @-@ Nghornwy in the north @-@ west of Anglesey , north Wales . It is set in a churchyard at the side of a minor road , in the south @-@ east of the village . The area is near the coast , about 8 miles ( 13 km ) from the port town of Holyhead . Llanfair @-@ yng @-@ Nghornwy takes its name in part from the church : the Welsh word llan originally meant " enclosure " and then " church " , and " ‑ fair " is a modified form of the saint 's name ( Mair being Welsh for " Mary " ) . The parish ’ s coastal position is reflected in its full name , which means " St Mary 's in the promontory " , or " St Mary in the angle of the waters " .
It is uncertain when the first church was constructed on the site . There was a church in Llanfair @-@ yng @-@ Nghornwy before 1254 , mentioned in the Norwich Taxation of that year . The oldest parts of the present structure are the nave walls and the arch between the nave and the chancel ( to the east of the nave ) ; these date from the 11th or 12th century . In the 15th century , the chancel was reconstructed and enlarged ; in the following century , a chapel was added to the south of the chancel , separated by an arcade of three arches . In her 1833 history of Anglesey , Angharad Llwyd said that the south chapel " belongs exclusively " to one of the local landed estates , and the chancel belonged to another .
A tower was added at the west end in the 17th century , perhaps in 1660 according to a 2009 guide to the buildings of the region . At some stage , a porch was added to the south @-@ west corner of the nave , but it has " no datable features " . In the middle of the 19th century the porch entrance was blocked off and replaced by a window , and since then access to the church has been through a door on the west side of the tower . Some restoration work was carried out in 1847 by the Sheffield @-@ based architects Weightman and Hadfield . Their plans included a proposal to add a chapel to the north side , but this did not happen . Further work was undertaken in 1860 , and some repairs were carried out in the chancel and south chapel in the 1930s under the architect and historian Harold Hughes .
St Mary 's is still used for worship by the Church in Wales . It is one of nine churches in the combined benefice of Bodedern with Llanfaethlu . It is within the deanery of Llifion and Talybolion , the archdeaconry of Bangor and the Diocese of Bangor . As of 2013 , there is no incumbent priest at the church , and there has not been one since September 2009 .
James Williams , rector of St Mary 's from 1821 to 1872 , helped to establish the Anglesey Association for the Preservation of Lives from Shipwreck in 1828 , in the wake of a storm that caused a boat to sink with 140 deaths . He was awarded a gold medal by the Royal National Institute for the Preservation of Life from Shipwreck ( later renamed the Royal National Lifeboat Institution ) in 1835 , for his efforts in the rescue of a boat during a gale . Angharad Llwyd , writing when Williams was at St Mary 's , noted that " this benevolent gentleman , aided by his lady , ever alert in the cause of humanity , are generally among the first on the shore , in case of accident , well supplied with restoratives , and other necessaries , to comfort and protect the suffering mariners . " The artist Sir Kyffin Williams ( 1918 – 2006 ) was a great @-@ grandson of James and his wife Frances . At his request , a memorial to them was put up on the south wall of the chapel . James , Frances and Kyffin are buried in the churchyard . The churchyard also contains the Commonwealth war graves of a Royal Navy sailor of World War I and another from World War II .
= = Architecture and fittings = =
= = = Structure = = =
St Mary 's is a medieval church , built using rubble masonry dressed with freestone and displaying Perpendicular details . The roof is made of slate with stone copings . Internally , the timbers of the roofs of the nave , chancel and chapel are exposed . The beams running the length of the nave are decorated at intervals by painted plaster shield designs . The chancel roof is from the late 15th century , and the chapel roof is from the early part of the following century .
= = = Interior = = =
The church is entered through the door at the west side of the tower , with modern double doors between the tower and the nave set into a plain square doorway dating from the 17th or 18th century . The nave is 27 feet 9 inches by 13 feet 8 inches ( 8 @.@ 5 by 4 @.@ 2 m ) . Between the nave and the chancel there is a plain round arch , from the 11th or 12th century , a step up , and a rail . At the east end of the chancel , there is a further step up from the chapel into the sanctuary , which has some 18th @-@ century gravestones set into it . The late 15th @-@ century chancel , which measures 32 feet 6 inches by 14 feet ( 9 @.@ 9 by 4 @.@ 3 m ) , has some memorials from the 18th and early 19th centuries . One is to a bonesetter called Evan Thomas ( died 1814 ) , erected by Thomas Bulkeley , 7th Viscount Bulkeley ; another , to Emma Viscountess Bulkeley Williams , is made from ornately decorated marble .
The three arches between the chancel and chapel rest on octagonal columns . One of the arches has inscribed upon it , in early 16th @-@ century lettering , SCA MARIA ORA PRO ME DAVID A JACO ( " Saint Mary pray for me David ap Iago " ) ; another has a stone with a roughly carved face . There was once a rood screen across the chancel , as shown by markings on the north wall and on the westernmost of the arches . It was still in position in 1867 , when one visitor mentioned it in his notes on the church . Panelling has been fixed to the east and south walls of the sanctuary in the chapel as a reredos . The chapel measures 32 feet 6 inches by 14 feet 6 inches ( 9 @.@ 9 by 4 @.@ 4 m ) .
The font is at the rear of the nave on the north side . It is octagonal on the outside , with a circular bowl inside . A survey of church plate within the Bangor diocese in 1906 recorded : a large silver chalice , inscribed with the donor 's name and the year 1713 ; a plain silver paten , dated 1724 – 25 ; and a pewter flagon , from about 1710 .
= = = Windows = = =
The nave has two windows . The south window , to the east of the vestry , is from the 14th century . It has two lights ( sections of window separated by mullions ) with flat tops and is decorated with stone tracery . A survey of the church in 1937 by the Royal Commission on Ancient and Historical Monuments in Wales and Monmouthshire noted the window ’ s " crude workmanship and design . " The window on the north nave wall has three lights with rounded tops . It too has been dated to the 14th century , but other sources say that it is from the 16th century . A 2009 guide to buildings of north @-@ west Wales says that the window is " typically 16th @-@ century " .
The 15th @-@ century window at the east end of the chancel has three lights topped with cinquefoils ( a pattern of five joined circles ) . The lights are decorated with tracery , and set in a pointed arch frame with a hood mould . Stained glass from 1850 depicts ( from north to south ) Christ with children , Christ at a table , and the cross . The north window in the chancel is a 19th @-@ century copy of the north nave window . There are two windows in the chapel , each with three lights ; one in the east wall from the 16th century set in an arch with a hood mould , the other in the south wall set in a flat @-@ headed frame .
= = = Tower and porch = = =
The tower has external buttresses and the door on the west side is set in a pointed arch frame with a hood mould . The buttresses and door were added to the tower after it was built ; the 1937 Royal Commission survey described them as " modern " . There are two stages ( levels ) to the tower ; the tall upper stage is slightly narrower than the base , which measures 8 feet 6 inches by 8 feet 9 inches ( 26 by 2 @.@ 7 m ) . The tower has simple rectangular openings in the north , east and south walls . There is a 17th @-@ century bell in the west wall of the tower in a plain arch opening ; the top of the wall is crenellated . Behind the parapet at the top of the tower , there is a short spire in the shape of a pyramid , made from wood and covered in slates .
The south porch has been described as " unusually long " ; it measures 11 feet 6 inches by 8 feet 9 inches ( 3 @.@ 5 by 2 @.@ 7 m ) and has been used as a vestry since the external doorway was blocked off and converted into a window . The 14th @-@ century doorway from the nave into the vestry has a pointed head in a square frame , and was described in the 1937 survey as having an " unusual design " . The porch roof may be from the late medieval period .
= = Assessment = =
St Mary 's has national recognition and statutory protection from alteration as it has been designated as a Grade I listed building – the highest grade of listing , designating " exceptional , usually national , interest " ; fewer than 2 per cent of the listed buildings in Wales are in this category . It was given this status on 12 May 1970 , as " a fine rural parish church , incorporating significant early Medieval fabric , including a 12th @-@ century chancel arch " . Cadw ( the Welsh Government body responsible for the built heritage of Wales and the inclusion of Welsh buildings on the statutory lists ) also notes the " good late Medieval additions , including a fine 16th @-@ century arcaded chapel ” , and says that St Mary 's is of " special interest " because of its early date , " and for the quality of its later detail " .
Writing in 1833 , before the restoration of 1847 , Angharad Llwyd described the church as " a spacious ancient structure , partly in the Norman style , with a lofty square tower , of rude architecture " . She noted the " massive circular pillars and arches " in the chancel , and the " peculiar good taste " of the architecture of the recently rebuilt rectory . The 19th @-@ century writer Samuel Lewis remarked upon the " many elegant monuments " in the church .
Writing in 1862 , the clergyman and antiquarian Harry Longueville Jones said that it was " one of the largest churches in this division of Anglesey " He said that it had recently been " judiciously repaired and restored " by James Williams and was " now one of the best specimens of an old parish church in the island " , adding that the east window was " good in detail and in execution " .
The Welsh politician and church historian Sir Stephen Glynne visited the church in 1867 . He said that the east window was " a very good Perpendicular one of three lights , early in the style . " He described the churchyard as " secluded , and shaded by fine trees " and the tower as " rude and plain " , noting that the " open bell arch " on the west side was comparable to the one at St Mary 's Church , Llanerchymedd .
A 2006 guide to the churches of Anglesey describes the " fairly large church " as standing in a " quiet wooded location " . It also comments upon the " impressive lychgate " at the entrance to the churchyard and the " squat pyramidal structure " on top of the tower . A 2009 guide to the buildings of the former county of Gwynedd calls St Mary 's " the most important church of north @-@ west Anglesey " and says that it has " an unusual plan " .
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= Benjamin Hardin Helm =
Benjamin Hardin Helm ( June 2 , 1831 – September 21 , 1863 ) was a Kentucky politician , attorney , Confederate brigadier general , and a brother @-@ in @-@ law of Abraham Lincoln . He was also the son of Kentucky Governor John L. Helm . Helm was born in Bardstown , Kentucky . He attended the Kentucky Military Institute and the West Point Military Academy and then went to study law at the University of Louisville and Harvard University . He served as a state legislator and the state 's attorney in Kentucky . He also served as the assistant inspector @-@ general for the Kentucky state guard . Helm was offered the position of Union Army paymaster by his brother @-@ in @-@ law , President Abraham Lincoln , a position which he declined . Helm felt it was an honor to serve in the Confederate States Army , where he was initially a colonel and later promoted to brigadier general . Helm commanded the 1st Kentucky Brigade more commonly known as The Orphan Brigade . He died on the battlefield during the Battle of Chickamauga . Helm was married to Emilie Todd , the half @-@ sister of Mary Todd Lincoln .
= = Early life = =
The son of lawyer and politician John L. Helm and Lucinda Barbour Hardin , Benjamin Hardin Helm was born in Bardstown , Kentucky on June 2 , 1831 . In the winter of 1846 , at age 15 , Helm enrolled at the Kentucky Military Institute , where he remained for three months . He left on his 16th birthday to accept an appointment in West Point the same day . Helm graduated in 1851 near his 20th birthday , ranked 9th in a class of 42 cadets . He became a brevet second lieutenant in the 2nd U.S. Dragoons . He served at a cavalry school at Carlisle , Pennsylvania , and at Fort Lincoln , Texas , but resigned his commission after a year , when he was diagnosed with inflammatory rheumatism .
Helm then studied law at the University of Louisville and Harvard University , graduating in 1853 and practicing law with his father . In 1855 , he was elected to the House of Representatives of Kentucky from Hardin County , and was the state 's attorney for the 3rd district of Kentucky from 1856 to 1858 . In 1856 , Helm married Emilie Todd , a half @-@ sister of Mary Todd Lincoln .
In 1860 , he was appointed assistant inspector @-@ general of the Kentucky State Guard , which he was active in organizing . Kentucky remained officially neutral in the American Civil War , but his brother @-@ in @-@ law , now President Abraham Lincoln , offered him the position of paymaster of the Union Army . Helm declined the offer , and returned to Kentucky to raise the 1st Kentucky Cavalry Regiment for the Confederate Army .
= = Military career = =
Helm was commissioned a colonel on October 19 , 1861 , and served under Brigadier General Simon B. Buckner in Bowling Green , Kentucky . Helm and the 1st Kentucky were then ordered south . He was promoted to brigadier general on March 14 , 1862 and , three weeks later , received a new assignment to raise the 3rd Kentucky Brigade , in the division of Major General John C. Breckinridge . During the Battle of Shiloh , Helm used his brigade to guard the Confederate flanks . In 1862 , he was also sent to protect the Arkansas , an ironclad warship of the Confederate Navy under construction in Yazoo City , Mississippi . Serving under Breckinridge in January 1863 , he was given command of the First Kentucky Brigade , commonly known as the " Orphan Brigade " . Helm 's brigade was assigned to the Army of Tennessee , where it participated in the 1863 Tullahoma and Chickamauga campaigns . Near the end of the spring of 1863 , Breckenridge ordered Helm to deploy the brigade to Vicksburg , Mississippi to participate in General Joseph E. Johnston 's unsuccessful attempt to break the siege . Helm called it " the most unpleasant and trying [ campaign ] of his career " .
= = Battle of Chickamauga and death = =
In the fall of 1863 , the 1st Kentucky Brigade formed a part of General Braxton Bragg 's counteroffensive against Union Major General William Rosecrans in Chattanooga , Tennessee . At 9 : 30 am on September 20 , 1863 , the divisions of Generals Breckinridge and Patrick Cleburne were ordered to move forward . Helm 's brigade and the others in Breckinridge 's division drove into the Federals ' left . General Cleburne 's division , which was intended to strike near the center of the line , was delayed by heavy fire from Union soldiers , leaving the left flank unguarded . Repeated attempts to overwhelm the Federals were in vain , though some of Helm 's Kentuckians and Alabamans managed to reach within 39 yards ( 36 m ) of the Federal line . In less than an hour of the order given to advance , fully one third of the Orphan Brigade had been lost . While the remainder of Helm 's men clashed with the Union line , a sharpshooter from the 15th Kentucky Union Infantry shot Helm in the chest . Bleeding profusely , he remained in the saddle a few moments before toppling to the ground . After being carried off the battlefield , Helm 's surgeons concluded that his wounds would be fatal . Helm clung to life for several hours . Knowing that his health was deteriorating , he asked who had won the battle . When assured that the Confederates had carried the day , he muttered : " Victory ! , Victory ! , Victory ! " . On September 21 , 1863 , Gen. Helm succumbed to his wounds .
Following his death , Abraham Lincoln and his wife went into private mourning at the White House . Mary Lincoln 's niece recalled : " She knew that a single tear shed for a dead enemy would bring torrents of scorn and bitter abuse on both her husband and herself . " However , the widowed Emilie Todd Helm was granted safe passage to the White House in December 1863 .
In an official report of the Battle of Chickamauga , General Daniel Harvey Hill stated that Benjamin Helm 's " gallantry and loveliness of character endeared him to everyone . " In a letter to Emilie Todd Helm , General Breckinridge said , " Your husband commanded them [ the men of the Orphan brigade ] like a thorough soldier . He loved them , they loved him , and he died at their head , a patriot and a hero . "
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= Westminster Assembly =
The Westminster Assembly of Divines was a council of theologians ( or " divines " ) and members of the English Parliament appointed to restructure the Church of England which met from 1643 to 1653 . Several Scots also attended , and the Assembly 's work was adopted by the Church of Scotland . As many as 121 ministers were called to the Assembly , with nineteen others added later to replace those who did not attend or could no longer attend . It produced a new Form of Church Government , a Confession of Faith or statement of belief , two catechisms or manuals for religious instruction ( Shorter and Larger ) , and a liturgical manual , the Directory for Public Worship , for the Churches of England and Scotland . The Confession and catechisms were adopted as doctrinal standards in the Church of Scotland and other Presbyterian churches , where they remain normative . Amended versions of the Confession were also adopted in Congregational and Baptist churches in England and New England in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries . The Confession became influential throughout the English @-@ speaking world , but especially in American Protestant theology .
The Assembly was called by the Long Parliament before and during the beginning of the First English Civil War . The Long Parliament was influenced by Puritanism , a religious movement which sought to further reform the church . They were opposed to the religious policies of King Charles I and William Laud , Archbishop of Canterbury . As part of a military alliance with Scotland , Parliament agreed that the outcome of the Assembly would bring the English Church into closer conformity with the Church of Scotland . The Scottish Church was governed by a system of elected assemblies of elders called presbyterianism , rather than rule by bishops , called episcopalianism , which was used in the English church . Scottish commissioners attended and advised the Assembly as part of the agreement . Disagreements over church government caused open division in the Assembly , despite attempts to maintain unity . The party of divines who favoured presbyterianism was in the majority , but political and military realities led to greater influence for the congregationalist party . Congregationalists favoured autonomy for individual congregations rather than the subjection of congregations to regional and national assemblies entailed in presbyterianism . Parliament eventually adopted a presbyterian form of government , but it lacked the power the presbyterian divines desired . During the Restoration of the monarchy in 1660 , all of the documents of the Assembly were repudiated and episcopal church government was reinstated in England .
The Assembly worked in the Reformed Protestant theological tradition , also known as Calvinism . It took the Bible as the authoritative word of God , from which all theological reflection must be based . The divines were committed to the Reformed doctrine of predestination — that God chooses certain men to be saved and enjoy eternal life rather than eternal punishment . There was some disagreement at the Assembly over the doctrine of particular redemption — that Christ died only for those chosen for salvation . The Assembly also held to Reformed covenant theology , a framework for interpreting the Bible . The Assembly 's Confession is the first of the Reformed confessions to teach a doctrine called the covenant of works , which teaches that before the fall of man , God promised eternal life to Adam on condition that he perfectly obeyed God .
= = Background = =
Parliament called the Westminster Assembly during a time of increasing hostility between Charles I , monarch of England and Scotland , and the Puritans . Puritans could be distinguished by their insistence that worship practices be supported implicitly or explicitly by the Bible , while their opponents gave greater authority to traditional customs . They believed the Church of England , which had separated itself from the Catholic Church during the English Reformation , was still too heavily influenced by Catholicism . They sought to rid the church and nation of any of these remaining influences . This included the Church 's episcopal polity , or rule by a hierarchy of bishops . Puritans , unlike separatists , did not leave the established church . Under Charles , the Puritans ' opponents were placed in high positions of authority , most notably William Laud who was made Archbishop of Canterbury in 1633 , even though these " high churchmen " were in the minority . Puritans were forced to keep their views private or face fines and imprisonment . Laud promoted advocates of Arminianism , a theological perspective opposed to the Reformed theology of the Puritans . Worship practices such as kneeling at communion , bowing at the name of Christ , and the placement of communion tables at the East end of churches were also reinstated . To the Puritans , these seemed to be a step in the direction of Catholicism .
There were also conflicts between the king and the Scots , whose church was ruled by a system of elected assemblies called presbyterianism . James , Charles 's predecessor as King of Scotland , made it clear that he intended to impose elements of episcopal church government and the Book of Common Prayer on the Scots beginning in 1604 . The Scots considered this a reversion to Roman Catholicism . Charles furthered English impositions on the Church of Scotland in 1636 and 1637 . This led to the First Bishops ' War between Charles and the Scots in 1639 . Charles called what came to be known as the Short Parliament to raise funds for the war , but he soon dissolved it when it began voicing opposition to his policies . Following the Second Bishops ' War with the Scots in 1640 , Charles was forced to call another parliament to raise additional funds .
What came to be known as the Long Parliament also began to voice vague grievances against Charles , many of which were religious in nature . Parliament had many Puritans and Puritan @-@ sympathizing members , who generally opposed the existing episcopal system , but there was little agreement over what shape the church should take . Later in 1640 , the Root and Branch petition was presented to the House of Commons , the lower house of Parliament . It was signed by about 15 @,@ 000 Londoners and called for total elimination of the episcopal system . Committees were organized in the House of Commons to enact religious reforms , leading to the imprisonment of Archbishop Laud and his supporters in the Tower of London as retaliation for their repression of Puritans . The Court of High Commission and the Star Chamber , courts which had inflicted severe punishments on Puritan dissenters , were also abolished .
= = Calling the assembly = =
The idea of a national assembly of theologians to advise Parliament on further church reforms was first presented to the House of Commons in 1641 . Such a proposal was also included in the Grand Remonstrance , a list of grievances which Parliament presented to Charles on 1 December that year . Charles responded on 23 December that the church required no reforms . Undeterred , Parliament passed three bills in 1642 appointing an assembly and stipulating that its members would be chosen by Parliament . Charles , whose royal assent was required for the bills to become law , was only willing to consider such an assembly if the members were chosen by the clergy . This was the practice for selection of members of Convocation , the assembly of clergy of the Church of England .
Defying the king , between 12 February and 20 April 1642 , each county delegation of England in Commons chose two divines , in addition to two for each county of Wales , four for London , and two for each University ( Oxford and Cambridge ) . County delegations often chose divines from their own county , but not always . Commons chose the members in this way to ensure that their local constituencies were represented in the decision . The House of Lords , Parliament 's upper house , added another fourteen names on 14 May , to which Commons agreed . Meanwhile , relations continued to deteriorate between the king and Parliament . Charles raised the royal standard at Nottingham on 22 August , marking the beginning of the First English Civil War . The start of the war lent support to the cause of the Assembly in Parliament , because holding it would convince the Scots that Parliament was serious about reforming the church and induce the Scots to come to their aid . On the other hand , the war added strain to the already busy Parliament .
Parliament finally passed an ordinance to hold the assembly on its own authority without Charles 's assent on 12 June 1643 . It named as many as 121 ministers and thirty non @-@ voting parliamentary observers : twenty from Commons , and ten from the House of Lords . The Assembly was almost entirely English ; Parliament appointed Englishmen for the counties of Wales , but the French stranger churches ( churches of Protestant refugees from Catholic France ) sent two ministers in place of any from the Channel Islands . Many of the divines were internationally recognized scholars of the Bible , ancient languages , patristics , and scholastic theology . Many were also famous preachers . Most of these theologians had retained their positions in the Church during the tenure of William Laud . Some had been ejected from their churches or cited by ecclesiastical courts for their views . Some had fled to the Continent , and one to the American colonies . Nonetheless , they all considered themselves members of the Church of England and had received episcopal ordination . Most were conformists , meaning they agreed to follow the Act of Uniformity 1558 and the Book of Common Prayer .
The Assembly was strictly under the control of Parliament , and was only to debate topics which Parliament directed . Assembly members were not permitted to state their disagreements with majority opinions or share any information about the proceedings , except in writing to Parliament . Parliament chose William Twisse , an internationally respected theologian , to be the Assembly 's prolocutor or chairman . Due to Twisse 's ill health , Cornelius Burges , whom Parliament appointed as one of several assessors , served as prolocutor pro tempore for most of the Assembly . Twenty @-@ two appointed members of the Assembly died before 1649 , and they along with those who did not attend for other reasons were replaced by another nineteen members . Three non @-@ voting scribes were also added in 1643 .
= = Revising the Thirty @-@ Nine Articles = =
The Assembly 's first meeting began with a sermon by William Twisse in the nave of Westminster Abbey on 1 July 1643 . The nave was so full that the House of Commons had to send members ahead to secure seats . Following the sermon , the divines processed to the Henry VII Chapel , which would be their place of meeting until 2 October when they moved to the warmer and more private Jerusalem Chamber . After their initial meeting they adjourned for about a week , as Parliament had not yet given specific instructions .
On 6 July , they received a set of rules from Parliament and were ordered to examine the first ten of the Thirty @-@ Nine Articles , the current doctrinal standard of the Church of England , and " to free and vindicate the Doctrine of them from all Aspersions of false Interpretations " . After a day of fasting , the Assembly took a vow , as directed by Parliament , to " not maintain any thing in Matters of Doctrine , but what I think , in my conscience , to be truth " . The divines organized themselves into three standing committees , though each committee was open to any member of the Assembly . The committees would be assigned topics and prepare propositions for debate in the full Assembly following each morning of committee meetings . In addition , over 200 ad hoc committees were appointed for tasks such as examination of candidate preachers , college fellows , and suspected heretics .
The Assembly resolved , after some debate , that all the doctrines of the Thirty @-@ Nine articles would need to be proven from the Bible . Assembly members were prone to long speeches and they made slow progress , frustrating the leadership . The eighth of the Thirty @-@ Nine Articles recommended the Apostles ' Creed , Nicene Creed , and Athanasian Creed , considered to be basic statements of orthodoxy , to be received and believed . The Assembly was unable to resolve conflicts between those who would not be bound by creeds and those who wished to retain the existing language that the creeds be " thoroughly received and believed " . The " excepters " , who took the former position , argued that the articles only require the " matter " of the creeds be believed . On 25 August the article was put off until the rest of the articles could be dealt with . This early disagreement on fundamental issues revealed deep rifts between different factions of the assembly .
= = Debating church government = =
From the beginning of the First Civil War , the Long Parliament recognized that they would need assistance from the Scots . In return for a military alliance , the Scottish Parliament required the English to sign the Solemn League and Covenant in 1643 , which stipulated that the English would bring their church into greater conformity with the Church of Scotland . The Scottish Parliament sent commissioners to London to represent Scotland 's interests to the English Parliament . Eleven of these , four theologians and seven members of Parliament , were also invited to the Assembly . The commissioners were given the opportunity to become full voting members of the Assembly but declined , preferring to maintain their independence as commissioners of their own nation and church . Samuel Rutherford , George Gillespie , and Alexander Henderson were the most outspoken of the commissioners .
On 12 October 1643 , Parliament ordered the Assembly to cease work on the Thirty @-@ Nine Articles and to begin to frame a common form of church government for the two nations . The Assembly would spend a quarter of its full sessions on the subject of church government . The majority of the Assembly members supported presbyterian polity , or church government by elected assemblies of lay and clerical representatives , though many were not dogmatically committed to it . Several members of this group , numbering about twenty and including William Twisse , favoured a " primitive " episcopacy , which would include elements of presbyterianism and a reduced role for bishops .
There were also several congregationalists , who favoured autonomy for individual local churches . Their most influential divines were Thomas Goodwin , Philip Nye , Sidrach Simpson , Jeremiah Burroughs , and William Bridge . They were often called the " dissenting brethren " in the Assembly . They have sometimes been labelled " Independents " , but they rejected this term . The Assembly members for the most part reserved the label " Independent " for separatists who left the established church . The congregationalist divines cannot be equated with separatists and Brownists , as they had accepted episcopal ordination and remained in the Church of England . Their influence was assisted by the success of Oliver Cromwell and his New Model Army in the ongoing civil war . Cromwell and many others in the army supported congregationalism .
A third group of divines were known as Erastians , a term for those who believed that the state should have significant power over the church . The entire Assembly was Erastian in the sense that the body had been called by Parliament and was completely under state control . Those labelled " Erastian " at the Assembly believed the civil authority , rather than church officers , should hold the power of church discipline . This included the power to withhold communion from unrepentant sinners . They did not see any particular form of church government as divinely mandated , and because of this the dissenting brethren allied with them when it became clear that a presbyterian establishment would be much less tolerant of congregationalism than Parliament . There were only two divines at the Assembly who held the Erastian view , John Lightfoot and Thomas Coleman , but the presence of members of Parliament , especially John Selden , as well as the fact of parliamentary oversight of the Assembly , gave Erastian views disproportional influence .
Several episcopalians , supporters of the existing system of bishops , were also included in the summoning ordinance , but Parliament may have nominated them to lend greater legitimacy to the Assembly and not have expected them to attend because Charles had not approved of the Assembly . Only one , Daniel Featley , participated , and he only until his arrest for treason in October 1643 .
Debate on church officers began on 19 October . The Assembly began with the issue of ordination , as many of the divines were concerned about the rise of various sectarian movements and the lack of any mechanism for ordination of ministers of the established church . While some members did not seem to think ordination necessary for preachers ( though they should not administer the sacraments without it ) , a majority of the divines thought any regular preaching without ordination unacceptable and wished to erect a provisional presbytery for purposes of ordination . There was also debate at this early stage over the nature of the visible church . The congregationalists considered a church to be a single local congregation , while the majority considered the national church to be a unity and were alarmed at the prospect of a disintegrated English church . Despite these debates , up until the end of 1643 there was hope that a common church government could be framed that would be satisfactory to all parties involved .
On 3 or 4 January 1644 , the five leading dissenting brethren signalled a break with the rest of the Assembly when they published An Apologeticall Narration , a polemical pamphlet appealing to Parliament . It argued that the congregational system was more amenable to state control of religious matters than that of the presbyterians because they did not desire the church to retain any real power except to withdraw fellowship from aberrant congregations . By 17 January , the majority of the Assembly had become convinced that the best way forward was a presbyterian system similar to that of the Scots , but the dissenting brethren were allowed to continue to state their case in hope that they could eventually be reconciled . It was hoped that by avoiding asserting that presbyterianism was established by divine right , the congregationalists could be accommodated .
Despite these efforts , on 21 February it became clear just how fundamentally opposed the groups were . Philip Nye , one of the dissenting brethren , asserted in a speech that a presbytery set over local congregations would become as powerful as the state and was dangerous to the commonwealth , provoking vigorous opposition from presbyterians . The next day , the Assembly finally began to establish a prescription for presbyterian government . Owing to a strong belief in the unity of the church , the Assembly continued to try to find ways to reconcile the dissenting brethren with the majority throughout 1644 , including the establishment of a special committee for that purpose in March . However , on 15 November , the dissenting brethren presented their reasons for disagreement with the rest of the Assembly to Parliament , and on 11 December the majority submitted a draft of a presbyterian form of government .
= = Conflicts with Parliament = =
Relations between the Assembly and Parliament were already deteriorating in 1644 , when Parliament ignored the Assembly 's request that " grossly ignorant and notoriously profane " individuals be barred from communion . While members of Parliament agreed that the sacrament should be kept pure , many of them disagreed with the presbyterian majority in the Assembly over who had the final power of excommunication , taking the Erastian view that it was the state . Also , by 1646 , Oliver Cromwell 's New Model Army had won the war on behalf of Parliament . Cromwell , along with a majority of the army , was strongly in favour of religious toleration for all sorts of Christians even if the national church was to be presbyterian . His rise to power as a result of his military victories made the idea of a strictly presbyterian settlement without freedom of worship for others very unlikely . Parliament at least wanted to know which sins in particular were grave enough to trigger excommunication by the church ; the Assembly was reticent to provide such information , as the majority considered the power of the church in this area to be absolute .
In May 1645 , Parliament passed an ordinance allowing excommunicants to appeal the church 's sentences to Parliament . Another ordinance on 20 October contained a list of sins to which the church would be limited in its power to excommunicate . To the majority of the divines ' dismay , an even more Erastian ordinance was proposed in March 1646 . The Assembly published a protest , provoking the Commons to charge it with breach of privilege and to submit nine questions to the divines on the matter . Votes were to be included with the answers , an attempt to force the divines associated with the protest petition to reveal themselves .
The Nine Queries , as they came to be called , focused on the divine right ( jure divino ) of church government . While the presbyterian divines were capable of defending their vision for church government as established by divine right in the Bible , they were unwilling to answer the queries because doing so would further expose the disunity of the Assembly and weaken their case in Parliament . In July 1647 , the New Model Army invaded London and conservative members of Parliament were forced out . Parliament passed an ordinance establishing religious tolerance and ensuring that the Assembly 's vision of a national , compulsory presbyterian church would never come to fruition . In London , where support for presbyterianism was greatest , presbyteries were established in only sixty @-@ four of 108 city parishes , and regional presbyterian classes were only formed in fourteen of England 's forty counties . A planned national general assembly never met . Many presbyterians did , however , establish voluntary presbyteries in what was a de facto free church situation until the Restoration in 1660 , when a compulsory episcopal system was reinstated .
The new Form of Government was much more acceptable to the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland . They passed it on 10 February 1645 , contingent on some particularities of presbyterian government which were expected to be worked out in a forthcoming Directory for Church Government . At the same time they announced their desire to formally unite the two churches . Following the rise of Cromwell and the secret Engagement of some Scots with Charles this hope was abandoned , and the documents were never formally adopted . The General Assembly ceased to function under Cromwell and the kings who succeeded him from 1649 to 1690 .
= = Confession , catechisms , and the Directory for Public Worship = =
During and after the debates over church government , the Assembly framed other documents which did not cause open rifts . The Directory for Public Worship , which was to replace the Book of Common Prayer , was swiftly written in 1644 and passed by Parliament on 3 January 1645 . The Directory , accepted by the Scots as well , took a middle course between the presbyterians and congregationalists . The presbyterians for the most part preferred a fixed liturgy while congregationalists favoured extemporaneous prayer . The Directory consisted of an order for services with sample prayers . The Assembly also recommended a psalter , translated by Francis Rous for use in worship .
A Confession of Faith to replace the Thirty @-@ Nine Articles was begun in August 1646 . While there is little record of the actions of the Assembly during the writing of the Confession , it is clear that there were significant debates in the Assembly over almost every doctrine found in it . The Confession was printed and sent to Parliament in December . The House of Commons requested scripture citations be added to the Confession , which were provided in April 1648 . Parliament approved the Confession with revisions to the chapters on church censures , synods and councils , and marriage on 20 June 1648 . The General Assembly of the Church of Scotland had already adopted the Confession without revision in 1647 . The restoration of Charles II in 1660 effectively made this legislation a nullity .
The Assembly had already done significant work on a catechism between December 1643 and January 1647 containing fifty @-@ five questions , before it decided to create two catechisms rather than one . The Larger Catechism , intended to assist ministers in teaching the Reformed faith to their congregations . The Shorter Catechism was based on the Larger Catechism but intended for use in teaching the faith to children . Parliament demanded scripture proofs for the catechisms as well . The Scots General Assembly approved both catechisms in 1648 .
The Assembly understood its mandate under the Solemn League and Covenant to have been fulfilled on 14 April 1648 when it delivered the scripture citations to Parliament , and the Scottish Commissioners had already left by the end of 1647 . The Assembly continued to meet primarily for the purpose of examination of ministers for ordination . Most of the divines were unhappy with the republican Commonwealth that emerged after Colonel Pride 's Purge of the Long Parliament in 1648 . As a result , a majority stopped attending rather than agree to the oath of Engagement to the Commonwealth that was imposed in 1649 . Newspapers continued to report on the meetings of the Assembly as late as March 1653 . The Assembly must have stopped meeting sometime between then and Cromwell 's dissolution of the Rump Parliament on 20 April 1653 .
= = Theology = =
The Assembly was a product of the British Reformed tradition , taking as a major source the Thirty @-@ Nine Articles as well as the theology of James Ussher and his Irish Articles of 1615 . The divines also considered themselves to be within the broader European Reformed tradition . They were in frequent correspondence with continental Reformed theologians , and sought their approval . They also drew upon the pre @-@ Reformation British theological tradition , which emphasized biblical knowledge and was influenced by the Augustinian theological tradition exemplified by Anselm , Thomas Bradwardine , and John Wycliffe . The recorded debates of the Assembly are full of citations of church fathers and medieval scholastic theologians .
The Confession starts with the doctrine of revelation , or how people can know about God . The divines believed knowledge of God was available to people through nature as well as the Bible , but they also believed that the Bible , or Scripture , is the only way in which people attain saving knowledge of God . The doctrine of Scripture was also a particularly important area of debate at the time . Scholars had begun to argue that the Hebrew vowel points , marks added to the text to aid in pronunciation , of the Old Testament were probably not part of the original . This caused significant debate between Reformed polemicists and Roman Catholics . Catholics argued that such a discovery demonstrated the need for an authoritative magisterium to interpret the Bible as opposed to the Protestant doctrine of perspicuity , that the essential teachings of the Bible could be interpreted by anyone . English Reformed writers in particular took up the work of defending the Reformed doctrine . The divines had a strong view of the inspiration of the Bible , and believed that God revealed himself in the propositions found in Scripture . While the issue of biblical inerrancy , the belief that there are no errors in the Bible , did not arise until the eighteenth century , the divines clearly did not believe the Bible to contain any errors . Many of the divines held a rather mechanical view of biblical inspiration , believing that not only the words and ideas but also the letters and vowel points of the Hebrew text were inspired by God . On the other hand , they acknowledged that the text was written by humans in their own styles . They did not make any distinction between essential and incidental matters with respect to biblical inspiration .
Puritans believed that God is sovereign over all of history and nature and that none of what were called his decrees would be frustrated . There was significant debate in the Assembly over the relationship of God 's decree of predestination , or choice to save some people , to the redemption purchased by Christ 's death . Many of the Reformed during this period taught that Christ died with the purpose only to save those who were eternally chosen to be saved , a doctrine called particular redemption . A vocal minority of the divines of the Assembly argued for a position known as hypothetical universalism . Edmund Calamy held such a view , and he argued that Christ 's death , as well as saving those who had been chosen , offered salvation to all people on condition that they believe . The Assembly 's Confession did not teach such a view , and its language is much more amenable to a particular redemption interpretation , but there is a general agreement among scholars that the Confession 's language allows an hypothetical universalist interpretation .
Covenant theology is an interpretive framework used by Reformed theologians which was significantly developed during the seventeenth century . Under this scheme , as articulated by the Assembly , God 's dealings with men are described in terms of two covenants : the covenant of works and covenant of grace . The Westminster Confession was the first major Reformed symbol to explicitly mention the covenant of works ( sometimes called the covenant of life ) , in which God offered Adam eternal life on condition of perfect obedience . In the fall of man , Adam broke the covenant of works by eating of the tree of knowledge of good and evil . To remedy this , God offered salvation apart from human initiative in what was called the covenant of grace . This covenant allowed man to enjoy eternal life despite his inability to obey God 's law perfectly . The idea of the covenant of grace was a much more common feature of orthodox Reformed theology . The Westminster divines set these two covenants against each other as the two major ways in which God deals with people .
The divines were even more strongly opposed to Catholicism than to William Laud and his followers , the Laudians . They associated both Catholicism and Laudianism with Arminianism and persecution . Before the civil war , the divines saw these two groups as the greatest threat to the church . With the rise of radical sectarian movements during the war , the divines became much more concerned with these groups than polemics against Catholicism . The divines were particularly concerned with those they labeled antinomians . This was a loose term for those who saw the moral law as in some way no longer relevant for Christians . The divines saw these groups as more immediately threatening than Catholicism .
= = Legacy = =
The work of the Westminster Assembly was repudiated by the Church of England during the Restoration in 1660 . The Act of Uniformity 1662 , a law requiring even greater adherence to the Book of Common Prayer and support for episcopalianism than had previously been required , forced Puritan ministers to leave the Church . Though some presbyterians continued to desire to be readmitted to the established church , restrictions on worship for non @-@ conformists led to presbyterians putting aside differences with congregationalists and adopting congregational church orders .
The Civil War brought with it the end of the consensus among English Protestants that there should be a single church imposed by the state , though there was still not complete freedom of religion . The ideals of the dissenting brethren of the Assembly were significant in the rise of denominationalism , the doctrine that the church is found in several institutions rather than a single one in a given location . Though Protestants already commonly recognized the validity of churches in different territories , the outcome of the Assembly 's debates marks the wider acceptance of the idea that several true churches may be found in the same territory .
The Confession produced by the Assembly was adopted with amendments by Congregationalists in England in the form of the 1658 Savoy Declaration , as well as by Particular Baptists in the form of the 1689 Baptist Confession . When the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland was reestablished in 1690 following the Glorious Revolution , it ratified the Westminster Confession , but not any other document produced at Westminster . The Confession remains , according to the 1929 Declaratory Articles , the Church of Scotland 's " principal subordinate standard " , subordinate to the Bible . Memorization of the Shorter Catechism has been made a requirement for children in many Presbyterian churches .
The migrations and missionary efforts of each of these groups lead to the widespread significance of the Westminster Assembly throughout the English @-@ speaking world . The Assembly 's Confession was particularly influential in American Protestant theology . It was included with congregationalist changes as part of the 1648 Cambridge Platform , a statement produced by ministers of colonial Massachusetts and the surrounding region , and again in colonial Connecticut as part of the 1708 Saybrook Platform . The Confession was modified for American Baptists in the 1707 Philadelphia Confession . The Adopting Act of 1729 required American Presbyterians to agree to the theology of the Assembly 's Confession , and the Confession remains a part of the Presbyterian Church ( USA ) ' s Book of Confessions . The Confession has been called " by far the most influential doctrinal symbol in American Protestant history " by the historian of religion Sydney E. Ahlstrom .
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= Stephen V of Hungary =
Stephen V ( Hungarian : V. István , Croatian : Stjepan V. , Slovak : Štefan V ; before 18 October 1239 – 6 August 1272 , Csepel Island ) was King of Hungary and Croatia between 1270 and 1272 , and Duke of Styria from 1258 to 1260 . He was the oldest son of King Béla IV and Maria Laskarina . King Béla had his son crowned king at the age of six and appointed him Duke of Slavonia . Still a child , Stephen married Elizabeth , a daughter of a chieftain of the Cumans whom his father settled in the Great Hungarian Plain .
King Béla appointed Stephen Duke of Transylvania in 1257 and Duke of Styria in 1258 . The local noblemen in Styria , which had been annexed four years before , opposed his rule . Assisted by King Ottokar II of Bohemia , they rebelled and expelled Stephen 's troops from most parts of Styria . After Ottokar II routed the united army of Stephen and his father in the Battle of Kressenbrunn on 12 July 1260 , Stephen left Styria and returned to Transylvania .
Stephen forced his father to cede all the lands of the Kingdom of Hungary to the east of the Danube to him and adopted the title of junior king in 1262 . In two years , a civil war broke out between father and son , because Stephen accused Béla of planning to disinherit him . They concluded a peace treaty in 1266 , but confidence was never restored between them . Stephen succeeded his father , who died on 3 May 1270 , without difficulties , but his sister , Anna and his father 's closest advisors fled to the Kingdom of Bohemia . Ottokar II invaded Hungary in the spring of 1271 , but Stephen routed him . In next summer , a rebellious lord captured and imprisoned Stephen 's son , Ladislaus . Shortly thereafter , Stephen unexpectedly fell ill and died .
= = Childhood ( 1239 – 1245 ) = =
Stephen was the eighth child and first son of King Béla IV of Hungary and his wife , Maria , a daughter of Theodore I Lascaris , Emperor of Nicaea . He was born in 1239 . Archbishop Robert of Esztergom baptised him on 18 October . The child , heir apparent from birth , was named after Saint Stephen , the first King of Hungary .
Béla and his family , including Stephen , fled to Zagreb after the Mongols had annihilated the royal army in the Battle of Mohi on 11 April 1241 . The Mongols crossed the frozen Danube in February 1242 and the royal family ran off as far as the well @-@ fortified Dalmatian town of Trogir . The King and his family returned from Dalmatia after the Mongols unexpectedly withdrew from Hungary in March .
= = Junior king = =
= = = Duke of Slavonia ( 1245 – 1257 ) = = =
A royal charter of 1246 mentions Stephen as " King , and Duke of Slavonia " . Apparently , in the previous year , Béla had his son crowned as junior king and endowed with the lands between the river Dráva and the Adriatic Sea , according to historians Gyula Kristó and Ferenc Makk . The seven @-@ year @-@ old Stephen 's provinces — Croatia , Dalmatia and Slavonia — were administered by royal governors , known as bans .
In a letter addressed to Pope Innocent IV in the late 1240s , Béla IV wrote that " [ o ] n behalf of Christendom we had our son marry a Cuman girl " . The bride was Elizabeth , the daughter of a leader of the Cumans whom Béla had invited to settle in the plains along the river Tisza . Elizabeth had been baptized , but ten Cuman chieftains present at the ceremony nevertheless took their customary oath upon a dog cut into two by a sword .
= = = Duke of Transylvania and Styria ( 1257 – 1260 ) = = =
When Stephen attained the age of majority in 1257 , his father appointed him Duke of Transylvania . Stephen 's rule in Transylvania was short @-@ lived , because his father transferred him to Styria in 1258 . Styria had been annexed in 1254 , but the local lords rose up in rebellion and expelled Béla IV 's governor , Stephen Gutkeled , before Stephen 's appointment . Stephen and his father jointly invaded Styria and subdued the rebels . In addition to Styria , Stephen also received two neighboring counties — Vas and Zala — in Hungary from his father . He launched a plundering raid in Carinthia in the spring of 1259 , in retaliation of Duke Ulrich III of Carinthia 's support of the Styrian rebels .
Stephen 's rule remained unpopular in Styria . With support from King Ottokar II of Bohemia , the local lords again rebelled . Stephen could preserve only Pettau ( present @-@ day Ptuj , Slovenia ) and its region . On 25 June 1260 , Stephen crossed the river Morava to invade Ottokar 's realm . His military force , which consisted of Székely , Romanian and Cuman troops , routed an Austrian army . However , in the decisive Battle of Kressenbrunn King Béla 's and Stephen 's united army was vanquished on 12 July , primarily because the main forces , which were under King Béla 's command , arrived late . Stephen , who commanded the advance guard , barely escaped from the battlefield . The Peace of Vienna , which was signed on 31 March 1261 , put an end to the conflict between Hungary and Bohemia , forcing Béla IV to renounce of Styria in favor of Ottokar II .
= = = Conflicts and civil war ( 1260 – 1270 ) = = =
Stephen returned to Transylvania and started to rule it for the second time after 20 August 1260 . He and his father jointly invaded Bulgaria and seized Vidin in 1261 . His father returned to Hungary , but Stephen continued the campaign alone . He laid siege to Lom on the Danube and advanced as far as Tirnovo in pursuit of Tsar Constantine Tikh of Bulgaria . However , the Tsar succeeded in avoiding any clashes with the invaders and Stephen withdrew his troops from Bulgaria by the end of the year .
Stephen 's relationship with Béla IV deteriorated in the early 1260s . Stephen 's charters reveal his fear of being disinherited and expelled by his father . He also accused some unnamed barons of inciting the old monarch against him . On the other hand , Stephen 's charters prove that he made land grants in Bihar , Szatmár , Ugocsa , and other counties which were situated outside Transylvania .
Archbishops Philip of Esztergom and Smaragd of Kalocsa undertook to mediate after some clashes occurred between the two kings ' partisans in the autumn . According to the Peace of Pressburg , which was concluded around 25 November , Béla IV and his son divided the country and Stephen received the lands to the east of the Danube . When confirming the treaty on 5 December , Stephen also promised that he would not invade Slavonia which had been granted to his younger brother , Béla , by their father . On this occasion , Stephen styled himself " Junior King , Duke of Transylvania and Lord of the Cumans " .
A Bulgarian nobleman , Despot Jacob Svetoslav sought assistance from Stephen after his domains , which were situated in the regions south of Vidin , were overrun by Byzantine troops in the second half of 1263 . Stephen sent reinforcements under the command of Ladislaus II Kán , Voivode of Transylvania to Bulgaria . The Voivode routed the Byzantines and drove them out of Bulgaria . Stephen granted Vidin to Jacob Svetoslav who accepted his suzerainty .
The reconciliation of Stephen and his father was only temporary . Stephen confiscated the domains of his mother and sister , Anna — including Beszterce ( present @-@ day Bistrița , Romania ) and Füzér — which were located in the lands under his rule . Béla IV 's army crossed the Danube under Anna 's command after 1 August 1264 . She besieged and took Sárospatak and seized Stephen 's wife and children . Voivode Ladislaus Kán turned against Stephen and led an army , which consisted of Cuman warriors , to Transylvania . Stephen routed him at the fort of Déva ( now Deva , Romania ) . King Béla 's Judge royal , Lawrence arrived at the head of a new army and forced Stephen to retreat to Feketehalom ( now Codlea , Romania ) . The Judge royal lay siege to the fortress , but Stephen 's partisans relieved it . Stephen launched a counter @-@ offensive and forced his father 's army to retreat . He gained a decisive victory over his father 's army in the Battle of Isaszeg in March 1265 . The two archbishops mediated a new consolidation between father and son , which confirmed the 1262 division of the country . Béla and Stephen signed the peace treaty in the Convent of the Blessed Virgin on the Rabbits ' Island ( now Margaret Island in Budapest ) on 23 March 1266 .
During the civil war in Hungary , Stephen 's vassal , Despot Jacob Svetoslav submitted himself to Tsar Constantine Tikh of Bulgaria . In the summer of 1266 , Stephen invaded Bulgaria , seized Vidin , Pleven and other forts and routed the Bulgarians in five battles . Jacob Svetoslav again accepted Stephen 's suzerainty and was reinstalled in Vidin . From then on , Stephen used the title " King of Bulgaria " in his charters .
Béla and Stephen together confirmed the liberties of the " royal servants " , from then on known as noblemen , in 1267 . A double marriage alliance between Stephen and King Charles I of Sicily — Stephen 's son , Ladislaus married Charles 's daughter , Elisabeth , and Charles 's namesake son married Stephen 's daughter , Mary — strengthened Stephen 's international position in 1269 . Confidence was never restored between Béla and Stephen . On his deathbed , the old King requested King Ottokar II of Bohemia to give shelter to his daughter Anna and his partisans after his death .
= = Reign ( 1270 – 1272 ) = =
The senior King died on 3 May 1270 . His daughter , Anna , seized the royal treasury and fled to Bohemia . Henry Kőszegi , Nicholas Geregye , and Lawrence Aba — Béla 's closest advisors — followed her and handed over Kőszeg , Borostyánkő ( Bernstein , Austria ) and their other castles along the western borders to Ottokar II . Stephen nominated his own partisans to the highest offices ; for instance , Joachim Gutkeled became Ban of Slavonia , and Matthew Csák was appointed Voivode of Transylvania . Stephen granted Esztergom County to Archbishop Philip who crowned him king in Esztergom on or after 17 May .
The Polish chronicler Jan Długosz writes that Stephen made " a pilgrimage to the tomb of St. Stanisław " in Cracow and visited his brother @-@ in @-@ law , Boleslaw the Chaste , Duke of Cracow at the end of August . The two monarchs renewed " the old alliance between Hungary and Poland " and entered into an alliance " to have the same friends and the same enemies " . Stephen also met Ottokar II on an island of the Danube near Pressburg ( present @-@ day Bratislava , Slovakia ) , but they only concluded a truce .
Stephen launched a plundering raid into Austria around 21 December . King Ottokar invaded the lands north of the Danube in April 1271 and captured a number of fortresses , including Dévény ( now Devín , Slovakia ) , Pressburg and Nagyszombat ( present @-@ day Trnava , Slovakia ) . Ottokar routed Stephen at Pressburg on 9 May , and at Mosonmagyaróvár on 15 May , but Stephen won the decisive battle on the Rábca River on 21 May . Ottokar withdrew from Hungary and Stephen chased his troops as far as Vienna . The two kings ' envoys reached an agreement in Pressburg on 2 July . According to their treaty , Stephen promised that he would not assist Ottokar 's opponents in Carinthia , and Ottokar renounced the castles he and his partisans held in Hungary . The Hungarians soon recaptured Kőszeg , Borostyánkő and other fortresses along the western border of Hungary .
According to the Life of Stephen 's saintly sister , Margaret , who had died on 18 May 1270 , Stephen was present when the first miracle attributed to her occurred on the first anniversary of her death . Stephen , in fact , initiated Margaret 's canonization at the Holy See in 1271 . In the same year , Stephen granted town privileges to the citizens of Győr . He also confirmed the liberties of the Saxon " guests " in the Szepesség region ( present @-@ day Spiš , Slovakia ) , contributing to the development of their autonomous community . On the other hand , Stephen protected the Archbishop of Esztergom 's rights against the conditional nobles of the archbishopric who attempted to get rid of their obligations .
Ban Joachim Gutkeled kidnapped Stephen 's ten @-@ year @-@ old son and heir , Ladislaus and imprisoned him in the castle of Koprivnica in the summer of 1272 . Stephen besieged the fortress , but could not capture it . Stephen fell ill and was taken to the Csepel Island . He died on 6 August 1272 . Stephen was buried near to the tomb of his sister , Margaret , in the Monastery of the Blessed Virgin on Rabbits ' Island .
= = Family = =
Stephen 's wife , Elizabeth was born around 1239 , according to historian Gyula Kristó . A charter of her father @-@ in @-@ law , Béla IV , refers to one Seyhan , a Cuman chieftain as his kinsman , implying that Seyhan was Elizabeth 's father . Stephen 's first child by Elizabeth , Catherine was born around 1256 . She was given in marriage to Stephen Dragutin , the elder son and heir of King Stephen Uroš I of Serbia , in about 1268 . Her sister , Mary was born around 1257 and married the future Charles II of Naples in 1270 . Their grandson , Charles became King of Hungary in the first decade of the 14th century .
According to historian Gyula Kristó , Stephen 's third ( unnamed ) daughter was the wife of Despot Jacob Svetoslav . Stephen 's third ( or fourth ) daughter , Elizabeth , who was born in about 1260 , became a Dominican nun in the Monastery of the Blessed Virgin on Rabbits ' Island . She was appointed prioress in 1277 , but her brother , Ladislaus , kidnapped and married her to a Czech baron , Zavis of Falkenstein , in 1288 . Stephen 's youngest daughter , Anna , was born in about 1260 . She married Andronikos Palaiologos , son and heir of the Byzantine Emperor , Michael VIII .
Stephen 's first son Ladislaus was born in 1262 . He succeeded his father in 1272 . Stephen 's youngest child , Andrew , was born in 1268 and died at the age of 10 .
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= Pennsylvania Route 145 =
Pennsylvania Route 145 ( PA 145 ) is a 20 @.@ 89 mi ( 33 @.@ 62 km ) long north – south state highway in the Lehigh Valley area of eastern Pennsylvania . It connects Interstate 78 ( I @-@ 78 ) and PA 309 in Lanark , Lehigh County to PA 248 in Weiders Crossing , Northampton County . PA 145 is the main north @-@ south arterial into Allentown , the third @-@ largest city in the state . The route enters the city on South 4th Street and follows multiple streets to downtown , where it follows the one @-@ way pair of 6th Street northbound and 7th Street southbound . North of Allentown in Whitehall Township , a seven @-@ mile ( 11 @.@ 2 km ) portion of PA 145 is known as MacArthur Road , named in honor of General Douglas MacArthur . MacArthur Road is a divided highway ; between U.S. Route 22 ( US 22 ) and Eberhart Road , it is six lanes wide with a Jersey barrier and jughandles while the remainder of the road a four @-@ lane divided highway . MacArthur Road is the location of the main commercial center of the Lehigh Valley . North of Eagle Point , PA 145 becomes a two @-@ lane undivided road that parallels the Lehigh River , crossing the river into Northampton County at Treichlers . The route continues along the east bank of the river and passes through Walnutport before reaching its northern terminus . PA 145 is dedicated as the Battle of the Bulge Veterans Memorial Highway in honor of the veterans who fought in the Battle of the Bulge .
The section of road south of downtown Allentown was originally designated as part of US 309 when the U.S. Highway System was established in 1926 . Between 1928 and 1930 , PA 312 ran concurrent with US 309 on this stretch of road . PA 145 was first designated in 1928 between intersections with PA 45 ( now PA 248 ) in Weiders Crossing and Bath , heading south to Cementon before turning east to Bath . A portion of PA 329 was designated between Cementon and Allentown along Coplay Road , Mickley Pike , and 7th Street , ending at US 22 , US 309 , PA 29 , and PA 43 at 7th and Hamilton streets . The Seventh Street Pike was built between the 1920s and 1941 as a straight north @-@ south road in Whitehall Township ; PA 329 was relocated onto it in the 1930s . In 1941 , PA 145 and PA 329 switched alignments , with PA 145 heading south along Seventh Street Pike and 7th Street to US 22 / US 309 / PA 29 at Tilghman Street in Allentown and PA 329 heading east to Bath . Seventh Street Pike was renamed to MacArthur Road in the early 1950s . In the 1950s , the southern terminus of PA 145 was cut back to the US 22 freeway in Whitehall Township and US 309 and PA 29 were rerouted to bypass Allentown . The MacArthur Road section of PA 145 was widened into a divided highway in 1970 . In the 1980s , a proposal was made to extend PA 145 and US 222 through Allentown to provide numbered routes in the city . PA 145 was extended south to its current terminus by 1991 .
= = Route description = =
PA 145 begins at an interchange with I @-@ 78 at exit 60 and PA 309 in the community of Lanark in Upper Saucon Township , Lehigh County . South of this interchange , the roadway continues southeast as part of PA 309 while northbound PA 309 heads west along I @-@ 78 . From this interchange , PA 145 heads northwest on South Pike Avenue , a divided highway with two northbound lanes and one southbound lane . The road becomes undivided at the Vera Cruz Road / Oakhurst Derive intersection and ascends South Mountain with S @-@ curves , passing through forested areas with some homes . The route reaches the community of Summit Lawn at the peak of South Mountain , where it intersects Rock Road , which heads southwest to provide access to westbound I @-@ 78 / northbound PA 309 . Here , PA 145 turns north and enters Salisbury Township , where it descends the mountain with one northbound lane and two southbound lanes through forests with a few residences . At the base of South Mountain , the route heads into the city of Allentown and becomes South 4th Street , heading into residential areas . The road crosses Emaus Avenue and narrows to two lanes , running north @-@ northwest past businesses as it heads into the Mountainville neighborhood . PA 145 continues past homes and businesses , curving to the north as it passes to the east of a shopping center . After passing through the Mountainville neighborhood , the route turns west onto Susquehanna Street and passes over Norfolk Southern 's Reading Line and Trout Creek .
PA 145 curves north and becomes South 5th Street before it splits into a one @-@ way pair . The northbound direction follows South 5th Street north and Auburn Street west to an intersection with South 6th Street and Lehigh Street while the southbound direction follows South 6th Street south and Wyoming Street east . The one @-@ way streets , which carry two lanes of traffic in each direction , pass through urban residential neighborhoods , with northbound PA 145 passing Good Shepherd Hospital along South 5th Street . Past the one @-@ way pair , the route follows Lehigh Street , a three @-@ lane road with one northbound lane and two southbound lanes , through urban residential and commercial areas , crossing Little Lehigh Creek before intersecting Martin Luther King , Jr . Drive . After this intersection , the road ascends a long hill . PA 145 splits into another one @-@ way pair at Union Street , with the northbound direction following two @-@ lane South 6th Street and the southbound direction following three @-@ lane South 7th Street . The route heads into the commercial downtown of Allentown , intersecting the northern terminus of northbound PA 222 at West Walnut Street , which is one @-@ way eastbound . A block later , PA 145 intersects West Hamilton Street , with the Sailors and Soldiers Monument located at the center of the intersection between 7th and Hamilton streets . Past this intersection , northbound PA 145 follows North 6th Street and southbound PA 145 follows North 7th Street , with southbound PA 145 passing to the east of the PPL Center sports arena . Past the arena , the route intersects West Linden Street , which is one @-@ way westbound and serves as the southbound beginning of PA 222 . Continuing north , PA 145 leaves the downtown area and passes through urban areas of homes and businesses , intersecting Tilghman Street . A short distance later , northbound PA 145 turns west on two @-@ way , two @-@ lane West Washington Street to rejoin southbound PA 145 at North 7th Street .
PA 145 continues north on North 7th Street , a three @-@ lane road with one northbound lane and two southbound lanes that is lined with urban homes . The route widens to four lanes and crosses Sumner Avenue on a tall bridge , at which point it leaves Allentown for Whitehall Township . Here , the route becomes four @-@ lane divided MacArthur Road and intersects Mickley Road / 6th Street as it heads into commercial areas . The road crosses Jordan Creek and passes between businesses to the west and residential areas to the east before it comes to an interchange with the US 22 freeway . Past this interchange , PA 145 becomes a six @-@ lane divided highway with a Jersey barrier and several intersections controlled by jughandles . The route traverses the main commercial center of the Lehigh Valley , passing to the west of Lehigh Valley Mall . After intersecting Grape Street , the road passes to the west of Whitehall Mall before coming to another intersection with Mickley Road . PA 145 continues past shopping centers and businesses , intersecting Schadt Avenue and curving to the northwest .
After the Eberhart Road intersection in the community of Mickleys , the road narrows to a four @-@ lane divided highway and runs through a mix of farmland and commercial development , turning to the north . The route continues through wooded areas with some nearby farms and residential commercial development and reaches an intersection with PA 329 in Eagle Point , located east of Egypt and west of Northampton . Past this intersection , PA 145 continues north through rural areas with some development , crossing into North Whitehall Township . The route intersects Second Street and narrows to a two @-@ lane undivided , unnamed road as it heads along the west bank of the Lehigh River . The road continues through wooded areas alongside the river before it curves northwest away from it and reaches the community of Laurys Station . PA 145 passes homes and businesses , curving to the north again . The route heads into farmland with some homes , turning to the west and widening into a four @-@ lane divided highway .
PA 145 crosses the Lehigh River on the Treichlers Bridge , at which point it enters Lehigh Township in Northampton County . The route passes over Norfolk Southern 's Lehigh Line before it descends off the Treichlers Bridge and intersects Blue Mountain Drive in the community of Treichlers . Past this , PA 145 heads south on two @-@ lane undivided Riverview Drive and passes through a mix of farms and homes to the west of the river and the railroad tracks . The road begins a long curve to the west and then to the northwest as it continues parallel to the Lehigh River , heading into wooded areas with some development . The route passes through the community of Lockport and runs west through a mix of farms and woods before it enters the borough of Walnutport . PA 145 curves north and becomes South Best Avenue , heading through residential areas with some businesses . The route becomes North Best Avenue and heads into commercial areas , briefly becoming a divided highway before intersecting Main Street . The road becomes undivided again and continues into wooded areas with some development . The route leaves Walnutport for Lehigh Township again , where the name changes back to Riverview Drive . PA 145 continues north and reaches its northern terminus at PA 248 in the community of Weiders Crossing , a short distance south of the northern terminus of PA 873 at PA 248 and the Lehigh Gap in Blue Mountain . At the northern terminus , the route also encounters the Appalachian Trail .
= = History = =
When routes were first legislated in Pennsylvania following the passage of the Sproul Road Bill in 1911 , the present @-@ day PA 145 corridor was legislated as part of Legislative Route 153 south of Allentown and as Legislative Route 175 in Northampton County . With the creation of the U.S. Highway System in 1926 , the present @-@ day route heading south out of Allentown was designated as part of US 309 . In 1928 , PA 312 was designated concurrent with US 309 between Center Valley and Allentown . The concurrent PA 312 designation was removed from US 309 by 1930 . US 309 entered Allentown from the south on Jordan Street ( now South 4th Street ) and intersected PA 43 at Susquehanna Street , at which point it turned west to join PA 43 . US 309 / PA 43 curved north on 5th Street and turned west on Auburn Street to intersect PA 29 at Lehigh Street . From here , US 309 / PA 29 / PA 43 continued north along Lehigh Street , Union Street , and 7th Street to the center of Allentown .
PA 145 was first designated in 1928 to run from PA 45 ( now PA 248 ) in Weiders Crossing east to PA 45 ( now PA 248 ) in Bath , heading south along its current alignment and continuing along the river to Cementon , where it turned east and passed through Northampton before continuing to Bath . When first designated , the route was paved between Treichlers and Bath . By 1930 , the entire length of PA 145 was paved . The road between Cementon and Allentown was designated by 1930 as part of PA 329 . This route followed Coplay Road from Cementon to Coplay and then ran along Mickley Pike through Whitehall Township before entering Allentown on 7th Street , where it ended at US 22 , US 309 , PA 29 , and PA 43 at the intersection of 7th and Hamilton streets . In the 1930s , PA 329 was realigned to follow Seventh Street Pike ( now MacArthur Road ) through Whitehall Township . The Seventh Street Pike was built starting in the later part of the 1920s to provide a straight north @-@ south road in Whitehall Township . The road between Allentown and Mickleys church was widened to three lanes in the 1930s . The southern terminus of PA 329 was cut back to US 22 , US 309 , and PA 29 at Tilghman Street in Allentown in the 1930s , with US 309 / PA 29 replacing the route along 7th Street between Tilghman and Hamilton streets . The concurrent PA 43 designation was also removed from US 309 . In 1941 , PA 145 was realigned to follow Seventh Street Pike south from Eagle Point to Allentown and 7th Street in Allentown to US 22 / US 309 / PA 29 at 7th and Tilghman streets in Allentown , with PA 329 realigned to follow the former alignment of PA 145 between Cementon and Bath . The section of Seventh Street Pike between Center Street and Eagle Point was constructed as a concrete road in 1941 . The portion of PA 145 along Seventh Street Pike was widened to four lanes between Allentown and west of Coplay by 1947 . In the early 1950s , Seventh Street Pike was renamed to MacArthur Road in honor of General Douglas MacArthur , a World War II hero .
Following the completion of the US 22 freeway in 1955 , the southern terminus of PA 145 was cut back to the cloverleaf interchange with I @-@ 78 / US 22 in Whitehall Township . Also , US 309 and PA 29 were rerouted to bypass Allentown to the south and west in the 1950s , leaving the former alignment unnumbered . By 1961 , PA 145 was realigned to bypass the center of Walnutport to the east along Best Avenue , having previously passed through the borough on Washington Street , Main Street , Cherry Street , and Spruce Street . In 1970 , PA 145 was widened into a divided highway between US 22 and north of PA 329 . The section of the route in Whitehall Township developed into a major retail center for the Lehigh Valley in the second half of the 20th century , with the construction of several businesses along with the Whitehall Mall and the Lehigh Valley Mall . In 1984 , PennDOT proposed to extend PA 145 to I @-@ 78 and PA 309 in Lanark . Traffic engineer Samuel D. Darrohh said that Allentown was one of few Pennsylvania cities without a traffic route going through it . He supported his idea by saying that motorists also might be aided if US 222 was extended along Hamilton Boulevard to connect with the proposed PA 145 corridor . By 1991 , the extension of PA 145 south from US 22 to I @-@ 78 / PA 309 along its current alignment was completed . PA 145 was dedicated as the Battle of the Bulge Veterans Memorial Highway in 2008 in honor of the veterans who fought in the Battle of the Bulge during World War II . In 2012 , a project began to improve PA 145 's interchange with US 22 . The project reconstructed the bridge carrying PA 145 over US 22 and replaced the cloverleaf interchange with a modified diamond interchange to improve traffic flow . The reconstruction project , which cost $ 13 @.@ 8 million , was planned to be finished in December 2013 .
= = Major intersections = =
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= Drosera anglica =
Drosera anglica , commonly known as the English sundew or great sundew , is a carnivorous plant species belonging to the sundew family Droseraceae . It is a temperate species with a generally circumboreal range , although it does occur as far south as Japan , southern Europe , and the island of Kauaʻi in Hawaiʻi , where it grows as a subtropical sundew . It is thought to originate from an amphidiploid hybrid of D. rotundifolia and D. linearis , meaning that a sterile hybrid between these two species doubled its chromosomes to produce fertile progeny which stabilized into the current D. anglica .
= = Morphology = =
Drosera anglica is a perennial herb which forms an upright , stemless rosette of generally linear @-@ spatulate leaves . As is typical for sundews , the laminae are densely covered with stalked mucilaginous glands , each tipped with a clear droplet of a viscous fluid used for trapping insects . The lamina , which is 15 – 35 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 59 – 1 @.@ 38 in ) long , is held semi @-@ erect by a long petiole , bringing the total leaf size to 30 – 95 mm . Plants are green , coloring red in bright light . In all populations except those in Kaua 'i , D. anglica forms winter resting buds called hibernacula . These consist of a knot of tightly curled leaves at ground level , which unfurl in spring at the end of the dormancy period . The root system is weak and penetrates only a few centimeters , serving mainly as an anchor and for water absorption . Nitrogen is in short supply in bogs and trapping and digesting insects provides an alternate source .
Drosera anglica flowers in the summer , sending up peduncles 6 – 18 centimetres ( 2 @.@ 4 – 7 @.@ 1 in ) . long bearing several white flowers which open individually . Like other sundews , the flowers have five sepals , petals , and stamens . The petals for this species are 8 – 12 mm long , and the flowers have branched 2 @-@ lobed styles . The odorless , nectar @-@ less flowers do not rely on insect pollinators for pollination , rather setting seed well through self @-@ pollination ( autogamy ) . The black ovoid seed forms in a dehiscent capsule and is 1 to 1 ½ mm long .
= = Carnivory = =
Like all sundews , D. anglica uses stalked mucilaginous glands called tentacles which cover its laminae to attract , trap , and digest small arthropods , usually insects . These are attracted by a sugary scent exuded by the glands , and upon alighting on the plant adhere to the sticky drops of mucilage . Although most of its prey consists of small insects such as flies , bulkier insects with large wings are also caught . Small butterflies , damselflies , and even dragonflies can become immobilized by the plant 's sticky mucilage .
The plant 's initial response to contact with prey consists of thigmotropic ( movement in response to touch ) tentacle movement , with tentacles bending toward the prey and the center of the leaf to maximize contact . D. anglica is also capable of further movement , being able to bend the actual leaf blade around prey to further the digestion process . Tentacle movement can occur in a matter of minutes , whereas the leaf takes hours or days to bend . When something gets caught , the tentacles touching the prey exude additional mucilage to mire down the prey , which eventually dies of exhaustion or is asphyxiated as the mucilage clogs its tracheae . Once the prey has been digested and the resulting nutrient solution has been absorbed by the plant , the leaf unfurls , leaving only the prey 's exoskeleton behind .
= = Habitat = =
Drosera anglica grows in open , non @-@ forested habitat with wet , often calcium @-@ rich soils . These include bogs , marl fens , quaking bogs , cobble shores , and other calcareous habitats . This tolerance of calcium is relatively rare in the rest of the genus . D. anglica is often associated with various sphagnum mosses , and many times grows in a soil substrate that is entirely composed of living , dead , or decomposed sphagnum . The sphagnum wicks moisture to the surface while simultaneously acidifying it . What soil nutrients are not seeped away by the constant moisture are often used up by the sphagnum or made unavailable by the low soil pH . Since nutrient availability is low , competition from other plants is diminished , allowing the carnivorous English sundew to flourish .
= = Distribution = =
Drosera anglica is one of the most widely distributed sundews in the world . It is generally circumboreal , meaning that it is found at high latitudes around the globe . In a few areas , however , it is found farther south , particularly in Japan , southern Europe , the Hawaiian island of Kauaʻi , and California . Plants from Hawaiʻi , where it is known as mikinalo , are generally smaller than normal and do not experience a winter dormancy period . Its natural habitat includes 12 U.S. states , including Alaska , and 11 Canadian provinces and territories . The altitudinal range is from 5 m to at least 2000 m .
= = Special origins = =
All North American Drosera species except for D. anglica have a chromosome count of 2n = 20 . In 1955 , Wood noted that D. anglica had a chromosome count of 2n = 40 , and hypothesized that it was of hybrid amphidiploid origin . Since the leaf morphology of D. anglica is an intermediary between that of D. rotundifolia and D. linearis and the two occur sympatrically in several locations , Wood conjectured that D. anglica likely originated from a hybrid between these two .
All North American Drosera species produce sterile hybrids . The natural hybrid D. rotundifolia × D. linearis ( conventionally but incorrectly referred to as Drosera × anglica ) , is also sterile but is morphologically similar to the modern D. anglica . Errors in meiosis during ovule and pollen production , however , can result in a chromosome doubling which can allow for viable seed to be produced . The resulting plants , known as amphiploids , would be fertile . Woods noted that this appeared to be an ongoing process with D. anglica speciating from D. rotundifolia × D. linearis through amphidiploidy in multiple locations . The question remains as to why D. anglica is so widespread , whereas the range of D. linearis is limited to the Great Lakes region of North America . The greater adaptability of D. anglica to varied habitat conditions could be a major factor .
= = Botanical history = =
Drosera anglica was first described by William Hudson in 1778 . It has frequently been confused with the other circumpolar long @-@ leaf Drosera , D. intermedia . This confusion was fueled by the resurfacing of an older name , D. longifolia ( described by Carl Linnaeus in 1753 ) , which was regarded as being too ambiguous in description and had been applied to specimens of both D. anglica and D. intermedia . Herbarium specimens were also a mix of the two species . These points led Martin Cheek to propose D. longifolia for rejection as a species name in 1998 . The proposal was accepted and the taxon listed as rejected in 1999 .
= = Hybrids = =
Several naturally occurring hybrids involving D. anglica exist . These include :
These are all sterile . In addition , several man @-@ made hybrids have been made .
= = Gallery = =
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= New York State Route 111 =
New York State Route 111 ( NY 111 ) is a state highway located in Suffolk County , New York , in the United States . It runs north – south for 9 @.@ 42 miles ( 15 @.@ 16 km ) through the towns of Islip and Smithtown , connecting NY 27A in the town seat of Islip to the east end of the NY 25 and NY 25A concurrency in Smithtown 's Village of the Branch . Most of the road is a two @-@ lane highway , save for several short four @-@ lane stretches in the vicinity of interchanges along the route . NY 111 was assigned as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York as an East Islip – Village of the Branch highway , using what is now County Route 17 ( CR 17 ) south of Hauppauge . It was realigned to serve the hamlet of Islip in 1966 .
= = Route description = =
NY 111 begins at an intersection with NY 27A ( Main Street ) in the town of Islip . The route proceeds north through the hamlet of Islip along the two @-@ lane Islip Avenue , passing through a short residential stretch ahead of an intersection with CR 50 ( Union Boulevard ) . NY 111 soon crosses the nearby Montauk Branch of the Long Island Rail Road just east of the Islip station , from where it continues north past various businesses and residences . As the road heads northward , it intersects with Bittermint Street , a connector to NY 27 ( Sunrise Highway ) eastbound . After crossing over NY 27 , the route intersects with a ramp serving the westbound lanes and Islip Boulevard , which connects NY 27 westbound to NY 111 .
Past Sunrise Highway , the route serves many blocks of residences prior to entering a cloverleaf interchange with the Heckscher State Parkway ( exit 43 ) . After this junction , NY 111 continues north as a two @-@ lane residential street to the hamlet of Central Islip . Here , the residences give way to various businesses as NY 111 and Islip Avenue briefly bend to the northwest for several blocks . Another north @-@ northwesterly stretch follows , bringing the highway over another Long Island Rail Road line , this time the Ronkonkoma Branch . Past the railroad overpass , NY 111 intersects with CR 100 ( Suffolk Avenue ) , at which point NY 111 leaves Islip Avenue and changes names to Joshua 's Path .
One block north of CR 100 , Caleb 's Path forks off to the northwest while NY 111 splits to the northeast along Joshua 's Path , serving a long stretch of homes in the northern part of Central Islip . Several blocks to the north , NY 111 intersects with CR 67 ( Long Island Motor Parkway ) at an at @-@ grade intersection on the northern edge of the community . Now out of Central Islip , the route traverses industrialized areas surrounding a large Y intersection with CR 17 ( Wheeler Road ) in Hauppauge . NY 111 takes on the Wheeler Road name , and the route immediately enters an interchange ( exit 56 ) with the Long Island Expressway ( I @-@ 495 ) . From here , the route bends northeast along Wheeler Road , paralleling the Nissequogue River as it serves the northern part of the town of Islip .
The highway passes the American Real Estate School and a campus of Empire State College before intersecting NY 454 ( Veterans Highway ) . Not far from NY 454 , NY 111 has a short concurrency with CR 76 ( Townline Road ) along the Islip – Smithtown and then the names changes to Hauppauge Road town line before fully crossing into Smithtown . After forking from CR 76 , NY 111 continues northeast through the hamlet of Hauppauge , crossing NY 347 ( Smithtown Bypass ) at @-@ grade as it runs across another residential stretch . The route soon enters Village of the Branch , where it bends northward into a large commercial area at the center of the community . Here , NY 111 intersects with East Main Street , which enters the junction from the west as NY 25 and NY 25A . At this point , NY 25 continues eastward as Middle Country Road , NY 111 terminates , and NY 25A turns northward on NY 111 's right @-@ of @-@ way , changing names to North Country Road .
= = History = =
The origins of NY 111 date back to 1914 when the state of New York awarded a contract on July 29 to improve a 9 @.@ 56 @-@ mile ( 15 @.@ 39 km ) highway in the towns of Islip and Smithtown to state highway standards . The road covered by the project began at Main Street in East Islip and headed north on Carleton Avenue and Wheeler Road to Hauppauge , from where it continued northeast to Village of the Branch via Hauppauge Road . Reconstruction of the road cost $ 263 @,@ 359 ( equivalent to $ 3 @.@ 72 million in 2016 ) , and the rebuilt road was added to the state highway system on June 1 , 1922 , as unsigned State Highway 1208 ( SH 1208 ) . In the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York , hundreds of state @-@ maintained highways were assigned a posted route designation for the first time . One of these was SH 1208 , which became NY 111 .
On September 13 , 1966 , NY 111 was realigned south of Hauppauge to follow a slightly more westerly alignment to the hamlet of Islip along Joshua 's Path and Islip Avenue , two streets that ran parallel to the route 's original path on Carleton Avenue and Wheeler Road . Ownership and maintenance of NY 111 's former routing was transferred to Suffolk County , which redesignated the road as CR 17 . The ultimately cancelled eastern extension of the Northern State Parkway would have crossed NY 111 just south of Village of the Branch at a point north of Mount Pleasant Road . An interchange between the parkway and NY 111 was planned at that location .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Suffolk County .
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= Ford Nation =
Ford Nation was an opinion and discussion programme that aired on the Canadian news channel Sun News Network . The show featured two sitting Toronto politicians , mayor Rob Ford and his brother , city councillor Doug Ford , Jr . , and was pulled from the network after only one airing on November 18 , 2013 . An online version of the show aired on YouTube for five episodes between February and April , 2014 . The title is a reference to the ardent , mainly suburban supporters of the Fords and their populist conservative agenda .
= = Background = =
From February 2012 to November 3 , 2013 , the Fords hosted The City , a weekly two @-@ hour Sunday afternoon show on CFRB radio which Rob Ford described as " an unfiltered take on the work we do every day at Toronto City Hall . " After months of controversy involving the mayor , criticism of the station for letting the Fords use the show as a " bully pulpit " where their political allies were promoted and opponents cut down , and complaints to the Canadian Broadcast Standards Council alleging the show breached its code of ethics , CFRB announced in November 2013 that it and the Fords had " mutually determined " to end The City .
On November 14 , the brothers were tapped by Sun News Network to host a weekly pre @-@ taped one @-@ hour program on the TV network , to be titled Ford Nation .
= = Content = =
The lone airing of Ford Nation was broadcast on Monday , November 18 , 2013 , taking the 8PM ( ET ) slot normally occupied by Sun News Network 's The Source with Ezra Levant . The format included a back @-@ and @-@ forth dialogue between Rob Ford and Doug Ford , with the former readmitting the personal mistakes he has made as mayor ( " It is what it is . I 've admitted to my mistakes . " ) . Segments included discussions with Levant and Toronto Sun columnist Joe Warmington . Levant 's appearance included a commentary critical of the Toronto Star 's investigations into Rob Ford , with Levant likening the media 's treatment of the mayor over his recent controversies to the paparazzi 's hounding of Princess Diana .
= = Cancellation and revival as web series = =
On November 19 , 2013 , less than 24 hours after Ford Nation 's debut , Sun News Network announced it was cancelling the program after just one episode . Sun News cited high production costs involved with the premiere episode ; the show , taped one day before its airing , reportedly took five hours to record and an additional eight hours to edit . Additionally , the show met with advertiser resistance about being associated with the controversial politicians . Doug Ford , in a later conversation with The National Post , insisted that the brothers entered into the project with Sun with the understanding that Ford Nation was a " one @-@ off " project , one that was not intended to evolve into prolonged status .
Despite the show 's expense and its immediate cancellation , Ford Nation 's sole episode attracted an audience of 155 @,@ 000 viewers for the original broadcast , plus an additional 45 @,@ 000 for its replay on prime time in Western Canada and 65 @,@ 000 downloads of the program online . The audience was , according to Sun News vice @-@ president Kory Teneycke , " by far the most successful thing , from an audience perspective , the network has ever done , " topping a 2012 charity boxing match between Liberal MP Justin Trudeau and Conservative Senator Patrick Brazeau .
Rob Ford 's celebrity status had , according to Doug Ford , caught the eye of several reality television producers in both Canada and the United States . Councillor Ford stated that the brothers passed on those offers , but took an interest in suggestions by videographers for an online program that would retain the Ford Nation title and be posted weekly on YouTube . The program employed a format similar to what the Fords enjoyed on CFRB 's The City , with the Fords " [ getting ] the message out " on various topics in a " professional , yet simple " presentation , with occasional interactions with guests and audiences .
Councillor Ford announced the new show would be released on YouTube " before Christmas " 2013 . A series of short videos of under 5 minutes in length was launched on YouTube on February 10 , 2014 . In one segment , Mayor Ford admitted lying about his drug use . Others were lighter in tone and included predictions for the Stanley Cup playoffs and other remarks . In the second video , Ford named 18 councillors he wanted defeated , offering his support to any campaign opposing them . Each weekly " episode " consisted of 3 to 5 short videos of 1 to 5 minutes in length . Comments were disabled ; however , the brothers occasionally answered viewer emails in the segments . The National Post described the program as " a bizarro world version of Wayne 's World " .
Five episodes of the web series aired , with some episodes broken up into several parts . No new episodes were filmed after April 2014 when Rob Ford entered rehab following the emergence of a second video of him smoking crack cocaine .
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= RNA =
Ribonucleic acid ( RNA ) is a polymeric molecule implicated in various biological roles in coding , decoding , regulation , and expression of genes . RNA and DNA are nucleic acids , and , along with proteins and carbohydrates , constitute the three major macromolecules essential for all known forms of life . Like DNA , RNA is assembled as a chain of nucleotides , but unlike DNA it is more often found in nature as a single @-@ strand folded onto itself , rather than a paired double @-@ strand . Cellular organisms use messenger RNA ( mRNA ) to convey genetic information ( using the letters G , U , A , and C to denote the nitrogenous bases guanine , uracil , adenine , and cytosine ) that directs synthesis of specific proteins . Many viruses encode their genetic information using an RNA genome .
Some RNA molecules play an active role within cells by catalyzing biological reactions , controlling gene expression , or sensing and communicating responses to cellular signals . One of these active processes is protein synthesis , a universal function wherein mRNA molecules direct the assembly of proteins on ribosomes . This process uses transfer RNA ( tRNA ) molecules to deliver amino acids to the ribosome , where ribosomal RNA ( rRNA ) then links amino acids together to form proteins .
= = Comparison with DNA = =
Like DNA , most biologically active RNAs , including mRNA , tRNA , rRNA , snRNAs , and other non @-@ coding RNAs , contain self @-@ complementary sequences that allow parts of the RNA to fold and pair with itself to form double helices . Analysis of these RNAs has revealed that they are highly structured . Unlike DNA , their structures do not consist of long double helices , but rather collections of short helices packed together into structures akin to proteins . In this fashion , RNAs can achieve chemical catalysis , like enzymes . For instance , determination of the structure of the ribosome — an enzyme that catalyzes peptide bond formation — revealed that its active site is composed entirely of RNA .
= = Structure = =
Each nucleotide in RNA contains a ribose sugar , with carbons numbered 1 ' through 5 ' . A base is attached to the 1 ' position , in general , adenine ( A ) , cytosine ( C ) , guanine ( G ) , or uracil ( U ) . Adenine and guanine are purines , cytosine and uracil are pyrimidines . A phosphate group is attached to the 3 ' position of one ribose and the 5 ' position of the next . The phosphate groups have a negative charge each , making RNA a charged molecule ( polyanion ) . The bases form hydrogen bonds between cytosine and guanine , between adenine and uracil and between guanine and uracil . However , other interactions are possible , such as a group of adenine bases binding to each other in a bulge , or the GNRA tetraloop that has a guanine – adenine base @-@ pair .
An important structural feature of RNA that distinguishes it from DNA is the presence of a hydroxyl group at the 2 ' position of the ribose sugar . The presence of this functional group causes the helix to mostly adopt the A @-@ form geometry , although in single strand dinucleotide contexts , RNA can rarely also adopt the B @-@ form most commonly observed in DNA . The A @-@ form geometry results in a very deep and narrow major groove and a shallow and wide minor groove . A second consequence of the presence of the 2 ' -hydroxyl group is that in conformationally flexible regions of an RNA molecule ( that is , not involved in formation of a double helix ) , it can chemically attack the adjacent phosphodiester bond to cleave the backbone .
RNA is transcribed with only four bases ( adenine , cytosine , guanine and uracil ) , but these bases and attached sugars can be modified in numerous ways as the RNAs mature . Pseudouridine ( Ψ ) , in which the linkage between uracil and ribose is changed from a C – N bond to a C – C bond , and ribothymidine ( T ) are found in various places ( the most notable ones being in the TΨC loop of tRNA ) . Another notable modified base is hypoxanthine , a deaminated adenine base whose nucleoside is called inosine ( I ) . Inosine plays a key role in the wobble hypothesis of the genetic code .
There are more than 100 other naturally occurring modified nucleosides , The greatest structural diversity of modifications can be found in tRNA , while pseudouridine and nucleosides with 2 ' -O @-@ methylribose often present in rRNA are the most common . The specific roles of many of these modifications in RNA are not fully understood . However , it is notable that , in ribosomal RNA , many of the post @-@ transcriptional modifications occur in highly functional regions , such as the peptidyl transferase center and the subunit interface , implying that they are important for normal function .
The functional form of single @-@ stranded RNA molecules , just like proteins , frequently requires a specific tertiary structure . The scaffold for this structure is provided by secondary structural elements that are hydrogen bonds within the molecule . This leads to several recognizable " domains " of secondary structure like hairpin loops , bulges , and internal loops . Since RNA is charged , metal ions such as Mg2 + are needed to stabilise many secondary and tertiary structures .
The naturally occurring enantiomer of RNA is D @-@ RNA composed of D @-@ ribonucleotides . All chirality centers are located in the D @-@ ribose . By the use of L @-@ ribose or rather L @-@ ribonucleotides , L @-@ RNA can be synthesized . L @-@ RNA is much more stable against degradation by RNase .
Like other structured biopolymers such as proteins , one can define topology of a folded RNA molecule . This is often done based on arrangement of intra @-@ chain contacts within a folded RNA , termed as circuit topology .
= = Synthesis = =
Synthesis of RNA is usually catalyzed by an enzyme — RNA polymerase — using DNA as a template , a process known as transcription . Initiation of transcription begins with the binding of the enzyme to a promoter sequence in the DNA ( usually found " upstream " of a gene ) . The DNA double helix is unwound by the helicase activity of the enzyme . The enzyme then progresses along the template strand in the 3 ’ to 5 ’ direction , synthesizing a complementary RNA molecule with elongation occurring in the 5 ’ to 3 ’ direction . The DNA sequence also dictates where termination of RNA synthesis will occur .
Primary transcript RNAs are often modified by enzymes after transcription . For example , a poly ( A ) tail and a 5 ' cap are added to eukaryotic pre @-@ mRNA and introns are removed by the spliceosome .
There are also a number of RNA @-@ dependent RNA polymerases that use RNA as their template for synthesis of a new strand of RNA . For instance , a number of RNA viruses ( such as poliovirus ) use this type of enzyme to replicate their genetic material . Also , RNA @-@ dependent RNA polymerase is part of the RNA interference pathway in many organisms .
= = Types of RNA = =
= = = Overview = = =
Messenger RNA ( mRNA ) is the RNA that carries information from DNA to the ribosome , the sites of protein synthesis ( translation ) in the cell . The coding sequence of the mRNA determines the amino acid sequence in the protein that is produced . However , many RNAs do not code for protein ( about 97 % of the transcriptional output is non @-@ protein @-@ coding in eukaryotes ) .
These so @-@ called non @-@ coding RNAs ( " ncRNA " ) can be encoded by their own genes ( RNA genes ) , but can also derive from mRNA introns . The most prominent examples of non @-@ coding RNAs are transfer RNA ( tRNA ) and ribosomal RNA ( rRNA ) , both of which are involved in the process of translation . There are also non @-@ coding RNAs involved in gene regulation , RNA processing and other roles . Certain RNAs are able to catalyse chemical reactions such as cutting and ligating other RNA molecules , and the catalysis of peptide bond formation in the ribosome ; these are known as ribozymes .
= = = In length = = =
According to the length of RNA chain , RNA includes small RNA and long RNA . Usually , small RNAs are < 200 nt in length , and long RNA are > 200 nt . Long RNAs , also called large RNAs , mainly include long non @-@ coding RNA ( lncRNA ) and mRNA . Small RNAs mainly include 5.8S ribosomal RNA ( rRNA ) , 5S rRNA , transfer RNA ( tRNA ) , microRNA ( miRNA ) , small interfering RNA ( siRNA ) , small nucleolar RNA ( snoRNAs ) , Piwi @-@ interacting RNA ( piRNA ) , tRNA @-@ derived small RNA ( tsRNA ) and small rDNA @-@ derived RNA ( srRNA ) .
= = = In translation = = =
Messenger RNA ( mRNA ) carries information about a protein sequence to the ribosomes , the protein synthesis factories in the cell . It is coded so that every three nucleotides ( a codon ) correspond to one amino acid . In eukaryotic cells , once precursor mRNA ( pre @-@ mRNA ) has been transcribed from DNA , it is processed to mature mRNA . This removes its introns — non @-@ coding sections of the pre @-@ mRNA . The mRNA is then exported from the nucleus to the cytoplasm , where it is bound to ribosomes and translated into its corresponding protein form with the help of tRNA . In prokaryotic cells , which do not have nucleus and cytoplasm compartments , mRNA can bind to ribosomes while it is being transcribed from DNA . After a certain amount of time the message degrades into its component nucleotides with the assistance of ribonucleases .
Transfer RNA ( tRNA ) is a small RNA chain of about 80 nucleotides that transfers a specific amino acid to a growing polypeptide chain at the ribosomal site of protein synthesis during translation . It has sites for amino acid attachment and an anticodon region for codon recognition that binds to a specific sequence on the messenger RNA chain through hydrogen bonding .
Ribosomal RNA ( rRNA ) is the catalytic component of the ribosomes . Eukaryotic ribosomes contain four different rRNA molecules : 18S , 5.8S , 28S and 5S rRNA . Three of the rRNA molecules are synthesized in the nucleolus , and one is synthesized elsewhere . In the cytoplasm , ribosomal RNA and protein combine to form a nucleoprotein called a ribosome . The ribosome binds mRNA and carries out protein synthesis . Several ribosomes may be attached to a single mRNA at any time . Nearly all the RNA found in a typical eukaryotic cell is rRNA .
Transfer @-@ messenger RNA ( tmRNA ) is found in many bacteria and plastids . It tags proteins encoded by mRNAs that lack stop codons for degradation and prevents the ribosome from stalling .
= = = Regulatory RNAs = = =
Several types of RNA can downregulate gene expression by being complementary to a part of an mRNA or a gene 's DNA . MicroRNAs ( miRNA ; 21 @-@ 22 nt ) are found in eukaryotes and act through RNA interference ( RNAi ) , where an effector complex of miRNA and enzymes can cleave complementary mRNA , block the mRNA from being translated , or accelerate its degradation .
While small interfering RNAs ( siRNA ; 20 @-@ 25 nt ) are often produced by breakdown of viral RNA , there are also endogenous sources of siRNAs. siRNAs act through RNA interference in a fashion similar to miRNAs . Some miRNAs and siRNAs can cause genes they target to be methylated , thereby decreasing or increasing transcription of those genes . Animals have Piwi @-@ interacting RNAs ( piRNA ; 29 @-@ 30 nt ) that are active in germline cells and are thought to be a defense against transposons and play a role in gametogenesis .
Many prokaryotes have CRISPR RNAs , a regulatory system similar to RNA interference . Antisense RNAs are widespread ; most downregulate a gene , but a few are activators of transcription . One way antisense RNA can act is by binding to an mRNA , forming double @-@ stranded RNA that is enzymatically degraded . There are many long noncoding RNAs that regulate genes in eukaryotes , one such RNA is Xist , which coats one X chromosome in female mammals and inactivates it .
An mRNA may contain regulatory elements itself , such as riboswitches , in the 5 ' untranslated region or 3 ' untranslated region ; these cis @-@ regulatory elements regulate the activity of that mRNA . The untranslated regions can also contain elements that regulate other genes .
= = = In RNA processing = = =
Many RNAs are involved in modifying other RNAs . Introns are spliced out of pre @-@ mRNA by spliceosomes , which contain several small nuclear RNAs ( snRNA ) , or the introns can be ribozymes that are spliced by themselves . RNA can also be altered by having its nucleotides modified to other nucleotides than A , C , G and U. In eukaryotes , modifications of RNA nucleotides are in general directed by small nucleolar RNAs ( snoRNA ; 60 @-@ 300 nt ) , found in the nucleolus and cajal bodies. snoRNAs associate with enzymes and guide them to a spot on an RNA by basepairing to that RNA . These enzymes then perform the nucleotide modification. rRNAs and tRNAs are extensively modified , but snRNAs and mRNAs can also be the target of base modification . RNA can also be methylated .
= = = RNA genomes = = =
Like DNA , RNA can carry genetic information . RNA viruses have genomes composed of RNA that encodes a number of proteins . The viral genome is replicated by some of those proteins , while other proteins protect the genome as the virus particle moves to a new host cell . Viroids are another group of pathogens , but they consist only of RNA , do not encode any protein and are replicated by a host plant cell 's polymerase .
= = = In reverse transcription = = =
Reverse transcribing viruses replicate their genomes by reverse transcribing DNA copies from their RNA ; these DNA copies are then transcribed to new RNA . Retrotransposons also spread by copying DNA and RNA from one another , and telomerase contains an RNA that is used as template for building the ends of eukaryotic chromosomes .
= = = Double @-@ stranded RNA = = =
Double @-@ stranded RNA ( dsRNA ) is RNA with two complementary strands , similar to the DNA found in all cells. dsRNA forms the genetic material of some viruses ( double @-@ stranded RNA viruses ) . Double @-@ stranded RNA such as viral RNA or siRNA can trigger RNA interference in eukaryotes , as well as interferon response in vertebrates .
= = = Circular RNA = = =
Recently , it was shown that there is a single stranded covalently closed , i.e. circular form of RNA expressed throughout the animal and plant kingdom ( see circRNA ) . circRNAs are thought to arise via a " back @-@ splice " reaction where the spliceosome joins a downstream donor to an upstream acceptor splice site . So far the function of circRNAs is largely unknown , although for few examples a microRNA sponging activity has been demonstrated .
= = Key discoveries in RNA biology = =
Research on RNA has led to many important biological discoveries and numerous Nobel Prizes . Nucleic acids were discovered in 1868 by Friedrich Miescher , who called the material ' nuclein ' since it was found in the nucleus . It was later discovered that prokaryotic cells , which do not have a nucleus , also contain nucleic acids . The role of RNA in protein synthesis was suspected already in 1939 . Severo Ochoa won the 1959 Nobel Prize in Medicine ( shared with Arthur Kornberg ) after he discovered an enzyme that can synthesize RNA in the laboratory . However , the enzyme discovered by Ochoa ( polynucleotide phosphorylase ) was later shown to be responsible for RNA degradation , not RNA synthesis . In 1956 Alex Rich and David Davies hybridized two separate strands of RNA to form the first crystal of RNA whose structure could be determined by X @-@ ray crystallography .
The sequence of the 77 nucleotides of a yeast tRNA was found by Robert W. Holley in 1965 , winning Holley the 1968 Nobel Prize in Medicine ( shared with Har Gobind Khorana and Marshall Nirenberg ) . In 1967 , Carl Woese hypothesized that RNA might be catalytic and suggested that the earliest forms of life ( self @-@ replicating molecules ) could have relied on RNA both to carry genetic information and to catalyze biochemical reactions — an RNA world .
During the early 1970s , retroviruses and reverse transcriptase were discovered , showing for the first time that enzymes could copy RNA into DNA ( the opposite of the usual route for transmission of genetic information ) . For this work , David Baltimore , Renato Dulbecco and Howard Temin were awarded a Nobel Prize in 1975 . In 1976 , Walter Fiers and his team determined the first complete nucleotide sequence of an RNA virus genome , that of bacteriophage MS2 .
In 1977 , introns and RNA splicing were discovered in both mammalian viruses and in cellular genes , resulting in a 1993 Nobel to Philip Sharp and Richard Roberts . Catalytic RNA molecules ( ribozymes ) were discovered in the early 1980s , leading to a 1989 Nobel award to Thomas Cech and Sidney Altman . In 1990 , it was found in Petunia that introduced genes can silence similar genes of the plant 's own , now known to be a result of RNA interference .
At about the same time , 22 nt long RNAs , now called microRNAs , were found to have a role in the development of C. elegans . Studies on RNA interference gleaned a Nobel Prize for Andrew Fire and Craig Mello in 2006 , and another Nobel was awarded for studies on the transcription of RNA to Roger Kornberg in the same year . The discovery of gene regulatory RNAs has led to attempts to develop drugs made of RNA , such as siRNA , to silence genes .
= = Evolution = =
In March 2015 , complex DNA and RNA organic compounds of life , including uracil , cytosine and thymine , were reportedly formed in the laboratory under outer space conditions , using starting chemicals , such as pyrimidine , found in meteorites . Pyrimidine , like polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons ( PAHs ) , the most carbon @-@ rich chemical found in the Universe , may have been formed in red giants or in interstellar dust and gas clouds , according to the scientists .
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= Standing Up in the Milky Way =
" Standing Up in the Milky Way " is the first aired episode of the American documentary television series Cosmos : A Spacetime Odyssey . It premiered on March 9 , 2014 , simultaneously on various Fox television networks , including National Geographic Channel , FX , Fox Life , and others . The episode is presented by the series host astrophysicist Neil deGrasse Tyson , directed by Brannon Braga , produced by Livia Hanich and Steven Holtzman , and written by Ann Druyan and Steven Soter .
The series represents a follow @-@ up of the 1980s television series Cosmos : A Personal Voyage by Carl Sagan . , also hosted by Tyson , and explores astronomy , space and time , astrophysics , biology , and other diverse areas of science . In this episode , Tyson takes a tour of the Solar System and the Milky Way galaxy , explores the life of Renaissance philosopher Giordano Bruno and his vision of the cosmos , goes through a Cosmic Calendar from the beginning of the universe until the present , and ends with a tribute to Carl Sagan . The episode was first presented with a brief introduction by the President of the United States Barack Obama .
The episode received positive reviews by critics , but was criticized on issues like the historical accuracy in the presentation of Giordano Bruno 's life . It was also nominated for Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Music Composition for a Series at the 66th Primetime Creative Arts Emmy Awards , an award it won .
= = Episode summary = =
The episode begins with Tyson setting off on the " Ship of the Imagination " to discover Earth ’ s cosmic address within the Virgo Supercluster and its place in space and time . As the viewer floats along with him past the planets of our Solar System , he skims over Venus ; he shows this planet 's intense greenhouse effect , as well as its extremely high temperatures . Then he explores Jupiter 's Great Red Spot , a hurricane three times the size of Earth , and provides the first comparison showing how Earth 's size diminishes when contrasted with the Spot 's expanding view . He passes Voyager 1 , the farthest man @-@ made object from Earth , and explains the Voyager Golden Record and its purpose .
Tyson explains how human sight is limited in the cosmos and , as an example , shows us how extremely dark rogue planets are " seen " with infrared sensors . He then examines the bubble theory , and how our observable universe might be just a bubble in a " never @-@ ending " set of bubbles , analogous to drops of a waterfall .
In an animated segment of this episode , Tyson discusses the life and vision of the 16th @-@ century Italian philosopher Giordano Bruno ( voiced by Seth MacFarlane ) as the person who championed a much more expansive understanding of the Earth 's place in the universe , with the Sun being just one star among all the others . Later , he presents the history of the Universe on Carl Sagan 's Cosmic Calendar . The episode ends with Tyson 's brief speech about Carl Sagan 's life and career , and how Sagan inspired him to become an astrophysicist .
= = Production = =
Ann Druyan , Steven Soter , and astrophysicist Neil deGrasse Tyson were planning on producing a new , updated sequel to Carl Sagan 's Cosmos : A Personal Voyage and continued pitching the idea to various television stations even after Sagan 's death . In 2008 producer Seth MacFarlane met with Tyson at the Science & Entertainment Exchange , where Tyson told him about rebooting the Cosmos series . MacFarlane took interest in the idea and presented it to the Fox Broadcasting Company television network .
" Standing Up in the Milky Way " was directed by Brannon Braga , and written by Druyan and Soter . The narrative sequence of the episode introduced the life of philosopher Giordano Bruno voiced by the series ' executive producer Seth MacFarlane , and other additional characters voiced by MacFarlane and actor Paul Telfer . The special effects for the episode were done by the DIVE VFX studio from New York including " dimensionalization of star clusters , galaxies and nebula " for the show . The episode also introduces a new " Ship of the Imagination " redesigned by concept artist Ryan Church , which was described by The Verge as " J.J. Abrams ’ Enterprise . " The animated sequences of the episode were produced by Kara Vallow .
= = Reception = =
The episode premiered with a 2 @.@ 1 / 5 in the 18 @-@ 49 rating / share and 5 @.@ 77 million Americans watching it live on Fox . However , Nielsen estimated that a total of " 8 @.@ 5 million watched Sunday on the total of 10 Fox @-@ owned networks , including Fox broadcast , National Geographic and FX . " Series executive producer Seth MacFarlane posted on the online social networking website Twitter that 12 million overall viewers watched the Cosmos premiere live in the US alone and 17 @.@ 5 million with DVR .
" Standing Up in the Milky Way " was critically well accepted . John Teti from The A.V. Club gave the episode a mark of " B " . He stated " Cosmos : A Spacetime Odyssey is both ambitious and quaint . It attempts to convey humanity ’ s most expansive ideas in the space of a weekly 44 @-@ minute TV series . That ’ s ambitious , " giving a positive review on the show 's creation . He did criticize the show for its " sloppy scripting that crops up more often later in the episode . " Max Nicholson from IGN gave the episode a grade of 8 @.@ 5 ( " Great " ) , concluding " the docu @-@ series is unapologetic in its somewhat controversial depiction of organized religion , but it extends an olive branch for creative thinking and plays with concepts of faith in its whimsical view of the macrocosm . " A positive review was also given by Slate journalist Phil Plait , who said that he sees the episode " as making the more interesting and bigger point about suppression of thought and the grandeur of freedom of exploration of ideas . "
Other reviews have criticized the historical accuracy of the segment on Giordano Bruno and question why the show did not portray more important astronomers of the time period , such as Copernicus or Galileo , or earlier medieval natural philosophers , such as Nicole Oresme and Nicholas of Cusa , who presented the possibility of a plurality of worlds centuries earlier than Bruno . Reviewers also complained that the segment was historically inaccurate in its portrayal of Bruno 's troubles as stemming almost entirely from his belief in many worlds .
During the premier broadcast of the episode on March 9 , 2014 , on Oklahoma City Fox affiliate KOKH @-@ TV , the episode was interrupted for 15 seconds . The brief interruption of the episode by an advertisement for FOX 25 Primetime News at Nine coincided with a monologue by Tyson in which he describes human evolution . KOKH issued a statement of apology for the event , which also rejected accusations that the incident was intentional , but " the result of operator error . "
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= 1995 British Grand Prix =
The 1995 British Grand Prix ( formally the XLVIII British Grand Prix ) was a Formula One motor race held on 16 July 1995 at Silverstone Circuit , Silverstone , Northamptonshire , England . It was the eighth round of the 1995 Formula One season . The 61 @-@ lap race was won by Johnny Herbert for the Benetton team after he started from fifth position . Jean Alesi finished second in a Ferrari , with David Coulthard third in a Williams car . The remaining points @-@ scoring positions were filled by Olivier Panis ( Ligier ) , Mark Blundell ( McLaren ) and Heinz @-@ Harald Frentzen ( Sauber ) . Herbert 's victory was his first in Formula One , and the Benetton team 's fifth of the season .
The race was dominated , however , by the fight between World Drivers ' Championship protagonists , Michael Schumacher ( Benetton ) and Damon Hill ( Williams ) . Hill , who started from a pole position achieved during qualifying sessions held in variable weather conditions , retained his lead during the opening stages of the race whilst Schumacher , who was alongside him on the starting grid , fell behind Alesi in the run to the first corner . Despite being held up behind the slower Ferrari until it pitted , Schumacher used a more favourable one @-@ stop strategy to move ahead of Hill , who made two pit stops for fuel and tyres , on lap 41 . Four laps later , Hill attempted to pass Schumacher , but the two collided and were forced to retire from the race . This promoted Herbert and Coulthard , who were battling for third place , into the fight for the lead . Coulthard passed Herbert , but dropped to third , behind Alesi , after incurring a stop @-@ go penalty for speeding in the pit lane .
= = Report = =
= = = Background = = =
Heading into the eighth race of the season , Benetton driver Michael Schumacher was leading the Drivers ' Championship with 46 points ; ahead of Williams driver Damon Hill on 35 , and the two Ferrari drivers , Jean Alesi and Gerhard Berger , on 26 and 17 points respectively . The Constructors ' Championship was closer , with Benetton on 48 points leading Ferrari and Williams on 43 and 42 points respectively . After a hesitant start to the season , Schumacher had won three of the previous four Grands Prix , and arrived at Silverstone as the man to beat . Hill , on the other hand , had won the 1994 British Grand Prix and was eager to repeat the feat in front of his home fans . He had also set the fastest lap time in pre @-@ event testing at Silverstone during the final week of June , almost a second in front of team @-@ mate David Coulthard , and a further 0 @.@ 2 seconds ahead of Schumacher . The McLaren , Jordan , Footwork and Pacific teams also took part in these test sessions . Hill was also under some additional pressure going into the weekend , as his wife , Georgie , was due to give birth to their third child imminently .
There was one driver change going into the event : the Footwork team 's lead driver , Gianni Morbidelli , was replaced by compatriot Massimiliano Papis , an International Formula 3000 race winner who had also been the test driver for Team Lotus in 1994 , before the outfit withdrew from the sport ahead of the 1995 season . Papis brought valuable sponsorship from Altea , a tie manufacturer , to the underfunded team , which supplemented the income already being provided by his pay driver team @-@ mate , Taki Inoue , to cover the team 's budget for the year . Morbidelli was kept on as the team 's test driver , and later returned to racing action at the Pacific Grand Prix later in the year .
Pre @-@ race discussion centred on the following year 's driver line @-@ up , with Schumacher rumoured to be moving to Ferrari to replace Berger , who was considering a move to Williams . Hill 's future was also uncertain , as was his team @-@ mate David Coulthard 's , due to the McLaren team possessing an option on his services for 1996 . Sauber driver Heinz @-@ Harald Frentzen was also linked to a possible vacant position for 1996 in the Williams team . Schumacher 's future plans dictated the rest of the driver market , due to his status as the reigning World Champion — and , indeed , the only such champion of all the contemporary drivers — and reputation as the best driver currently in Formula One . It was also reported that Schumacher 's team @-@ mate , Johnny Herbert , was in imminent danger of losing his Benetton seat to test driver Jos Verstappen , who was available due to the collapse of the Simtek team after the Monaco Grand Prix and was contractually owed race drives by team principal Flavio Briatore . Despite taking a podium finish earlier in the year , Herbert had rarely been close to Schumacher 's pace and had only completed two laps in the two previous Grands Prix . A potential new entry was also being discussed : the Japanese racing car constructor Dome was in the process of building a Formula One car with which to enter the World Championship in 1997 .
Several teams had made modifications to their cars in preparation for the event . Ferrari made changes to the 412T2 chassis 's sidepods to improve airflow around the tyres , and reverted to a diffuser design used earlier in the season . The Ligier team had Martin Brundle 's car fitted with power steering for the first time and he chose to use it for the race , but team @-@ mate Olivier Panis , who had run with the system earlier in the season , decided against it . McLaren revised its troubled MP4 / 10B chassis 's suspension geometry , and Mika Häkkinen 's car was equipped with a more powerful version of its Mercedes V10 engine for Sunday 's warm @-@ up session and the race itself . Team principal Ron Dennis also re @-@ hired experienced designer Steve Nichols , who had worked for the outfit in the 1980s , in the week before the race . Footwork also arrived with revised suspension , whilst the Jordan team ran with brake disc sensors on its car . Further down the field , the Forti team introduced the revised version of its FG01 chassis for Roberto Moreno . Lead driver Pedro Diniz had first driven the car in its revised specification at the preceding French Grand Prix . The revised aerodynamic package included a higher nose and new sidepods . Both drivers also tested a new development of the Ford @-@ Cosworth ED engine in practice .
In the week leading up to the race , Williams chief designer Adrian Newey reignited the controversy over the similarities between the Benetton B195 and Ligier JS41 chassis , which had first flared up at the season @-@ opening Brazilian Grand Prix . Despite the fact that a Fédération Internationale de l 'Automobile ( FIA ) investigation had declared the JS41 legal earlier in the season , Newey stated that " as far as suspension geometry and aerodynamics are concerned , I 'd say they are identical . [ ... ] Taken to a logical conclusion , we 'll be in an IndyCar position . It is very dangerous . " As part of the Williams team 's own preparations for the race , Hill tested a Williams FW17 equipped with brakes made from steel , rather than the standard carbon fibre , and was reputedly impressed by their performance .
= = = Practice and qualifying = = =
Two practice sessions were held before the race ; the first was held from 09 : 30 to 11 : 15 local time on Friday , and an identically timed session was also held on Saturday . Each driver was limited to 23 laps of free practice per day . The qualifying period was split into two one @-@ hour sessions ; the first was held on Friday afternoon from 13 : 00 to 14 : 00 local time , with the second held on Saturday afternoon at the same time . The fastest time set by each driver from either session counted towards his final grid position . Each driver was limited to twelve laps per qualifying session .
Schumacher set the pace in Friday free practice , which took place in dry and cloudy weather conditions , with a time of 1 : 29 @.@ 238 . Hill was less than four hundredths of a second behind , ahead of Alesi , Coulthard , Herbert and Berger ; the drivers from the top three teams in the Constructors ' Championship thus filled the top six positions . Despite his fastest time , Schumacher was unhappy with the handling of his Benetton , reporting more understeer than had been present in pre @-@ event testing at the circuit .
Weather conditions for Friday qualifying were dry and sunny , albeit blustery , which meant that drivers had to cope with strong crosswinds in the circuit 's many high @-@ speed corners . The session was marked by an intense fight for pole position between championship protagonists Schumacher and Hill , which was watched by a crowd of 37 @,@ 000 spectators . Schumacher initially set the pace with a time of 1 : 29 @.@ 151 , which he later improved to 1 : 28 @.@ 387 . Hill initially struggled to match his rival 's time in the final , twistier sector of the lap , but made a set @-@ up change and took provisional pole with a time of 1 : 28 @.@ 124 in the final ten minutes . Schumacher — who had increased the level of downforce on his car to compensate for the understeer , only to find that the reduction in straightline speed was too great — was demoted to second position , but was confident that he and the team could improve the car 's handling for Saturday 's session . Coulthard was more than 0 @.@ 8 seconds slower than Hill in third place , and blamed the strong crosswinds for making his car feel very unstable at the rear end . Berger and Alesi set the fourth and sixth fastest times respectively for Ferrari , both drivers disadvantaged by a lack of straightline speed compared to the Renault @-@ powered Williams and Benetton cars , and the fact that the Italian team was not allowed to take part in pre @-@ event testing at the circuit as per the FIA 's regulations . Team principal Jean Todt , however , described lack of testing as " a feeble excuse " for the team 's loss of form compared with earlier races in the season . Herbert separated the Ferrari drivers in the second Benetton , also complaining of rear @-@ end stability problems with his car . Eddie Irvine set the seventh quickest time in his Jordan despite suffering a recurring brake balance problem , ahead of Häkkinen in the faster of the two McLarens . This formation was continued on the fifth row of the grid , which was occupied by Rubens Barrichello in the other Jordan and Mark Blundell in the other McLaren . Brundle qualified in 11th position , more than a second in front of Ligier team @-@ mate Panis in 13th ; both drivers complained that their cars rode the bumps on the track badly . The two were split by Frentzen in the quicker of the two Saubers , who set a best time 1 @.@ 5 seconds faster than his own team @-@ mate , Jean @-@ Christophe Boullion , in 16th . Ukyo Katayama was 14th quickest for the Tyrrell team , ahead of Pierluigi Martini 's Minardi , the latter 's best qualifying performance of the season . Behind Boullion , Papis set the 17th fastest time in his first Formula One qualifying session , split from team @-@ mate Taki Inoue by Luca Badoer in the second Minardi , who was unable to complete his allocated laps after spinning and breaking the car 's gearbox . The times were completed by Diniz and Moreno in the Fortis , who sandwiched Bertrand Gachot 's Pacific car . Two drivers failed to set times : Mika Salo failed to stop his Tyrrell at the pit @-@ lane weighbridge despite the presence of a red light — indicating that his car had been selected to be weighed — and the stewards excluded his times as a result . Andrea Montermini did not take part in the session at all due to a failure of his car 's brake master cylinder ; the underfunded Pacific team lacked the resources to bring a spare car to the event .
Saturday free practice took place in mixed weather conditions : the session was initially dry , but was then hit by a rain shower which dampened it somewhat ; the times were thus slower and more spread out down the field than the previous day . Schumacher set the fastest time of 1 : 31 @.@ 390 , and said that he believed that his car 's handling was much improved compared with its performance on Friday . He was followed by Alesi , Coulthard , Herbert , Panis and Frentzen . Hill was left in 22nd position as a result of spinning off in the difficult conditions and then breaking his car 's transmission as he attempted to restart . Alesi had a controversial session : he set a fast time under yellow flag conditions for Hill 's spin . He later tangled with Gachot 's Pacific and recovered to the pit entry at high speed , where he had to spin to avoid marshals who were pushing the other Pacific of Montermini back to its garage . The race stewards witnessed the incident , but mistakenly called up Alesi 's team @-@ mate , Berger , instead . Alesi , once the correct identity of the driver involved had been established , was not penalised .
It continued to rain throughout Saturday 's qualifying session ; the slower conditions meant that none of the top 24 drivers could improve upon their times from the previous day , setting the order of the starting grid and guaranteeing Hill pole position . Only Salo and Montermini 's times counted for their starting positions : the Tyrrell driver set the fourth @-@ fastest time of the session , albeit 12 seconds slower than Moreno 's dry @-@ weather Friday time , to take 23rd position on the grid ; Montermini set a time almost four seconds slower again to complete the field . Many teams chose to complete only limited running in the wet conditions , to the frustration of the crowd : Häkkinen , Inoue and Gachot did not set a time , whilst Blundell , Diniz and Martini completed only exploratory laps . There was also frustration amongst the drivers and teams who felt that they had underperformed on Friday , and for Häkkinen and Irvine who had both been scheduled to run with more powerful engines which should have given an advantage in dry conditions . The Benetton mechanics also had a busy session : first Schumacher slid off the road at Stowe corner and had to rejoin the track by using part of the old circuit ; then Herbert lost control of his car on standing water at the fast Copse corner , spearing off the road into a heavy impact against the tyre barriers . Herbert was uninjured and the Benetton mechanics were able to repair the B195 's monocoque . Coulthard set the quickest time of the session with a lap of 1 : 29 @.@ 752 , ahead of Schumacher , Alesi and Salo , with Hill , Barrichello , Brundle , Badoer , Irvine and Frentzen completing the top ten . Hill admitted that the wet session was " a bit of a let @-@ down " , and was cautious on his race prospects , as he had failed to win from his two pole positions earlier in the season , but was delighted with the outcome nonetheless . Schumacher was also disappointed with the weather conditions , but was optimistic that his car was fully competitive in either the dry or wet .
The lack of on @-@ track action caused by the wet conditions and the two @-@ day qualifying system was a cause for concern amongst the Formula One paddock , members of which believed that members of the public who had paid to attend the session ( spectator numbers were estimated at 40 @,@ 000 ) , or watch it on television , were being short @-@ changed as a result . McLaren team principal Ron Dennis argued that the restriction on the use of the teams ' spare cars should be lifted in the event of wet weather conditions , whilst Pacific designer Frank Coppuck advocated a points system for qualifying , in addition to aggregating the times over both days . FIA President Max Mosley confirmed that the current qualifying procedure was to be the subject of a review , with possible changes due to be introduced for the 1996 season . One @-@ day qualifying was subsequently introduced from the 1996 Australian Grand Prix onwards .
= = = Race = = =
On Sunday morning , a pre @-@ race warm @-@ up session took place at 09 : 30 local time , and lasted for 30 minutes . It took place in dry weather conditions . Häkkinen , using his uprated Mercedes engine for the first time , set the session 's fastest time with a lap of 1 : 29 @.@ 685 . Despite the fact that the time was set on brand @-@ new tyres , unlike many of those recorded by the opposition , it was still an encouraging boost for the McLaren team , which had endured a troubled season thus far . He was followed in the timesheets by Hill , Coulthard , Alesi , Berger and Schumacher . Hill reported that his car handled well in race trim , whilst Schumacher concentrated on fuel consumption tests , and did not attempt to set a particularly quick time . Berger , meanwhile , downplayed Ferrari 's chances , predicting that only a wet race would give either him or Alesi a chance of race victory . Herbert was down in 12th position as a result of a broken shock absorber , which was replaced in time for the race .
It began to rain half an hour before the start of the race but soon stopped , so that the track was almost entirely dry by 14 : 00 , with an ambient temperature of 22 ° C ( 72 ° F ) . A total of approximately 110 @,@ 000 spectators attended the race , of whom 20 @,@ 000 watched from grandstands . For the first time in the event 's history , general admission tickets were limited , to ensure that all spectators could get a good view of the track . Whilst on a reconnaissance lap , Montermini performed an illegal practice start , for which Pacific was given a fine of $ 5 @,@ 000 , suspended for three races .
When the race started , Hill maintained his advantage into the first corner , whilst Alesi made a fast start to slot into second position ahead of Schumacher . Salo also had an excellent getaway , rising to 17th place by the end of the first lap . Berger and Irvine , meanwhile , made poor starts as they struggled with slipping clutches , dropping to ninth and 13th positions respectively . At the end of the first lap , Hill led by 1 @.@ 1 seconds from Alesi , who was followed by Schumacher , Coulthard , Herbert , Häkkinen , Barrichello , Brundle , Berger , Frentzen , Blundell , Panis , Irvine , Martini , Katayama , Boullion , Salo , Papis , Inoue , Gachot , Badoer , Diniz , Montermini and Moreno . On the second lap , Irvine tried to pass Panis at the Abbey chicane , but spun in the process and dropped further back , shortly before his engine cut out , making him the first retirement of the race . Elsewhere in the field , Berger passed Brundle , and Montermini moved ahead of Diniz . At the front of the pack , Hill was in control , extending his lead over Alesi to 6 @.@ 2 seconds by lap 5 and to 12 seconds by lap 12 . For his part , Schumacher was being held up by Alesi , the two cars running in formation in the early stages of the race . He was , however , unable to get close enough to attempt an overtaking manoeuvre , due to the aerodynamic turbulence created by the airflow over the Ferrari . There were passing opportunities further down the order , however : Blundell and Panis both overhauled Frentzen in the early laps ; Katayama and Boullion moved ahead of Martini ; and Badoer passed Gachot . At the tail of the field , Diniz made the first of three pit stops on lap 6 to investigate gear selection problems with his Forti from which he retired eight laps later , and his team @-@ mate Moreno also made an early stop on the tenth lap but continued , albeit one lap down on the leader .
As Hill extended his lead , the stewards informed the Jordan and Ligier teams that Barrichello and Panis had jumped the start , for which they were served with ten @-@ second stop @-@ go penalties . Both drivers had previously been penalised for the same offence at the French Grand Prix , and also the Monaco Grand Prix . Panis took his penalty on lap 12 and dropped from 11th to 14th position ; Barrichello pitted to serve his identical penalty three laps later , from seventh place , and rejoined in 11th . Both drivers later protested their innocence . Lap 15 also saw the first scheduled pit stop , as Coulthard , also held up by Alesi behind Schumacher , took on fresh fuel and tyres earlier than planned in a bid to move ahead of the Ferrari when it made its own visit to the pit lane . As he rejoined the race , Coulthard 's Williams suffered an electronic failure that affected the car 's throttle control when changing gears , but continued the race in ninth place regardless . The next few laps saw a flurry of activity in the pit lane as those drivers on two @-@ stop strategies pitted at around one @-@ third race distance , and also several retirements . On lap 17 , Brundle spun out of seventh place at Luffield and beached his car in the gravel trap , and Inoue retired from 18th position after a similar mistake resulted in a stalled engine . On the same lap , Montermini pitted from 19th place , which he maintained upon rejoining the race . On the following lap , Alesi made his pit stop from second position , releasing Schumacher , and rejoined in front of Coulthard , whilst Barrichello , recovering from his penalty , passed Frentzen for what had become eighth place . Schumacher slowly began to reduce Hill 's lead , which had grown to 19 @.@ 5 seconds . Salo pitted on lap 19 , dropping behind Papis and the Minardi drivers , but gained a position on Boullion when the Sauber driver stopped on the next lap . By this stage Häkkinen and Berger had risen to fourth and fifth respectively , but both retired on lap 21 : Häkkinen 's McLaren suffering a progressive electronic problem which caused its hydraulic system to fail ; Berger pulling off the track shortly after making his first pit stop due to an incorrectly fitted left @-@ front wheel . The remaining two @-@ stoppers pitted on laps 21 and 22 : Herbert came in from third place and retained his position by rejoining ahead of Alesi and Coulthard ; Blundell dropped from fourth to seventh , Gachot retained 16th ; and Barrichello and Panis made their first scheduled stops , the Jordan dropping from seventh to eighth and the Ligier rejoining in 11th from ninth . At the head of the field , Hill came in on lap 22 , rejoining nine seconds behind Schumacher , who now led the race . Two further retirements also occurred during this stage of the race : Montermini spun out of 17th place on lap 22 , whilst Katayama , who was due in for a pit stop of his own , retired from eighth position when his engine cut due to fuel starvation on the following lap . At the end of lap 23 , the running order was Schumacher , Hill , Herbert , Alesi , Coulthard , Frentzen , Blundell , Barrichello , Martini , Papis , Panis , Badoer , Salo , Boullion , Gachot and Moreno .
On new tyres , Hill began to reduce Schumacher 's nine @-@ second lead , but after a few laps Schumacher began to ease away again as he had a lighter fuel load than the Williams . It became apparent to the teams , as the race approached half @-@ distance , that Schumacher had opted for a one @-@ stop strategy and that both he and Hill only had one stop remaining each . Frentzen , Papis and the Minardi drivers also opted for a single @-@ stop race ; Papis and Martini 's worn tyres allowing Panis to overtake them soon after his second stop . Papis made his first Formula One race pit stop on lap 28 , only to hit the barrier at the exit of the pit lane , causing damage to his Footwork 's suspension which caused him to spin off and retire on the same lap that he rejoined the circuit . On the next lap Frentzen dropped from sixth to eighth position as a result of his sole stop , and was then passed by Panis four laps later ; Martini likewise dropped from 10th to 13th on lap 30 ; and Badoer also moved from 10th to 13th when he made his stop on lap 32 . At the front of the field , Hill moved back into the lead of the race when Schumacher made his pit stop on lap 31 , rejoining in second place with a deficit of 20 seconds . Hill now pushed hard in his efforts to build up a sufficient lead over Schumacher — setting the race 's fastest lap time of 1 : 29 @.@ 752 on lap 37 — to maintain first place after his second pit stop . Salo began the second round of pit stops on the next lap , and was followed in due course by Alesi , Herbert , Barrichello , Boullion , Gachot , Blundell , Panis and Coulthard . Coulthard 's stop , despite moving him ahead of Alesi , was problematic : his car 's electronic failure meant that his pit @-@ lane speed @-@ limiter system did not work , and he exceeded the 80 kilometres per hour ( 50 mph ) pit @-@ lane speed limit , an infraction of the Sporting Regulations which , like jumping the start , entailed a ten @-@ second stop @-@ go penalty . Hill made his own second stop on lap 41 with a 27 @-@ second lead over Schumacher and the two were almost level as Hill reached the end of the pit lane , but Schumacher 's extra momentum allowed him to move ahead in the run to the Maggotts , Becketts and Chapel sequence of fast corners . At the completion of the scheduled pit stops by lap 44 , the running order was Schumacher and Hill in close attendance , then a gap back to a similar battle between Herbert and Coulthard , then Alesi , Blundell , Barrichello , Panis , Frentzen — whom Panis had just passed for the third time — Martini , Badoer , Salo , Boullion , Gachot and Moreno , the last of whom retired four laps later with a lack of hydraulic pressure in his Forti 's pneumatic engine valves .
Schumacher and Hill now had similar fuel loads , but Hill had a fresh set of tyres and immediately began pressuring Schumacher , quickly reducing the gap to less than half @-@ a @-@ second . On lap 46 , Hill attempted a passing manoeuvre at Stowe corner , but was unable to complete it , due to the presence of Boullion 's lapped Sauber . Further around the lap , Hill tried again , diving up the inside of Schumacher at the entry to the Priory left @-@ hander , but Schumacher turned in to take the racing line and the two collided , both spinning into the gravel trap , which caused their retirement from the race . The retirement of the two leaders promoted their team @-@ mates into their own battle for the lead ; the two almost colliding at the same corner as Coulthard attempted to pass Herbert by making a lunge up the inside of his car , as Hill had done to Schumacher . Coulthard had not been informed about his stop @-@ go penalty by the team , as they did not want to distract him , but he saw the penalty notification on one of the large television screens situated around the circuit . He passed Herbert on lap 49 , but took his penalty two laps later and dropped to third position , behind Alesi . The Ferrari driver was still close behind Herbert , but cut his pace in the final laps as his 412T2 's oil pressure began to fade . With the top three positions settled , attention switched to Barrichello , who had closed up to the back of Blundell 's car and was faster than the McLaren driver . On the penultimate lap , Barrichello lined up his car to attempt a pass , but Blundell defended his position and the two collided : Barrichello crashed out , but Blundell was able to continue with a punctured left @-@ rear tyre which allowed Panis to overtake him on the last lap . It was the second year in succession that Barrichello had collided with a McLaren driver in the closing stages , as he had made contact with Häkkinen on the last corner of the last lap the previous year when also battling for fourth place .
Thus Herbert took the chequered flag after 61 laps — at an average speed of 195 @.@ 682 kilometres per hour ( 121 @.@ 591 mph ) — to win his first Formula One race at his 74th attempt , a result that also moved him from sixth to fourth in the Drivers ' Championship . Alesi and Coulthard completed the podium , moving Ferrari ahead of Williams in the battle for second place in the Constructors ' Championship . Panis finished fourth , ahead of Blundell , who managed to finish despite his car running on three wheels for the final lap . Frentzen finished a lap down and completed the points @-@ scoring positions , forty seconds ahead of a close group comprising Martini , Salo and Boullion . Salo closed in on the Minardi driver late in the race after passing his team @-@ mate , but was edged onto the grass whilst attempting a pass on the Hangar Straight and spun through 360 degrees . Badoer finished a further ten seconds behind this group , having also been passed by Boullion after his final pit stop . Barrichello was classified in 11th place , ahead of Gachot , who took his first race finish since the 1992 Belgian Grand Prix three laps behind Herbert .
= = = Post @-@ race = = =
Herbert 's maiden Formula One victory was very popular amongst the spectators and team personnel , as not only was it his home race , but also because it came after a series of setbacks earlier in his career , not least a serious accident in an International Formula 3000 race at Brands Hatch in 1988 that left him with severe foot injuries which threatened his racing career . In the post @-@ race press conference , Herbert paid tribute to three people who had particularly helped the progress of his career : his wife , Becky ; Peter Collins , of whom Herbert said that " he got me into F1 twice " ; and Benetton team principal Flavio Briatore for giving him his 1995 drive . Herbert 's win also came in front of his parents , Bob and Jane , who were selling his fan club merchandise at the circuit during the race meeting . In addition , the victory secured his immediate future within the Benetton team . Alesi declared himself " very happy " with his second place , but admitted to " giving up " in the second half of the race , as he knew that overtaking Herbert or Coulthard when they were ahead of him would have been almost impossible . For Coulthard , his result was bittersweet : he was pleased to finish the race despite the failure of his car 's electronics , but disappointed to lose an almost certain victory due to his pit @-@ lane speeding penalty . A few days later , he described his race in a magazine column as " one of those disappointing days when everything goes wrong " .
The majority of media attention , however , was focussed on the aftermath of the collision between Schumacher and Hill on lap 46 . Tension between the two had already been intensified by an incident during the French Grand Prix , where Schumacher had accused Hill of brake @-@ testing him . After the crash , Schumacher blamed Hill , saying that : " I think what Damon did was both stupid and totally unnecessary . There was no room for two cars there , and it 's not an overtaking place . If I hadn 't been there , I think he 'd have gone straight on into the gravel . He just came from nowhere . Even in front of your home crowd , I think you have to keep your temperament under control . It was more or less the same situation at Adelaide last year [ the occasion of the 1994 Australian Grand Prix , in which a collision between the two settled the Drivers ' Championship in Schumacher 's favour ] , where he also tried to dive inside when there was no room . " Hill was more cautious in his assessment of the incident , commenting that : " I thought I saw an opportunity that I could take an advantage of , but I 'm afraid Michael is a harder man to pass than that , and we had an accident — which I would describe as ' a racing accident ' " . Journalists Alan Henry , Nigel Roebuck and Luc Domenjoz agreed that Hill 's lunge up the inside had been over @-@ optimistic , but not malicious in intent . Similarly , BBC commentator and former driver , Jonathan Palmer , said that Hill 's manoeuvre was the result of " a rush of blood to the head " . Journalist Joe Saward was amongst those who speculated , however , that Schumacher had played a role in the collision by taking a wider line into the Priory corner than usual , and thus encouraging Hill to attempt the manoeuvre . The incident was subject to a stewards ' investigation , which resulted in both drivers being given a severe reprimand and a warning that " future similar actions may result in severe penalties " . The collision overshadowed the fact that , in the opinion of Roebuck , Benetton had again chosen a better race strategy than Williams , and that Schumacher would have had a comfortable lead had he not been stuck behind Alesi in the early stages of the race . There was also similar ill @-@ feeling between Barrichello and Blundell after their collision on lap 60 . Barrichello accused Blundell of brake @-@ testing him prior to the incident , and of causing the crash by changing his driving line too quickly , whilst Blundell denied the allegations and drew attention to Barrichello 's similar collision with Häkkinen the previous year . The stewards also investigated this incident and gave Blundell a severe reprimand for his actions .
In the week following the race , it was reported in several British newspapers that Frank Williams , founder and team principal of the Williams team , had visited the Benetton garage after the race where he had apologised to Schumacher and Briatore for the incident , during which he had allegedly referred to Hill as a " prat " . On the same day , a Williams team spokesman stated that Hill was backed by Frank Williams and technical director Patrick Head , and that the incident was a natural part of motor racing . Frank Williams then issued a personal statement denying the newspaper reports . Hill also telephoned the owner of Formula One 's commercial rights , Bernie Ecclestone , for advice on how to handle the situation . Ecclestone advised him to apologise to Schumacher , which Hill decided against . The crash was still the main talking point throughout the sport by the time of the German Grand Prix , exacerbated by the fact that Hill 's home race was immediately followed by Schumacher 's .
= = Classification = =
= = = Qualifying = = =
= = = Race = = =
= = Championship standings after the race = =
Note : Only the top five positions are included for both sets of standings .
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= Natural Born Kissers =
" Natural Born Kissers " is the twenty @-@ fifth and final episode of The Simpsons ' ninth season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on May 17 , 1998 . Homer and Marge discover that the fear of getting caught while making love is a turn on and start making love in public places . This episode is rated TV @-@ 14 in the United States , and was at one point rated M in Australia . It was the first episode written by Matt Selman and was the only episode to be directed by Klay Hall . Some networks list the episode by the title , " Margie , May I Sleep With Danger ? " .
= = Plot = =
It is Homer and Marge 's eleventh wedding anniversary and Grampa does not arrive at the Simpson house to babysit the children , spoiling Homer and Marge 's evening together . Later that evening , Homer and Marge attempt to have sexual intercourse , but lack enthusiasm . The following day , it is discovered that the refrigerator 's motor has burned out so Homer and Marge make their way to a hardware store to buy another one . On the way , the car gets stuck in the muddy driveway in the middle of farm country . Homer and Marge rush into the nearest barn to avoid a sudden storm . A farmer discovers the barn door is open and suspects trespassers . He enters the barn , nearly catching Homer and Marge , who are hiding in the hay loft , but leaves after failing to locate them . When the coast is clear , Homer and Marge have inspired sexual intercourse in the hay loft .
Homer and Marge think their marriage has been recharged and go for a romantic weekend at a Bed and Breakfast , but soon fall into their old patterns . However , a maid walks in on them and they conclude they are both aroused when they risk being caught during intimate moments , so they have sex behind window curtains in a room full of people . Their love life is recharged and one day they begin to have sex on the same miniature golf course windmill where Bart was conceived . This time they come too close to being caught having public sex , and while they manage to escape , they have to flee through Springfield in the nude . In the end , the two are seen in a football stadium , and a naked photograph of Homer and Marge appears in the local newspaper . The next day , Bart and Lisa see the picture and their parents begin to explain sex to them . Before they go into detail , however , they decide to go back to the miniature golf course .
In a subplot , Bart and Lisa stay at the Springfield Retirement Castle with Grampa , and they discover a metal detector in his closet . While Bart uses it to look for pirate treasure , they uncover an alternate ending to Casablanca . The Old Jewish Man reveals that he was once a studio executive who tried to add the happy ending to the film . He pays Bart and Lisa to re @-@ bury it .
= = Production = =
" Natural Born Kissers " was the first episode written by Matt Selman , who partly based it on his parents ' marriage . The episode was the only time that show runner Mike Scully ever got a call from Fox where they suggested not doing the episode . They were worried about the sexual content , the nudity , and how it was going to be handled . They disliked several of the phrases used in the episode , such as the term " ass forkin ' " . In an interview , Matt Groening said : " The network censors couldn 't believe it , and neither could I : the cow at the peephole while Homer and Marge make love in a hayloft ; neighbors groping Homer when he and Marge are caught nude inside the windmill at the Sir Putts @-@ A @-@ Lot mini golf course ; Homer dangling naked from a hot @-@ air balloon , his ass dragging against the glass of a Crystal Cathedral @-@ like church . " The producers fought the censors and in the end , very little of the script was modified . Marge 's buttocks is also shown on television for the first time . Marge and Homer in the golf course is a reference to the season three episode " I Married Marge " , although in that episode they are in a castle , rather than a windmill .
= = Cultural references = =
The airplane restaurant " Up , Up and Buffet ! " is based on a submarine shaped restaurant that was near the Fox studio named " Dive ! " . A supposed alternate ending to the 1942 film Casablanca is shown in the episode , and the Old Jewish Man gives Bart and Lisa a copy of It 's A Wonderful Life with a " killing @-@ spree ending " . The song " Spanish Flea " plays during the radio commercial for Divorce Specialists . The song " Rock the Casbah " by The Clash plays over the end credits .
= = Reception = =
In its original broadcast , " Natural Born Kissers " finished 29th in ratings for the week of May 11 – 18 , 1998 , with a Nielsen rating of 8 @.@ 8 , equivalent to approximately 8 @.@ 6 million viewing households . It was the fourth highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week , following The X @-@ Files , King of the Hill , and Ally McBeal .
Matt Groening listed the episode as being his eighth favorite episode , and the aroused cow is one of his all @-@ time favorite act break jokes . The authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , wrote , " a superb episode which actually makes Marge and Homer 's love life seem very real ; everyone needs a bit of spice now and again , and they find theirs . The balloon trip is hysterical , and the attempts to explain their behaviour to a very worldly @-@ wise Bart and Lisa are magnificent . " The episode was part of a DVD boxed set release called The Simpsons Kiss and Tell : The Story of Their Love , and in his review of the release , Andy Dougan of the Evening Times characterized the episode along with " Large Marge " , " Three Gays of the Condo " , and " The Way We Weren 't " , as " four of the funniest episodes of recent series " . The DVD release was also reviewed favorably by Louis R. Carlozo in the Chicago Tribune , where the episode was seen as " more ridiculous " than " Large Marge " .
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= 1906 – 17 Stanford rugby teams =
The Stanford rugby teams of 1906 to 1917 represented Stanford University as the school 's only football program during those years , replacing American football with rugby union . The school had played American football from 1892 to 1905 , but in 1906 , concerned with the growing levels of violence in football , Stanford and other universities changed to rugby . Stanford played twelve seasons of rugby , during which it played other college teams , club teams from the United States , Canada , and Australia , as well as the New Zealand national team and Australia national team . Despite the team 's success , it became clear that other schools were not adopting rugby in large numbers , and after rival California returned to football in 1915 , Stanford faced a limited number of potential opponents ; and after a year of playing neither sport officially due to World War I , the school returned to American football in 1919 .
= = Switch to rugby = =
American football in the early 1900s had become increasingly violent ; with no forward pass , the ball carrier would be typically pushed and pulled up the field by his own players in massive formations that often resulted in serious injuries . In 1905 , 18 deaths , three at the college level , were attributed to football ; 159 serious injuries were also reported , 88 at the college level .
Reform was demanded by such voices as U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt , who decried the brutality and foul play of the game , and called a meeting of school presidents to discuss the issue . As a result , before the next season began , new rules were put in place to discourage such play . The forward pass was also introduced to open up the game and reduce the role of dangerous mass formations . Despite the planned changes , a number of universities banned the sport for the coming year , including Columbia , NYU , and Northwestern .
Several universities on the West Coast , led by California and Stanford , replaced the sport with rugby . At the time , the future of football was very much in doubt and these schools believed that rugby would eventually be adopted nationwide . Other schools that made the switch included Nevada , St. Mary 's , Santa Clara , and USC ( in 1911 ) . However , due to the perception that West Coast football was inferior to the game played on the East Coast anyway , East Coast and Midwest teams shrugged off the loss of the teams and continued playing football . With no nationwide movement , the available pool of rugby teams to play remained small . The schools scheduled games against local club teams and reached out to rugby powers in Australia , New Zealand , and especially , due to its proximity , Canada . The annual Big Game between Stanford and California continued as rugby , with the winner invited by the British Columbia Rugby Union to a tournament in Vancouver over the Christmas holidays , with the winner of that tournament receiving the Cooper Keith Trophy .
= = Return to football = =
In 12 seasons of rugby , Stanford was remarkably successful : the team had three undefeated seasons , three one @-@ loss seasons , and an overall record of 94 wins , 20 losses , and 3 ties for a winning percentage of .816 . However , after a few years , the school began to feel the isolation of its newly adopted sport , which was not spreading as many had hoped . Students and alumni began to clamor for a return to football to allow wider intercollegiate competition . The pressure at rival California was stronger ( especially as the school had not been as successful in the Big Game as they had hoped ) , and in 1915 California returned to football . As reasons for the change , the school cited football rule changes , the overwhelming desire of students and supporters to play football , interest in playing other East Coast and Midwest schools , and a patriotic desire to play an " American " game .
California 's return to football increased the pressure on Stanford to also change back in order to maintain the rivalry . Stanford played its 1915 , 1916 , and 1917 " Big Games " as rugby against Santa Clara and California 's football " Big Game " in those years was against Washington , but both schools desired to restore the old traditions . The onset of World War I gave Stanford an out : in 1918 , the Stanford campus was designated as the Students ' Army Training Corps headquarters for all of California , Nevada , and Utah , and the commanding officer , Sam M. Parker , decreed that football was the appropriate athletic activity to train soldiers and rugby was dropped .
After the war , Stanford resumed its football program and relegated rugby to a minor sport . Several Stanford rugby players who played during those years — including Daniel Carroll , Dink Templeton , Morris Kirksey , Erwin Righter , John Patrick , and Charles Doe — went on to win a gold medal for the United States in rugby at the 1920 Summer Olympics .
= = Season results = =
= = = 1906 season = = =
In its first season of rugby , Stanford retained head football coach James F. Lanagan as its first rugby coach . Lanagan had coached the football team for three years , including an undefeated 1905 season . With no experience playing or coaching rugby , Lanagan initially offered his resignation , but Stanford insisted he stay on , so he traveled to Vancouver , British Columbia to study the sport . Stanford won its first five games , including two wins over a visiting club team from Vancouver . As winners of the first Big Game against California played as rugby , Stanford competed against Vancouver @-@ area club teams for the Cooper Keith Trophy , losing two games and tying one .
= = = = Schedule = = = =
= = = 1907 season = = =
In Stanford 's second season of rugby , Jimmy Lanagan returned as coach and the team finished 8 – 4 . Stanford continued its series with Nevada , Vancouver , and Victoria and added games against Bay Area club team the Barbarians and a Los Angeles club called the Castaways . Stanford won its second Big Game rugby match , earning a second straight tournament in British Columbia .
= = = = Schedule = = = =
= = = 1908 season = = =
Lanagan returned for his final year as Stanford 's coach and the team finished 12 – 2 , winning not only its third consecutive Big Game , but also going on to win the Cooper Keith Trophy in the end @-@ of @-@ season Vancouver tournament . Stanford added two games against San Francisco 's Olympic Club and played a final game against the Australian national team , the Wallabies .
= = = = Schedule = = = =
= = = 1909 season = = =
Following Lanagan 's departure , George Presley was named Stanford 's new rugby coach . Presley played one year of rugby under Lanagan in 1906 and had been an assistant coach in 1907 and 1908 . Presley also coached Stanford 's baseball team . Stanford won its first eight games — seven by shutout — but then lost Big Game for the first time in seven years .
= = = = Schedule = = = =
= = = 1910 season = = =
In Presley 's second year as coach , Stanford was led by Ben Erb and Jim Arrell . The season was almost identical to the previous year : the team won its first seven games by shutout , and then lost Big Game to undefeated California . Stanford led in that game 6 – 0 , but did not score again as California won 25 – 6 . This Big Game is recognized as the first intercollegiate game to feature card stunts .
= = = = Schedule = = = =
= = = 1911 season = = =
In the 1911 season , Stanford went 10 – 3 and added USC to the schedule , as the school dropped football in favor of rugby .
= = = = Schedule = = = =
= = = 1912 season = = =
In Presley 's last year as coach , Stanford finished with a 5 – 3 – 1 record , its worst record of the rugby era . Stanford avoided a fourth straight loss in the Big Game by tying California . Despite an outstanding 30 – 8 – 1 overall record as coach , coach Presley was 0 – 3 – 1 against the Bears .
= = = = Schedule = = = =
= = = 1913 season = = =
Floyd C. Brown succeeded George Presley as coach . Like Presley , Brown had played for and served as an assistant under the previous coach . Stanford finished with an 8 – 3 record , including its first Big Game win in five years , led by Danny Carroll , who had won a gold medal in the 1908 Summer Olympics as a member of the Australia national rugby union team and who was now earning a degree in geology from Stanford . Stanford played its final rugby game against USC , who returned to American football the next year , and suffered two blowout losses to the famed New Zealand All Blacks , who were on a North American tour .
= = = = Schedule = = = =
= = = 1914 season = = =
Brown 's second year as coach was the best in Stanford rugby history : the team was undefeated entering the Big Game at California , who was also undefeated . A record crowd of 26 @,@ 000 turned out to see Stanford defeat the Bears , 26 – 8 . This would be the last Big Game for several years as California returned to football for the 1915 season . Despite Stanford 's success in rugby , the previous year 's humiliating defeats to the All Blacks and the switch by rivals USC and California to football intensified the sentiment for Stanford to switch back as well .
= = = = Schedule = = = =
= = = 1915 season = = =
By 1915 , there was only one other U.S. college playing intercollegiate rugby : Santa Clara . The rest of Stanford 's schedule was made up of local club and all star teams . The team played to a scoreless tie with the Olympic Club team to start the season , but recovered to win the rest of the games on the schedule .
= = = = Schedule = = = =
= = = 1916 season = = =
In their last full season of rugby , Stanford won all its games except the " Big Game " against Santa Clara , played for the second year at Ewing Field in San Francisco . This was Stanford 's first loss since 1913 .
= = = = Schedule = = = =
= = = 1917 season = = =
Like the two coaches before him , Stanford 's new head coach Jim Wylie was a former Stanford player . He had also been a member of the New Zealand All Blacks team that had crushed Stanford 's team in 1913 . But with World War I imminent , Stanford played just one game , the " Big Game " against Santa Clara , winning 15 – 11 . This was also Stanford rugby 's last game as a major sport . The following year , Stanford president Ray Lyman Wilbur canceled all intercollegiate athletic events due to students ' enlisting in the military for the war , and due to Stanford 's designation as the regional headquarters of the Students ' Army Training Corps . When Stanford reformed a team in 1919 , the school returned to American football as its major gridiron sport .
= = = = Schedule = = = =
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= Join Hands =
Join Hands is the second studio album by the English post @-@ punk band Siouxsie and the Banshees . It was released in September 1979 by the record label Polydor . Upon its release , it was hailed by the British press , including Melody Maker , Sounds , NME and Record Mirror .
Join Hands took the topic of World War I as its inspiration . Musically , it is darker than the band 's debut album The Scream : it sounds more claustrophobic and more haunting . It was the last album with the band 's first recorded line @-@ up , as the guitarist John McKay and the drummer Kenny Morris quit the group after a disagreement at the beginning of the British Join Hands tour on the day of the album 's release .
The record peaked at No. 13 on the UK Albums Chart . " Playground Twist " was the sole single released from the album . In 2015 , Join Hands was repressed on vinyl with the very first artwork that the band had presented to Polydor in 1979 .
= = History , content and music = =
Join Hands was written over a period of six months . In 1979 , the band watched news reports from Iran , including scenes of repression and curfews ; it was one of the first times they had seen images of people being shot and killed on television . In England , the political situation was also unstable , with rubbish piling up in the streets of London . Siouxsie Sioux saw it as " a real time , everything in flocks and uncertain but also festering underneath , and because this stuff from the past that was just left there rotting there and it needed to be acknowledged and then cleaned up , not just swept away still rotting " . The band were inspired by these events . The theme of war emerged through the songs : Rather than a pro @-@ military message , the lyrics were meant to capture the spirit of what things were like at the time . Miranda Sawyer stated that Join Hands took " the very un @-@ rock 'n'roll topic of World War I as its inspiration " .
The album 's references to poppies represented the idea of " loss , of flesh and blood and hopelessness " . The themes of the songs also included " child @-@ like terror , attacks on social and spiritual conditioning , various kinds of death and torture , and loneliness " . Some songs were also about families and nursing . For the critic Ronnie Gurr , " All lyrical options are left completely open " .
The album opens with the sound of tolling bells before the beginning of " Poppy Day " . The words were based on John McCrae 's poem " In Flanders Fields " , which was written in 1915 after the loss of a friend during a battle in World War I. " Poppy Day " , a short track with a long introduction building over what one journalist called " shards of John McKay 's guitar " and a " strident militaristic backbeat " , had been shaped after Steven Severin had observed the televised two minutes of silence in memory of the war dead on Sunday , 12 November 1978 . " We wanted to write a song that would fittingly fill that gap " , he stated . On the inner sleeve of the album , the mention " 2 minutes of silence " was added next to the lyrics of the song .
" Regal Zone " , featuring saxophone by McKay , also covers the subject of war and is about the conflict in Iran . " Placebo Effect " addresses the use of placebos in medicine , while " Icon " displays echoes of iconoclasm , with the destruction of paintings featuring religious images , or statues and symbols of old authoritarian regimes . " Premature Burial " , " ostensibly inspired " by Edgar Allan Poe 's short story of the same name , is the track from which the album title had been taken . It is , in Siouxsie 's words , " an expression of claustrophobia , of being hemmed in both by society 's and people 's limitations " . For the writer Mark Paytress , the line " We 're all sisters and brothers " looked like a mockery of the Summer of Love . The song 's conclusion features what sounds like " a formal choir backing for a retreating Red Army in its magnificent defeat " .
Beginning the second side , " Playground Twist " is a " swirling mass of flanged guitars " with church bells ; it includes a nursery rhyme section . The song " talks about adults who act like children and children who think they 're adults " . Siouxsie explained : " It 's about the cruelty of children and that whole aspect of being thrown out into the playground in the winter in howling gales and left to fend for yourself . It 's not the sort of thing you 're supposed to write pop songs about " . It was the band 's third single in less than a year and " probably the best " , according to the music historian Clinton Heylin . The single did not sound catchy , but it nevertheless entered the top 30 . Severin later recalled the head of A & R at Polydor telling him he expected a commercial failure .
The lullaby " Mother / Oh Mein Papa " is an interpretation of the German song " O mein Papa " with words by Siouxsie . Phil Sutcliffe called it " a raw wound of a song offered by Siouxsie from her own life and surely shared and picked and scratched at by everyone who hears it " . Over a music box , two voices sing simultaneous love and hatred for the same mother . The positive lyric is upfront and the negative one is in the background . The final track of the album is a studio recording of " The Lord 's Prayer " , the song that Siouxsie and the Banshees had famously played at their debut live performance at the 100 Club Punk Festival in September 1976 . It was recorded in one take ; after every session in the first week , they put down a version of " The Lord 's Prayer " . Before entering the studio , the band had recorded a John Peel session in early April in which they had premiered the tracks " Placebo Effect " , " Playground Twist " , " Regal Zone " and " Poppy Day " . The band then went into Air Studios on Oxford Street in London to record the album in May . By June , they had mixed it .
Join Hands was different from The Scream : It was darker , more experimental , less abrasive , with a new " claustrophobic " mood . McKay 's guitar @-@ playing generates a " barrage of sound " while Severin 's " bass carries the tune " . The recording took place under a strained atmosphere . McKay and Kenny Morris withdrew and became uncommunicative with the rest of the band and their manager and co @-@ producer of the album , Nils Stevenson . Unlike the sessions for The Scream , the music was recorded without Siouxsie , as she added her vocals later . Morris did not take part in the mixing sessions , while Siouxsie was heavily involved . Commenting a few days before the album 's release , Jon Savage wrote about the music : " The songs are delivered with the stifling intensity of inner violence in a locked room " . Kris Needs remarked that Join Hands was , in retrospect , an ironic title for a record which split the group in two . The album reflected how the band felt at the time : " We were lonely and isolated and that comes across in the music " , stated Siouxsie in 2003 . She added : " Musically , Join Hands was an uncompromising album but it still sounds modern today " .
= = Cover artwork , release and tour = =
Initially , the group wanted to release an album cover using an edited image from a Holy Communion card , showing children joining hands . The image had been photocopied several times , so it had become distorted . The art direction was by John Maybury , a college friend of Morris . Their manager , Stevenson , was unable to determine who owned the copyright and advised that the band would be bankrupted if they were sued as a result . Polydor also became nervous about copyright infringement , so the artwork was pulled at the last minute ; the record company 's executives also disliked its religious nature . As a UK tour had already been scheduled to coincide with the release of the album , there was no possibility of delaying the release .
Stevenson suggested an alternative cover . He instructed the Polydor art department to design artwork using four statues from the Guards Memorial , from a photo session the band had recently done in front of the monument which commemorates the war dead of the Great War . Four of the soldier statues were cut out from the shot of the band . Siouxsie found the sleeve a workable solution , as she was drawn in by the imagery conjured up by the words for " In Flanders Fields " , which inspired " Poppy Day " . For her , it was the linchpin for the album . The poppy reproduced on the album cover is a symbol of Remembrance Day . The designer , Rob O 'Connor , said about the layout : " The wreath of poppies was devised to help add colour and create a graphic device " . An embossed sleeve was planned , with the four soldiers inked in the card , but was not used , as the band did not received the proofs in time . Morris and McKay blamed Stevenson , Siouxsie and Severin , although it was Polydor that refused the extra expense at the last minute . Nevertheless , Severin succeeded in pushing for a gatefold cover : " We wanted it all white because you were supposed to do it all black , and you were supposed to have blackmail lettering on it and so we had it nice and classic " , he stated . Maybury 's drawings of the band were used on the inner spread ; it was the only part of the original design that survived .
Join Hands was issued on 7 September 1979 by the record label Polydor . It reached No. 13 in the UK Albums Chart . At that time , the breach between McKay and Morris and the rest of the group had become important . A warm @-@ up show in Ireland had caused problems for McKay , forcing him to play without all his effects pedals , as none of the gear had turned up . Finally , after a disagreement at a record shop over Stevenson 's decision to sell test pressing copies ( which the band had received for free ) of the album to fans after the shop run had run out of stock , McKay and Morris abruptly left the band the day of the album 's release , just a few hours before a concert at the Capitol Theatre in Aberdeen . It was a spur @-@ of @-@ the @-@ moment decision , but they never returned . Severin later remarked , " Is there another band that that 's happened to ? I don 't think so " .
A 2006 remastered edition included two bonus tracks : the non @-@ album single " Love in a Void " and the previously unreleased instrumental " Infantry " . The album , this time with the Maybury @-@ designed sleeve , was reissued on vinyl for Record Store Day in April 2015 . This edition had the original collection of tracks , but " Infantry " was made the album 's closer , as was initially intended .
= = Critical reception = =
Upon release , the album was well received by reviewers . Sounds gave Join Hands a grade of 4 @.@ 5 out of 5 , with the reviewer , Pete Silverton , noting a change in the sound : " The mix is different to the last album . Now there 's a clarity which frames Sue 's voice like it was a thing of treasure " . Silverton also wrote that some of the songs have " Siouxsie 's voice double @-@ tracked with devastating effect " . Jon Savage , a Melody Maker reviewer , described the first track , " Poppy Day " , as a " short , powerful evocation of the Great War graveyards in Flanders " . He also wrote that " Placebo Effect " " has a stunning flanged guitar intro , chasing clinical lyrics covering some insertion or operation " . About " Icon " , Savage wrote : " The brilliantly reverbed guitar is a perfect foil for Siouxsie 's soaring and , for once , emotional vocal . " Savage noted that the five songs of the first side " rise and fall into another in a stunning segue " . Similarly , Paul Morley wrote in NME that " Side one 's five songs [ ... ] are all addictive Banshees mini @-@ dramas " . Ronnie Gurr , a Record Mirror reviewer , also hailed the record , saying : " Poppy Day establishes the band 's perfect employ of atmospherics and sets the tone of all the tracks " . " Mother " was compared to the soundtrack of an Alfred Hitchcock film , with Gurr noting that the " track features a musical box , echoes menacing guitar grumblings and Siouxsie providing vocals that would befit any of Hitchcock 's best matricides " . Gurr concluded that with " Severin 's truly disturbing scratchings " , Join Hands was a dangerous work that " should be heard " .
In a retrospective review published in 1989 , Steve Lamacq wrote in NME that Join Hands was " a more absorbing , haunting LP " than the band 's debut album . Lamacq rated it 8 out of 10 , though he said that the version of " The Lord 's Prayer " was " out of place " . AllMusic 's David Cleary considered " Icon " the best track on the album , commenting that it " survives an unpromising beginning to open out into a faster main section with fuller vocal sound and gutsier guitar work " , but Cleary panned the rest of Join Hands , describing it as " almost uniformly grim , with dragging tempos , bleak lyrics , long and wandering free @-@ form structures , static and often unfocused harmony and thick , colorless arrangements " .
= = Legacy = =
Join Hands is considered a post @-@ punk album by Heylin and listed as such on AllMusic . According to Simon Reynolds , it is also seen as a precursor of the gothic rock genre due to several of its songs . Its " funereal " atmosphere " inspired a host of gothic impersonators " , according to Mojo , but " none of whom matched the Banshees ' run of singles " .
AllMusic commented that " some of [ Join Hands ' ] selections appear to strongly anticipate the work of Joy Division 's second album , Closer , especially ' Placebo Effect ' , whose guitar sound was a clear inspiration for that of the Manchester band 's song ' Colony ' . " In the 2007 film Control , the sleeve of Join Hands is shown in a scene where Ian Curtis ' wife , Deborah ( who co @-@ wrote the screenplay ) , looks through her husband 's record collection .
Join Hands was later namechecked by other critically acclaimed musicians . James Murphy , the leader of LCD Soundsystem , expressed an appreciation of the album stating the first records he bought were Join Hands , The Fall 's Grotesque and The Birthday Party 's " Nick the Stripper " . " All three of those records are three of my favourite things I 've ever heard " , he said . In late 2008 , Morrissey chose the track " Mother " in his playlist when he was interviewed for BBC Radio 2 . Johnny Marr said he was a big admirer of second albums from several bands including Siouxsie and the Banshees .
= = Track listing = =
All lyrics written by Siouxsie Sioux , except as noted , all music composed by Siouxsie and the Banshees ( Sioux , Steven Severin , John McKay , Kenny Morris ) , except as noted .
= = Personnel = =
Siouxsie and the Banshees
Siouxsie Sioux – vocals , piano
Steven Severin – bass guitar
John McKay – guitar , saxophone
Kenny Morris – drums , percussion
Technical
Mike Stavrou – production , engineering
Nils Stevenson – production
Ian Morais – engineering assistance
Rob O 'Connor – sleeve design
Adrian Boot – sleeve photography
John Maybury – sleeve illustration
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= Ornatifilum =
Ornatifilum ( Latin ornatus + filum , Ornamented filament ) is an artificial form genus , which is used to categorise any small , branched filaments with external ornamentation .
It has been applied to microfossils of Devonian age with fungal affinities , though these taxa have since been recognized as an early growth form of Tortotubus .
= = Background = =
The form genus Ornatifilum was erected by Burgess and Edwards in 1991 to describe tubular fossils retrieved by acid maceration from the late Silurian . It was originally intended as a form genus , to facilitate stratigraphy and environmental reconstruction ; the fossils do not display enough features to classify them confidently , even at a kingdom level .
The organisms comprise tubes of around 10 μm diameter , with an ornamented , granular surface texture . These fossils were compared to late Silurian ( Ludlow epoch ) fossils retrieved from the Burgsvik beds by Sherwood @-@ Pike and Gray , and the genus was used when similar fossils were recovered from the Scottish island of Kerrera by Charles Wellman ten years later . Similar , unornamented filaments are known from the USA . However , these latter fossils have now been assigned to Tortotubus .
= = O. granulatum = =
The type species of the genus consists of flattened filaments – perhaps an artefact resulting from post @-@ burial pressure . Their branching is typically at obtuse angles ; the irregularly sized grana , which ornament their surfaces , are concentrated at branching points . They are often found as individuals , but sometimes group together into " wefts " , as Wellman has termed them . The filaments are septate , with the septa looking like " pinch points " where the tube is slightly constricted – like a twisted balloon . No sign of perforation was visible in the septa ; perforate spores are only found in red algae and fungi , but their absence does not preclude their presence in one of these groups : indeed the perforations are difficult to see or image . There are no other diagnostic features of this species that allow classification in any group . Surface ornamentation is a common convergent feature , found for example in liverwort rhizoids and some fungi , so does not help in classification . The specimens recovered are most common in near @-@ shore environments ; however , they are never abundant .
= = O. lornensis = =
O. lornensis is a junior synonym of Tortotubus protuberans . It has a more complex appearance than O. granatum . For a start , its surface ornament – which covers most of the surface uniformly – takes an array of forms , with " grana , coni , spinae verrucae and occasionally plia " present . Further , side @-@ branches and the flask @-@ shaped protuberances occasionally protrude from the tubes , on which the ornament is larger ( 2 @.@ 5 μm rather than ~ 1 μm ) . Such branching typically occurs in pairs across the main thread .
= = Timeline = =
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= Action of 22 August 1795 =
The Action of 22 August 1795 was a minor naval engagement during the French Revolutionary Wars between a squadron of four British Royal Navy frigates and two frigates and a cutter from the Navy of the Batavian Republic . The engagement was fought off the Norwegian coastal island of Eigerøya , then in Danish Norway , the opposing forces engaged in protecting their respective countries ' trade routes to the Baltic Sea . War between Britain and the Batavian Republic began , undeclared , in the spring of 1795 after the Admiralty ordered British warships to intercept Batavian shipping following the conquest of the Dutch Republic by the French Republic in January 1795 .
A British squadron of four frigates under the command of Captain James Alms was patrolling the entrance to the Skagerrak in August 1795 when three sails were spotted off the Norwegian coast to the north . Closing to investigate , the ships were discovered to be a Batavian squadron of two frigates and a small cutter . In the face of the larger British squadron the Batavian force turned away , sailing southeast along the Norwegian coast with the British approaching from the south in an effort to cut them off from the neutral Danish shore . At 16 : 15 the leading British ship HMS Stag caught and engaged the rearmost Batavian ship Alliantie ; the remainder of the British squadron continued in pursuit of the Batavian squadron . For an hour Alliantie held out against the more powerful Stag and was eventually compelled to surrender . The remainder of the Batavian squadron escaped due to a fierce rearguard action by the frigate Argo , reaching the safety of the Danish harbour at Eigerøya .
= = Background = =
In the winter of 1794 – 1795 the armies of the French Republic overran the Dutch Republic , reforming the country into a client state named the Batavian Republic . The Dutch Republic was part of the Coalition against Republican France formed in the War of the First Coalition at the start of the French Revolutionary Wars , and their closest ally in Northern Europe was Great Britain . In Britain the Admiralty was alarmed by developments in the Netherlands , particularly the seizure of the Dutch Navy by French cavalry units while the fleet was frozen into its winter harbour , and gave orders that the Royal Navy was to detain Dutch merchant and naval ships . As a result , the Batavian Republic and Great Britain began an undeclared war in the spring of 1795 .
In response to the threat that the Batavian fleet posed , the Admiralty established a new British fleet to oppose it . The Admiralty named this force , under the command of Admiral Adam Duncan , the North Sea Fleet . The fleet was based at Yarmouth in East Anglia and consisted mainly of older and weaker second @-@ line vessels . Duncan was also provided with a number of frigates , essential in securing the safe movement of the Baltic trade . Much of Britain 's vital naval stores were obtained from Scandinavia and the trade routes through the Baltic Sea and North Sea were vital to the maintenance of the Royal Navy . One Navy squadron that sailed from The Downs on 8 August 1795 with instructions to cruise off the mouth of the Skaggerak in the Eastern North Sea , consisted of four ships : 36 @-@ gun HMS Reunion under Captain James Alms , 32 @-@ gun HMS Stag under Captain Joseph Sydney Yorke , 50 @-@ gun HMS Isis under Captain Robert Watson and 28 @-@ gun HMS Vestal under Captain Charles White .
The Scandinavian trade routes were equally important for the Batavian Navy , and to protect their merchant shipping from attack by British frigates , the Batavian authorities also sent a frigate squadron to the region , consisting of the 36 @-@ gun frigates Alliantie and Argo and the 16 @-@ gun cutter Vlugheid . On the afternoon of 22 August 1795 the Batavian force was sailing southeast along the coast of Norway , then part of Danish Norway , tacking to port towards the land , when the British squadron was spotted approaching from the south .
= = Battle = =
With their ships heavily outnumbered by the approaching British , the Batavian squadron made all sail along the coastline with the intention of sheltering in the neutral Danish harbour of Eigerøya ( referred to in British sources as Egeroe or Egerö ) . Sighting the Batavian ships to the north , Alms ordered his squadron to give chase . Soon the fastest British ship , Stag made use of favourable wind to pull ahead of the others and at 16 : 15 succeeded in cutting off the rearmost Batavian vessel Alliantie from its companions . Although Alliantie with its 36 @-@ guns was a stronger ship than the 32 @-@ gun Stag , its main battery was of only 12 @-@ pounder cannon compared to Yorke 's 18 @-@ pounder guns . This , coupled with the presence nearby of the rest of the British squadron meant that Alliantie , in the words of naval historian William James , " from the first , had no chance of success . "
Despite the odds against him , the Batavian captain engaged Stag , Yorke laying his ship alongside Alliantie and the frigates exchanging broadsides for an hour before the Batavian captain , his situation hopeless and his ship outnumbered and battered , surrendered at 17 : 15 . While Stag and Alliantie fought their duel , the action continued elsewhere , with the remaining Batavian ships making progress eastwards along the Norwegian coastline with the British squadron attempting to cut them off from the channel between Eigerøya and the Norwegian mainland in which the Batavian ships could shelter , protected by Danish neutrality . Vlugheid rapidly outdistanced pursuit , but Argo was slower and came under heavy but distant fire from Reunion and Isis , replying in kind . Argo was subsequently found to have been hit thirty times by 24 @-@ pounder shot and had much of its sails and rigging torn away , requiring extensive repairs . Eventually the Batavian persistence paid off , and Vlugheid and Argo successfully escaped into the neutral harbour of Eigerøya before Alms could intercept them .
= = Aftermath = =
Alms sent the captured Alliantie back to Britain under the command of Lieutenant Patrick Tonyn of Stag and gave despatches to the Admiralty to Lieutenant William Huggell of Reunion to deliver . He himself remained at sea with the squadron , completing their assigned patrol . British casualties included four killed and 13 wounded on Stag , one killed and three wounded on Reunion and two wounded on Isis . Only Vestal escaped without any damage or casualties . Batavian casualties in the engagement are not known due to the failure of Alms to record Alliantie 's losses in his report to the Admiralty , an omission which James criticises him for . It is known that Argo lost two men killed and 15 wounded in the chase . The surviving Batavian ships remained at anchor in the Eigerøya channel until the spring of 1796 when they successfully returned to the Netherlands .
Alliantie was subsequently taken to Spithead and purchased for the Royal Navy as the frigate HMS Alliance , for which prize money was distributed to the crews of the British ships , shared equally among them . The sailors on Isis alone shared £ 240 ( the equivalent of £ 22 @,@ 362 as of 2016 ) . Over the ensuing months and years , Duncan 's fleet was largely successful in protecting the North Sea trade routes from the depredations of raiders from the Batavian ports and in 1797 inflicted a crushing defeat on the Batavian fleet at the Battle of Camperdown .
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= Comet ( magazine ) =
Comet was a pulp magazine which published five issues from December 1940 to July 1941 . It was edited by F. Orlin Tremaine , who had edited Astounding Stories , one of the leaders of the science fiction magazine field , for several years in the mid @-@ 1930s . Tremaine paid one cent per word , which was higher than some of the competing magazines , but the publisher , H @-@ K Publications , was unable to sustain the magazine while it gained circulation , and it was cancelled after less than a year when Tremaine resigned . Comet published fiction by several well @-@ known and popular writers , including E.E. Smith and Robert Moore Williams . The young Isaac Asimov , visiting Tremaine in Comet 's offices , was alarmed when Tremaine asserted that anyone who gave stories to competing magazines for no pay should be blacklisted ; Asimov promptly insisted that Donald Wollheim , to whom he had given a free story , should make him a token payment so he could say he had been paid .
= = Publication history = =
Although science fiction ( sf ) had been published before the 1920s , it did not begin to coalesce into a separately marketed genre until the appearance in 1926 of Amazing Stories , a pulp magazine published by Hugo Gernsback . By the end of the 1930s the field was booming . At the end of 1940 H @-@ K Publications , a small New York publishing operation owned by Harold Hersey , decided to launch a new sf magazine , titled Comet . The first issue was dated December 1940 . The editor was F. Orlin Tremaine , who was well @-@ known to and respected by the growing readership of science fiction because of his successful stint as editor of Astounding Stories in the early 1930s .
Tremaine paid a cent a word for stories , which was more than many of the other sf magazines that were crowding the field at the time ; the respectable pay rate no doubt helped him , but it put the magazine under additional financial pressure . Two other magazines launched at about the same time , Cosmic Stories and Stirring Science Stories , edited by Donald A. Wollheim , both paid nothing at all to writers , on the basis that if the magazines were successful , money might be available in the future . This annoyed Tremaine , and Isaac Asimov , who gave Wollheim a story for Cosmic Stories , later recalled Tremaine telling him that " any author who donated stories to Wollheim , and thus contributed to the destruction of competing magazines who paid , should be blacklisted in the field " . Asimov was sufficiently upset that he later obtained token payment from Wollheim so that he could assert he had been paid for his story .
= = Contents = =
Tremaine was able to acquire some worthwhile material , and the magazine showed improvement over its five issues . Among the better @-@ known stories Tremaine obtained was " Vortex Blaster " , by E.E. Smith ; this was the first in a series about Storm Cloud , later collected in book form . Other well @-@ received stories included " The Street That Wasn 't There " , by Clifford D. Simak and Carl Jacobi , and " Dark Reality " , by Robert Moore Williams . Sam Moskowitz , later a well @-@ known sf critic and historian , published some science fiction stories early in his career ; his first sale was to Tremaine , with " The Way Back " , which appeared in the January 1941 issue of Comet . There was also a " Short , Short Story Corner " which was targeted at new writers , though established authors were also asked to submit very short stories for this feature . Another competition , this time aimed at fans rather than writers , offered a prize of $ 25 to the fan who had to overcame the most difficulties in order to attend the 1941 World Science Fiction Convention in Denver .
The Futurians , a group of New York science fiction fans many of whom would later go on to become well @-@ known sf writers , often produced stories that were the result of collaborations between four , five , or even more of their members . One example , " The Psychological Regulator " was originally written by Wollheim . It was rejected by Tremaine and rewritten , first by Robert A.W. Lowndes , then by John Michel , and then by Elsie Balter , with Tremaine rejecting it again after each rewrite . Finally C.M. Kornbluth rewrote it and Tremaine accepted the story , publishing it in the March 1941 issue of Comet .
= = Bibliographic details = =
Comet was printed in pulp format , 128 pages , and was priced at 20 cents ; all five issues were edited by Tremaine . There was one volume of five issues ; the first four were subtitled " Stories of Super Time and Space " . The schedule was initially monthly , but switched to bimonthly after the first issue . There were no overseas reprint editions or anthologies of stories from the magazine .
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= Kaksparsh =
Kaksparsh is a 2012 Indian Marathi period drama film directed by Mahesh Manjrekar and produced by Aniruddha Deshpande and Medha Manjrekar . The film stars Sachin Khedekar , Priya Bapat , Medha Manjrekar , Savita Malpekar and Ketaki Mategaonkar . Based on a short story by Usha Datar by the same name , the film depicts the tumultuous events in a Chitpavan Brahmin family , set around 1930 – 1950 in Konkan . The film was a commercial success and got critical acclaim for its direction , screenplay by Girish Joshi and also for the performances by its actors , especially Khedekar for his portrayal of Hari Damle as a head of the family .
In 1989 , the short story was adapted into a Marathi play Janmagaath with actor @-@ director Vinay Apte playing the lead . Apte had desires to make a film based on it . However , his attempts were not successful . Sachin Khedekar , who went to play the lead in the cinematic adaptation of the story , had seen the play and came across the story again in 2007 . Khedekar requested Girish Joshi to complete the adapted screenplay and together approached Manjrekar in 2009 to make a film on the story . Kaksparsh 's shooting was completed in 26 days – from 5 to 30 December 2011 and was released on 4 May 2012 , on the occasion of centenary of Indian Cinema .
The film won several awards on release including Best Film award at Maharashtra State Film Awards , MICTA , and 11th Pune International Film Festival . It is also the first Marathi film to have a home media release in Blu @-@ ray . With the success of Kaksparsh , a Hindi and Tamil remake of Kaksparsh is also being directed by Mahesh Manjrekar with Arvind Swamy and Tisca Chopra as the leads .
= = Plot = =
Hari Damle ( Sachin Khedekar ) , head of a Chitpavan Bramhin family , lives in the village Torgaon in Konkan with his wife Tara ( Medha Manjrekar ) , their three children , his younger brother Mahadev ( Abhijit Kelkar ) , and his widowed aunt , Namu Aatya ( Savita Malpekar ) . Hari arranges the marriage of Mahadev with a pre @-@ pubescent girl , Durga ( Ketaki Mategaonkar ) , renamed as Uma after marriage . However , Mahadev dies before the consummation of the marriage . Hari performs death rituals ( Śrāddha ) for Mahadev but crows ( symbolic of the spirit of the deceased in Hinduism ) refuse to touch the offerings . Hari mumbles something while offering food after which crow touches the offerings .
Brahmin community in the village now expects widow Uma to have her head shaved ( a ritual ) . Hari opposes and does not allow any rituals to be performed for her as a widow . Hari stands behind Uma in all her difficulties which raise doubts about his intentions , including that by his wife , Tara . Years later , when Tara is diagnosed of a terminal disease , the now grown @-@ up Uma ( now played by Priya Bapat ) takes charge of the household . Before Tara dies , she realises her mistakes and requests Hari to marry Uma which he readily refuses .
In the meantime , Hari gets his son Sankarshan ( Saksham Kulkarni ) married . Once Hari finds Uma sitting outside the room of the newly married couple , listening to their playful banter . Disgusted by Uma 's behaviour , Hari starts avoiding her . Upset by this behaviour , Uma tries to talk her heart out to Hari 's friend Balwant ( Sanjay Khapre ) and requests him to find out the reason . Coincidentally , Hari overhears this and severs his relations with Balwant . Unaware of the reason for Hari 's changed behaviour , Uma starts staying aloof , while her health starts degrading . Worried Sankarshan requests his sister Shanti ( Manava Naik ) to talk to Uma . Frustrated and unknowing of what loss she had throughout her life , Uma opens her heart but situation raises more questions about her relation with Hari .
Uma decides to go on a fast and relents to none of the family member 's request to quit . Hari , left with no other option , explains his behaviour . Hari reveals to Uma that when he was performing death rituals for Mahadev and offerings were not accepted by crow for a long time , he took a vow that he would not let any other man touch Uma . Thus , he did not allow practised rituals of shaving her head to be performed and also declined Tara 's request of their marriage . When he learned through Tara that Uma has started loving him , he stopped talking to her , in spite of his love towards Uma .
He eventually accepts that he loves Uma and would marry her , breaking his vow . Knowing the truth , Uma forgives Hari and agrees to the proposal . Hari fetches Mangala sutra but finds out that Uma is dead . He realises that Uma has sacrificed her life for his love where she did not want Hari to break his vow .
= = Cast = =
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
Based on a short story Kaksparsh written by Usha Datar , a Marathi play Janmagaath premiered on 16 December 1989 . Actor @-@ director Vinay Apte had done the role of Hari Damle in the play and Sukanya Kulkarni as Uma . Apte had tried making a film based on the story but was not successful . Sachin Khedekar had seen the play and came across the story again in 2007 . He showed the story to Girish Joshi ( screenplay writer of the film ) who then developed a complete adapted screenplay from the story which had a length of 4 – 5 pages . Later , Khedekar and Joshi approached Mahesh Manjrekar in 2009 to make a film on the story . However , Majrekar was busy with his other projects and could not plan the film . Manjrekar said that when he heard the story for the first time , he considered it to be better than other Indian love stories like Bajirao @-@ Mastani or Salim @-@ Anarkali . Manjrekar had to wait as he did not have the copyrights for the story . He said that it " took more than three years to make this film " .
= = = Casting = = =
After Manjrekar finished his projects , he decided to start Kaksparsh and signed Khedekar to portray the lead role of Hari Damle . The director said that there was no compulsion for him to cast Khedekar . He did it " because he was the best to pull it off . " Earlier Manjrekar had signed another actress to play the role of Tara Damle , however the actress declined to join the schedule at the last moment , thus Manjrekar was forced to look out for the alternative . His wife , Medha Manjrekar , had done a small role in his debut film Aai ( 1995 ) and also made a comeback in another film De Dhakka ( 2008 ) written by him . As Medha was working as a producer for Kaksparsh , Mahesh Manjrekar approached her to play the role .
Manjrekar had worked with Priya Bapat in Me Shivajiraje Bhosale Boltoy ( 2009 ) and had mentioned about Kaksparsh to her . He desired Bapat to play the lead role of Uma , however the film couldn 't start as planned . When Manjrekar planned for the film , he called Bapat again who got married to Umesh Kamat in the meantime . Manjrekar had seen 2011 National Award winning film Shala and was impressed with a teen @-@ aged character played by Ketaki Mategaonkar and decided to cast her as a young Uma . Savita Malpekar was cast to play the role of Khedekar 's widowed aunt . Malpekar had to shave her head to prepare for the role . Manjrekar insisted that the film cast including Savita Malpekar should shave the head for their roles and avoid wearing a prosthetic bald patch .
= = = Filming = = =
Kaksparsh was shot in the real locations than sets and was mainly shot in Paalshet , a village near Guhagar in Konkan . As the film 's story @-@ line was set around 1930 – 1950 , Manjrekar was concerned about the authentic production design for the film . He appointed two production designers , Prashant Rane and Abhishek Vijaykar , who had challenges of depicting pre and post Indian independence era . Rane had worked with Manjrekar earlier for De Dhakka ( 2008 ) . Kaksparsh 's shooting was completed in 26 days ; starting from 5 December 2011 till 30 December 2011 . The initial shooting scheduled started at Ranade Wada in Pune . The film also had a few scenes in and surrounding the temple but as most of the temples in Konkan region have been restored from their damages over the period of time , Manjrekar feared that the plastering done to repair the damages would not give the desired authentic feel to the film . Thus , the next schedule was shifted to Krishna Ghat , Wai , Maharashtra .
As a director , Manjrekar believed that the mansion shown in the film " plays a major character " and was certain that finding the appropriate mansion would be a difficult job . The production designing team had searched for various location across Konkan but most of the mansions had electrical wiring across which was a major obstacle for the shooting as Konkan then did not have electricity . Finally , Manjrekar was introduced to a mansion owned by Avinash Nene near Paalshet which suited the period where third and final schedule of the film was carried out .
= = Soundtrack = =
The soundtrack for the film is composed by Rahul Ranade and music director duo Ajit Parab and Sameer Mhatre , popularly known as Ajit @-@ Sameer . Poet @-@ Actor Kishor Kadam ( " Saumitra " ) and Mitali Joshi have written the lyrics for the songs . Being a period film set in 1930 , soundtrack mainly consists of traditional songs in the form of Ovee , a type of meterical stanza in Marathi poetry . Rahul Ranade used Vibhavari Joshi 's voice for all of his compositions except " Janma Baicha " . Joshi rendered all her songs without any musical accompaniment .
As most of the songs are in the form of Ovee , Ranade decided to use the traditional musical format . He took help of Sarojini Babar , a Marathi writer @-@ politician who had studied the songs of the period depicted in the film . Babar introduced Ranade to her sister , Kumud Pawar , who have made a collection of various traditional Ovee . For two situation songs , Ranade requested Kishor Kadam to write the lyrics .
The duo Ajit @-@ Sameer composed two theme tracks and one song ( " Kuthe Paath Phiravun " ) for the film 's soundtrack . A noted Hindustani classical vocalist , Rajashree Pathak , rendered the song and was appreciated for " its vocal and soulfulness " and won Best Playback Singer ( Female ) at 2012 Zee Gaurav Puraskar . Soundtrack also made use of " Are Sansar Sansar " , much @-@ quoted couplet from one of the poems written by a noted Marathi poetess Bahinabai Chaudhari . The song is narrated and rendered by film 's lead actors , Sachin Khedekar and Ketaki Mategaonkar respectively and is arranged by Sameer Mhatre . Before taking up acting , Mategaonkar had participated in singing reality show Sa Re Ga Ma Pa Marathi L 'il Champs .
The soundtrack was released after the film 's release and was acclaimed for " bringing an authentic and subtle flavour to the period of the film . " Kishore Kadam was also appreciated for writing lyrics which suitably noted the traditions followed by women during the period .
= = Reception = =
Kaksparsh was released on 4 May 2012 which also marked a beginning of the 100th year of Indian cinema . The film received wide critical acclaim and was a commercial success . It got critical acclaim for the direction by Mahesh Manjrekar , its screenplay by Girish Joshi and for the performances by its actors , especially Sachin Khedekar for his portrayal of Hari Dada Damle as the head of the family . Ajit Reddy 's cinematography and Ajit @-@ Sameer 's music were also praised . The film was said to have brought the " best out of " the director . Manjrekar said that he " expected to it be a hit , but not expected such a landslide hit " . The film was noted to have a " strong script " and well presented " a sensitive issue . " It was called as " the best love story in Marathi films . " It was marketed as a love story , and a review in Maharashtra Times by Saumitra Pote noted that " the film has gone beyond a love story " . The film also said to have shown " the mores of the period quite accurately " . Aniruddha Bhatkhande of weekly Marathi magazine Lokprabha criticised the film in his review by saying that the actual film is a way different than the " attractive " promos . He further said that the film 's costume designs are flawed and as most of the film is shot indoor , it gives a feeling to the viewers that they are watching a recorded theatre play .
= = = Remake = = =
With the success of Kaksparsh , it was reported in June 2012 that Manjrekar is planning a remake in Hindi starring Amitabh Bachchan . However , the director readily clarified that he is not planning for a remake and he did contact Bachchan for the film but not for the remake . Later in January 2014 , Manjrekar announced that a Hindi and Tamil remake of Kaksparsh is being directed by himself starring Arvind Swamy , Tisca Chopra , Adinath Kothare and Ketaki Mategaonkar . Swamy will be portraying Khedekar 's role whereas Chopra will be seen as Swamy 's wife , originally played by Medha Manjrekar . Mategaonkar will reprise her role from the original and Vaidehi Parshurami will be playing the older Uma . Milind Soman is reported to play Swamy 's friend and Adinath Kothare will play Mahadev 's character which was originally played by Abhijit Kelkar . Murali Sharma will be seen portraying a negative character . The veteran Bollywood actress Tanuja will be portraying the role of widowed aunt , played by Savita Malpekar in the original . The music will be composed by Ilaiyaraaja with Mategoankar and Vibhavari Apte Joshi rendering their first Tamil song . Adinath Kothare 's wife Urmila Kanitkar will be doing a guest appearance .
= = Awards = =
The film won several awards on release .
2012 11th Pune International Film Festival
Government of Maharashtra " Sant Tukaram " Best Marathi Feature Film Award
Special Jury Award : Sachin Khedekar
2012 Maharashtra State Film Awards
2012 Marathi International Cinema and Theatre Awards ( MICTA )
2012 Prabhat Film Awards
Best Actor ( Male ) : Sachin Khedekar ( Shared with Vikram Gokhale for Anumati )
Best Background score : Ajit @-@ Sameer
2012 Screen Awards Marathi
Best Actress : Priya Bapat
2012 Zee Gaurav Puraskar
Other Awards
All India Marathi Film Federation — Yashashree Puraskar
Majha Awards – Medha Manjrekar
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= Siletzia =
Siletzia is the massive formation of early to middle Eocene epoch marine basalts and interbedded sediments in the forearc of the Cascadia subduction zone ; this forms the basement rock under western Oregon and Washington and the southern tip of Vancouver Island . It is now fragmented into the Siletz and Crescent terranes .
Siletzia corresponds geographically to the Coast Range Volcanic Province ( or Coast Range basalts ) , but is distinguished from slightly younger basalts that erupted after Siletzia accreted to the continent and differ in chemical composition . The Siletzia basalts are tholeiitic , a characteristic of mantle @-@ derived magma erupted from a spreading ridge between plates of oceanic crust . The younger basalts are alkalic or calc @-@ alkaline , characteristic of magmas derived from a subduction zone . This change of composition reflects a change from marine to continental volcanism that becomes evident around 48 to 42 Ma ( millions of years ago ) , and is attributed to the accretion of Siletzia against the North American continent .
Various theories have been proposed to account for the volume and diversity of Siletzian magmatism , as well as the approximately 75 ° of rotation , but the evidence is insufficient to determine Siletzia 's origin ; the question remains open .
The accretion of Siletzia against the North American continent approximately 50 million years ago ( contemporaneous with the initiation of the bend in the Hawaiian @-@ Emperor seamount chain ) was a major tectonic event associated with a reorganization of the earth 's tectonic plates . This is believed to have a caused a shift in the subduction zone , termination of the Laramide orogeny that was uplifting the Rocky Mountains , and major changes in tectonic and volcanic activity across much of western North America .
= = Exposures and discovery = =
The rock of Siletzia has been exposed in various places by tectonic uplift ( as around the periphery of the Olympic Mountains ) , anticlinal folding ( such as the Black Hills and Willapa Hills in southwestern Washington ) , and overthrusting onto other formations ( along various faults in central and southern Oregon ) . These exposures have been variously named the Metchosin Formation of Vancouver Island , the Crescent Formation , Black Hills , and Willapa Hills volcanics of Washington , and the Siletz River Volcanics and Roseburg Formation of Oregon . ( See map . The Grays River Volcanics of Washington and Tillamook Volcanics of Oregon are now considered post @-@ Siletz . ) Elsewhere Siletzia is covered by younger volcanic and sedimentary deposits .
The discovery of Siletzia began in 1906 with Arnold 's description and naming of a small exposure on the north side of the Olympic Peninsula near Port Crescent . Though this exposure is small , he recognized as very likely that much more of it was buried under younger deposits . With recognition that similar rock exposed at other outcrops is part of the same formation , the name is now generally applied to all early and middle Eocene basalts on the Olympic Peninsula and Puget Lowland .
The Metchosin formation at the southern tip of Vancouver Island was described in a series of reports ( 1910 , 1912 , 1913 , 1917 ) by Clapp , who recognized it as correlative with the Crescent formation on the other side of the Strait of Juan de Fuca . Weaver recognized that these " Metchosin volcanics " included various Eocene basalts in western Washington and the Oregon Coast Range as far south as the Klamath Mountains . The Siletz River Volcanics was described in 1948 by Snavely and Baldwin after exposures near the Siletz River , Oregon , and the Roseburg and related formations in southern Oregon described in various reports from the 1960s on .
" Siletzia " was coined in 1979 by Irving to describe the full extent of these Eocene basalts and interbedded sedimentary formations .
= = Extent = =
The map shows the exposures ( black ) and inferred near @-@ surface extent ( pink ) of Siletzia , the latter being what can be detected in the upper crust by aeromagnetic , gravitational , or seismological studies .
There are only two exposed contacts of Siletzia with the older ( pre @-@ Cenozoic ) North American basement . One is near Roseburg , Oregon , where it is thrust against formations of the Klamath Mountains ( discussed below ) , the other is along the Leech River Fault on the southern end of Vancouver Island , where it has pushed the pre @-@ Cenozoic Pacific Rim formation beneath the Wrangellia Terrane ) . Everywhere else the contact between Siletzia and the rest of the continent is concealed under younger deposits , especially the Cascade Range volcanics . The contact around the Olympic Mountains is actually the bottom contact with the underlying oceanic sediments , tilted up by the uplift of the Olympics and exposed by erosion of about 10 to 12 km of overlying deposits .
The location of the near @-@ surface contact between the Crescent Formation and the pre @-@ Cenozoic metamorphic basement of the continent — what has been the termed the Coast Range Boundary Fault ( CRBF ) — is largely uncertain . The Leech River Fault extends southeast past Victoria , B.C. to cross the Strait of Juan de Fuca , possibly connecting with the southeast striking Southern Whidbey Island Fault ( SWIF ) . This extends to the Rattlesnake Mountain Fault Zone ( RMFZ ) , some 25 kilometers east of Seattle , which is believed to be the western edge of the pre @-@ Cenozoic basement . However , gravity data indicates that at this latitude the Crescent Formation ( at least near the surface ) extends no further east than Seattle .
Further south , near Mount St. Helens , is a similar situation , where the St. Helens Fault Zone ( SHZ ) is believed to be the eastern edge of the Crescent Formation , but the pre @-@ Cenozoic continental basement is near Mount Rainier . Separating these is the marine sedimentary formation known as the Southern Washington Cascades Conductor ( SWCC ) ; it is possible that it was deposited over a fragment of Siletzia . Or not : the oldest parts of the SWCC likely predate Siletzia , and the nature and location of the contact between these two formations is unknown .
In central Oregon , Siletzia forms a platform on which the older , now defunct volcanoes of the Western Cascades rest . The younger High Cascades to the east are believed to rest on sediments that accumulated in the basin between Siletzia and the continent .
In southern Oregon , Siletzia has been thrust against the Mesozoic Klamath Mountains of southern Oregon along the Klamath — Blue Mountain Lineament ( KBML ) . Near Roseburg this contact is exposed at the Wild Safari Fault where the Late Jurassic Dothan Formation has been thrust over the Roseburg Formation .
Off the coast of southern Oregon , the western edge of Siletzia is the Eocene Fulmar fault . This is a strike @-@ slip fault , where part of Siletzia has been split off ; the missing piece may be the Yakutat terrane now at the head of the Gulf of Alaska . Further north , the terrane boundary is believed to come ashore near the Columbia River .
The way the Crescent Formation wraps around the Olympic Mountains ( " Oly " on the map ) may reflect oroclinal bending as a result of being crushed against Vancouver Island . It has also been attributed to loss of the deposits originally overlying the Olympics prior to their uplift , resembling a dome where top and western end has been removed .
Siletzia 's actual thickness , and the estimates of that thickness , vary . Under Oregon , the Siletz terrane appears to extend 25 to possibly 35 km into the trough between the subducting Juan de Fuca plate and the edge of the continent , where it is slipping over sediments accumulated in the bottom of the trough . The Crescent terrane ( under Washington ) is believed to be thinner , from as little as 12 and 22 km under the western and eastern ends of the Strait of Juan de Fuca , but possibly as much as 20 and 35 km thick .
= = Composition = =
The various formations of Siletzia are characterized as marine tholeiitic pillow basalts and volcanic breccia , often interbedded with sedimentary layers of continental origin , lying on oceanic crust . These are usually capped by a layer of alkalic volcanics deposited subaerially . All this suggests these formations were initially deposited in an oceanic environment , possibly as seamounts or an island arc .
On the Olympic Peninsula the Blue Mountain unit at the base of the Crescent Formation includes sediments ( including large boulders of quartz diorite ) of continental origin , showing that the continent was close by ; other sediments were eroded from the pre @-@ Cenozoic rock of Vancouver Island and the northern Cascade Range . At the southern end are sediments derived from the Klamath Mountains , while sand of the overlying Tyee Formation has an isotopic composition corresponding to rock of the Idaho Batholith .
= = Age = =
Eruption of the Siletzia basalts has been placed roughly in the late Paleocene through the mid Eocene ; more specific dates have been difficult to obtain and somewhat variable . Early K @-@ Ar ( potassium @-@ argon ) and 40Ar @-@ 39Ar ( argon @-@ argon ) radiometric dating by Duncan gave dates of 57 and 62 Ma ( million years ago ) to the northern and southern ends , and a date of 49 Ma for the Grays River volcanics near the center of Siletzia . This is suggestive of a spreading ridge ( as previously noted by McWilliams 1980 ) , and has been a strong constraint on models of how Siletzia formed . Other researchers have since found younger dates ( 50 @-@ 48 Ma ) for the Crescent basalts , removing much of the age symmetry .
More recent dating based on 40Ar @-@ 39Ar , U @-@ Pb ( uranium @-@ lead ) , and coccoliths shows a narrower range of ages from 56 Ma in the south to 50 or 49 Ma in the north .
= = Size = =
Siletzia is massive : over 400 miles ( 600 kilometers ) long , almost half that much across ( and likely further at depth ) . The original deposits were from 16 to 35 kilometers thick . Weaver , reckoning a minimal thickness of only 3 @,@ 000 feet , still estimated " nearly 10 @,@ 000 cubic miles of rock " ; he put the total volume to be as great , if not greater , than the better known Columbia River Basalts . Snavely et al . , recognizing at least 10 @,@ 000 feet of thickness , and as much as 20 @,@ 000 feet under eruptive centers , estimated the volume to be in excess of 50 @,@ 000 cubic miles ( over 200 @,@ 000 km3 ) . Duncan ( 1982 ) estimated around 250 @,@ 000 km3 ( about 60 @,@ 000 cubic miles ) , which exceeds the volume of most continental rift zones , and some flood basalt provinces . A recent estimate put the volume at 2 million cubic km .
= = Paleorotation = =
When lava solidifies it retains an imprint of the earth 's magnetic field , thus recording how it was oriented . Measurements of such paleomagnetic fields in the Oregon Coast Range show rotations of 46 to 75 ° , all of it following the presumed accretion to the continent ( alternately , formation ) of the Siletz terrane at about 50 Ma . These rotations are all clockwise , and show a strong correlation with the age of the rock : about one and a half degrees of rotation per million years . These paleomagnetic rotations and other evidence show that Siletzia — or the part of it constituting the Siletz terrane ( " SZ " on map , above ) , from the Klamath Mountains to the Columbia River — has rotated clockwise as a single , coherent block .
Did Siletzia pivot about its northern end or southern end ? This question has attracted considerable attention , with the evidence now favoring a northern pivot . A key piece of evidence is that the Crescent Formation is laid over sediments ( the Blue Mountain unit ) derived from the continent , including boulders of quartz diorite some 65 million years old ; this requires the Crescent Formation to have formed close to the continent .
This model has Siletzia forming on the continental margin along what is now the Olympic @-@ Wallowa Lineament ( OWL ; a zone of topographical features of unknown age and tectonic significance ) , with the southern end of Siletzia and the Klamath Mountains ( joined to Siletzia ) near the Idaho Batholith in central Idaho . Further evidence for this comes from the sand of the Tyee Formation that overlie the Roseburg Formation . Not only does this sand have the same isotopic composition of rock in the Idaho Batholith ( and of sand now coursing down the Snake and Columbia Rivers ) , but it appears to have not been transported very far from its source . This implies that the Tyee Formation was much closer to the Idaho Batholith when it was deposited , and subsequently rotated away . Geodetic surveys show that the region continues to rotate , likely as a result of extension of the Basin and Range province and asthenospheric flow around the southern edge of the subducting Juan de Fuca plate .
North of the Columbia River , matters are more complicated . First , in southwestern Washington there is only half as much rotation as seen in rocks of similar age in Oregon . This is the basis for believing the Crescent terrane has broken from the Siletz terrane ( perhaps because they formed on different oceanic plates ) , and undergone a different rotational history . Second , in Washington there is more variation in the amount of rotation and more faulting , which has led to a speculation that the Crescent terrane has broken up into eight or nine crustal blocks .
At Bremerton , on the east side of the Olympics , the measured rotations are less , and within the statistical error bounds of being zero ; while further north , near Port Townsend , the rotation is slightly counter @-@ clockwise . On Vancouver Island the paleorotations are counter @-@ clockwise , and other evidence shows that the tip of the island has been bent , presumably as a result of the collision of Siletzia . The northwestern tip of the Olympic Peninsula also shows counter @-@ clockwise rotation , of around 45 degrees . This raises a question of how much of the arcuate shape of the Crescent Formation is due to loss of material from the center after uplift by the Olympic Mountains , and how much reflects oroclinal bending .
= = Origin = =
Siletzia 's origin is not yet determined , and ( as of 2011 ) lacks a definite answer . Theories are still being developed , and even the details the theories depend on " have remained enigmatic " . Following are several of the most notable models .
Models of how Siletzia formed are of two general types : ( 1 ) Formation well offshore ( possibly as seamounts , like the Hawaiian @-@ Emperor seamount chain , or a hotspot at a spreading ridge , like Iceland ) and then accretion to the continent ; ( 2 ) formation inshore , on or near the continental margin ( perhaps as a result of transcurrent extension , or of a slab window ) . All current models then have Siletzia rifting away from the continental edge about a northern pivot . Studies of Siletzia 's origins have generally focused on accounting for two principal observations : the large paleorotation ( described above ) , and the voluminous output ( over 50 @,@ 000 cubic miles , exceeding the volume of most continental rift zones , and some flood basalt provinces ) . Accounting for the observed volumes of basalt requires an enhanced magmatic source , for which most models invoke either the presence of the Yellowstone hotspot , or slab windows . The latter would have resulted from the subduction of the Farallon — Kula ( or possibly Farallon — Resurrection ) spreading ridge . The relation with the Kula @-@ Farallon spreading ridge is an important element in all models , though its location through that epoch is not well determined .
= = = Simpson & Cox 1977 : Two models = = =
Seeking to explain the observed clockwise paleorotation , and noting that Siletzia appeared to have rotated as a rigid block , Simpson & Cox ( 1977 ) proposed two models . First was rotation about a southern pivot in contact with the Klamath Mountains . This has various problems , especially because at the northern end sediments and even boulders from the continent are found at the base of the Crescent Formation , showing that it was near the continent from the beginning . In the second model ( subsequently refined by Hammond 1979 ) , Siletzia was originally adjacent to the Olympic @-@ Wallowa Lineament , then rifted from the continent and rotated about a northern pivot near the Olympic Peninsula . Because sediments also show the Klamaths in close contact from the start , this requires the Klamaths to have moved with Siletzia . Originally there were conflicts in the understanding of when the Klamaths moved , and with the age and amount of rotation of the Clarno Formation in central Oregon . These were largely cleared up in a study of the Clarno Formation by Grommé et al . ( 1986 ) and illustrated with a palinspastic reconstruction as of 38 Ma .
= = = Offshore model : A captured island chain ? = = =
An early and widely cited paper by Duncan ( 1982 ) ( drawing on features of the fairly new theory of plate tectonics ) exemplifies the off @-@ shore or " seamount " type of models . It featured a set of radiometrically determined ( K @-@ Ar and 40Ar @-@ 39Ar ) ages that were younger in the center ( for the Grays River volcanics ) and older at the ends . This dihedrally symmetric age progression strongly suggested the pattern seen at spreading ridges , where the older rock is carried away on both sides from where the new rock erupts . Duncan considered five models ( but none involving rifting or ridge subduction ) , favoring one where a hotspot — presumably the Yellowstone hotspot — intersected the Farallon @-@ Kula spreading ridge ( such as at Iceland ) to generate a chain of islands . These islands were then accreted to the continent as the underlying oceanic crust was subducted .
This study has been criticized on multiple grounds , particularly regarding the ages . Duncan himself noted that measurement of the northern ages may have been affected by loss of argon due to low @-@ grade metamorphism , and that there might be bias in respect of stratigraphic position . The latter was demonstrated by a recent study that showed , on the basis of geochemistry , that the Grays River volcanics followed the Siletzia eruptions , and thus are not representative of the initial phase of Siletz magmatism . Recent dating also shows a more monotonic trend of south to north age progression ( " younging " ) .
The range of the original ages was also a problem , as the rate of Kula @-@ Farallon spreading over that time would produce a chain of seamounts much longer than observed , and too far away from the continent to explain the continentally derived sediments . This objection is attenuated somewhat in that the newer ages show a smaller range of ages .
= = = Inshore models = = =
Various models have Siletzia forming inshore , on or near the continental margin . While all current models have Siletzia rifting away from the continent after accretion or formation , a subclass of " rifted " models consider the rifting to have caused the Siletzia eruptions .
Wells et al . 1984 proposed that the Siletzia basalts might have " leaked " through transform faults ( perpendicular to a spreading ridge ) during changes in direction of the tectonic plates . The size of these eruptions and their location in this region is attributed to proximity to the Yellowstone hotspot . This " leaky transform " theory seems to be largely rejected , likely because the plate motion model it was based on was shown to be faulty .
Wells , et al . , alternately suggested that as a terrane at the margin of the continent was pushed over the Yellowstone hotspot , it was rifted away from the continent by the upwelling magma , which then formed the Siletzia basalts . This idea was further developed by Babcock et al . ( 1992 ) , who suggested rifting might have been initiated by a change in plate direction , or by kinematic effects as the Kula @-@ Farallon ridge migrated along the continental margin . One such effect is the formation of a slab window ( or slab gap ) which would allow increased upwelling of magma .
= = = Slab windows = = =
That spreading ridges could be subducted was recognized early in the development of plate tectonic theory , but there was little consideration of the ensuing effects . In the 1980s came realization that the magma welling up from the asthenosphere through the subducted ridge would not reach seawater , and thus not be quenched to form rock and close the gap . Continued spreading would lead to a widening gap or " window " in the subducting plate through which there could be increased flow of magma The implications of this for Siletzia were first shown by Thorkelson & Taylor ( 1989 ) and Babcock et al . ( 1992 ) ( following the pioneering work by Dickinson & Snyder 1979 ) . Breitsprecher et al . ( 2003 ) subsequently identified the fan @-@ shaped wake of volcanics of distinctive geochemistry left by the widening Kula @-@ Farallon slab window across northeastern Washington and into Idaho .
Madsen et al . ( 2006 ) showed that most of the Eocene and subsequent magmatism from Alaska to Oregon " is explainable in terms of ridge subduction and slab window tectonics . " That is , a slab window — and a single subducted ridge can give rise to multiple slab windows — can provide adequate magmatism without having to invoke a hotspot ( mantle plume ) . ( So much so that it has been suggested that the Yellowstone hotspot may have been initiated by a slab window . ) Mantle plumes and slab windows both feature voluminous magmatism ; the main difference is that slab windows would form only where the spreading ridge is subducted . This implies formation at the continental margin , and then rifting , in the manner of the second class of models .
= = = Gulf of Alaska = = =
Any model of the origin of Siletzia must account for interactions with plate boundaries that were being subducted under North America through the Eocene . Early studies were plagued by indeterminate locations for these boundaries , particularly of the Kula @-@ Farallon ( K @-@ F ) spreading ridge : basalts at the head of the Gulf of Alaska ( along the Alaska panhandle ) have ages and compositions corresponding to the Siletz volcanics , suggesting that the K @-@ F ridge was offshore of the Yukon at the same time it was offshore of Washington . This can be resolved by assuming that by about 56 Ma the eastern part of the Kula plate had broken away to form the Resurrection plate , with the new Kula @-@ Resurrection ( K @-@ R ) spreading ridge running up the Gulf of Alaska towards Kodiak Island , and the former K @-@ F ( now R @-@ F ) ridge reaching Washington . Subduction of this plate under western Canada was rapid , and it disappeared entirely with subduction of the K @-@ R ridge about 50 Ma .
This scenario then permits rapid transport north of crustal blocks such as the Yakutat terrane . Now lying southeast of Cordova at the head of the Gulf of Alaska , paleomagnetic evidence indicates it was formed at a latitude corresponding to Oregon or northern California . Similarly , certain schists on Baranof Island are believed to have been contiguous with the Leech River Schists ( Leech River Complex ) on Vancouver Island around 50 Ma , and subsequently transported northward with other elements of the Chugach @-@ Prince William terrane .
= = After accretion : 50 @-@ 42 Ma = =
Whether formed far offshore as seamounts , or close inshore by a slab window , the Siletzian basalts were laid down on a subducting oceanic plate : the Siletz terrane on the Farallon plate , and the Crescent terrane most likely on the adjoining Resurrection plate ( previously broken away from the Kula plate , which had previously broken away from the Farallon plate ) . In both cases the Siletzia mass was drawn toward the subduction zone , which possibly ran diagonally across what is now Washington , approximately at the position of the Olympic @-@ Wallowa Lineament . However , Siletiza was too big to be subducted , and it accreted to the continent . Accretion is sometimes called " docking , " but is more akin to a collision : various peripheral structures are first folded or crushed , then the main structures are deformed when they come into contact , and various parts get pushed over other parts , all this playing out over several million years . To the extent that the accretion of Siletzia to North America can be given a definite date most studies give it as about 50 Ma . This date has added significance as it is also the start of a change in direction of the Pacific plate , as seen in the bend in the Hawaiian @-@ Emperor seamount chain , and also a change in the Pacific Northwest from compressional to extensional tectonics . This may also be when the last of the Resurrection plate was subducted under British Columbia . Initiation of the north @-@ striking right @-@ lateral Straight Creek Fault at ~ 48 Ma likely resulted from strain accumulated during the accretion of Siletzia .
As Siletzia accreted it also jammed the existing subduction zone , halting subduction of the Farallon plate . This terminated the Laramide orogeny that had been uplifting the Rocky Mountains , and triggered the ignimbrite sweep , a wave of large @-@ volume silicic magmatism that swept over much of western North America between 50 and 20 Ma . This undoubtedly affected the enigmatic and controversial Challis Arc ( stretching from southeastern British Columbia to the Idaho Batholith , roughly parallel with the Olympic @-@ Wallowa Lineament ) , but the details of this are unknown .
Subduction , having ceased at the existing zone , eventually reinitiated further to the west as the current Cascadia subduction zone . Volcanism from the new subduction zone ( such as the Grays River Volcanics and Northcraft Volcanics ) reached the surface about 42 Ma , thereby initiating the rise of the ancestral Cascade Range .
Several other significant events occurred around 42 Ma , including cessation of metamorphism of the Leech River Schists ( resulting from the Metchosin / Crescent Formation being thrust under Vancouver Island ) and the end of strike @-@ slip motion on the Straight Creek Fault ; these may reflect the last movement of Siletzia relative to North America . On a broader scale , there was a change in absolute direction of the Pacific plate ( marked by the end of the bend in the Hawaiian @-@ Emperor seamount chain ) , and a change in the convergence of the Kula plate with the North American plate .
As subduction waned so did the force that had clamped Siletzia against the continent , and the tectonic regime shifted from compressional to extensional . Deposition of sand from the then proximal Idaho Batholith into the Tyee Formation in southern Oregon may have continued as late as 46 @.@ 5 Ma , but was interrupted when Siletzia rifted from the continent and began rotating away . What initiated rifting is unknown . Wells et al . ( 1984 , p . 290 ) suggested that as the continent overrode the Yellowstone hotspot , the upwelling plume tore away a previously accreted terrane . Babcock et al . ( 1992 ) suggested a change in the rate at which the plates were converging , or the " kinematic effects " ( such as a slab window ) from the passage of the Kula @-@ Farallon ridge ( or Resurrection @-@ Farallon ridge ) .
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= Ukiyo @-@ e =
The ukiyo @-@ e genre of art flourished in Japan from the 17th through 19th centuries . Its artists produced woodblock prints and paintings of such subjects as female beauties ; kabuki actors and sumo wrestlers ; scenes from history and folk tales ; travel scenes and landscapes ; flora and fauna ; and erotica . The term ukiyo @-@ e ( 浮世絵 IPA : [ u.ki.jo.e ] ) translates as " pictures of the floating world " .
Edo ( modern Tokyo ) became the seat of government for the military dictatorship in the early 17th century . The merchant class at the bottom of the social order found themselves the greatest beneficiaries of the city 's rapid economic growth . Many indulged in the entertainments of kabuki theatre , courtesans , and geisha of the pleasure districts . The term ukiyo ( " floating world " ) came to describe this hedonistic lifestyle . Printed or painted ukiyo @-@ e images of this environment emerged in the late 17th century and were popular with the merchant class , who had become wealthy enough to afford to decorate their homes with them .
The earliest success was in the 1670s with Moronobu 's paintings and monochromatic prints of beautiful women . Colour prints came gradually — at first added by hand for special commissions . By the 1740s , artists such as Masanobu used multiple woodblocks to print areas of colour . From the 1760s the success of Harunobu 's " brocade prints " led to full @-@ colour production becoming standard , each print made with numerous blocks . The peak period in terms of quantity and quality was marked by portraits of beauties and actors by masters such as Kiyonaga , Utamaro , and Sharaku in the late 18th century . This peak was followed in the 19th century by a pair of masters best remembered for their landscapes : the bold formalist Hokusai , whose Great Wave off Kanagawa is one of the best @-@ known works of Japanese art ; and the serene , atmospheric Hiroshige , most noted for the series The Fifty @-@ three Stations of the Tōkaidō . Following the deaths of these two masters , and against the technological and social modernization that followed the Meiji Restoration of 1868 , ukiyo @-@ e production went into steep decline .
Some ukiyo @-@ e artists specialized in making paintings , but most works were prints . Artists rarely carved their own woodblocks for printing ; rather , production was divided between the artist , who designed the prints ; the carver , who cut the woodblocks ; the printer , who inked and pressed the woodblocks onto hand @-@ made paper ; and the publisher , who financed , promoted , and distributed the works . As printing was done by hand , printers were able to achieve effects impractical with machines , such as the blending or gradation of colours on the printing block .
Ukiyo @-@ e was central to forming the West 's perception of Japanese art in the late 19th century – especially the landscapes of Hokusai and Hiroshige . From the 1870s Japonism became a prominent trend and had a strong influence on the early Impressionists such as Degas , Manet , and Monet , as well as Post @-@ Impressionists such as van Gogh and Art Nouveau artists such as Toulouse @-@ Lautrec . The 20th century saw a revival in Japanese printmaking : the shin @-@ hanga ( " new prints " ) genre capitalized on Western interest in prints of traditional Japanese scenes , and the sōsaku @-@ hanga ( " creative prints " ) movement promoted individualist works designed , carved , and printed by a single artist . Prints since the late 20th century have continued in an individualist vein , often made with techniques imported from the West such as screen printing , etching , mezzotint , and mixed media .
= = History = =
= = = Pre @-@ history = = =
Japanese art since the Heian period ( 794 – 1185 ) had followed two principal paths : the nativist Yamato @-@ e tradition , focusing on Japanese themes , best known by the works of the Tosa school ; and Chinese @-@ inspired kara @-@ e in a variety of styles , such as the monochromatic ink wash painting of Sesshū Tōyō and his disciples . The Kanō school of painting incorporated features of both .
Since antiquity , Japanese art had found patrons in the aristocracy , military governments , and religious authorities . Until the 16th century , the lives of the common people had not been a main subject of painting , and even when they were included , the works were luxury items made for the ruling samurai and rich merchant classes . Later works appeared by and for townspeople , including inexpensive monochromatic paintings of female beauties and scenes of the theatre and pleasure districts . The hand @-@ produced nature of these shikomi @-@ e limited the scale of their production , a limit that was soon overcome by genres that turned to mass @-@ produced woodblock printing .
During a prolonged period of civil war in the 16th century , a class of politically powerful merchants had developed . These machishū allied themselves with the court and had power over local communities ; their patronange of the arts encouraged a revivial in the classical arts in the late 16th and early 17th centuries . In the early 17th century Tokugawa Ieyasu ( 1543 – 1616 ) unified the country and was appointed Shogun with supreme power over Japan . He consolidated his government in the village of Edo ( modern Tokyo ) , and required the territorial lords to assemble there in alternate years with their entourages . The demands of the growing capital drew many male labourers from the country , so that males came to make up nearly seventy percent of the population . The village grew during the Edo period ( 1603 – 1867 ) from a population of 1800 to over a million in the 19th century .
The centralized shogunate put an end to the power of the machishū and divided the population into four social classes , with the ruling samurai class at the top and the merchant class at the bottom . While deprived of their political influence , those of this class most benefited from the rapidly expanding economy of the Edo period , and their improved lot allowed for leisure that many sought in the pleasure districts — in particular Yoshiwara in Edo — and collecting artworks to decorate their homes , which in earlier times had been well beyond their financial means . The experience of the pleasure quarters was open to those of sufficient wealth , manners , and education .
Woodblock printing in Japan traces back to the Hyakumantō Darani in 770 CE . Until the 17th century such printing was reserved for Buddhist seals and images . Movable type appeared around 1600 , but as the Japanese writing system required about 100 @,@ 000 type pieces , hand @-@ carving text onto woodblocks was more efficient . In Saga Domain , calligrapher Honami Kōetsu and publisher Suminokura Soan combined printed text and images in an adaptation of The Tales of Ise ( 1608 ) and other works of literature . During the Kan 'ei era ( 1624 – 1643 ) illustrated books of folk tales called tanrokubon , or " orange @-@ green books " , were the first books mass @-@ produced using woodblock printing . Woodblock imagery continued to evolve as illustrations to the kanazōshi genre of tales of hedonistic urban life in the new capital . The rebuilding of Edo following the Great Fire of Meireki in 1657 occasioned a modernization of the city , and the publication of illustrated printed books flourished in the rapidly urbanizing environment .
The term " ukiyo " , which can be translated as " floating world " , was homophonous with an ancient Buddhist term signifying " this world of sorrow and grief " . The newer term at times was used to mean " erotic " or " stylish " , among other meanings , and came to describe the hedonistic spirit of the time for the lower classes . Asai Ryōi celebrated this spirit in the novel Ukiyo Monogatari ( " Tales of the Floating World " , c . 1661 ) :
" living only for the moment , savouring the moon , the snow , the cherry blossoms , and the maple leaves , singing songs , drinking sake , and diverting oneself just in floating , unconcerned by the prospect of imminent poverty , buoyant and carefree , like a gourd carried along with the river current : this is what we call ukiyo . "
= = = Emergence of ukiyo @-@ e ( late 17th – early 18th centuries ) = = =
The earliest ukiyo @-@ e artists came from the world of Japanese painting . Yamato @-@ e painting of the 17th century had developed a style of outlined forms which allowed inks to be dripped on a wet surface and spread out towards the outlines — this outlining of forms was to become the dominant style of ukiyo @-@ e .
Around 1661 , painted hanging scrolls known as Portraits of Kanbun Beauties gained popularity . The paintings of the Kanbun era ( 1661 – 73 ) , most of which are anonymous , marked the beginnings of ukiyo @-@ e as an independent school . The paintings of Iwasa Matabei ( 1578 – 1650 ) have a great affinity with ukiyo @-@ e paintings . Scholars disagree whether Matabei 's work itself is ukiyo @-@ e ; assertions that he was the genre 's founder are especially common amongst Japanese researchers . At times Matabei has been credited as the artist of the unsigned Hikone screen , a byōbu folding screen that may be one of the earliest surviving ukiyo @-@ e works . The screen is in a refined Kanō style and depicts contemporary life , rather than the prescribed subjects of the painterly schools .
In response to the increasing demand for ukiyo @-@ e works , Hishikawa Moronobu ( 1618 – 1694 ) produced the first ukiyo @-@ e woodblock prints . By 1672 , Moronobu 's success was such that he began to sign his work — the first of the book illustrators to do so . He was a prolific illustrator who worked in a wide variety of genres , and developed an influential style of portraying female beauties . Most significantly , he began to produce illustrations , not just for books , but as single @-@ sheet images , which could stand alone or be used as part of a series . The Hishikawa school attracted a large number of followers , as well as imitators such as Sugimura Jihei , and signalled the beginning of the popularization of a new artform .
Torii Kiyonobu I and Kaigetsudō Ando became prominent emulators of Moronobu 's style following the master 's death , though neither was a member of the Hishikawa school . Both discarded background detail in favour of focus on the human figure — kabuki actors in the yakusha @-@ e of Kiyonobu and the Torii school that followed him , and courtesans in the bijin @-@ ga of Ando and his Kaigetsudō school . Ando and his followers produced a stereotyped female image whose design and pose lent itself to effective mass production , and its popularity created a demand for paintings that other artists and schools took advantage of . The Kaigetsudō school and its popular " Kaigetsudō beauty " ended after Ando 's exile over his role in the Ejima @-@ Ikushima scandal of 1714 .
Kyoto native Nishikawa Sukenobu ( 1671 – 1750 ) painted technically refined pictures of courtesans . Considered a master of erotic portraits , he was the subject of a government ban in 1722 , though it is believed he continued to create works that circulated under different names . Sukenobu spent most of his career in Edo , and his influence was considerable in both the Kantō and Kansai regions . The paintings of Miyagawa Chōshun ( 1683 – 1752 ) portrayed early 18th @-@ century life in delicate colours . Chōshun made no prints . The Miyagawa school he founded in the early @-@ 18th century specialized in romantic paintings in a style more refined in line and colour than the Kaigetsudō school . Chōshun allowed greater expressive freedom in his adherents , a group that later included Hokusai .
Early ukiyo @-@ e masters
= = = Colour prints ( mid @-@ 18th century ) = = =
Even in the earliest monochromatic prints and books , colour was added by hand for special commissions . Demand for colour in the early @-@ 18th century was met with tan @-@ e prints hand @-@ tinted with orange and sometimes green or yellow . These were followed in the 1720s with a vogue for pink @-@ tinted beni @-@ e and later the lacquer @-@ like ink of the urushi @-@ e . In 1744 , the benizuri @-@ e were the first successes in colour printing , using multiple woodblocks — one for each colour , the earliest beni pink and vegetable green .
A great self @-@ promoter , Okumura Masanobu ( 1686 – 1764 ) played a major role during the period of rapid technical development in printing from the late 17th to mid @-@ 18th centuries . He established a shop in 1707 and combined elements of the leading contemporary schools in a wide array of genres , though Masanobu himself belonged to no school . Among the innovations in his romantic , lyrical images were the introduction of geometrical perspective in the uki @-@ e genre ; in the 1740s ; the long , narrow hashira @-@ e prints ; and the combination of graphics and literature in prints that included self @-@ penned haiku poetry .
Ukiyo @-@ e reached a peak in the late 17th century with the advent of full @-@ colour prints , developed after Edo returned to prosperity under Tanuma Okitsugu following a long depression . These popular colour prints came to be called nishiki @-@ e , or " brocade pictures " , as their brilliant colours seemed to bear resemblance to imported Chinese Shuchiang brocades , known in Japanese as Shokkō nishiki . The first to emerge were expensive calendar prints , printed with multiple blocks on very fine paper with heavy , opaque inks . These prints had the number of days for each month hidden in the design , and were sent at the New Year as personalized greetings , bearing the name of the patron rather than the artist . The blocks for these prints were later re @-@ used for commercial production , obliterating the patron 's name and replacing it with that of the artist .
The delicate , romantic prints of Suzuki Harunobu ( 1725 – 1770 ) were amongst the first to realize expressive and complex colour designs , printed with up to a dozen separate blocks to handle the different colours and half @-@ tones . His restrained , graceful prints invoked the classicism of waka poetry and Yamato @-@ e painting . The prolific Harunobu was the dominant ukiyo @-@ e artist of his time . The success of Harunobu 's colourful nishiki @-@ e from 1765 on led to a steep decline in demand for the limited palettes of benizuri @-@ e and urushi @-@ e , as well as hand @-@ coloured prints .
A trend against the idealism of the prints of Harunobu and the Torii school grew following Harunobu 's death in 1770 . Katsukawa Shunshō ( 1726 – 1793 ) and his school produced portraits of kabuki actors with greater fidelity to the actors ' actual features than had been the trend . Sometime @-@ collaborators Koryūsai ( 1735 – c . 1790 ) and Kitao Shigemasa ( 1739 – 1820 ) were prominent depictors of women who also moved ukiyo @-@ e away from the dominance of Harunobu 's idealism by focusing on contemporary urban fashions and celebrated real @-@ world courtesans and geisha . Koryūsai was perhaps the most prolific ukiyo @-@ e artist of the 17th century , and produced a larger number of paintings and print series than any predecessor . The Kitao school that Shigemasa founded was one of the dominant schools of the closing decades of the 18th century .
In the 1770s , Utagawa Toyoharu produced a number of uki @-@ e perspective prints that demonstrated a mastery of Western perspective techniques that had eluded his predecessors in the genre . Toyoharu 's works helped pioneer the landscape as an ukiyo @-@ e subject , rather than merely a background for human figures In 19th century , Western @-@ style perspective techniques were absorbed into Japanese artistic culture , and deployed in the refined landscapes of such artists as Hokusai and Hiroshige , the latter a member of the Utagawa school that Toyoharu founded . This school was to become one of the most influential , and produced works in a far greater variety of genres than any other school .
Early colour ukiyo @-@ e
= = = Peak period ( late 18th century ) = = =
While the late 18th century saw hard economic times , ukiyo @-@ e saw a peak in quantity and quality of works , particularly during the Kansei era ( 1789 – 1791 ) . The ukiyo @-@ e of the period of the Kansei Reforms brought about a focus on beauty and harmony that collapsed into decadence and disharmony in the next century as the reforms broke down and tensions rose , culminating in the Meiji Restoration of 1868 .
Especially in the 1780s , Torii Kiyonaga ( 1752 – 1815 ) of the Torii school depicted traditional ukiyo @-@ e subjects like beauties and urban scenes , which he printed on large sheets of paper , often as multiprint horizontal diptychs or triptychs . His works dispensed with the poetic dreamscapes made by Harunobu , opting instead for realistic depictions of idealized female forms dressed in the latest fashions and posed in scenic locations . He also produced portraits of kabuki actors in a realistic style that included accompanying musicians and chorus .
A law went into effect in 1790 requiring prints to bear a censor 's seal of approval to be sold . Censorship increased in strictness over the following decades , and violators could receive harsh punishments . From 1799 even preliminary drafts required approval . A group of Utagawa @-@ school offenders including Toyokuni had their works repressed in 1801 , and Utamaro was imprisoned in 1804 for making prints of 16th @-@ century political and military leader Toyotomi Hideyoshi .
Utamaro ( c . 1753 – 1806 ) made his name in the 1790s with his bijin ōkubi @-@ e ( " large @-@ headed pictures of beautiful women " ) portraits , focusing on the head and upper torso , a style others had previously employed in portraits of kabuki actors . Utamaro experimented with line , colour , and printing techniques to bring out subtle differences in the features , expressions , and backdrops of subjects from a wide variety of class and background . Utamaro 's individuated beauties were in sharp contrast to the stereotyped , idealized images that had been the norm . By the end of the decade , especially following the death of his patron Tsutaya Jūzaburō in 1797 , Utamaro 's prodigious output declined in quality , and he died in 1806 .
Appearing suddenly in 1794 and disappearing just as suddenly ten months later , the prints of the enigmatic Sharaku are amongst ukiyo @-@ e 's best known . Sharaku produced striking portraits of kabuki actors , introducing a greater level of realism into his prints that emphasized the differences between the actor and the portrayed character . The expressive , contorted faces he depicted contrasted sharply with the serene , mask @-@ like faces more common to artists such as Harunobu or Utamaro . Published by Tsutaya , Sharaku 's work found resistance , and in 1795 his output ceased as mysteriously as it had appeared , and his real identity is still unknown . Utagawa Toyokuni ( 1769 – 1825 ) produced kabuki portraits in a style Edo townsfolk found more accessible , emphasizing dramatic postures and avoiding Sharaku 's realism .
A consistent high level of quality marked ukiyo @-@ e of the late 18th @-@ century , but the works of Utamaro and Sharaku often overshadow those other masters of the era . One of Kiyonaga 's followers , Chōbunsai Eishi ( 1756 – 1829 ) , abandoned his position as painter for Shogun Tokugawa Ieharu to take up ukiyo @-@ e design . He brought a refined sense to his portraits of graceful , slender courtesans , and left behind a number of noted students . With a fine line , Eishōsai Chōki ( fl . 1786 – 1808 ) designed portraits of delicate courtesans . The Utagawa school came to dominate ukiyo @-@ e output in the late Edo period .
Edo was the primary centre of ukiyo @-@ e production throughout the Edo period . Another major centre developed in the Kamigata region of areas in and around Kyoto and Osaka . In contrast to the range of subjects in the Edo prints , those of Kamigata tended to be portraits of kabuki actors . The style of the Kamigata prints was little distinguished from those of Edo until the late 18th century , partly because artists often moved back and forth between the two areas . Colours tend to be softer and pigments thicker in Kamigata prints than in those of Edo . In the 19th century many of the prints were designed by kabuki fans and other amateurs .
Masters of the peak period
= = = Late flowering : flora , fauna , and landscapes ( 19th century ) = = =
The Tenpō Reforms of 1841 – 1843 sought to suppress outward displays of luxury , including the depiction of courtesans and actors . As a result , many ukiyo @-@ e artists designed travel scenes and pictures of nature , especially birds and flowers . Landscapes had been given limited attention since Moronobu , and they formed an important element in the works of Kiyonaga and Shuncho . It was not until late in the Edo period that landscape came into its own as a genre , especially via the works of Hokusai and Hiroshige . The landscape genre has come to dominate Western perspectives of ukiyo @-@ e , though ukiyo @-@ e had a long history preceding these late @-@ era masters . The Japanese landscape differed from the Western tradition in that it relied more heavily on imagination , composition , and atmosphere than on strict observance of nature .
The self @-@ proclaimed " mad painter " Hokusai ( 1760 – 1849 ) enjoyed a long , varied career . His work is marked by a lack of the sentimentality common to ukiyo @-@ e , and a focus on formalism influenced by Western art . Among his accomplishments are his illustrations of Takizawa Bakin 's novel Crescent Moon , his series of sketchbooks , the Hokusai Manga , and his popularization of the landscape genre with Thirty @-@ six Views of Mount Fuji , which includes his best @-@ known print , The Great Wave off Kanagawa. one of the most famous works of Japanese art . In contrast to the work of the older masters , Hokusai 's colours were bold , flat , and abstract , and his subject was not the pleasure districts but the lives and environment of the common people at work . Established masters Eisen , Kuniyoshi , and Kunisada also followed Hokusai 's steps into landscape prints in the 1830s , producing prints with bold compositions and striking effects .
Though not often given the attention of their better @-@ known forebears , the Utagawa school produced a few masters in this declining period . The prolific Kunisada ( 1786 – 1865 ) had few rivals in the tradition of making portrait prints of courtesans and actors . One of those rivals was Eisen ( 1790 – 1848 ) , who was also adept at landscapes . Perhaps the last significant member of this late period , Kuniyoshi ( 1797 – 1861 ) tried his hand at a variety of themes and styles , much as Hokusai had . His historical scenes of warriors in violent combat were popular , especially his series of heroes from the Suikoden ( 1827 – 1830 ) and Chūshingura ( 1847 ) . He was adept at landscapes and satirical scenes — the latter an area rarely explored in the dictatorial atmosphere of the Edo era ; that Kuniyoshia could dare tackle such subjects was a sign of the weakening of the Shogunate at the time .
Hiroshige ( 1797 – 1858 ) is considered Hokusai 's greatest rival in stature . He specialized in pictures of birds and flowers , and serene landscapes , and is best known for his travel series , such as The Fifty @-@ three Stations of the Tōkaidō and The Sixty @-@ nine Stations of the Kiso Kaidō , the latter a cooperative effort with Eisen . His work was more realistic , subtly coloured , and atmospheric than Hokusai 's ; nature and the seasons were key elements : mist , rain , snow , and moonlight were prominent parts of his compositions . Hiroshige 's followers , including adopted son Hiroshige II and son @-@ in @-@ law Hiroshige III , carried on their master 's style of landscapes into the Meiji era .
Masters of the late period
= = = Decline ( late 19th century ) = = =
Following the deaths of Hokusai and Hiroshige and the Meiji Restoration of 1868 , ukiyo @-@ e suffered a sharp decline in quantity and quality . The rapid Westernization of the Meiji period that followed saw woodblock printing turn its services to journalism , and face competition from photography . Practitioners of pure ukiyo @-@ e became more rare , and tastes turned away from a genre seen as a remnant of an obsolescent era . Artists continued to produce occasional notable works , but by the 1890s the tradition was moribund .
Synthetic pigments imported from Germany began to replace traditional organic ones in the mid @-@ 19th century . Many prints from this era made extensive use of a bright red , and were called aka @-@ e ( " red pictures " ) . Artists such as Yoshitoshi ( 1839 – 1892 ) led a trend in the 1860s of gruesome scenes of murders and ghosts , monsters and supernatural beings , and legendary Japanese and Chinese heroes . His One Hundred Aspects of the Moon ( 1885 – 1892 ) depicts a variety of fantastic and mundane themes with a moon motif . Kiyochika ( 1847 – 1915 ) is known for his prints documenting the rapid modernization of Tokyo , such as the introduction of railways , and his depictions of Japan 's wars with China and with Russia . Earlier a painter of the Kanō school , in the 1870s Chikanobu ( 1838 – 1912 ) turned to prints , particularly of the imperial family and scenes of Western influence on Japanese life in the Meiji period .
Meiji @-@ era ukiyo @-@ e
= = = Introduction to the West = = =
Aside from Dutch traders , who had had trading relations dating to the beginning of the Edo period , Westerners paid little notice to Japanese art before the mid @-@ 19th century , and when they did they rarely distinguished it from other art from the East . Swedish naturalist Carl Peter Thunberg spent a year in the Dutch trading settlement Dejima , near Nagasaki , and was one of the earliest Westerners to collect Japanese prints . The export of ukiyo @-@ e thereafter slowly grew , and at the beginning of the 19th century Dutch merchant @-@ trader Isaac Titsingh 's collection drew the attention of connoisseurs of art in Paris .
The arrival in Edo of American Commodore Matthew Perry in 1853 led to the Convention of Kanagawa in 1854 , which opened Japan to the outside world after over two centuries of seclusion . Ukiyo @-@ e prints were amongst the items he brought back to the United States . Such prints had appeared in Paris from at least the 1830s , and by the 1850s were numerous ; reception was mixed , and even when praised ukiyo @-@ e was generally thought inferior to Western works which emphasized mastery of naturalistic perspective and anatomy . Japanese art drew notice at the International Exhibition of 1867 in Paris , and became fashionable in France and England in the 1870s and 1880s . The prints of Hokusai and Hiroshige played a prominent role in shaping Western perceptions of Japanese art . At the time of their introduction to the West , woodblock printing was the most common mass medium in Japan , and the Japanese considered it of little lasting value .
Early Europeans promoters and scholars of ukiyo @-@ e and Japanese art included writer Edmond de Goncourt and art critic Philippe Burty , who coined the term " Japonism " . Stores selling Japanese goods opened , including those of Édouard Desoye in 1862 and art dealer Siegfried Bing in 1875 . From 1888 to 1891 Bing published the magazine Artistic Japan in English , French , and German editions , and curated an ukiyo @-@ e exhibition at the École des Beaux @-@ Arts in 1890 attended by artists such as Mary Cassatt .
American Ernest Fenollosa was the earliest Western devotee of Japanese culture , and did much to promote Japanese art — Hokusai 's works featured prominently at his inaugural exhibition as first curator of Japanese art Museum of Fine Arts in Boston , and in Tokyo in 1898 he curated the first ukiyo @-@ e exhibition in Japan . By the end of the 19th century , the popularity of ukiyo @-@ e in the West drove prices beyond the means of most collectors — some , such as Degas , traded their own paintings for such prints . Tadamasa Hayashi was a prominent Paris @-@ based dealer of respected tastes whose Tokyo office was responsible for evaluating and exporting large quantities of ukiyo @-@ e prints to the West in such quantities that Japanese critics later accused him of siphoning Japan of its national treasure . The drain first went unnoticed in Japan , as Japanese artists were immersing themselves in the classical painting techniques of the West .
Japanese art , and particularly ukiyo @-@ e prints , came to influence Western art from the time of the early Impressionists . Early painter @-@ collectors incorporated Japanese themes and compositional techniques into their works as early as the 1860s : the patterned wallpapers and rugs in Manet 's paintings were inspired by ukiyo @-@ e 's patterned kimonos , and Whistler focused his attention on ephemeral elements of nature as in ukiyo @-@ e landscapes . Van Gogh was an avid collector , and painted copies in oil of prints by Hiroshige and Eisen . Degas and Cassatt depicted fleeting , everyday moments in Japanese @-@ influenced compositions and perspectives . Ukiyo @-@ e 's flat perspective and unmodulated colours were a particular influence on graphic designers and poster makers . Toulouse @-@ Lautrec 's lithographs displayed his interest not only in ukiyo @-@ e 's flat colours and outlined forms , but also in their subject matter : performers and prostitutes . He signed much of this work with his initials in a circle , imitating the seals on Japanese prints . Other artists of the time who drew influence from ukiyo @-@ e include Monet , La Farge , Gauguin , and Les Nabis members such as Bonnard and Vuillard . French composer Claude Debussy drew inspiration for his music from the prints of Hokusai and Horoshige , most prominently in La mer ( 1905 ) . Imagist poets such as Amy Lowell and Ezra Pound found inspiration in ukiyo @-@ e prints ; Lowell published a book of poetry called Pictures of the Floating World ( 1919 ) on oriental themes or in an oriental style .
Ukiyo @-@ e influence on Western art
= = = Daughter traditions ( 20th century ) = = =
The travel sketchbook became a popular genre beginning about 1905 , as the Meiji government promoted travel within Japan to have citizens better know their country . In 1915 , publisher Shōzaburō Watanabe introduced the term shin @-@ hanga ( " new prints " ) to describe a style of prints he published that featured traditional Japanese subject matter and were aimed at foreign and upscale Japanese audiences . Prominent artists included Goyō Hashiguchi , called the " Utamaro of the Taishō period " for his manner of depicting women ; Shinsui Itō , who brought more modern sensibilities to images of women ; and Hasui Kawase , who made modern landscapes . Watanabe also published works by non @-@ Japanese artists , an early success of which was a set of Indian- and Japanese @-@ themed prints in 1916 by the English Charles W. Bartlett ( 1860 – 1940 ) . Other publishers followed Watanabe 's success , and some shin @-@ hanga artists such as Goyō and Hiroshi Yoshida set up studios to publish their own work .
Artists of the sōsaku @-@ hanga ( " creative prints " ) movement took control of every aspect of the printmaking process — design , carving , and printing were by the same pair of hands . Kanae Yamamoto ( 1882 – 1946 ) , then a student at the Tokyo School of Fine Arts , is credited with the birth of this approach . In 1904 he produced Fisherman using woodblock printing , a technique until then frowned upon by the Japanese art establishment as old @-@ fashioned and for its association with commercial mass production . The foundation of the Japanese Woodcut Artists ' Association in 1918 marks the beginning of this approach as a movement . The movement favoured individuality in its artists , and as such has no dominant themes or styles . Works ranged from the entirely abstract ones of Kōshirō Onchi ( 1891 – 1955 ) to the traditional figurative depictions of Japanese scenes of Un 'ichi Hiratsuka ( 1895 – 1997 ) . These artists produced prints not because they hoped to reach a mass audience , but as a creative end in itself , and did not restrict their print media to the woodblock of traditional ukiyo @-@ e .
Prints from the late @-@ 20th and 21st centuries have evolved from the concerns of earlier movements , especially the sōsaku @-@ hanga movement 's emphasis on individual expression . Screen printing , etching , mezzotint , mixed media , and other Western methods have joined traditional woodcutting amongst the printmaker 's techniques .
Descendents of ukiyo @-@ e
= = Style = =
Early ukiyo @-@ e artists brought with them a sophisticated knowledge of and training in the composition principles of classical Chinese painting ; gradually these artists shed the overt Chinese influence to develop a native Japanese idiom . The early ukiyo @-@ e artists have been called " Primitives " in the sense that the print medium was a new challenge to which they adapted these centuries @-@ old techniques — their image designs are not considered " primitive " . Many ukiyo @-@ e artists received training from teachers of the Kanō and other painterly schools .
A defining feature of most ukiyo @-@ e prints is a well @-@ defined , bold , flat line . The earliest prints were monochromatic , and these lines were the only printed element ; even with the advent of colour this characteristic line continued to dominate . In ukiyo @-@ e composition forms are arranged in flat spaces with figures typically in a single plane of depth . Attention was drawn to vertical and horizontal relationships , as well as details such as lines , shapes , and patterns such as those on clothing . Compositions were often asymmetrical , and the viewpoint was often from unusual angles , such as from above . Elements of images were often cropped , giving the composition a spontaneous feel . In colour prints , contours of most colour areas are sharply defined , usually by the linework . The aesthetic of flat areas of colour contrasts with the modulated colours expected in Western traditions and with other prominent contemporary traditions in Japanese art patronized by the upper class , such as in the subtle monochrome ink brushstrokes of zenga brush painting or tonal colours of the Kanō school of painting .
The colourful , ostentatious , and complex patterns , concern with changing fashions , and tense , dynamic poses and compositions in ukiyo @-@ e are in striking contrast with many concepts in traditional Japanese aesthetics . Prominent amongst these , wabi @-@ sabi favours simplicity , asymmetry , and imperfection , with evidence of the passage of time ; and shibui values subtlety , humility , and restraint . Ukiyo @-@ e can be less at odds with aesthetic concepts such as the racy , urbane stylishness of iki .
Ukiyo @-@ e displays an unusual approach to graphical perspective , one that can appear underdeveloped when compared to European paintings of the same period . Western @-@ style geometrical perspective was known in Japan — practised most prominently by the Akita ranga painters of the 1770s — as were Chinese methods to create a sense of depth using a homogeny of parallel lines . The techniques sometimes appeared together in ukiyo @-@ e works , geometrical perspective providing an illusion of depth in the background and the more expressive Chinese perspective in the fore . The techniques were most likely learned at first through Chinese Western @-@ style paintings rather than directly from Western works . Long after becoming familiar with these techniques , artists continued to harmonize them with traditional methods according to their compositional and expressive needs . Other ways of indicating depth included the Chinese tripartite composition method used in Buddhist pictures , where a large form is placed in the foreground , a smaller in the midground , and yet a smaller in the background ; this can be seen in Hokusai 's Great Wave , with a large boat in the foreground , a smaller behind it , and a small Mt Fuji behind them .
There was a tendency since early ukiyo @-@ e to pose beauties in what art historian Midori Wakakura called a " serpentine posture " , which involves the subjects ' bodies twisting unnaturally while facing behind themselves . Art historian Motoaki Kōno posited that this had its roots in traditional buyō dance ; Haruo Suwa countered that the poses were artistic licence taken by ukiyo @-@ e artists , causing a seemingly relaxed pose to reach unnatural or impossible physical extremes . This remained the case even when realistic perspective techniques were applied to other sections of the composition .
= = = Themes and genres = = =
Typical subjects were female beauties ( " ' bijin @-@ ga ' " ) , kabuki actors ( " ' yakusha @-@ e ' " ) , and landscapes . The women depicted were most often courtesans and geisha at leisure , and promoted the entertainments to be found in the pleasure districts . The detail with which artists depicted courtesans ' fashions and hairstyles allows the prints to be dated with some reliability . Less attention was given to accuracy of the women 's physical features , which followed the day 's pictorial fashions — the faces stereotyped , the bodies tall and lanky in one generation and petite in another . Portraits of celebrities were much in demand , in particular those from the kabuki and sumo worlds , two of the most popular entertainments of the era . While the landscape has come to define ukiyo @-@ e for many Westerners , landscapes flourished relatively late in the ukiyo @-@ e 's history .
Ukiyo @-@ e prints grew out of book illustration — many of Moronobu 's earliest single @-@ page prints were originally pages from books he had illustrated . E @-@ hon books of illustrations were popular and continued be an important outlet for ukiyo @-@ e artists . In the late period , Hokusai produced the three @-@ volume One Hundred Views of Mount Fuji and the fifteen @-@ volume Hokusai Manga , the latter a compendium of over 4000 sketches of a wide variety of realistic and fantastic subjects .
Traditional Japanese religions do not consider sex or pornography a moral corruption in the Judaeo @-@ Christian sense , and until the changing morals of the Meiji era led to its suppression , shunga erotic prints were a major genre . While the Tokugawa regime subjected Japan to strict censorship laws , pornography was not considered an important offense and generally met with the censors ' approval . Many of these prints displayed a high level a draughtsmanship , and often humour , in their explicit depictions of bedroom scenes , voyeurs , and oversized anatomy . As with depictions of courtesans , these images were closely tied to entertainments of the pleasure quarters . Nearly every ukiyo @-@ e master produced shunga at some point . Records of societal acceptance of shunga are absent , though Timon Screech posits that there were almost certainly some concerns over the matter , and that its level of acceptability has been exaggerated by later collectors , especially in the West .
Scenes from nature have been an important part of Asian art throughout history . Artists have closely studied the correct forms and anatomy of plants and animals , even though depictions of human anatomy remained more fanciful until modern times . Ukiyo @-@ e nature prints are called ' ' kachō @-@ e ' ' , or " flower @-@ and @-@ bird pictures " , though the genre was open to more than just flowers or birds , and the flowers and birds did not necessarily appear together . Hokusai 's detailed , precise nature prints are credited with establishing kachō @-@ e as a genre .
The Tenpō Reforms of the 1840s suppressed the depiction of actors and courtesans . Aside from landscapes and kachō @-@ e , artists turned to depictions of historical scenes , such as of ancient warriors or of scenes from legend , literature , and religion . The 11th @-@ century Tale of Genji and the 13th @-@ century Tale of the Heike have been sources of artistic inspiration throughout Japanese history , including in ukiyo @-@ e . Well @-@ known warriors and swordsmen such as Miyamoto Musashi ( 1584 – 1645 ) were frequent subjects , as were depictions of monsters , the supernatural , and heroes of Japanese and Chinese mythology .
From the 17th to 19th centuries Japan isolated itself from the rest of the world . Trade , primarily with the Dutch and Chinese , was restricted to the island of Dejima near Nagasaki . Outlandish pictures called Nagasaki @-@ e were sold to tourists of the foreigners and their wares . In the mid @-@ 19th century , Yokohama became the primary foreign settlement after 1859 , from which Western knowledge proliferated in Japan . Especially from 1858 to 1862 Yokohama @-@ e prints documented , with various levels of fact and fancy , the growing community of world denizens with whom the Japanese were now coming in contact ; triptychs of scenes of Westerners and their technology and technology were particularly popular .
Specialized prints included surimono , deluxe , limited @-@ edition prints aimed at connoisseurs , of which a five @-@ line kyōka poem was usually part of the design ; and uchiwa @-@ e printed hand fans , which often suffer from having been handled .
Ukiyo @-@ e genres
= = Production = =
= = = Paintings = = =
Ukiyo @-@ e artists often made both prints and paintings ; some specialized in one or the other . In contrast with previous traditions , ukiyo @-@ e painters favoured bright , sharp colours , and often delineated contours with sumi ink , an effect similar to the linework in prints . Unrestricted by the technical limitations of printing , a wider range of techniques , pigments , and surfaces were available to the painter . Artists painted with pigments made from mineral or organic substances , such as safflower , ground shells , lead , and cinnabar , and later synthetic dyes imported from the West such as Paris Green and Prussian Blue . Silk or paper kakemono hanging scrolls , makimono handscrolls , or byōbu folding screens were the most common surfaces .
Ukiyo @-@ e paintings
= = = Print production = = =
Ukiyo @-@ e prints were the works of teams of artisans in several workshops ; it was rare for designers to cut their own woodblocks . Labour was divided into four groups : the publisher , who commissioned , promoted , and distributed the prints ; the artists , who provided the design image ; the woodcarvers , who prepared the woodblocks for printing ; and the printers , who made impressions of the woodblocks on paper . Normally only the names of the artist and publisher were credited on the finished print .
Ukiyo @-@ e prints were impressed on hand @-@ made paper manually , rather than by mechanical press as in the West . The artist provided an ink drawing on thin paper , which was pasted to a block of cherry wood and rubbed with oil until the upper layers of paper could be pulled away , leaving a translucent layer of paper that the block @-@ cutter could use as a guide . The block @-@ cutter cut away the non @-@ black areas of the image , leaving raised areas that were inked to leave an impression . The original drawing was destroyed in the process .
Prints were made with blocks face up so the printer could vary pressure for different effects , and watch as paper absorbed the water @-@ based sumi ink , applied quickly in even horizontal strokes . Amongst the printer 's tricks were embossing of the image , achieved by pressing an uninked woodblock on the paper to achieve effects , such as the textures of clothing patterns or fishing net . Other effects included burnishing by rubbing with agate to brighten colours ; varnishing ; overprinting ; dusting with metal or mica ; and sprays to imitate falling snow .
The ukiyo @-@ e print was a commercial art form , and the publisher played an important role . Publishing was highly competitive ; over a thousand publishers are known from throughout the period . The number peaked at around 250 in the 1840s and 1850s — 200 in Edo alone — and slowly shrank following the opening of Japan until about 40 remained at the opening of the 20th century . The publishers owned the woodblocks and copyrights , and from the late 18th century enforced copyrights through the Picture Book and Print Publishers Guild . Prints that went through several pressings were particularly profitable , as the publisher could reuse the woodblocks without further payment to the artist or woodblock cutter . The woodblocks were also traded or sold to other publishers or pawnshops . Publishers were usually also vendors , and commonly sold each other 's wares in their shops . In addition to the artist 's seal , publishers marked the prints with their own seals — some a simple logo , others quite elaborate , incorporating an address or other information .
Print designers went through apprenticeship before being granted the right to produce prints of their own that they could sign with their own names . Young designers could be expected to cover part or all of the costs of cutting the woodblocks . As the artists gained fame publishers usually covered these costs , and artists could demand higher fees .
In pre @-@ modern Japan , people could go by numerous names throughout their lives , their childhood yōmyō personal name different from their zokumyō name as an adult . An artist 's name consisted of a gasei artist surname followed by an azana personal art name . The gasei was most frequently taken from the school the artist belonged to , such as Utagawa or Torii , and the azana normally took a Chinese character from the master 's art name — for example , many students of Toyokuni ( 豊国 ) took the " kuni " ( 国 ) from his name , including Kunisada ( 国貞 ) and Kuniyoshi ( 国芳 ) . The names artists signed to their works can be a source of confusion as they sometimes changed names through their careers ; Hokusai was an extreme case , using over a hundred names throughout his seventy @-@ year career .
The prints were mass @-@ marketed and by the mid @-@ 19th century total circulation of a print could run into the thousands . Retailers and travelling sellers promoted them at prices affordable to prosperous townspeople . In some cases the prints advertised kimono designs by the artist behind the print . From the second half of the 17th century , prints were frequently marketed as part of a series , each print stamped with the series name and the print 's number in that series . This proved a successful marketing technique , as collectors bought each new print in the series to keep their collections complete . By the 19th century , series such as Hiroshige 's Fifty @-@ three Stations of the Tōkaidō ran to dozens of prints .
Making ukiyo @-@ e prints
= = = = Colour print production = = = =
While colour printing in Japan dates to the 1640s , early ukiyo @-@ e prints used only black ink . Colour was sometimes added by hand , using a red lead ink in tan @-@ e prints , or later in a pink safflower ink in beni @-@ e prints . Colour printing arrived in books in the 1720s and in single @-@ sheet prints in the 1740s , with a different block and printing for each colour . Early colours were limited to pink and green ; techniques expanded over the following two decades to allow up to five colours . The mid @-@ 1760s brought full @-@ colour nishiki @-@ e prints made from ten or more woodblocks . To keep the blocks for each colour aligned correctly registration marks called kentō were placed on one corner and an adjacent side .
Printers first used natural colour dyes made from mineral or vegetable sources . The dyes had a translucent quality that allowed a variety of colours to be mixed from primary red , blue , and yellow pigments . In the 18th century , Prussian blue became popular , and was particularly prominent in the landscapes of Hokusai and Hiroshige , as was bokashi , where the printer produced gradations of colour or the blending of one colour into another . Cheaper and more consistent synthetic aniline dyes arrived from the West in 1864 . The colours were harsher and brighter than traditional pigments . The Meiji government promoted their use as part of broader policies of Westernization .
= = Criticism and historiography = =
Contemporary records of ukiyo @-@ e artists are rare . The most significant is the Ukiyo @-@ e Ruikō ( " Various Thoughts on Ukiyo @-@ e " ) , a collection of commentaries and artist biographies . Ōta Nanpo compiled the first , no @-@ longer @-@ extant version around 1790 . The work did not see print during the Edo era , but circulated in hand @-@ copied editions that were subject to numerous additions and alterations ; over 120 variants of the Ukiyo @-@ e Ruikō are known .
Before World War II , the predominant view of ukiyo @-@ e stressed the centrality of prints ; this viewpoint ascribes ukiyo @-@ e 's founding to Moronobu . Following the war , thinking turned to the importance of ukiyo @-@ e painting and making direct connections with 17th @-@ century Yamato @-@ e paintings ; this viewpoint sees Matabei as the genre 's originator , and is especially favoured in Japan . This view had become widespread among Japanese researchers by the 1930s , but the militaristic government of the time suppressed it , wanting to emphasize a division between the Yamato @-@ e scroll paintings associated with the court , and the prints associated with the sometimes anti @-@ authoritarian merchant class .
The earliest comprehensive historical and critical works on ukiyo @-@ e came from the West . Ernest Fenollosa was Professor of Philosophy at the Imperial University in Tokyo from 1878 , and was Commissioner of Fine Arts to the Japanese government from 1886 . His Masters of Ukioye of 1896 was the first comprehensive overview and set the stage for most later works with an approach to the history in terms of epochs : beginning with Matabei in a primitive age , it evolved towards a late @-@ 18th @-@ century golden age that began to decline with the advent of Utamaro , and had a brief revival with Hokusai and Hiroshige 's landscapes in the 1830s . Laurence Binyon , the Keeper of Oriental Prints and Drawings at the British Museum , wrote an account in Painting in the Far East in 1908 that was similar to Fenollosa 's , but placed Utamaro and Sharaku amongst the masters . Arthur Davison Ficke built on the works of Fenollosa and Binyon with a more comprehensive Chats on Japanese Prints in 1915 . James A. Michener 's The Floating World in 1954 broadly followed the chronologies of the earlier works , while dropping classifications into periods and recognizing the earlier artists not as primitives but as accomplished masters emerging from earlier painting traditions . For Michener and his sometime collaborator Richard Lane , ukiyo @-@ e began with Moronobu rather than Matabei . Lane 's Masters of the Japanese Print of 1962 maintained the approach of period divisions while placing ukiyo @-@ e firmly within the genealogy of Japanese art . The book acknowledges artists such as Yoshitoshi and Kiyochika as late masters .
Seiichirō Takahashi 's Traditional Woodblock Prints of Japan of 1964 placed ukiyo @-@ e artists in three periods : the first was a primitive period that included Harunobu , followed by a golden age of Kiyonaga , Utamaro , and Sharaku , and closed with a period of decline following the declaration beginning in the 1790s of strict sumptuary laws that dictated what could be depicted in artworks . The book nevertheless recognizes a larger number of masters from throughout this last period than earlier works had , and viewed ukiyo @-@ e painting as a revival of Yamato @-@ e painting . Tadashi Kobayshi further refined Takahashi 's analysis by identifying the decline as coinciding with the desperate attempts of the shogunate to hold on to power through the passing of draconian laws as its hold on the country continued to break down , culminating in the Meiji Restoration in 1868 .
Ukiyo @-@ e scholarship has tended to focus on the cataloguing of artists , an approach that lacks the rigour and originality that has come to be applied to art analysis in other areas . Such catalogues are numerous , but tend overwhelmingly to concentrate on a group of recognized geniuses . Little original research has been added to the early , foundational evaluations of ukiyo @-@ e and its artists , especially with regard to relatively minor artists . While the commercial nature of ukiyo @-@ e has always been acknowledged , evaluation of artists and their works has rested on the aesthetic preferences of connoisseurs and paid little heed to contemporary commercial success .
Standards for inclusion in the ukiyo @-@ e canon rapidly evolved in the early literature . Utamaro was particularly contentious , seen by Fenollosa and others as a degenerate symbol of ukiyo @-@ e 's decline ; Utamaro has since gained general acceptance as one of the form 's greatest masters . Artists of the 19th century such as Yoshitoshi were ignored or marginalized , attracting scholarly attention only towards the end of the 20th century . Works on late @-@ era Utagawa artists such as Kunisada and Kuniyoshi have revived some of the contemporary esteem these artists enjoyed . Many late works examine the social or other conditions behind the art , and are unconcerned with valuations that would place it in a period of decline .
Novelist Jun 'ichirō Tanizaki was critical of the superior attitude of Westerners who claimed a higher aestheticism in purporting to have discovered ukiyo @-@ e . He maintained that ukiyo @-@ e was merely the easiest form of Japanese art to understand from the perspective of Westerners values , and that Japanese of all social strata enjoyed ukiyo @-@ e , but that Confucian morals of the time kept them from freely discussing it , social mores that were violated by the West 's flaunting of the discovery .
Since the dawn of the 20th century historians of manga — Japanese comics and cartooning — have developed narratives connecting the art form to pre @-@ 20th @-@ century Japanese art . Particular emphasis falls on the Hokusai Manga as a precursor , though Hokusai 's book is not narrative , nor does the term manga originate with him . In English and other languages the word manga is used in the restrictive sense of " Japanese comics " or " Japanese @-@ style comics " , while in Japanese it indicates all forms of comics , cartooning , and caricature .
= = Collection and preservation = =
The ruling classes strictly limited the space permitted for the homes of the lower social classes ; the relatively small size of ukiyo @-@ e works was ideal for hanging in these homes . Little record of the patrons of ukiyo @-@ e paintings has survived . They sold for considerably higher prices than prints — up to many thousands of times more , and thus must have been purchased by the wealthy , likely merchants and perhaps some from the samurai class . Late @-@ era prints are the most numerous extant examples , as they were produced in the greatest quantities in the 19th century , and the older a print is the less chance it had of surviving . Ukiyo @-@ e was largely associated with Edo , and visitors to Edo often bought what they called azuma @-@ e ( " pictures of the Eastern capital " ) as souvenirs . Shops that sold them might specialize in products such as hand @-@ held fans , or offer a diverse selection .
The ukiyo @-@ e print market was highly diversified as it sold to a heterogeneous public , from dayworkers to wealthy merchants . Little concrete is known about production and consumption habits . Detailed records in Edo were kept in a wide variety of courtesans , actors , and sumo wrestlers , but no such records pertaining to ukiyo @-@ e remain — or perhaps ever existed . Determining what is understood about the demographics of ukiyo @-@ e consumption has required indirect means .
Determining at what prices prints sold is a challenge for experts , as records of hard figures are scanty and there was great variety in the production quality , size , supply and demand , and methods , which went through changes such as the introduction of full @-@ colour printing . How expensive prices can be considered is also difficult to determine as social and economic conditions were in flux throughout the period . In the 19th century , records survive of prints selling from as low as 16 mon to 100 mon for deluxe editions . Jun 'ichi Ōkubo suggests that prices in the 20s and 30s of mon were likely common for standard prints . As a loose comparison , a bowl of soba noodles in the early 19th century typically sold for 16 mon .
The dyes in ukiyo @-@ e prints are susceptible to fading when exposed even to low levels of light ; this makes long @-@ term display undesirable . The paper they are printed on deteriorates when it comes in contact with acidic materials , so storage boxes , folders , and mounts must be of neutral pH or alkaline . Prints should be regularly inspected for problems needing treatment , and stored at a relative humidity of 70 % or less to prevent fungal discolourations .
The paper and pigments in ukiyo @-@ e paintings are sensitive to light and seasonal changes in humidity . Mounts must be flexible , as the sheets can tear under sharp changes in humidity . In the Edo era , the sheets were mounted on long @-@ fibred paper and preserved scrolled up in plain paulownia boxes placed in another lacquer wooden box . In museum settings display times must be limited to prevent deterioration from exposure to light and environmental pollution . Scrolling causes concavities in the paper , and the unrolling and rerolling of the scrolls causes creasing . Ideal relative humidity for scrolls should be kept between 50 % and 60 % ; brittleness results from too dry a level .
Because ukiyo @-@ e prints were mass @-@ produced , collecting them presents considerations different from the collecting of paintings . There is wide variation in the condition , rarity , cost , and quality of extant prints . Prints may have stains , foxing , wormholes , tears , creases , or dogmarks , the colours may have faded , or they may have been retouched . Carvers may have altered the colours or composition of prints that went through multiple editions . When cut after printing , the paper may have been trimmed within the margin . Values of prints depend on a variety of factors , including the artist 's reputation , print condition , rarity , and whether it is an original pressing — even high @-@ quality later printings will fetch a fraction of the valuation of an original . As of 2009 , the record price for an ukiyo @-@ e print sold at auction was € 389 @,@ 000 for Sharaku 's portrait of kabuki actor Arashi Ryuzo .
Ukiyo @-@ e prints often went through multiple editions , sometimes with changes made to the blocks in later editions . Editions made from recut woodblocks also circulate , such as legitimate later reproductions , as well as pirate editions and other fakes . Takamizawa Enji ( 1870 – 1927 ) , a producer of ukiyo @-@ e reproductions , developed a method of recutting woodblocks to print fresh colour on faded originals , over which he used tobacco ash to make the fresh ink seem aged . These refreshed prints he resold as original printings . Amongst the defrauded collectors was American architect Frank Lloyd Wright , who brought 1 @,@ 500 Takamizawa prints with him from Japan to the US , some of which he had sold before the truth was discovered .
Ukiyo @-@ e artists are referred to in the Japanese style , the surname preceding the personal name , and well @-@ known artists such as Utamaro and Hokusai by personal name alone . Dealers normally refer to ukiyo @-@ e prints by the names of the standard sizes , most commonly the 34 @.@ 5 @-@ by @-@ 22 @.@ 5 @-@ centimetre ( 13 @.@ 6 in × 8 @.@ 9 in ) aiban , the 22 @.@ 5 @-@ by @-@ 19 @-@ centimetre ( 8 @.@ 9 in × 7 @.@ 5 in ) chūban , and the 38 @-@ by @-@ 23 @-@ centimetre ( 15 @.@ 0 in × 9 @.@ 1 in ) ōban — precise sizes vary , and paper was often trimmed after printing .
Many of the largest high @-@ quality collections of ukiyo @-@ e lie outside Japan . Examples entered the collection of the National Library of France in the first half of the 19th century . The British Museum began a collection in 1860 that by the late 20th century numbered 70 @,@ 000 items . The largest , surpassing 100 @,@ 000 items , resides in the Museum of Fine Arts , Boston , begun when Ernest Fenollosa donated his collection in 1912 . The first exhibition in Japan of ukiyo @-@ e prints was likely one presented by Kōjirō Matsukata in 1925 , who amassed his collection in Paris during World War I and later donated it to the National Museum of Modern Art , Tokyo . The largest collection of ukiyo @-@ e in Japan is the 100 @,@ 000 pieces in the Japan Ukiyo @-@ e Museum in the city of Nagano .
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= Deepwater stingray =
The deepwater stingray or giant stingaree ( Plesiobatis daviesi ) is a species of stingray and the sole member of the family Plesiobatidae . It is widely distributed in the Indo @-@ Pacific , typically over fine sediments on the upper continental slope at depths of 275 – 680 m ( 900 – 2 @,@ 230 ft ) . This species reaches 2 @.@ 7 m ( 8 @.@ 9 ft ) in length and 1 @.@ 5 m ( 4 @.@ 9 ft ) in width . It has an oval pectoral fin disc with a long , flexible , broad @-@ angled snout . Most of the entire latter half of its tail supports a distinctively long , slender , leaf @-@ shaped caudal fin . Its coloration is dark above and white below , and its skin is almost completely covered by tiny dermal denticles .
Preying on crustaceans , cephalopods , and bony fishes , the deepwater stingray may hunt both on the sea floor and well above it in open water . It is probably aplacental viviparous , with the mother supplying her gestating young with histotroph ( " uterine milk " ) . Captured rays merit caution due to their long , venomous stings . This species is taken by deepwater commercial fisheries , but in numbers too small to significantly threaten its population . Therefore , the International Union for Conservation of Nature has assessed it as Least Concern .
= = Taxonomy and phylogeny = =
The first scientific description of the deepwater stingray was authored by John H. Wallace , as part of a 1967 Investigational Report from the Oceanographic Research Institute , Durban . He named the new species daviesi in honor of David H. Davies , the late director of the ORI , and placed it in the genus Urotrygon based on its long , low caudal fin and lack of a dorsal fin . The type specimens were collected during September 1996 near the Limpopo River mouth in Mozambique : the holotype is a mature male 92 cm ( 36 in ) across , and the paratype is an immature male 33 cm ( 13 in ) across . Other common names for this species include Davies ' stingray and giant stingray .
In a 1990 morphological phylogenetic study , Kiyonori Nishida concluded that the deepwater stingray and the sixgill stingray ( Hexatrygon bickelli ) were the most basal stingrays ( suborder Myliobatoidei ) . Therefore , he moved this species to its own genus , Plesiobatis , and family , Plesiobatidae ; the name is derived from the Greek plesio ( " primitive " ) and batis ( " ray " ) . Subsequent morphological studies have corroborated the basal position of Plesiobatis , but disagreed on its relationships to nearby taxa . John McEachran , Katherine Dunn , and Tsutomu Miyake in 1996 could not fully resolve the position of Plesiobatis , thus they assigned it provisionally to the family Hexatrygonidae . McEachran and Neil Aschliman in 2004 found Plesiobatis to be the sister taxon of Urolophus , and recommended that it be placed in the family Urolophidae . Until the phylogeny is better @-@ resolved , authors have tended to preserve the family Plesiobatidae .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
Records of the deepwater stingray come from a number of locations scattered widely in the Indo @-@ Pacific : KwaZulu @-@ Natal in South Africa and Mozambique , the Gulf of Mannar , the northern Andaman Islands , the South China Sea , the Ryukyu Islands and the Kyushu @-@ Palau Ridge , along the southern coastline of Australia , northwestern Australia from the Rowley Shoals to Shark Bay , northeastern Australia from Townsville to Wooli , New Caledonia , and Hawaii . This bottom @-@ dwelling species generally inhabits the upper continental slope at depths of 275 – 680 m ( 900 – 2 @,@ 230 ft ) , over muddy or silty substrates . An anomalous record from only 44 m ( 144 ft ) deep off Mozambique was made . It seems to be locally common in tropical Australian waters , but may be rarer elsewhere .
= = Description = =
The deepwater stingray has a flabby body , with enlarged pectoral fins forming a disc usually longer than it is wide . The leading margins of the disc converge at a broad angle . The snout is thin and measures over six times as long as the diameter of the orbit ; the snout tip protrudes slightly from the disc . The small eyes are positioned just ahead of the spiracles , which have angular posterior rims . The large , circular nostrils are placed closed to the mouth , to which they are connected by a pair of broad grooves . Between the nostrils is a broad curtain of skin with a strongly fringed posterior margin . The wide , straight mouth contains 32 – 60 tooth rows in either jaw , increasing in number with age . Each tooth is small with a low , blunt cusp ; in adult males the teeth at the center are sharp and backward @-@ pointing . The five pairs of gill slits are small and placed beneath the disc .
The pelvic fins are small and have blunt outer corners . The moderately thick tail measures 93 – 102 % as long as the disc and lacks lateral skin folds and dorsal fins . One or two serrated stinging spines are present atop the tail , just ahead of the halfway point . The slender caudal fin originates a short distance behind the sting ; it is symmetrical above and below , and terminates in a rounded leaf @-@ like shape . The skin is densely covered by fine dermal denticles , that become sparse to absent on the pelvic fins , towards the ventral disc margin , and around the mouth . The deepwater stingray is purplish brown to blackish above ; some rays also have irregular darker blotches and spots . The underside is white , with a narrow dark border along the lateral disc margins . The tail is entirely dark , and the caudal fin is black . This large species grows up to 2 @.@ 7 m ( 8 @.@ 9 ft ) long , 1 @.@ 5 m ( 4 @.@ 9 ft ) across , and 118 kg ( 260 lb ) in weight off southern Africa , though it is not known to exceed 2 @.@ 0 m ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) long off Australia .
= = Biology and ecology = =
The diet of the deepwater stingray consists of cephalopods , crustaceans ( including penaeid prawns , crabs , and lobsters ) , and bony fishes ( including eels ) . Its long , flexible snout is well @-@ suited for rooting through sediment , while the presence of mesopelagic species in its diet suggest that it may also hunt well above the sea floor . One recorded individual was found severely gouged by kitefin sharks ( Dalatias licha ) , which are capable of excising plugs of flesh , cookiecutter @-@ like , from larger animals . The deepwater stingray is presumed to be similar to other stingrays in being aplacental viviparous , and having the developing embryos nourished by maternally produced histotroph ( " uterine milk " ) . Given its large size and deepwater habits , it is probably not highly prolific , with a small litter size and a long gestation period . The young are apparently born at close to 50 cm ( 20 in ) long , as evidenced by the capture of a free @-@ living specimen of that size that still bore a yolk sac scar . Males and females mature sexually at 1 @.@ 3 – 1 @.@ 7 m ( 4 @.@ 3 – 5 @.@ 6 ft ) and 1 @.@ 9 – 2 @.@ 0 m ( 6 @.@ 2 – 6 @.@ 6 ft ) long respectively . The maximum size , and likely also the maturation size , varies between geographic regions .
= = Human interactions = =
When captured , the deepwater stingray flails its powerful tail violently , and its long , venomous sting can inflict a serious injury to a fishery worker . It is caught incidentally by deepwater bottom trawls and longlines ; the meat may be sold but is poorly regarded . None of the deepwater commercial fisheries operating within its range ( including those off South Africa , Taiwan , Indonesia and Australia ) are extensive , and thus only small numbers of deepwater stingrays are landed . As a result , the International Union for Conservation of Nature has determined this species to be minimally threatened by human activity , and listed it under least concern . However , should deepwater fisheries expand in the future , it may be susceptible to depletion due to its probable rarity and low reproductive rate .
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= Paper Mario =
Paper Mario , known in Japanese as Mario Story ( マリオストーリー , Mario Sutōrī ) and originally known as Super Mario RPG 2 , is a role @-@ playing video game developed by Intelligent Systems and published by Nintendo for the Nintendo 64 game console . It was first released in Japan on August 11 , 2000 , in North America on February 5 , 2001 , and in Europe and Australia on October 5 , 2001 . Paper Mario was re @-@ released for Nintendo 's Wii Virtual Console in July 2007 as well as Wii U Virtual Console in 2015 .
Paper Mario is set in the Mushroom Kingdom as the protagonist Mario tries to rescue Princess Peach from Bowser , who has imprisoned the seven " Star Spirits " , lifted her castle into the sky and has successfully defeated his foe after stealing the Star Rod from Star Haven and making himself invulnerable to any attacks . To save Mushroom Kingdom , rescue Peach , get the castle back , and defeat Bowser , Mario must locate the Star Spirits , who can negate the effects of the stolen Star Rod , by defeating Bowser 's minions guarding the star spirits . The player controls Mario and a number of partners to solve puzzles in the game 's overworld and defeat enemies in a turn @-@ based battle system . The battles are unique in that the player can influence the effectiveness of attacks by performing required controller inputs known as " action commands " .
Paper Mario is the second Mario role @-@ playing game to be released ( following Super Mario RPG ) and is the first installment for the Paper Mario series . Paper Mario is the predecessor to the GameCube game Paper Mario : The Thousand @-@ Year Door , the Wii game Super Paper Mario , the 3DS game Paper Mario : Sticker Star and the Wii U game Paper Mario : Color Splash . The game received a positive reaction from the media , attaining an aggregate score of 88 % from Game Rankings and 93 % from Metacritic . It was rated the 63rd best game made on a Nintendo system in Nintendo Power 's " Top 200 Games " list in 2006 .
= = Gameplay = =
Paper Mario combines traditional role @-@ playing game ( RPG ) elements with concepts and features from the Mario series . For the majority of the game , the player controls Mario , who can jump and use his hammer to overcome physical obstacles placed in the game 's overworld . Many of the game 's puzzles and boundaries are based upon the abilities of Mario 's partners , who each have a specialised skill required for progression in the game . The player accumulates partners as they advance into different locations ; only one partner can accompany Mario in the overworld , although the player can interchange them at any time . These characters also assist Mario in the game 's turn @-@ based battles , where damage inflicted against them results in temporary paralysis as the characters do not have individual HP statistics . Attacks in the game are similar to those in traditional RPGs , although the player can influence the power of a move when attacking or defending by timing a button @-@ press accurately or performing some other action command as required . Mario and his partners have a finite capacity to perform special moves , with each of these consuming a particular number of flower points ( FP ) when performed . Such statistics can be increased by earning Star Points ( experience points ) in combat to level up . There is also an on @-@ screen gauge to display Star Energy , which is required to perform another type of move that accumulate in number as the player advances through the game . The player can locate hidden battle upgrades in the game 's overworld , which promotes one partner character to a new rank at a time .
Progression through Paper Mario depends upon interaction with the game 's non @-@ player characters ( NPCs ) , who will often offer clues or detail the next event in the storyline . As in other RPGs , the player can find or purchase items from NPCs to help in and outside of combat . Badges can also be obtained that yield bonuses ranging from added moves to gradual health restoration during combat ; each consumes a set number of Badge Points ( BP ) , meaning Mario can only equip a limited number of badges at a time . Princess Peach is playable at particular points in the game as a recurring sidequest . The objectives and actions of each transition to Peach vary , although most are stealth @-@ based .
= = Plot and setting = =
The game is set in the Mushroom Kingdom , beginning as Mario and Luigi are relaxing in their house when the mail arrives with a letter , which turns out to be an invitation from Peach to a party . Mario and Luigi then head to the castle , and as Mario is about to have some quiet time with Peach , her castle is suddenly lifted by Bowser 's fortress . After his invasion and victory over Mario , the attached fortress serves as the location for playable side quests of the kidnapped Peach . In the main quest , Mario tries to retrieve all of the 7 imprisoned Star Spirits on land , where most of the locations are linked to the central Toad Town , which acts as the game 's hub area . The story 's main conflict arises when Bowser invades Star Haven , the residence for the Star Spirits , and steals the Star Rod .
= = = Story and characters = = =
The game 's story centers on Mario as he tries to reclaim the seven Star Spirits , who have been incarcerated in playing cards by Bowser and his assistant , Kammy Koopa . Their combined power is required to negate the effects of the Star Rod , which makes Bowser invincible . Once Mario rescues all of them , he uses their assistance to defeat Bowser and rescue Peach . The story is presented in the context of a novel , with each adventure involving the rescue of a Star Spirit denoted as a single chapter . Peach is playable between chapters , where she allies with a star kid named Twink in the castle to relay vital information to Mario regarding his quest .
Mario allies with eight partners in total , each of whom represents a different type of enemy from the Mario series . These allies are :
Goombario ( Kurio ( クリオ ) ) a Goomba , who has the ability to tell the player about any character , any environment , and any enemy .
Kooper ( Kameki ( カメキ ) ) a Koopa Troopa , with the ability to throw his shell at otherwise unreachable objects .
Bombette ( Pinky ( ピンキー , Pinkī ) ) a Bob @-@ omb , with the ability to blow up weak parts of walls .
Parakarry ( Paretta ( パレッタ ) ) a Paratroopa , with the ability to help Mario cross gaps too large to jump across .
Lady Bow ( Resaresa ( レサレサ ) ) a Boo , with the ability to make Mario become invisible and transparent .
Watt ( Akarin ( アカリン ) ) a Li 'l Sparky , with the ability to light up rooms ( also , the only ally in the game with the ability to penetrate an enemy 's defenses ) and to see hidden objects .
Sushie ( Opuku ( おプク ) ) a Cheep @-@ Cheep , with the ability to allow Mario to swim .
Lakilester ( Pokopī ( ポコピー , Pokopī ) ) a Lakitu , with the ability to allow Mario to traverse dangerous environments , such as spikes and lava .
After Peach 's castle is sent back to the ground and Mario defeats Bowser , he recounts his tale to Luigi , who had remained at home while Mario went on the adventure . Peach throws a huge party to honor Mario and his allies for saving the entire kingdom , which is then followed by a parade during the credits . In the end , Mario and Peach exit their parade float and gaze up the sky , seeing fireworks . This part will not end until the player turns off the console . When restarted , the file will restart from the last save .
= = Development = =
Paper Mario was developed by Intelligent Systems . Kumiko Takeda and Kaori Aoki wrote the game 's script , while Naohiko Aoyama was the art director responsible for the game 's distinctive graphical style . The game was initially called Super Mario RPG 2 , and was first revealed at Nintendo Space World ' 97 , a former video game trade show hosted by Nintendo . Critics compared the game 's 2D character style to PaRappa the Rapper . Shigeru Miyamoto , who consulted on the project , stated that the game was being developed with amateur gamers in mind . He had earlier revealed at E3 that around twenty developers were actively involved with the project . Paper Mario was re @-@ released on the Wii Virtual Console in 2007 , and the Wii U Virtual Console in 2015 . The game was also released for the iQue Player in 2004 .
= = = Music = = =
The game 's soundtrack was first released in Japan on September 21 , 2000 , with the game 's original title by Enterbrain , and distributed by the magazine Famitsu . It was followed in the United States a few months later as a Nintendo Power exclusive with the illustration from the international game cover . It included both the original music to the game , as well as sound effects , in 78 tracks on two discs . All of the game 's compositions were written by Yuka Tsujiyoko , with reprise arrangement of previous Super Mario themes by Koji Kondo . The game 's other event and sound effects music were composed by Taishi Senda . The game 's music mostly received positive reviews , with Lucas M. Thomas of IGN.com describing it as " vividly appointed with catchy , expressive tunes and comical audio cues . "
= = Reception and legacy = =
Paper Mario received critical acclaim . IGN 's Matt Casamassina praised the game 's accessibility , commenting that " it serves as the perfect introductory game to any person hoping to explore the genre " . Nonetheless , other reviewers complained about the " brain @-@ dead easy " puzzles and bosses requiring " basic strategy at best " . The game 's nostalgic value was lauded , with reviewers noting the sense of familiarity with the Mario series present in the game 's settings and characters . The game has often been compared to the previous Mario RPG title , Super Mario RPG . Eurogamer 's Tom Bramwell judged that " Paper Mario is a vastly superior game to SMRPG " , while IGN compared the game 's simple plot unfavourably with the SNES game and RPGFan claimed that some of Paper Mario 's story was copied from it . RPGFan also questioned the name of Paper Mario , as there were , in their opinion , insufficient gameplay features or aspects which used the paper theme to justify the name .
Critics lauded the game 's blend of RPG and platforming aspects . GameSpot noted the " exciting and somewhat strategic " battle system , which requires the player exploit the enemies ' weak points . The " refreshing " action command features was praised in particular for adding originality to a battle formula that was present in many games of the same genre . IGN claimed the game was " the best RPG for Nintendo 64 " , calling it " fantastically deep , intuitively designed , and wonderfully rewarding " . Despite this , enemy design itself was bemoaned for being " corny and generic " , with notable exceptions to some of the Paper Mario 's original boss characters . Eurogamer noted how " Of the various characters you meet , none is of less importance than any other " , welcoming the partner characters and their relating puzzles . GameSpot praised the game 's use of humour and side quests , with references to the control of Peach in particular .
The reaction to the game 's visuals was generally positive . IGN noted some paper @-@ based visual effects such as when Mario folds in a bed to sleep , but complained about character zoom @-@ ins , which revealed " a pixelated mass of colors " . Although reviewers claimed that the novel graphical style was initially confusing , most welcomed the style eventually , with GameSpot claiming that it was " extremely well done " . The audio was also mainly praised , although reviewers criticised the lack of voice acting and character @-@ specific sound effects . RPGFan were particularly critical of the game 's " generic filler music " , despite enjoying use of multiple songs simultaneously .
The game was also well received upon release for the Virtual Console , with IGN 's Lucas M. Thomas stating " it 's held up very well even placed into context against its GameCube and Wii era sequels , and it 's an RPG for goodness sakes " . Paper Mario also proved popular on the Virtual Console , reaching a high of " second most downloaded game " in the US in August 2007 .
Paper Mario was the top selling game in Japan on the week of its release , selling more than 276 @,@ 000 copies , and the top @-@ selling game for two weeks in other regions . It was ranked # 141 on Electronic Gaming Monthly 's " Greatest 200 Videogames of their Time " in February 2006 , the 63rd best game made on a Nintendo system in Nintendo Power 's " Top 200 Games " list , and the 13th greatest Nintendo 64 game of all time by the same magazine . It currently ranks as the sixth @-@ highest scoring Nintendo 64 game on Metacritic , the ninth highest rated video game of 2001 , and the highest @-@ scoring Nintendo 64 game released that year .
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= 1885 Navy Midshipmen football team =
The 1885 Navy Midshipmen football team represented the United States Naval Academy in the 1885 college football season . The team was the fourth intercollegiate football squad to represent the United States Naval Academy , and marked the first time that the school played a multiple @-@ game season . The squad was captained by halfback Cornelius Billings . The year began with a blowout victory over St. John 's College , but was followed by close losses to Johns Hopkins University and the Princeton Tigers reserves squad . The season continued a seven @-@ season , eight game rivalry between the Naval Academy and Johns Hopkins , and began a ten @-@ game , seven @-@ year rivalry with St. John 's .
= = Prelude = =
According to Ellsworth P. Bertholf 's biographer C. Douglas Kroll , the first evidence of a form of football at the United States Naval Academy came in 1857 , but the school 's cadets lost interest in the game shortly afterward . The Naval Academy 's first ever football team was fielded in 1879 . The squad was entirely student @-@ operated , receiving no official support from Naval Academy officials . The team was entirely funded by its members and their fellow students . The 1879 team participated in just one game , which resulted in a scoreless tie . It was played against the Baltimore Athletic Club , apparently on the Academy superintendent 's cow pasture . Navy would not field a football team in 1880 or 1881 , due to the lack of support from officials . When football returned to the academy in 1882 , the squad was led by player @-@ coach Vaulx Carter , and won 8 – 0 in a match with Johns Hopkins , starting a seven @-@ year rivalry between the schools . The 1883 season resulted in Navy 's first ever loss , a 2 – 0 defeat by Johns Hopkins . Navy returned the favor the following year , defeating Hopkins in a close 9 – 6 game .
= = Schedule = =
= = Season summary = =
The Naval Academy scheduled three games for the 1885 season , breaking from the tradition of playing only Johns Hopkins . According to Morris Allison Bealle , " Football at Annapolis had shed its swaddling clothes when the autumn of 1885 rolled around . Some of the faculty actually gave in and admitted that football might , at that , be or become an interesting diversion " so the squad was allowed to schedule three games . The first was played against St. John 's College , also located in Annapolis . The game kicked off a brief rivalry with St. John 's , which would conclude in 1911 with Navy winning eighteen of twenty @-@ one contests . The 1885 match was a 46 – 10 blowout victory over St. John 's . The second game of the season was the annual Thanksgiving Day match against Johns Hopkins . After winning the previous year , Navy fell to Johns Hopkins 12 – 8 . The season concluded with the Naval Academy challenging the Princeton freshman team , a game which ended in a 10 – 0 shutout loss for Navy .
= = Players = =
The 1885 Naval Academy team was made up of thirteen players at four different positions . The squad consisted of seven rushers , two fullback , three halfbacks , and a quarterback :
= = Postseason and aftermath = =
The first postseason college football game would not be played until 1902 , with the Pasadena Tournament of Roses ' establishment of the east – west tournament game , later known as the Rose Bowl . The Midshipmen would not participate in their first Rose Bowl until the 1923 season , when they went 5 – 1 – 2 and tied with the Washington Huskies 14 – 14 in the match . As a result of the lack of a competition , there were no postseason games played after the 1885 season . According to statistics compiled by Billingsly , Houlgate , the National Championship Foundation , Parke Davis , and the Helms Athletic Foundation , Princeton was declared the 1885 season champion .
The 1885 season brought Navy 's overall win – loss record to an even 3 – 3 – 1 . It also brought the Academy 's record against Johns Hopkins to 2 – 2 tie . The season marked the first time a team for the Naval Academy would play a multiple @-@ game season . In 1886 , their schedule was expanded from three games to five , and continued to grow through subsequent years . It was the worst single @-@ season record for the Academy until 1888 , when they went 1 – 4 . Navy would finish the 1880s with four winning seasons , and an overall record of 14 – 12 – 2 . The school would outscore their opponents 292 – 231 , and would finish the 19th century with an overall record of 54 – 19 – 3 .
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= Nasodigitoacoustic syndrome =
Nasodigitoacoustic syndrome , also called Keipert syndrome , is a rare congenital syndrome first described by J.A. Keipert and colleagues in 1973 . The syndrome is characterized by a mishaped nose , broad thumbs and halluces ( the big toes ) , brachydactyly , sensorineural hearing loss , facial features such as hypertelorism ( unusually wide @-@ set eyes ) , and developmental delay . It is believed to be inherited in an X @-@ linked recessive manner , which means a genetic mutation causing the disorder is located on the X chromosome , and while two copies of the mutated gene must be inherited for a female to be born with the disorder , just one copy is sufficient to cause a male to be born with the disorder . Nasodigitoacoustic syndrome is likely caused by a mutated gene located on the X chromosome between positions Xq22.2 – q28 . The incidence of the syndrome has not been determined , but it is considered to affect less than 200 @,@ 000 people in the United States , and no greater than 1 per 2 @,@ 000 in Europe . It is similar to Keutel , Muenke , Rubinstein and Teunissen @-@ Cremers syndrome .
= = Characteristics = =
Nasodigitoacoustic syndrome is congenital and is characterized by a number of nasal , facial and cranial features . These include a broad and high , sometimes depressed nasal bridge ( top of the nose , between the eyes ) and a flattened nasal tip . This can give the nose a shortened , arch @-@ like appearance . Hypertelorism ( unusually wide @-@ set eyes ) , prominent frontal bones and supraorbital ridge ( the eyebrow ridge ) , bilateral epicanthic folds ( an extra flap of skin over the eyelids ) , a broad forehead and an overall enlarged head circumference have also been observed . A bulging of the upper lip with an exaggerated cupid 's bow shape , and maxillary hypoplasia ( underdevelopment of the upper jaw ) with retraction have also been reported .
Several anomalies affecting the digits ( fingers and toes ) have been observed with the syndrome . A broadening of the thumbs and big toes ( halluces ) was reported in two brothers . The broadening was apparent in all distal phalanges of the fingers , although the pinkies were unaffected yet appeared to be clinodactylic ( warped , or bent toward the other fingers ) . Additional eports described this broadness of the thumbs and big toes , with brachydactyly ( shortness ) in the distal phalanges of the other digits except the pinkies in affected individuals . On X @-@ rays of a two @-@ year @-@ old boy with the disorder , the brachydactyly was shown to be caused by shortening of epiphyses ( joint @-@ ends ) of the distal phalanges . The broadness and brachydactyly of the big toes in particular may give them a stunted , rounded and stub @-@ like appearance .
The auditory , or " acoustic " abnormalities observed with the syndrome include sensorineural hearing loss and hoarseness . Two affected Turkish brothers with a mild form of this hearing loss , and a hoarse voice were reported . A laryngoscopic examination of both brothers revealed swelling of the vocal cords , and a malformed epiglottis . Sensorineural @-@ associated hearing impairment and hoarsness was also observed in a 10 @-@ year @-@ old girl and her father , and in a number of other cases .
Other characteristics seen with the syndrome include developmental delay , growth retardation , pulmonary stenosis ( an obstruction of blood @-@ flow from the right ventricle of the heart to the pulmonary artery ) with associated dyspnea ( shortness of breath ) , and renal agenesis ( failure of the kidneys to develop during the fetal period ) . Undescended testes , hyperactivity and aggressive behavior have also been noted .
= = Genetics = =
Nasodigitoacoustic syndrome is thought to be caused by a mutation in a gene on the X chromosome . A 2007 study concluded , based on analysis of microsatellite markers ( small gene sequences found in common among individuals having the same ethnicity , ancestry or genetic disease ) of the family described by Keipert , that this gene was likely located on the long arm of the X chromosome between positions Xq22.2 – q28 . This is not definitive , however , and no specific gene has been named .
The syndrome is strongly believed to be inherited in an X @-@ linked recessive manner . When a female carries a mutated gene on one of her two copies of the X chromosome , there is a 50 % chance of passing the mutation on to her children . Much like her , a daughter inheriting this mutation will be a carrier , but will not herself have the associated disease . However , a son who inherits the mutation will have the disease ; this is because males have only one copy of the X chromosome and therefore could only express the disease mutation .
This form of inheritance for Nasodigitoacoustic syndrome is not yet absolute , though , as a girl has been reported with the disorder . It is suggested that further analysis is needed for the inheritance to be formally established .
= = Diagnosis = =
The constellation of anomalies seen with Nasodigitoacoustic syndrome result in a distinct diagnosis . The diagnostic criteria for the disorder are broad distal phalanges of the thumbs and big toes , accompanied by a broad and shortened nose , sensorineural hearing loss and developmental delay , with predominant occurrence in males .
= = = Classification = = =
Nasodigitoacoustic syndrome is similar to several syndromes that share its features . Brachydactyly of the distal phalanges , sensorineural deafness and pulmonary stenosis are common with Keutel syndrome . In Muenke syndrome , developmental delay , distal brachydactyly and sensorineural hearing loss are reported ; features of Teunissen @-@ Cremers syndrome include nasal aberrations and broadness of the thumbs and big toes , also with brachydactyly . Broad thumbs and big toes are primary characteristics of Rubinstein syndrome .
= = Management = =
A number of features found with Nasodigitoacoustic syndrome can be managed or treated . Sensorineural hearing loss in humans may be caused by a loss of hair cells ( sensory receptors in the inner ear that are associated with hearing ) . This can be hereditary and / or within a syndrome , as is the case with nasodigitoacoustic syndrome , or attributed to infections such as viruses . For the management of sensorineural hearing loss , hearing aids have been used . Treatments , depending upon the cause and severity , may include a pharmacological approach ( i.e. , the use of certain steroids ) , or surgical intervention , like a cochlear implant .
Pulmonary , or pulmonic stenosis is an often congenital narrowing of the pulmonary valve ; it can be present in nasodigitoacoustic @-@ affected infants . Treatment of this cardiac abnormality can require surgery , or non @-@ surgical procedures like balloon valvuloplasty ( widening the valve with a balloon catheter ) .
= = History and epidemiology = =
The syndrome was initially described in 1973 by James A. Keipert and associates . They reported of two brothers with broad distal phalanges , sensorineural hearing loss , and facial features consistent with what would become known as Keipert or " nasodigitoacoustic " syndrome . Although no specific rate of incidence has been determined , the syndrome is considered a rare disease by both the Office of Rare Diseases ( ORDR ) at the National Institutes of Health , and Orphanet . This suggests , respectively , that Nasodigitoacoustic syndrome affects less than 200 @,@ 000 people in the U.S. , or affects no greater than 1 per 2 @,@ 000 people in Europe .
= = Publications = =
Gorlin , R. J. ; Toriello , H. V. ; Cohen , M. M. ( 1995 ) . Hereditary hearing loss and its syndromes . U. S. : Oxford University Press. pp. 208 – 209 . Retrieved April 21 , 2011 .
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= Geri and Freki =
In Norse mythology , Geri and Freki ( Old Norse , both meaning " the ravenous " or " greedy one " ) are two wolves which are said to accompany the god Odin . They are attested in the Poetic Edda , a collection of epic poetry compiled in the 13th century from earlier traditional sources , in the Prose Edda , written in the 13th century by Snorri Sturluson , and in the poetry of skalds . The pair has been compared to similar figures found in Greek , Roman and Vedic mythology , and may also be connected to beliefs surrounding the Germanic " wolf @-@ warrior bands " , the Úlfhéðnar .
= = Etymology = =
The names Geri and Freki have been interpreted as meaning either " the greedy one " or " the ravenous one " . The name Geri can be traced back to the Proto @-@ Germanic adjective * geraz , attested in Burgundian girs , Old Norse gerr and Old High German ger or giri , all of which mean " greedy " . The name Freki can be traced back to the Proto @-@ Germanic adjective * frekaz , attested in Gothic faihu @-@ friks " covetous , avaricious " , Old Norse frekr " greedy " , Old English frec " desirous , greedy , gluttonous , audacious " and Old High German freh " greedy " . John Lindow interprets both Old Norse names as nominalized adjectives . Bruce Lincoln further traces Geri back to a Proto @-@ Indo @-@ European stem * gher- , which is the same as that found in Garmr , a name referring to the hound closely associated with the events of Ragnarök .
= = Attestations = =
In the Poetic Edda poem Grímnismál , the god Odin ( disguised as Grímnir ) provides the young Agnarr with information about Odin 's companions . Agnarr is told that Odin feeds Geri and Freki while the god himself consumes only wine :
The pair is also alluded to via the kenning " Viðrir 's ( Odin 's ) hounds " in Helgakviða Hundingsbana I , verse 13 , where it is related that they roam the field " greedy for the corpses of those who have fallen in battle " .
In the Prose Edda book Gylfaginning ( chapter 38 ) , the enthroned figure of High explains that Odin gives all of the food on his table to his wolves Geri and Freki and that Odin requires no food , for wine is to him both meat and drink . High then quotes the above @-@ mentioned stanza from the poem Grímnismál in support . In chapter 75 of the Prose Edda book Skáldskaparmál a list of names for wargs and wolves is provided that includes both Geri and Freki .
In skaldic poetry Geri and Freki are used as common nouns for " wolf " in chapter 58 of Skáldskaparmál ( quoted in works by the skalds Þjóðólfr of Hvinir and Egill Skallagrímsson ) and Geri is again used as a common noun for " wolf " in chapter 64 of the Prose Edda book Háttatal . Geri is referenced in kennings for " blood " in chapter 58 of Skáldskaparmál ( " Geri 's ales " in a work by the skald Þórðr Sjáreksson ) and in for " carrion " in chapter 60 ( " Geri 's morsel " in a work by the skald Einarr Skúlason ) . Freki is also used in a kenning for " carrion " ( " Freki 's meal " ) in a work by Þórðr Sjáreksson in chapter 58 of Skáldskaparmál .
= = Archaeological record = =
If the rider on horseback on the image on the Böksta Runestone has been correctly identified as Odin , then Geri and Freki are shown taking part in hunting an elk or moose .
= = Theories = =
Freki is also a name applied to the monstrous wolf Fenrir in the Poetic Edda poem Völuspá . Folklorist John Lindow sees irony in the fact that Odin feeds one Freki at his dinner table and another — Fenrir — with his flesh during the events of Ragnarök .
Historian Michael Spiedel connects Geri and Freki with archaeological finds depicting figures wearing wolf @-@ pelts and frequently found wolf @-@ related names among the Germanic peoples , including Wulfhroc ( " Wolf @-@ Frock " ) , Wolfhetan ( " Wolf @-@ Hide " ) , Isangrim ( " Grey @-@ Mask " ) , Scrutolf ( " Garb @-@ Wolf " ) and Wolfgang ( " Wolf @-@ Gait " ) , Wolfdregil ( " Wolf @-@ Runner " ) , and Vulfolaic ( " Wolf @-@ Dancer " ) and myths regarding wolf warriors from Norse mythology ( such as the Úlfhéðnar ) . Spiegel believes this to point to the pan @-@ Germanic wolf @-@ warrior band cult centered on Odin that waned away after Christianization .
Scholars have also noted Indo @-@ European parallels to the wolves Geri and Freki as companions of a divinity . 19th century scholar Jacob Grimm observed a connection between this aspect of Odin 's character and the Greek Apollo , to whom both the wolf and the raven are sacred . Philologist Maurice Bloomfield further connected the pair with the two dogs of Yama in Vedic mythology , and saw them as a Germanic counterpart to a more general and widespread Indo @-@ European " Cerberus " -theme . Michael Speidel finds similar parallels in the Vedic Rudra and the Roman Mars . Elaborating on the connection between wolves and figures of great power , he writes : " This is why Geri and Freki , the wolves at Woden 's side , also glowered on the throne of the Anglo @-@ Saxon kings . Wolf @-@ warriors , like Geri and Freki , were not mere animals but mythical beings : as Woden 's followers they bodied forth his might , and so did wolf @-@ warriors . "
Bernd Heinrich theorizes that Geri and Freki , along with Odin and his ravens Huginn and Muninn , reflect a symbiosis observed in the natural world among ravens , wolves , and humans on the hunt :
In a biological symbiosis one organism typically shores up some weakness or deficiency of the other ( s ) . As in such a symbiosis , Odin the father of all humans and gods , though in human form was imperfect by himself . As a separate entity he lacked depth perception ( being one @-@ eyed ) and he was apparently also uninformed and forgetful . But his weaknesses were compensated by his ravens , Hugin ( mind ) and Munin ( memory ) who were part of him . They perched on his shoulders and reconnoitered to the ends of the earth each day to return in the evening and tell him the news . He also had two wolves at his side , and the man / god @-@ raven @-@ wolf association was like one single organism in which the ravens were the eyes , mind , and memory , and the wolves the providers of meat and nourishment . As god , Odin was the ethereal part — he only drank wine and spoke only in poetry . I wondered if the Odin myth was a metaphor that playfully and poetically encapsulates ancient knowledge of our prehistoric past as hunters in association with two allies to produce a powerful hunting alliance . It would reflect a past that we have long forgotten and whose meaning has been obscured and badly frayed as we abandoned our hunting cultures to become herders and agriculturists , to whom ravens act as competitors .
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= Delaware Route 18 =
Delaware Route 18 ( DE 18 ) is a state highway located in Sussex County , Delaware . It runs from Maryland Route 318 ( MD 318 ) at the Maryland border east of Federalsburg , Maryland to U.S. Route 9 ( US 9 ) in Georgetown . DE 18 runs concurrent with DE 404 from its intersection with that highway southeast of Bridgeville to the eastern terminus , where DE 404 continues eastward to Five Points on US 9 . The route passes through rural areas of western Sussex County . What would become DE 18 was built as a state highway in stages during the 1920s and 1930s . By 1936 , DE 18 was designated to run from the Maryland border east through Georgetown to Lewes . In 1974 , the route east of Georgetown was replaced by US 9 and US 9 Business ( US 9 Bus . ) . DE 404 was designated along the eastern portion of DE 18 by 1987 .
= = Route description = =
DE 18 begins at the Maryland border , where it continues west into that state as MD 318 . From the state line , the route heads east on two @-@ lane undivided Federalsburg Road , passing through agricultural areas with some woods and homes . In Clarksons Crossroads , DE 18 turns southeast onto Cannon Road while Federalsburg Road continues northeast toward Bridgeville . The road continues to the community of Cannon , where it crosses Norfolk Southern 's Delmarva Secondary railroad line . East of Cannon , the route comes to an intersection with US 13 . Following this , DE 18 heads northeast through farm fields , reaching a junction with DE 404 .
At this point , DE 18 heads east concurrent with DE 404 along Seashore Highway , running through a mix of farmland and woodland with some residences , passing through tracts of the Redden State Forest . Farther east , DE 18 / DE 404 heads into Georgetown , running to the north of Delaware Technical Community College 's Jack F. Owens Campus . The road intersects US 113 and the western terminus of DE 404 Truck in a commercial area and continues east . The two routes head southeast onto North Bedford Street , passing homes and businesses . The road comes to an intersection with US 9 at The Circle in the center of Georgetown , where the Sussex County Courthouse is located . At this point , DE 18 ends and DE 404 continues east along US 9 .
DE 18 has an annual average daily traffic count ranging from a high of 12 @,@ 176 vehicles at the west end of Georgetown to a low of 2 @,@ 582 vehicles at the US 13 intersection . The portion of DE 18 concurrent with DE 404 is part of the National Highway System .
= = History = =
By 1920 , what would eventually become DE 18 was under contract as a state highway from southeast of Bridgeville to Georgetown and from Georgetown to Harbeson ; the remainder existed as an unimproved county road . The state highway was completed between Cannon and present @-@ day US 13 and from southeast of Bridgeville east to Lewes by 1924 , with the exception of a portion within Georgetown . The part of present @-@ day DE 18 west of Clarksons Crossroads was under proposal as a state highway by this time also . A year later , the portions of the route west of Clarksons Crossroads and within Georgetown were upgraded to state highway status . In 1927 , plans were made to replace the 1914 @-@ built county @-@ maintained bascule bridge over the Lewes and Rehoboth Canal in Lewes . Replacement of this bridge by the state was completed in 1929 . By 1931 , the state highway was finished between Clarksons Crossroads and Cannon . The portion of road from US 13 east to the current west end of the DE 404 concurrency was completed as a state highway a year later .
DE 18 was designated to run from the Maryland border west of Cannon east to Lewes Beach on the Delaware Bay by 1936 , following its current alignment east to Georgetown and continuing east through Gravel Hill , Harbeson , and Lewes . In 1974 , the eastern terminus of DE 18 was cut back to its current location in Georgetown , with an extended US 9 replacing the route between Georgetown and Five Points and US 9 Bus. replacing DE 18 from Five Points to Lewes . DE 404 was extended to run concurrent with DE 18 from east of Bridgevillle to Georgetown by 1987 .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Sussex County .
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= What Separates Me from You =
What Separates Me from You is the fourth studio album by American rock band A Day to Remember , and their third for Victory . Originally planned for release in late @-@ October 2010 , the album was delayed by a few weeks until mid @-@ November . The album , which was recorded mainly at The Wade Studios in Ocala , Florida , from May to July 2010 , was the first to feature guitarist Kevin Skaff . The album was produced mostly by Chad Gilbert , with help from Andrew Wade and the band 's vocalist , Jeremy McKinnon . " All I Want " was released as the first single . It reached number 12 on the U.S. Alternative Songs chart and number 25 on the Rock Songs chart .
The album debuted on the U.S. Billboard 200 at number 11 , and number 1 on several charts : Top Hard Rock Albums , Top Independent Albums , Top Modern Rock / Alternative Albums in the U.S. and the Rock Album Chart in the UK . The band played two songs from the album on their national TV debut in January 2011 , and then went on The Game Changers Tour to help promote the album ; shortly afterwards touring worldwide in support of the release . Two later singles off the album charted : " All Signs Point to Lauderdale " , released in May , reached number 32 on the Hot Modern Rock Tracks chart , and radio single " It 's Complicated " , released in October , peaked at number 34 on the same chart . What Separates Me from You was met with generally favorable reviews , with critics praising the album 's sound . The album was certified gold by the RIAA in March 2016 .
= = Background = =
While the band was touring Homesick ( 2009 ) , a line @-@ up change occurred when guitarist Tom Denney wanted to settle down . Four Letter Lie guitarist Kevin Skaff was added in his place ; Denney , however , was retained to work with the band behind the scenes . All of the songs for What Separates Me from You were written while the band were touring in 2009 and 2010 , and as early as March 2010 , vocalist Jeremy McKinnon stated that A Day to Remember already had " all of the pop / punk song ideas written [ ... ] And we 're then going to write five heavier songs " .
= = Music and lyrics = =
= = = Styles and amount of material = = =
Guitarist Neil Westfall said in a 2010 interview with Alter the Press ! : " We 've written a few jams , we 're always constantly writing , like I think we wrote some parts the other day . " Westfall also said once the band return home from touring , they were " going to drop everything and start writing and doing pre @-@ production full time . " At this point , the band had ten songs and were trying to condense them into five , then planning to write five more . Westfall said the band completed the final " few songs when we were back home with Tom ( Denney ) and Chad ( Gilbert ) . " On the pace of writing , McKinnon said : " It seems like a really fast thing that has happened but we 've been constantly working on it the entire time . " On the songs themselves , he said : " the pop @-@ punk stuff has a darker edge to it . I wrote it like that , it 's still pop @-@ punk but with a darker edge " . The album was influenced by Finch 's What It Is to Burn ( 2002 ) . The album " came together song by song " as McKinnon mentioned , with the band coming up with 15 – 16 song ideas . McKinnon stated in an interview with Rocksound that there 's songs " that didn 't make this record that we 're saving . " There is a track on the album that was previously written for Homesick .
When asked about how he comes up with song titles , McKinnon said : " I 've got my iPhone , and I go on my notes and every time I see something I like I write it down , so a lot of the time titles are something that mean something to us only , or to someone I know only . " He called What Separates Me from You " the slowest for stuff like that " , when referring to song titles . Westfall said that the album 's title and the songs ' subjects were about " Separating your self from your peers and really coming into your own . " McKinnon said What Separates Me from You was " a lot more personal and darker " than Homesick , and that it was " a natural progression of what we were doing " with " the same core " as the band 's preceding albums . Asked whether the album reached new heights , he said it " was definitely the next step " for the band . However , the band originally had no idea on how the album would turn out : " It was a little bit all over the place , because of me coming in , Tom [ Denney ] leaving and all this new stuff that was going on " , as stated by guitarist Kevin Skaff . Skaff said that McKinnon originally had a different name for the album that " he really wanted , but found it was actually the name of a Terror ( hardcore band ) album . "
= = = Tracks 1 – 5 = = =
It was important to the band that " Sticks & Bricks " opened the album , as it was an " in @-@ your @-@ face " song . McKinnon said in an interview with USAToday that the opening lyric ( " I am fueled by all forms of failure " ) was " 100 % directed at everyone who ever doubted our band " . He stated that it " is one of the meaner , heavier songs that we 've ever done as a band . " " All I Want " is " about being in a band " , according to McKinnon , and was one of the final songs written for the album . The song came about from an idea by McKinnon that he expanded on guitar in the middle of recording for the album , and wrote most of it in one night . A rough version was recorded between McKinnon and producer Chad Gilbert before the band had arrived at the studio . McKinnon said the song was more of a " singing version " of the band 's song " I 'm Made of Wax , Larry , What Are You Made Of ? " .
" It 's Complicated " was written while the band were abroad in Amsterdam ; the original version differed significantly from the final version . Andrew Wade flew out to the band in an attempt to work on the song immediately . " This Is the House That Doubt Built " was among one of the first to be written for the album , written almost in one sitting while McKinnon had his acoustic guitar with him , while the band was abroad . " 2nd Sucks " was about people who viewed being in a band as being a sort of competition .
= = = Tracks 6 – 10 = = =
" Better Off This Way " was one of the first written for the album , and re @-@ written " at least 3 different times " . The song was the final one finished for the album . The title for " All Signs Point to Lauderdale " came from an occasion when McKinnon and bassist Joshua Woodard were in a rough neighborhood in West Palm Beach , Florida . A piece of the song came from a recording session for Homesick when Gilbert said he had an idea for the melody , which McKinnon took a while to write over : " Chad had a cool idea , vocally , for something " . In an interview with PopCrush in 2011 , McKinnon said the song was when you get the " feeling like you 're stuck in a place that 's leading you nowhere " and " standing up for yourself and taking charge of your life . " " You Be Tails , I 'll Be Sonic " was written with the band 's former guitarist , Tom Denney ; the song was made up of several separate pieces from different song ideas , with a chorus McKinnon had re @-@ written 4 times .
Referring to " You Be Tails , I 'll Be Sonic " , Skaff said that the song 's title — a reference to Tails and Sonic from the video game series — had " really came out of nowhere . " McKinnon said the song is a " more personal song [ ... ] It discusses how the choices I 've made to put my best foot forward in my career , in a sense , have really done damage to my personal life . " Both " You Be Tails , I 'll Be Sonic " and " Out of Time " talk about " how I feel like I 'm doing what I want with my life , but I think , " Wow , I just did something that really affected me . " " " Out of Time " was also one of the first songs written for the album , and was written while the band was in Australia . McKinnon said the song was the most personal on the record . Skaff had a major hand in writing " If I Leave " . The song describes " different things you got through being on the road " and " a relationship ending when you 're not really around enough to actually take care of it in person . " On being asked whether he knew it would be the final song on the album , McKinnon said " It just felt right [ ... ] seemed like a good ending " .
= = Recording = =
Before showing the songs to the band , McKinnon and Skaff worked on them alone . When the pair had all of the song ideas , they worked on them as a full @-@ band , with pre @-@ production being undertaken in , as Skaff commented , " a makeshift studio " by Andrew Wade . Woodard commented that the band had " been going in from 11am until 9pm and all we do is sit around and play . " Between demoing the songs , and their final forms on the album , Woodard said " crazy things were happening – verses became choruses " , with Chad Gilbert assisting the band with arrangements and writing . As the band thought they were getting better as songwriters , Woodard stated , " it 's getting more heavy and more pop . " One song that the band recorded was " screwed up really bad and it didn 't make the record " , as Skaff comments , as the group recorded it at a fast pace and when McKinnon tried to " sing it was like rap music . [ imitates rap singing ] And we were like ' that 's not good ' . " Asked if the band would use it as a possible B @-@ side , Skaff said " its possible [ ... ] might use it for the next record or something like that . "
What Separates Me from You was recorded from May to July 23 , 2010 , in three locations , per the album booklet : The Wade Studios in Ocala , Florida , The Back of a Bus with No AC in Germany and A Closet in New Jersey , the latter of which being where the backing vocals for " All Signs Point to Lauderdale " were recorded . The album was mixed by David Bendeth and Dan Korneff , and produced by Gilbert with assistance by Wade and McKinnon . Wade also produced the band 's previous album , Homesick . It was the first album featuring Skaff on guitar , following Tom Denney 's departue after Homesick . " All I Want " , " It 's Complicated " , " This Is the House That Doubt Built " and " If I Leave " were mixed by Bendeth , while the rest of the album tracks were mixed by Korneff . Mastering for the album had taken place at Sterling Sound by Ted Jensen .
= = Release = =
In July 2010 , it was announced that the band would bring out the album in October . The album 's title and cover art were revealed by the band in a live video via Victory Record 's official website on September 21 . On the same day , the album was available for pre @-@ order . McKinnon later said in an interview that the album 's cover was meant " to be a little more serious . It has the vibe of a painting . " Featured on the album cover is the band 's ex @-@ guitarist Denney , video director Drew Russ , and producer Gilbert . A supposed track listing for the album was posted on the internet with mentions of guest appearances by Ed McRae and Florence Welch , from Your Demise and Florence and the Machine respectively . McKinnon said it wasn 't the true track list , then proceeded to post the actual track list on October 13 . On October 1 , the band held a contest , to tie in with the release of the album , where fans could win their catalog on vinyl and a signed copy of the album . The group released a short preview of new song " 2nd Sucks " on October 6 . On October 7 , the album 's first single , " All I Want " , was debuted on KROQ Radio . The single was officially released on October 12 . As the choice of a single , Westfall said " All I Want " " was a great transition song from Homesick " . On October 21 , a full version of " 2nd Sucks " was posted for streaming on Victory 's Facebook page .
Originally set for release on October 26 , 2010 , the album was delayed until November 15 in the UK and the proceeding day in the U.S. The album was leaked a few days prior to release . A listening party for the album was held at The Hard Rock Hotel in Chicago on November 15 for a small number of fans , which was followed by a Q & A session with the band . On January 6 , 2011 , the band released the music video for the single " All I Want " . The video , which was filmed back in October 2010 , features members from numerous musical groups . On January 11 , 2011 , the band made their national television debut while performing the songs " All I Want " and " Better Off This Way " on Jimmy Kimmel Live ! . Skaff recalled the TV performance as " fun " , calling Jimmy Kimmel " a good guy " , and " a great experience " to be on Kimmel 's show . Beginning in March , to help promote What Separates Me from You , the band went on The Game Changers Tour . The band performed over half of the new album while on The Game Changers tour . McKinnon commented : " The new songs live have worked great . "
On April 16 , 2011 , A Day to Remember released a special for Record Store Day , which was an exclusive limited edition 7 " vinyl of " All I Want " . " All Signs Point to Lauderdale " impacted radio on May 24 . The band filmed the music video for " All Signs Point to Lauderdale " in one day in Los Angeles when the group had a day @-@ off from touring ; it was released through MTV2 on June 7 . It was revealed in September that " It 's Complicated " would be released as the third single from the album on October 25 , though it was only released as a radio single . " 2nd Sucks " would become the band 's third music video off the album . A promotional CD of " This Is the House That Doubt Built " was released on December 19 . The band played an acoustic version of " It 's Complicated " for MTV on February 14 , 2012 . The music video for " 2nd Sucks " was released on February 27 , 2012 .
= = Further releases and song appearances = =
Vinyl editions were released on December 6 , 2010 . Several tracks from the album have appeared in MTV 's show Jersey Shore . Another vinyl pressing , this time on white vinyl , was released on December 27 . Two tracks were featured on various artist compilations : " All Signs Point to Lauderdale " on SideOneDummy 's Warped Tour 2011 Tour Compilation and " If I Leave " on the Victory compilation Victory Records 2012 New Music Sampler . Six of the album 's ten tracks are currently available on the Rock Band games : " 2nd Sucks " , " All I Want " , " All Signs Point to Lauderdale " , " Better Off This Way " , " Sticks & Bricks " , and " It 's Complicated " .
= = Reception = =
What Separates Me from You received generally favorable reviews . James Christopher Monger of Allmusic said , " [ It ] is whiney , petulant , immature , hopeless , and thoroughly addicting , as the ten songs contained within the gatefold packaging [ ... ] are as immaculately crafted and engaging as they are blindingly self @-@ absorbed . " Brendan Manley from Alternative Press wrote , " The vitriolic delivery seems sincere , but even if you don ’ t buy into all of the personal / emotional factors underpinning Separates ( smack @-@ talking the smack @-@ talkers / a recent , devastating breakup / assorted perils of touring ) , the album simply kills . " However , Christine Caruana of Loud Online said , " [ It ] is very much typical of its genre . Lyrics filled with standard teenage angst , fast , distorted guitars and heavy , yet boring , drum fills to imitate a metal sound . " While Dan Rankin of Blare Magazine said the album was " essentially just another fat kid on the already rusty trampoline that is this genre . " Brooke Daly of Tastemakers said that the album was one of the band 's " more solid releases " with less repetition than on Homesick . Despite " taking on a poppier sound " being risky in his opinion , the band managed to " pull it off " . Jacob Testa , for Mind Equals Blown , noted that he found himself " wanting to listen to it again and again " , saying that the album featured " a lot of creativity and maturation " .
The album peaked at number 11 on the U.S. Billboard 200 , becoming A Day to Remember 's personal best , as Homesick peaked at number 21 . The album also charted at number 1 on the UK Rock Album Chart , number 66 on the UK Albums Chart , number 24 on the ARIA Chart in Australia , and number 4 on the German Newcomer Chart . The album had sold 80 @,@ 000 copies as of December 2010 , with 152 @,@ 000 copies in the U.S. as of April 2011 , and 300 @,@ 000 copies by January 2013 . In March 2016 , What Separates Me from You was certified gold in the U.S. " All I Want " charted on both Billboard 's Hot Modern Rock Tracks and Rock Songs charts , at number 12 and number 25 , respectively .
The album was voted by fans as number 3 of Kill Your Stereo 's Album of the Year 2010 . Matt Heafy , frontman and guitarist of the metal band Trivium , listed the album as the 6th best album of 2010 . Trey Treman of Shadows Chasing Ghosts ranked the album one of his top 15 albums of 2010 . " All Signs Point to Lauderdale " charted on both of these charts , but at number 32 and number 48 , respectively . " All Signs Point to Lauderdale " was voted as number 10 in the " 10 Best Rock Songs of 2011 " by AOL Radio . " It 's Complicated " charted on the Hot Modern Rock Tracks chart , at number 34 .
= = Track listing = =
All lyrics written by Jeremy McKinnon , except " 2nd Sucks " .
= = Personnel = =
Personnel per booklet .
= = Chart positions and certifications = =
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= The Childhood of Jack Harkaway =
The Childhood Of Jack Harkaway is a 1910 American silent short drama produced by the Thanhouser Company . Adapted from S. Bracebridge Hemyng 's Jack Harkaway story series by Lloyd Lonergan , the film depicts the life of the title character . Given to the care of strangers after his birth , Jack grows up and is sent to a school at age 12 . After being severely and unjustly punished by the schoolmaster , Jack runs away and comes across two thieves plotting a robbery . Jack hurries to the house and warns the mistress of the planned robbery . The robbery is foiled and the lady of the house is very grateful , but Jack 's schoolmaster and his guardian arrive to take him back . She recognizes the guardian as the man who forced her to turn over Jack and turns them out of the house . The film 's cast and production credits are unknown . The film was released on December 23 , 1910 , it was met with favorable reviews and saw a wide national release . In 1988 , a severely deteriorated nitrate print of the film was known to exist and it was likely transferred to the Library of Congress archives in 1997 .
= = Plot = =
The film is not lost , but a modern synopsis has not been published . The official synopsis of the film was published in The Moving Picture World on December 24 , 1910 . It states : " Jack Harkaway is of aristocratic birth , being the son of a wealthy Englishman 's daughter and a poor young man , with whom she has eloped . Her parents bring about a separation and compel her to place the child in the hands of strangers , who are bribed to keep his whereabouts a secret from his mother . At the age of 12 Jack is placed in a school , the master of which is prejudiced against him , owing to the boy 's mischievous disposition . After having received severe and unjust punishment from the schoolmaster , Jack decides to run away from school , and escapes from the room in which he is locked , through the window . Wandering along a country road , he accidentally overhears two sneak thieves planning to rob a house . Jack makes his way to the house in time to warn its mistress of the proposed robbery . Two [ man ] servants are placed in hiding , when the would @-@ be thieves put in an appearance there and are immediately captured . Jack is given a fine supper by the lady of the house , who is very grateful to him . And when the schoolmaster , accompanied by Jack 's guardian , arrives , she is touched by the boy 's appeal not to be turned over to his rough @-@ looking ' friends . ' Upon getting a closer view of the man who calls himself the lad 's guardian , she realizes that he is the man to whom she was forced to give over her child . The man admits that Jack is her own boy , and the picture ends with the men being turned out of the house and Jack restored to his mother 's arms . "
= = Production = =
Lloyd Lonergan wrote the scenario based on S. Bracebridge Hemyng 's Jack Harkaway story series . Film historian Q. David Bowers states that it was based on a stage play based upon a series of boys ' stories , but does not cite a specific credit for which adaptation or work it was based on . Lonergan was an experienced newspaperman employed by The New York Evening World while writing scripts for the Thanhouser productions . The film director is unknown , but it may have been Barry O 'Neil or Lucius J. Henderson . Cameramen employed by the company during this era included Blair Smith , Carl Louis Gregory , and Alfred H. Moses , Jr. though none are specifically credited . The role of the cameraman was uncredited in 1910 productions . The cast credits are unknown , but many 1910 Thanhouser productions are fragmentary . In late 1910 , the Thanhouser company released a list of the important personalities in their films . The list includes G.W. Abbe , Justus D. Barnes , Frank H. Crane , Irene Crane , Marie Eline , Violet Heming , Martin J. Faust , Thomas Fortune , George Middleton , Grace Moore , John W. Noble , Anna Rosemond , Mrs. George Walters .
= = Release and reception = =
The single reel drama , approximately 1 @,@ 000 feet long , was released on December 23 , 1910 . The film had a wide national release , theaters which showed the film are noted in Indiana , Oklahoma , South Dakota , Missouri , Pennsylvania , and Arizona . Reviews of the film were mixed , with the The Moving Picture World describing the film as a " heart story which will interest because it presents more or less unpleasant possibilities of this character . The acting is well done , and the film will prove popular with most audiences . " The New York Dramatic Mirror reviewer found the film to be interesting , but stated that it " would have seemed more natural had [ Jack Harkaway 's mother ] not recognized [ Jack ] as her son until the appearance of [ his foster father ] , into whose care she had given her child . If two of the scenes had been broken it might have been more consistent . The men came up to plot their robbery too soon after Jack 's hiding . They also appeared in the house immediately after the plan laid to capture them . They surely would have seen the light and would not have ventured so soon . "
A surviving , but very deteriorated 35 mm nitrate print of the film was known to exist in 1988 . It was described as being in various states of decomposition throughout the entire reel , including severe shrinkage and brittle or torn perforations . This print is 925 feet long and was held by John E. Allen , Inc. though it is not specifically known if it transferred to the Library of Congress in 1997 .
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= Hurricane Linda ( 2015 ) =
Hurricane Linda was a strong tropical cyclone in September 2015 that resulted in heavy rains across portions of Mexico and the Southwestern United States . The seventeenth named storm and eleventh hurricane of the season , Linda developed southwest of Mexico from a low pressure area on September 5 . Under warm sea surface temperatures and low to moderate wind shear , the system intensified into Tropical Storm Linda by September 6 and a hurricane by the next day . A well @-@ defined eye soon formed within the storm 's central dense overcast and Linda reached its peak intensity as a 125 mph ( 205 km / h ) Category 3 major hurricane on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale on September 8 . Thereafter , the storm moved into a stable environment and an area of lower sea surface temperatures , causing rapid weakening . Convective activity dissipated and Linda degenerated into a remnant low on September 10 . The lingering system persisted southwest of Baja California , ultimately opening up into a trough on September 14 .
In Mexico , the storm brought rainfall to nine states , causing flooding , especially in Oaxaca , Sinaloa , and Zacatecas . In Oaxaca , mudslides resulted in the closure of multiple highways and damage to over a dozen homes . Flooding in Sinola affected approximately 1 @,@ 000 homes with hundreds damaged , prompting dozens of families to evacuate . Several small communities were temporarily isolated after flood waters covered bridges . Localized flooding in Zacatecas damaged crops and 25 dwellings ; damage reached approximately 500 @,@ 000 pesos ( US $ 30 @,@ 000 ) . Although Linda did not directly impact land , moisture from the storm was pulled northeast into the Southwestern United States and enhanced the local monsoon . Los Angeles received 2 @.@ 39 in ( 61 mm ) of rain , contributing to the city 's second wettest September on record . One fatality in the state occurred from a drowning at San Bernardino National Forest . Utah was impacted by major flash flooding incidents — with rainfall amounting to 1 @-@ in @-@ 100 year levels — which left 21 deaths in the state : 14 near Hildale and 7 in Zion National Park . Damage across the Southwest amounted to US $ 3 @.@ 7 million .
= = Meteorological history = =
A tropical wave emerged into the Atlantic Ocean from the west coast of Africa on August 21 . By four days later , the system spawned Tropical Storm Erika over the eastern Atlantic . The southern portion of the wave persisted westward and moved over Central America on August 30 . Shower and thunderstorm activity associated with the wave began to increase over the next few days as it crossed the Gulf of Tehuantepec . Convection was enhanced further on September 2 as a Kelvin wave interacted with the tropical wave , eventually resulting in the development of a broad low pressure area . Early the following day , the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) issued a Tropical Weather Outlook ( TWO ) for a cluster of clouds that showed signs of organizing into a tropical system . Wind shear was forecast to become more conducive for tropical cyclogenesis over the next few days . Although the shear remained moderately strong , the low acquired a well @-@ defined center of circulation by September 4 . Following further organization of deep convection , Tropical Depression Fifteen @-@ E developed at 18 : 00 UTC on September 5 while located about 490 mi ( 790 km ) southwest of Manzanillo , Colima .
Under the influence of a strong mid @-@ level ridge over northern Mexico , the depression moved northwestward into an area of moderate northeasterly vertical wind shear and warm sea surface temperatures . By 06 : 00 UTC on September 6 , the system strengthened into Tropical Storm Linda . Due to a decrease in wind shear , Linda began to undergo rapid deepening shortly thereafter . Between that day and early on September 7 , the storm increased in convective banding and developed central dense overcast ; satellite imagery also indicated that an eye was forming around that time . At 06 : 00 UTC on September 7 , Linda intensified into a Category 1 hurricane on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale . Just six hours later , the cyclone reached Category 2 status . Due to a slight increase in wind shear and possibly an intrusion from dry air , Linda temporarily remained steady in intensity while passing between Socorro Island and Clarion Island . Operationally , the NHC briefly downgraded Linda to a Category 1 hurricane at 0 : 300 UTC on September 8 , though post @-@ analysis concludes that the storm remained a Category 2 .
Strengthening resumed by early on September 8 , when the system became a Category 3 hurricane , which coincided with satellite imagery indicating a banded eye feature . Around 12 : 00 UTC , Linda attained its peak intensity with maximum sustained winds of 125 mph ( 205 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 950 mbar ( 28 inHg ) . Early on September 9 , the hurricane rapidly weakened after entering a region of slightly colder sea surface temperatures , falling to Category 2 by 06 : 00 UTC and to Category 1 intensity only six hours later . Around that time , Linda began encountering a dry , stable air mass and ocean temperature under 26 @.@ 0 ° C ( 78 @.@ 8 ° F ) . At 18 : 00 UTC on September 9 , the cyclone weakened to a tropical storm while also losing convective coverage . After the remaining showers and thunderstorms detached from the low @-@ level circulation , Linda transitioned into a post @-@ tropical cyclone around 12 : 00 UTC the following day while situated about 260 mi ( 415 km ) west @-@ southwest of Punta Eugenia , Baja California Sur . The remnants weakened over the next few days , until degenerating into a trough while still well west of Baja California on September 14 .
= = Impact and aftermath = =
= = = Mexico = = =
The outer bands of Linda brought rainfall to nine states across Mexico : Baja California , Baja California Sur , Colima , Jalisco , Nayarit , Sinaloa , Sonora and Zacatecas . Within Sinaloa , flooding affected the municipalities of Angostura , Culiacán , Mazatlán , Rosario , and Salvador Alvarado . Rainfall accumulations peaked at 7 @.@ 4 in ( 187 mm ) in Rosario . Flooding affected approximately 1 @,@ 000 homes in the state with hundreds damaged , prompting dozens of families to evacuate . Several small communities were temporarily isolated as flood waters covered bridges . Civil officials declared an emergency for the municipalities of Rosario and Salvador Alvarado in the wake of Linda . Scattered power outages occurred in Mazatlán city . Scattered thunderstorms in Oaxaca resulted in multiple landslides and flooding , prompting closure of several highways and damaging more than a dozen homes . Localized flooding attributed to Linda in Zacatecas damaged crops and 25 homes ; losses reached 500 @,@ 000 pesos ( US $ 30 @,@ 000 ) . Waves of 6 @.@ 6 to 9 @.@ 8 ft ( 2 to 3 m ) likely impacted coastal areas of Baja California , Baja California Sur , Sinaloa , and Sonora . Additionally , Linda passed roughly 100 mi ( 155 km ) west of Socorro Island on September 7 ; sustained winds reached 28 mph ( 45 km / h ) with gusts to 41 mph ( 66 km / h ) .
= = = United States = = =
= = = = California = = = =
Monsoonal moisture pulled north from Linda to produce thunderstorms across portions of California starting on September 10 . Flooding and rock slides prompted numerous road closures . One person drowned in the San Bernardino National Forest . Moisture from the hurricane 's remnants partially contributed to an enhanced monsoon across the Southwestern United States , combining with a seasonable upper @-@ level trough to bring above @-@ average rainfall to many areas . Strong winds from a thunderstorm on September 14 knocked five rail cars off their track , costing insurance companies $ 1 @.@ 4 million . On September 15 , Los Angeles received 2 @.@ 39 in ( 61 mm ) of rain , contributing to the city 's second @-@ wettest September day since records began in 1877 ― second only to September 25 , 1939 . Water penetration along State Route 91 in the city resulted in a 50 yd ( 46 m ) crack in the road . Rainfall of 1 to 2 in ( 25 to 51 mm ) was common around San Diego ; an underground parking lot in the Midway neighborhood was flooded . Flood @-@ related losses throughout the state reached $ 875 @,@ 000 .
= = = = Utah = = = =
After degenerating into a remnant low on September 10 , moisture associated with the former tropical cyclone spread across the Southwestern United States . Aided by above @-@ average water vapor levels and the aforementioned upper @-@ level trough , scattered thunderstorms developed across the region on September 14 . Two major incidents of flash flooding resulted in 21 deaths in Utah , the deadliest flash flood event in the state 's history . The previous deadliest event was on August 13 , 1923 , when seven people died near Farmington . Flash floods occur annually in Washington County , Utah , with an average of one to two flash flood days per year since 1950 .
During the afternoon of September 14 , two successive thunderstorms produced more than 2 in ( 51 mm ) of rain — a 1 @-@ in @-@ 100 year event — near Hildale , Utah in Washington County . The National Weather Service issued a strongly worded flash flood warning at 20 : 22 UTC ( 2 : 22 p.m. MDT ) for the area , stating " Move to higher ground now . Act quickly to protect your life " . The first storm resulted in a 3 @.@ 42 ft ( 1 @.@ 04 m ) rise along the Short Creek , as measured by a stream gauge in Colorado City , Arizona , in 19 minutes around 21 : 18 UTC ( 3 : 18 p.m. MDT ) , with residents gathering nearby to observe . Between 22 : 48 and 23 : 05 UTC ( 4 : 48 and 5 : 05 p.m. MDT ) , a second surge of water swept down the creek with the Colorado City gauge reporting a rise of 5 @.@ 36 ft ( 1 @.@ 63 m ) ; the gauge stopped reporting at 23 : 47 UTC ( 5 : 47 p.m. MDT ) . The second flood swept away two vehicles carrying a collective 16 people while they were observing the rising waters . Thirteen people were killed and three children were rescued . Six bodies were recovered in Utah and two in Arizona , 2 @.@ 5 mi ( 4 @.@ 0 km ) downstream . Other bodies were found up to 7 mi ( 11 km ) downstream .
Alongside the fatalities , the floods left several blocks of the town without power . Water lines , bridges , and other infrastructure sustained varying degrees of damage . Several homes sustained water and mud damage . Total losses in Washington County reached $ 750 @,@ 000 . Flooding continued downstream into Arizona , rendering multiple roads impassible and damaging bridges around Colorado City ; losses in the city amounted to $ 500 @,@ 000 . Around 150 federal personnel and 500 community volunteers , including 70 – 80 percent of Hildale 's residents , conducted search and rescue in the immediate aftermath . Twenty @-@ four members of Utah Task Force One and twenty @-@ six personnel from the Utah National Guard were dispatched to Hildale to assist in search and rescue along Short Creek . Dangerous conditions along the creek slowed the operation . By September 17 , 300 personnel were searching for a 6 @-@ year @-@ old boy who was still missing . Ultimately , thousands of people from more than 60 agencies took part in the search for the final victim ; efforts were called off by September 29 and the missing boy was presumed dead . Local residents continued periodic searches for the boy through December . The Utah Department of Public Safety granted the Public Safety Award to Washington County Sheriff Cory Pulsipher , Hildale Mayor Philip Barlow and , Hildale Marshall ’ s Office Chief Jeremiah Darger for their response coordination . Following the floods , the Washington County allocated $ 1 @.@ 6 million through the Natural Resources Conservation Service for repair costs and mitigation efforts for future floods . Of this total , $ 1 @.@ 5 million went to Hildale . The United States Department of Agriculture also provided $ 100 @,@ 000 through the Emergency Watershed Protection program .
The second flash flood incident occurred in Keyhole Canyon at Zion National Park after 0 @.@ 63 in ( 16 mm ) of rain fell between 22 : 30 and 23 : 30 UTC ( 4 : 30 and 5 : 30 p.m. MDT ) . For the two @-@ day period ending September 14 , the park saw 1 @.@ 89 in ( 48 mm ) of rain . The earlier flash flood warning prompted officials at the park to close all canyons by 21 : 30 UTC ( 3 : 30 p.m. MDT ) . A group of seven canyoneers entered Keyhole Canyon between 21 : 30 and 22 : 30 UTC ( 3 : 30 and 4 : 30 p.m. MDT ) . Flow along the Virgin River dramatically increased following the rains , with the river 's North Fork experiencing a rise from 55 ft3 ( 1 @.@ 5 m3 ) per second to 2 @,@ 630 ft3 ( 74 @.@ 5 m3 ) per second in just 15 minutes . All seven people were swept away by the ensuing flood and died . Rescue operations were launched that evening ; however , dangerous conditions in the canyons resulted in the search being held off until the following day . The bodies of the canyoneers were discovered miles apart along Clear Creek and Pine Creek .
Elsewhere , a man from Hurricane , Utah , 15 mi ( 24 km ) west of Hildale , died on September 14 after being swept away by floods while traveling remote dirt roads . His vehicle was discovered in Mohave County , Arizona on September 17 about 7 mi ( 11 km ) south of the Arizona – Utah border and his body was found a further 6 mi ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) away the following day . In Utah County , Utah , the rain resulted in traffic accidents and mudslides , including several at American Fork Canyon that shut down parts of State Route 92 and State Route 144 . Scattered thunderstorms caused sporadic damage across Arizona , leaving $ 205 @,@ 000 in losses .
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= Georg Forster =
Johann Georg Adam Forster ( German pronunciation : [ ˈɡeːɔʁk ˈfɔʁstɐ ] ; November 27 , 1754 – January 10 , 1794 ) was a naturalist , ethnologist , travel writer , journalist , and revolutionary . At an early age , he accompanied his father , Johann Reinhold Forster , on several scientific expeditions , including James Cook 's second voyage to the Pacific . His report of that journey , A Voyage Round the World , contributed significantly to the ethnology of the people of Polynesia and remains a respected work . As a result of the report , Forster was admitted to the Royal Society at the early age of twenty @-@ two and came to be considered one of the founders of modern scientific travel literature .
After returning to continental Europe , Forster turned toward academia . He traveled to Paris to seek out a discussion with the American revolutionary Benjamin Franklin in 1777 . He taught natural history at the Collegium Carolinum in the Ottoneum , Kassel ( 1778 – 84 ) , and later at the Academy of Vilna ( Vilnius University ) ( 1784 – 87 ) . In 1788 , he became head librarian at the University of Mainz . Most of his scientific work during this time consisted of essays on botany and ethnology , but he also prefaced and translated many books about travel and exploration , including a German translation of Cook 's diaries .
Forster was a central figure of the Enlightenment in Germany , and corresponded with most of its adherents , including his close friend Georg Christoph Lichtenberg . His ideas and personality influenced Alexander von Humboldt , one of the great scientists of the 19th century . When the French took control of Mainz in 1792 , Forster became one of the founders of the city 's Jacobin Club and went on to play a leading role in the Mainz Republic , the earliest republican state in Germany . During July 1793 and while he was in Paris as a delegate of the young Mainz Republic , Prussian and Austrian coalition forces regained control of the city and Forster was declared an outlaw . Unable to return to Germany and separated from his friends and family , he died in Paris of illness in early 1794 .
= = Early life = =
Georg Forster was born in the small village of Nassenhuben ( Mokry Dwór ) near Danzig ( Gdańsk ) , in the province of Royal Prussia , in the Polish @-@ Lithuanian Commonwealth . He was the oldest of seven surviving children of Johann Reinhold Forster and Justina Elisabeth ( née Nicolai ) . His father was a naturalist , scientist and Reformed pastor . In 1765 , the Russian empress Catherine II commissioned the pastor to travel through Russia on a research journey and investigate the situation of a German colony on the Volga River . Georg , then ten years old , joined him . On the journey , which reached the Kalmyk steppe on the lower Volga , they discovered several new species , and the young Forster learned how to conduct scientific research and practice cartography . He also became fluent in Russian .
The report of the journey , which included sharp criticism of the governor of Saratov , was not well received at court . The Forsters claimed they had not received fair payment for their work and had to move house . They chose to settle in England in 1766 . The father took up teaching at the Dissenter 's Academy in Warrington and also translation work . At the age of only thirteen , the young Forster published his first book : an English translation of Lomonosov 's history of Russia , which was well received in scientific circles .
= = Around the world with Captain Cook = =
In 1772 , Forster 's father became a member of the Royal Society . This and the withdrawal of Joseph Banks resulted in his invitation by the British admiralty to join James Cook 's second expedition to the Pacific ( 1772 – 75 ) . Georg Forster joined his father in the expedition again and was appointed as a draughtsman to his father . Johann Reinhold Forster 's task was to work on a scientific report of the journey 's discoveries that was to be published after their return .
They embarked HMS Resolution on July 13 , 1772 , in Plymouth . The ship 's route led first to the South Atlantic , then through the Indian Ocean and the Southern Ocean to the islands of Polynesia and finally around Cape Horn back to England , returning on July 30 , 1775 . During the three @-@ year journey , the explorers visited New Zealand , the Tonga islands , New Caledonia , Tahiti , the Marquesas Islands and Easter Island . They went further south than anybody before them , almost discovering Antarctica . The journey conclusively disproved the Terra Australis Incognita theory , which claimed there was a big , habitable continent in the South .
Supervised by his father , Georg Forster first undertook studies of the zoology and botanics of the southern seas , mostly by drawing animals and plants . However , Georg also pursued his own interests , which led to completely independent explorations in comparative geography and ethnology . He quickly learned the languages of the Polynesian islands . His reports on the people of Polynesia are well regarded today , as they describe the inhabitants of the southern islands with empathy , sympathy and largely without Western or Christian bias .
Unlike Louis Antoine de Bougainville , whose reports from a journey to Tahiti a few years earlier had initiated uncritical noble savage romanticism , Forster developed a sophisticated picture of the societies of the South Pacific islands . He described various social structures and religions that he encountered on the Society Islands , Easter Island and in Tonga and New Zealand , and ascribed this diversity to the difference in living conditions of these people . At the same time , he also observed that the languages of these fairly widely scattered islands were similar . About the inhabitants of the Nomuka islands ( in the Ha 'apai island group of present @-@ day Tonga ) , he wrote that their languages , vehicles , weapons , furniture , clothes , tattoos , style of beard , in short all of their being matched perfectly with what he had already seen while studying tribes on Tongatapu . However , he wrote , " we could not observe any subordination among them , though this had strongly characterised the natives of Tonga @-@ Tabboo , who seemed to descend even to servility in their obeisance to the king . "
The journey was rich in scientific results . However , the relationship between the Forsters and Cook and his officers was often problematic , due to the elder Forster 's fractious temperament as well as Cook 's refusal to allow more time for botanical and other scientific observation . Cook refused scientists on his third journey after his experiences with the Forsters .
= = Founder of modern travel literature = =
These conflicts continued after the journey with the problem of who should write the official account of the travels . Lord Sandwich , although willing to pay the promised money , was irritated with Johann Reinhold Forster 's opening chapter and tried to have it edited . However , Forster did not want to have his writing corrected " like a theme of a School @-@ boy " , and stubbornly refused any compromise . As a result , the official account was written by Cook , and the Forsters were deprived of the right to compile the account and did not obtain payment for their work . During the negotiations , the younger Forster decided to release an unofficial account of their travels . In 1777 , his book A Voyage Round the World in His Britannic Majesty 's Sloop Resolution , Commanded by Capt. James Cook , during the Years , 1772 , 3 , 4 , and 5 was published . This report was the first account of Cook 's second voyage ( it appeared six weeks before the official publication ) and was intended for the general public . The English version and his own translation into German ( published 1778 – 80 ) earned the young author real fame . The poet Christoph Martin Wieland praised the book as the most important one of his time , and even today it remains one of the most important journey descriptions ever written . The book also had a significant impact on German literature , culture and science , influencing such scientists as Alexander von Humboldt and it inspired many ethnologists of later times .
Forster wrote well @-@ polished German prose , which was not only scientifically accurate and objective , but also exciting and easy to read . This differed from conventional travel literature of the time , insofar as it presented more than a mere collection of data – it also demonstrated coherent , colourful and reliable ethnographical facts that resulted from detailed and sympathetic observation . He often interrupted the description to enrich it with philosophical remarks about his observations . His main focus was always on the people he encountered : their behavior , customs , habits , religions and forms of social organization . In A Voyage Round the World he even presented the songs sung by the people of Polynesia , complete with lyrics and notation . The book is one of the most important sources concerning the societies of the Southern Pacific from the times before European influence had become significant .
Both Forsters also published descriptions of their South Pacific travels in the Berlin @-@ based Magazin von merkwürdigen neuen Reisebeschreibungen ( " Magazine of strange new travel accounts " ) , and Georg published a translation of " A Voyage to the South Sea , by Lieutenant William Bligh , London 1792 " in 1791 – 93 .
= = Forster at universities = =
The publication of A Voyage Round the World brought Forster scientific recognition all over Europe . The respectable Royal Society made him a member on January 9 , 1777 , though he was not even 23 years old . He was granted similar titles from academies ranging from Berlin to Madrid . These appointments , however , were unpaid .
In 1778 , he went to Germany to take a teaching position as a Natural History professor at the Collegium Carolinum in Kassel , where he met Therese Heyne , the daughter of classicist Christian Gottlob Heyne . She later became one of the first independent female writers in Germany . They married in 1785 ( which was after he left Kassel ) and had three children , but their marriage was not happy . From his time in Kassel on , Forster actively corresponded with important figures of the Enlightenment , including Lessing , Herder , Wieland and Goethe . He also initiated cooperation between the Carolinum in Kassel and the University of Göttingen where his friend Georg Christoph Lichtenberg worked . Together , they founded and published the scientific and literary journal Göttingisches Magazin der Wissenschaften und Litteratur . Forster 's closest friend , Samuel Thomas von Sömmering , arrived in Kassel shortly after Forster , and both were soon involved with the Rosicrucians in Kassel .
However , by 1783 Forster saw that his involvement with the Rosicrucians not only led him away from real science , but also deeper into debt ( it is said he was not good at money ) ; for these reasons Forster was happy to accept a proposal by the Polish Komisja Edukacji Narodowej ( Commission of National Education ) and became Chair of Natural History at Vilnius University in 1784 . Initially , he was accepted well in Vilnius , but he felt more and more isolated with time . Most of his contacts were still with scientists in Germany ; especially notable is his dispute with Immanuel Kant about the definition of race . In 1785 , Forster traveled to Halle where he submitted his thesis on the plants of the South Pacific for a doctorate in medicine . Back in Vilnius , Forster 's ambitions to build a real natural history scientific center could not get appropriate financial support from the Polish authorities . Moreover , his famous speech on natural history in 1785 went almost unnoticed and was not printed until 1843 . These events led to high tensions between him and the local community . Eventually , he broke the contract six years short of its completion as Catherine II of Russia had offered him a place on a journey around the world ( the Mulovsky expedition ) for a high honorarium and a position as a professor in Saint Petersburg . This resulted in a conflict between Forster and the influential Polish scientist Jędrzej Śniadecki . However , the Russian proposal was withdrawn and Forster left Vilnius . He then settled in Mainz , where he became head librarian of the University of Mainz , a position held previously by his friend Johannes von Müller , who made sure Forster would succeed him when Müller moved to the administration of Elector Friedrich Karl Josef von Erthal .
Forster regularly published essays on contemporary explorations and continued to be a very prolific translator ; for instance , he wrote about Cook 's third journey to the South Pacific , and about the Bounty expedition , as well as translating Cook 's and Bligh 's diaries from these journeys into German . From his London years , Forster was in contact with Sir Joseph Banks , the initiator of the Bounty expedition and a participant in Cook 's first journey . While at the University of Vilnius he wrote the article " Neuholland und die brittische Colonie in Botany @-@ Bay " , published in the Allgemeines historisches Taschenbuch ( Berlin , December 1786 ) , an essay on the future prospects of the English colony founded in New South Wales in 1788 .
Another interest of his was indology – one of the main goals of his failed expedition to be financed by Catherine II had been to reach India . He translated the Sanskrit play Shakuntala using a Latin version provided by Sir William Jones ; this strongly influenced Herder and triggered German interest in the culture of India .
= = Views from the Lower Rhine = =
In the second quarter of 1790 , Forster and the young Alexander von Humboldt started from Mainz on a long journey through the Southern Netherlands , the United Provinces , and England , eventually finishing in Paris . The impressions from the journey were described in a three volume publication Ansichten vom Niederrhein , von Brabant , Flandern , Holland , England und Frankreich im April , Mai und Juni 1790 ( Views of the Lower Rhine , from Brabant , Flanders , Holland , England , and France in April , May and June 1790 ) , published 1791 – 94 . Goethe said about the book : " One wants , after one has finished reading , to start it over , and wishes to travel with such a good and knowledgeable observer . " The book includes comments on the history of art that were as influential for the discipline as A Voyage Round the world was for ethnology . Forster was , for example , one of the first writers who gave just treatment to the Gothic architecture of Cologne Cathedral , which was widely perceived as " barbarian " at that time . The book conformed well to the early Romantic intellectual movements in German @-@ speaking Europe .
Forster 's main interest , however , was again focused on the social behavior of people , as 15 years earlier in the Pacific . The national uprisings in Flanders and Brabant and the revolution in France sparked his curiosity . The journey through these regions , together with the Netherlands and England , where citizens ' freedoms were equally well developed , in the end helped him to resolve his own political opinions . From that time on he was to be a confident opponent of the ancien régime . With other German scholars , he welcomed the outbreak of the revolution as a clear consequence of the Enlightenment . As early as July 30 , 1789 , shortly after he heard about the Storming of the Bastille , he wrote to his father @-@ in @-@ law , philologist Christian Gottlob Heyne , that it was beautiful to see what philosophy had nurtured in people 's minds and then had realized in the state . To educate people about their rights in this way , he wrote , was after all the surest way ; the rest would then result as if by itself .
= = Life as a revolutionary = =
= = = Foundation of the Mainz Republic = = =
The French revolutionary army under General Custine gained control over Mainz on October 21 , 1792 . Two days later , Forster joined others in establishing a Jacobin Club called " Freunde der Freiheit und Gleichheit " ( " Friends of Freedom and Equality " ) in the Electoral Palace . From early 1793 he was actively involved in organizing the Mainz Republic . This first republic located on German soil was constituted on the principles of democracy , and encompassed areas on the left bank of the Rhine between Landau and Bingen . Forster became vice @-@ president of the republic 's temporary administration and a candidate in the elections to the local parliament , the Rheinisch @-@ Deutscher Nationalkonvent ( Rhenish @-@ German National Convention ) . From January to March 1793 , he was an editor of Die neue Mainzer Zeitung oder Der Volksfreund ( The new Mainz newspaper or The People 's Friend ) . In his first article he wrote :
Die Pressefreiheit herrscht endlich innerhalb dieser Mauern , wo die Buchdruckerpresse erfunden ward .
The freedom of the press finally reigns within these walls where the printing press was invented .
This freedom did not last long , though . The Mainz Republic existed only until the retreat of the French troops in July 1793 after the Siege of Mainz .
Forster was not present in Mainz during the siege . As representatives of the Mainz National Convention , he and Adam Lux had been sent to Paris to apply for Mainz – which was unable to exist as an independent state – to become a part of the French Republic . The application was accepted , but had no effect , since Mainz was conquered by Prussian and Austrian troops , and the old order was restored . Forster lost his library and collections and decided to remain in Paris .
= = = Death in revolutionary Paris = = =
Based on a decree by Emperor Francis II inflicting punishments on German subjects who collaborated with the French revolutionary government , Forster was declared an outlaw and placed under the Imperial ban ; a prize of 100 ducats was set on his head and he could not return to Germany . Devoid of all means of making a living and without his wife , who had stayed in Mainz with their children and her later husband Ludwig Ferdinand Huber , he remained in Paris . At this point the revolution in Paris had entered the Reign of Terror introduced by the Committee of Public Safety under the rule of Maximilien Robespierre . Forster had the opportunity to experience the difference between the promises of the revolution of happiness for all and its cruel practice . In contrast to many other German supporters of the revolution , like for instance Friedrich Schiller , Forster did not turn back from his revolutionary ideals under the pressure of the terror . He viewed the events in France as a force of nature that could not be slowed and that had to release its own energies to avoid being even more destructive .
Before the reign of terror reached its climax , Forster died after a rheumatic illness in his small attic apartment at Rue des Moulins in Paris in January 1794 , at the age of thirty @-@ nine . At the time , he was making plans to visit India .
= = Views on nations and their culture = =
Forster had partial Scottish roots and was born in Polish Royal Prussia , and therefore was by birth a Polish subject . He worked in Russia , England , Poland and in several German countries of his time . Finally , he finished his life in France . He worked in different milieus and traveled a lot from his youth on . It was his view that this , together with his scientific upbringing based on the principles of the Enlightenment , gave him a wide perspective on different ethnic and national communities :
All peoples of the earth have equal claims to my good will ... and my praise and blame are independent of national prejudice .
In his opinion all human beings have the same abilities with regard to reason , feelings and imagination , but these basic ingredients are used in different ways and in different environments , which gives rise to different cultures and civilizations . According to him it is obvious that the culture on Tierra del Fuego is at a lower level of development than European culture , but he also admits that the conditions of life there are much more difficult and this gives people very little chance to develop a higher culture . Based on these opinions he was classified as one of the main examples of 18th @-@ century German cosmopolitanism .
In contrast to the attitude expressed in these writings and to his Enlightenment background , he used insulting terms expressing prejudice against Poles in his private letters during his stay in Vilnius and in a diary from the journey through Poland , but he never published any manifestation of this attitude . These insults only became known after his death , when his private correspondence and diaries were released to the public . Since Forster 's published descriptions of other nations were seen as impartial scientific observations , Forster 's disparaging description of Poland in his letters and diaries was often taken at face value in Imperial and Nazi Germany , where it was used as a means of science @-@ based support for a purported German superiority . The spreading of the " Polnische Wirtschaft " ( Polish economy ) stereotype is most likely due to the influence of his letters .
Forster 's attitude brought him into conflict with the people of the different nations he encountered and made him welcome nowhere , as he was too revolutionary and antinational for Germans , proud and opposing in his dealings with Englishmen , too unconcerned about Polish science for Poles , and too insignificant politically and ignored while in France .
= = Legacy = =
After Forster 's death , his works were mostly forgotten , except in professional circles . This was partly due to his involvement in the French revolution . However , his reception changed with the politics of the times , with different periods focusing on different parts of his work . In the period of rising nationalism after the Napoleonic era he was regarded in Germany as a " traitor to his country " , overshadowing his work as an author and scientist . This attitude rose even though the philosopher Karl Wilhelm Friedrich Schlegel wrote about Forster at the beginning of the 19th century :
Among all those authors of prose who are justified in laying claim to a place in the ranks of German classics , none breathes the spirit of free progress more than Georg Forster .
Some interest in Forster 's life and revolutionary actions was revived in the context of the liberal sentiments leading up to the 1848 revolution . But he was largely forgotten in the Germany of Wilhelm II and more so in the Third Reich , where interest in Forster was limited to his stance on Poland from his private letters . Interest in Forster resumed in the 1960s in East Germany , where he was interpreted as a champion of class struggle . The GDR research station in Antarctica that was opened on October 25 , 1987 , was named after him . In West Germany , the search for democratic traditions in German history also lead to a more diversified picture of him in the 1970s . The Alexander von Humboldt foundation named a scholarship program for foreign scholars from developing countries after him . His reputation as one of the first and most outstanding German ethnologists is indisputable , and his works are seen as crucial in the development of ethnology in Germany into a separate branch of science .
The ethnographical items collected by Georg and Johann Reinhold Forster are now presented as the Cook @-@ Forster @-@ Sammlung ( Cook – Forster Collection ) in the Sammlung für Völkerkunde anthropological collection in Göttingen . Another collection of items collected by the Forsters is on display at the Pitt Rivers Museum in Oxford .
= = Works = =
A Voyage Round the World in His Britannic Majesty 's Sloop Resolution , Commanded by Capt. James Cook , during the Years , 1772 , 3 , 4 , and 5 ( 1777 ) ( preview )
De Plantis Esculentis Insularum Oceani Australis Commentatio Botanica ( 1786 ) available online at Project Gutenberg
Florulae Insularum Australium Prodromus ( 1786 ) available online at Project Gutenberg
Essays on moral and natural geography , natural history and philosophy ( 1789 – 97 )
Views of the Lower Rhine , Brabant , Flanders ( three volumes , 1791 – 94 )
Georg Forsters Werke , Sämtliche Schriften , Tagebücher , Briefe , Deutsche Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin , G. Steiner et al . Berlin : Akademie 1958
Werke in vier Bänden , Gerhard Steiner ( editor ) . Leipzig : Insel 1965 . ASIN : B00307GDQ0
Reise um die Welt , Gerhard Steiner ( editor ) . Frankfurt am Main : Insel , 1983 . ISBN 3 @-@ 458 @-@ 32457 @-@ 7
Ansichten vom Niederrhein , Gerhard Steiner ( editor ) . Frankfurt am Main : Insel , 1989 . ISBN 3 @-@ 458 @-@ 32836 @-@ X
Georg Forster , Briefe an Ernst Friedrich Hector Falcke . Neu aufgefundene Forsteriana aus der Gold- und Rosenkreuzerzeit , Michael Ewert , Hermann Schüttler ( editors ) . Georg @-@ Forster @-@ Studien Beiheft 4 . Kassel : Kassel University Press 2009 . ISBN 978 @-@ 3 @-@ 89958 @-@ 485 @-@ 1
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= Gavin Volure =
" Gavin Volure " is the fourth episode of the third season of the American television comedy series 30 Rock , and the 40th overall episode of the series . It was written by co @-@ executive producer John Riggi and directed by Gail Mancuso . The episode originally aired on the National Broadcasting Company ( NBC ) in the United States on November 20 , 2008 . Guest stars in this episode include John McEnroe , Steve Martin , and Bobb 'e J. Thompson .
In the episode , Liz Lemon ( Tina Fey ) meets one of her boss 's , Jack Donaghy 's ( Alec Baldwin ) , friends , Gavin Volure ( Martin ) , when the pair attend a dinner party . Gavin , after offering Jack a secret business opportunity , becomes enamored of Liz . Jack encourages the relationship until he discovers Gavin is not as successful as he claimed . Also , NBC page Kenneth Parcell ( Jack McBrayer ) invests his money in Gavin 's business . Meanwhile , Tracy Jordan ( Tracy Morgan ) fears that his sons are trying to kill him .
" Gavin Volure " received generally good reception from television critics . According to the Nielsen Media Research , it was watched by 7 @.@ 1 million households during its original broadcast . For his performance in this episode , Martin received a Primetime Emmy Award nomination in the category for Outstanding Guest Actor in a Comedy Series .
= = Plot = =
Jack Donaghy ( Alec Baldwin ) brings Liz Lemon ( Tina Fey ) along to a dinner party hosted by his friend Gavin Volure ( Steve Martin ) . Gavin becomes intrigued by Liz and invites her to spend the weekend with him , which she accepts . She wonders how the relationship between them will work , as he is agoraphobic . Gavin explains his daily routines to Liz , and also discloses that due to his phobias , he cannot be intimate with women . Liz starts to think that maybe a relationship with Gavin could work . As Liz gets ready to leave , Gavin admits to her that he is not agoraphobic , and that he is under house arrest for arson , fraud , embezzlement , and racketeering . This shocks Liz , and when she returns to New York , she tells Jack about it . Jack feels awful for investing NBC page Kenneth Parcell 's ( Jack McBrayer ) money with Gavin , after Gavin told him he was forming a new company and interested Jack to be part of it . Later , Gavin escapes from house arrest and shows up at the 30 Rock studios . There , he tells Liz that he was on his way to the Canadian border but came back to bring her with him . After Liz refuses to go with him , and not wanting to go to prison , Gavin climbs to the top of the TGS with Tracy Jordan set and threatens to jump . Jack tries to talk Gavin out of jumping , distracting him in the process , resulting in Tracy Jordan ( Tracy Morgan ) tackling Gavin down .
Meanwhile , Tracy begins to question the reason why his sons want to spend so much time with him . One day , Tracy sees a special about Lyle and Erik Menendez — the two brothers who became famous for killing their parents — which leads him to believe that his sons are plotting to kill him . As a result , Tracy buys a life @-@ Japanese sex doll that looks like him to use as a decoy to fool them . Eventually , Tracy realizes that he overreacted with his sons but warns his son , Tracy Jr . ( Bobb 'e J. Thompson ) , that if he were to die , that he and his brother will face jail time .
= = Production = =
" Gavin Volure " was written by co @-@ executive producer John Riggi , making it his sixth writing credit after " Blind Date " , " The Head and the Hair " , " Corporate Crush " , " Cougars " , and " Succession " . The episode was directed by Gail Mancuso , making it her fifth for the series . " Gavin Volure " originally aired on November 20 , 2008 , on NBC in the United States as the fourth episode of the show 's third season and the 40th overall episode of the series .
In September 2008 , it was announced that comedian actor Steve Martin would guest star on 30 Rock . He played the titular character of this episode . Martin and series creator Tina Fey starred in the 2008 comedy movie Baby Mama . In the episode , stock footage of the Arkansas Governor 's Mansion was used for exterior shots of the home of Gavin Volure . This episode was actor Bobb 'e J. Thompson 's first appearance as Tracy Jordan 's son , Tracy Jr . , on the show . He later guest starred in the episodes " The Bubble " and " Sun Tea " . Former professional tennis player John McEnroe played himself in this episode as he is a guest at Gavin 's dinner party , and represents art collecting and yelling . McEnroe first appeared in the January 18 , 2007 , 30 Rock episode " The Head and the Hair " as the host of a game show .
Two filmed scenes from " Gavin Volure " were cut out from the airing . Instead , the scenes were featured on 30 Rock 's season three DVD as part of the deleted scenes in the Bonus feature . In the first scene , Jack Donaghy , in a voice over , talks about the Edison Terrace — located in the rooftop gardens of the General Electric Building . " It 's a private rooftop garden reserved for the CEOs of this company . The inner temple of American business . The only outsider ever admitted is a mute cleaning lady who has never laid with a man . " The scene features six men , including fictional CEO of General Electric on the show , Don Geiss ( Rip Torn ) . In the second scene , Jenna Maroney 's ( Jane Krakowski ) intern ( Liz Holtan ) is excited to work with her and tells her that she wants to be just like her . Jenna believes the intern wants to become an actress , prompting her to pull the intern 's earring off . The latter scene was included in the October 15 , 2009 , 30 Rock episode " Season 4 " .
= = Reception = =
According to the Nielsen Media Research , " Gavin Volure " was watched by 7 @.@ 1 million households in its original American broadcast . It earned a 3 @.@ 4 rating / 8 share in the 18 – 49 demographic . This means that it was seen by 3 @.@ 4 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 8 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . This episode ranked number one among the broadcast networks in men aged 18 – 34 , tied with Grey 's Anatomy 's " In the Midnight Hour " , and number two in adults 18 – 34 . However , this was a decrease from the previous episode , " The One with the Cast of Night Court " , which was watched by 7 @.@ 5 million American viewers . Steve Martin received a Primetime Emmy Award nomination for Outstanding Guest Actor in a Comedy Series at the 61st Primetime Emmy Awards for his work in this episode , but lost it to singer @-@ songwriter Justin Timberlake for hosting Saturday Night Live .
Since airing , " Gavin Volure " has received good reception amongst television critics . TV Guide 's Matt Mitovich praised " Gavin Volure " , citing that it was a " funny episode " and said that Martin was a " pretty good fit on 30 Rock . He plays the zany and off @-@ kilter so well . " IGN contributor Robert Canning said the episode was " funny " and as with Mitovich , believed that Martin was a " perfect fit for Gavin , playing him both as the suave sophisticate we first meet and the screwy , on @-@ the @-@ run Gavin that ends the episode . " Canning enjoyed Tracy 's plot and gave this episode an 8 @.@ 9 out of 10 rating . Bob Sassone of AOL 's TV Squad was complimentary towards Martin 's appearance , writing that he and season two guest stars Jerry Seinfeld and Carrie Fisher " belong in the 30 Rock world , and Martin is quietly funny as the agoraphobic ... rich ... friend of Jack 's who likes Liz " . Entertainment Weekly 's Jeff Labrecque commented that Tracy 's story was the " weaker subplot " , but was favorable to Tina Fey and Martin , opining they " speak the same language " , and he would not mind seeing the Gavin character back . The A.V. Club 's Nathan Rabin enjoyed Kenneth in the episode , citing that he was " hilarious " , and in regards to the episode itself , Rabin said that it " wasn 't one of the all @-@ time greats but it brought the funny at a rapid clip " . In conclusion , Rabin gave the episode a B + .
Not all reviews were positive . Television columnist Alan Sepinwall for The Star @-@ Ledger noted that " Gavin Volure " was " one of the weakest 30 Rock episodes ever " . He explained that he was " flummoxed " that this episode featuring Alec Baldwin , Fey , and Martin " together only made me laugh once , and not at any of them . "
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= Scream & Shout =
" Scream & Shout " is a song by American recording artists will.i.am and Britney Spears , taken from the former 's fourth studio album # willpower . It was released on November 20 , 2012 by Interscope Records as the second single from the album , and sent to mainstream radio in the United States on November 27 . The song was written by will.i.am , Jef Martens and Jean Baptiste and was produced by Martens under the alias Lazy Jay , with additional production by will.i.am. " Scream & Shout " is an upbeat dance @-@ pop song ; its lyrics are about having a good time on a night out . It interpolates a sample of the lyric " Britney , bitch " , which was used on Spears ' 2007 single " Gimme More " .
" Scream & Shout " received mixed reviews from music critics . Some critics described the song as a dark club track , but others criticized the use of Auto @-@ Tune on the vocals . The song was a commercial success worldwide , topping the charts in over 24 countries and reached the top ten in Australia , Sweden , and South Korea . In the United States , the song peaked at number three on the Billboard Hot 100 and became the first number one song of the newly established Dance / Electronic Songs chart . In the United Kingdom , " Scream & Shout " became will.i.am 's second consecutive number one single , Spears ' sixth number one and her first chart @-@ topper since " Everytime . "
An accompanying music video directed by Ben Mor was shot in October 2012 , and premiered in the U.S. during a live episode of The X Factor on November 28 . The theme of the music video is multiplicity , and critics complimented its futuristic setting . " Scream & Shout " also served as the theme song for a television commercial for Beats by Dr. Dre Color headphones . A remixed version of the song , featuring rappers Hit @-@ Boy , Waka Flocka Flame , Lil Wayne and Sean Combs , was uploaded to will.i.am 's official YouTube account on January 25 , 2013 , after it was leaked on the internet earlier the same day . A music video for this version was filmed in January 2013 and released on February 14 .
= = Background and release = =
After Spears spent a year promoting her seventh studio album Femme Fatale ( 2011 ) , RCA Records executive vice president of promotions Joe Riccitelli said that Spears would take a year off from the music business to " be a mom and get married . " On April 2012 , E ! Online reported that Simon Cowell was negotiating with Spears for her to join the second US season of the music competition show The X Factor , reportedly offering her $ 15 million . On May 9 , 2012 , reports that Spears had contracted to judge the show appeared . On May 14 , 2012 , it was officially confirmed that Spears and pop singer Demi Lovato would join The X Factor as judges . On August 28 , 2012 , Spears confirmed that she was recording new material with will.i.am , and said on social network Twitter , " Can 't wait for y 'all to hear @ iamwill 's next single featuring me . " They had worked together the previous year on two tracks for Femme Fatale , one of which , called " Big Fat Bass " , was included on the album . The song , rumored to be named " Sexy Sexy " at the time , was going to be released on will.i.am 's album # willpower on October 15 , 2012 ; however , will.i.am changed the release date after several tracks from the album were leaked online . He said , " I ’ m trying to finish # willpower … & now because of all the leaks I have push the album back to make new songs … "
On October 12 , 2012 , Spears confirmed that the track would be called " Scream & Shout " . On November 17 , 2012 , the song was leaked in full online . When asked about how he felt about it being released earlier than expected , will.i.am said , " Well , that 's done . You can 't undo it . It 's out . It made it real . But once things go to the editing and coloring , it 's not in your control . " Spears used her official Facebook account to express her sadness about the early release of the song , but added , " I AM super excited that my fans seem to love it as much as will.i.am and I do . It hits radio tmw and iTunes later in the week . " Billboard confirmed the release of " Scream & Shout " on U.S. radio station 102 @.@ 7 KIIS @-@ FM on November 19 at 12 : 00 pm Pacific Standard Time . The same day , the song had its United Kingdom radio premiere on Capital FM at 8 : 00 pm Greenwich Mean Time , and had a digital promotional release in Europe . The song was released for digital download worldwide the following day , and was officially sent to mainstream radio through Interscope Records on November 27 , 2012 @.@ will.i.am revealed the cover art for " Scream & Shout " on November 19 through his Facebook account . British singer Tulisa Contostavlos co @-@ wrote the original version of " Scream & Shout " with Jean Baptiste and recorded it under the title " I Don 't Give A Fuck " . The track was intended for Contostavlos ' debut album The Female Boss ( 2012 ) . However , the producer of the track , Lazy Jay , did not want Contostavlos to have the song and gave it to will.i.am , who re @-@ wrote the song with Spears in mind .
= = Composition = =
" Scream & Shout " is an upbeat dance @-@ pop track written in the key of D minor and has a moderate tempo of 130 beats per minute . It contains lyrics about having an enjoyable night out . The track begins with Spears rapping the first eight lines with Nicki Minaj @-@ esque vocals . As the song proceeds to its chorus , will.i.am joins Spears on vocals . " Scream & Shout " interpolates a sample of the lyric " It 's Britney , bitch " , which was first used on Spears ' 2007 single " Gimme More " , and is used before every breakdown on the track .
Spin writer Marc Hogan wrote that " Scream & Shout " has similarities to Azealia Banks ' song " 212 " ( 2011 ) , and compared " Scream & Shout " ' s background vocals to those of " Are We All We Are " ( 2012 ) by P ! nk . Keith Caulfield of Billboard said that the song " features a very different look for Spears , whose voice is roboticized to a nearly unrecognizable degree . " After the song was leaked , a reviewer for Idolator said , " we 're pleased to report that it 's pretty good — and slightly kooky , " and that the lyrics , " When you hear us in the club / You 're gonna turn this shit up " are " probably accurate " . Idolator also praised the use of the " It 's Britney , bitch " line . Rebecca Macatee of E ! Online wrote that the track is " clubby , catchy , cool " , and compared Spears ' vocals to those of Madonna , and wrote about the use of pitch @-@ correcting software Auto @-@ Tune on the song . Bill Lamb of About.com wrote that " the digital effects are seamless and the use of modulations of Britney Spears ' voice to build the chorus sounds perfectly natural in this context " , and that , " the spacey , free form bridge is beautiful despite will.i.am 's singing talent limitations . " A Rap @-@ Up reviewer noted the use of Auto @-@ Tune on will.i.am 's vocals only .
= = Critical response = =
" Scream & Shout " received mixed reviews from music critics . Michael Murray of RyanSeacrest.com said the song " is like nothing we ’ ve ever heard " , commenting that will.i.am utilizes " his signature electric beats " while Spears embraces an alter @-@ ego . MTV contributor Jocelyn Vena called the track " a club banger " , and said it is " an amped up dance @-@ floor anthem , full of tempo changes , sassy one @-@ liners and dubstep aplenty . " Robert Copsey of Digital Spy wrote that upon first hearing the track he found it confusing , but after repeated plays he found it a " surprisingly catchy robo @-@ pop stomper . " After detailing the release of " Scream & Shout " , a reviewer for Take 40 Australia wrote that the track " has all the hallmarks of a hit Will.i.am song " . An AOL On reviewer called it a " dance floor anthem " and stated that " perhaps the best part of the song is the best one @-@ liner from Britney 's ' Gimme More ' – " It 's Britney B " . "
Jenna Hally Rubenstein of MTV Buzzworthy called " Scream & Shout " a " futuristic electro jam " , and wrote that parts of it " had us weeping and repenting , like that moment where Brit does a heavy Madonna @-@ fied English accent and that other time will.i.am goes all ' Gimme More ' on us with ' It 's Britney , bitch ' . " Chris Eggertsen of HitFix rated the track a B- , and wrote that , " the dubstep @-@ y beat on offer is certainly a booty @-@ shaker , but it lacks the extra " oomph " and originality that would make " Scream and Shout " a truly memorable single . It 's the kind of club track that 's serviceable enough in the moment , but it 's not likely to stick in your head on the cab ride home at 2 a.m. " . Emily Exton of PopDust contributor wrote that Spears ' contribution is an improvement from " will 's monotonous requests to ' lose control ' , ' let it go ' and ' hit the floor ' , " but said that the song needed " something more from Britney to balance this out . " Jason Lipshutz of Billboard news writer wrote that will.i.am " could have utilized Spears ' presence in a more efficient manner , but [ the song 's ] goal of inspiring awkward dance moves via its impossibly straightforward chorus ... is soundly accomplished . "
Yahoo ! ' s Kathleen Perricone gave " Scream & Shout " a mixed review , and said it was " not exactly worthy of all the hype " , and Alicia Lutes of Hollywood.com criticized its lyrical meaning and repetitive production . Malene Arpe of Toronto Star wrote that it " is really terrible and rather than making you want to scream and shout , it sorta lulls you into a nice nap @-@ like state of ceasing to care around the three @-@ minute mark . " The Huffington Post journalist Kia Makarechi called the song a " competent piece of airy dance pop " , and wrote that the only mildly inspiring moment on " Scream & Shout " is the sample from " Gimme More " . An editorial writer from Popjustice was negative towards " Scream & Shout " and Pitbull 's song " Feel This Moment " ( 2012 ) , stating that what the " two songs represent is pop music writhing around in its own shit . " Kurt Schlosser of NBCNews.com also criticized the song 's lyrical content , and wrote that it " plays like a forgotten sample from a Black Eyed Peas song , with Britney doing the Fergie talkie parts ... " and that it is will.i.am 's song .
It is also the victor of Billboard 's 2013 reader @-@ voted March Madness contest , against hits by Kelly Clarkson , Rihanna and P ! nk , among others .
= = Chart performance = =
" Scream & Shout " made its first chart appearance on November 28 , 2012 , debuting at number 27 on the Spanish Singles Chart , before leaving the top thirty the next week . On its fourteenth week , the song reached the top of the chart . On the French Singles Chart , for the week of November 19 , 2012 , " Scream & Shout " debuted at number 6 . The next week it reached number 2 , staying there for two weeks . On the week ending January 26 , 2013 , the song peaked at number 1 . In the United Kingdom , " Scream & Shout " became will.i.am 's fourth consecutive top five single , and debuted on the UK Singles Chart at number 2 . It was also Spears ' first UK top five hit since " Womanizer " , which peaked at number 3 in 2008 . On January 13 , 2013 , it reached number 1 , where it stayed for two weeks , making it will.i.am 's second consecutive number one single and Spears ' first number one since " Everytime " ( 2004 ) . In two months of release , it sold over 513 @,@ 000 units in the UK according to the Official Charts Company . " Scream & Shout " also debuted at number 1 on the UK R & B Chart , where it stayed for seven weeks . Elsewhere in Europe , the song remained number one in Germany for nine consecutive weeks , Belgium ( Flanders ) and Luxembourg for eight weeks , Netherlands for seven straight weeks ( her first number 1 since " Oops ! ... I Did It Again " in 2000 ) , Belgium ( Wallonia ) and Finland for five straight weeks , Austria , Denmark , Ireland , Italy , Norway and Switzerland for four weeks and Scotland for three weeks . It also reached the top ten in Czech Republic , Hungary , Poland , Slovakia and Sweden . In South Korea , it entered the Gaon Chart at number 3 , with over 30 @,@ 000 digital units sold .
In the United States , because of low airplay and streaming , " Scream & Shout " first entered the Billboard Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart at number 3 , before debuting at number 12 on the Hot 100 . It was Spears ' 29th appearance on the Hot 100 and her fourth @-@ highest debut . The song rose from number 66 to number 1 on the Hot Digital Songs , with 196 @,@ 000 digital units sold , becoming Spears ' seventh number 1 on the component chart and will.i.am 's second as a solo artist . The song 's rise is the greatest in the chart 's history , beating the 57 – 1 rise of Zac Efron , Andrew Seeley and Vanessa Hudgens ' " Breaking Free " ( from Disney 's High School Musical ) the week of February 11 , 2006 . " Scream & Shout " also debuted at number 33 on the Pop Songs component chart , becoming Spears ' 30th hit on that chart and equaling Mariah Carey for the second @-@ most entries in the chart 's 20 @-@ year history . It peaked at number 3 . The song also entered the Latin Pop Airplay component chart at number 33 , where it peaked at number 20 . On the week ending January 19 , 2013 , " Scream & Shout " reached number eight on the Hot 100 , becoming will.i.am 's third solo top 10 hit and his first as a lead artist . It also passed 1 million in digital sales in the country that week . It peaked at number three on the chart . The song debuted at number 39 in Canada , and reached number 3 the following week . Four weeks later it reached number one , staying there for four weeks and becoming will.i.am 's first Canadian number one single and Spears 's ninth . " Scream & Shout " was the first number @-@ one single on Billboard 's new Dance / Electronic Songs chart in its first issue , published on January 26 , 2013 . As of July 2013 , the song has sold 3 million digital copies in the United States .
The song entered the New Zealand Singles Chart at number 26 on December 3 , 2012 , reaching number 2 the following week , where it remained for another week before reaching number 1 on December 24 , 2012 , becoming the 2012 New Zealand Christmas number 1 , and earning a 2 times Platinum certification from the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand for selling over 30 @,@ 000 units there . " Scream & Shout " debuted on the Australian Singles Chart at number 32 on December 9 , 2012 . The following week , it reached number 5 and peaked at number 2 on the week ending December 23 , 2012 , making it Spears ' highest @-@ charting single in Australia since " Piece of Me " ( 2008 ) . It also topped the Australian Dance Chart and has been certified 6 times Platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association denoting sales of 420 @,@ 000 copies .
= = Music video = =
= = = Development = = =
After confirming he was working with Spears on August 2012 , will.i.am tweeted her saying " OMG ... your lookin fit & hot ... can 't wait to shoot the video to our song ... your fans are ganna love it ... " . The music video was directed by Ben Mor and filmed on October 13 – 14 , 2012 , in Los Angeles . Behind the scenes footage of the video recording — in which according to the Daily Mirror Spears wore a Herve Leger dress and black gloves — was leaked on October 14 . When asked about the video 's concept and style , will.i.am said that it will include " uber fresh fashion " , and that he intended to release the video and song together .
On November 23 , 2012 , a short preview of the music video was aired during a promotional commercial for X Factor . Jessica Sager of Pop Crush wrote that will.i.am " sports a black suit , while Spears rocks a futuristic , black , seemingly ' Barbarella ' -inspired look . " On November 26 , 2012 , will.i.am tweeted that the video edit had been finished , and added , " I 'm so happy and excited for everyone to see it ... " . The music video for " Scream & Shout " premiered in the US during a live episode of The X Factor on November 28 , 2012 , and was made available for viewing on VEVO immediately after the show 's broadcast on the west coast .
= = = Concept = = =
The music video 's theme is multiplicity . Mor said that the idea " was essentially trying to reduce what the song is about to symbols . And that 's what it was ... just really keeping it clean and iconic . " The video opens with intercalated beauty shots of will.i.am and Spears , until the scene cuts to will.i.am using his iPhone camera add @-@ on and social network iam + . will.i.am says " bring the action " , and Spears is seen wearing a skin @-@ tight skirt and a long @-@ sleeved top with bare midriff and cleavage . Spears performs fast movements to the song 's beat and sings the lyrics . She is then seen atop a white box and posing to the camera . When the track 's chorus begins , will.i.am appears in front of an empty black background and is joined by Spears , who is now wearing a corseted leotard accented with feathers , standing on a moving walkway , and they sing together . After the first " Britney , bitch " line is heard , dancers perform to " Scream & Shout " . The video cuts to intercalated scenes of flaming disco balls , Spears image multiplied , and will.i.am wearing several gold accessories , including a cap with a gold plate that reads ' King ' . Mor said that the video has no narrative , and that , " there 's no deep meaning to any of it ... To me it was just about , you know , every scene is like a photo . I just liked it , I liked seeing the human heads , and I liked seeing the gold chains off of the plaques and then making it scroll . And then it was an awesome way to introduce characters , some friends of will ... so that it wasn 't just about them . " Amy Sciaretto of Pop Crush compared Spears ' look on the video to a " sexy , futuristic librarian " .
= = = Reception = = =
The accompanying pop video received a positive reception from fans , according to Softpedia blogger Elena Gorgan . Following the premiere on The X Factor , will.i.am thanked his fans for their overwhelmingly positive feedback , tweeting , " Wow ! ! ! I feel so excited and full of energy right now ! ! ! I want to # screamANDshout . Thank you all . " Bruna Nessif of E ! Online said that the video " wasn 't too crazy , but it definitely provided the futuristic vibe that will.i.am is famous from , " and Melinda Newman of HitFix praised Spears ' hairstyle and make @-@ up , and wrote , " the futuristic , minimalistic clip is a cheap @-@ looking affair that displays no chemistry between [ will.i.am and Spears ] " . Katie Atkinson of MTV compared Spears ' persona on the video to Brigitte Bardot and wrote , " if anyone doubted her enduring sex appeal , Spears proved she 's still got it , in a midriff @-@ baring bodycon dress ... and a corseted leotard accented with feathers in later scenes . " 4music critic Jenny Mensah said that Spears " sounds less Southern belle and more Swedish dominatrix in the video , as she takes on a deep , authoritative voice . " Hollywood.com blogger Leanne Aguilera wrote that despite not dancing in the video , Spears " does look phenomenal . With her teased blonde locks , sexy ( yet age @-@ appropriate ) pencil skirt and the highest of high heels , Ms. Spears looks sultry yet sophisticated . "
Writing for iVillage , Donna Kaufman praised will.i.am and Spears on the video , saying that the latter " looks like the pop star of the future , " while Daily Mail 's Chelsea White wrote that Spears " looks like a re @-@ imaging of a Versace model from the 1990s albeit one from space . " Erin Strecker of Entertainment Weekly wrote that Spears ' style on the video is similar to her " Stronger " ( 2000 ) music video and that will.i.am , " for his part , does his best to get it started with a KING crown and plenty of technological devises , before performing some futuristic slow @-@ mo running and watching approvingly as the back @-@ up dancers party on . " Yahoo ! Music blogger Wendy Geller wrote that Spears ' accent on the song was " terrible " , that " her physique is looking undeniably good " on the video , and that Spears " is looking to be in a much , much healthier place than she was the last time she tried to sound all cockney . So she gets a pass in our book . " Sadao Turner of RyanSeacrest.com said that the video looked like a Sharper Image Catalog coming to life in a nightclub , and T. Kyle of MTV Buzzworthy wrote that " ' Scream & Shout ' is pure fire , and Britney 's parts in the video are ... very cool and amazing " .
Andrew Villagomez of Out wrote that the product placement seen throughout the video is nothing new , complimented Spears confidence and sex appeal , and that Spears " gives Lana Del Rey a run for her money with a spy @-@ like updo . " The Huffington Post journalist Jessica Misener wrote that despite Spears ' outfits in the video were " sizzling hot " , that " [ h ] er blonde hair looks great and her body is amazing , and you know we love her oodles of gold bling , " and that it was the " hottest Britney music video look " since " Toxic " ( 2004 ) . Yahaira Toribio of Terra called the video will.i.am 's " high @-@ end technological wonderland " and wrote that " for all the choreography going on in this clip ... all we get is [ Spears ] standing and sitting pretty . " Idolator 's Sam Lansky wrote that he was unsatisfied , and that the video " is more boundary @-@ testing than the audio , it 's all the things you 'd expect : Futuristic , with some unsubtle product placement and a lot of ostensibly cool effects . Cool cars ! Speakers ! Will.i.am wearing a hat that says “ KING ” ! We ’ d hoped for more . "
= = Usage in media = =
" Scream & Shout " was used as a backing track to a television commercial to promote Beats by Dr. Dre Color headphones . The commercial featured celebrities Azealia Banks , Zedd , Ellie Goulding , Lil Wayne , 2 Chainz , Zendaya , Cam Newton , LeBron James and will.i.am. The song was heard on an episode of Celebrity Big Brother 11 in the United Kingdom on January 2013 . On January 26 , 2013 , a parody of the song was featured in a sketch of Saturday Night Live , in which the lyrics were changed to " When I walk down the street , all eyes on me " . On September 29 , 2013 , the song was played during the warm @-@ up of the Star Magic Games 2013 at the Lourdes School of Mandaluyong . " Weird Al " Yankovic covered the song as part of his polka medley " NOW That 's What I Call Polka ! " for his 2014 album Mandatory Fun . " Scream & Shout " is featured in Dance Central Spotlight as DLC and the next @-@ gen versions of Grand Theft Auto V on Non @-@ Stop Pop FM .
= = Live performances = =
Spears and will.i.am did not perform any televised performances of " Scream & Shout " together , however , Will.i.am did perform the song , most notably at the NRJ Music Awards . The song was used in an interlude on Britney : Piece of Me , Spears ' Las Vegas residency show .
= = Remixes = =
After the track was leaked online , Spears said she was " gonna do some sick remixes too " and asked " who would you like to remix Scream & Shout ? " On January 1 , 2013 , will.i.am said that he would release a club remix of " Scream & Shout " featuring American rapper Waka Flocka Flame and producer Hit @-@ Boy . An early version of the remix was leaked on January 25 , 2013 . The remix features Waka Flocka Flame , Hit @-@ Boy , and rappers Diddy and Lil Wayne . Following the leak , will.i.am uploaded the finished version to his YouTube account . It was released for digital download on January 29 , 2013 . Because it is significantly different from the original version , the remix is being tracked separately on the Billboard charts . On the week ending February 16 , 2013 , it debuted at number 49 on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs . An accompanying music video was filmed in Los Angeles , California on January 23 , 2013 , and will.i.am said that the remix is " so freaking fresh that we had to do a video for it . " The video was due to premiere on February 15 , 2013 at BET 's 106 & Park . However , the day before its planned release it was leaked online through Youku , and was therefore uploaded to VEVO the same day .
= = Formats and track listings = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Recording
Instrumentation recorded at The Blue Room in Hoogstraten , Belgium .
Will.i.am 's vocals recorded at The Record Plant in Hollywood , California .
Britney Spears 's vocals recorded at Studio Malibu in Malibu , California .
Mixed at The Record Plant in Hollywood , California .
Personnel
Jef " Lazy Jay " Martens – producer , keyboards , drums , midi programming , songwriter
will.i.am – songwriter , additional producer , lead vocals , engineer , background vocals , synths , bass , drum programming , moog bass
Jean Baptiste – songwriter
David Levy - vocal producer
Dylan Dresdow – mixing
Britney Spears – guest vocals , background vocals
Credits adapted from the liner notes of " Scream & Shout " .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
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= Cubeb =
Cubeb ( Piper cubeba ) , or tailed pepper is a plant in genus Piper , cultivated for its fruit and essential oil . It is mostly grown in Java and Sumatra , hence sometimes called Java pepper . The fruits are gathered before they are ripe , and carefully dried . Commercial cubebs consist of the dried berries , similar in appearance to black pepper , but with stalks attached – the " tails " in " tailed pepper " . The dried pericarp is wrinkled , and its color ranges from grayish @-@ brown to black . The seed is hard , white and oily . The odor of cubebs is described as agreeable and aromatic and the taste as pungent , acrid , slightly bitter and persistent . It has been described as tasting like allspice , or like a cross between allspice and black pepper .
Cubeb came to Europe via India through the trade with the Arabs . The name cubeb comes from Arabic kabāba ( كبابة ) , which is of unknown origin , by way of Old French quibibes . Cubeb is mentioned in alchemical writings by its Arabic name . In his Theatrum Botanicum , John Parkinson tells that the king of Portugal prohibited the sale of cubeb to promote black pepper ( Piper nigrum ) around 1640 . It experienced a brief resurgence in 19th @-@ century Europe for medicinal uses , but has practically vanished from the European market since . It continues to be used as a flavoring agent for gins and cigarettes in the West , and as a seasoning for food in Indonesia .
= = History = =
In the fourth century BC , Theophrastus mentioned komakon , including it with cinnamon and cassia as an ingredient in aromatic confections . Guillaume Budé and Claudius Salmasius have identified komakon with cubeb , probably due to the resemblance which the word bears to the Javanese name of cubeb , kumukus . This is seen as a curious evidence of Greek trade with Java in a time earlier than that of Theophrastus . It is unlikely Greeks acquired them from somewhere else , since Javanese growers protected their monopoly of the trade by sterilizing the berries by scalding , ensuring that the vines were unable to be cultivated elsewhere .
In the Tang Dynasty , cubeb was brought to China from Srivijaya . In India , the spice came to be called kabab chini , that is , " Chinese cubeb " , possibly because the Chinese had a hand in its trade , but more likely because it was an important item in the trade with China . In China this pepper was called both vilenga , and vidanga , the cognate Sanskrit word . Li Hsun thought it grew on the same tree as black pepper . Tang physicians administered it to restore appetite , cure " demon vapors " , darken the hair , and perfume the body . However , there is no evidence showing that cubeb was used as a condiment in China .
The Book of One Thousand and One Nights , compiled in the 9th century , mentions cubeb as a remedy for infertility , showing it was already used by Arabs for medicinal purposes . Cubeb was introduced to Arabic cuisine around the 10th century . The Travels of Marco Polo , written in late 13th century , describes Java as a producer of cubeb , along with other valuable spices . In the 14th century , cubeb was imported into Europe from the Grain Coast , under the name of pepper , by merchants of Rouen and Lippe . A 14th @-@ century morality tale exemplifying gluttony by the Franciscan writer Francesc Eiximenis describes the eating habits of a worldly cleric who consumes a bizarre concoction of egg yolks with cinnamon and cubeb after his baths , probably as an aphrodisiac .
Cubeb was thought by the people of Europe to be repulsive to demons , just as it was by the people of China . Ludovico Maria Sinistrari , a Catholic priest who wrote about methods of exorcism in the late 17th century , includes cubeb as an ingredient in an incense to ward off incubus . Even today , his formula for the incense is quoted by neopagan authors , some of whom also claim that cubeb can be used in love sachets and spells .
After the prohibition of sale , culinary use of cubeb decreased dramatically in Europe , and only its medicinal application continued to the 19th century . In the early 20th century , cubeb was regularly shipped from Indonesia to Europe and the United States . The trade gradually diminished to an average of 135 t ( 133 long tons ; 149 short tons ) annually , and practically ceased after 1940 .
= = Chemistry = =
The dried cubeb berries contain essential oil consisting monoterpenes ( sabinene 50 % , α @-@ thujene , and carene ) and sesquiterpenes ( caryophyllene , copaene , α- and β @-@ cubebene , δ @-@ cadinene , germacrene ) , the oxides 1,4- and 1 @,@ 8 @-@ cineole and the alcohol cubebol .
About 15 % of a volatile oil is obtained by distilling cubebs with water . Cubebene , the liquid portion , has the formula C15H24 . It is a pale green or blue @-@ yellow viscous liquid with a warm woody , slightly camphoraceous odor . After rectification with water , or on keeping , this deposits rhombic crystals of camphor of cubebs .
Cubebin ( C20H20O6 ) is a crystalline substance existing in cubebs , discovered by Eugène Soubeiran and Capitaine in 1839 . It may be prepared from cubebene , or from the pulp left after the distillation of the oil . The drug , along with gum , fatty oils , and malates of magnesium and calcium , contains also about 1 % of cubebic acid , and about 6 % of a resin . The dose of the fruit is 30 to 60 grains , and the British Pharmacopoeia contains a tincture with a dose of 4 to 1 dram .
= = Uses = =
= = = Medicinal = = =
In India , the ancient texts of Ayurveda ( Sanskrit आयुर ् वेद ) include cubeb in various remedies . Charaka and Sushruta prescribe a cubeb paste as a mouthwash , and the use of dried cubebs internally for oral and dental diseases , loss of voice , halitosis , fevers , and cough . Unani physicians use a paste of the cubeb berries externally on male and female genitals to intensify sexual pleasure during coitus . Due to this attributed property , cubeb was called " Habb @-@ ul @-@ Uruus " .
In traditional Chinese medicine cubeb is used for its alleged warming property . In Tibetan medicine , cubeb ( ka ko la in Tibetan ) is one of bzang po drug , six fine herbs beneficial to specific organs in the body , with cubeb assigned to the spleen .
Arab physicians of the Middle Ages were usually versed in alchemy , and cubeb was used , under the name kababa , when preparing the water of al butm . The Book of One Thousand and One Nights mentions cubeb as a main ingredient in making an aphrodisiac remedy for infertility :
The mixture , called " seed @-@ thickener " , is given to Shams @-@ al @-@ Din , a wealthy merchant who had no child , with the instruction that he must eat the paste two hours before having intercourse with his wife . According to the story , the merchant did get the child he desired after following these instructions . Other Arab authors wrote that cubeb rendered the breath fragrant , cured affections of the bladder , and that eating it " enhances the delight of coitus " .
In 1654 , Nicholas Culpeper wrote in the London Dispensatorie that cubebs were " hot and dry in the third degree ... ( snip ) they cleanse the head of flegm and strengthen the brain , they heat the stomach and provoke lust " . A later edition in 1826 informed the reader that " the Arabs call them Quabebe , and Quabebe Chine : they grow plentifully in Java , they stir up venery . ( snip ) ... and are very profitable for cold griefs of the womb " .
The modern use of cubeb in England as a drug dates from 1815 . There were various preparations , including oleum cubebae ( oil of cubeb ) , tinctures , fluid extracts , oleo @-@ resin compounds , and vapors , which were used for throat complaints . A small percentage of cubeb was commonly included in lozenges designed to alleviate bronchitis , in which the antiseptic and expectoral properties of the drug are useful . The most important therapeutic application of this drug , however , was in treating gonorrhea , where its antiseptic action was of much value . William Wyatt Squire wrote in 1908 that cubebs " act specifically on the genito @-@ urinary mucous membrane . ( They are ) given in all stages of gonorrhea " . As compared with copaiba in this connection cubeb has the advantages of being less disagreeable to take and somewhat less likely to disturb the digestive apparatus in prolonged administration .
The volatile oil , oleum cubebae , was the form in which cubeb is most commonly used as a drug , the dose being 5 to 20 minims , which may be suspended in mucilage or given after meals in a wafer . The drug exhibited the typical actions of a volatile oil , but exerted some of these to an exceptional degree . As such , it was liable to cause a cutaneous erythema in the course of its excretion by the skin , had a marked diuretic action , and was a fairly efficient disinfectant of the urinary passages . Its administration caused the appearance in the urine of a salt of cubebic acid which was precipitated by heat or nitric acid , and was therefore liable to be mistaken for albumin , when these two most common tests for the occurrence of albuminuria were applied .
The National Botanic Pharmacopoeia printed in 1921 tells that cubeb was " an excellent remedy for flour albus or whites . "
= = = Culinary = = =
In Europe , cubeb was one of the valuable spices during the Middle Ages . It was ground as a seasoning for meat or used in sauces . A medieval recipe includes cubeb in making sauce sarcenes , which consists of almond milk and several spices . As an aromatic confectionery , cubeb was often candied and eaten whole . Ocet Kubebowy , a vinegar infused with cubeb , cumin and garlic , was used for meat marinades in Poland during the 14th century . Cubeb can still be used to enhance the flavor of savory soups .
Cubeb reached Africa by way of the Arabs . In Moroccan cuisine , cubeb is used in savory dishes and in pastries like markouts , little diamonds of semolina with honey and dates . It also appears occasionally in the list of ingredients for the famed spice mixture Ras el hanout . In Indonesian cuisine , especially in Indonesian gulés ( curries ) , cubeb is frequently used .
= = = Cigarettes and spirits = = =
Cubeb was frequently used in the form of cigarettes for asthma , chronic pharyngitis and hay fever . Edgar Rice Burroughs , being fond of smoking cubeb cigarettes , humorously stated that if he had not smoked so many cubebs , there might never have been Tarzan . " Marshall 's Prepared Cubeb Cigarettes " was a popular brand , with enough sales to still be made during World War II . Occasionally , marijuana users claimed that smoking marijuana is no more harmful than smoking cubeb . In the musical The Music Man , set in rural Iowa in 1912 , the character Harold Hill alarms parents by telling this that their sons are trying out cubeb cigarettes at the notorious pool hall in the song " Trouble " .
In 2000 cubeb oil was included in the list of ingredients found in cigarettes , published by the Tobacco Prevention and Control Branch of North Carolina 's Department of Health and Human Services .
Bombay Sapphire gin is flavored with botanicals including cubeb and grains of paradise . The brand was launched in 1987 , but its maker claims that it is based on a secret recipe dating to 1761 . Pertsovka , a dark brown Russian pepper vodka with a burning taste , is prepared from infusion of cubeb and capsicum peppers .
= = = Other = = =
Cubeb is sometimes used to adulterate the essential oil of Patchouli , which requires caution for Patchouli users . In turn , cubeb is adulterated by Piper baccatum ( also known as the " climbing pepper of Java " ) and Piper caninum .
Cubeb berries are used in love @-@ drawing magic spells by practitioners of hoodoo , an African @-@ American form of folk magic .
In 2000 , Shiseido , a well @-@ known Japanese cosmetics company , patented a line of anti @-@ aging products containing formulas made from several herbs , including cubeb .
In 2001 , the Swiss company Firmenich patented cubebol , a compound found in cubeb oil , as a cooling and refreshing agent . The patent describes application of cubebol as a refreshing agent in various products , ranging from chewing gum to sorbets , drinks , toothpaste , and gelatin @-@ based confectioneries .
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= M @-@ 98 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 98 is the designation of a former 16 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 26 @.@ 1 km ) state trunkline highway in the Upper Peninsula of the US state of Michigan . It ran between M @-@ 77 at Germfask and M @-@ 28 near McMillan . The highway connected both small towns situated around Manistique Lake when it was designated with the rest of the original state highways in 1919 . The section north of Helmer on the east side of the lake ran concurrently with M @-@ 135 after the latter 's creation in the late 1920s . M @-@ 98 was extended at the end of the 1940s before the whole trunkline was removed from the highway system in the 1960s . Since the 1970s , part of M @-@ 98 has been designated as one of the two County Road H @-@ 44s in the state .
= = Route description = =
M @-@ 98 started at a junction with M @-@ 77 in Germfask next to the Seney National Wildlife Refuge , a managed wetland in Schoolcraft County . The highway followed Ten Curves Road east and then north out town . The trunkline turned back due east and crosses the Fox River before a set of curves that shifted the highway along the Schoolcraft – Luce county line to pass north of Big Manistique Lake . Ten Curves Road passes between the Big and North Manistee lakes as it enters the community of Helmer in Luce County . There , M @-@ 98 intersected M @-@ 135 , and the two ran concurrently north along Manistique Lakes Road . M @-@ 98 / M @-@ 135 turned due east to intersect M @-@ 28 southwest of McMillan near East Lake .
= = History = =
M @-@ 98 was first designated by July 1 , 1919 , at the same time as the initial state highway system was signed . In 1929 , M @-@ 135 was designated , creating the concurrency along the last several miles of M @-@ 98 . By 1936 , a series of corners were straightened out on the western end of M @-@ 98 near Germfask . In late 1949 or early 1950 , M @-@ 28 was realigned to take an angled route southeasterly out of McMillan . The east – west section of the previous M @-@ 28 routing was added to M @-@ 98 while the north – south segment was added to M @-@ 135 . By the middle of 1958 , M @-@ 135 was shifted to follow M @-@ 98 , removing the roadway section added to its routing previously ; this change made M @-@ 98 and M @-@ 135 concurrent north of Helmer all the way to M @-@ 28 once again . M @-@ 98 was removed from the state trunkline system in late 1960 or early 1961 , and the designation was decommissioned at that time . The M @-@ 98 designation has not been reused since . The routing was then assigned as a County Road H @-@ 44 after October 5 , 1970 , along the east – west section of the former M @-@ 98 . The former M @-@ 98 / M @-@ 135 was given the H @-@ 33 moniker at the same time . Both roads have retained those designations ever since . The Luce County Road Commission has also assigned the former highway the designations County Road 98 ( CR 98 ) along Ten Curves Road and CR 135 on Manistique Lakes Road since taking control back from the state in the 1960s .
= = Major intersections = =
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= Asteroid belt =
The asteroid belt is the circumstellar disc in the Solar System located roughly between the orbits of the planets Mars and Jupiter . It is occupied by numerous irregularly shaped bodies called asteroids or minor planets . The asteroid belt is also termed the main asteroid belt or main belt to distinguish it from other asteroid populations in the Solar System such as near @-@ Earth asteroids and trojan asteroids . About half the mass of the belt is contained in the four largest asteroids : Ceres , Vesta , Pallas , and Hygiea . The total mass of the asteroid belt is approximately 4 % that of the Moon , or 22 % that of Pluto , and roughly twice that of Pluto 's moon Charon ( whose diameter is 1200 km ) .
Ceres , the asteroid belt 's only dwarf planet , is about 950 km in diameter , whereas Vesta , Pallas , and Hygiea have mean diameters of less than 600 km . The remaining bodies range down to the size of a dust particle . The asteroid material is so thinly distributed that numerous unmanned spacecraft have traversed it without incident . Nonetheless , collisions between large asteroids do occur , and these can form an asteroid family whose members have similar orbital characteristics and compositions . Individual asteroids within the asteroid belt are categorized by their spectra , with most falling into three basic groups : carbonaceous ( C @-@ type ) , silicate ( S @-@ type ) , and metal @-@ rich ( M @-@ type ) .
The asteroid belt formed from the primordial solar nebula as a group of planetesimals . Planetesimals are the smaller precursors of the protoplanets . Between Mars and Jupiter , however , gravitational perturbations from Jupiter imbued the protoplanets with too much orbital energy for them to accrete into a planet . Collisions became too violent , and instead of fusing together , the planetesimals and most of the protoplanets shattered . As a result , 99 @.@ 9 % of the asteroid belt 's original mass was lost in the first 100 million years of the Solar System 's history . Some fragments eventually found their way into the inner Solar System , leading to meteorite impacts with the inner planets . Asteroid orbits continue to be appreciably perturbed whenever their period of revolution about the Sun forms an orbital resonance with Jupiter . At these orbital distances , a Kirkwood gap occurs as they are swept into other orbits .
Classes of small Solar System bodies in other regions are the near @-@ Earth objects , the centaurs , the Kuiper belt objects , the scattered disc objects , the sednoids , and the Oort cloud objects .
On 22 January 2014 , ESA scientists reported the detection , for the first definitive time , of water vapor on Ceres , the largest object in the asteroid belt . The detection was made by using the far @-@ infrared abilities of the Herschel Space Observatory . The finding was unexpected because comets , not asteroids , are typically considered to " sprout jets and plumes " . According to one of the scientists , " The lines are becoming more and more blurred between comets and asteroids . "
= = History of observation = =
In an anonymous footnote to his 1766 translation of Charles Bonnet 's Contemplation de la Nature , the astronomer Johann Daniel Titius of Wittenberg noted an apparent pattern in the layout of the planets . If one began a numerical sequence at 0 , then included 3 , 6 , 12 , 24 , 48 , etc . , doubling each time , and added four to each number and divided by 10 , this produced a remarkably close approximation to the radii of the orbits of the known planets as measured in astronomical units . This pattern , now known as the Titius – Bode law , predicted the semi @-@ major axes of the six planets of the time ( Mercury , Venus , Earth , Mars , Jupiter and Saturn ) provided one allowed for a " gap " between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter . In his footnote Titius declared , " But should the Lord Architect have left that space empty ? Not at all . " In 1768 , the astronomer Johann Elert Bode made note of Titius 's relationship in his Anleitung zur Kenntniss des gestirnten Himmels ( English : Instruction for the Knowledge of the Starry Heavens ) but did not credit Titius until later editions . It became known as " Bode 's law " . When William Herschel discovered Uranus in 1781 , the planet 's orbit matched the law almost perfectly , leading astronomers to conclude that there had to be a planet between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter .
In 1800 the astronomer Baron Franz Xaver von Zach recruited 24 of his fellows into a club , the Vereinigte Astronomische Gesellschaft ( " United Astronomical Society " ) which he informally dubbed the " Lilienthal Society " for its meetings in Lilienthal . Lilienthal is a town near Bremen , Germany that was home to a prominent telescope at the time . Determined to bring the Solar System to order , the group became known as the " Himmelspolizei " , or Celestial Police . Notable members included Herschel , the British astronomer royal , Nevil Maskelyne , Charles Messier , and Heinrich Olbers . The society assigned to each astronomer a 15 ° region of the zodiac to search for the missing planet .
Only a few months later , a non @-@ member of the Celestial Police confirmed their expectations . On January 1 , 1801 , Giuseppe Piazzi , chair of astronomy at the University of Palermo , Sicily , found a tiny moving object in an orbit with exactly the radius predicted by the Titius – Bode law . He dubbed it " Ceres " , after the Roman goddess of the harvest and patron of Sicily . Piazzi initially believed it to be a comet , but its lack of a coma suggested it was a planet . Fifteen months later , Olbers discovered a second object in the same region , Pallas . Unlike the other known planets , the objects remained points of light even under the highest telescope magnifications instead of resolving into discs . Apart from their rapid movement , they appeared indistinguishable from stars . Accordingly , in 1802 , William Herschel suggested they be placed into a separate category , named " asteroids " , after the Greek asteroeides , meaning " star @-@ like " . Upon completing a series of observations of Ceres and Pallas , he concluded ,
Neither the appellation of planets , nor that of comets , can with any propriety of language be given to these two stars ... They resemble small stars so much as hardly to be distinguished from them . From this , their asteroidal appearance , if I take my name , and call them Asteroids ; reserving for myself however the liberty of changing that name , if another , more expressive of their nature , should occur .
Despite Herschel 's coinage , for several decades it remained common practice to refer to these objects as planets . By 1807 , further investigation revealed two new objects in the region : 3 Juno and 4 Vesta . The burning of Lilienthal in the Napoleonic wars brought this first period of discovery to a close , and only in 1845 did astronomers detect another object ( 5 Astraea ) . Shortly thereafter , new objects were found at an accelerating rate , and counting them among the planets became increasingly cumbersome . Eventually , they were dropped from the planet list as first suggested by Alexander von Humboldt in the early 1850s , and Herschel 's choice of nomenclature , " asteroids " , gradually came into common use .
The discovery of Neptune in 1846 led to the discrediting of the Titius – Bode law in the eyes of scientists , because its orbit was nowhere near the predicted position . To date , there is no scientific explanation for the law , and astronomers ' consensus regards it as a coincidence .
The expression " asteroid belt " came into use in the very early 1850s , although it is hard to pinpoint who coined the term . The first English use seems to be in the 1850 translation ( by E. C. Otté ) of Alexander von Humboldt 's Cosmos : " [ ... ] and the regular appearance , about the 13th of November and the 11th of August , of shooting stars , which probably form part of a belt of asteroids intersecting the Earth 's orbit and moving with planetary velocity " . Other early appearances occur in Robert James Mann 's A Guide to the Knowledge of the Heavens , " The orbits of the asteroids are placed in a wide belt of space , extending between the extremes of [ ... ] " . The American astronomer Benjamin Peirce seems to have adopted that terminology and to have been one of its promoters . One hundred asteroids had been located by mid @-@ 1868 , and in 1891 the introduction of astrophotography by Max Wolf accelerated the rate of discovery still further . A total of 1 @,@ 000 asteroids had been found by 1921 , 10 @,@ 000 by 1981 , and 100 @,@ 000 by 2000 . Modern asteroid survey systems now use automated means to locate new minor planets in ever @-@ increasing quantities .
= = Origin = =
= = = Formation = = =
In 1802 , shortly after discovering Pallas , Olbers suggested to Herschel that Ceres and Pallas were fragments of a much larger planet that once occupied the Mars – Jupiter region , this planet having suffered an internal explosion or a cometary impact many million years before . Over time , however , this hypothesis has fallen from favor . The large amount of energy required to destroy a planet , combined with the belt 's low combined mass , which is only about 4 % of the mass of the Moon , do not support the hypothesis . Further , the significant chemical differences between the asteroids become difficult to explain if they come from the same planet . Today , most scientists accept that , rather than fragmenting from a progenitor planet , the asteroids never formed a planet at all .
In general , in the Solar System , planetary formation is thought to have occurred via a process comparable to the long @-@ standing nebular hypothesis : a cloud of interstellar dust and gas collapsed under the influence of gravity to form a rotating disc of material that then further condensed to form the Sun and planets . During the first few million years of the Solar System 's history , an accretion process of sticky collisions caused the clumping of small particles , which gradually increased in size . Once the clumps reached sufficient mass , they could draw in other bodies through gravitational attraction and become planetesimals . This gravitational accretion led to the formation of the planets .
Planetesimals within the region which would become the asteroid belt were too strongly perturbed by Jupiter 's gravity to form a planet . Instead they continued to orbit the Sun as before , occasionally colliding . In regions where the average velocity of the collisions was too high , the shattering of planetesimals tended to dominate over accretion , preventing the formation of planet @-@ sized bodies . Orbital resonances occurred where the orbital period of an object in the belt formed an integer fraction of the orbital period of Jupiter , perturbing the object into a different orbit ; the region lying between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter contains many such orbital resonances . As Jupiter migrated inward following its formation , these resonances would have swept across the asteroid belt , dynamically exciting the region 's population and increasing their velocities relative to each other .
During the early history of the Solar System , the asteroids melted to some degree , allowing elements within them to be partially or completely differentiated by mass . Some of the progenitor bodies may even have undergone periods of explosive volcanism and formed magma oceans . However , because of the relatively small size of the bodies , the period of melting was necessarily brief ( compared to the much larger planets ) , and had generally ended about 4 @.@ 5 billion years ago , in the first tens of millions of years of formation . In August 2007 , a study of zircon crystals in an Antarctic meteorite believed to have originated from 4 Vesta suggested that it , and by extension the rest of the asteroid belt , had formed rather quickly , within ten million years of the Solar System 's origin .
= = = Evolution = = =
The asteroids are not samples of the primordial Solar System . They have undergone considerable evolution since their formation , including internal heating ( in the first few tens of millions of years ) , surface melting from impacts , space weathering from radiation , and bombardment by micrometeorites . Although some scientists refer to the asteroids as residual planetesimals , other scientists consider them distinct .
The current asteroid belt is believed to contain only a small fraction of the mass of the primordial belt . Computer simulations suggest that the original asteroid belt may have contained mass equivalent to the Earth . Primarily because of gravitational perturbations , most of the material was ejected from the belt within about a million years of formation , leaving behind less than 0 @.@ 1 % of the original mass . Since their formation , the size distribution of the asteroid belt has remained relatively stable : there has been no significant increase or decrease in the typical dimensions of the main @-@ belt asteroids .
The 4 : 1 orbital resonance with Jupiter , at a radius 2 @.@ 06 AU , can be considered the inner boundary of the asteroid belt . Perturbations by Jupiter send bodies straying there into unstable orbits . Most bodies formed inside the radius of this gap were swept up by Mars ( which has an aphelion at 1 @.@ 67 AU ) or ejected by its gravitational perturbations in the early history of the Solar System . The Hungaria asteroids lie closer to the Sun than the 4 : 1 resonance , but are protected from disruption by their high inclination .
When the asteroid belt was first formed , the temperatures at a distance of 2 @.@ 7 AU from the Sun formed a " snow line " below the freezing point of water . Planetesimals formed beyond this radius were able to accumulate ice . In 2006 it was announced that a population of comets had been discovered within the asteroid belt beyond the snow line , which may have provided a source of water for Earth 's oceans . According to some models , there was insufficient outgassing of water during the Earth 's formative period to form the oceans , requiring an external source such as a cometary bombardment .
= = Characteristics = =
Contrary to popular imagery , the asteroid belt is mostly empty . The asteroids are spread over such a large volume that it would be improbable to reach an asteroid without aiming carefully . Nonetheless , hundreds of thousands of asteroids are currently known , and the total number ranges in the millions or more , depending on the lower size cutoff . Over 200 asteroids are known to be larger than 100 km , and a survey in the infrared wavelengths has shown that the asteroid belt has 0 @.@ 7 – 1 @.@ 7 million asteroids with a diameter of 1 km or more . The apparent magnitudes of most of the known asteroids are 11 – 19 , with the median at about 16 .
The total mass of the asteroid belt is estimated to be 2 @.@ 8 × 1021 to 3 @.@ 2 × 1021 kilograms , which is just 4 % of the mass of the Moon . The four largest objects , Ceres , 4 Vesta , 2 Pallas , and 10 Hygiea , account for half of the belt 's total mass , with almost one @-@ third accounted for by Ceres alone .
= = = Composition = = =
The current belt consists primarily of three categories of asteroids : C @-@ type or carbonaceous asteroids , S @-@ type or silicate asteroids , and M @-@ type or metallic asteroids .
Carbonaceous asteroids , as their name suggests , are carbon @-@ rich . They dominate the asteroid belt 's outer regions . Together they comprise over 75 % of the visible asteroids . They are more red in hue than the other asteroids and have a very low albedo . Their surface composition is similar to carbonaceous chondrite meteorites . Chemically , their spectra match the primordial composition of the early Solar System , with only the lighter elements and volatiles removed .
S @-@ type ( silicate @-@ rich ) asteroids are more common toward the inner region of the belt , within 2 @.@ 5 AU of the Sun . The spectra of their surfaces reveal the presence of silicates and some metal , but no significant carbonaceous compounds . This indicates that their materials have been significantly modified from their primordial composition , probably through melting and reformation . They have a relatively high albedo , and form about 17 % of the total asteroid population .
M @-@ type ( metal @-@ rich ) asteroids form about 10 % of the total population ; their spectra resemble that of iron @-@ nickel . Some are believed to have formed from the metallic cores of differentiated progenitor bodies that were disrupted through collision . However , there are also some silicate compounds that can produce a similar appearance . For example , the large M @-@ type asteroid 22 Kalliope does not appear to be primarily composed of metal . Within the asteroid belt , the number distribution of M @-@ type asteroids peaks at a semi @-@ major axis of about 2 @.@ 7 AU . It is not yet clear whether all M @-@ types are compositionally similar , or whether it is a label for several varieties which do not fit neatly into the main C and S classes .
One mystery of the asteroid belt is the relative rarity of V @-@ type , or basaltic asteroids . Theories of asteroid formation predict that objects the size of Vesta or larger should form crusts and mantles , which would be composed mainly of basaltic rock , resulting in more than half of all asteroids being composed either of basalt or olivine . Observations , however , suggest that 99 percent of the predicted basaltic material is missing . Until 2001 , most basaltic bodies discovered in the asteroid belt were believed to originate from the asteroid Vesta ( hence their name V @-@ type ) . However , the discovery of the asteroid 1459 Magnya revealed a slightly different chemical composition from the other basaltic asteroids discovered until then , suggesting a different origin . This hypothesis was reinforced by the further discovery in 2007 of two asteroids in the outer belt , 7472 Kumakiri and ( 10537 ) 1991 RY16 , with differing basaltic composition that could not have originated from Vesta . These latter two are the only V @-@ type asteroids discovered in the outer belt to date .
The temperature of the asteroid belt varies with the distance from the Sun . For dust particles within the belt , typical temperatures range from 200 K ( − 73 ° C ) at 2 @.@ 2 AU down to 165 K ( − 108 ° C ) at 3 @.@ 2 AU However , due to rotation , the surface temperature of an asteroid can vary considerably as the sides are alternately exposed to solar radiation and then to the stellar background .
= = = Main @-@ belt comets = = =
Several otherwise unremarkable bodies in the outer belt show cometary activity . Because their orbits cannot be explained through capture of classical comets , it is thought that many of the outer asteroids may be icy , with the ice occasionally exposed to sublimation through small impacts . Main @-@ belt comets may have been a major source of the Earth 's oceans , because the deuterium – hydrogen ratio is too low for classical comets to have been the principal source .
= = = Orbits = = =
Most asteroids within the asteroid belt have orbital eccentricities of less than 0 @.@ 4 , and an inclination of less than 30 ° . The orbital distribution of the asteroids reaches a maximum at an eccentricity of around 0 @.@ 07 and an inclination below 4 ° . Thus although a typical asteroid has a relatively circular orbit and lies near the plane of the ecliptic , some asteroid orbits can be highly eccentric or travel well outside the ecliptic plane .
Sometimes , the term main belt is used to refer only to the more compact " core " region where the greatest concentration of bodies is found . This lies between the strong 4 : 1 and 2 : 1 Kirkwood gaps at 2 @.@ 06 and 3 @.@ 27 AU , and at orbital eccentricities less than roughly 0 @.@ 33 , along with orbital inclinations below about 20 ° . This " core " region contains approximately 93 @.@ 4 % of all numbered minor planets within the Solar System .
= = = = Kirkwood gaps = = = =
The semi @-@ major axis of an asteroid is used to describe the dimensions of its orbit around the Sun , and its value determines the minor planet 's orbital period . In 1866 , Daniel Kirkwood announced the discovery of gaps in the distances of these bodies ' orbits from the Sun . They were located at positions where their period of revolution about the Sun was an integer fraction of Jupiter 's orbital period . Kirkwood proposed that the gravitational perturbations of the planet led to the removal of asteroids from these orbits .
When the mean orbital period of an asteroid is an integer fraction of the orbital period of Jupiter , a mean @-@ motion resonance with the gas giant is created that is sufficient to perturb an asteroid to new orbital elements . Asteroids that become located in the gap orbits ( either primordially because of the migration of Jupiter 's orbit , or due to prior perturbations or collisions ) are gradually nudged into different , random orbits with a larger or smaller semi @-@ major axis .
The gaps are not seen in a simple snapshot of the locations of the asteroids at any one time because asteroid orbits are elliptical , and many asteroids still cross through the radii corresponding to the gaps . The actual spatial density of asteroids in these gaps does not differ significantly from the neighboring regions .
The main gaps occur at the 3 : 1 , 5 : 2 , 7 : 3 , and 2 : 1 mean @-@ motion resonances with Jupiter . An asteroid in the 3 : 1 Kirkwood gap would orbit the Sun three times for each Jovian orbit , for instance . Weaker resonances occur at other semi @-@ major axis values , with fewer asteroids found than nearby . ( For example , an 8 : 3 resonance for asteroids with a semi @-@ major axis of 2 @.@ 71 AU . )
The main or core population of the asteroid belt is sometimes divided into three zones , based on the most prominent Kirkwood gaps . Zone I lies between the 4 : 1 resonance ( 2 @.@ 06 AU ) and 3 : 1 resonance ( 2 @.@ 5 AU ) Kirkwood gaps . Zone II continues from the end of Zone I out to the 5 : 2 resonance gap ( 2 @.@ 82 AU ) . Zone III extends from the outer edge of Zone II to the 2 : 1 resonance gap ( 3 @.@ 28 AU ) .
The asteroid belt may also be divided into the inner and outer belts , with the inner belt formed by asteroids orbiting nearer to Mars than the 3 : 1 Kirkwood gap ( 2 @.@ 5 AU ) , and the outer belt formed by those asteroids closer to Jupiter 's orbit . ( Some authors subdivide the inner and outer belts at the 2 : 1 resonance gap ( 3 @.@ 3 AU ) , whereas others suggest inner , middle , and outer belts . )
= = Collisions = =
The high population of the asteroid belt makes for a very active environment , where collisions between asteroids occur frequently ( on astronomical time scales ) . Collisions between main @-@ belt bodies with a mean radius of 10 km are expected to occur about once every 10 million years . A collision may fragment an asteroid into numerous smaller pieces ( leading to the formation of a new asteroid family ) . Conversely , collisions that occur at low relative speeds may also join two asteroids . After more than 4 billion years of such processes , the members of the asteroid belt now bear little resemblance to the original population .
Along with the asteroid bodies , the asteroid belt also contains bands of dust with particle radii of up to a few hundred micrometres . This fine material is produced , at least in part , from collisions between asteroids , and by the impact of micrometeorites upon the asteroids . Due to the Poynting – Robertson effect , the pressure of solar radiation causes this dust to slowly spiral inward toward the Sun .
The combination of this fine asteroid dust , as well as ejected cometary material , produces the zodiacal light . This faint auroral glow can be viewed at night extending from the direction of the Sun along the plane of the ecliptic . Asteroid particles that produce the visible zodiacal light average about 40 μm in radius . The typical lifetimes of main @-@ belt zodiacal cloud particles are about 700 @,@ 000 years . Thus , to maintain the bands of dust , new particles must be steadily produced within the asteroid belt . It was once thought that collisions of asteroids form a major component of the zodiacal light . However , computer simulations by Nesvorný and colleagues attributed 85 percent of the zodiacal @-@ light dust to fragmentations of Jupiter @-@ family comets , rather than to comets and collisions between asteroids in the asteroid belt . At most 10 percent of the dust is attributed to the asteroid belt .
= = = Meteorites = = =
Some of the debris from collisions can form meteoroids that enter the Earth 's atmosphere . Of the 50 @,@ 000 meteorites found on Earth to date , 99 @.@ 8 percent are believed to have originated in the asteroid belt .
= = Families and groups = =
In 1918 , the Japanese astronomer Kiyotsugu Hirayama noticed that the orbits of some of the asteroids had similar parameters , forming families or groups .
Approximately one @-@ third of the asteroids in the asteroid belt are members of an asteroid family . These share similar orbital elements , such as semi @-@ major axis , eccentricity , and orbital inclination as well as similar spectral features , all of which indicate a common origin in the breakup of a larger body . Graphical displays of these elements , for members of the asteroid belt , show concentrations indicating the presence of an asteroid family . There are about 20 – 30 associations that are almost certainly asteroid families . Additional groupings have been found that are less certain . Asteroid families can be confirmed when the members display common spectral features . Smaller associations of asteroids are called groups or clusters .
Some of the most prominent families in the asteroid belt ( in order of increasing semi @-@ major axes ) are the Flora , Eunoma , Koronis , Eos , and Themis families . The Flora family , one of the largest with more than 800 known members , may have formed from a collision less than a billion years ago . The largest asteroid to be a true member of a family ( as opposed to an interloper in the case of Ceres with the Gefion family ) is 4 Vesta . The Vesta family is believed to have formed as the result of a crater @-@ forming impact on Vesta . Likewise , the HED meteorites may also have originated from Vesta as a result of this collision .
Three prominent bands of dust have been found within the asteroid belt . These have similar orbital inclinations as the Eos , Koronis , and Themis asteroid families , and so are possibly associated with those groupings .
= = = Periphery = = =
Skirting the inner edge of the belt ( ranging between 1 @.@ 78 and 2 @.@ 0 AU , with a mean semi @-@ major axis of 1 @.@ 9 AU ) is the Hungaria family of minor planets . They are named after the main member , 434 Hungaria ; the group contains at least 52 named asteroids . The Hungaria group is separated from the main body by the 4 : 1 Kirkwood gap and their orbits have a high inclination . Some members belong to the Mars @-@ crossing category of asteroids , and gravitational perturbations by Mars are likely a factor in reducing the total population of this group .
Another high @-@ inclination group in the inner part of the asteroid belt is the Phocaea family . These are composed primarily of S @-@ type asteroids , whereas the neighboring Hungaria family includes some E @-@ types . The Phocaea family orbit between 2 @.@ 25 and 2 @.@ 5 AU from the Sun .
Skirting the outer edge of the asteroid belt is the Cybele group , orbiting between 3 @.@ 3 and 3 @.@ 5 AU . These have a 7 : 4 orbital resonance with Jupiter . The Hilda family orbit between 3 @.@ 5 and 4 @.@ 2 AU , and have relatively circular orbits and a stable 3 : 2 orbital resonance with Jupiter . There are few asteroids beyond 4 @.@ 2 AU , until Jupiter 's orbit . Here the two families of Trojan asteroids can be found , which , at least for objects larger than 1 km , are approximately as numerous as the asteroids of the asteroid belt .
= = = New families = = =
Some asteroid families have formed recently , in astronomical terms . The Karin Cluster apparently formed about 5 @.@ 7 million years ago from a collision with a progenitor asteroid 33 km in radius . The Veritas family formed about 8 @.@ 3 million years ago ; evidence includes interplanetary dust recovered from ocean sediment .
More recently , the Datura cluster appears to have formed about 450 thousand years ago from a collision with a main @-@ belt asteroid . The age estimate is based on the probability of the members having their current orbits , rather than from any physical evidence . However , this cluster may have been a source for some zodiacal dust material . Other recent cluster formations , such as the Iannini cluster ( circa 1 – 5 million years ago ) , may have provided additional sources of this asteroid dust .
= = Exploration = =
The first spacecraft to traverse the asteroid belt was Pioneer 10 , which entered the region on 16 July 1972 . At the time there was some concern that the debris in the belt would pose a hazard to the spacecraft , but it has since been safely traversed by 12 spacecraft without incident . Pioneer 11 , Voyagers 1 and 2 and Ulysses passed through the belt without imaging any asteroids . Galileo imaged 951 Gaspra in 1991 and 243 Ida in 1993 , NEAR imaged 253 Mathilde in 1997 , Cassini imaged 2685 Masursky in 2000 , Stardust imaged 5535 Annefrank in 2002 , New Horizons imaged 132524 APL in 2006 , Rosetta imaged 2867 Šteins in September 2008 and 21 Lutetia in July 2010 , and Dawn orbited Vesta between July 2011 and September 2012 and has orbited Ceres since March 2015 . On its way to Jupiter , Juno traversed the asteroid belt without collecting science data . Due to the low density of materials within the belt , the odds of a probe running into an asteroid are now estimated at less than one in a billion .
Most belt asteroids imaged to date have come from brief flyby opportunities by probes headed for other targets . Only the Dawn , NEAR and Hayabusa missions have studied asteroids for a protracted period in orbit and at the surface . Dawn explored Vesta from July 2011 to September 2012 , and has been orbiting Ceres since March 2015 .
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= New Jersey Route 83 =
Route 83 is a state highway in the U.S. state of New Jersey . It is completely within Dennis Township , New Jersey , running 3 @.@ 81 mi ( 6 @.@ 13 km ) from an intersection with Route 47 to an intersection with U.S. Route 9 ( US 9 ) . The route , which passes through woodland and some residential development , is also known as the Trooper Bertram T. Zimmerman III Memorial Highway in honor of a New Jersey State Police officer who was killed along Route 83 in 2004 while responding to an armed robbery .
Between 1927 and 1953 , Route 83 was a part of Route 49 , which originally ran south of Millville along Route 47 between Millville and South Dennis and along the entire length of Route 83 . In 1953 , the route became Route 83 when Route 49 was realigned to follow what was then Route 47 between Millville and Tuckahoe and Route 47 was aligned to follow Route S49 between South Dennis and Wildwood . In 2007 , the state completed reconstruction of the intersection with Route 47 to include a traffic signal . A school bus accident has prompted the New Jersey Department of Transportation ( NJDOT ) to install a traffic signal at the Y intersection of Route 83 and US 9 .
= = Route description = =
Route 83 begins at a traffic light with Route 47 in South Dennis , heading to the east on a four @-@ lane divided highway . The route crosses over the Cape May Seashore Lines railroad line and narrows to a two @-@ lane undivided highway . After this bridge , it intersects West Avenue and then crosses over County Route 628 ( Dennisville Road / School House Road ) . Route 83 then intersects County Road , which heads west to parallel the route to the south . It later crosses Gravel Hole Road , which provides access to County Route 657 ( Court House @-@ Dennisville Road ) . Past that intersection , Route 83 continues to the east through a mix of residential development and woodland . It passes under a set of power lines and comes to an intersection with County Route 608 ( Kings Highway ) . The route continues east to its eastern terminus at a signalized intersection with US 9 in Clermont .
Route 83 is a major route that provides access to the Jersey Shore resorts of Sea Isle City and Avalon from Route 47 . It also serves as part of an evacuation route for Cape May County that feeds into Route 47 to provide access to inland areas in the event of a hurricane .
= = History = =
Route 83 was originally legislated by the Laws of 1927 , Chapter 319 as a part of Route 49 , which was to run from Route 4 ( now US 9 ) in Ocean View to Route 44 in Salem . In 1940 , a bridge was built over the Pennsylvania @-@ Reading Seashore Lines railroad tracks in South Dennis . In the 1953 New Jersey state highway renumbering , Route 49 was realigned to head along Route 47 from Millville to Tuckahoe , Route 47 was realigned to head along Route 49 between Millville and South Dennis and Route S49 from South Dennis and Wildwood , and Route 83 was created along the former alignment of Route 49 between South Dennis and Clermont .
On December 12 , 2004 , Route 83 was dedicated as the Trooper Bertram T. Zimmerman III Memorial Highway in honor of a New Jersey State Police trooper who was killed on the route earlier in the year while responding to an armed robbery . In the 2000s , plans were made to improve the intersections at both termini of Route 83 . The intersection with Route 47 saw realignment and the installation of a traffic light , along with improvements to Route 47 , that cost $ 6 @.@ 7 million and was completed in July 2007 . In 2006 , reconstruction of the Y intersection of US 9 and Route 83 to a T intersection and a new traffic light was planned following a school bus accident . The reconfigured intersection was completed on June 10 , 2008 .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Dennis Township , Cape May County .
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= No. 8 Elementary Flying Training School RAAF =
No. 8 Elementary Flying Training School ( No. 8 EFTS ) was a Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) pilot training unit that operated during World War II . It was one of twelve elementary flying training schools employed by the RAAF to provide introductory flight instruction to new pilots as part of Australia 's contribution to the Empire Air Training Scheme . No. 8 EFTS was established in September 1940 at Narrandera , New South Wales . Training ceased in December 1944 and the school was reduced to maintaining base infrastructure and aircraft . It was officially disbanded in June 1945 and renamed Care and Maintenance Unit ( CMU ) Narrandera . The CMU was disbanded in December 1947 .
= = History = =
Flying instruction in the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) underwent major changes following the outbreak of World War II , in response to a vast increase in the number of aircrew volunteers and the commencement of Australia 's participation in the Empire Air Training Scheme ( EATS ) . The Air Force 's pre @-@ war pilot training facility , No. 1 Flying Training School at RAAF Station Point Cook , Victoria , was supplanted in 1940 – 41 by twelve elementary flying training schools ( EFTS ) and eight service flying training schools ( SFTS ) . The EFTS provided a twelve @-@ week introductory flying course to personnel who had graduated from one of the RAAF 's initial training schools . Flying training was undertaken in two stages : the first involved four weeks of instruction ( including ten hours of flying ) to determine trainees ' suitability to become pilots . Those that passed this grading process then received a further eight weeks of training ( including sixty @-@ five hours of flying ) at the EFTS . Pilots who successfully completed this course were posted to an SFTS in either Australia or Canada for the next stage of their instruction as military aviators .
No. 8 Elementary Flying Training School was formed at Narrandera , New South Wales , on 19 September 1940 , and came under the control of Central Area Command . The school occupied the site of the recently constructed civil airfield , as well as surrounding government land . Its inaugural commanding officer was Flying Officer G.F. Hughes . Despite primitive accommodation and lack of infrastructure at Narrandera , the first sixty students arrived at the school on the day of its establishment . Flying training did not get completely under way until mid @-@ November . The school 's strength as at month 's end was 469 staff , including thirty @-@ six officers . Recent newspaper reports had suggested that the Narrandera base would be closed owing to " unsuitable ground " and " the direction of the prevailing wind ... allied with the surrounding terrain " . A cyclone hit the airfield on 6 December , destroying twenty @-@ two de Havilland Tiger Moth trainers in a matter of minutes and damaging others . The RAAF resolved to replace the wrecked aircraft as soon as possible and , the next day , the Minister for Air denied the earlier reports that the base was unsuitable and would be closed .
No. 8 EFTS 's first course completed on 10 December 1940 ; fifty students graduated . As of the end of the month , the school had twenty @-@ nine instructors , 111 students under training , and forty @-@ one serviceable aircraft . An instructor was killed and three other men were injured when a Tiger Moth crashed while flying at low level over one of Narrandera 's satellite airfields on 4 January 1941 . Two of the school 's Tiger Moths collided at 3 @,@ 000 feet ( 910 m ) on 8 March ; the instructor and student of one plane bailed out , while the other two pilots crash @-@ landed their aircraft , and there were no injuries . The school came under the control of the newly formed No. 2 ( Training ) Group in August , following the disbandment of Central Area Command . As of 31 December 1941 , the school had twenty @-@ eight instructors , 123 students under training , and thirty @-@ seven serviceable aircraft . By 30 April 1942 , the figures had risen to fifty @-@ eight instructors , 211 students , and over seventy aircraft ; strength remained at a similar level for the remainder of the year . On 8 September 1942 , a No. 8 EFTS Tiger Moth dived to the ground soon after take @-@ off from a satellite airfield and collided with a tender ; one man in the tender was killed and several others , as well as both pilots , were injured . Four pilots were killed and two Tiger Moths destroyed following a mid @-@ air collision at 600 feet ( 180 m ) over another of Narrandera 's satellite airfields on 9 March 1943 . A pilot from the school was killed in a crash near Junee on 24 March . Another No. 8 EFTS pilot was killed and his crewman badly injured on 17 August after their Tiger Math failed to recover from a spin .
When flying training at No. 1 Elementary Flying Training School , Tamworth , ceased in September 1944 , several of the pilots still undergoing instruction were posted to No. 8 EFTS . No. 8 EFTS received an Avro Anson the following month for use in ground instruction . Flying training was suspended in December 1944 ; the school was among several to be reduced to " nucleus " and continue to function primarily for the upkeep of base infrastructure and equipment under a reorganisation of EATS establishments in Australia . By this time No. 8 EFTS had eighty @-@ three Tiger Moths on its strength . Owing to the surplus of trained aircrew in Australia , No. 8 EFTS was officially disbanded on 16 June 1945 and re @-@ formed as Care and Maintenance Unit ( CMU ) Narrandera . CMU Narrandera was one of many such units that the RAAF raised for the storage and maintenance of surplus aircraft prior to their disposal after the war . It was disbanded on 5 July 1947 .
The No. 8 EFTS Tiger Moth Memorial was dedicated at Narrandera by retired Air Chief Marshal Sir Neville McNamara on 2 October 1988 .
= = Commanding officers = =
No. 8 EFTS was commanded by the following officers :
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